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«  Knjvco  Sibomf^.  .;uo 


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JASIDIANS— JAVA  (Rfxigion  of). 


20; 


conspicuous,  and  attract  the  eyes  of  the  de- 
votees." 

Uesides  tlie  five  aiimial  festivals  of  tlie  .Japanese, 
whicli  are  seasons  of  recreation  rather  tlian  of  devo- 
tion, they  liave  also  sacred  processions,  wliieli  they 
term  Matsuki  (which  .see),  wlien  tliey  carry  their 
gods  in  shrines  constructed  for  the  purjjose.  From 
the  first  visit  of  ICuropeans  to  .Japan  in  tlie  sixteenth 
century,  frequent  attempts  have  been  made  by  the 
various  maritime  nations  to  open  up  commercial  com- 
iiiMiiication  with  a  people  so  numerous  and  wealthy 
as  the  .Japanese.  J'ortiigal  led  the  way,  and  was 
ImI lowed  by  Holland,  lOnj^laiid,  Spain,  and  I{ussia, 
!ind  finally  by  the  United  States,  which  recently  des- 
patched an  expedition  to  Japan,  under  ConunodiH-e 
I'crry.  lOach,  in  succession,  has  failed,  and  to  this 
day  Japan  may  be  considered  as  shut  out  from  tlie 
fellowsliip  of  tlie  other  nations  of  the  world,  with  the 
single  exception  of  a  solitary  Dutch  vessel  being 
allowed  annuiiUy  to  visit  the  port  of  Nagasaki, 
liomish  missionaries  have  from  time  to  time  attempted 
to  obtain  a  settlement  in  Jap.an,  but  to  no  purpose ; 
and  no  Protestant  cliurch  has  ever  been  allowed  to 
obtain  access  to  the  country  for  the  dilVusion  among 
the  natives  of  the  knowledge  of  Divine  trutli. 

JASIDIANS.     See  Yezidi 

JASIIRO,  a  name  whicli  the  Smtouts  of  Japan 
use  to  denote  a  Mia  or  temple,  with  all  its  appur- 
tenances. 

JASSAS.4.  (.4l),  Arab.,  the  Spy,  a  beast  whose 
appearance  the  Mohammedans  believe  will  be  one 
sign  of  the  approach  of  the  day  of  final  judgment. 
"  When  the  sentence  shall  be  ready  to  fall  upon 
them,"  says  the  ICor.an,  "  we  will  cause  a  beast  to 
come  forth  unto  tliera  out  of  the  earth,  winch  shall 
speak  unto  them."  This  beast,  it  is  believed,  will 
make  its  appear.anoe  in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  or  on 
Mount  Safa,  or  in  the  territory  of  Tayef.  It  is  to  be 
sixty  feet  high,  or,  according  to  some,  as  high  as  the 
clouds.  It  will  appear  for  tln-ee  days,  showing  only 
a  third  p.art  of  its  body.  This  monster  will  be  com- 
posed of  different  species  of  animals,  having  the  head 
of  a  bull,  tlie  eyes  of  a  hog,  the  ears  of  an  elephant, 
the  horns  of  a  stag,  the  neck  of  an  ostrich,  the  breast 
of  a  lion,  the  back  of  a  cat,  the  tail  of  a  ram,  the  legs 
of  a  camel,  the  voice  of  an  ass,  and  the  colour  of  a 
tiger.  This  beast  will  bring  along  with  it  the  rod  of 
Moses  and  the  seal  of  Solomon ;  with  the  former 
smiting  all  believers  on  the  face,  and  marking  them 
with  the  word  Mumen,  or  believer ;  witi;  the  latter 
smiting  all  unbelievers  also  on  the  face,  marking 
them  with  the  word  Cafer,  or  infidel,  that  every  one 
may  be  fully  known  on  the  day  of  judgment.  This 
beast,  which  will  speak  in  Arabic,  will,  in  addition  to 
all  this,  demonstrate  the  folly  of  all  religions  except 
the  Mussulman. 

JAUK,  or  Yadk,  one  of  the  five  deified  men 
mentioned  in  the  Koran  as  having  been  worshipped 
by  the  ancient  Arabians.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  been  Antediluvians,  who  had  been  distinguished 


for  their  virtues  and  great  qualities.     The  Arabian! 
represented  Jank  under  the  figure  of  a  horse. 

J.WA  (Religion  of).  This  island  forms  one  ol 
the  largest  of  the  Stinda  Islands  in  the  Kastern  Ai-chi- 
pclago.  The  population  seem  to  have  been  of  Tariar 
origin,  their  ancestors  having  migrated  from  ih.it 
quarter  of  the  Asiatic  continent  lying  between  Siain 
and  China.  This  migration  Sir  Stamford  Kidlles 
supposes  to  have  been  of  very  ancient  date,  long 
before  the  Burman  and  Siamese  nations  rose  into 
notice.  It  is  astonishing  how  extensive  a  variety  of 
temples  and  sculptures  of  great  anticpiity  are  to  be 
found  everywhere  throughout  the  island  ;  and  as  it  is 
matter  of  history  that  Mohammedanism  became  ihe 
establi-shed  religion  of  .lava  in  A.  v.  1475.  all  these 
ruins,  in  so  far  as  they  partake  of  a  Pagan  character. 
must  of  eourse  be  referred  to  an  e.arlier  period. 

Prom  the  peculiar  appeaif.nce  of  the  architectural 
remains  of  the  temples,  and  the  ancient  inscriptions 
which  are  discovered  on  them,  the  conclusion  has 
been  drawn  by  Rjiftles  and  others  that  they  consist 
of  two  series,  an  older  and  a  more  recent,  the  former 
indicating  that  the  religion  of  Budha  at  one  time 
prevailed  in  Java,  and  the  latter  indicating  that 
Budhism  was  superseded  by  the  more  modem  system 
oi  Bralimanism  or  Hinduism,  which  still  retains  so 
firm  a  hold  of  the  natives,  although,  for  four  centuries 
past,  the  Moslem  faith  has  been  the  dominant  religion 
of  the  country,  that  they  are  still  devotedly  attached 
to  their  ancient  Pagan  institutions.  The  true  ccndition 
of  matters  may  be  learned  by  conip.aring  the  state  o( 
the  island  of  Java  with  that  of  the  island  of  Bali  in 
its  neighbourhood.  The  whole  island  of  Java  aji- 
pears  to  have  been  converted  to  Moham.niedanism  in 
the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  ruins  01 
sacred  edifices  and  statues  which  abound  there  are 
all  of  a  Bud/list  or  Hindu  type,  while  the  presen. 
inhabitants  profess  the  religion  of  the  Koran.  In 
Bc'ili,  on  the  other  hand,  not  more  than  one  in  two 
hundred  of  the  natives  are  Mohammedans,  and  the 
great  body  of  the  people  profess  the  creed  of  the 
Hindus,  and  observe  its  in.stitutions,  although  Hin- 
duism has  become  extinct  in  the  rest  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  "  On  Java,"  says  Sir  Stamford  Raffles, 
"  this  singular  and  interesting  system  of  religion  in 
classed  among  the  antiquities  of  the  i.sland.  Here  it 
is  a  living  source  of  action,  and  a  universal  rule  ot 
conduct.  The  present  state  of  B.ili  may  be  con- 
sidered, therefore,  as  a  kind  of  commentary  on  the 
ancient  condition  of  the  natives  of  Java.  Hinduism 
has  here  severed  society  into  castes;  it  has  introduced 
its  divinities ;  it  lias  extended  its  ceremonies  into 
most  of  the  transactions  of  Ufe ;  it  has  enjoined  or  ' 
recommended  some  of  its  severest  sacrifices,  such  ad 
the  burning  of  a  widow  on  the  funeral  pile  of  her 
husband :  but  yet  the  individual  retains  all  the  native  | 
manliness  of  his  character,  and  all  the  fire  of  the  ' 
savage  state."  Jlr  Crawford,  who  visited  Bali  in 
1814,  says  that  the  religion  of  Bdli  has  been  con-  I 
sidered  as  of  two  descriptions,  that  of  Budlia,  auil 

T  I 


810 


JEALOUSY  (Water  of)— JEHOVAH. 


that  of  Brahma.  The  Budhisis  are  said  to  have 
come  tirst  to  the  country.  Of  the  Brahraans  of 
Sewa,  or  Shiva,  nine  generations  are  said  to  have 
passed  over  since  their  arrival. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  striking  evidences 
of  the  fact  tliat  Budhism  anciently  prevailed  in  Java, 
is  the  temple  of  Boro  Bodo,  probably  Bara  Budtia, 
or  the  great  Budha,  situated  in  tlie  mountainous  and 
romantic  territory  of  Kadon,  immediately  to  the  east 
of  Cheribon.  It  is  a  square  structm-e  of  hewn  stone, 
each  side  520  English  feet  long,  and  116  feet  in 
height.  It  is  built  on  the  summit  of  a  small  hill, 
and  consists  of  a  series  of  six  enclosing  walls,  crowned 
by  a  dome.  The  outer  and  inner  side  of  each  wall 
is  covered  with  a  profusion  of  sculpture,  including 
between  300  and  400  images  of  Budlia,  from  whom 
the  temple  may  possibly  have  received  its  name. 
At  Brambanan,  however,  in  the  district  of  Slataram, 
there  is  a  most  extensive  display  of  ancient  architec- 
ture, the  temples,  though  built  of  hewn  stone,  being 
small,  and  clustered  in  groups,  of  wliich  the  largest 
is  that  called  the  Thousand  Temples.  It  occupies  a 
space  600  feet  in  length  by  550  in  breadth,  within 
which  are  four  rows  of  small  buildings,  suri-ounding  a 
large  central  one.  The  -whole  group  has  four  en- 
trances, each  facing  a  cardinal  point,  and  guarded  by 
two  gigantic  statues,  each  nine  feet  high,  though  in 
a  kneeling  attitude,  and  eleven  feet  in  circuit. 

As  a  further  proof  that  the  Javanese  were  inti- 
mately connected  in  religion  with  the  Hindus,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  Kilwi,  or  ancient  Javanese 
character,  and  which  is  accounted  sacred,  is  nearly 
allied  to,  and  iudeed  has  a  large  mfusion  of,  the 
Sanscrit.  Figures  of  Hindu  deities,  such  as  Brahma, 
Gane-sa,  Maliadeva,  and  others,  are  to  be  found  in 
abundance. 

Tlie  religious  festivals  of  the  Javanese  now  cor- 
respond with  those  of  the  Mohammedans  gene- 
rally; but  on  the  occasion  of  the  funeral  of  a  de- 
parted relative,  or  in  honour  of  his  memory,  they 
observe  solemnities  on  the  seventh,  fortieth,  one  hun- 
dredth, or  thousandth  day  after  his  decease.  Those 
who  intend  to  observe  them  assemble  on  the  preced- 
ing evening,  in  order  to  read  some  portion  of  the 
Koran.  Before  the  guests  partake  of  the  meal,  the 
principal  person  present  generally  addresses  the  Al- 
mighty in  a  prayer  which  alludes  to  the  occasion, 
and  expresses  gratitude  for  the  repast. 

JEALOUSY  (Watkr  of).  This  water,  which  is 
described  by  Moses  as  the  bitter  water  that  causeth 
the  curse,  was  appointed  by  the  law  of  Moses  to 
be  drunk  by  an  Israelitisli  woman  suspected  of 
infidelity  to  her  husband,  but  denying  her  guilt. 
The  mode  of  preparation  and  administration  of 
this  water  is  minutely  detailed  in  Kum.  xi.  5 — 29. 
The  priest  was  commanded  to  ^vritc  the  curses  in  a 
book,  and  having  washed  those  curses  into  the  water, 
it  was  thus  said  to  become  bitter,  or  impregnated 
with  the  curse.  The  effect  produced  upon  the  sus- 
pected woman  who   was  called  upon  to  drink  this 


water  of  jealousy  was  dreadful.  If  guilty,  she  fell 
constrained  to  confess ;  and  the  rabbins  tell  us  that 
a  woman  who  confessed  in  such  circumstances  was 
not  put  to  death,  but  only  divorced  without  dowry. 
An  ordeal  of  this  kind  was  well  fitted  to  accomplish 
the  purpose  for  which  it  was  appointed,  and  could 
not  possibly  injure  the  innocent. 

JEBIS,  the  god  of  the  sea  among  the  Sintoists  of 
Japan.  He  is  worshipped  both  by  fishermen  and 
merchants,  and  is  usually  represented  as  sitting  upon 
a  rock  near  the  sea-shore,  with  an  angling  rod  or  hue 
in  one  hand  and  a  fish  in  the  other. 

JEHOVAH,  the  incommunicable  name  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  denoting  his  self-existence.  It  was 
not  revealed  before  the  time  of  Moses,  and  hence  the 
declaration  made  in  Exodus  vi.  3,  "  And  I  appeared 
unto  Abraham,  unto  Isivac,  and  unto  Jacob,  by  the 
name  of  God  Almighty,  but  by  my  name  Jehovah 
was  I  not  known  to  them."  It  is  identical  with  Jah, 
and  is  intended  to  describe  the  incommunicable 
essence  which  the  Apostle  Jolin  expresses  in  the 
Apocalypse  by  a  periphrasis,  "  He  that  is,  and  was, 
and  is  to  come."  The  Jews  usually  substitute  ior 
the  word  Jehovah,  which  they  are  afraid  to  pronounce 
or  to  write,  the  word  Adonai,  or  Lord.  After  the 
Babylonish  Captivity,  the  Jews  left  off  pronouncing 
it,  and  thereby  lost  its  true  pronunciation.  In  our 
authorised  translation  the  word  is  generally  translated 
Lord,  in  capital  letters.  The  Septuagint  also  renders 
it  the  Lord.  Origen,  Jerome,  and  Eusebius,  inform 
us  that  in  their  time  the  Jews  left  the  name  Jehovah 
in  their  copies  written  in  the  Samaritan  character, 
instead  of  the  Hebrew  or  Clialdee,  lest  strangers 
should  profane  and  misapply  it.  The  Jews,as  Josephus 
informs  us,  call  this  name  of  God  the  Tetrar/ramrtiaton, 
or  the  name  with  four  letters,  and  they  believe  that 
if  any  man  knows  the  true  pronunciation  of  it,  he 
cannot  fail  to  be  heard  by  God.  Simon  the  Just, 
they  allege,  was  the  last  who  was  acquainted  with  it. 
They  say  that  the  angels  are  not  at  liberty  to  utter 
the  word  Jehovah,  and  that,  by  virtue  of  this  name, 
which  was  inscribed  on  liis  rod,  Moses  performed 
all  his  miracles. 

The  Jewish  Cabbalists  attach  the  utmost  import- 
ance to  the  word  Jehovah,  which  they  allege  not 
only  to  be  the  peculiar  name  of  the  Divine  essence, 
but  also  to  designate  the  Aziluthic  world,  or  world 
of  emanation,  wliich  contains  the  ten  Scphirotli. 
The  first  of  the  four  Hebrew  letters  of  which  it  con- 
sists has  a  twofold  signification,  the  point  of  the  letter 
denoting  the  Supreme  crown,  which  some  Cabbalists 
also  call  the  central  point,  while  the  letter  itself  de- 
notes Wisdom;  the  second  letter,  Uiulcrstanding ; 
the  third,  which  is  equivalent  to  six,  implies  the  next 
six  numerations ;  and  the  fourth  signifies  the  tenth 
and  last.  Manasseli  Ben  Israel  remarks  that  the 
four  letters  may  be  dilVerently  arranged,  so  as  to 
form  twelve  difl'ercnt  words,  all  signifying  "  to  be." 
In  this  respect,  he  says,  the  word  Jehovah  Btsnda 
alone,  for  m>  other  word  can  be  found  which  will 


JEJUMI— JEMMA. 


211 


admit  of  being  so  transposed,  witliout  a  cliange  of 
ignitication.  It  is  fiirllier  alleged  by  tlie  f"aljball«t8, 
as  we  leani  from  an  intelligent  writer,  that  "  tlie 
seven  nations  wliicli  people  tlie  cartli  liave  their 
princes  in  heaven,  who  .siirround  the  throne  of  the 
Eternal,  as  oilicers  ready  to  execute  his  pleasure. 
They  stand  around  the  name  Jehovah,  and  U[)on 
the  tirst  day  of  every  year  petition  for  a  certain  por- 
tion of  blessings  to  be  conferred  upon  their  people 
during  that  period.  This  is  expressive  of  the  de- 
pendance  of  these  princes  for  all  their  knowledge  in 
the  art  of  government  on  the  Fountain  and  Source 
of  all  knowledge,  from  whom  cometh  down  every 
good  and  perfect  gift.  It  is  further  said  that  all  the 
knowledge  and  felicity  destined  for  a  particular 
nation  was  gi'anted  to  the  prince  of  that  nation  upon 
the  lirst  day  of  every  year.  This  circumstance  dis- 
tinguishes the  Jews  from  all  the  other  nations,  be- 
cause the  name  Jehovah  is  peculiar  to  them,  and 
they  may,  every  day  of  the  year,  receive  such  bless- 
ings as  are  needful.  To  this  apply  the  words  of  the 
prayer  of  Solomon  :  '  The  Lord  our  God  be  with  us, 
as  he  was  with  our  fathers  ;  let  him  not  leave  us,  nor 
forsake  us.  And  let  these  my  words,  wherewith  I 
have  made  supplication  before  the  Lord,  be  nigh 
unto  the  Lord  our  God  day  and  night.'  And 
David,  speaking  of  other  nations,  says,  '  They  shall 
pray  unto  God,  and  he  shall  not  save  them.'  That 
is,  the  nations  shall  supplicate  their  princes  for 
additional  blessings  to  those  granted  mito  them  upon 
the  first  day  of  the  year,  but  they  shall  supplicate  in 
vain."  "  The  Cabbalists  also  teach,"  says  the  same 
writer,  "  that  when  God  treats  with  the  heathen 
nations,  he  assumes  all  his  splendour  and  majestic 
greatness ;  but  when  he  condescends  to  treat  with 
the  Jews,  he  appears  in  all  his  unveiled  amiableness, 
and  converses  in  a  familiar  manner,  or  gives  fiUl 
manifestations  of  the  ii  ^le  Jehovah.  '  They  that 
know  thy  name  will  put  \e[r  trust  in  thee.'  Ac- 
cordingly, the  wise  men  say  th.at  the  name  Jehovah 
is  pronounced  and  written  in  the  temple  in  a  proper 
manner,  but  in  the  proWnces  it  is  only  expressed  by 
sirnanies  and  circumlocutions,  obviously  teaching  the 
plain  truth,  that  the  Jews  knew  God  better  than  the 
other  nations,  and  tliat  this  name  will  appear  in  all 
its  divine  and  luminous  splendour  to  the  saints  and 
angels  in  the  state  of  full  perfection  and  glory. 

"  These  mysterious  Cabbalists  have  another  method 
of  developing  the  mysteries  contained  in  the  name 
Jehovah.  They  attribute  to  each  of  the  letters  a 
specific  value,  which  depends  upon  their  local  station 
from  the  letter  Jod,  and  form  significant  combinations 
of  these  letters.  They  form  a  name  of  the  value  of 
twelve,  another  of  forty-two,  and  a  third  of  seventy- 
two,  and  to  each  of  these  they  assign  a  particular 
angel,  invested  with  particular  power  to  avert  cala- 
mity and  to  confer  favours.  They  conclude  this  part 
of  their  system  by  stating  the  vast  importance  of 
acquiring  proper  conceptions  of  the  name  of  God, 
and  the  various  significations  of  the  sam^  in  order 


to  pray  in  an  acceptable  manner,  lest  man  should 
sup))licatc  for  wrath  and  vengeance  when  lie  wished 
to  supplicate  for  pardon  and  mercy.  And  they  be- 
hove that  the  highest  measure  of  knowledge  and 
perfection  is  to  know  the  whole  import  of  the  in- 
cll'ablft  name  of  Jehovah." 

J  K.I  U  MI,  figure-treading,  a  ceremony  observed 
annually  among  the  Japanese,  of  trampling  upon  the 
crucifix,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  other  saints.  It  is  under- 
stood to  be  observed  at  Nagasaki  down  to  the  present 
day,  and  is  probably  designed  to  express  the  abhor- 
rence which  this  singular  people  entertain  for  Christia- 
nity, or  at  least  for  that  form  of  it  which  the  Jesuits  of 
Rome  had  several  times,  though  without  success, 
attempted  to  introduce  into  the  kingdom  of  Japan. 
The  images  used  in  Kampfer's  time  were  about  a 
foot  long,  cast  in  brass,  and  kept  in  a  particular  box 
for  the  purpose.  The  ceremony  took  place  in  the 
presence  of  the  street  officers.  Each  house  was 
entered  by  turns,  two  messengers  carrying  the  box. 
The  images  were  laid  upon  the  bare  floor,  and  the 
list  of  the  household  being  called  over,  they  were 
required  iu  turn  to  tread  upon  them.  Young  chil- 
dren, not  yet  able  to  walk,  were  held  in  their 
mothers'  arras,  so  as  to  touch  the  images  with  their 
feet.  It  has  been  asserted  tliat  the  Dutch  were 
obliged  to  engage  in  this  ceremony,  but  the  state- 
ment is  incorrect. 

JEKIRE,  an  evil  spirit  among  the  Japanese, 
which  they  expel  by  exorcising,  a  ceremony  which 
Kiimpfer  describes,  telling  us  that  "  in  one  of  his 
voyages  he  met  with  a  vessel  full  of  penitents,  who 
all  roared  out  Namanda  as  loud  as  they  could  stretch 
their  throats,  in  order  to  procure  relief  to  their 
afflicted  townsmen,  who  were  visited  with  a  malig- 
nant fever.  At  the  same  time  they  had  recourse  to 
their  grand  chaplet,  which,  in  time  of  public  distress, 
they  always  say  sitting,  young  and  old,  promiscuously 
together  in  a  circle.  The  chaplet  slides  apace 
through  the  fingers  of  the  devotees,  and  at  every 
great  bead  each  of  them  hollows  out  Namanda,  with 
all  the  external  testimonies  of  unfeigned  soitow  and 
sincere  repentance.  If,  notwithstanding  the.se  their 
pious  endeavours,  the  contagion  spreads  fartlier,  the 
.same  divine  service  and  humiliation  is  appointed  to 
be  performed  in  all  their  pagodas." 

JEMMA,  the  judge  of  the  wicked  after  death 
among  the  Japanese,  who  beholds  in  a  large  looking- 
glass  all  the  most  secret  transactions  of  mankind. 
If,  however,  the  priests  intercede  with  Amidas  for 
the  sinner,  and  the  relations  of  the  deceased  are 
sufficiently  liberal  in  their  offerings  to  the  priests, 
Amidas  has  sufficient  infiuence  with  Jemma  to  pro- 
cure a  mitigation  of  punishment,  or  even  a  complete 
discharge,  so  that  the  sinner  may  return  to  the  world 
again  before  the  term  allotted  for  his  punishment  has 
fully  expired.  When  they  have  suffered  all  that  has 
been  appointed  for  them,  the  wicked  are  supposed  by 
the  Japanese  Budsdoists  to  return  into  this  world, 
and  to  animate  the  bodies  of  unclean  beasts,  euch  a» 


212 


JERUSALEM  (New)  CHURCH— JESUITS. 


toads,  serpents,  and  such-like  animals.  The  trans- 
migration goes  onward,  until,  in  process  of  time,  tliey 
return  to  human  bodies,  again  to  pass  tln-ough 
another  series  of  changes.  There  is  a  temple  con- 
secrated to  Jemma  a  short  distance  from  Miako, 
situated  in  a  very  delightful  grotto,  in  which  likewise 
there  is  a  convent.  The  figure  of  Jemma,  the  king 
of  the  devils,  is  monstrous,  and  on  each  side  of  him 
are  two  large  devils,  one  acting  as  his  secretary,  and 
registering  in  a  book  all  tlie  sins  of  mankind  ;  while 
the  other  reads  them  distinctly,  or  rather  dictates 
wliat  the  secretary  is  to  record.  The  walls  are  em- 
bellislied  with  frightful  pictures  of  tortures  wliich  the 
wicked  are  supposed  to  undergo.  This  temple  is 
resorted  to  by  crowds  of  people  from  all  parts,  with 
oblations  and  money  in  their  hands,  to  redeem  their 
souls  from  the  punishments  inflicted  by  so  formidable 
a  judge. 
JERUSALEM  (New)  CHURCH.  See  Sweden- 

BORGIANS. 

JESSEANS,  a  name  which  Epiphanius  says  was 
given  to  the  early  Christians ;  either  from  .Jesse,  the 
father  of  David,  or,  which  is  more  probable,  from  the 
name  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 

JESUATES.     See  Apostolic  Clerks. 

JESUITS,  a  religious  order  of  the  Romish  Church, 
which  was  established  in  the  sixteenth  century  under 
the  name  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Its  founder  was 
a  distinguished  Spanish  knight,  Ignatius  Loyola,  who 
was  born  at  Guipuzcoa  A.  D.  1491.  At  an  early  age 
he  was  sent  as  a  page  to  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  where  he  acquired  all  the  polish  and  refine- 
ment of  manners  wliich  such  a  situation  was  so  well 
fitted  to  afford.  It  was  not  until  he  liad  completed 
his  twenty-ninth  year  that  this  man,  destined  to  act 
60  conspicuous  a  part  in  the  world,  first  emerged 
from  private  into  public  life.  The  border  provinces 
between  France  and  Spain  had  long  been  a  source  of 
keen  contention  between  the  two  countries.  In  1521 
Francis  L,  king  of  France,  had  despatched  a  large 
nriny  across  the  borders  into  Navarre,  which,  con- 
trary to  treaties,  was  then  heM  by  Cliarles  of  Aus- 
tria. The  French  army  liaving  laid  waste  the  pro- 
vince of  Guipuzcoa,  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Pam- 
peluna,  the  capital  of  Navarre.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  we  find  Loyola  in  the  ai-my  of  his 
country  bravely  defending  the  beleaguered  garrison. 
Here  he  was  severely  wounded,  and  carried  to  the 
Head- quarters  of  the  French  general,  who  generously 
ordered  him  to  be  safely  conveyed  to  the  paternal 
mansion  near  Pam]ieluna.  The  wounded  man  reached 
liome,  but,  notwilhstanding  the  care  and  attention 
bestowed  upon  him,  falal  symptoms  began  to  show 
themselves.  He  became  gradually  worse,  and  deatli 
seemed  to  be  at  hand.  The  jiliysician  pronounced 
the  case  to  be  hopeless,  and  tlie  priest  was  summoned 
to  perform  the  last  oflices  of  religion,  according  to 
the  rites  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  This  was  the  eve 
of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  and  at  dead  of  night,  as 
Romish  writers  tell  us,  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles 


actually  appeared  in  vision  to  the  dying  man,  aiu 
from  that  hour  his  recovery  commenced. 

A  considerable  period  elapsed  before  Loyola  could 
leave  his  sick  chamber,  and  the  time  was  chiefly 
passed  in  devoutly  perusing  those  marvellous  legends 
and  lives  of  saints  with  which  Roman  Catholic  lite- 
rature abounds.  Naturally  of  an  enthusiastic  tem- 
perament, his  mind  was  thrown  into  a  state  of 
feverish  excitement  by  the  wonders  which  he  read, 
and  he  vowed,  in  his  zeal,  to  renounce  the  world,  to 
make  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  to  devote  him 
self  to  the  service  of  God  and  the  Virgin.  These 
resolutions  were  strengthened  and  confirmed  by  a 
vision  which  he  alleged  he  had  seen  of  the  Virgin 
Mother,  with  the  infant  Jesus  in  her  arms.  Mean- 
time he  gathered  strength  both  of  body  and  mind, 
and  he  longed  to  enter  upon  that  course  of  self- 
denying  austerities  which  he  had  marked  out  for 
himself.  Holiness,  in  his  view,  consisted  not  in  the 
renovation  aud  moral  exaltation  of  his  nature,  but  in 
the  crucifixion  of  that  nature.  His  heart  was  set  not 
so  much  upon  the  creation,  and  growtli,  and  perfec- 
tion of  the  new  man,  as  upon  the  annihilation  of 
the  old  man.  Loyola  had  proclaimed  war  against 
himself,  resolving  to  deny  liimself  to  the  indul- 
gence of  all  the  affections,  and  princijdes,  and  ten- 
dencies of  his  nature  indiscriminately.  He  set  him 
self  nightly  to  chastise  himself  with  the  scourge, 
thinking,  by  the  torment  of  the  body,  to  purge  away 
the  sin  of  the  soul. 

Before  he  had  yet  fully  recovered  his  health,  Loyola 
left  the  paternal  home,  intending  to  put  in  practice  the 
resolution  he  had  formed  of  making  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  But  preparatory  to  entering  upon  tin's 
long  journey,  he  paid  his  devotions  at  the  celebrated 
shrine  of  the  Virgin  Mary  at  Montserrat,  near  Bar 
celona.  On  reaching  the  neighbourhood  of  Bar- 
celona, he  learned  that  a  pestilence  was  raging  in  the 
town,  and  he  judged  it  prudent,  therefore,  to  take  up 
his  residence  for  a  short  time  at  Manresa,  about  nine 
miles  distant  from  Barcelona.  Here  he  subsisted  by 
begging  from  door  to  door,  applied  the  lash  three 
times  every  day  to  his  bare  shoulders,  spent  seven 
hours  out  of  the  twenty-four  in  private  devotion, 
besides  thrice  attending  public  prayers  at  church ; 
and  every  week  he  confessed  to  a  priest,  and  received 
the  sacrament.  Soon,  however,  he  began  to  feel  the 
wretchedness  of  that  destitution  and  beggary  to 
which  he  had  voluntarily  reduced  himself.  In  vain 
did  he  practise  still  more  severe  austerities  and  bodily 
mortifications.  His  body  only  became  weaker,  and 
his  mind  more  perplexed  and  distracted.  The  sins 
of  his  past  life  rose  uj)  in  array  before  liini,  and  to 
his  other  painful  anxieties  were  added  the  pangs  o( 
an  awakened  conscience.  "  A  black  despair,"  says 
Mr.  Isaac  Taylor.  "  seized  him  in  the  nndst  of  this 
spiritual  wretchedness;  and  the  thought  even  of  self- 
destruction  crossed  his  mind.  At  that  time  he  occu- 
pied a  cell  in  a  convent  of  the  Dominicans,  from  tho 
window  of  which  lie  had  been  impelled  to  throw 


JESUITS. 


213 


nimself.  He  was,  however,  witlilield  fiom  tliis  pur- 
pose by  tlie  ])ivine  mercy  ;  but  he  resolved,  with  the 
liope  of  viuuiui.sliiii;^  or  of  plaeatiiif;  tlie  IJivine  jus- 
tice, to  abstain  absohitoly  from  all  food,  until  he 
chould  will  back  the  peace  aud  joy  that  had  thus  left 
liim.  Interriiittiiig  no  sacred  services  and  no  pen- 
ances, he  fasted  a  day — and  two  days — and  three — 
and  four — nay,  an  entire  wectc ;  and  he  would  have 
persisted  in  his  resolution  had  not  the  priest,  his 
confessor,  and  wlio  had  already  sounded  the  depths 
of  Ids  heart,  interposed,  aiul  straitly  commanded 
him  to  abandon  so  presumptuous  an  endeavour  as 
that  of  contending  with  the  Almighty;  in  fact  he 
threatened  him  with  a  denial  of  the  communion, 
should  he  persist.  Alarmed  by  a  tin-eat  so  terrific, 
he  took  food  therefore;  and,  for  a  time,  regained 
some  tranquillity.  Yet  speeilily  he  relapsed  into  the 
same  condition  of  inward  distress,  and  was  tenii)ted 
ftt  once  to  renounce  his  ascetic  purposes,  aiui  to 
return  to  the  world  and  to  its  enjoyments.  With 
this  temptation,  also,  he  grapjiled  successfully ;  and 
at  length,  and  as  if  by  a  convul.'^ive  plunge,  he  extri- 
cated liimself  at  once,  and  for  ever,  from  these  dan- 
gerous entanglements." 

During  the  year  wlilch  Loyola  spent  in  Manre.-.a, 
he  composed  his  remarkable  work,  "  The  Spiritual 
Exercises,"  a  production  whieh  is  lield  in  the  highest 
estimation  in  the  Churcli  of  Kome  as  a  book  of  devo- 
tion and  a  guide  to  religious  conduct.  In  the  spring 
of  1523  he  sailed  from  Barcelona  for  Italy,  and,  after 
a  stormy  passage  of  five  days,  he  reached  Gaeta, 
whence  he  walked  to  Rome,  worn  out  with  fa- 
tigue and  hunger.  After  kissing  the  feet  and  re- 
ceiving the  benediction  of  Pope  Adrian  VI.,  he  pro- 
ceeded on  his  journey,  and  arrived  at  the  Holy  City 
on  the  4th  of  September  1523.  He  felt  that  he  was 
now  privileged  to  tread  on  sacred  ground,  and  ear- 
nestly did  he  wish  that  he  might  remain  for  a 
lengthened  period  in  this  favoured  spot,  and  realize, 
if  possible,  his  fondest  day-dreams — the  restoration 
of  the  schismatic  Greeks  to  the  communion  of  Kome, 
and  the  conversion  to  Christianity  of  the  followers  of 
Mohammed.  But  the  monks  of  Jerusalem  refused 
to  allow  the  zealous  Spaniard  to  protract  his  stay 
in  Palestine,  and  he  was  compelled  to  turn  his  back, 
however  reluctantly,  upon  the  land  of  apostles  and 
prophets,  and  to  return  without  delay  to  Europe. 

On  reaching  home,  Loyola  resolved  to  prepare 
himself  for  the  sacred  office  by  passing  through  a 
regular  system  of  instruction  at  Barcelona.  In  early 
life,  he  had  not  even  received  the  first  rudiments  of 
education ;  but,  with  the  most  laudable  decision  of  cha- 
racter, he  took  his  place  in  a  class  of  boys  at  school, 
engaging  in  all  their  exercises,  and  even  submitting 
to  the  usual  discipline  of  the  institution.  After 
having  made  some  progress  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
Latin  language,  he  quitted  the  school,  and  entered 
the  university  of  Alcala,  which  had  been  founded  by 
the  learned  Cardinal  Ximenes.  Here  again  he  was 
indebted   for   support    wholly   to   the   alms   of  the 


charitable.  Instead  of  devoting  liimself  with  un- 
divided attention  to  the  pursuit  of  his  college  studies, 
the  enthusiastic  Loyola  burned  with  a  yearning  desire 
for  the  conversion  of  careless  souls.  Both  in  private 
and  in  public,  in  the  streets  and  in  the  college  lialln, 
he  pleaded  with  men  about  their  immortal  interests, 
and  called  upon  them  to  subdue  the  flesh  by  penances 
and  mortifications  of  every  kind.  The  hearts  of 
many  were  touched  by  the  discourses  of  the  zealous 
student.  The  susjiicions  of  the  holy  office  at  Toledo 
were  excited  by  what  they  heard  of  the  doings  ol 
Loyola,  and  for  six  weeks  he  was  committed  to 
prison ;  nor  was  he  liberated  without  the  condition 
being  laid  down  that  he  should  abstain  from  preach- 
ing or  teaching  others  until  he  had  finished  his  studies. 
It  was  impossible  for  Loyola  to  submit  to  such 
restrictions,  and  therefore,  on  being  liberated  from 
prison,  he  set  out,  with  several  like-minded  com- 
panions, for  Salamanca,  where,  meeting  with  similar 
treatment  as  at  Alcala,  he  determined  to  repair  to 
Paris,  with  the  view  of  completing  his  academic 
course  at  the  university.  In  the  depth  of  winter,  he 
travelled  on  foot,  alone,  and  without  a  guide.  He 
spent  several  years  in  preparing  for  the  priestly 
office,  studying  philosophy  and  the  languages  at 
Montague  College,  and  attending  a  course  of  theology 
with  the  Dominicans.  He  had  now  passed  six  years 
in  fitting  himself,  by  a  regular  course  of  training,  for 
public  usefulness.  Thus  equipped,  he  endeavoured 
not  only  to  convert  the  profligate,  but  those  also  whom 
he  considered  involved  in  fatal  heresy,  as  having 
imbibed  the  opinions  of  Luther  and  the  Keformation. 
This  great  work,  he  felt  persu.ided,  could  not  possibly 
be  accomplished  by  his  single  unaided  eflorts.  He 
therefore  strove  to  win  over  to  his  opinions  some  o( 
the  most  distinguished  students  then  attending  the 
luiiversity  of  Paris.  His  first  convert  was  Peter 
Faber,  a  Savoyard.  The  celebrated  Francis  Xaviei 
was  the  next.  James  Lainez,  Alphonso  Salmeron, 
Nicolas  Alphonso,  surnamed  Bobadilla,  Simon  Rod- 
riguez d'Arevedo,  Claude  le  Jay,  John  Codure,  and 
Pasquier  Brouet,  joined  the  company  which  gave 
origin  to  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

This  band  of  zealous  associates  gathered  round 
Loyola,  animated  by  his  ardent  and  devoted  spirit, 
and  impressed  with  the  firm  conviction  that  they  and 
their  leader  were  called  by  God  to  the  discharge  of 
a  great  work.  On  the  i5th  of  August  1534,  being 
the  Festival  of  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
the  company  assembled  in  the  church  of  Jlontmartre, 
and  there  solemn!  v  dedicated  themselves  to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Saviour,  partaking  togetlier  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  and  biiuling  themselves,  by  a  solemn  oath, 
to  a  profession  of  poverty,  a  renunciation  of  the 
world,  and  absolute  devotion  to  the  service  of  God 
and  the  good  of  souls;  adding  at  the  same  time  some 
other  special  resolutions, — namely,  to  attempt  a  mis- 
sion to  Palestine,  or,  if  frustrated  in  that  design,  to 
throw  themselves  at  the  feet  of  the  sovereign  pontill 
without  reservation,  stipulation,  or  cocditiou  of  any 


•214 


JESUITS. 


kind,  offering  to  undertake  any  service  wliich  he,  the 
vicar  of  Cln-ist,  should  call  thera  to  perform.  Several 
of  the  members  of  the  Society  had  not  yet  finished 
tlieir  studies.  Three  years,  therefore,  were  allowed 
fur  this  purpose,  and  it  was  agreed  that  they  should 
meet  in  January  1537,  to  carry  into  effect  the  designs 
tliey  had  formed.  That  year,  accordingly,  the  com- 
panions of  Loyola  left  Paris,  and  proceeded  through 
France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland  into  Italy.  At 
Venice  they  met  with  their  spiritual  guide  and 
instructor,  who  had  gone  by  another  route,  and 
arrived  before  them.  It  was  liere  that  the  Society 
was  fully  constituted,  and  its  rules  drawn  up  and 
agi-eed  to.  The  members  distributed  themselves 
among  the  hospitals  of  the  city,  and  freely  gave  their 
services  to  the  sick  and  the  poor.  Their  object, 
however,  was  still  kept  in  view,  to  carry  out  their 
proposed  journey  to  Palestine.  But  before  setting 
out  for  the  Holy  Land,  Loyola  despatclied  Iiis  com- 
panions to  Rome,  for  the  purpose  of  casting  them- 
selves at  the  feet  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  obtaining 
his  permission  and  benediction.  They  were  cour- 
teously received  by  the  pontiff,  all  their  wishes  were 
gratitied,  and  they  were  amply  supplied  with  gold 
from  the  Papal  treasury.  They  returned  to  Venice, 
and  rejoined  their  master,  when  both  he  and  they 
received  priest's  orders  from  the  nuncio  there,  and 
bound  themselves  anew  to  the  service  of  God,  of  the 
church,  and  their  fellow-men.  Tlie  next  town  they 
visited  was  Vicenza,  where  they  engaged  in  preacli- 
ing  the  Gospel  with  such  unwearied  diligence  and 
devoted  earnestness,  that  the  citizens  regarded  them 
with  the  utmost  respect  and  even  veneration.  Their 
powerful  addresses  on  the  public  streets  not  only 
drew  tlie  attention,  but  reached  the  hearts,  of  their 
hearers,  and  many  who  came  to  mock  remained  to 
pray. 

It  was  while  the  Fathers  were  at  Vicenza  that  they 
laid  down  the  plans  of  their  society.  In  the  com- 
mencement of  the  great  work  to  which  they  deemed 
themselves  to  be  called,  they  decided  to  make  a  new 
proffer  of  themselves  and  tlieir  services  to  the  Apos- 
tolic See.  For  this  purpose  Loyola,  Faber,  and 
Lainez  set  out  for  Rome,  leaving  the  rest  of  their 
companions  to  disperse  themselves  as  missionaries 
over  the  northern  parts  of  Italy.  While  journeying 
goutliwards  on  foot,  Loyola  was  favoured  with  one  of 
those  remarkable  visions  which  he  was  so  often  per- 
mitted to  beliold.  The  Eternal  Father  appeared  to 
him  in  a  trance,  and  by  his  side  stood  Jesus,  bearing 
a  large  cross,  and  uttering  these  words  as  he  received 
Loyola  from  the  Father :  "  I  will  be  favourable  to 
you  at  Rome."  From  the  date  of  this  vision,  it  was 
resolved  that  the  name  of  the  religious  order  which 
they  had  formed  should  henceforth  be  the  "  Society 
Df  Jesus."  On  the  arrival  of  the  three  asso- 
ciates at  Rome  in  1537,  they  were  admitted  to  an 
mdience  of  the  I'ope,  who  readily  gave  his  solemn 
lanction  to  their  undertaking.  They  now  devoted 
themselves  to  public  preaching  and  private  dealing 


with  souls.  Two  of  them  officiated  as  professors  of 
theology  in  the  Gymnasium,  while  Loyola  laboured 
in  hospitals,  schools,  and  private  houses,  besides  ad- 
ministering the  discipline  of  the  "Spiritual  Exercises" 
to  a  number  of  persons  of  high  rank  both  in  church 
and  state.  After  Loyola  and  his  two  companions 
had  laboured  thus  assiduously  for  a  time,  it  was 
resolved  to  organize  the  Society,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  whole  of  the  Fathers  were  summoned  to  Rome 
from  the  different  towns  of  Italy  where  they  were 
diligently  prosecuting  their  missionary  work.  When 
they  had  all  assembled,  they  renewed  their  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  unconditional  obedience  to  the 
Pope,  and,  after  solemn  deliberation,  fasting,  and 
prayer,  they  elected  Loyola  to  the  responsible  office 
of  general  of  the  order.  A  petition  was  now  pre- 
sented to  Paid  III.  for  a  formal  recognition  of  the 
Society.  His  Holiness  was  personally  disposed  to 
favour  the  new  order,  and  more  especially  as  their 
ministrations  were  so  highly  appreciated  in  all  the 
comitries  where  they  were  known,  that  applications 
reached  Rome  from  all  quarters,  requesting  them  to 
undertake  spiritual  and  even  secular  offices.  John 
III.,  the  king  of  Portugal,  had  long  entertained  the 
project  of  forming  a  mission  in  India,  and  his  atten- 
tion having  been  directed  to  the  newly-established 
order,  as  likely  to  afford  suitable  agents  for  conduct- 
ing this  great  work,  he  asked  and  obtained  two  mem- 
bers of  the  order  to  engage  in  this  service.  One  of 
these  was  Francis  Xavier,  who  earned  for  himself 
the  title  of  the  prince  of  Romish  missionaries. 

The  Pope  now  decided  that  the  time  had  arrived 
for  giving  his  formal  sanction  and  confimiation  to 
the  new  order.  He  issued  a  bidl  accordingly,  dated 
27th  September  1540,  didy  constituting  the  order 
under  the  name  of  the  Company  of  Jesus ;  and  in 
April  of  the  following  year,  Ignatius  Loyola  was  in- 
stalled as  General  of  the  Order.  At  first  the  Society 
was  limited  by  the  arrangement  of  the  Pope  to  sixty 
members ;  but  it  was  soon  found  to  be  necessary  to 
remove  this  restriction,  and  vast  accessions  were 
yearly  made  to  its  numbers.  Loyola  was  not  long 
in  discovering  that  the  influence  of  the  body  was 
destined  to  extend  far  and  wide,  not  only  in  all 
countries,  but  among  all  classes  of  men,  from  the  king 
to  the  humblest  cottager.  Within  a  few  years  from 
its  first  establishment,  houses  of  the  Order  were  es- 
tablished in  many  countries,  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  Sicily,  and  even  on  the  re- 
mote shores  of  India.  To  maintain  a  constant  and 
close  communication  with  the  centre  of  influence, 
provincials  were  ap))ointed  in  all  Romish  countries, 
through  whom  the  General  at  Rome  was  made  con- 
stantly aw.ire  of  all  that  concerned  the  interests  of 
the  Churcli  and  the  Order.  The  Constitutions  of 
the  Society  were  carefully  revised  and  digested, 
and  preparations  were  made  for  establishing  Jesuit 
colleges  in  different  countries  for  the  purposes  of 
general  education, 
j      In  1550,  Loyola  wrote  an  earnest  letter  to  thii 


JESUITS. 


21! 


«enior  Fathers  of  tlie  Society,  requesting  to  bo  re- 
lieved from  tlio  guneralsliip  wliich  lie  h;ul  held  for 
nine  years,  and  tlie  duties  of  wliich  lie  felt  himself 
scarcely  ahle  adequately  to  discharge.  All  of  them, 
with  one  exception,  refused  to  accept  his  resignation, 
which,  accordingly,  in  deference  to  the  wishes  of  his 
colleagues,  he  withdrew.  The  Society  had  spread 
its  intrica  e  raniilications  over  the  whole  of  the  Kom- 
ish  church,  but  Jjoyola  was  the  mainspring  of  the 
movement ;  and  nowhere  did  his  endeavours  to  pro- 
mote the  progress  of  the  Order  meet  with  greater 
opposition  tlian  in  France.  In  that  country  the 
clergy  eiitei'taiiied  a  deep-rooted  jealousy  and  suspi- 
cion of  the  Jesuits.  The  faculty  of  theology  in  tlie 
Sorbonne  issued  a  decree  against  the  Society,  but 
Loyola  maintained  a  prudent  silence,  and  amid  all 
the  obstacles  which  impeded  its  progress,  the  new 
Order  silently  and  secretly  diffused  its  principles 
among  all  classes  of  the  people,  and  in  process  of  time 
it  gained  as  tirm  a  footing  in  France  as  in  any  otlier 
country. 

The  accumulated  labours  and  anxieties  of  his 
office  as  General  of  the  Jesuits,  coidd  not  fail  in  the 
course  of  years  to  weaken  the  naturally  vigorous 
constitution  of  Loyola.  The  members  of  the  Order 
therefore  elected  as  his  coadjutor  a  Spanish  Jesuit 
named  Jerom  Nadal,  who  relieved  the  General  of  the 
business  connected  with  the  Society,  and  left  him  at 
liberty  to  devote  himself  in  the  evening  of  his  days 
to  his  favourite  employment,  the  care  of  the  sick. 
He  did  not  long  survive,  however,  his  retirement 
from  active  duties,  but  daily  declining,  he  died  on 
the  last  day  of  July  1556,  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of 
liis  age.  In  1669  the  Jesuits  prevailed  on  Paul  V. 
to  admit  Ignatius  Loyola  to  the  privileges  of  Beati- 
fication (which  see). 

The  most  famous  Jesuit  next  to  the  founder  of  the 
Order  was  undoubtedly  Francis  Xavier,  wlio,  by  his 
almost  incredible  labours  in  foreign  countries  as  a 
missionary,  did  as  much  to  advance  the  fame  of 
Jesuitism  abroad,  as  Loyola  by  his  almost  miraculous 
exertions  at  home.  The  apostle  of  India,  as  he  has 
frequently  been  termed,  was  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  and 
having  been  selected  by  Loyola  as  a  suitable  person 
to  undertake  the  work  of  a  foreign  missionary,  he 
sailed  from  Lisbon  in  April  1541,  but  did  not  reach 
the  shores  of  India  until  May  1542.  First  at  Goa, 
and  then  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  he  laboured 
strenuously  to  turn  the  heathen  from  pagan  idolatry 
to  the  reception  of  Christianity  in  the  form  of  Ro- 
manism. And  his  success  seems  to  have  been  mar- 
vellous. He  writes  home,  "  that  in  one  month  were 
baptized  several  thousand  idolaters,  and  that  fre- 
quently in  one  day  a  well-peopled  village  was  indi- 
vidually baptized."  Thus,  in  the  view  of  this  Jesuit 
missionary,  baptism  seems  to  have  been  identical 
with  conversion.  The  next  scene  of  his  labours  was 
Japan,  which  has  always  been  emphatically  a  coun- 
try wholly  given  to  idolatry.  Thither  he  sailed  in 
1549,  and  though  he  resided  among  the  Japanese 


only  two  years  and  four  months,  he  succeeded  in 
winning  over  many  even  of  the  most  bigoted  wor- 
shippers of  idols  to  the  profession  of  an  adherence  to 
the  Church  of  Kome.  This  he  contrived  to  accom- 
plish by  compromise,  combining  heathen  tradition! 
with  the  facts  and  doctrines  of  Christianity. 

Kncouraged  by  the  marked  success  which  had 
hitherto  attended  liis  missionary  efforts,  Xavier  now 
formed  tlie  bold  design  of  attempting  the  conversion 
of  China.  To  that  country  he  directed  his  course 
with  only  two  companions,  in  1552.  AVhile  on  hi" 
way  thither  the  vessel  in  which  he  sailed  was  seized 
and  dismantled.  Though  thus  disappointed  in  his 
object,  he  made  another  attempt  to  secure  a  passage 
to  China,  but  without  success.  The  failure  of  his 
favourite  scheme  preyed  upon  his  mind  and  affected 
his  bodily  health.  He  languished,  sickened,  and 
died  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

After  the  death  of  Xavier,  several  Romish  mis- 
sionaries, chiefly  of  the  Dominican  order,  succeeded 
in  penetrating  into  China,  and  indeed  that  country 
down  to  the  present  time  has  been  a  constant  field 
of  Romish  missions.  In  all  parts  both  of  the  Old 
World  and  the  New,  the  Jesuits,  from  the  first  es- 
tablishment of  the  Order,  have  prosecuted  the  work 
of  missionaries  with  a  zeal  and  energy  the  most 
exem|ilary  and  unwearied.  But  while  thus  actively 
carrying  forward  their  missionary  operations  in  for- 
eign parts,  they  have  always  been  equally  alive  to 
the  necessities  of  those  under  their  immediate  in- 
spection; for  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  at  the 
very  time  when  Loyola  was  despatching  Xavier  on 
his  mission  to  the  East,  he  was  planning  the  estab- 
lishment of  Jesuit  colleges  in  the  ditlerent  parts  of 
Europe.  His  biographer,  Ribadeneira,  speaks  of  no 
fewer  than  fifty-two  collegiate  establishments  on  a 
larger,  and  twenty-four  others  on  a  smaller  scale. 

The  immediate  successor  of  Loyola  in  the  gen- 
eralship of  the  Order  was  Lainez,  who  commenced 
a  system  of  policy  which  changed  the  whole  charac- 
ter of  Jesuitism.  He  had  represented  the  Society  at 
the  council  of  Trent,  where  in  all  the  deliberations 
he  took  high  ground  on  the  subject  of  the  Pope's 
authority,  and  indeed  acted  as  papal  legate.  It  was 
quite  in  keeping  with  his  character,  therefore,  that, 
on  his  accession  to  the  office  of  General,  he  should 
claim  to  be  invested  with  absolute  authority,  and  to 
have  prisons  at  his  command  that  he  might  have  it 
in  his  power  to  punish  the  refractory  with  temporal 
penalties.  Thus  the  high-toned  spirituality  which 
Loyola  had  ever  sought  to  connect  with  Jesuitism, 
was  exchanged  for  a  system  of  mere  human  policy. 
Instead  of  the  discipline  of  the  '•  Spiritual  Exercises," 
the  new  General  put  in  force  the  discipline  of  the 
"  Constitutions."  It  was  Lainez  and  not  Loyola 
that  first  stamped  upon  the  Order  that  jicculiar  fea- 
ture which  it  has  ever  since  maintained,  that  of  im- 
plicit submission  to  the  will  of  the  Superior,  and 
entire  surrender  of  the  body,  mind,  conscience,  and 
indeed  the  whole  man  to  his  undisputed  control. 


sts 


JESUITS. 


Tlie  strict  discipline  enforced  upon  the  members 
of  the  Society  by  Lainez,  was  rendered,  if  possible, 
still  stricter  by  his  successor,  Francis  Borgia,  who, 
austere  himself,  demanded  the  utmost  ansterity  from 
others.  During  the  ten  years  which  had  elapsed 
since  the  iirst  establishment  of  tlie  Order,  the  Je- 
suits had  thrown  off  much  of  tliat  appearance  of 
piety,  which,  under  the  training  of  Loyola,  attracted 
the  respect  and  even  admiration  of  the  world.  It 
was  the  aim  of  Borgia  to  arrest  them  in  their  course 
of  degeneracy,  and  to  insist  upon  their  observance  of 
tlie  outward  proprieties,  at  least,  of  a  religious  order. 
But  witli  all  this  anxiety  to  reform  his  Order,  Borgia 
is  charged,  and  not  without  reason,  witli  being  one 
of  the  principal  instigators  of  tlie  cruel  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  though  he  was  not  spared  long 
enough  to  witness  that  dreadful  event,  having  been 
cut  off  about  three  weeks  before  it  took  place. 

The  next  General  of  the  Order  was  Mercuiran,  by 
birth  a  Spaniard,  under  whose  rule  Jesuitism  added  to 
its  unbounded  ambition  a  system  of  casuistry,  which, 
bv  means  of  sophistry  and  quibbling,  would  seek  to 
neutralize  the  plainest  laws  of  the  Decalogue.  At 
this  period  of  their  history  the  Jesuits  commenced 
to  intermeddle  with  the  political  affairs  of  nations. 
The  first  government  on  wliicli  they  practised  their 
intrigues  was  tliat  of  Sweden,  using  all  their  endea- 
vours to  bring  it  into  subjection  to  the  see  of  Rome. 
Tlieir  efforts,  however,  were  wholly  imsuccessful,  and 
Sweden  remains  a  Protestant  country  to  the  present 
day.  Tlie  popes  now  began  to  see  more  clearly  than 
ever  the  high  value  of  the  Jesuit  Order  in  upholding 
and  increasing  the  papal  authority.  Gregory  XIII., 
accordinglv,  who  was  the  then  reigning  Pope,  contri- 
buted largely  from  the  treasures  of  the  church  to  re- 
plenish the  coffers  of  this  useful  Order.  Their  insti- 
tutions of  every  kind  were  liberally  endowed,  and 
every  attempt  was  made  to  promote  the  wealth  and 
influence  of  the  society. 

The  Jesuits,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  had 
no  small  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  footing  in  France, 
in  consequence  of  the  jealousy  with  which  they  were 
viewed  by  the  French  clergy.  But  having  once 
established  tliemselves  in  the  coum.-y,  they  busied 
themselves  in  fanning  the  flame  of  di.scord  between 
the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Huguenots,  and  to 
their  interference  is  mainly  due  those  scenes  of  bar- 
barous and  inhuman  cruelty  which  mark  the  his- 
tory of  the  Protestant  churcli  of  France.  The  rise 
of  the  Jansenists,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  following 
hard  upon  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany, 
rendered  it  still  more  difficult  for  the  Jesuits  to  hold 
their  ground  among  the  French  clergy  and  people. 
Tlie  Sorbonne  had  always  viewed  them  with  suspi- 
cion, and  now  it  demanded  their  expulsion  from  the 
country.  Henry  IV.  passed  a  decree  to  this  efl'ect 
in  1594,  but  it  continued  in  force  for  only  a  few 
years.  In  1G03  they  were  recalled,  and  spread  with 
fcuch  rapidity,  that  in  a  few  years  cstablisliinents  be- 
longing' to  tlic  Order  were  to  bo  found  in  every  pro- 


vince, and  in  almost  every  town  in  the  kingdom 
struggling  hard  to  destroy  the  liberties  of  the  Gal 
lican  church,  and  to  propagate  their  ultramontane 
principles  among  all  classes  of  the  people. 

It  was  at  this  period  in  the  history  of  the  Jesuits, 
that  the  disciples  of  Loyola  were  confronted  with 
such  overwhelming  ability  and  power  by  the  follow- 
ers of  Jansenius.  '  The  Provincial  Letters'  of  Pas- 
cal, one  of  the  keenest  and  most  cutting  satires  that 
has  ever  issued  from  the  press,  spread  terror  and 
dismay  among  the  ranks  of  the  Jesuits,  and  for  a 
season  their  cause  was  considered  as  hopeless.  But 
in  course  of  time  the  pungency  of  Pascal's  wit,  and 
the  force  of  his  logic,  were  alike  forgotten,  and  the 
Jesuits  succeeded  in  recovering  their  influence.  The 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  was  their  golden  age.  They 
presided  both  in  tlie  palace  and  at  the  council-board, 
moving  the  springs  of  government,  and  directing  the 
consciences  of  the  rulers. 

It  is  unnecessary,  after  what  has  been  said  in  the 
article  Jansenists,  to  do  more  than  simply  to  allude 
to  the  keen  contest  which  ensued  between  that 
party  and  the  Jesuits  in  regard  to  the  work  of  Fa- 
tlier  Quesuel.  Long  and  bitter  was  the  controversy, 
but  it  terminated  in  the  triumph  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
tlie  consequent  flight  of  tlie  Jansenists  into  Holland 
and  other  Protestant  countries.  Jesuitism  now  ob- 
tained a  complete  ascendency  in  France,  and  the  na- 
tural fruits  of  the  system  speedily  began  to  appear 
Voltaire  and  the  French  Encyclopjedists  gathered 
around  them  a  large  and  influential  school  of  infidels 
whose  principles  spread  far  and  wide  among  the  peo- 
ple. To  infidelity  and  irreligion  succeeded  anarchy 
and  revolution.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled  in  17G4 
with  the  consent  of  Louis  XV.  All  the  governments 
of  Europe  soon  followed  the  example  of  France. 
They  were  banished  from  Spain  and  Sicily  in  17G7 
from  Malta  and  Parma  in  1768  ;  and  from  Rome  by 
Clement  XIV.  in  1773. 

The  rejection  of  the  .Jesuits  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic governments,  and  even  by  the  supreme  Pontifl 
himself,  was  felt  to  be  a  fatal  blow  aimed  at  the  very 
existence  of  the  Order.  Some  of  them,  discouraged 
and  almost  in  despair,  threw  off  the  name  and  dress 
of  the  Society  of  Jjsus,  and  attempted  to  conceal 
themselves  under  new  appellations,  such  as  those  oi 
"  Fathers  of  the  Cross,"  or  "  Fathers  of  the  Faith  ; " 
but  the  great  mass  of  them  scorned  to  adopt  such  a 
subterfuge,  and  resolved  to  continue  to  wear  even  in 
public  the  insignia  of  Loyola.  In  one  state,  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia,  tlie  Jesuits  paid  no  regard  to 
the  papal  brief  for  their  siqipression.  Their  conduct 
in  tills  matter  met  witli  the  entire  approval  of  the 
reigning  sovereign,  Frederic  the  Great.  The  conse- 
quence was  that,  shut  out  from  other  countries, 
they  fled  to  Prussia,  and  soon  became  numerous 
there,  monasteries  being  built  for  their  reception, 
and  superiors  elected  over  them.  The  bishop  ol 
lircslau  interposed  in  behalf  of  the  papal  sec, 
whose  authority  was  thus  attempted  t"  be  set  al 


JESUITS. 


217 


jouglit,  but  Fredei'ic  threw  tlio  shield  of  liis  royal 
protection  over  the  rebellious  Jesuits,  mid  ordered 
that  they  sliould  remain  umuolested  in  liis  dominions. 
[n  vain  did  the  I'ope  Pius  VI.  remonstrate  with  the 
Prussian  monarch  ;  ho  refused  to  yield  more  than  to 
allow  the  Jesuits  to  abandon  tliodr('Ss  of  their  Order, 
but  in  all  other  jioints  ho  declared  it  to  be  his  sov- 
ereign will  that  they  should  remain  inviolate.  The 
Prencb  inlidel  school,  more  especially  D'Alembert, 
was  earnest  with  Frederic  to  expel  the  Jesuits,  as 
the  other  European  monarchs  bad  done.  But  the 
great  Frederic  was  inexorable,  he  was  resolved  to 
retain  a  class  of  men  whom  he  regarded  as  useful  to 
liim  in  many  respects,  chiefly  on  political  grounds. 
His  motives,  however,  were  entirely  misunderstood 
by  tlie  Jesuits  themselves,  who,  imagining  that  he 
lipproved  their  religious  principles,  made  a  formal 
Bpplicatiou  to  him  to  declare  himself  opcidy  the  pro- 
tector of  their  Order.  This  request,  however,  he 
politely  declined,  stating  "  that  it  was  for  the  Pope 
to  make  whatever  reforms  he  pleased  in  his  own 
states  without  the  interference  of  heretics." 

The  Jesuits,  in  their  state  of  exile,  received  the 
protection  also  of  Catherine  II.,  empress  of  Russia, 
who  looked  upon  them  as  political  auxiliaries.  On 
this  ground  she  retained  them  in  White  Russia, 
which  was  an  ancient  Polish  province,  and  prohi- 
bited the  proclamation  of  the  brief  of  Clement  XIV. 
in  all  the  Russias.  Encouraged  by  the  support 
which  they  received  from  Catherine  they  sent  a  de- 
putation to  Pius  VI.,  who,  as  he  was  secretly  dis- 
posed to  favour  the  Order,  gave  way  to  his  own 
personal  feelings  in  the  matter,  and  wliile  he  openly 
ir.aintained  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  neverthe- 
less encouraged  their  growth  in  Russia.  The  nur- 
sery of  the  Jesuits,  accordingly,  was  kept  up  in 
White  Russia ;  but  after  some  years  they  began  to 
display  an  indiscreet  zeal  in  proselytising,  and  were 
in  consequence  expelled  from  the  kingdom  wdiich 
had  so  long  aftbrded  them  an  asylum.  ]5ut  happily 
for  tliem  they  no  longer  required  an  asylum  in  the 
north.  Pius  VII.  relieved  them  from  their  degra- 
dation, and  by  a  bull,  dated  7th  August  1814,  he 
revoked  the  brief  of  Clement  XIV.,  and  re-estab- 
lished the  Order  of  Jesuits  throughout  the  world. 

From  this  period,  having  been  restored  to  the  full 
enjoyment  of  the  papal  sanction,  the  Jesuits  made 
their  appearance  openly  in  the  Roman  C.atholic 
countries  of  Europe,  claiming  to  be  regarded  as  a 
valuable  and  almost  indispensable  portion  of  tlie 
organization  of  the  Ro?iiish  church.  In  France  they 
lought  to  fill  the  principal  situations  in  colleges  and 
schools,  with  the  view  of  training  the  youth  in  high 
ultramontane  views.  A  loud  cry  arose  against  them 
in  1824;  and  in  1845  they  were  ordered  to  leave 
the  country.  IJut  without  any  formal  enactment  in 
their  favour  tliey  have  returned  in  great  numbers, 
and  are  fast  pervading  the  minds  of  the  clergy  and 
members  of  the  Gallican  church  with  ultramontane 
prhiciples  of  the  strongest  kind 


In  Rome,  too,  the  Jesuits  have  completely  re- 
covered the  proud  position  they  once  lield.  Pius  IX. 
has  confirmed  the  restoration  of  the  Order.  "Tbiy 
enjoy,"  says  Mr.  Grinlield,  in  his  historical  sketch, 
entitled  'The  Jesuits,' "  the  complete  command  of 
the  Roman  college,  and  of  most  of  the  collegiate 
establishments  in  '  the  Eternal  City.'  They  are 
again  active  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  have  renewed 
their  elTorfs  in  Austria,  Bavaria,  Silesia,  and  Prussia 
in  Hanover,  Holland,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and 
France.  In  China  and  the  South  Seas,  as  well  as 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  they  are  rapi<lly  in- 
creasing. In  every  part  of  the  American  provinces 
they  are  awakening  the  alarm  of  Protestants.  In 
Canada,  they  have  been  restored  to  a  large  college, 
and  have  numerous  seminaries  in  every  ])art  of  the 
province.  Numbers  of  them  are  employed  in  the 
education  of  youth,  and  they  are  connected  with  a 
large  missionary  establishment — a  branch  of  the 
Roman  Propaganda.  In  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
as,  indeed,  in  all  English  colonies,  they  are  numerous 
and  active.  For  the  English  who  may  travel  abroad, 
they  have  colleges  at  Douay,  Eiege,  Valladolid,  Lis- 
bon, Brussels,  Naples,  Paris,  Rome,  Boulogne,  I^atis- 
bon,  and  in  many  other  places.  Over  these,  some 
Jesuits  are  regularly  placed." 

On  1st  January  1854,  the  total  nmnber  of  the 
members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  not  including  the 
affiliated,  amounted,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
general's  office  at  Rome,  to  5,000,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  since  that  time,  tlieir  number  must 
liave  becoine  much  larger  Ribadaneira  says,  that, 
in  1608,  the  Society  numbered  10.581  members. 

The  members  oftbe  Society  of  Jesus  aredividcd  in- 
to four  classes  :  1.  The  Professed,  or  those  who  take 
the  four  vows,  namely,  that  of  perfect  obedience,  of 
voluntarv  poverty,  of  perpetual  chastity,  and  of  ab- 
solute submission  to  the  Pope.  2.  The  Coadjutors, 
who  are  either  spiritual  or  temporal,  that  is,  eccle- 
siastics or  lay  brethren.  They  aid  in  carrying  for- 
ward the  designs  of  the  Society,  but  are  bound  only 
by  the  three  simple  vows  of  obedience,  poverty,  and 
chastity.  3.  The  Scholars,  whose  position  is  to  be 
determined  by  their  individual  qualifications.  They 
are  bound  by  the  three  former  vows,  but  are  allowed 
to  take  the  last  with  consent  of  their  superiors. 
They  may  become  either  spiritual  coadjutors,  or 
simple  priests  of  the  Society.  4.  The  Novices,  who 
are  admitted  indiscriminately,  and  are  considered 
only  as  candidates  upon  trial.  A  probation  of  two 
years  is  required  before  taking  the  vows  of  the  tem- 
poral coadjutors,  and  of  the  scholars  who  are  to  be- 
come spiritual  coadjutors.  Another  probation  of  a 
year  precedes  the  vows  of  the  professed. 

At  the  age  of  fourteen  a  young  man  may  be  pro- 
posed for  admission  into  the  Order  as  a  Novice;  but 
before  he  is  formally  accepted,  a  minute  investiga- 
tion takes  place  into  his  temper,  talents,  station  in 
society,  and  prospects  in  life.  Nor  is  the  scrutiny 
limited  to  the  individual  himself;  it  extends  also  to 


218 


JESUITS 


his  relatives  and  connections,  both  near  and  remote. 
If  the  examiners  are  fully  satisfied  with  the  results 
of  their  inquiry,  he  is  forthwith  admitted  into  the 
noviciate ;  if  they  are  only  partially  pleased,  he  is 
pat  on  further  probation  ;  but  if  they  find  the  youth 
to  be  unpromising  they  dismiss  him  as  unsuitable. 
Supposing  the  youth  to  become  a  Novice,  he  is  put 
under  a  course  of  special  training,  with  the  view  of 
teaching  him  to  yield  implicit  submission  to  his  su- 
periors, merging  his  own  wiU  wholly  in  theirs.  The 
duty  is  inculcated  upon  him  of  abandoning  his  patri- 
mony, and  devoting  it  to  the  poor  or  to  the  church. 
During  the  whole  period  of  his  noviciate,  he  is  pre- 
vented from  holding  intercourse  with  his  friends  or 
relatives,  except  under  certain  conditions,  to  which 
he  must  strictly  adhere.  His  eveiy  movement  is 
narrowly  watched,  and  at  the  confessional  he  must 
reveal  the  inmost  secrets  of  his  heart. 

Should  the  young  man  approve  himself  as  a  Ncmke 
during  a  two  years'  probation,  he  next  becomes  a 
Scholar,  and  in  this  capacity  he  must  pass  a  month 
in  self-examination,  confession,  and  meditation  ;  a 
month  in  begging  from  door  to  door ;  he  must  wait 
*n  the  sick  in  some  of  the  hospitals ;  he  must  do  the 
duties  of  a  menial  in  the  convent ;  he  must  employ 
himself  finally  in  teaching  and  in  preaching.  After 
two  years  thus  spent,  be  is  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
a  coadjutor,  and  in  another  year  to  that  of  a.  professed 
brother.  The  grand  aim  towards  which  the  whole  of 
this  protracted  course  of  training  is  directed,  goes  to 
the  entire  subjection  of  the  whole  man  to  the  will  of 
the  superior.  "  If  you  would  immolate  your  whole 
self  wholly  unto  God,"  says  Loyola,  "  you  must  offer  to 
him  not  the  bare  will  merely,  but  the  understanding 
also  ;  to  think  just  what  the  superior  thinks,  and 
take  his  judgment  for  your  own,  so  far  as  it  is  possi- 
ble for  a  devoted  will  to  bend  the  understanding.  It 
is  impossible  to  deny  that  obedience  includes  not 
only  the  doing  of  what  is  commanded,  and  the  will- 
ing of  what  is  done,  but  the  submission  of  tlie  judg- 
ment also,  that  whatever  is  commanded  should  be 
thought  right  and  true  ;  for  obedience  is  a  holocaust 
wherein  the  whole  man,  without  any  part  reserved 
whatever,  is  immolated  to  his  Creator  and  his  Lord 
by  the  bands  of  his  ministers. 

"  The  noble  simplicity  of  blind  obedience  is  gone, 
if  in  our  secret  breast  we  call  in  question  whether 
that  which  is  commanded  be  right  or  wrong.  This 
is  what  makes  it  perfect  and  acceptable  to  the  Lord, 
that  tlie  most  excellent  and  most  precious  part  of 
man  is  consecrated  to  him,  and  nothing  whatsoever 
of  him  kept  back  for  himself. 

"  And  let  every  man  bo  well  persuaded  that  he 
who  lives  under  obedience  ought,  under  the  provi- 
dence of  God,  sincerely  to  be  governed  and  behave 
exactly  as  if  he  were  a  coi"pse,  wliich  sufl'ers  itself  to 
be  tunied  in  all  directions  and  dragged  every  where  ; 
or  as  if  he  were  an  old  man's  staff,  to  be  used  where- 
soever and  in  whatsoever  lie  wishes  who  holds  it  in 
hiB  hand." 


At  an  early  period,  so  early,  indeed,  as  the  meet- 
ing of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1545,  the  Jesuits  were 
suspected  of  tending,  in  their  doctrinal  sentiments, 
towards  Pelagianism.  Accordingly,  the  deputies 
wliich  they  sent  to  the  council,  Lainez  and  Sal- 
meron,  were  watched  by  the  Augustinian  party  with 
the  greatest  jealousy,  and  although  tliey  attempted 
to  conceal  their  real  opinions  under  a  mass  of  cum- 
brous erudition,  it  was  plain  that  they  were  entirely 
opposed  to  the  principles  of  Father  Augustin  in  re- 
gard to  the  vital  doctrines  of  justification  by  faith, 
the  fallen  condition  of  man,  and  the  insufBcienoy  of 
good  works  to  merit  pardon  and  salvation.  Another 
point,  also,  on  which  the  Jesuit  deputies  gave  great 
oflence  to  the  assembled  bishops,  was  the  boldness 
with  which  they  avowed  ultramontane  principles,  not 
only  in  regard  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  but  in 
regard  to  his  being  the  source  of  aU  episcopal  autho- 
rity, alleging,  as  they  did,  that  "  the  divine  hierarchy 
of  the  church  was  concentrated  on  the  head  of  liiiu 
to  whom  they  had  made  a  special  vow  of  obedience.'' 
The  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits  on  this  point  is,  that  the 
Pope,  as  head  of  the  church  on  earth,  is  infallible ;  that 
he  is  the  only  visible  source  of  that  universal  and  un- 
limited power  wliich,  in  their  view,  Christ  has  granted 
to  the  church ;  that  all  bishops  and  subordinate 
rulers  derive  from  him  alone  the  authority  and  juris- 
diction with  which  they  are  invested  ;  that  he  is  not 
bound  by  any  laws  of  the  church,  nor  by  any  de- 
crees of  councils  ;  that  he  alone  is  the  supreme  legis- 
lator of  the  church ;  and  that  it  is  in  the  highest 
degree  criminal  to  oppose  or  disobey  liis  edicts  and 
commands.  Such  are  the  strong  views  which  the 
Jesuits  and  ultramontanists  generally  entertain  of 
the  power  and  authority  inherent  in  the  Pope  as  the 
vicegerent  of  Christ  on  earth  hi  the  government  of 
the  church. 

The  controversy  with  the  Jansenists,  towards  the 
middle  and  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  developed 
the  Pelagian  opinions  of  the  Jesuits  more  fully  than 
even  the  debates  in  the  council  of  Trent.  The  Au- 
gustinian tlieology  on  the  doctrine  of  grace  had  been 
substantially  taught  in  the  "  Augustinus"  of  Janse- 
nius,  and  ably  defended  by  the  writers  of  Port  Royal. 
The  Jesuits,  however,  as  they  had  formerly  done  in 
opposition  to  the  Dominicans,  so  now  in  opposition  to 
the  Jansenists,  contended  earnestly  in  favour  of  the 
Pelagian  views,  modified  somewhat  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  scientia  media,  or  perfect  prescience  of 
the  future,  on  which  the  Divine  predestination  was 
supposed  to  proceed.  This  latter  modification  of 
Pelagianism  was  suggested  by  the  Jesuit  Molina, 
in  his  celebrated  work  on  the  Concord  of  Free- 
will witli  Divine  Grace,  published  in  1558.  The 
Janscnist  controversy  was  carried  on  with  great 
bitterness  for  many  years,  but  at  lengtli  in  1G42  the 
Jesuits  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Urban  VII 1.  a 
bull  condemning  the  work  of  Jansenius;  and  in 
1(15.'?  and  ICiG  Innocent  X.  and  Alexander  VII. 
issued  bulls  denouncing  as  heretical  and  impious  five 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


219 


propoRitions  alleged  to  be  contained  in  tliat  woi-k. 
(See  Jansknists.)  At  the  instillation  of  the  Je- 
suits, a  lioi'co  persecution  of  the  JiiiiBonists  took 
place,  which,  although  suspended  for  a  time  under 
the  pontilicate  of  t'lenuMit  IX.,  wa.s  soon  recom- 
menced, and  many  of  the  Jansenists  lied  from 
France  to  lind  an  asylum  in  other  jiarts  of  Km'ope. 
The  Jesuits  raised  another  persecution  against  the 
rival  body  in  tlie  followini:;  century,  whi('h  ended  in 
the  complete  depression  of  their  enemies,  and  tlieir 
own  triumph  for  a  time,  but,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  the  day  of  retribution  at  length  arrived,  and  tlie 
Jesuits  were  suppressed  in  177.3. 

The  moral  doctrines  of  the  Jesuits  were  perhaps 
more  objectionable  than  their  theological,  tending  as 
they  did  to  corrupt  the  minds  and  hearts  of  multi- 
tudes. They  taught,  for  example,  that  it  was  of  no 
consequence  from  what  motives  men  obeyed  the 
commandments  of  God,  yet  that  wicked  actions  might 
be  justified  by  good  intentions.  Pascal,  in  the  '  I'ro- 
vincial  Letters,'  exposes  their  system  of  morals  with 
the  most  cutting  irony,  and  with  exquisite  humour. 
Many  of  the  Komisb  as  well  as  Protestant  writers 
have  i)een  violent  in  their  opposition  to  Jesuit 
morality.  Some  of  their  pernicious  maxims  were  in 
fact  condemned  in  1G59  by  Pope  Alexander  VII.; 
and  in  1G90  the  article  relating  to  Philosopliical  Sin 
was  condemned,  but  without  effect,  by  Alexander 
VIII.  Reference  has  already  been  made,  under  the 
article  CAStllSTS,  to  some  of  their  ethical  tenets,  par- 
ticularly their  doctrine  of  Probability,  which,  along 
with  that  of  Philosophical  Sin,  has  stamped  the 
Jesuits  as  perverters  of  the  principles  of  morality. 
'  According  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits,"  says 
Professor  Ranke,  "  it  is  enough  only  not  to  will  the 
commission  of  a  sin  as  such :  the  sinner  has  the  more 
reason  to  hope  for  pardon,  the  less  he  thought  of 
God  in  the  perpetration  of  his  evil  deed,  and  the 
Tiore  violent  was  the  passion  by  which  he  felt  him- 
self impelled :  custom,  and  even  bad  example,  inas- 
much as  they  restrict  the  freedom  of  the  will,  avail 
ui  excuse.  What  a  narrowing  is  this  of  the  range 
of  transgression  I  Surely  no  one  loves  sin  for  its 
own  sake.  But,  besides  this,  they  admit  other 
grounds  of  excuse.  Duelling,  for  instance,  is  by  all 
means  forbidden  by  the  Church  ;  nevertheless,  the 
Jesuits  are  of  opinion,  that  if  any  one  incur  the  risk  of 
being  deemed  a  coward,  or  of  losing  a  place,  or  the  fa- 
vour of  his  sovereign,  by  avoiding  a  duel ;  in  that  case 
he  is  not  to  be  condemned,  if  he  tight.  To  take  a  false 
oath  were  in  itself  a  grievous  sin :  but,  say  the  Je- 
suits, he  who  only  swears  outwardly,  without  in- 
wardly intending  it,  is  not  bound  by  his  oath;  for  he 
does  not  swear,  but  jests.  These  doctrines  are  laid 
down  in  books  which  expressly  profess  to  be  moder- 
ate. Now  that  their  day  is  past,  who  would  seek  to 
explore  the  further  perversions  of  ingenuity  to  the 
annihilation  of  all  morality,  in  which  the  propounders 
of  these  doctrines  vied,  with  literary  emulation,  in 
outdoing  each  other  ?    But  it  cannot  be  denied  that 


the  most  repulsive  tenets  of  individual  doctors  wer« 
rendered  very  dangerous  through  another  principle 
of  the  Jesuits,  namely,  their  doctrine  of  '  proba 
bility.'  They  maintained  that,  in  certain  cases,  » 
man  might  act  ujjon  an  opinion,  of  the  truth  of  which 
he  was  not  convinced,  provided  it  was  vindicated  by 
an  author  of  credit.  They  not  only  held  it  allow- 
able to  follow  the  most  indulgent  teachers,  but  they 
even  counselled  it.  Scruples  of  conscience  were  to  be 
despised;  nay,  the  true  way  to  get  rid  of  them,  wa» 
to  follow  the  easiest  oiiinions,  even  though  their  sound- 
ness was  not  very  certain.  How  strongly  did  all  this 
tend  to  convert  the  most  inward  and  secret  prompt- 
ings of  conscience  into  mere  outward  deed.  In  the 
casuistic  manuals  of  the  Jesuits  all  possible  contin- 
gencies of  life  are  treated  of,  nearly  in  the  same 
way  as  is  usual  in  the  systems  of  civil  law,  and  exa- 
mined with  regard  to  their  degree  of  veniality  :  one 
needs  but  to  open  one  of  these  books,  and  regulate 
himself  in  accordance  with  what  he  finds  tliere,  with 
out  any  conviction  of  his  own  mind,  to  be  sure  of 
absolution  from  God  and  the  Church.  A  slight  turn 
of  thought  unburthened  from  all  guilt  whatever. 
With  some  degree  of  decency,  the  Jesuits  them- 
selves occasionally  marvelled  how  easy  the  yoke  of 
Christ  was  rendered  by  their  doctrines!"  Philoso- 
phical sin,  that  is,  sin  committed  through  ignorance 
or  forgetfulness  of  God,  is  in  the  eye  of  the  Jesuits 
of  a  very  light  and  trivial  nature,  and  does  not  de- 
serve the  pains  of  hell. 

The  Society  of  Jesuits  is  a  regularly  organized 
body,  being  governed  by  a  General  at  Rome,  who 
has  four  assistants,  but  who  is  responsible  to  none 
but  the  Pope  alone.  He  nominates  all  the  func- 
tionaries of  the  Order,  and  can  remove  them  at  plea- 
sure. By  means  of  the  confessional,  the  closest 
surveillance  is  maintained  over  families  and  indivi- 
duals, and  an  arbitrary  power  is  exercised  over  the 
consciences  and  the  conduct  of  men,  which  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  victims  to  resist. 

JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRE- 
LAND. In  the  twelfth  century,  Pope  Adrian  IV., 
an  Englishman  by  birth,  made  a  grant  of  Ireland  to 
Henry  II.,  King  of  England,  on  condition  that  the  king 
should  pay  him  a  yearly  tribute  for  each  house  in 
Ireland,  that  the  Catholic  religion  should  be  restored 
to  its  ancient  splendour,  and  the  people  to  a  com- 
mendable propriety  of  conduct.  In  1174,  Henry 
was  acknowledged  to  be  lord  paramount  of  all  Ire- 
land. Nothing  connected  with  the  Jesuits  occurred 
till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  the  Pope  of 
Rome,  Paul  III.,  of  Jesuit  notoriety,  took  Ireland 
under  his  immediate  patronage.  The  German  Re- 
formation, which  ditl'used  the  principles  of  Protes- 
tantism throughout  every  other  country  in  Eurojie, 
left  Ireland  untouched.  Nay,  a  rebellion  broke  out 
avowedly  in  defence  of  the  Pope's  authority,  but  the 
power  of  the  king  of  England  bore  down  all  opposi 
tion.  Statutes  were  passed  in  the  Irish  parliament 
abolishing    papal   authority,   and  declaring   Henry 


220 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


head  of  the  Irish  Church,  as  well  as  gi-anting  him 
the  tirst-fruits  of  all  ecclesiastical  benefices.  Partial 
insurrections  followed,  but  they  were  speedily  sup- 
pressed. Parliament  and  tlie  Iri.^-h  chieftains  were 
all  on  the  side  of  Henry ;  their  country  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  and  the  English  ascen- 
dency, by  tlie  admission  of  Dr.  Lingard,  tlie  Roman 
Catholic  historian,  rested  on  a  firmer  basis  than  it 
had  ever  done  since  the  invasion  of  the  island  by 
Henry  II. 

Such  was  the  state  of  matters  in  Ireland,  when 
two  Jesuit  envoys  were  despatched  thither  by 
Paul  III.  Tlie  persons  selected  for  this  mission  were 
Brouet  and  Salmeron ;  the  one  a  Frenchman,  and 
the  otlier  a  Spaniard.  They  were  invested  with  the 
powers  of  papal  nuncios,  and  before  leaving  Rome, 
tliey  received  special  written  instructions  from  Loy- 
ola, as  to  the  manner  m  which  they  should  conduct 
themselves  in  fulfilling  tlieir  difficult  and  delicate 
task.  Joined  by  a  papal  functionary  named  Zapata, 
they  set  out  on  their  expedition  in  September  1541. 
On  their  way  tliey  visited  Scotland,  wliere  they  so 
wrought  upon  the  mind  of  the  reigning  monarch, 
James  V..  that  they  withheld  liim  from  joining 
Henry  VIII.  in  his  resistance  to  the  Papal  power, 
and  his  acceptance  of  the  Reformation.  From  Scot- 
land the  Jesuit  envoys  hastened  to  Ireland,  where, 
liy  their  bland  and  plausible  manners,  they  succeeded 
ill  gaining  the  confidence  of  the  Irish  people.  They 
reported  to  Rome  that  they  had  scoured  the  whole 
island  in  thirty-four  days,  and  had  found  the  people 
in  the  most  deplorable  state  both  as  to  religion  and 
morality.  They  had  resolved,  however,  not  to  give 
way  to  discouragement,  but  to  try  what  could  be 
done  by  means  of  masses,  indulgences,  and  confes- 
sions. It  was  soon  ascertained,  of  course,  that  the 
Jesuits,  instead  of  confining  themselves  to  the  exer- 
cise of  their  spiritual  duties,  were  actually  attempting 
to  plot  against  the  government ;  and,  in  consequence, 
a  price  was  set  upon  their  heads,  and  confiscation 
and  the  penalty  of  death  were  proclaimed  against 
every  individual  who  should  harbour  them.  Finding 
tlieinselves  thus  in  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of 
Henry  VHI.,  they  left  Ireland  in  haste,  .and,  on  their 
way  to  France,  again  visited  Scotland;  but  they  saw 
enough  to  discourage  them  from  prolonging  their 
stay  in  that  country,  and,  contrary  to  tlie  express 
wishes  of  the  Pope,  they  fled  to  France,  where  they 
had  the  misfortune  to  be  imprisoned  at  Lyons  as 
Spanish  .spies.  They  had  intended,  it  is  .said,  boldly 
to  .appear  at  the  English  court,  and  plead  the  cause 
of  Romanism,  but  they  judged  it  better  to  return  to 
liome  without  delay.  Thus  ended  the  first  expedi- 
tion of  the  Jesuits  to  Ireland. 

Notwithstanding  the  failure  of  this  scheme,  the 
Jesuits  watched  tlicir  ojiportunity  for  etl'ccting  a 
settlement  in  liritain.  A  suitable  occasion  seemed 
to  present  itself  on  the  death  of  ICdward  \'I.  and  the 
accession  of  Mary  to  the  English  throne,  who,  being 
Herself  a  Roman  Catholic,  wished  to  undo  all  that  the 


Reformation  had  effected,  and  to  restore  the  olc 
religion  to  its  former  position  in  the  country.  At 
this  apparently  favourable  period  a  proposal  was 
made  to  Cardinal  Pole  to  establish  a  branch  of  the 
Society  of  Jesuits  in  England;  but  the  proposal  waf 
unexpectedly  declined,  the  cardinal  being  by  no 
means  friendly  to  the  Jesuits.  It  was  not,  indeed, 
till  the  death  of  Mary,  and  tlie  accession  of  Elizabeth, 
tliat  a  second  Jesuit  expedition  to  Ireland  was  planned 
at  Rome.  Tlie  individual  selected  for  this  important 
mission  was  an  Irislinian  by  birth,  named  David 
Woulfe.  Before  setting  out,  he  was  invested  bv 
Pius  IV.  with  the  powers  of  Apostolic  nuncio,  and 
furnished  with  instructions  to  proceed  to  Ireland,  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  all  possible  steps  to  undermine 
the  authority  of  Elizabeth  in  Ireland,  and  subjecting 
the  Irish  Church  to  the  Papal  dominion.  After  five 
months  spent  on  the  journey,  'Woulfe  readied  Cork, 
in  the  south  of  Ireland,  where  he  was  received, 
according  to  his  own  account,  with  great  joy  by  the 
Roman  Catholics.  At  first,  he  was  peculiarly  zealous 
and  active  in  the  discharge  of  his  mission,  and  wrote 
to  Rome  the  most  encouraging  accounts  of  his 
success ;  but  at  length  he  gradually  relaxed  in  his 
exertions,  and  ended  by  conducting  himself  so  im- 
jiroperly,  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  dismiss  him 
from  all  connection  with  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Thus 
terminated  the  second  expedition  of  the  Jesuits  to 
Ireland. 

The  Pope,  however,  and  the  Jesuits  had  strong 
confidence  that,  amid  all  discouragements,  they  woulil 
yet  succeed  in  effecting  a  lodgment  in  the  Emerald 
Isle.  Only  three  years,  accordingly,  had  elapsed 
from  the  period  of  Woidfe's  unfortunate  failure,  when 
three  more  Jesuits  were  despatched  to  Ireland,  with 
an  archbishop,  to  erect  colleges  and  academies — iiav- 
ing  been  invested  with  full  power  from  the  Pope  to 
make  use  of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues  for  that  object. 
At  the  same  time  an  English  Jesuit  was  sent  from 
Rome  to  his  native  country,  "  for  the  good  of  his 
health,  and  for  tlie  consolation  and  aid  of  the  Catho- 
lics." Thomas  Cliinge,  for  such  was  his  name,  is 
said  to  liave  been  successful  in  converting  some  ol 
the  nobility  to  tlie  Romish  faith,  but,  in  the  court-e 
of  a  year,  his  labours  were  cut  short  by  death. 

While  thus  watching  over  the  interests  of  tin; 
Romish  Church  in  England  and  Ireland,  Pius  IV.  did 
not  neglect  to  seek  the  promotion  of  llie  same  cause 
in  Scotland.  In  1562,  Nicholas  Gaudan,  a  Jesuit, 
was  sent  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  for  the  pui-pose  of 
comforting  her  in  the  midst  of  her  dill'iculties,  and 
confirming  her  in  her  adherence  to  the  faith  of  Ronic. 
The  mission  which  he  had  undertaken  was  one  of 
extreme  dilliculty.  Nowhere  had  the  principles  of 
the  Reformation  found  a  more  congenial  soil  than  in 
Scotland.  There,  accordingly,  these  ]irinciiiles  were  nc 
sooner  preached,  than  they  found  thousands  of  willing 
minds  and  hearts  by  whom  they  were  understood  and 
appreciated.  At  tlie  time  when  Gaudan  appeared  at 
the  court  of  Mary,  tlie  Reformed  opinions  had  l>eeD 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


221 


ixtensively  embraced  by  all  classes  of  the  people,  and 
A'hatover  savoured  of  Rome  was  repelled  with  imliK- 
liation  and  disgust.  Such  was  the  .state  of  feeling  in 
Scotland  when  tlie  Jesuit  (Jaudan  entered  the  couiury 
in  the  disguise  of  a  liawkei"  of  common  pedlar.  ()i\ 
learning  by  a  secret  messenger  the  arrival  of  this 
emissary  from  the  Pope,  the  queen  contrived  to 
iidmit  him  to  a  private  interview;  not  once  only,  but 
on  three  separate  occasions,  when  she  solemnly  pro- 
tested to  the  Papal  mmcio  her  determination  to  up- 
hold the  Cluirch  of  Rome  to  the  utmost  of  her  power, 
jmd  her  readiness  to  sutler  in  its  support,  should  she 
be  eallcil  to  do  so.  The  report  soon  spread  that  a 
.lesuit  had  found  access  to  the  palace,  and  the  utmost 
excitement  began  to  prevail.  His  steps  were  tracked; 
a  price  was  set  upon  his  head ;  and  Gaudan  ipiitted 
Scotlaiul  in  the  utmost  haste,  carrying  witli  him, 
however,  several  youths  belonging  to  noble  families, 
to  be  educated  in  Flanders,  tliat  they  might  return 
to  their  native  land  as  apostles  of  the  faith  of  Rome. 
The  r.ipid  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland 
awakened  no  small  anxiety  at  Rome,  and  an  opp<ir- 
tunity  was  eagerly  looked  for  of  restoring  the  Papal 
supremacy  in  that  country.  In  1567,  accordingly, 
wlien  Mary  had  given  notice  to  the  Pope,  Pius  V., 
of  her  marriage  with  Darnley,  his  Holiness  instantly 
despatched  a  Jesuit  named  Kdminid  Ha\',  under  the 
pretence  of  congr.Uulating  her  on  the  happy  event, 
Imt  in  reality  to  counsel  with  and  advise  lier  as  to 
(he  best  mode  of  subjecting  her  kingdom  to  the  See 
of  Rome.  So  an.xious  was  the  Pope  to  efl'ect  this 
re-conquest  of  Scotland,  tliat  he  declared,  in  a  letter 
lo  the  queen,  wliich  he  sent  by  the  bauds  of  Hay,  aiul 
which  was  written  in  the  holograph  of  his  Holiness, 
that  he  would  sell  the  last  chalice  of  the  church  in  the 
cause.  And  tlie  Jesuit  was,  moreover,  instructed  to  hold 
out  to  Mary  the  Hattering  prospect  of  Elizabeth  being 
yet  dethroned  by  the  iuHuence  of  Rome,  and  herself 
being  placed  on  the  throne  of  England.  And  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  such  an  expectation  was  really  en- 
tertained by  the  Pope,  as  we  find  him  in  1570,  only 
three  years  after  this  signiticant  message  to  Mary, 
issuing  a  bull  of  deposition  against  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land, thus  endeavouring  to  excite  her  subjects  to 
rebellion.  The  English  Roman  Catholics  held  this 
bull  in  as  little  respect  as  the  Protestants  did ;  but 
that  in  other  quarters  a  ditferent  result  was  antici- 
pated, is  evident  from  tlie  fact,  that  on  the  person  of 
a  Scottish  Jesuit,  of  the  name  of  Creighton,  who  was 
apprehended  and  imprisoned  in  1584,  was  found  a 
paper  giving  detailed  reasons  to  show  the  easiness  of 
rtn  invasion  of  England,  and  appealing  to  the  general 
wish  and  expectation  of  the  English  Catholics.  The 
Jesuits  had  taken  an  active  part  in  establishing  a 
college  at  Douay,  in  French  Flanders,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  training  missionaries  to  be  sent  into  England. 
William  Allen,  a  zealous  English  Romanist,  was  the 
main  instrument  in  planning,  and  for  many  years 
carrying  on,  this  missionary  college.  At  the  instiga- 
tion of  a  party  in  Douay    however,  the  magistrates 


dismissed  Allen  and  his  associates,  who  immediately 

transferred  their  services  to  a  similar  institution  at 
Rheiins  in  France.  Another  establishment  of  the 
same  kind  w.is  founded  at  Rome  by  Gregory  XHl. 
Thus,  at  the  Seminaries,  as  they  were  called,  ot 
Douay,  Rheinis,  and  Rome,  were  trained  the  Senii- 
nary-jnicsts,  many  of  them  Englishmen  by  birth,  who 
were  to  propagate  the  Romish  faith  in  England  and 
Ireland.  It  was  soon  discovered,  however,  that 
various  individuals  among  the  Seminary-priests  were 
using  their  endeavours  to  seduce  the  English  subjects 
from  allegiance  to  the  queen,  and  thus  carrying  out 
the  design  of  the  bull  of  Pius  V.  Several  English- 
men of  good  families  entered  the  Society  of  the 
Jesuits.  In  a  single  year,  1578,  Flanders  alone  gave 
the  Company  twelve  select  Englishmen,  who  had 
been  exiles,  and  their  number  increased  from  year  to 
year,  until  at  lengtli  Mercurian,  a  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  exclaimed,  "  Now  it  seems  God's  will  that 
the  Company  should  march  to  battle  against  the 
heresy  of  England,  since  he  sends  to  her  such  a 
mnnerous  and  valiant  host  from  England."  Thither, 
accordingly,  several  Jesuits  repaired,  who,  along  with 
the  Seniinai-y-priests,  attempted  to  sow  the  seeds  of 
disloyalty  and  disaffection  among  the  people.  This 
conduct,  of  course,  could  not  be  tolerated,  and  the 
government  forthwith  issued  a  proclamation  to  the 
following  effect :  "  That  whosoever  had  any  children, 
wards,  kinsmen,  or  other  relations  in  the  parts  be 
yond  the  seas,  sliould,  after  ten  days,  give  iji  their 
names  to  the  ordinary,  and  within  four  months  call 
them  home  again,  and  when  they  were  returned, 
should  forthwith  give  notice  of  the  same  to  the  said 
ordinary.  That  they  should  not,  directly  or  in- 
directly, supply  such  as  refused  to  return  with  any 
money.  That  no  man  should  entertain  in  his  house 
or  harbour  any  priests  sent  forth  of  the  aforesaid 
seminaries,  or  Jesuit^,  or  cberi.sh  and  relieve  them 
And  that  wdiosoever  did  to  the  contrary,  should  be 
aecoimted  a  favourer  of  rebels  and  seditious  persons, 
and  be  proceeded  against  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  land." 

About  three  years  before  this  proclamation  was 
made,  the  Pope  had  sent  an  expedition  to  invade 
Ireland.  It  was  headed  by  a  person  of  the  name  of 
Stukely,  whom  the  Pope  made  I'.is  chamberlain,  and 
created  him  Jlaripiis  of  Leinster,  furnishing  him  at 
the  same  time  with  both  money  and  men.  Stukely 
set  out,  and  on  reaching  the  Tagus,  where  he  ex- 
pected to  be  joined  by  the  king  of  Spahi  with  a  large 
army,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  to  join 
in  an  expedition  against  the  Turks,  and  perished  in 
the  battle  of  Alcazarquiver.  A  fleet  had  been  wait- 
ing on  the  coast  of  Ireland  to  give  Stukely  a  wami 
reception,  but  it  was  of  course  recalled.  And  yet 
though  Stukely  was  diverted  from  the  first  object  of 
his  expedition,  it  was  afterwards  carried  out  by  an 
Irish  refugee  called  Fitzmaurice,  with  a  few  Irish 
and  English  exiles  and  Spanish  soldiers.  Dr.  San- 
ders accompanied  them  as   Papal  legate,  carrying 


Z22 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


with  him  a  bull  which  constituted  the  invasion  a 
regular  crusade,  with  all  its  privileges.  A  landing 
was  made  near  Kerry,  but  the  whole  attempt  at 
invasion  turned  out  a  total  failure,  and  the  invaders 
and  insurgents  were  treated  with  the  most  barbarous 
cruelty. 

The  boldness  of  the  Jesuits  seemed  to  increase 
with  every  fresh  repulse  which  tliey  received. 
Scarcely  had  the  news  of  the  disastrous  failure  of 
tlie  Irish  expedition  reached  Rome,  when  tliey  re- 
solved, nothing  daunted,  to  attempt  the  establishment 
of  a  branch  of  tlieir  Society  in  England,  and  the  per- 
sons selected  for  this  enterprize  were  two  resolute 
and  entliusiastic  members  of  tlie  Order,  Father  Par- 
sons and  Fatlier  Campion,  both  of  tliem  natives  of 
England.  They  left  Rome  in  1580,  with  strict 
charges  given  to  them  not  to  interfere  in  the  sliglitest 
degree  witli  any  political  interests  in  the  affairs  of 
England.  Parsons,  who  was  a  man  of  fierce,  blus- 
tering disposition,  was  appointed  head  of  the  expedi- 
tion, which  numbered  in  all  thirteen  persons,  seven 
of  whom  were  priests.  Passing  through  the  Con- 
tinental states,  this  party  of  Jesuit  missionaries  had 
a  conference  with  Beza  at  Geneva.  Parsons,  leav- 
ing Campion  to  follow,  resolved  to  enter  England 
before  his  companions.  He  passed  himself  off  as  a 
military  officer  retuniing  from  Flanders  to  England; 
ind  the  wily  Jesuit  dressed  himself  accordingly,  be- 
sides interlarding  his  conversation  with  profane  oaths, 
to  render  the  deception  all  the  more  complete.  Cross- 
ing to  Dover,  he  journeyed  on  towards  London,  not 
without  some  fear  of  detection,  in  consequence  of  the 
suspicion  prevailing  against  strangers.  Campion 
followed,  in  the  dress  of  a  pedlar  or  merchant.  On 
reaching  the  metropolis,  a  meeting  of  the  Jesuits  and 
missionary  priests  was  held,  at  which  Parsons  pre- 
sided. As  instructed  at  Rome,  he  declared,  and 
even  solemnly  took  oath,  that,  in  coming  to  England, 
he  had  no  political  designs  whatever,  but  solely 
Bought  the  conversion  of  the  country  to  Rome,  with 
the  co-operation  of  the  secular  priests. 

Notwithstanding  the  solemn  disavowal  of  political 
motives  with  wliicli  tlie  mission  of  the  Jesuits  was 
thus  commenced.  Parsons  and  Campion  travelled 
through  England  under  various  forms  of  disguise, 
filling  the  minds  of  Roman  Catholics  with  the  most 
seditious  and  treasonable  principles,  urging,  in  no 
very  obscure  or  unintelligible  language,  the  necessity 
of  deposing  the  queen.  Intelligence  of  such  pro- 
ceedings could  not  fail  to  reach  the  government,  and, 
accordingly,  inquiries  of  the  most  searching  nature 
were  set  on  foot  to  discover  the  Jesuits.  Severe 
denunciations  were  published  against  all  wlio  should 
harbour  them,  and  against  all  who  quitted  the  king- 
dom without  the  license  of  the  queen  ;  and  rewards 
were  ofTered  for  the  discovery  of  the  offenders. 
Parsons  and  Campion  now  addressed  a  letter  in  con- 
cert to  the  privy  council,  complaining  of  the  general 
persecution,  as  well  as  the  suspicions  entertained 
"tgaijQst  what  they  termed  the  most  blessed  company  of 


Jesuits,  and  asserting  the  loyalty  of  the  Catholics  to 
be  greater  than  that  of  the  Protestants,  but  especially 
of  the  Puritans.  Campion  challenged  the  Protestant 
theologians  to  a  controversy  on  tlie  subject  of  the 
true  faith;  but  the  Jesuit's  challenge  and  defiance 
were  disregarded.  The  Jesuits  now  felt  that  the 
publication  of  the  edict  had  rendered  their  position 
dangerous.  Spies  were  everywliere  in  search  of 
them,  and  they  were  under  the  necessity,  in  order  tt 
escape  detection,  of  frequently  changing  their  dis- 
guises, their  names,  and  places  of  residence.  "  My 
di-esses  are  most  numerous,"  writes  Campion,  "  and 
various  are  my  fashions;  and  as  for  names,  I  have  an 
abundance."  Parsons,  by  his  extraordinary  dex- 
terity and  uiiscrupulousness,  had  less  difficulty  than 
his  colleague  in  eluding  the  pursuit  of  his  enemies. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  presence  of  the 
Jesuits  in  England,  and  the  revolutionaiy  principles 
which  they  were  diligently  spreading  among  the 
people,  roused  the  queen  and  her  ministers  to  the 
adoption  of  severe  measui'es  against  the  English 
Romanists.  Up  to  this  time,  they  had  been  readily 
admitted  to  com't ;  some  occupied  situations  of  high 
honour  and  trust ;  and  the  Roman  Catholic  nobility, 
thougli  excluded  from  the  House  of  Commons,  still 
sat  and  voted  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Now,  however 
that  the  Jesuits  and  Seminary-priests  were  perverting 
the  minds  of  English  Romanists,  and  alienating  them 
from  the  government  of  their  country,  the  most  de- 
cided steps  were  adopted  by  the  queen  and  her  minis- 
ters to  repress  the  treasonable  spirit  which  began  to 
manifest  itself.  Laws  were  passed,  subjecting  to  the 
penalties  of  high  treason  all  who  possessed  or  pre- 
tended to  possess  the  power  of  absolving  or  of  with- 
drawing others  from  the  establislied  religion,  or  suf- 
fered themselves  to  be  so  withdrawn.  Those  who 
said  mass,  and  those  who  attended  it,  were  hable  to 
be  punished  with  fuie  and  imprisonment.  Another 
act  provided,  that  to  prevent  the  concealment  of 
priests  as  tutors  and  schoolmasters  in  private  families, 
every  person  acting  in  that  capacity  without  the 
approbation  of  the  ordinary,  should  be  liable  to  a 
year's  imprisonment,  and  the  person  who  employed 
him  to  a  fine  of  £10  per  month.  These  enactments, 
severe  though  they  undoubtedly  appeared  to  be, 
were  at  first  seldom  put  in  execution ;  but  at  length 
the  storm  of  persecution  broke  out,  and  the  prisons 
in  every  country  were  filled  with  persons  suspected 
a.s  priests,  or  harbourers  of  priests,  or  transgressors 
of  the  enactments.  Meanwhile  the  Jesuits  meanly 
skulked  about  from  place  to  place,  allowing  the 
vengeance  of  the  government  to  fall  not  upon  them- 
selves, the  real  culprits,  but  upon  multitudes  of  un- 
offending persons,  upon  whom  the  suspicion  of  the 
authorities  happened  to  rest.  "  At  length,  thirteen 
months  after  liis  arrival,"  to  quote  from  Steinmetz, 
"  Campion  was  betrayed  by  a  Catholic,  and  seized 
by  the  officers  of  tlie  crown.  He  was  found  in  a 
secret  clo.set  at  the  house  of  a  Catholic  gentleman. 
They  mounted  him  on  horseback,  tied  his  legs  luider 


JESUITS  IN  GUICAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


223 


,'he  horse,  bound  his  arms  beliind  him,  and  set  a 
pajicr  on  liis  liat  witli  aii  inscription  in  great  capitals, 
inscriliud — Campion  tlie  Seditious  Jesuit.  Of  course 
lie  was  racked  and  tort ureil— words  that  do  not  con- 
vey the  hideous  reality.  Imagine  a  frame  of  oak, 
raised  three  feet  from  the  ground.  The  prisoner  was 
laid  under  it,  on  his  back,  on  the  floor.  They  tied 
his  wrists  and  ancles  to  two  rollers  at  the  end  of  the 
frame :  these  were  moved  'by  levers  in  opposite 
directions,  until  the  body  rose  to  a  level  with  the 
frame.  Then  the  tormentors  put  questions  to  tlie 
wretched  prisoner;  and  if  his  answers  did  not  prove 
satisfactory,  they  stretched  him  more  and  more,  till 
his  bones  started  from  their  sockets.  Then  there 
was  the  Scavenger's  Daughter — abroad  hoop  of  iron, 
witli  which  they  surrounded  the  body,  over  the  back 
anil  under  the  knees,  screwing  the  hoop  closer  and 
closer,  until  the  blood  started  from  the  nostrils,  even 
from  the  hands  and  feet.  They  had  also  iron  gaunt- 
lets, to  compress  the  wrists,  and  thus  to  suspend  the 
prisoner  in  the  air.  Lastly,  they  had  what  they 
called  'little  ease' — a  cell  so  small,  and  so  con- 
structed, that  the  prisoner  could  neither  stand  in  it, 
walk,  sit,  nor  lie  at  full  length." 

Parsons,  learning  that  his  colleague  was  appre- 
hended, and  condemned  to  die,  fled  to  the  Continent, 
knowing  well  that  a  similar  fate  assuredly  awaited 
iiim  if  he  remained  in  England.  On  reaching  a  place 
of  safety,  the  restless  Jesuit  commenced  anew  to  plot 
for  the  advancement  of  the  interests  of  Mother 
Church.  The  scheme  which  he  now  devised  was 
nothing  less  than  the  conversion  to  the  faith  of  Rome 
of  dames  VL,  king  of  Scotland,  the  son  of  the  un- 
fortunate Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who  was  then  im- 
prisoned in  England.  To  carry  out  this  project. 
Parsons  sent  an  embassy  to  the  young  king,  then  in 
jis  fifteenth  year.  This  embassy  was  headed  by  the 
Jesuit  Ci'eighton,  who  was  completely  outwitted  by 
James.  The  young  Scottish  monarch,  keenly  alive 
to  his  own  interests,  sought  to  tiu-n  the  whole  afl'air 
to  his  own  account,  pretending  to  connive  at  the 
proposed  introduction  of  Romish  missionaries,  on 
condition  that  his  exhausted  treasury  was  replenished 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  powers.  Creighton  eagerly 
accepted  the  royal  conditions,  and  he  and  Parsons 
hastened  to  Paris  for  the  purpose  of  holding  a  con- 
sultation on  the  subject  with  some  warm  and  in- 
Huential  friends  of  the  Romish  See.  It  was  agreed 
that  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  rescue  Mary  from 
her  C4iptivity,  and  to  associate  her  with  her  son  on 
the  Scottish  throne,  and  that,  meanwhile,  James 
should  be  relieved  from  his  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ments by  a  grant  from  the  Pope  and  the  king  of 
Spain.  The  money  matters  were  easily  settled,  but 
the  first  part  of  the  project  was  of  more  difficult 
accomplishment.  A  French  Jesuit,  Samnier,  was 
despatched  from  Paris  to  hold  a  secret  consultation 
with  Mary.  He  entered  England  in  the  disguise  of 
an  officer,  "  accoutred  in  a  doublet  of  orange  satin, 
slashed,  and  exhibiting  green  silk  in  the  openings. 


At  his  saddle-bow  he  displayed  a  pair  of  pistols,  a 
Kword  at  his  side,  and  a  scarf  round  hig  neck."  The 
design  of  this  .Jesuit  embassy  was  to  excite  a  secret 
revolt  against  Elizabeth  on  the  part  of  some  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  nobles.  The  plot,  however,  was 
discovered,  and,  by  the  activity  of  the  government, 
completely  defeated ;  while  the  young  king  of  Scot- 
land, instead  of  becoming  a  dupe  of  the  Jesuits,  was 
thrown  wholly  into  the  hands  of  the  Protestant 
party. 

The  failure,  however,  of  this  project  of  the  Jesuits 
did  not  prevent  them  from  forming  another.  A 
secret  consultation,  accordingly,  was  again  held  at 
Paris,  with  the  view  of  devising  a  plan  for  the  liber- 
ation of  Marj'.  It  was  resolved  that  the  Duke  of 
Guise  should  land  with  a  French  army  in  the  south 
of  England,  while  James,  with  a  Scottish  army,  was 
to  enter  by  the  north,  and  those  of  the  English  who 
were  favourable  to  the  Stuarts  were  to  be  invited  to 
lend  their  assistance.  The  plan  was  communicated 
to  Mary  by  the  French  ambassador,  and  to  James 
by  Holt,  the  English  Jesuit.  This  scheme  also 
failed,  and  Mary  refused  to  lend  her  sanction  to  it. 
Soon  after,  the  Jesuit  Creighton  was  apprehended, 
and  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  disclosed  all 
the  particulars  of  the  projected  invasion. 

Many  were  the  schemes  and  plots  devised  against 
Protestant  England  by  the  Jesuits,  but,  through  tlv 
vigilance  of  Elizabeth  and  her  ministers,  they  were 
all  of  them  imsuccessful ;  and  the  alarm  which  they 
excited  only  led  to  more  stringent  and  oppressive 
treatment  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  queen  was 
highly  oflended  with  the  cruelty  shown  in  many 
cases.  Camden  tells  us  that  "  she  commanded  the 
inquisitors  to  forbear  tortures,  and  the  judges  to 
refrain  from  putting  to  death."  She  commuted  the 
sentence  of  death  into  transportation  in  the  case  of 
seventy  Romish  priests,  one  of  whom  was  Jaspar 
Haywood,  son  of  the  first  Jesuit  that  ever  set  foot 
on  English  ground. 

The  Jesuhs  made  use  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  as 
a  convenient  tool  for  stirring  up  from  time  to  time 
fresh  conspiracies  against  the  Protestant  throne  ol 
England.  One  of  the  most  active  of  their  auxilia 
ries  in  these  plots  was  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  there 
is  too  good  reason  to  believe  that  Mary,  probably  in 
her  natural  anxiety  for  deliverance  from  her  pro- 
tracted captivity,  was  cognizant  of,  if  she  did  not 
participate  in,  these  plots  of  the  Jesuits.  At  all 
events  these  crafty  priests  were  her  advisers  and 
ghostly  confessors  down  to  the  time  of  her  execution, 
which  took  place  in  1587.  The  death  of  the  un- 
happy queen  of  Scots,  produced  a  deep  impression 
on  the  minds  of  the  adherents  of  Rome  throughout 
the  whole  of  Europe,  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  in  par- 
ticular, hastened  to  carry  out  his  long-contemplated 
descent  upon  England  with  the  glorious  Armada. 
Pope  Sixtus  V.  gave  his  warm  approval  of  the 
scheme,  and  created  the  Jesuit  Allen  a  Cardinal,  for 
the  purpose  of  accompanying  the  expedition  in  the 


224 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


character  of  papal  legate,  with  a  commission  to  re- 
noHcile  England  to  the  commimion  of  Rome,  and  to 
lonfirm  tlie  conquest  to  the  Spanish  crown  should 
the  expedition  prove  successful.  This  enormous 
fleet  consisted  of  135  ships  of  war,  manned  by  8,000 
sailors,  and  canying  19,000  soldiers,  and  high  were 
the  hopes  of  tlie  Jesuits  wlien  this  mighty  armament 
.'^ot  sail  for  tlie  coasts  of  England.  Allen  carried 
with  him  an  "  Admonition  to  the  nobility  and  people 
of  England,"  which  he  had  got  printed  at  Antwerp, 
and  wliicli  was  intended  to  be  extensively  distributed 
among  the  people  on  the  arrival  of  the  Armada. 
This  document,  the  authorship  of  which  has  usually 
been  assigned  to  the  Jesuit  Parsons,  was  tilled  with 
the  most  scurrilous  and  abusive  language  against 
Elizabeth,  and  called  upon  her  subjects  to  rise  in 
rebellion  and  hurl  her  from  the  throne.  But  the 
Jesuits  were  utterly  mistaken  as  to  the  real  state  of 
feeling  in  England,  even  among  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, wlio  were  at  this  very  time  visited  with  the 
most  bitter  persecution.  No  sooner  did  the  news 
arrive  of  the  project  of  Philip  with  his  invincible 
Annada,  than  botli  Catholics  and  Protestants  alike 
tlew  to  arms,  resolved  to  defend  tlieir  coimtiy  against 
tlie  Spanish  invader.  All  warlike  preparation,  how- 
ever, was  unnecessary.  A  tempest  arose,  and  in  one 
iiiglit  the  Annada  with  her  mighty  legions  was  swal- 
lowed up  by  the  boiling  flood.  Thus  terminated  the 
boasted  enterprize  of  PhiHp,  planned  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  sanctioned  by  the  Pope.  From  that  date  Spain 
lias  simk  into  the  position  of  a  second  or  a  third  rate 
power  in  Europe. 

Father  Parsons  seems  to  have  now  despaired  of 
crushing  Protestant  England  by  any  machinations 
carried  on  within  the  country;  and  being  himself 
located  on  the  Continent,  he  directed  all  his  efforts 
to  rouse  the  Roman  Catholic  governments  to  attack 
Elizabeth,  and  deprive  her  of  her  crown.  AVith  this 
view  he  published  in  1591  his  answer  to  the  edict  of 
tlie  queen  against  the  Jesuits.  The  book  was  mul- 
tiplied in  various  parts  of  the  Continent,  and  a 
new  edition  appeared  at  Rome  in  1593.  This 
production  was  well  fitted  to  excite  feelings  of  ha- 
tred against  Elizabeth,  both  among  her  own  sub- 
jects and  among  foreigners,  and  it  is  not  sm-prising, 
therefore,  that  the  public  mind  was  agitated  at  this 
time  by  rumours  of  plots  against  the  life  of  the 
queen.  Tlie  foreign  seminaries,  which  supplied  mis- 
sionary priests  to  England,  were  mainly  under  tlie 
control  of  Jesuits,  who  thus  incessantly  moved  tlie 
springs  which  were  to  regulate  the  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings and  conduct  of  the  English  Romanists.  Parsons 
and  Allen,  in  seeking  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  to  its  former  position  of  influence  and  autho- 
rity in  lOngland,  considered  the  best  means  of  efl'ect- 
iug  tliis  to  be  the  placing  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
monarch  on  tlie  throne.  These  two  Jesuit  leaders 
looked  to  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Spain  as  a 
suilabU;  person,  and  to  recommend  her  to  the  Eng- 
lish nation.  P«s«on8  publislied  in  1594  his  "  Confer- 


ence about  tlie  next  succession."  We  learn  from 
Dr.  Lingard  that  this  tract  excited  an  extraordinary 
sensation  botli  in  England  and  on  the  Contiiieiu. 
Parsons  was  in  fact  the  accredited  agent  ot  ."^pain, 
employed  expressly  by  Philip  to  support  the  preten- 
sions of  the  Infanta  to  the  Englisli  throne.  With 
the  exception  of  Creighton,  wlio  was  decidedly  fa- 
vourable to  the  claims  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
tlie  Jesuits  were  unanimously  supporters  of  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Spain,  for  whose  benefit 
tliey  promoted  the  second  Spanish  invasion,  which 
was  equally  disastrous  with  the  first,  and,  what  is 
remarkable,  from  precisely  the  same  cause.  In  1598 
we  find  an  attempt  made  by  Squires  and  tlie  Jesiut 
Walpole  to  poison  Elizabeth,  which,  tliough  it  pro- 
videntially failed,  showed  all  too  plainly  that  the 
opinions  which  Parsons  so  diligently  spread  on  the 
subject  of  regicide,  had  been  readily  imbibed  by 
some  members  of  the  so-ciilled  Society  of  Jesus. 

The  rebellion  which  had  for  several  yeai-s  been 
raging  in  Ireland,  headed  by  the  daring  O'Neil,  was 
well  known  to  have  been  planned  and  organized  by 
the  Jesuits,  more  especially  by  their  general,  Aqua- 
viva.  In  1599,  Spain  furnished  a  supply  of  money 
and  ammunition  for  the  insurgents,  witli  a  promise 
of  men.  And  tlie  Pope  also,  to  show  his  entire 
approbation  of  the  insurrection,  sent  O'Neil  a  con- 
secrated plume  and  a  bull,  granting  him  and  his  ad- 
herents the  same  indulgences  as  had  been  granted  to 
the  Crusaders  who  had  fought  for  tlie  recovery  of 
the  Holy  Land.  The  Irish  rebellion,  however,  was 
suppressed,  and  the  Spanish  fleet,  which  had  been 
sent  to  aid  the  insiu-gents,  was  compelled  to  return 
home,  to  announce  to  the  ambitious  monarch  their 
complete  and  inglorious  defeat.  But  Parsons,  and 
those  who  favoured  the  Spanish  pretensions,  though 
foiled  in  all  the  attempts  they  had  hitherto  made  to 
effect  their  purpose,  were  still  determined  to  per- 
severe. Another  invasion  was  planned  in  ICGl,  and 
adopted  by  Philip  III.  of  Spain;  but  it  was  suddenly 
frustrated  by  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  unani- 
mous acknowledgment  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  as 
her  successor.  A  short  time  before  her  death,  the 
queen  and  her  ministers  had  come  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  projected  invasion,  and  of  its  being  favoured 
and  encouraged  by  Garnet,  the  English  provincial  of 
the  Jesuits.  One  of  the  last  acts,  accordingly,  ol 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  to  issue  a  proclamation 
banishing  the  Jesuits  from  the  realm,  not  only  be- 
cause they  refused  to  acknowledge  and  obey  the 
queen,  but  entered  into  conspiracies  of  all  kinds 
against  her  person,  and  into  alliances  with  enemies 
of  the  kingdom,  in  order  to  effect  her  downfall. 

To  the  mortification  of  Parsons  and  his  friends,  not- 
withstanding all  the  efforts  they  had  made  to  set 
aside  the  Scottish  succession,  James  was  proclaimed 
king  of  England  with  the  joyful  shouts  and  acclama- 
tions of  the  people.  It  was  now  evident  that  the 
.lesuits  had  wholly  miscalculated  the  extent  of  their 
inffuence ;  they  had  fondly  expected  that  the  death 


JESUITS  IX  GREAT  liUITAIN  AND  IKKJ.AND. 


22.') 


of  Elizabclli  would  be  tlie  signal  for  a  civil  war  in 
Englfind ;  but  no  accession  coiilil  be  more  pcaccfnl 
tlian  tlmt  of  tlie  Scottisb  inoniirch  to  tlie  tlirone  of 
England.  As  soon  as  tidings  of  tlie  event  readied 
Parsons,  lie  lost  no  time  in  writing  a  letter  to  a  party 
in  tlic  English  court,  witli  a  view  to  its  being  shown 
to  the  new  king,  in  which  lie  attempted,  in  the  most 
crafty  and  deceitful  nianrier,  to  show  that  he  and  the 
eonfijiany  to  which  lie  lielonged  had  been  in  favour  of 
the  Scottish  king.  The  original  of  this  precious 
document  is  in  tlic  library  of  the  Uritish  iMusenm. 
Sanguine  ho]ies  were  entertained  tliat  , lames,  now 
that  he  had  succeeded  to  the  English  throne,  would 
modify,  if  lie  did  not  entirely  repeal,  the  laws  which 
Elizabeth  had  passed  against  Jesuits  and  priests. 
But  only  a  few  months  sufficed  to  dispel  the  delusive 
hopes  of  the  Romanists.  The  restrictive  enactments 
of  which  they  complained  were  not  only  confiiined 
by  James,  but  ordered  to  be  put  in  rigorous  execu- 
tion. The  Romish  missionaries  were  banished  from 
the  kingdom,  and  the  |ienalties  for  recusancy,  besides 
being  continued,  were  made  to  extend  backward 
thronghout  the  time  which  had  elapsed  since  the 
new  king  arrived  in  London.  Such  unexpected 
severity  was  felt  deeply  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
England.  Many  families  found  themselves  suddenly 
plunged  into  a  state  of  extreme  destitution,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  heavy  tines  to  which  they  were 
subjected.  One  enactment  after  another  passed  of 
the  most  oppressive,  exacting,  and  even  persecuting 
character.  All  magistrates  and  judges  were  com- 
manded, on  pain  of  royal  displeasure,  to  execute  the 
laws  against  Roman  Catholics,  both  priests  and  lay- 
nen,  with  the  most  stern  and  uncompromising  rigour. 
The  consequences  were  most  disastrous.  The  rich 
v.-ere  reduced  to  poverty,  the  jioor  were  thrust  into 
prisons,  the  goods  of  multitudes  were  confiscated, 
some  were  banished,  and  others  were  publicly  exe- 
cuted. 

Ill  such  circumstances  as  these  the  desperate  con- 
spiracy was  planned  which  is  usually  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  The  scheme  was  one 
of  fearful  revenge,  being  nothing  less  than  to  blow  up 
the  House  of  Lords  with  gunpowder  at  the  open- 
ing of  Parliament;  and  thus  to  destroy,  at  one 
blow,  the  King,  the  Lords,  and  the  Commons.  For 
more  than  a  year  the  plan  was  secretly  in  process  of 
concoction,  and  meanwhile  government  were  putting 
in  force  measures  of  redoubled  severity  against  the 
adherents  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  fatal  day 
drew  near,  but  providentially  some  person  or  other, 
who  was  privy  to  the  plot,  disclosed  it,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  execution  of  one  of  the  most  atrocious  con- 
spiracies which  the  history  of  any  country  records. 
The  conspirators,  eight  in  number,  were  apprehended, 
tried,  and  executed,  while  among  the  accomplices 
m  the  preparation,  it  was  discovered  that  three  noted 
Jesuits,  Garnet,  Gerard,  and  Greenway,  were  impli- 
cated, while  every  one  of  the  conspirators  belonged 
to  the  Jesuit  faction.     Gerard  and  Greenway  con- 


trived to  elude  detection,  and  escaped  to  the  con 
tinent.  Garnet  forwarded  a  strong  protestation  ol 
his  innocence  to  the  council,  and  though  for  a  week 
he  attempted  to  secrete  himself,  his  hiding-place  was 
discovered,  and  after  frequent  examinations,  in  which 
he  e([uivocatcd  in  the  most  disgraceful  manner,  he  was 
tried,  convicted  of  complicity  in  the  conspiracy,  to  the 
extent  at  least  of  guilty  knowledge  and  concealment 
thereof,  and  in  consequence  he  wa.s  publicly  executed. 
Many  have  been  the  efforts  made  by  Romish  writers  lo 
exculpate  Garnet  from  all  concern  in,  or  even  know- 
ledge of,  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  but  his  own  admissions 
on  his  trial,  as  well  as  the  evidence  adduced  on  the 
part  of  the  crown,  brought  home  the  charge  to  the 
wretched  Jesuit  priest  and  provincial  so  clearly,  as, 
in  the  view  of  every  impartial  person,  to  put  the  fact 
of  his  implication  in  the  conspiracy  beyond  the  reach 
of  doubt.  To  display  the  innocence,  however,  of  this 
member  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  miracles  were  al- 
leged to  have  attended  his  execution.  One,  in  par- 
ticular, produced  great  excitement  for  a  time  among 
the  more  ignorant  and  superstitious  of  the  EnglLsh 
Romanists.  An  English  student  belonging  to  the 
Jesuits  alleged,  that  he  was  standing  by  whilst  the 
executioner  was  quartering  the  dead  body  of  Ganiet, 
when  a  straw,  spotted  with  blood,  came,  he  knew  not 
how,  into  his  hand.  Subsequently,  a  man's  face 
was  seen  depicted  on  the  straw,  and  on  examination 
it  was  pronounced  the  genuine  picture  of  Ganiot 
most  perfectly  displayed  in  the  single  drop  of  blood. 
It  affords  a  melancholy  view  of  the  low  state  of  in- 
telligence in  England  at  the  time,  that  such  a  storv 
should  have  not  only  been  currently  reported,  but 
extensively  believed  by  Romanists  both  at  home  and 
abroad. 

The  discovery  of  a  conspiracy  so  horrible  a,s  the 
Gunpowder  Plot,  and  the  fact  which  was  fullv 
brought  out,  that  it  was  originated  by  Romish  Je- 
suits, only  exasperated  the  king  and  the  government 
still  more  against  the  English  Roman  Catholics,  who, 
though  innocent  as  a  body  of  all  connection  with  tlie 
nefarious  transaction,  were,  nevertheless,  visited  with 
still  more  cruel  treatment  than  they  had  hitherto  ex- 
perienced. Enactments  of  the  most  stringent  de- 
scription were  passed  against  them,  and  to  test  thcit 
allegiance  an  oath  was  framed  which  was  to  be 
taken  by  every  Romanist  of  the  age  of  eighteen  and 
upwards,  and  in  which  the  temporal  authority  of  the 
Pope  was  plainly  and  explicitly  denied.  A  contest 
now  ensued  among  the  Roman  Catholic  leaders  as 
to  the  legality  of  taking  this  oath.  A  number  of 
the  clergy  and  laity  readily  admitted  its  legality,  and 
took  it  without  liesitation.  When  a  copy  of  the 
oath,  however,  was  received  at  Rome,  the  Pope  is- 
sued two  apostolic  letters  addressed  to  the  English 
Romanists,  condemning  the  oath  as  unlawful.  The 
appearance  of  this  papal  decision  threw  the  body 
into  gi-eat  perplexity.  Bellarmine,  Parsons,  and 
other  Jesuits  on  the  continent  were  the  chief  oppo- 
nents of  the  test ;  but  the  English  clergy  were  quite 


226 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


divided  in  opinion  on  the  subject.  All  the  Roman 
Catholic  peers,  with  tlie  exception  of  Lord  Teyn- 
liam,  took  the  oath  in  the  House  of  Lords  ;  and  out 
of  the  whole  body  of  English  Romanists,  there  were 
only  1,944  recusants,  of  whom  the  great  majority 
belonged  to  the  humbler  classes. 

At  the  earnest  request  of  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
the  Pope,  Paul  V.,  sent  a  secret  envoy  to  England 
with  letters  to  King  James,  urging  the  adoption  of 
milder  measures  than  those  which  had  been  recently 
resorted  to  by  the  legislature.  James  received  the 
envoy  with  apparent  kindness,  gave  him  the  usual 
gi-atuity,  but  sent  him  away  with  no  definite  answer 
to  the  Pope's  letters.  The  slight  thus  put  upon  his 
holiness  made  him  all  the  more  ready  to  listen  to 
the  persuasions  of  the  English  Jesuits  in  Flanders, 
who  despatched  a  deputation  to  Rome,  calling  for 
fome  speedy  and  energetic  measures  against  the 
English  king.  The  Pope,  yielding  to  the  pressure 
from  without,  issued  a  brief,  forbidding  the  Eng- 
lish Romanists  to  attend  Protestant  churches,  and  de- 
claring the  oath  to  be  unlawful,  and  to  contain  many 
things  contrary  to  faith  and  salvation.  James,  on 
learning  that  this  papal  document  had  reached  Eng- 
land, and  feeling  assured  that  it  was  a  contrivance  of 
the  Jesuits,  resolved  to  act  with  the  utmost  decision ; 
and  forthwith,  to  show  his  indignation  at  this  inter- 
ference of  the  Pope  with  the  infernal  government  of 
the  country,  he  ordered  the  oath  to  be  administered 
to  all  Roman  Catholics  indiscriminately.  The  per- 
secution now  raged  with  renewed  fury,  which  the 
Jesuits  endeavoured  to  allay  by  the  offer  of  a  sum  of 
money. 

It  was  not  a  little  annoying  to  the  Pope  to  learn 
that  his  late  brief  had  been,  to  a  great  extent,  disre- 
garded by  the  English  Romanists,  many  of  them 
having  taken  the  oath  in  spite  of  the  papal  prohibi- 
tion. Another  brief,  accordingly,  was  issued  con- 
firmatory of  the  former,  but  before  it  reached  Eng- 
land, Blackwell,  the  archpriest  of  the  Romanists,  was 
in  prison,  having  been  deposed  from  his  office  at  the 
instance  of  Bellarmine  and  Parsons,  for  taking  the 
Oath  of  Allegiance,  and  also  by  a  public  letter  re- 
commending his  people  to  follow  his  example. 

King  James,  always  partial  to  theological  contro- 
versy, now  entered  the  field  against  the  Romish  Je- 
suits on  the  subject  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Pope,  and  published  a  tract  entitled  '  An  Apologie 
for  the  Oath  of  Allegiance.'  A  war  of  pamphlets 
now  ensued ;  divines,  both  Romish  and  Protestant, 
published  their  sentiments  on  this  much  disputed 
point ;  and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  seventeenth 
eenlury  the  question  was  agitated  on  both  sides  witli 
tlie  most  bitter  keenness.  James  was  resolved  to 
enforce  the  oath  in  face  of  all  opposition,  and  three 
Uoniish  priests  who  refused  to  take  it  were  con- 
demned to  the  gallows.  The  Romanists  were  divided 
among  themselves  in  the  midst  of  all  the  sufferings 
which  they  were  called  to  endure.  Dissensions  from 
witliin   and  oppi-ession   from   without  rendered  the 


situation  of  many  of  them,  peculiarly  painful.  Th« 
penalties  for  recusancy  were  enforced  with  increasing 
severity,  and  in  1610  all  Roman  Catholics  were  or- 
dered to  quit  London  within  a  month,  and  all  priests 
and  Jesuits  were  commanded  to  leave  the  kingdom 
within  the  same  period. 

But  if  Romanists  in  England  were  punished,  on 
the  one  hand,  by  the  Protestant  government  for 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  they  were 
punished,  on  the  other,  if  they  took  the  oath,  by  the 
Pope,  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits.  In  this 
strange  position  eight  clergymen,  prisoners  in  New 
gate,  appealed  to  the  Pope,  imploring  him,  by  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs,  and  by  the  bowels  of  their 
Redeemer,  to  take  pity  on  them  in  their  affliction, 
and  to  specify  those  parts  of  the  oath  which  rendered 
it  unlawful  to  be  taken.  To  this  appeal,  affecting 
though  it  was,  his  Holiness  made  no  reply.  Nor 
did  Parsons  and  the  Jesuits  content  themselves  with 
harsh  and  cold-blooded  neglect  of  their  fellow-Ro- 
manists in  England  in  the  time  of  sore  persecution 
they  resisted  also  every  attempt  on  the  part  of  others 
to  instruct  and  comfort  them.  The  Benedictine 
monks  of  Spain  had  resolved  to  establish  a  mission 
in  England,  but  the  Jesuits  offered  the  most  deter- 
mined opposition  to  the  scheme,  and  it  was  not  imtil 
the  cardinal-archbishop  of  Toledo  pronounced  the 
allegations  of  the  Jesuits  on  the  subject  of  the  pro- 
posed mission  to  be  false,  and  the  design  itself  to  be 
worthy  of  all  encouragement,  that  the  Jesuits  allowed 
the  plan  of  the  mission  to  be  carried  into  execution. 

All  the  seminaries  for  the  training  of  missionaries 
to  England,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  college 
at  Douay,  were  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits; 
and  even  Douay  itself  was  gradually  subjected  to 
their  control,  through  the  crafty  management  ot 
Father  Parsons.  The  missionaries  now  poured  into 
England  from  these  colleges  were  of  the  most  illiterate 
description,  being  prepared  by  only  a  few  wrecks'  or 
months'  training  to  enter  on  the  duties  of  the  mission. 
Accordingly,  we  learn  that,  in  the  course  of  the  four 
years  ending  at  Christmas  1608,  no  fewer  than  forty- 
one  missionaries  were  despatched  to  England  from 
Douay  alone.  Thus,  to  the  other  evils  of  the  period, 
in  so  far  as  Romanists  were  concerned,  was  added  an 
ignorant,  degraded,  and,  in  many  cases,  immoral 
clergy.  The  idea  began  now  to  be  started  of  the 
necessity  of  episcopal  oversight,  in  order  to  remedy 
the  evils  which  had  crept  into  the  system.  Two 
deputies  had  been  despatched  to  Rome  in  1606,  to 
endeavour  to  prociu-e  a  bishop  from  the  Holy  See 
Their  evil  genius,  however,  the  notorious  Parsons, 
contiiHied  still  to  haunt  them,  and,  at  his  instigation, 
the  petition  was  rejected,  and  the  liopcs  of  the  Eng- 
lish Romanists  disappointed.  The  clergy  made 
another  application  to  the  Pope  for  the  appointment 
of  a  bishop  over  them,  but  Parsons  again  foiled  them, 
and  prevailed  upon  the  Pope  to  decree  that,  "  until 
every  mendier  of  the  clergy  should  concur  not  only 
in  ))etitioning  for  an  episcopal  su])erior.  but  also  in 


JESUITS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


227 


reeommcuiliii;;  tlie  pai'ticular  individual  to  bo  pre- 
feiTed  to  tliat  dignity,  no  proposal  on  tlie  siily'ect 
woidd  be  entertained."  Siicli  a  decision  from  tlie 
sovereign  pontuV  was  siifTieiently  diseonraging  to  the 
Englisli  Korimiists.  Ncvertlieless,  they  resolved  to 
senil  another  deputation  to  Rome,  to  consult  the 
I'ope  on  the  whole  state  of  their  affairs.  The  envoys 
were  favoured  \vitli  an  interview  with  the  Pope,  the 
result  of  which  was,  that  they  obtained  a  confirmation 
of  the  prohibition  against  the  interference  of  the 
Jesuits  in  the  government  of  the  archpriest.  Par- 
sons was  not  a  little  mortified  at  the  partial  success 
of  the  envoys,  but  he  set  himself  with  the  utmost 
energy  to  counteract  their  efforts,  first,  by  endeavour- 
ing to  procure  their  recall,  and,  when  that  failed,  by 
so  slandering  their  character  as  to  destroy  their  in- 
tluence  with  the  Pope.  This  cunning  and  uniirin- 
cipled  Jesuit  pretended  to  be  their  confidential  ad- 
viser and  friend,  and  yet,  all  the  while,  he  was 
sedulou.sly  employed  in  secretly  frustrating  every 
appeal  which  tbcy  made  to  the  supreme  pontiff. 

Early  in  the  following  year,  1610,  Robert  Parsons 
was  cut  off  by  a  sudden  death,  and  thus  a  final 
termination  was  put  to  the  wicked  schemes  of  one 
of  the  basest  and  most  unscrupulous  men  that  ever 
belonged  to  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits.  His  life 
seemed  to  be  one  continued  series  of  acts  (if  dupli- 
city, treachery,  and  atrocious  wickedness.  To  this 
man,  and  his  intriguing  machinations,  are  to  be 
traced  almost  all  tlie  calamities  which,  for  many  a 
long  year,  visited  the  Roman  Catholics  of  England. 
He  was  tlieir  mortal  enemy,  though  he  professed  to 
he  their  sworn  and  devoted  friend.  "  Father  Par- 
sons," says  one  of  themselves,  "  was  the  principal 
author,  the  incentor,  and  the  mover  of  all  our  gar- 
boils  botli  at  home  and  abroad."  The  death  of  such 
a  man  might,  therefore,  have  been  considered  as 
likely  to  bring  relief  to  the  English  Romanists;  but, 
unfortunately,  the  spirit  to  which  he  had  given  rise 
still  survived.  For  ten  years  longer,  the  clergy  con- 
tinued to  urge,  with  unremitting  eaniestness,  the 
appointment  of  a  bishop,  but  the  Jesuits  as  vigor- 
ously opposed  them.  At  length,  in  1G'20,  the  Pope 
declared  his  willingness  to  accede  to  their  request. 
The  Jesuit.s,  thus  foiled  at  Rome  in  their  opposition 
to  the  measure,  endeavoured  to  prevent  it  from  being 
put  in  execution  by  awakening,  through  secret  in- 
fiuence,  the  fears  and  jealousies  of  King  James;  and 
in  this  they  were  so  successful,  that  he  solemnly 
declared  that  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop  should  never 
be  admitted  into  the  country.  The  king,  however, 
soon  discovered  that  he  had  been  duped  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  learning  that  only  the  spiritual  inspec- 
tion of  the  clergy  was  desired,  he  withdrew  his  op- 
position, and  Dr.  William  Bishop  was  forthwith 
appointed  Vicar- Apostolic  of  England  and  Scotland, 
but  nominally  Bishop  of  Chalcedon  in  partibus  in- 
fidelinm. 

One  grand  object  which  the  Jesuits  have  inces- 
santly kept  in  view  from  the  period  of  the  first  in- 


stitution of  their  Order,  has  been  the  aggrandisement 
of  the  Society,  and  the  establishment  of  their  in- 
fluence in  every  part  of  Christendom.  But  to  no 
country  have  their  .amliitious  designs  been  more 
sedcdously  directed  than  to  England.  They  liave 
attempted  to  operate  upon  it  by  all  possible  means 
both  direct  and  indirect.  AVe  have  found  them, 
during  the  reign  of  James  I.,  re-sorting  to  a  thousand 
different  plans  to  accomplish  their  designs;  and  wdiile 
their  plans  were  uniformly  fru.strated  by  the  vigilance 
of  the  king  and  his  ministers,  they  were  secretly,  but 
diligently,  raising  up,  by  means  ot  the  English  Col- 
lege at  Rome,  of  which  they  had  acquired  the  com- 
plete control,  a  band  of  young  men  thoroughly  trained 
up  in  the  princiiilcs  of  the  Order,  and  from  whose 
labours  as  missionaries  in  England  they  expected  a 
va.st  accession  to  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  in  that 
country.  Hence  it  happened,  that  of  forty-seven 
persons  who  left  the  English  College  at  Rome  during 
the  seven  years  preceding  1G2.3,  no  fewer  than  thirty- 
three  entered  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits.  So  com- 
pletely, indeed,  did  that  Engli.sh  seminary  become  a 
prey  of  the  Jesuits,  that  the  Pope  found  it  necessary 
to  interfere,  and  to  lay  it  down  as  a  strict  regulation 
that,  for  the  future,  no  student  educated  on  the  foun- 
dation was  to  enter  any  religious  order  or  company 
without  special  license  from  his  Holiness;  and,  be- 
sides, each  scholar,  on  his  admission,  was  to  take  an 
oath  to  that  effect,  and  to  be  ready,  at  the  command 
of  the  protector  or  the  propaganda,  to  take  orders 
and  return  to  England  on  the  mission. 

The  English  Roman  Catholics  experienced  no  little 
annoyance,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, by  the  institution  of  a  new  Order  of  religious 
ladies,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Jesuit  Roger  Lee. 
These  nuns  were  to  hve  in  community,  but  without 
any  obligation  of  being  shut  up  in  a  nunnery.  They 
were  bound  to  take  upon  themselves  the  instruction 
of  young  ladies,  and  to  ramble  over  the  country, 
nay,  even  to  the  Turks  and  infidels,  to  seek  the 
conversion  of  soids  to  the  Romish  faith.  The 
Jesuits,  we  are  infomied,  mainly  supported  their 
cause,  and  took  gi-eat  pains  to  obtain  them  an  estab- 
lishment. These  English  Jesuitesses,  as  they  were 
often  called,  caused  so  much  scandal  to  the  Romish 
mission,  that  the  English  clergy  memorialized  the 
Pope  on  the  subject,  urging  upon  his  Holiness  that 
the  Jesuits  were  expressly  forbidden,  by  their  rule.s, 
to  meddle  or  mix  in  the  government  of  women,  and 
that,  notwithstanding  this  regulation,  the  Jesuitesses 
were  in  the  habit  of  making  use  of  the  Jesuits  alone 
in  all  their  concerns  in  England  and  abroad,  so  that 
they  seemed  to  think  it  a  crime  to  permit  any  other 
priest  to  hear  the  secrets  of  their  conscience  in  con- 
fession. In  spite  of  all  opposition,  these  English 
nuns  besieged  the  Pope  with  petitions  for  the  con- 
firmation of  the  Order;  but,  in  1630,  Pope  Urban 
VIII.,  instead  of  confimiing,  wholly  suppressed  the 
sisterhood. 

After  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits  from  England 


•ita 


JESUS. 


in  1604,  we  hear  little  ;iinre  of  tliein  until  the  reign 
of  James  II.,  who  aimed  at  the  establishmeni  of  the 
Romish  Church  in  his  dominions.  Jesuit  schools 
were  opened ;  the  Jesuit  Petre  was  raised  to  the 
lionour  of  a  privy  councillor;  the  Pope  was  urged  by 
the  king  to  make  the  Jesuit  a  bishop,  but  declined 
to  grant  the  royal  request.  The  Revolution  of  1688, 
however,  and  the  conferment  of  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land on  the  Prince  of  Orange,  changed  the  wliole 
aspect  of  alfairs,  and  threw  the  Jesuits  once  more 
into  the  shade.  From  that  period  till  the  date  of  the 
suppression  of  the  Order  by  Ganganelli,  Pope  Cle- 
ment XIV.,  in  1773,  the  history  of  tlie  Jesuits  in 
England  is  little  more  than  a  blank.  The  Order 
still  survived  the  Papal  deed  of  suppression,  and 
while  the  successor  of  Clement  XIV.  connived  at 
their  continued  existence,  they  found  an  asylum  in 
Prussia,  and  were  pennitted  to  open  a  novitiate  in 
Russia.  But  none  of  tlie  foreign  Jesuits  appear  to 
have  souglit  shelter  in  either  Great  Britain  or  Ire- 
land. The  English  members  of  the  body  continued 
to  prosecute  their  mission  as  before.  Nay,  it  is 
affirmed  that  at  the  very  time  when  the  suppression 
took  place,  the  English  goveniment  secretly  patron- 
ised the  Jesuits  for  state  purposes. 

The  restoration  of  the  Order,  as  we  have  already 
seen  (see  Jesuits),  was  the  act  of  Pope  Pius  VII., 
with  the  design,  as  is  believed,  of  upholding  ultra- 
rnontanism  in  Prance.  The  bull  of  revival  and  res- 
toration was  passed  in  1814,  and  soon  after,  the 
Jesuits  were  found  in  great  numbers  in  all  the  Con- 
tinental countries;  but  their  late  exptilsion  from 
Switzerland,  their  banishment  from  Bavaria,  Austria, 
Naples,  and  even,  througli  the  decision  of  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  from  Rome  itself,  drove  many  members  of 
the  Order  to  take  refuge  in  England,  along  with 
their  general,  Rooth;uin.  Through  the  liberality  of 
Mr.  Tlionias  Weld,  a  wealthy  Roman  Catholic  gentle- 
man, the  Jesuit  refugees  were  presented  with  the 
domain  of  Stonyhurst.  Stcinmetz  gives  the  following 
account  of  this  seminary  belonging  to  the  English 
Jesuits :  "  The  college  of  Stonyhurst  must  receive, 
on  an  average,  at  least  £6,000  per  amuim  from  pupils 
— the  ninnber  being  about  120,  at  forty  guineas  per 
annum,  for  boys  under  twelve  years  of  age;  for  those 
above  that  age,  fifty  guineas ;  and  for  students  in 
philosophy,  one  hundred  guineas.  Besides  this,  the 
college  po.ssesses  and  farms  some  thousand  acres  of 
good  land,  over  wliich  one  of  the  fathers  presides  as 
procm-ator.  The  Jesuits  are  highly  esteemed  in  the 
neighboiu'Iiood :  their  handsome  church  is  thronged 
on  Sundays  and  festivals;  and  on  stated  occasions 
they  distribute  portions  of  meat  to  the  ])Oor,  besides 
supporting  a  small  school  for  their  children.  Hence 
they  have  iullucnce  in  those  parts,  as  any  member  of 
Parliament  will  llnd  to  his  cost,  shoidil  he  not  make 
friends  with  the  Jesuits. 

"  The  English  Fathers  have  no  less  than  thirty- 
three  establishments,  or  colleges,  residences,  and 
missions   in   England.     Of  course  Stonyhur.st  is  the 


principal  establishment,  where  the  Provincial  of  Eng 
land  resides.  The  college,  ni  1845,  contained  tweniv 
priests,  twenty- six  novices  and  scholastics,  and  four- 
teen lay-brothers. 

"  Of  the  806  missionary  priests  in  Great  Britain, 
including  bishops,  the  Jesuits  alone  can  say  how 
many  are  enlisted  under  tlie  banner  of  Ignatius, 
though,  doubtless,  this  knowledge  is  shared  by  the 
'  Vicars- Apostolic'  of  the  various  districts  in  which 
they  ai-e  privileged  to  move  unmolested.  The  Jesuits 
are  muffled  in  England ;  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
them  in  the  names  of  the  Catholic  lists  annually 
published.  Tliey  have  established  a  classical  and 
commercial  academy  at  Mount  St.  JIary's,  near  Ches- 
terfield; and  the  prospectus  of  the  establishment, 
after  describing  the  suit  of  clothes  that  the  pupils 
are  to  bring,  simply  infonns  the  world  that  '  the 
college  is  conducted  Dy  gentlemen  connected  with 
the  college  of  Stonyhurst.'  These  'gentlemen'  are 
generally  sent  out  in  pairs  by  the  provincial,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitutions,  and  thus  may  charm  by 
variety;  for  the  quantity  of  work  on  hand  in  the 
various  Jesuit  missions  in  England  is  by  no  means 
so  evident  as  the  speculation  for  more,  by  this  con- 
stitutional provision.  The  secular  priests  are  doubled 
and  tripled  by  the  necessities  of  the  mission ;  the 
Jesuits  are  doubled,  tripled,  and  quadrupled,  by  the 
requirements  of  the  constitutions  and  the  prospects 
before  them."  The  Romanist  English  colleges  are 
six  in  number: — Stonyhurst,  near  Whitley,  Lanca- 
shire ;  St.  Lawrence's,  Ampleford,  York ;  St.  Gre- 
gory's, Downside,  Bath;  St.  Edward's,  Everton,  near 
Liverpool ;  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
near  Loughborough ;  St.  Mary's,  near  Chesterfield. 
These  are  understood  to  be  chiefly,  if  not  entinly, 
tnider  the  care  of  Jesuits. 

The  vice-province  of  Ireland  mimbered  sixty-tliree 
Jesuits  in  1841,  and  seventy  three  in  1844.  They 
possess  in  Ireland  the  colleges  of  Conglowes,  Tolla- 
beg,  and  two  seminaries  in  Dublin.  The  Irish  Ro- 
manists have  been  much  diminislied  in  nimibers  by 
famine,  pestilence,  and,  above  all,  extensive  emigra^ 
tion  to  America,  Australia,  and  other  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  Jesuits  carry  on  their  work  with  as 
much  secrecy  as  possible,  endeavouring  to  advance 
the  interests  of  Rome,  and  especially  of  their  own 
Order,  among  all  classes  of  the  people.  See  Romk 
(Church  of). 

JESUS,  a  name  given  by  Divine  appointment  to 
the  second  person  of  the  Bles.sed  Trinity,  as  the 
Saviour,  which  is  the  import  of  the  Greek  word. 
That  a  special  importance  was  attached  to  this  ap- 
pellation of  our  Lord,  is  evident  from  the  circum- 
stance that  he  was  so  named  by  the  angel  before  his 
birth,  for  we  find  it  recorded  that  the  angel  said 
luito  Mary,  "  Fear  not ;  for  thou  liast  found  favour 
with  God.  And  behold,  thou  slialt  conceive  in  thy 
womb,  and  bring  forth  a  son,  and  thnu  shalt  call  his 
name  Jesus."  And  the  angel  wlui  appeare<l  to  .Joseph 
in   a  dro.am   gave   the   same  aniuniuccnu'nt,  with  the 


JETSIRA— JEWS  (Ancient). 


223 


iiiterprctiitioii  of  tlie  ii.iinc,  "  Tlioii  «lialt  cull  his 
namo  Jcsiis ;  fur  he  sliall  save  his  ])CO|)le  from  their 
sins."  The  reason  was  thus  unfolded  why  the  Son 
ot  (lod  was  ahont  to  assume  human  nature  into  union 
witli  the  divine — that  he  niii^ht  be  .Jehovah  the 
Saviour.  Jesus  was  hy  no  means  an  unfrcquent 
name  among  the  ancient  Jews.  The  first  person  to 
whom  we  tind  it  applied  in  the  (M  Testament  was 
Joshua,  the  son  of  Xun,  whose  olhee  it  was,  hy 
Divine  a[)poinlment,  to  conduct  the  Israelites  across 
the  Jordan  into  the  land  of  promise.  In  anticipa- 
tion, no  doubt,  of  his  S(dection  for  this  ]ieculiar 
office,  he  bore  originally  the  appellation  of  Oshea,  or 
Moshea,  tlui  Saviour;  hut  in  Num.  xiii.,  we  find  it 
stated  that  Moses,  before  sending  out  spies  to  examine 
the  promised  land,  changed  the  name  of  one  of  them, 
hy  making  a  very  important  addition  to  it,  which 
brought  the  type  into  a  complete  identity  in  name 
with  the  great  Antitype.  Thus  it  is  said,  v.  IG, 
"  And  Moses  called  Oshea  the  son  of  Nun  Jehoshua;" 
the  first  designation  signifyingSaviour,  and  thesecond, 
Jehovah  the  Saviour.  The  Holy  Ghost  tluis  taught 
that,  while  Joshua  should  be  the  deliverer  of  the 
people,  it  w.is  not  by  his  own  arm  that  he  should 
accomplish  their  deliverance,  but  by  the  arm  of  Je- 
hovah. And  in  the  interpretation  given  by  the  angel 
of  the  name  Jesus,  as  applied  to  the  Redeemer,  it  is 
said  "  for  he ;"  in  the  original  the  pronoun  is  em- 
phatic; "he  himself  shall  save  his  people  from  their 
sins."  lie,  then,  is  the  very  Jehovah  implied  in  the 
name  given  to  him  as  to  tlie  typicid  Joshua.  And 
that  he  is  indeed  Jehovah,  we  learn  from  tlie  language 
which  the  evangelist  Matthew  employs,  inunediately 
after  describing  the  appearance  of  the  angel  to  Jo- 
seph :  "  Now  all  this  was  done,  that  it  might  be 
fulfilled  which  was  spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the 
prophet,  saying,  Behold,  a  virgin  shall  be  with  child, 
and  shall  bring  forth  a  son,  and  they  shall  call  his 
name  Emmanuel,  which  being  interpreted  is,  God 
with  us."  These  words  obviously  convey  the  idea 
that  the  Emmanuel,  God  with  us,  mentioned  by 
Isaiah,  is  the  same  with  Jehovah-Jesus  our  Saviour. 
The  Son  of  God  may  be  considered  as  Jesus  the 
Saviour  in  a  threefold  aspect — as  making  known  the 
way  of  salvation,  as  purchasing  salvation  for  bis 
people,  and  as  bestowing  it  upon  them  when  pur- 
chased. 

JETSIRA,  the  Book  of  Creation,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Jewish  Cabbalistic  writings.  See 
Cabbala. 

JEWS  (Ancient).  The  name  of  Jews  was 
usually  given  to  the  Hebrews,  especially  after  the 
period  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when  the  na- 
tion was  chieHy  limited  to  the  line  of  the  patri- 
arch Judah,  the  ten  tribes  having  been  almost 
entirely  absorbed  in  other  nations,  and  thus  hav- 
(ng  disappeared  from  the  page  of  liistory.  The 
Jewish  people  are  the  most  ancient,  the  most  re- 
markable and  interesting  of  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth.     Though  for  nearlv  eighteen  hundred  years 


they  liave  nowhere  been  found  existing  in  a  national 
capacity,  but  mingled  among  the  people  of  all  coun- 
tries, yet  they  have  continued  sejjarat'  and  distinct, 
so  that  they  can  be  readily  recognized  by  certain 
peculiar  characteristics.  This  cannot  be  aHlrined  of 
any  other  people  on  the  face  of  the  cartli.  Amid 
the  various  changes  and  revolutions  which  have  oc 
curred  in  the  course  of  the  world'i*  history,  even  the 
jiroudest  nations  of  antiquity  have  become  so  coni- 
jiletely  merged  in  more  modern  nations,  wliich  have 
s|u-img  out  of  them,  that  it  is  impossible  to  trace  the 
ccjurse  of  their  history  with  the  slightest  approach 
(0  distinctness.  But  here  is  a  nation,  which,  not- 
withstanding the  numberless  vicissitudes  it  has 
undergone,  has  from  its  origin  to  the  present  Iiour 
continued  a  se|iarate  people,  whose  career  is  capal;le 
of  being  distinctly  traced.  It  is  the  only  nation, 
besides,  which  can  with  certainty  point  to  the  fa- 
mily, and  even  the  precise  individual,  from  whom 
they  originated.  They  claim  to  be  descended  from 
Abraham,  Isiiac,  and  Jacob — a  claim  which  is  estab- 
lished by  the  pen  of  inspiration,  and  has  never  for  a 
moment  been  doubted.  And  to  put  their  descen* 
beyond  the  reach  of  question,  tliey  hear  about  with 
them  a  standing  memorial  of  it  in  the  ordinance  of 
circumcision. 

From  its  very  origin,  the  nation  of  Israel,  as  it  is 
called,  in  more  ancient  times,  was  separated  from 
other  nations  for  a  special  and  most  important  pur- 
pose, that  from  them  might  spring  the  Saviour  of  the 
world.  And  to  bring  about  this  great  result,  a  spe- 
cial providence  evidently  watched  over  them.  The 
promise  given  to  Abraham  in  regard  to  this  nation, 
which  was  to  descend  from  him,  was  renewed  to 
Isaac  and  to  Jacob.  The  family  of  Jacob,  by  the 
overruling  providence  of  God,  obtained  a  residence 
in  Egypt,  until  they  became  a  great  nation.  Aftei 
dwelling  in  Egypt  upwards  of  four  centuries,  they 
were  delivered  by  the  instrumentiility  of  Moses,  and 
being  conducted  in  their  forty  years"  journey  through 
the  wilderne.ss  by  the  special  guidance  of  their 
covenant-God,  tliey  were  landed  safely  in  Canaan 
under  the  care  of  Joshua.  We  are  infonned  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  that  430  years  elapsed  from  the 
call  of  Abraham  to  the  deliverance  from  Egypt,  and 
during  the  first  215,  the  Israelites  had  increased  to 
only  70,  or  as  Stephen  the  martyr,  following  the 
Septuagint,  asserts,  75  souls,  but  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  same  period,  they  had  multiplied  to  more 
than  600,000  fighting  mtn,  or  including  the  aged,  the 
women,  and  the  children,  to  probably  upwards  of 
2,000,000. 

There  appears  to  have  been  a  succession  of  twelve 
kings  during  the  time  the  Israelites  were  residing 
in  Egypt,  and  it  is  not  a  httle  remarkable  that  an  an- 
cient historian  mentions  the  ninth  king  of  this  series 
to  have  been  the  head  of  a  new  dynasty  or  race  of 
kings.  A  revolution  had  happened  in  the  country. 
A  new  family  had  ascended  the  throne,  and  as  might 
have  been  exjiec'ed  m  the  case  of  an  entire  change 


230 


JEWS  (Ancient). 


of  goveniiiient,  it  is  said  of  the  Pharaoh  who  tlien 
reigned,  that '-he  knew  not  Joseph."  Not  tliat  he 
was  wholl_v  iijnorant  of  the  wise  and  wonderful  poUcy 
by  which  Joseph  had  consoUdated  the  power  of  the 
Egyptian  nionarchs,  but  tlie  meaning  of  tlie  expression 
seems  to  be,  that  he  held  in  no  esteem  the  name  and 
the  services  of  so  eminent  a  benefactor  to  his  country. 
Joseph  having  been  the  servant  of  a  difierent  family 
from  that  which  now  ruled,  all  his  wise  and  well-laid 
schemes  for  the  adNancement  of  the  country's  wel- 
fare were  viewed  with  an  evil  eye  by  the  stranger 
who  had  intruded  himself  into  the  throne  of  the  Pha- 
raohs. He  knew  not  Joseph,  nor  did  he  regard  with 
any  favour  the  nation  to  which  Joseph  belonged,  but 
summoning  an  assembly  of  the  Egyptian  people,  lie 
laid  before  them  the  danger  which,  in  his  view, 
threatened  the  country  from  the  enormous  increase 
of  the  Israelites.  The  new  monarch  began  to  trem- 
ble for  the  stability  of  his  throne.  The  Israelites 
had  gone  down  to  Egypt,  and  risen  there  to  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity  under  a  different  race  of  kings 
from  that  which  now  reigned.  Tlie  most  fertile 
part  of  the  country  had  been  assigned  to  them,  and 
the  wealth  and  influence  wliich  they  had  acquired 
were  such  as  might  well  excite  the  jealousy  and  the 
fears  of  an  usurper.  But  the  language  in  which  the 
king  speaks  of  their  numbers  and  power  shows  the 
extent  of  his  own  fears,  rather  than  the  real  state  of 
the  Israelitish  people.  "Behold  the  people,"  says 
he,  "of  the  children  of  Israel  are  more  and  miglit- 
ier  tlian  we."  Such  language  was  evidently  exag- 
gerated, but  he  dreaded  lest  by  their  numbers  and 
their  energy  they  should  bring  about  a  counter-revo- 
lution and  deprive  him  of  his  kingdom.  They  had 
hitherto  been  a  peaceful  and  inoffensive  race  of 
shepherds,  who  reckoned  themselves  mere  temporary 
sojourners  in  a  strange  land,  and  therefore,  they  were 
not  likely  to  interfere  iu  the  political  arrangements 
of  the  country.  But  the  policy  of  the  monarch  evi- 
dently was  to  lind  an  excuse  for  oppressing  a  people, 
whose  religion  he  hated,  whose  prosperity  he  envied, 
mid  whose  wealth  he  coveted.  Besides,  it  is  not  at 
all  unlikely,  from  various  incidental  remarks  which 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament  history,  that  the  Israel- 
ites were  at  this  period  beginning  to  be  reconciled 
to,  and  actually  to  imitate,  the  idolatry  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. Thus  it  is  stated  in  Josh.  xxiv.  14,  "Now 
therefore  fear  tlie  Lord,  and  serve  him  in  sincerity 
and  in  truth :  and  put  away  the  gods  which  your 
fathers  served  on  the  other  .side  of  the  flood,  and 
in  Egypt ;  and  serve  ye  the  Lord."  In  these  cir- 
cumstances it  i.s  not  surprising  that  they  were  sub- 
jected to  severe  trials,  and  in  all  probability  the 
Egyptian  monarch  was  made  an  instrument  in  the 
hand  of  God  to  chastise  his  erring  people. 

The  obvious  design  of  the  king  of  Egypt  in  op- 
pressmg  the  Israelites  was  to  afflict  and  impoverish 
them,  to  break  down  their  spirits,  and  to  check  their 
rapid  mcrease.  Accordingly,  they  were  now  re- 
duced 10  a  state  of  slavery,  as  complete  as  the  Fel- 


lahs of  modern  Egypt,  and  they  were  declared  to  be 
the  absolute  property  of  the  crown.  Tlie  whole  o( 
the  male  population  were  doomed  to  toil  at  public 
works  under  severe  Egyptian  taskmasters,  who  are 
represented  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  armed 
with  long  whips,  and  driving  bands  of  Hebrew  slaves 
like  cattle  in  the  fields.  They  were  compelled  to 
dig  clay  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  to  make  bricks, 
and  to  build  cities  walled  and  fortified  for  the  safe 
keeping  of  the  royal  stores.  The  Egyptian  king 
and  his  people,  however,  were  completely  disap- 
pointed in  their  attempts  to  weaken  and  dispirit  the 
Israelites,  and  thus  to  prevent  their  increase.  In 
the  midst  of  the  cruel  oppression  to  which  they  were 
exposed,  they  continued  daily  to  grow  in  numbers, 
and  their  enemies,  inwardly  gi-ieved  at  the  advancing 
prosperity  of  this  wonderful  people,  resolved  to 
adopt  still  more  relentless  modes  of  oppression. 
"  They  made  them  to  serve  with  rigour,  and  made 
their  lives  bitter  with  hard  bondage,  iu  mortar  or  in 
clay,  and  in  brick,  and  in  all  manner  of  service  in 
the  field,"  or  in  all  kinds  of  agricultural  labour. 
Such  means,  however,  of  preventing  the  increase  of 
the  Israelites  were  completely  defeated ;  and  the 
Egyptian  tyrant  fuiding  himself  unsuccessful  in  his 
first  scheme  of  open  violence,  resorts  to  a  secret 
stratagem  by  which  he  hoped  to  accomplish  his  un- 
hallowed purpose.  He  issued  a  cruel  order  that 
every  Hebrew  male  child  should  be  thrown  into  the 
Nile.  This  barbarous  and  inhuman  edict  extended 
to  the  Hebrew  families  indiscriminately,  and  it  is 
painful  to  think  what  deeds  of  horror  must  have  been 
perpetrated  in  execution  of  the  royal  mandate.  Many 
a  mother's  heart  must  have  been  toni  with  deepest 
anguish  when  her  helpless  babe  was  ruthlessly 
snatched  from  her  arras,  and  witliout  mercy  con- 
signed to  the  waters  of  the  sacred  river.  To  what 
extent  the  bloody  statute  was  executed,  or  how  long 
it  was  in  force,  we  are  not  informed  ;  but  during  the 
cun'ency  of  its  operation,  Moses,  the  deliverer  of 
Israel,  was  bom.  He  was  the  son  of  Amram  and 
Jochebed,  and  it  would  appear  that  some  extraordi- 
nary impression  rested  on  the  minds  of  his  parents 
as  to  the  future  greatness  of  their  child.  It  is  said, 
"  his  mother  saw  him  that  he  was  a  goodly  child;" 
and  the  word  which  the  martyr  Stephen  uses  in 
describing  him  is  a  very  strong  one,  "  he  was  fair  to 
God,  or  divinely  fivir."  The  apostle,  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  calls  him  "  a  proper  child,"  being 
the  same  word  as  is  employed  by  Stephen,  mean- 
ing "  a  fair  child."  Josephus  also  speaks  in  high- 
ly-coloured language  of  the  beauty  of  Moses. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  there  had 
been  something  peculiarly  attractive  in  tlie  outward 
appearance  of  the  child  which  operated  powerfully 
in  leading  his  jiarents  to  use  all  efforts  for  the 
preservation  of  his  life.  The  prevailing  motive, 
however,  which  actuated  the  godly  parents  of  Mo- 
ses, was  faith  in  the  Divine  promises.  Some 
have  supposed  that   they  were    favoured   with  an 


JKWS  (Ancient). 


281 


6xpri)88  revelation  from  lieaveii  in  reference  to 
tlie  presorviition  of  their  eon.  lint  it  is  (|iiite  uinio- 
cessary  to  make  any  such  suppoftilion,  tlie  proiniHos 
in  wliicli  tlicy  believed  heing,  in  all  pruljability,  those 
which  referred  to  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites 
from  K^'vptian  bondage.  A  very  general  expecta- 
tion existed  among  the  Hebrews,  about  the  period  of 
the  birtli  of  Moses,  that  the  termination  of  tlieir  bon- 
dage was  drawing  near,  and  his  parents,  in  all  pro- 
bability, indulged  the  fond  lioiiu  that  their  child, 
from  his  peculiar  ap|)earanee,  was  destined  to  be  the 
future  deliverer  of  their  countrymen.  Ilence  they 
resolved  to  conceal  the  child,  and  "were  not  afraid  of 
the  king's  commandment."  Thus  for  three  months 
they  contrived  to  evade  the  cruel  edict,  but  knowing 
that  any  plan  of  conccahnent  could  only  be  tempo- 
rary, thoy  at  length  came  to  the  resolution,  guided, 
no  doubt,  by  heavenly  wisdom,  to  cast  their  child 
upon  the  overruling  Providence  and  ever  watchful 
care  of  their  covenant  God.  Tliey  formed  an  ark  of 
bidrushes,  in  which  they  jilaced  the  child,  and  having 
sccm-ed  the  frail  bark  by  daubing  it  witliin  with 
slime,  and  without  with  pitch,  they  prepared  to  com- 
mit it  to  the  waters  of  the  sacreii  river.  The  joyful 
festival  of  the  Nile  was  drawing  near.  Towards  the 
beginning  of  July  the  expectations  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Kgypt  are  turned  towards  the  river  in  theanxiou-; 
hope  that  it  will  rise  to  a  sufficient  height  to  overtlow 
its  banks  and  fertilize  the  country.  The  gradual  rise 
of  the  river  is  eagerly  watched  and  carefully  mea- 
sured, and  when  it  has  reached  a  certain  height,  a 
jubilee  is  held  throughout  the  land.  Egyptians  of  all 
ranks  and  classes  repair  in  companies  with  music 
and  dancing  to  the  banks  of  the  river  and  bathe  in  its 
waters — a  practice  which  was  in  ancient  times  inva- 
riably attended  with  various  idolatrous  rites  and  cere- 
monies. It  was  on  some  such  occasion  that  the  pa- 
rents of  Moses  deposited  the  ark,  in  which  lay  the  infant 
Moses,  among  the  flags  or  thick  reeds  which  abound 
on  the  banks  of  Egypt's  precious  river.  Among 
those  who  came  to  bathe  in  the  river  at  this  joyful 
season  was  the  daughter  of  the  king,  who  providen- 
tially rescued  the  child,  and  thus  Moses  was  reared 
amid  all  the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  a  palace. 
He  was  educated  also  in  the  wisdom  and  knowledge 
of  the  Egyptians,  and  thus  fitted  for  the  arduous, 
important,  and  responsible  otfice  which  in  course  of 
time  he  was  destined  to  fill. 

The  time  was  rapidly  approaching  wlien  the  Lord 
was  to  visit  his  people  and  rescue  them  from  Egyp- 
tian bondage.  He  remembered  the  covenant  which 
he  had  made  with  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and 
mercifully  interposed  to  accomplish  for  them  a  glo- 
rious deliverance.  By  ten  successive  displays  of 
judgment  he  made  known  his  power  in  the  sight  of 
Pharaoh  and  his  people,  and  brought  out  the  Israel- 
ites from  the  land  of  bondage  with  their  whole  sub- 
stance, not  one  hoof  being  left  behind.  During  the 
lorty  years  which  elapsed  between  their  deliverance 
by  the  hand  of  Moses,  and  their  safe  entrance  into 


Canaan,  they  experienced  many  signal  intcrposi- 
tioiia  of  the  Divine  Providence  in  their  belialf. 
lint  of  all  the  events  which  compose  the  history 
of  this  important  period,  the  most  remarkable, 
without  doubt,  wag  the  giving  of  the  law  from 
Mount  Sinai  directly  from  the  mouth  of  God,  and 
its  inscrijition  afterwards  by  the  finger  of  God 
on  two  tables  of  stone.  Israel  was  thus  consti- 
tuted the  depository  of  the  Divine  law,  and 
Moses  invested  witli  the  high  honour  of  being  the 
lawgiver.  In  connection  with  the  exalted  privi- 
lege thus  bestowed  upon  God's  favoured  people 
and  their  distinguished  leader,  may  be  mentioned 
another  remarkable  arrangement  of  Providence  in 
the  erection  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  numerous  institutions  of  the  ceremonial  law, 
all  of  which  were  obviously  designed  to  constitute  a 
distinct  line  of  separation  between  the  nation  of 
Israel  and  the  other  nations  of  the  earth,  besides 
preparing  them  for  the  coming  of  the  expected 
Messiah,  by  keeping  constantly  before  their  minds 
the  great  truth  that  without  shedding  of  blood  there 
is  no  remission. 

Once  established  in  the  Promised  Land,  the  Is- 
raelites were  marked  out  from  all  the  other  nations 
of  the  earth  by  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  worship  ol 
the  one  living  and  true  God.  The  land  of  Israel,  it  has 
been  well  said,  was  at  that  time  the  only  lucid  spot, 
for  darkness  covered  the  earth  and  gross  darkness  the 
people.  In  this  respect  the  Israelites  long  con 
tinned  to  maintain  the  most  exemplary  character, 
manifesting  the  utmost  abhorrence  of  idolatry  in  all 
its  forms.  Tlie  sacred  historian,  accordingly,  has 
placed  on  record  the  pleasing  statement,  that  "  Is- 
rael served  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  Joshua,  and  all 
the  days  of  the  elders  that  outlived  Josluia,  and  who 
bad  known  all  the  works  of  the  Lord  that  lie  had 
done  for  Israel."  Under  the  Judges,  liowever,  they 
maintained  more  familiar  intercourse  with  the  rem- 
nant of  the  idolatrous  nations  that  was  left  among 
them,  and  were  thus  led  to  turn  aside  to  the  worship 
of  false  gods.  The  consequence  was,  that  they 
were  frequently  exposed  to  the  Divine  chastise 
ments  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  neighbour- 
ing nations,  by  whom  they  were  again  and  again 
oppressed  and  brought  low  ;  but  no  sooner  did  they 
repent  and  seek  to  return  to  the  Lord  than  they 
were  straightway  delivered.  For  a  time  they  were 
under  the  charge  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  during 
which  they  acknowledged  no  king  but  God.  But 
when,  in  his  old  age,  Samuel  committed  the  manage- 
ment of  the  national  atfairs  to  his  sons,  the  people 
became  extensively  dissatisfied,  and  entreated  that  a 
king  should  be  appointed  to  rule  over  them  as  in  the 
other  nations  round  about  them.  With  the  conduct 
of  Israel  in  this  matter  God  was  much  displeased, 
regarding  their  desire  for  a  king  as  in  fact  amount- 
ing to  a  rejection  of  God  as  their  king.  He  granted 
their  petition,  but  in  anger,  that  they  might  be  con- 
vinced bv  their  own  experience  of  the  folly  as  well 


232 


JEWS  (Ancient). 


as  sinfulness  of  their  request.  Under  the  govern- 
ment of  Saul  they  had  ample  reason  to  repent  of  the 
choice  they  had  made. 

A  new  and  a  brighter  era  in  tlie  history  of  Israel 
now  commenced.  Under  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon  the  nation  attained  a  higher  degree  of  pros- 
perity than  it  has  ever  reached  either  before  or  since. 
Not  only  did  they  triumph  over  their  enemies,  and  en- 
ioy  outward  peace  and  security,  but  they  were  signally 
blessed  with  a  great  revival  of  i-eligion  tliroughout 
the  land.  David  was  the  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel, 
and  both  he  and  Solomon  wrote  some  of  the  most 
precious  portions  of  Holy  Scripture.  The  reign  of 
the  latter  monarch  was  marked  by  a  most  important 
event,  the  building  and  dedication  of  the  Jewish  tem- 
ple. In  the  following  reign,  that  of  Rehoboam,  the 
kingdom  was  rent  into  two  parts,  the  tribes  of  Jiidah 
and  Benjamin  adhering  to  Rehoboam,  tlie  son  and 
legitimate  successor  of  Solomon  ;  and  the  other  ten 
tribes  erecting  a  new  and  independent  kingdom  un- 
der Jeroboam,  who  headed  a  rebellion  against  the 
lawfid  monarch.  To  prevent  his  subjects  from  re- 
turning to  Judah,  Jeroboam  set  up  idols  at  the  two 
extremities  of  the  country,  Dan  and  Beersheba,  thus 
commencing  liis  reign  with  an  act  of  rebellion  against 
the  God  of  Israel.  A  kingdom  thus  founded  in  the 
worship  of  dumb  idols  was  not  likely  to  prosper. 
Accordingly,  in  tlie  long  catalogue  of  its  kings,  not 
one  is  to  be  found  who  feared  the  Lord  and  sought 
faithfully  to  serve  him.  Yet  the  Lord  had  still  a 
remnant  even  in  this  apostate  kingdom.  Even  in  the 
house  of  Jeroboam  there  was  a  young  Abijah,  in 
whom  there  was  some  good  thing  towards  the  Lord 
God  of  Israel.  Of  the  people  there  were  seven 
thousand  who  had  not  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal.  The 
prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha  were  sent  to  warn  them 
of  coming  judgments,  but  they  set  at  nought  all  their 
warnings,  and  in  the  reign  of  Hoshea,  Shalmaueser, 
king  of  Assyria,  invaded  the  country,  took  Samaria, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  carried  the  great 
body  of  the  people  into  captivity. 

The  kmgdom  of  Judah  survived  that  of  Israel 
some  years  ;  and  although  their  line  of  kings  is  dis- 
figured by  the  names  of  many  who  encouraged  idola- 
try and  iniquity,  yet  there  were  some,  as  for  exam- 
ple, Jehoshapliat,  Josiah,  and  Hezekiah,  who  sought 
to  reform  abuses,  and  to  establish  the  worship  of  the 
rue  God  tliroughout  the  land.  Under  such  exem- 
plary princes  there  was  no  doubt  a  temporary  revival 
of  religion,  but  in  a  short  time  the  people  relapsed 
into  idolatry ;  so  that,  after  repeated  warnings  by 
the  prophets  I.saiah  and  Jeremiah,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  Babylon,  invaded  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Zede- 
kiah,  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  the  king,  the  no- 
bles, and  the  great  body  of  tlie  people  captives  to 
Babylon,  where  for  seventy  long  years  they  hung 
their  harjis  upon  the  willows  and  wept  when  they 
remembered  Zion. 

On  their  return  from  Babylon,  tlie  Jews  rebuilt  tlie 
lemjjle  of  Jerusalem  amid  u  uch  o|)positioii  from  the 


Samaritans,  and  a  remarkable  revival  of  religion  took 
place,  as  we  learn  from  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah.  About  this  time,  by  Divine  appointment, 
arrangements  were  made,  under  the  direction  oi 
Ezra,  for  the  more  extended  ditfusion  among  the 
people  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  For  this 
purpose  the  Levites  were  distributed  through  the 
country,  and  employed  themselves  in  reading  and  ex- 
pounding the  Word  of  God  on  the  Sabbath-days. 
It  is  supposed,  too,  that,  about  this  time,  synagogues 
were  erected  for  public  worship  ;  and  the  Scripture^ 
were  collected  in  one  volume  to  be  kept  by  the 
priests  as  a  precious  deposit.  Yet,  notwithstanding 
the  religious  advantages  which  were  thus  increasingly 
bestowed  upon  them,  we  learn  from  Malachi,  the  last 
of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  that  a  time  of  great 
degeneracy  had  come  upon  them,  and  his  closing 
prophecy  is  wholly  dedicated  to  reproofs  for  their 
wickedness,  exhortations  to  I'epent  of  their  sins,  and 
warnings  of  coining  judgments.  Nearly  four  hundred 
years  elapsed  between  the  time  of  Malachi  and  the 
coming  of  Christ,  during  which  the  voice  of  prophecy 
was  no  longer  heard,  and  the  Jews  passed  tlu-ough 
a  lengthened  period  of  darkness,  and  oppression, 
and  sore  persecution  at  the  hand  of  their  enemies. 
So  severe  and  protracted,  indeed,  were  the  trials  to 
wliich  they  were  at  this  time  exposed,  that  had  they 
not  been  watched  over  by  a  special  Providence  they 
would  certainly  have  been  exterminated  from  the 
earth.  This  was  remarkably  exemplified  at  an  ear- 
lier period,  in  the  memorable  deliverance  wliich  was 
wrought  for  them  by  the  instrumentality  of  Morde- 
cai  and  Queen  Esther ;  and  another  signal  instance 
of  the  Divine  interposition  in  behalf  of  the  Jews 
occurred  about  fifty  years  after  the  days  of  Malachi. 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  prosecuting  his  ambitious 
conquests  in  Asia,  advanced  with  a  numerous  army 
to  lay  siege  to  Jerusalem.  The  Jews  had  no  forces 
sufficiently  large  to  defend  themselves  against  so 
formidable  an  enemy.  In  this  extremity  they  com- 
mitted themselves  to  the  care  of  Jehovali,  Israel's 
God,  and  the  high  priest,  arrayed  in  his  priestly 
robes,  and  attended  by  a  large  company  of  priests 
dressed  in  white,  set  out  from  Jerusalem  to  meet 
Alexander  at  the  head  of  his  army.  As  the  proces- 
sion drew  near  the  warrior  dismounted,  and  prostrat- 
ing himself  before  the  high  priest,  declared  that 
before  he  left  Macedon  he  saw  in  a  dream  a  pei'son 
dressed  like  the  high  priest,  who  had  encouraged 
liim  to  come  over  and  assist  in  the  conquest  of  I'er- 
sia.  Immediately  Alexander  gave  up  all  thoughia 
of  besieging  Jeru.salem,  and  accompanying  the  priests 
in  peaceful  procession  into  the  city,  he  otl'ered  Uji 
sacrifices  according  to  the  law  through  tlie  miuistra- 
tion  of  the  high  priest.  Alexander's  attention  was 
then  called  to  a  remarkable  pas.sage  in  the  prophecy 
of  Daniel,  where  it  is  foretold  that  a  prince  of  Grecia 
should  overturn  the  kingdom  of  Persia.  This  tin 
Macedonian  conqueror  rightly  interpreted,  as  refer- 
ring  to  liiniscilt',  and    ever  after  cherished  a  gren< 


JEWS  (Anciknt). 


233 


respect  for  the  Jewish  peojilo.  The  ruijjii  of  Alex- 
tiuU;r  was  of  sliort  iluration,  exti;ii(Iiii'»  to  lillle  more 
Ihiin  six  yeiirs ;  iinil  liiiviiij;  no  son  to  Kiicceed  liiin, 
four  of  his  [)riiici|iiil  (itlicers  (iivideil  his  (loiiiiiiioiis 
anioiif;  tliemselves.  In  this  division  Scleucus  ob- 
tained Babylon  and  Syria.  The  successor  of  Seleii- 
cus  was  Antiocliiis  Epiphanes,  wlio  entertained  a 
l)itter  liatred  of  the  Jews  He  took  tlie  city  of 
Jerusalem,  massacred  tliousands  of  tlie  inhabitants, 
and  talking  away  great  nuniljers  of  them  as  cjijitivcs, 
compelled  thcin  by  torture  to  renounce  their  own 
religion,  and  worship  the  lieathen  gods.  Many  of 
the  Jews,  however,  submitted  to  torture,  and  even 
to  death,  rather  than  disclaim  the  worship  of  the 
true  God.  In  those  trying  circumstances  God  was 
pleased  to  raise  up  for  them  a  deliverer  in  the  person 
of  Judas  Maccabeus,  tlirough  whose  instrumentality 
Judea  became  an  independent  kingdom,  the  temple 
was  purged  from  idols,  and  the  worship  of  tlie  true 
God  restored.  So  linn  a  standing  did  the  Jews  thus 
obtain  in  their  own  country,  that  neighbouring  na- 
tions souglit  their  alliance.  Even  the  Romans,  who 
were  at  that  time  ri.sing  in  national  gi"eatness,  formed 
a  league  with  the  Jews.  In  this  .state  of  indepen- 
dence, with  the  high  priest  as  their  civil  as  well  as 
spiritual  ruler,  the  Jews  continued  for  about  a  cen- 
tury, when  they  once  more  became  the  tributaries  of 
i  foreign  nation.  By  the  victorious  ai-ms  of  I'om- 
pey,  a  Koman  general,  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was 
captured,  and  the  Jews  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
Roman  yoke.  This  event  happened  about  B.  C.  63. 
Herod,  usually  styled  the  Great,  the  last  king  of  Ju- 
dea, was  a  foreigner,  being  an  Idumean  by  birth,  and 
was  permitted  by  the  Romans  to  exercise  royal 
authority  over  the  Jews.  It  was  this  prince  who 
ruled  in  Judea  when  our  blessed  Lord  was  born,  and 
at  that  time  he  displayed  his  barbarous  cruelty  and 
inhumanity  in  the  massacre  of  the  children  at  Beth- 
lehem. At  the  death  of  Herod,  which  happened 
soon  after,  Judea  became  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire,  thus  fultilling  the  prophetic  declaration  of 
Jacob,  "The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah, 
nor  a  lawgiver  from  between  his  feet,  until  Shiloh 
come ;  and  to  him  shall  the  gathering  of  tlie  peo- 
ple be." 

On  the  death  of  Herod,  Palestine  was  divided 
amongst  his  three  surviving  sons — Archelaus,  An- 
tipas,  and  Philip.  Archelaus  was  appointed  ethnarch, 
or  governor  of  Judea,  Idumea,  and  Samaria,  which 
formed  the  largest  |iart  of  the  province.  Antipas 
was  named  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  and  Philip  tetrarch  of 
Trachonitis.  Archelaus  was  deposed  by  the  Roman 
Emperor  Augustus,  in  consequence  of  repeated  com- 
plaints from  his  subjects,  and  a  Roman  governor  ap- 
pointed in  his  room,  subordinate  to  the  prefect  of 
Syria.  Various  governors  of  the  same  description 
succeeded,  and  among  these  Pontius  Pilate  was  the 
first  who  took  up  his  residence  in  Jerusalem,  all  the 
rest  having  dwelt  in  Csesarea.  "  The  condition  of 
the  Jews,"  says  Dr.  Welsh,  "  under  the  Roman  go- 


vernors was  miserable  in  tlie  extreme.  The  extor- 
tions of  the  publicans,  whose  office  it  was  to  collect 
the  revenue,  were  excessive;  and  the  whole  of  their 
proceedings  was  vexatious  ami  ojipressivc.  It  was 
vain  to  hope  for  redress  from  the  governors,  whose 
avarice  and  injustice  were  proverbially  gieat.  The 
very  fact  of  paying  tribute  to  a  heathen  government 
was  felt  to  be  an  intolerable  grievance.  And  tin- 
Roman  soldiers,  quartered  over  the  whole  country, 
though  they  prevented  a  general  insurrection,  yet. 
by  their  very  presence,  and  by  the  ensigns  of  their 
authority,  exasperated  the  minds  of  the  Jewish 
people,  and  led  to  many  tumults,  and  seditions,  and 
murders.  A  numerous  party  existed  in  Judea,  who.-e 
religious  prejudices  were  opposed  to  the  idea  of 
paying  taxes  to  a  foreign  power,  and  who  cheri.shed 
the  vain  hope  of  restoring  the  Jewish  kingdom. 
Attempts  were  made  by  ditferent  individuals,  and 
l)articularly  by  Judas  the  Gaulonite,  to  instigate  the 
Jews  to  a  general  revolt,  which  were  repressed  as 
they  arose.  But  the  fanatical  principles  were  widely 
spread,  and  led  to  excesses  to  whicli,  in  no  small 
degree,  may  be  ascribed  the  final  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. The  party  was  distinguished  by  the  n.aine  of 
Zealots." 

The  clouds,  betokening  a  storm  of  insurrection 
against  the  Roman  authority,  were  evidently  gather- 
ing in  the  time  of  Pilate,  and  they  were  nearly  burst- 
ing forth  under  Caligula,  who  endeavoured  to  comjiel 
the  Jews  to  profane  the  temple  by  placing  his  statue 
in  it.  It  was  under  Gessius  Floras,  however,  that 
the  Jews  broke  out  into  open  rebellion  ;  and,  under 
Nero,  those  wars  arose  between  Rome  and  Judea 
which  terminated,  A.  D.  70,  in  the  destruction  of 
.lerusalem  by  Titus.  Josephus  tells  us  that  the 
Roman  gener.il,  standing  on  the  ruins  of  the  demo- 
lished city,  exclaimed  in  triumph,  "  It  is,  in  truth,  a 
god  who  has  given  us  the  victory,  and  driven  the 
Jews  from  a  position  from  which  no  human  power 
could  ever  have  dislodged  them."  The  same  Jewish 
historian  relates  that  the  enormous  number  of 
1,100,000  men  perished  during  this  fatal  war.  An 
immense  number  of  prisoners,  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, were  either  sold  into  slavery,  crucified,  or  thrown 
to  wild  beasts. 

Three  days  before  the  close  of  the  memorable  year 
on  which  Jerusalem  and  its  temple  were  destroyed 
by  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  the  Emperor  Vespasian 
and  his  son  Titus  entered  Rome  in  triumph,  clothed 
in  purple,  and  crowned  with  laurel,  and,  amid  the 
acclamations  of  a  delighted  people,  they  made  their 
way  to  tlie  Temple  of  Victory.  Among  the  proud 
trophies  which  were  borne  along  in  the  procession 
were  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  Jewish  temple,  the 
golden  table,  the  seven-branched  candlestick  of  gold, 
and  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses.  A  temple  was 
dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  peace,  in  honour  of  this 
joyful  day,  and  a  medal  was  struck  representing 
Judea  as  a  weeping  female  resting  her  head  on  her 
hand  at  the  foot  of  a  palm-tree,  while  the  tierce 


S34 


JEWS  (Modern). 


Roman  soldier  stands  by  unmoved.  The  marble 
arch  of  Titus  still  remains  to  us  at  Rome,  having 
survived  the  desolations  of  eighteen  centuries,  and 
exhibiting  a  faitlif'ul  representation,  among  other 
objects,  of  the  holy  vessels  of  the  temple.  "  Even 
to  this  day,"  says  Dr.  Da  Costa,  himself  a  converted 
Israelite,  "  the  Jews  in  every  country  of  their  exile 
and  dispersion  have  continued  to  observe  the  9th  day 
of  the  month  Ab  in  memorial  of  both  the  first  and 
second  destruction  of  their  city  and  sanctuary.  Next 
to  the  great  day  of  atonement,  it  is  the  most  strictly 
kept  of  their  fasts.  Even  the  day  before,  the  pious 
Israelite  takes  nothing  beyond  what  absolute  neces- 
sity requires :  he  seats  himself  on  tlie  ground,  either 
at  home  or  in  the  synagogue,  by  tlie  dim  light  of  a 
small  candle,  and  the  evening  service  commences 
with  the  138th  Psalm : — '  By  the  waters  of  Babylon 
we  sat  down  and  wept.'  Mournful  and  penitential 
psalms  are  chanted  in  succession  throughout  the  day, 
especially  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  of  which 
so  many  striking  features,  once  fulfilled  in  the  taking 
-f  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians,  were  still  more 
signally  accomplished  in  its  destruction  by  the  Ro- 
mans." 

Tluis  closed  the  history  of  the  ancient  Jews,  one 
of  the  most  eventful,  interesting,  and  instructive 
which  the  records  of  the  world's  history  anywhere 
contains. 

JEWS  (Modern).  The  period  of  transition,  we 
conceive,  from  the  history  of  the  ancient  to  that  of  the 
modern  Jews  is  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans  A.  D.  70,  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the 
Jews.  Nothing  worthy  of  notice  occurred  in  the  his- 
tory of  this  remarkable  people  for  nearly  forty  years 
after  the  destruction  of  their  city.  The  ruins  of  Jeru- 
salem were  occupied  by  a  Roman  garrison,  to  prevent 
any  attempt  being  made  to  rebuild  it ;  but,  though  ex- 
cluded from  the  holy  city,  large  connnunities  of  Jews 
were  gradually  formed  in  different  parts  of  tlie 
country.  And  even  in  Jerusalem  itself,  the  towers 
of  Hippious,  Phasael,  and  Mariamne,  the  only  three 
which  remained  standing  out  of  the  ninety  towers 
which  formerly  guarded  its  walls,  became  again 
strongholds  of  the  Jews. 

At  the  end  of  half  a  century  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  we  find  the  whole  of  Judea  in  a  state 
of  rebellion.  The  leader  of  tliis  revolt  was  a  false 
Messiah  called  Barcochab,  attended  by  his  companion 
or  prophet  Akiha.  In  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan,  the  Jews  began  to  give  fresh  signs  of  a  de- 
termination to  resist  the  authority  of  the  Romans, 
particularly  those  Jews  who  resided  on  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  in  Cyprus,  Egypt,  and  Cyrene. 
Tlie  insurrection  spread  to  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, when  Trajan  hastened  to  Antioch,  with  the 
Yiew  of  checking  its  progress,  but,  being  seized  with 
sudden  illness,  be  died  on  his  way  to  Rome.  Adrian, 
wlio  succeeded  him,  quelled  the  disturbances  among 
tliB  Jews  of  Asia  and  of  Egypt ;  but  in  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  a  fresh  revolt  of  the  Jews  took 


place  in  Palestine.  This  event  was  uo  doubt  ha« 
tened  on  by  the  injudicious  conduct  of  Adrian  him 
self,  who  passed  a  decree  that  Jerusalem  should  be 
made  a  Roman  colony  under  the  name  of  ^lia  Capi- 
tolina,  and  that  circumci.sion,  the  distinctive  Jewisli 
rite,  should  be  prohibited.  The  smouldering  flame  of 
discontent  among  the  Jews  now  burst  into  a  furious 
conflagration.  Thousands  flocked  to  Betldioron  from 
all  parts,  and  hailed  Barcocheba  as  their  Prince  and 
Messiah  of  the  house  of  David.  Thus  constituted 
the  leader  of  a  numerous  host,  the  impostor  .ad- 
vanced into  Syria,  persecuted  the  Christians,  and 
took  possession  of  Jerusalem,  where  he  changed  the 
form  of  the  Samaritan  coins,  adding  his  own  name  to 
them,  with  the  title  of  Nasi  or  Prince.  Tlie  contest 
continued  for  nearly  four  years,  and  at  length  the 
Romans  were  successful ;  and  about  A.  D.  134,  Judea 
was  again  made  desolate,  about  half  a  million  ha\ing 
fallen  by  the  sword  in  the  course  of  the  war,  besides 
those  who  perished  by  fire,  famine,  and  sickness. 
Tliose  who  escaped  were  reduced  to  slavery  by  thou- 
sands. Tlie  remnant  was  transported  into  Egypt, 
and  Palestine  was  left  almost  without  an  inhabitant. 
The  Jews  were  now  prohibited  from  entering  Jeru- 
salem, or  even  looking  upon  it  from  a  distance ;  and 
tlie  city  now  called  jElia  was  inhabited  only  by  Gen- 
tiles, or  such  Christians  as  renounced  the  Jewish 
ceremonies. 

Jerusalem  being  now  a  Roman  town,  and  no  longer 
the  metropolis  of  the  Jewish  religion,  Tiberias  was 
fixed  upon  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  Jews,  and 
there  they  first  drew  up  the  Mishna  or  oral  law 
Christianity  had  now  taken  the  place  of  Judaism  in 
the  cliief  places  of  the  Holy  Land.  JEA\a,  Capitolina 
became  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop,  who,  in  course 
of  time,  received  the  appellation  of  the  Bishop  ot 
Jerusalem.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantino 
founded  Christian  churches  at  Bethlehem  and  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  besides  thirty  other  churches 
which  the  same  Empress  is  said  to  have  erected  in 
diflei'ent  parts  of  Palestine.  In  the  reign  of  Julian 
the  Apostate,  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  again 
brought  into  notice,  in  connection  with  a  strange 
proposal  which  this  heathen  Emperor  made  to  the 
Jews,  that  tliey  should  join  him  in  tlie  impious 
attempt  to  belie  tlie  prophecies  of  Scripture  by 
rebuilding  tlie  Temple.  Ammianus  JIarcellinus,  a 
historian  of  the  period,  informs  us,  that  to  accom- 
plish this  great  work  Jews  assembled  from  all  quar- 
ters in  Jerusalem,  and  in  festival  garments,  with 
richly  ornamented  tools,  commenced  digging  the 
foundations  of  the  new  sanctuary ;  but  while  thus 
(■inployed,  balls  of  fire  suddenly  issued  from  beneath 
the  ground,  accompanied  witli  an  earthquake  and 
violent  hurricanes  of  wind,  which  compelled  them 
to  desist  from  the  prosecution  of  their  work  ;  and  the 
death  of  Julian  in  A.  D.  410  put  an  end  to  all 
thoughts  of  resuming  it.  Under  the  long  series  of 
Christian  Emperors  who  .succeeded  Julian,  Jerusa- 
lem became  the  scene  of  innumerable  pilgrimages, 


JEWS  (Modern). 


2J6 


mill  cuiitui-les  al'ter,  tlie  possession  ot  tlio  8ei)iilchre 
of  Clirist  and  of  tlie  otlier  lioly  places  by  tlie  Moliain- 
medans,  gave  rise  tu  the  Crusades  (which  see). 

In  the  year  a.  d.  G.'36,  Jerusalem  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  followers  of  the  false  prophet,  and  Omar 
founded  a  inosqiio  on  Mount  Moriah.  Charlemagne, 
however,  lOmperor  of  the  West,  received  from  the 
Caliph,  Al-Kaschid,  the  lusys  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ; 
but  no  long  time  elapsed  when  they  were  resumed 
by  the  Muhainmedan  powers  of  Asia,  against  whom 
for  centuries  the  Crusaders  fought  with  desperate 
valour,  though  with  varied  success,  commencing 
their  expedition  usually  with  a  massacre  of  the 
Jews,  and  wlieii  they  succeeded  in  taking  Jerusalem, 
they  uniformly  signalized  their  triumph  by  the  nuir- 
der  of  all  the  Jews  who  might  happen  to  be  resident 
in  the  city.  In  1510,  the  Holy  City  was  once  more 
retaken  by  the  Ottomans  under  Selim  I.,  and  from 
that  time  to  the  present  it  has  continued  to  form  a 
part  of  the  Pashalio  of  Damascus.  "  Truly  impos- 
ing," says  Da  Costa,  "  is  the  aspect  which  the  city 
now  presents !  Its  buildings,  its  ruins,  and  its  me- 
morials, connected  with  so  many  people,  periods, 
and  hallowed  associations !  Tlie  mosque  of  Omar 
now  stands  where  once  was  raised  the  temple  of 
Solomon.  David's  tomb  remains,  beside  a  convent 
of  Minorites.  The  site  of  Herod's  Palace  and  the 
traditional  abode  of  Pontius  Pilate  are  still  pointed 
out,  while  we  must  not  entirely  overlook  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Protestant  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  English  Church,  in  which  its  own  services  are 
read  in  the  Hebrew  tongue.  The  Mahometans, 
Christians,  and  Jews  have  each  their  separate  quar- 
ter ;  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  most  despised  and  miser- 
able belongs  to  the  Jews.  Yes!  even  in  the  city  of 
their  kings,  the  children  of  the  kingdom  are  east 
into  outer  darkness." 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Jews  have  continued  to 
preserve  their  national  character,  though  they  have 
lost  their  city  and  their  temple,  and  so  completely 
have  they  been  scattered  and  peeled,  that  they  have 
not  a  country  they  can  call  their  own.  They  carry 
about  with  them  the  outward  sign  of  their  descent 
from  Abraham,  which  no  tyrannical  prohibition,  no 
cruel  persecution,  has  ever  prevailed  upon  them  to 
forego.  Constituted  of  old  the  custodiers  of  the 
sacred  oracles,  they  have  scrupulously  maintained 
their  adherence  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and 
though  by  Rabbinical  comments  and  glosses  they 
have,  in  too  many  instances,  perverted  the  meaning, 
they  have  ever  entertained  the  most  scrupulous  re- 
gard to  the  integrity  of  the  text.  No  sooner  had 
they  been  driven  from  Jerusalem,  than  the  great 
council  of  the  Israelitisli  Rabbins  was  established  at 
Tiberias  in  Galilee.  Thence  issued  the  two  great 
storehouses  of  Rabbinical  lore,  first  the  Mishna,  and 
afterwards  the  Talmud,  being,  as  the  Jews  allege,  the 
oral  law,  received  by  Moses  from  the  mouth  of 
God,  during  the  forty  days  which  he  spent  on  Mount 
Sinai.     This  oral  law  was  transmitted  by  Moses  to 


Joshua,  and  conveyed  down  from  generation  lo 
generation.  A  complete  collection  of  all  the  oral  of 
traditional  commandments  was  made  about  A.  I).  190 
by  Rabbi  Judah  the  Holy.  It  is  composed  of  sij 
treatises,  called  the  Mishna,  which  lia.s  received 
many  a<lditioiis  and  commentaries  from  the  later 
Kabbins,  under  the  name  of  tlie  Gemara.  Tiie  Mioh- 
na  or  text  of  the  oral  law,  combined  with  the  Gemara 
or  commentaries,  form  together  the  Talmiids,  the  more 
ancient  of  which  is  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  completed 
in  Palestine  towards  the  end  of  the  third  century ; 
while  the  later  is  the  I'abylonian  Talmud,  compiled 
in  the  schools  of  Babylon  and  Persia,  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  seventh  century.  Thus  the  reli- 
gion of  the  modem  Jews  became,  like  that  of  the 
Pharisees  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a  combination  of  the 
written  with  tlie  oral  law,  both  being  regarded  as  of 
equal  authority.  The  Sadducees  who  resisted  the 
combination  disappeared  as  a  separate  sect  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  and  with  the  exception  of 
the  small  sect  of  the  Cakaitks  (which  see),  the 
Jews  to  this  day,  those  of  them  at  least  who  have 
not  embraced  infidelity,  are  rigid  adherents  of  the 
Talmud.  In  addition  to  the  Talmud,  however 
there  are  two  other  works  of  Jewish  tradition,  the 
one  called  the  Masora,  and  the  other  the  Cabbala, 
both  of  which  are  regarded  by  the  modem  Jews  as 
of  gi-eat  importance  in  establishing  the  meaning  of 
the  Old  Testament  writings. 

The  history  of  the  modem  Jews,  or  those  of  the 
Dispersion,  may  be  handled  under  a  twofold  divi- 
sion, that  of  the  Asiatic  or  Eastern,  and  that  of  the 
European  or  Western  Jews.  The  question  as  to 
the  "  Captivity  of  the  East,"  as  it  is  tenned  by  the 
R;ibbiiis,  has  given  rise  to  much  fruitless  discussion. 
The  two  classes  of  Jews  now  to  be  considered  have 
been  almost  uniformly  for  many  centuries  the  vic- 
tims of  iiice.s.sant  oppression  and  injustice  at  the 
liaiids  of  the  people  among  whom  they  have  been 
scattered. 

From  the  reign  of  Adrian  to  that  of  Constantino, 
the  Jews  enjoyed  a  season  not  merely  of  rest  from 
persecution,  but  of  actual  prosperity.  In  many  cases 
they  were  treated  with  the  utmost  favour  by  the 
heathen  Emperors  as  an  olTset  to  the  Christians, 
who  were  of  course  hated  alike  by  the  Jews  and  the 
heathens.  During  the  ten  persecutions  of  the  Cliris- 
tiaiis  in  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Jews  looked  on 
with  complacency,  and  even  triumph,  at  the  barbar 
ous  cruelties  inflicted  on  the  followers  of  the  Naza- 
rene ;  and  it  afforded  them  no  small  satisfaction  to 
see  the  hated  Christians  taking  shelter  in  the  cata- 
combs from  the  fury  of  the  lieathen,  while  their  sy- 
nagogues were  flourishing  throughout  every  part  of 
the  bind  of  Edom,  and  their  schools  at  Jamnia  and 
Tiberias  were  rising  in  influence  and  authority  every 
day. 

^^"ith  tlie  establishment  of  Christianity  under  Con- 
stantine.  however,  a  remarkable  change  took  place 
in  the  condition  of  the  Jews.     Formeriy,  their  in- 


235 


JEWS  (Modern). 


tense  hatred  of  ClivistiHiiity  was  a  passport  with  tlie 
Roman  emperors  to  places  of  trust  and  authority, 
but  now  that  tlie  emperors  had  themselves  become 
Christian,  the  Jews  became  a  condemned  and  perse- 
cuted sect.  The  elevation  of  Julian  the  Apostate  to 
the  imperial  throne  gave  them  some  slight  hope  of 
the  restoration  of  brighter  days,  but  tlie  death  of 
Julian,  alter  a  short  reign,  disappointed  all  tlieir  ex- 
pectations. The  Christian  emperors  who  succeeded 
afforded  the  Jews  entire  toleration  to  observe  their 
ceremonies,  tlieir  feasts,  and  their  Sabbaths,  secured 
to  them  tlieir  property,  their  slaves,  and  their  lands, 
but  at  the  same  time  called  upon  the  Christians  to 
hold  no  intercourse  with  them,  and  to  be  on  their 
guard  against  the  doctrines  of  the  synagogue.  In 
the  tifth  century,  the  Jews  throughout  the  Roman 
Empire,  both  in  its  eastern  and  western  divisions, 
were  not  only  deprived  of  toleration,  but  exposed  to 
injurious  and  cruel  treatment.  But  in  the  reign  of 
Justin,  and  that  of  Justinian,  Jewish  oppression  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  law.  Justin  passed  an  edict 
.\.  D.  b2?>,  prohibiting  all  Jews,  Samaritans,  and 
Pagans,  from  holding  office  in  the  State ;  while  Jus- 
tinian in  his  Code,  as  well  as  in  his  Novels,  excluded 
the  Jews  from  all  civil  rights,  and  any  attempt  at 
proselytism  was  declared  a  capital  crime.  The  result 
of  such  oppressive  enactments  was  a  series  of  succes- 
sive insurrections  on  the  part  of'the  Jews,  which  dis- 
turbed Justinian  throughout  his  whole  reign.  The 
most  violent  of  these  outbreaks  was  caused  at  Con- 
stantinople by  the  sight  of  the  holy  vessels  which 
had  been  carried  by  Titus  from  Jerusalem  to  Rome, 
Riid  had  found  their  way  to  the  capital  of  the  Greek 
Ivnpire.  To  quell  this  tumult,  which  was  of  a  very 
serious  description,  Justinian  sent  the  holy  vessels 
from  Constantinople  to  Jerusalem,  and,  froin  what- 
ever cause,  they  have  never  been  heard  of  since  that 
time. 

The  Jews,  soon  after  the  dispersion,  and  the  con- 
sequent destruction  of  their  wliole  ecclesiastical  po- 
lity, longed  for  the  restoration  of  some  degree  of 
order  and  government.  This  led  to  the  institution  of 
the  Jewish  patriarchs,  the  first  of  whom  was  Simeon, 
the  third,  who  lived  in  tlie  reign  of  Adrian.  In  his 
family  the  line  of  patriarchs  continued  until  the  fifth 
century,  when  they  began  so  to  pervert  their  office, 
th.at  a  law  was  passed  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
to  restrict  tlieir  power;  and  thi.s  proving  ineH'ectual, 
the  patriarchal  dignity,  in  A.  D.  429,  was  wholly 
abolished,  and  thus,  as  Da  Costa  remarks,  "  the  link 
was  broken  which  connected  the  different  synagogues 
of  the  Eastern  Empire."  About  this  time  an  exten- 
sive emigr.atioii  of  learned  Jews,  devoted  to  the  study 
of  the  Talmud,  took  place  from  I'alostine  and  the 
Hyzantinc  ICmiiire  to  Babylonia  and  Persia — a  cir- 
cumstance which  led  to  the  compilation  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud. 

The  rise  of  the  Mohammedan  jiowcr  in  Asia  in 
the  seventli  century  led  to  the  severe  oppression  and 
de;;radation  of  the  Jews  in  the  East.     Previous  to 


that  period,  the  Jews  in  Arabia  seem  to  have  been 
numerous,  powerful,  and  free.  It  is  even  asserted 
tliat  there  existed  at  one  time  in  that  peninsula  a 
Jewish  kingdom  under  Jewish  kings ;  and  even  so 
late  as  the  sixth  century,  a  Jewish  king  reigned  in 
Arabia.  When  Mohanmiod  first  commenced  his 
mission  as  a  prophet,  he  seems  to  have  met  with 
some  coimtenance  from  the  Arabian  Jews,  who  may 
possibly  have  supposed  him  to  be  the  Messiah.  But. 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  they  began  to  entertain 
unfavourable  views  of  the  prophet,  and  from  that 
time  he  looked  upon  them  with  tlie  most  bitter 
hatred,  stigmatizing  them  as  "  unbelievers,"  and 
"  murderers  of  the  prophets,"  and  applying  to  them 
similar  opprobrious  epithets.  Accordingly,  there  has 
existed  a  strong  feeling  of  enmity  down  to  the  present 
day  between  the  Mussulman  and  the  Jew.  And  yet 
it  is  impossible  to  read  the  pages  of  the  Koran  with- 
out being  struck  with  the  close  connection  which 
may  be  traced  between  its  doctrines  and  those  of 
modern  Judaism,  as  developed  in  the  Talmud  and 
the  Jewish  traditions. 

After  the  capture  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus,  the  Jews  emigrated  in  great  numbers  to  the 
coasts  of  the  Red  Sea,  so  that  cities  and  even  entire 
districts  belonged  to  them.  They  waged  war  and  ne- 
gotiated treaties  with  their  neighbours,  and  were  fast 
rising  into  political  importance  in  Arabia;  but  from 
the  seventh  century,  when  Mohammed  promulgated 
his  religion,  they  gradually  sunk  in  influence  and 
power;  and  though  considerable  numbers  of  them 
are  still  found  in  that  country,  they  are  held  in  great 
contempt  among  the  Mohammedans.  Colonies  oi 
Jews  have  long  existed  in  the  most  remote  parts  oi 
the  interior  of  Asia  and  on  the  coast  of  Malabar 
There  is  also  a  peculiar  race  of  Jews  in  the  neigh 
bourhood  of  Bombay,  who  call  themselves  Beni 
ISR.iEL  (which  see),  but  claim  no  relationship  with 
the  rest  of  the  Jews  in  Eastern  countries;  and  while 
they  strictly  adhere  to  the  chief  portions  of  the  Jewish 
ritual,  they  have  also  mingled  Hindu  superstitions 
with  their  religious  observances.  These  Beni-Israel 
Dr.  AVilson  of  Bombay  considers  to  be  probably 
descendants  of  the  Ten  Tribes.  The  Chinese  Jews 
are  numerous,  and  are  supposed  to  have  originally 
settled  in  the  Celestial  Empire  between  the  time  ol 
Ezra  and  the  destruction  of  the  second  temple. 
This  is  confinned  bv  the  fact,  that  they  hold  Ezk-' 
in  as  great  veneration  as  Moses,  and  appear  to  he 
quite  ignorant  of  the  Pharisaical  traditions  of  the 
Talmud.  They  are  called  by  the  Chinese  "  the  people 
that  cut  out  the  sinew;"  and  a  groat  number  of  tliem 
seem  to  have  exchanged  Judaism  for  the  religion  oi 
the  Koran. 

The  Jews  have  almost  always  in  Europe  been  a 
despised,  oppressed,  and  ]iersecuted  people.  Thus, 
by  the  Council  of  Vamies,  a.d.  405,  Christians  were 
forbidden  to  eat  with  Jews.  Some  years  later,  the 
Council  of  Orleans  prohibited  marriage  between  Jews 
and  Christians.     The  Council  of  Beziers.  A.D.  124G, 


JKWS  (Modern). 


237 


cfuBed  permiBsion  to  consult  a  Jcwisli  physician. 
For  ceiitiirici*  tliorc  yxistc<l  in  France  a  public  ollicer 
called  tlie  "  I'rotecfor  of  tlic  Jews,"  wlio  was  chosen 
from  among  the  nobles  of  the  land,  and  who,  in  some 
cases,  instead  of  being  the  friend,  was  the  bitter 
enemy  of  the  very  people  wliom  he  was  appointed  to 
defend.  In  the  south  of  France,  trade  was  for  a 
long  period  chielly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  yet  they 
were,  all  the  while,  regarded  as  the  outcasts  of 
society.  At  Toulouse,  so  late  as  the  thirteenth 
century,  a  Jew  was  compelled  to  receive  in  Easter 
week  every  year  a  blow  on  the  face  before  the  doors 
of  the  principal  church.  At  lieziers,  the  bishop 
yearly,  on  Palm  Sunday,  exhorted  the  people  to 
avenge  the  death  of  the  Saviour  upon  the  Jews  of 
the  place ;  and  after  the  year  IKiO,  exem|ition  from 
this  insult  was  purchased  by  the  paynieut  of  an 
annual  sum  of  money.  It  is  a  strange  circumstance, 
however,  that  in  no  part  of  France  did  Hebrew 
learning  flourish  more  than  in  the  south.  Mont- 
pellier,  Marseilles,  Narbonno,  Beziers,  and  other 
towns,  were  celebrated  for  their  synagogues  and 
academies,  as  well  as  for  their  Rabbinical  writers, 
commentators,  and  grammarians.  The  Jews  have 
never  been  found  in  great  numbers  in  Norwa)',  Swe- 
den, and  DenniMrk ;  but  in  all  the  other  countries  of 
Europe,  they  have  existed  amid  much  discourage- 
ment and  persecution  down  to  the  present  day. 

The  Jews  who  were  banished  from  Spain  in  A.  D. 
1492,  aiul  friiin  Portugal  in  A.  n.  1407,  are  known  by 
the  name  of  Srpliardim,  or  Spaniards,  and  maintain 
their  identity  as  a  separate  class  of  Jews  among  their 
iiwn  brethren  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  look 
upon  themselves  as  a  higher  order  of  Israelites.  One 
peculiar  point  of  distinction  which  marks  them  out 
from  other  Jews,  is  their  daily  use  of  the  old  Spanish 
language,  whicli  is  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  and  with  which  they  are  so  familiar,  that 
their  own  Scriptures  are  better  known  to  them  in  the 
old  Spanish  version  than  in  the  original  Hebrew. 
Down  to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
the  Sephardim  used  both  the  Spanish  and  the  He- 
brew tongues  in  the  daily  intercourse  of  life,  in  their 
private  correspondence,  and  even  in  the  public  wor- 
ship of  the  synagogue,  excepting  what  was  included 
in  the  Liturgy.  The  Sephardim  look  back  upon  the 
history  of  their  ancestors  during  the  fourteen  cen- 
turies of  tlieir  residence  as  exiles  in  the  Spanish 
peninsula  with  the  most  romantic  interest.  "  This 
remarkable  people,"  says  Mr.  Prescott,  "  who  seem 
to  have  preserved  their  unity  of  character  unbroken 
amid  the  thousand  fragments  into  which  they  have 
been  scattered,  attained  perhaps  to  greater  considera- 
tion in  Spain  than  in  any  other  part  of  Europe. 
Under  the  Visigothic  Empire  the  Jews  multiplied 
exceedingly  in  the  country,  and  were  permitted  to 
acquire  considerable  power  and  wealth.  After  the 
Saracenic  invasion,  which  the  Jews,  perhaps  with 
reason,  are  accused  of  having  facilitated,  they  resided 
ni  the  conquered  cities,  and  were  permitted  to  mingle 


with  the  Arabs  on  nearly  equal  terms.  Their  com- 
mon Oriental  origin  produced  a  siuiilarity  of  tastes, 
to  a  certain  extent  not  unfavourable  to  such  a  coali- 
tion. At  any  rate,  the  early  Spanish  Arabs  were 
characterized  by  a  spirit  of  toleration  towards  both 
.Jews  and  Christians — '  the  i)eople  of  the  book,'  as 
they  were  called — which  has  scarcely  been  found 
among  later  Moslems.  The  Jews,  accordingly,  under 
these  favourable  auspices,  not  only  accumulated 
wealth  with  their  usual  diligence,  but  gradually  rose 
to  the  highest  civil  dignitv,  and  made  great  advances 
in  varicjus  departments  of  letters.  The  schools  ot 
Cordo\a,  Toledo,  Barcelona,  and  Granada,  were 
crowded  with  numerous  disciples,  who  emulated  the 
Arabians  in  keeping  alive  the  flame  of  learning 
during  the  deep  darkness  of  the  middle  ages.  'What- 
ever may  be  tliought  of  their  success  in  speculative 
philosophy,  they  cannot  reasonably  be  denied  to  have 
contributed  largely  to  practical  and  experimental 
science.  They  were  diligent  travellers  in  all  jiarts 
of  the  known  world,  compiling  itineraries  which  have 
proved  of  extensive  use  in  later  times,  and  bringing 
home  hoards  of  foreign  specimens  and  Oriental  drugs 
that  furnished  important  contributions  to  the  do- 
mestic pharmacopccia.  In  the  practice  of  medicine, 
indeed,  thev  became  so  expert,  as  in  a  manner  to 
monopolize  that  profession.  They  made  great  pro- 
flciency  in  mathematics,  and  particularly  in  astro- 
nomy;  while,  in  the  cultivation  of  elegant  letters, 
they  revived  the  ancient  glories  of  tlie  Hebrew  muse. 
This  was  indeed  tlie  gcildeu  age  of  modern  Jewish 
literature.  The  ancient  Castilians  of  the  same  pe- 
riod, very  ditTerent  from  their  Gothic  ancestors,  seem 
to  have  conceded  to  the  Israelites  somewhat  of  the 
feelings  of  respect  which  were  extorted  from  them  by 
the  superior  civilization  of  the  Spanish  Arabs.  We 
hud  eminent  Jews  residing  in  the  courts  of  the 
Christian  princes,  directing  their  studies,  attending 
them  as  physicians,  or,  more  frequently,  administer- 
ing their  finances." 

The  Jews  seem  to  have  had  a  settlement  in  Spain 
long  before  the  destruction  of  the  second  temple.  It 
is  remarkable  that  this  portion  of  the  dispersed  ot 
Judah  allege  that  they  are  descendants  of  the  house 
of  David.  Not  that  they  are  able  to  produce  any 
document  whereby  to  establish  this  claim,  for  the 
Israelites,  since  their  dispersion,  have  not  continued 
their  genealogical  tables ;  but  their  high  pretension 
to  be  sprung  from  Da\id  is  wholly  founded  on  tra- 
dition. For  many  centuries,  the  Jews  earned  on  the 
whole  traffic  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain ;  and  members 
of  their  body  were  usually  chosen  to  occupy  places  j 
of  trust  and  honour  at  court.  As  in  the  East  the 
Jews  were  governed  by  the  Resh  Glutha,  or  Prince 
of  the  Captivity  (see  Aichmalotarch),  so  in  the 
Sjianish  peninsida  they  were  ruled  by  an  Israelite 
called  the  Rabbino  ma\'or,  who  was  appointed  by  the 
king.  This  magistrate,  who  took  cognizance  of  all 
Jewish  atTairs,  bad  under  him  a  vice-rabbino  mayor, 
a  chancellor,  a  secretary,  and  several  other  ofllccrs 


238 


JEWS  (Modern). 


wliile  two  different  orders  of  rabbins,  or  judges,  acted 
iMider  him  in  the  towns  and  districts  ot"  tlie  Icingdom. 
But  the  honour  in  wliicli  t)ie  Jews  were  held  by  the 
iiiiig  and  the  higher  orders  botli  in  cliurcli  and  state, 
did  not  make  them  altogetlier  free  from  oppression 
and  persecution.  On  the  contrary,  the  free  burgliers, 
the  inferior  clergy,  and  especially  the  common  people, 
were  their  inveterate  enemies.  From  time  to  time 
the  most  severe  enactments  were  passed  against 
them,  and  they  were  subjected  to  persecution  of 
every  kind. 

Nowhere  has  Hebrew  learning  been  more  exten- 
sively cultivated  than  among  tlie  Jews  of  the  Penin- 
sula. In  early  times,  and  even  during  the  rule  of  the 
Saracens,  their  youth  were  trained  in  the  famous 
schools  of  Babylon  and  Persia ;  but  at  an  after 
period,  an  entirely  new  and  independent  school  of 
Hebrew  theology  was  established  in  Spain.  The 
circumstances  which  led  to  the  removal  of  the  seat 
of  modern  Jewish  science  from  the  East  to  the  West 
are  thus  detailed  by  Da  Costa : — "  Four  learned  Is- 
raelites of  Pumbeditha  were  in  a  ship,  which  was 
captiu-ed  by  a  Moorisli  pirate  from  Spain,  A.  d.  948. 
One  of  them,  named  Rabbi  Moses,  after  having  seen 
his  wife  cast  herself  into  the  sea,  to  escape  the  fero- 
city of  the  captain,  was,  with  his  son,  carried  prisoner 
to  Cordova.  The  Israelitish  inhabitants  of  that  town 
soon  effected  their  deliverance  by  means  of  a  ransom. 
After  remaining  some  time  unnoticed,  a  learned  dis- 
cussion in  the  synagogue  became  the  means  of  raising 
Rabbi  Moses  high  in  the  esteem  of  all,  and  renewing 
the  interest  his  fate  had  before  excited.  He  was 
soon  chosen  head  of  that  synagogue  and  judge  of  the 
Jews ;  and  becoming  known,  while  holding  this  office, 
to  Rabbi  Chasdai  Ben  Lsaac,  the  great  protector  of 
his  nation,  at  the  court  of  Miramolin,  he  obtained  in 
marriage  for  his  son  a  daughter  of  the  powerfid  house 
of  Peliag,  thus  laying  a  prosperous  foundation  both 
for  his  own  descendants  and  for  the  Jewish  schools 
of  Spain.  When  the  Persian  school  of  the  Geonim 
came  to  an  end  in  the  eleventh  century,  in  the  person 
of  Rabbi  Hai  Bar  Rab  Scherira,  the  schools  of  the 
Spanish  Rabbanim  took  its  place,  as  the  centre  of 
Jewish  civilization  and  learning.  Soon  Toledo  and 
Seville,  then  Saragossa,  Lisbon,  and  a  great  number 
of  other  cities,  shared  in  the  glory  of  Cordova.  At 
Toledo  alone,  the  number  of  students  in  Hebrew 
theology  is  said  to  liave  sometimes  amounted  to 
twelve  thousand :  the  number  is  no  doubt  exagger- 
ated, but  the  exaggeration  itself  proves  the  high  idea 
that  was  formed  of  the  extent  to  which  the  study  of 
Hebrew  literature  was  carried  on  in  the  ancient 
capital  of  Castile." 

Thus  the  reputed  founder  of  the  new  school  of 
Hebrew  literature  at  Cordova  was  Rabbi  Moses  '/ 
Pumbeditha ;  but  the  first  age  or  generation  of  the 
Spanish  Rabbanim  did  not  begin  with  him,  or  even 
with  his  son,  but  with  Rabbi  Samuel  Ilallevi,  sur- 
named  Hanragid,  or  the  Prince,  who  ia  considered 
as  the  first  Rabbino  M.ayor,  or  Prince  of  the  Capti- 


vity in  Spain,  A.  D.  1027.  From  that  date  till  th» 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  nine  generations  ol 
Rabbanim  are  reckoned,  each  deriving  its  nam« 
from  a  head  of  the  synagogue,  or  some  distinguishefl 
student  of  the  age. 

The  most  distinguished  of  all  the  Spanish  Rab 
banim  were  Aben  Ezra  and  Maimonides,  both  O' 
them  gifted  with  remarkable  abilities,  learning,  ano 
wealth.  The  first  of  them,  Aben  Ezra,  usually  sur- 
named  Hachacham,  the  wise,  was  born  at  Toledo  in 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  is  best 
known  as  a  commentator  on  the  Old  Testament,  his 
labours  in  this  department  having  been  valued  not 
only  by  Jews,  but  also  by  many  Christians.  Mai- 
monides was  a  native  of  Cordova,  having  been  born 
there  in  A.  D.  1139.  He  was  a  voluminous  and  a 
versatile  writer,  his  works,  which  amount  to  more 
than  thirty  in  number,  being  on  a  great  variety  of 
different  subjects.  The  most  remarkable  of  his 
writings  is  his  Moreh  Nevochim,  or  Guide  to  the 
Doubtful,  a  work  in  which  he  interprets,  with  great 
clearness,  the  Law  and  the  Talmud.  The  great  aim 
of  Moses  Maimonides,  in  the  twelfth  century,  was, 
like  that  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  to  find  a  basis  for  the  principles  of  tradi- 
tional Judaism  in  philosophy  rather  than  in  revela- 
tion. No  sooner  were  the  views  of  this  remarkable 
man  given  to  the  world  in  the  Moreh  Nevochim,  than 
a  cry  of  heresy  was  raised  both  against  the  book  and 
its  author.  The  synagogues  of  Spain  were  now 
divided  into  two  parties,  the  one  favouring,  and  the 
other  opposing,  the  views  of  Maimonides.  His  ad- 
mirers, however,  obtained  the  decided  superiority 
both  in  numbers  and  influence ;  and  though  Rab- 
binism  still  continued  to  exercise  dominion  over  the 
synagogue,  the  discussions  occasioned  by  the  writ- 
ings of  Maimonides  tended,  in  no  sinall  degree,  to 
deliver  the  minds  of  many  Jews  from  the  trammels 
of  traditional  authority.  Accordingly,  about  a  cen- 
tury after,  we  find  the  Rabbins  of  Spain  complaining 
of  the  progress  of  infidelity  caused  by  the  influence 
of  Greek  philosophy. 

The  Sephardim  or  Spanish  Jews  have  not  only 
produced  able  writers  on  theological  subjects,  but 
also  distinguished  poets,  astronomers,  and  mathe- 
maticians. Amid  the  honours  which  they  gained, 
however,  in  the  walks  of  literature  and  science, 
often  was  the  sword  of  intolerant  persecution  un- 
sheathed, and  the  records  of  the  Inquisition  in 
Spain  tell  us  of  multitudes  of  victims  belonging  to 
the  despised  Jews  no  less  than  to  the  Christian  hero- 
tics.  At  length,  in  A.  D.  1492,  after  the  reduction  o) 
the  last  Moslem  kingdom  in  the  Peninsula,  an  edict 
was  promulgated  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Spain,  four  months  being  allowed  them  to  prepare 
for  their  departure.  In  vain  did  they  ofl'er  iiiunense 
sums  of  mimcy  to  be  allowed  to  remain  ;  they  were 
transported  by  ships  to  the  coast  of  Africa.  Many 
of  them  endured  such  extremity  of  Buffering  that 
they  returned  to  Spain  and  renounced  the  faith  of 


JKWri    (MODKKRy. 


239 


flioir  fathers.  Othors  found  an  Jisylum  in  Portugal, 
wlicrc,  in  consideration  of  the  payment  of  a  liigh 
(■•■ipitation  tax,  tliey  were  invested  with  various  pri- 
vileges, bcini;  allowed  to  celebrate  their  feasts,  prac- 
tise their  ceremonies,  and  continue  the  full  exercise 
of  tlieir  relisious  worship.  A  Ralibinical  school  was 
formed  at  Lisljon,  which  soon  rose  to  considerable 
distinction,  and  during  the  five  years  which  elapsed 
between  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain,  and 
their  banishment  from  Portugal,  this  school  became 
the  centre-point  of  Jewish  literature  and  science. 
The  most  distinguished  of  the  Portuguese  Jews  was 
Abarbariel,  whose  fame,  as  a  theological  writer,  is 
still  cherished  among  the  Jews.  In  1497,  an  edict 
was  published  banishing  the  Jews  from  I'ortugal,  as 
tliey  had  a  few  years  before  been  banished  from 
Spain  ;  and  from  this  date  the  Sephardim  were  scat- 
tered over  every  ijuarter  of  the  globe,  still,  however, 
preserving  their  identity  separate  and  apart  from  all 
the  other  races  of  the  Jewish  nation.  In  America,  n 
Africa,  in  Asia,  and  many  countries  of  Europe,  they 
found  refuge,  and  enjoyed  toleration  ami  peace.  But 
the  countiy  which  has  afTorded  them  the  warmest 
hospitality,  since  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
has  been  the  Protestant  republic  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. 

The  first  settlement  of  the  Jews  at  Amsterdam 
was  made  in  A.  n.  1.594,  and  in  the  course  of  four 
years  they  erected  a  synagogue.  Ten  years  after,  the 
increase  of  the  Jewish  population  led  to  tlie  forma- 
tion of  a  second,  and  in  A.  D.  1G18  of  a  third  syna- 
gogue. In  1G.39  the  three  synagogues  were  united 
to  form  one  single  community  of  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese Jews,  which  founded,  in  lfi75,  a  handsome 
synagogue  for  the  whole  body.  About  the  same 
time  the  German  and  Polish  Jews  had  established 
tlieir  synagogues  in  the  capital  of  Holland.  Though 
excluded  from  public  offices,  and  also  from  all  guilds 
or  companies,  except  those  of  the  physicians  and 
brokers,  the  Israelites  were  secured  in  the  full  posses- 
sion of  liberty  of  conscience,  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion,  the  practice  of  their  own  laws  and  traditions, 
and  even,  with  few  exceptions,  the  observance  of 
their  national  customs.  Among  the  Jews  in  Hol- 
land there  have  been  various  authors  and  learned 
men,  one  of  the  most  noted  of  whom  was  Rabbi 
Menasseh  ben  Israel,  who  wrote  several  exegetical 
and  dogmatical  works,  besides  several  books  relating 
to  the  Jewish  Liturgy,  the  worship  of  the  synagogue 
and  Rabbinical  ordinances.  Contemporary  with  this 
learned  author  was  another  man  of  a  strongly  specu- 
lative turn  of  mind,  Uriel  da  Costa,  who  threw  off  at 
once  all  belief  in  the  Divine  authority  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  in  the  traditions  of  the  Rabbins. 
The  appearance  of  this  bold  infidel  in  the  synagogue 
of  Am.sterdam,  and  the  open  avowal  of  bis  dangerous 
doctrines,  led  to  a  keen  struggle  between  the  modern 
sect  of  the  Pharisees  and  that  of  the  Sadducees.  In 
t  work  wdiich  ho  publislied  explanatory  of  bis  opi- 
nions, Uriel  declared  his  rejection  of  all  tradition,  and 


his  denial  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and  the  life 
to  come.  The  chief  magistrate  of  Amsterdam  deem- 
ed it  his  di'ty  to  take  cognizance  of  the  matter,  and, 
accordingly,  the  author  was  arrested,  and  the  affair 
was  compromised  by  the  payment  of  300  florins,  and 
the  confiscation  of  the  books.  From  this  time  Uriel 
da  Costa  became  both  in  opinion  and  practice  an 
open  Deist ;  but  at  length,  weaiy  of  a  struggle  in 
which  he  stood  alone,  he  sought  and  obtained  recon- 
ciliation with  the  synagogue.  Again  lie  avowed  his 
deistical  opinions,  and  for  seven  years  he  was  cast 
ofl'  by  his  brethren.  A  second  time  he  songht  recon- 
ciliation to  the  synagogue,  which  was  only  granted 
after  the  infliction  upon  the  unhappy  man  of  the 
well-known  forty  .stripes  save  one  ;  and  a  few  days 
after  submitting  to  this  degradation,  he  put  an  end 
to  his  existence,  having  previously  written  his  auto- 
biography, which  was  afterwards  published  by  Lim- 
borch. 

Anotlier  individual  of  great  note  among  the  Jewn 
in  Holland  was  Benedict  Spinoza,  who,  in  his  theolo- 
gical writings,  taught  a  system  of  complete  Pan- 
theism, not  by  substituting  the  whole  universe  in 
place  of  the  living  God,  but  by  attributing  real  ex- 
istence to  God  alone,  and  admitting  of  no  other 
existence,  material  or  immaterial,  unless  as  a  modifi- 
cation of  that  one  only  Being.  This  amiable  but 
erring  philosopher  was  a  native  of  Amsterdam,  hav- 
ing been  born  in  that  city  in  A.  D.  1632.  His  pecu- 
liar opinions  were  chiefly  founded  on  the  writings  ot 
Des  Cartes  (see  Idealists),  wliich  exercised  a  re- 
markable influence  on  the  thinkers  of  his  age.  The 
views  wliich  Spinoza  bad  been  led  to  form  were  com- 
pletely at  variance  with  those  of  bis  fellow-Israelites, 
and  as  a  natural  result  he  began  to  neglect  the  pub- 
lic services  of  the  synagogue,  and  to  dispute  with  the 
Rabbins  on  religious  subjects.  At  length  his  opi- 
nions drew  down  upon  him  the  censure  of  his  breth- 
ren, and  he  was  not  only  expelled  from  the  synagogue, 
but  he  found  it  necessary,  in  order  to  save  his  life,  to 
fly  from  Amsterdam,  and,  after  wandering  from  one 
place  to  another,  he  settled  at  the  Hague.  Here  ha 
lived  in  seclusion,  but  maintaining  an  extensive  cor- 
respondence with  learned  men  both  in  Holland  and 
elsewhere.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  he  was  cut 
oft"  by  consumption. 

Next  to  Amsterdam,  nowhere  have  the  Jews  been 
more  prosperous  than  at  the  Hague.  In  that  city 
many  of  the  finest  houses  have  been  built  and  in- 
habited by  Jews,  and  their  synagogue  is  in  one  of 
the  best  quarters  of  the  to«Ti.  Members  both  of 
tlie  German  and  Portuguese  synagogues  in  Holland 
were  frequently  preferred  to  fill  confidential  posts  in 
matters  of  diplomacy ;  and  such  has  been  tlie  respect 
uniformly  shown  to  the  Jews  in  that  country,  that 
till  the  reign  of  William  V.  inclu.sivc,  no  stadtholdei 
of  Holland  had  ever  failed  to  pay  at  least  one  formal 
visit  to  each  of  the  great  synagogues  of  Amsterdam. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Jews  in  Hol- 
land, and  indeed  throughout  the  Continent  generally 


no 


JEWS  (Modern). 


partook  of  tlie  degeneracy  in  religion  which  so  ex- 
tensively prevailed.  The  intidel  literature  and  phi- 
losophy of  France  exercised  a  most  peniicious 
influence  over  botli  Jews  and  Gentiles  in  every 
country  of  Europe  ;  wliile  Voltaire  and  his  followers 
intensely  hated  the  Jews,  because  the  very  existence 
of  that  people  constituted  an  incontestable  proof  of 
the  historical  truth  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments. 

The  Jews  appear  to  have  found  an  entrance  into 
llussia  during  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  but  they 
were  banished  from  the  country  in  1745,  for  liaving 
maintained  a  con-espondence  with  the  exiles  of 
Siberia.  They  liave  always,  however,  kept  their 
ground  in  Poland  as  well  as  in  the  Ukraine,  both  of 
which  belong  to  the  government  of  the  Czar.  The 
Polish  Jews  are  looked  upon  by  their  bretluen  in 
otlier  countries  as  a  superior  race,  both  in  intellect 
and  learning.  "  Nowhere  else,"  says  Da  Costa,  re- 
ferring to  Poland,  "  do  we  find  in  so  great  a  degree, 
among  the  dispersed  nation,  a  life  of  so  much  social 
activity  combined  with  a  remarkable  bent  towards 
religion  and  contemplative  philosophy  ;  nowhere  else 
so  wide  a  separation  between  science  and  theolog)', 
and,  at  the  same  time,  such  great  capacity  for  scien- 
tific knowledge;  nowhere  else  such  deep  national 
debasement,  resulting  from  ages  of  ignoble  occupa- 
tion and  servile  subjection,  with  a  character  so  highly 
respectable,  both  in  its  moral  qualities  and  domestic 
relations ;  in  a  word,  nowhere  do  so  many  remains  of 
ancient  nobility,  and,  at  the  same  time,  of  the  most 
wretched  degeneracy,  appear  even  in  the  expression 
of  countenance  and  stature  of  body.  These  singular 
and  original  characteristics  of  the  Polish  Jew  are  to 
be  found,  not  only  in  the  mystic  theosophy  which 
usually  distinguishes  their  schools  and  their  theolo- 
gians, but  even  in  the  existence  of  Caraites  amidst 
these  synagogues,  in  otiier  respects  buried,  if  we 
may  so  express  it,  in  the  study  of  the  Talmud." 
In  the  synagogues  of  Poland,  the  Jewish  sect  of  the 
SAiinATHAlSTS  (which  see),  found  many  supporters ; 
and  in  the  same  synagogues  the  Chasidim  (which 
see),  had  their  origin  in  1740. 

An  Anti-Talmudic  sect  sprimg  up  among  the  Pol- 
ish Jews,  originated  in  1760  by  Jacob  Frank.  This 
new  Jewish  sect  completely  cast  oli'the  Talmud,  and 
adopted  the  Cabbalistic  book  of  Zohar  as  the  basis 
of  its  confession  of  faith,  and  hence  they  assumed  to 
theuisolvcs  the  name  of  Zoiiaritks  (which  see). 
They  plainly  declared  their  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  At  first  the  followers  of  Frank  were  looked 
upon  as  belonging  to  the  Christian  rather  than  to 
the  Jewish  faith,  and  they  were  [)ersecuted  by  the 
synagogue  for  their  Christian  dogmas.  In  a  short 
time,  however,  they  were  persecuted,  on  the  contrary, 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  on  account  of  their 
.lewish  Cabbalistic  views.  In  these  critical  circinn- 
stances,  exposed  to  the  hostility  both  of  Christians 
and  Jews,  many  of  the  Zoharites  emigrated  to  Tur- 
key, where  they  were  treated  with  the  utmost  harsh- 


ness and  cruelty  by  the  populace.  Frank,  with 
whom  the  sect  originated,  entertained  many  senti- 
ments approaching  to  Christianity,  and  he  considered 
that  he  had  received  a  mission  to  uniie  lugetliur  all 
religions,  sects,  and  confessions.  His  followers  no 
longer  form  a  separate  denomination,  but  niunbers  ot 
them  still  exist  in  Poland,  belonging  to  the  Koman 
Catholic  Church,  though  distinguished  by  certain 
remains  of  Judaism,  and  some  of  them  secretly  re- 
taining a  firm  belief  in  the  religion  of  the  synagogue. 
They  are  said  to  have  taken  a  share  in  the  Polish 
insurrection  in  1830,  and  it  has  even  been  asseited 
that  the  chief  of  the  Frankists  was  a  member  of  the 
Diet  of  Poland,  and  afterwards  obliged  to  take  refuge 
as  a  political  exile  in  France. 

But  while  the  Jews  in  the  southern  and  eastern 
jiarts  of  Europe  were  agitated  by  the  prevalence 
among  them  of  Cabbalistic  opinions,  a  movement  of 
a  difl'erent  kind  was  commencing  in  the  north-western 
parts  and  in  Germany.  While  Jacob  Frank  was 
actively  propagating  his  peculiar  views  in  Poland, 
Moses  Mendelsohn  was  inculcating  on  the  Jews  in 
Prussia  a  .system  of  opinions  composed  of  a  hetero- 
geneous mixture  of  the  teachings  of  Plato  and  of 
jMaimonides.  This  remarkable  man  was  bom  in 
1729,  at  Dersace,  of  poor  parents.  In  early  life  lie 
exhibited  many  tokens  of  possessing  an  energetic 
and  inquiring  mind.  The  writings  of  Maimonides. 
and  especially  the  Moreh  Nevochim,  were  his  favour- 
ite subjects  of  study.  His  ovm  philosophical  writing!" 
soon  gained  for  him  a  high  reputation  both  among 
Christians  and  Jews.  His  chief  anxiety  was  to  re 
form  the  religion  of  the  Jews,  while  lie  maintained 
an  outward  respect  for  the  fonns  of  Rabbinical  Ju- 
daism. On  one  point  be  expressed  himself  verj 
strongly — in  reference  to  the  authority  of  the  syna 
gogue.  He  would  not  allow  the  synagogue  or  anij 
other  religious  community  to  impose  any  restriction 
whatever  on  the  rights  of  thinking  and  teaching 
Through  the  influence  of  Mendelsohn,  all  respect  (vt 
the  Talmud  began  to  disappear  among  the  German 
Jews,  and  a  large  party  was  formed  avowing  tlieni- 
selves  Anti-Talmudists.  This  eminent  Jewish  philo- 
sopher died  in  1786,  but  the  impress  wliicli  he  had 
made  upon  the  religion  and  literature  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  continued  to  be  felt  long  after  his  decease. 
Three  intimate  friends,  who  long  survived  him,  and 
who  actively  propagated  his  opinions,  were  Ilartwig 
Wessely,  Isaac  Euchel,  and  David  Friedlander. 

The  year  1789  proved  the  commencement  of  n 
new  era  in  the  history  of  the  modern  Jews.  With 
the  French  Revolution  a  .system  of  political  theories 
and  opinions  arose  which  agitated  all  the  nations  of 
luirope.  Nor  were  the  disp(!rsed  of  Israel  uiialVected 
l)y  tlie  wide-sprcaii  spirit  of  change.  Throwing  ofl 
their  own  ancient  nationality,  they  directed  all  their 
elVorts  from  this  period  to  be  reckoned  fcUow-couii 
tiymen  with  the  Christian  nations.  Taking  advan- 
tage of  the  great  political  outburst  in  France,  the 
Jews  called  loudly  for  the  application  in  their  cus« 


JEWS  (Modern). 


241 


of  the  principles  of  liberty,  fraternity,  and  equality. 
Tlieir  demand  was  aoknowledf^ed  to  be  just,  and  in 
1791  complete  equality  was  pmelaiined  for  all  Jews, 
without  exception  and  distinction,  who  would  accept 
the  rights  and  fullil  the  duties  of  French  citizens. 
The  rights  which  the  Revolution  had  thus  obtained 
lor  the  Jews  were  conlirmed  by  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. In  consequence,  however,  of  the  prevalence 
of  usury  among  the  Jewish  population  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Rhine,  an  Imperial  edict  was  published 
in  1808,  imposing  on  every  Jewish  creditor  who 
should  go  to  law  again.st  a  debtor  the  obligation  to 
procure  a  certilicate  of  good  character,  attested  by 
the  local  authorities,  declaring  that  the  said  creditor 
was  not  in  the  habit  of  taking  usury,  or  pursuing 
my  disgraceful  trafllc.  This  severe  decree  was 
limited  in  its  continuance  to  ten  years;  but  before 
the  expiry  of  that  period  it  was  revoked,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  restoration  of  the  liourbon  family.  In 
Rhenish  Bavaria  and  Rhenish  I'riissia  it  was  con- 
tinued and  strictly  enforced  after  the  ten  years  had 
come  to  a  close. 

Napoleon  I.,  in  his  anxiety  to  promote  the  welfare 
of  the  Jews  scattered  throughout  his  dominions,  con- 
voked at  I'arij  a  large  assembly  or  sanhedrim  of 
Israelites.  This  council,  which  consisted  of  110 
members,  met  on  the  28th  of  July  180C.  It  was 
constituted  by  order  of  the  Emperor,  and  three  Im- 
perial commissioners  were  introduced  during  the 
sittings,  with  twelve  questions,  which  the  sanhedrim 
were  requested  to  answer  for  the  satisfaction  of 
Napoleon  and  the  government.  These  questions, 
which  chiefly  referred  to  the  Jewish  laws  concerning 
marriage  and  usury,  were  after  mature  deliberation 
answered  by  the  assembly  to  the  following  effect,  as 
related  by  Da  Costa  :  "  That  the  .Jew,  though  by  the 
law  of  Moses  lie  had  permission  to  take  several 
wives,  was  not  allowed  to  make  use  of  this  liberty  in 
tin;  West,  an  obligation  to  take  only  one  wife  hav- 
ing been  imposed  upon  them  in  the  year  1030,  by  an 
Assembly,  over  which  Rabbi  Gerson,  of  Worms, 
presided, — that  no  kind  of  divorce  was  allowed 
among  the  Jews,  except  what  was  authorized  by  the 
law  of  the  country,  and  pronounced  judicially, — that 
the  Jews  recognised  not  only  Frenchmen,  but  all 
men  as  their  bretliren,  without  making  any  difference 
between  the  Jew  and  him  who  was  not  a  Jew,  from 
whom  they  differed  not  as  a  nation,  but  by  their  re- 
ligion only.  With  respect  to  France,  the  Jew,  who 
had  there  been  rescued  from  oppression,  and  allowed 
an  equality  of  social  rights,  looked  upon  that  country 
as  more  especially  his  own,  of  which  he  had  already 
given  manifest  proof  on  the  field  of  battle ; — that 
since  the  revolution  no  kind  of  jurisdiction  in  France 
or  Italy  could  control  that  of  the  Rabbins  ; — that  the 
Jewish  law  forbade  all  taking  of  usury,  either  from 
strangers  or  their  own  brethren  ;  that  the  command- 
ment to  lend  to  his  Israelitish  brother,  without  in- 
terest, was  a  precept  of  charity,  which  by  no  means 
detracted  from  the  justice,  or  the  necessity  of  a  law- 

II. 


ful  interest  in  matters  of  commerce ;  finally,  that  the 
Jewsh  religion  declared,  without  any  distinction  oi 
persons,  that  usury  was  disgraceful  and  infamous ; 
but  that  the  use  of  interest  in  mercantile  afl'airs, 
without  refererice  to  religion  or  country,  was  legal,— 
to  lend,  without  interest,  out  of  pure  charity  towards 
all  men,  was  prai.seworthy." 

The  Imperial  government  declared  their  entire 
satisfaction  with  the  replies  of  the  sanhedrim,  and 
another  assembly  of  the  same  kind  was  convoked  by 
the  Emperor  in  1807,  to  which  Jews  from  othei 
countries,  and  especially  from  Holland,  were  invited, 
with  the  view  of  giving  to  the  principles  of  the  first 
sanhedrim  the  force  of  law  among  the  Jews  in  all 
countries.  The  second  meeting,  called  the  great 
Sanhedrim,  to  which  was  intrusted  the  formation  of 
a  plan  of  organization  for  all  the  synagogues  through- 
out the  Empire,  met  the  following  year.  The  prin- 
ciples laid  down  by  the  sanhedrim  were  strongly  op- 
posed by  the  Jews  of  other  countries,  particularly 
those  of  Germany  and  Holland.  But  the  social  and 
political  equality  which  the  Jews  enjoyed  in  France, 
leu  to  their  settlement  in  gi-eat  numbers  in  that 
countiy;  so  that  in  the  course  of  two  years  after  the 
assembling  of  the  sanhedrim,  the  Jewish  population 
resident  within  the  boundaries  of  the  French  Em- 
pire amounted  to  80,000  souls,  of  whom  1,232  were 
landed  proprietors,  exclusive  of  the  owners  of  houses 
in  towns. 

The  Jews  in  France,  from  the  date  of  their  eman- 
cipation by  Napoleon  I.,  have  under  every  successive 
government  been  eligible  to  the  highest  offices,  both 
civil  and  military,  and  so  well  have  they  acquitted 
themselves  in  every  office  which  they  have  occupied, 
that  in  1830  the  Minister  of  Public  Worship,  M. 
M(^rilhou,  gave  the  strongest  official  testimony  in 
their  favour.  The  extent,  however,  to  which  the 
social  equality  of  the  Jews  in  France  has  been  car- 
ried, has  not  only  tended  to  destroy  the  national 
spirit  which  has  generally  characterized  the  Jewish 
people,  but  has  introduced  among  them  that  spirit 
of  religious  indifference,  and  even  infidelity,  which  is 
rapidly  diffusing  itself  among  Continental  Jews  gen 
erally. 

The  Revolution  introduced  into  the  Netherlands 
from  France  in  1795,  giadually  led  to  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  Jews  in  that  country  also.  But  while  a 
few  hailed  the  new  institutions,  the  gi'eat  mass  con- 
tinued devotedly  attached  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and 
keenly  opposed  to  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  age. 
The  difference  of  opinion  which  thus  existed  among 
the  Jews  on  pohtical  matters,  brought  about  at  length 
a  schism  in  the  synagogue.  Those  wlio  had  im- 
bibed the  new  ideas  assembled  separately  for  reli- 
gious worship,  and  founded  a  synagogue  named 
Adath  Jeshurun,  which  continued  apart  from  the 
ancient  synagogue  of  the  Netherlands  till  the  reign 
of  Wilham  I.  Soon  after  the  revolution  in  Holland 
in  1795,  Jews  began  to  be  admitted  to  the  muniti 
pality  and  the  tribunal  of  Amsterdam,  and  even  to  iha 
X  * 


212 


JEWS  (Modern), 


National  Assembly  at  the  Hague.  These  privileges 
were  continued  first  under  Louis  Napoleon,  and  then 
under  the  house  of  Orange,  as  well  as  under  the  differ- 
ent constitutions  of  1813,  1815,  1840,  and  1848.  At 
this  day,  accordingly,  Jews  in  Holland  are  not  unfre- 
quently  found  holding  municipal  offices  in  towns,  and 
places  of  trust  and  influence  under  the  Crown.  In 
Belgium  also,  the  Jews  enjoy  entire  liberty,  and  are 
eligible  to  all  situations  of  a  secular  kind,  on  the  same 
footing  with  the  members  of  other  religious  bodies. 

In  Germany  the  Jews  had  a  long  struggle  for 
emancipation.  No  doubt  the  French  Revolution, 
and  the  influence  of  the  French  Imperial  government 
under  Napoleon  I.,  were  favourable  to  the  Jews  in 
various  parts  of  Germany.  But  it  was  not  until  the 
reign  of  King  Frederick  William  III.  that  the  Jews 
became  entitled  to  rank  as  Prussian  citizens.  This 
was  secured  to  them  by  an  edict  published  on  the 
11th  of  March  1812,  which,  while  it  granted  the 
right  of  citizenship,  encumbered  it  with  so  many 
exceptions  and  provisional  regulations,  that  it  was 
rendered  almost  nugatory.  These  restrictions,  how- 
ever, were  removed  in  the  year  1848,  when  the  re- 
volutionary spirit  spread  over  almost  every  country 
of  Europe. 

In  Roman  Catholic  countries  various  remarkable 
changes  have  been  effected  in  the  relation  of  the  Jews 
to  the  governments.  The  reigning  Pope,  Pius  IX., 
at  an  early  period  of  his  Pontificate,  set  an  example  of 
liberality  by  his  regulations  in  favour  of  the  Jewish 
subjects  of  the  church.  The  Ghetto  of  the  Jews  at 
Rome  was  solemnly  opened  on  the  evening  of  the 
17th  of  April  1847.  It  had  been  customary  for  four 
elders  of  the  sj-nagogue  annually  to  approach  the 
Pope  with  an  humble  supplication  that  he  would 
grant  the  Jews  permission  as  a  nation  to  reside  in 
Rome.  This  degrading  custom,  Pius  IX.  abolished, 
and  granted  a  complete  and  unrestricted  toleration. 

Tbroughout  every  part  of  the  world  Jews  are  to 
be  found,  "There  is  not  a  country,"  says  Dr.  Keith, 
"on  the  face  of  the  earth,  where  the  Jews  are  un- 
known. They  are  found  alike  in  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America.  They  are  citizens  of  the  world 
without  a  country.  Neither  mountains,  nor  rivers, 
nor  deserts,  nor  oceans,  which  are  the  boundaries  of 
other  nations,  have  terminated  their  wanderings. 
They  abound  in  Poland,  in  Holland,  in  Russia,  and 
in  Turkey.  In  Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and 
Britain,  they  are  more  tliinly  scattered.  In  Persia, 
China,  and  India,  on  the  cast  and  on  the  west  of  the 
Ganges,  they  are  few  in  number  among  the  licathcn. 
They  have  trod  the  snows  of  Siberia,  and  the  sand  of 
the  burning  desert ;  and  the  European  traveller  hears 
of  their  existence  in  regions  which  he  cannot  reach, 
even  in  the  very  intciior  of  Africa,  south  of  Timbuc- 
too.  From  Moscow  to  Lisbon,  from  Japan  to  Bri- 
tain, from  Borneo  to  Archangel,  from  Ilindostan  to 
Honduras,  no  inliabitant  of  any  nation  upon  the 
earth  would  be  kno^vIl  in  all  the  intervening  regions, 
but  1  Jew  alone." 


Properly  speaking,  the  modern  Jews  have  no  sym- 
bol or  profession  of  faith,  but  allege  the  Word  of 
God  contained  in  the  Old  Testament  to  be  the 
standard  of  their  belief  and  practice.  Maimonides, 
however,  reduced  the  doctrines  of  Judaism  to  a 
limited  number  of  fundamental  principles,  which  are 
usually  known  by  the  name  of  the  Thirteen  Articles, 
and  are  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  exhibiting  a  view  ol 
their  peculiar  system.  These  articles  wliich  form 
the  creed  of  the  modern  Jews  are  as  follows : — 

"  I.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Creator 
(blessed  be  his  name)  is  the  Creator  and  Governor  of 
all  creatures,  that  he  alone  has  made,  does  make, 
and  will  make  all  things. 

"  II.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Creator 
(blessed  be  his  name)  is  only  one,  in  unity  to  which 
there  is  no  resemblance,  and  that  he  alone  has  been, 
is,  and  will  be  our  God. 

"  III.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Crea- 
tor (blessed  be  his  name)  is  not  corporeal,  nor  to  be 
comprehended  by  an  understanding  capable  of  com- 
prehending what  is  corporeal ;  and  that  there  is 
nothing  like  him  in  the  universe. 

"  IV.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Crea- 
tor (blessed  be  his  name)  is  the  First  and  the  Last. 

"  V.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Crea 
tor  (blessed  be  his  name)  is  the  only  object  of  ado- 
ration, and  that  no  other  being  wliatever  ought  to  be 
worshipped. 

"  VI.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  all  the 
words  of  the  prophets  are  true. 

"  VII.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  pro- 
phecies of  Moses  our  master  (may  he  rest  in  peace) 
are  true ;  and  that  lie  is  the  father  of  all  the  wise 
men,  as  well  of  those  who  went  before  him,  as  ot 
those  who  have  succeeded  him. 

"VIII.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the 
whole  law  which  we  have  in  our  hands  at  this  day, 
was  delivered  by  Moses  our  master,  (may  he  rest  in 
peace). 

"  IX.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  this  law 
will  never  be  changed,  and  that  no  other  law  will 
ever  be  given  by  the  Creator,  (blessed  be  his  name). 

"  X.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Crea- 
tor (blessed  be  Ids  name)  knows  all  the  actions  ot 
men,  and  all  their  thoughts,  as  it  is  said;  'He  fasli- 
ioneth  all  the  hearts  of  them,  and  undcrstaudeth  all 
their  works  ' 

"  XI.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the  Crea 
for  (blessed  be  his  name)  rewards  those  who  observe 
his  commands,  and  punishes  those  who  transgress 
them. 

"XII.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  tie 
Messiah  will  come,  and  though  he  delays,  neverthe- 
less I  will  always  expect  him  till  he  come. 

"  XIII.  I  believe  with  a  perfect  faith,  that  the 
dead  will  be  restored  to  life,  when  it  shall  be  so 
ordained  by  the  decree  of  the  Creator;  blessed  be 
his  name,  and  exalted  be  his  remembrance  for  ever 
and  ever." 


JEWS  (Modern). 


243 


The  articles  of  Maiiiionidos  have  beiMi  approved 
iiid  Siuictioiied  Iiy  aliiioHt  alJ  llie  ItiibbiB  I'ur  the  last 
live  hundred  years.  They  have  been  i)ubliidy  adopted 
w  the  creed  of  the  8yiia,;,'0f^iie,  and  liave  liecn  inserted 
in  the  prayer  books  as  fundamental  jxiints,  which  all 
Jews  are  expected  to  believe,  and  are  recpiired  to 
repeat  every  day.  The  precepts  of  tlie  Jewish  reli- 
gion are  considered  as  amounting  to  G13,  of  whicli 
the  aliirmative  are  2-18,  and  the  negative  3G.').  "  In 
the  tonoonnnandnients,"  saysa  writer  on  this  subject, 
"  there  are  Ol.'t  letters,  and  each  letter  stands  for  one 
command  ;  and  in  the  whole  law  of  Moses  there  are 
613  commandments;  and  such  was  the  power  of 
these  two  tables,  that  it  contained  the  complete  law 
of  Moses.  Thus  far  it  is  proved  tliat  a  perfect  God 
gave  ft  perfect  law."  The  negative  precepts  are 
obligatory  on  every  Israelite  at  all  times ;  but  of  the 
alhrmative,  some  are  opti(}nal,  some  are  restricted  to 
certain  seasons,  and  others  to  certain  otrices ;  some 
ijan  only  be  performed  in  ralestine,  and  others  are 
limited  to  the  regulation  of  such  ceremonies  and 
services  as  have  been  discontinued  since  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple.  Tlio  obligations  imposed  on 
Jewish  females  by  the  affirmative  precepts  are  very 
few.  The  lialjbis  hold  that  before  maiTiage  a  woman 
has  nothing  to  do  witli  religion,  and  is  not  required 
to  observe  any  of  the  commandments ;  and  after 
marriage,  she  has  only  to  observe  three:  (1.)  tlie 
purifications  of  women;  (2.)  to  bless  the  Sabbath 
bread — that  is,  to  take  a  small  piece  of  dough,  re- 
peat a  prayer  over  it,  and  throw  it  into  the  lire ;  and 
(3.)  to  light  the  candles  on  the  eve  of  any  Sabbath, 
or  of  any  festival,  and  repeat  a  prayer  whilst  doing  it. 

Every  Jewish  father  is  bound  to  instruct  his  sons 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  law,  but  not  his  daughters, 
and  women  are  not  required  to  learn  the  law  them- 
selves, neither  are  they  obbged  to  teach  it  to  their 
children.  The  process  of  education  followed  in  the 
case  of  Jewish  children  is  thus  described  by  Dr. 
M'Caul  in  his  '  Judaism  and  the  Jews  :' — "  At  four 
or  iive  years  of  age,  the  Jewish  child  begins  to  learn 
the  Aleph  Beth.  As  soon  as  he  can  read  the  Hebrew 
text  with  points,  tlie  work  of  translation  commences. 
There  is  no  learning  of  gi'ammar.  The  Melammed 
teaches  the  translation  at  once.  He  pronounces  the 
Hebrew  word,  and  tells  the  meaning,  and  repeats  a 
given  portion  in  this  way  until  the  child  knows  it. 
Thus,  without  grammar  or  lexicon,  without  any 
reference  to  roots  or  conjugations,  the  Jowi.sh  chil- 
dren learn  the  language  of  their  forefathers;  and  it  is 
surprising  to  see  the  progress  which  they  make  in 
the  course  of  a  year.  When  the  child  can  translate 
tolerably,  he  then  begins  the  Pentateuch  again,  with 
the  '  Commentary'  of  R.  Solomon  Jarchi.  The  style 
of  this  commentator  is  concise,  and  often  obscure. 
Rut  the  oral  instruction  clears  away  the  difficulties. 
The  Melammed  repeats  the  words,  giving  the  sense 
as  before,  and  the  child  repeats  after  him  until  he  has 
learned  his  task,  which  is  for  a  week — either  the 
whole  weekly  portion  of  the  law,  or  a  part  of  it, 


according  to  his  abilities.  When  lie  has  mastered 
Iiaslii,  he  begins  the  Talmud.  At  first,  the  oral 
method  is  used  as  before ;  but  very  goon  the  child  is 
left  to  sliift  for  himself;  and  usually,  at  ten  years  of 
age,  he  is  able  to  make  out  the  sense  by  the  help  ol 
Jarchi's  '  Commentary.'  At  thirteen  he  becomes  a 
bar  miUvah,  the  son  of  the  commandment,  and  is 
then  responsible  for  his  ovni  sins,  which,  up  to  that 
time,  the  father  has  borne ;  and  is  expected  to  ex- 
pound some  difficult  passage  of  tlie  Talmud  publicly 
in  the  synagogue.  Of  course  all  Jewish  chililren 
do  not  pursue  these  studies  so  far  as  the  Talmud  and 
its  commentaries.  The  mass  of  the  people  are  very 
poor,  and  many  are  therefore  obliged  to  rest  satisfied 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  Pentateuch.  Others  stop 
at  Kashi's  '  Commentary.'  Others  exhibit  no  taste 
for  learning.  But  still,  after  deducting  all  these 
classes,  a  greater  proportion  of  Jewish  children 
receive  a  learned  education  than  amongst  Christiana. 
Poor  youths  of  promise  find  a  seminary  and  books  in 
the  Beth  Ilammedrash,  or  house  of  instruction,  which 
exists  in  every  large  congregation,  where  the  Itabbi 
presides  and  superintends  the  studies.  They  are 
supported  by  voluntai-y  contribution,  and  wander 
about  from  one  celebrated  liabbi  to  another  in  order 
to  complete  their  studies ;  and,  it  must  be  added, 
everywhere  find  a  home  and  a  supply  of  the  neces- 
saries of  Ufe.  One  of  the  most  pleasmg  traits  in  the 
Jewish  character  is  the  hospitality  with  wliich  they 
treat  all  strangers  of  their  nation,  but  particularly 
wandering  students." 

A  strange  idea  prevails  among  the  modern  Jews, 
that  if  a  child  cannot  repeat  the  Kodesh  in  the 
synagogue,  the  soul  of  the  deceased  parent  remains 
in  purgatory.  The  gi-eatest  reproach,  besides,  that 
can  be  cast  upon  a  Rabbinical  Jew  is,  that  he  neglects 
the  education  of  his  children,  more  especially  the 
male  children,  on  whom  double  attention  is  bestowed. 
So  little  account  is  taken  of  females  among  the  Jews, 
that  a  thanksgiving  is  inserted  in  all  the  prayer- 
books,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  daily  devotions  of 
every  male  member  of  the  synagogue :  "  Blessed  art 
thou,  0  Lord  our  God !  King  of  the  universe  !  who 
hast  not  made  me  a  woman  !" 

From  the  dispersion  to  the  latter  end  of  the  last 
centuiy,  Rabbinism  prevailed  universally  amongst 
the  Jews,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  sect  of  the 
Caraites  (which  see).  The  distinguishing  feature 
of  the  Rabbinical  system  is,  that  it  asserts  the  trans- 
mission of  an  oral  or  traditional  law  of  equal  autho- 
rity with  the  written  law  of  God,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  resolves  tradition  into  the  present  opinions  of 
the  existing  church.  In  consequence  of  the  intro- 
duction of  Rabbinical  glosses,  the  great  doctrines  of 
Scripture  are  completely  perverted.  Thus  the  fun- 
damental tenet  of  original  sin  is  denied  by  the  Jews; 
and  Maimonides  bjldly  affirms  that  the  idea  of  man 
being  born  with  an  inherent  principle  of  sin  or 
holiness,  is  as  inconceivable  as  Ids  bemg  born  an 
adept  in  any  art  or  science.     On  the  other  hand,  the 


244 


JEWS  (Modern). 


Talmudists,  and  otlier  Jewish  writers,  frequently 
speak  of  an  evil  principle,  wlucli  they  represent  as 
the  internal  cause  of  all  the  sins  that  men  commit. 
Some  Rabbis  speak  of  two  principles  in  man,  the  one 
evil,  the  other  good  ;  the  former  born  with  him,  the 
latter  implanted  8.t  the  age  of  thirteen. 

The  modern  Jews  are  without  priest,  altar,  or 
sacrifice,  and,  in  their  view,  the  only  atonement  is 
sincere  repentance,  and  the  only  ground  of  acceptance 
is  a  perfect  conformity  to  the  law  of  Moses.  This  is 
the  doctrine  set  forth  by  Maimouides,  but  the  general 
doctrine  of  the  synagogue  appears  to  be,  that  there 
are  other  substitutes  as  well  as  repentance,  such  as 
the  sufferings  and  supererogatory  merits  of  reputed 
saints  and  martyrs.  The  doctrine  of  divine  influence 
is  taught  by  some  Rabbis,  but  not  by  others ;  and  the 
self-determining  power  of  the  human  will  to  good  or 
evil  is  clearly  asserted  in  a  maxim  laid  down  in  the 
Talmud,  that  everything  is  in  the  power  of  God 
except  the  fear  of  God.  Tlie  notion  is  very  generally 
entertained  among  modern  Jews,  that  the  ceremonial 
observances  gone  through  annually  on  tlie  Great  Day 
of  Atonement  serve  as  an  expiation  for  all  the  sins  of 
the  preceding  year.  Some  Rabbis  inculcate  that 
repentance  ought  to  be  accompanied  with  bodily 
mortification  and  penance ;  and  it  is  very  generally 
believed  that  the  bodily  pains  which  they  sufier  are 
expiations  for  sins.  The  doctrine  of  the  metempsy- 
chosis, or  that  one  human  soul  animates  several 
bodies  in  succession,  is  adopted  by  many  Jewish 
writers. 

It  is  maintained  by  the  Jews  that,  after  death, 
those  who  have  been  righteous  in  this  life  are  happy, 
and  ascend  immediately  into  the  holy  place ;  but  in 
the  case  of  a  wicked  man,  all  his  sins  which  stand  near 
him  go  before  him  to  his  grave,  and  trample  upon  his 
body.  The  angel  Duma  likewise  rises,  attended  by 
those  who  are  appointed  for  the  beating  of  the  dead 
— a  process  which  is  called  Chibbut  Hakkefer 
(which  see),  and  is  performed  in  the  grave.  Seven 
judgments  are  undergone  by  the  wicked,  which  are 
hus  described  by  a  Rabbinical  writer  : — "  The  first 
s  when  the  soul  departs  from  the  body.  The  second 
IS  when  his  works  go  before  him,  and  exclaim  against 
him.  The  third  is  when  the  body  is  laid  in  tlie 
grave.  The  fourth  is  Chibbut  Ilakhfer — that  is,  the 
beating  in  the  grave.  The  fifth  is  the  judgment  of 
the  worms.  When  his  body  has  Iain  in  the  grave 
three  days,  he  is  ripped  open,  his  entrails  come  out ; 
and  his  bowels,  with  the  sordes  in  them,  are  taken 
and  dashed  in  his  face,  with  this  address,  Take  what 
thou  hast  given  to  thy  stomach,  of  that  which  thou 
didst  daily  eat  and  drink,  and  of  which,  in  all  tliy 
daily  feastings,  tliou  distributedst  nothing  to  the  poor 
and  needy ;  as  it  is  said,  '  I  will  spread  upon  your 
faces  tlie  dung  of  your  solemn  feasts.'  Mai.  ii.  3. 
After  the  three  days,  a  man  receives  judgment  on 
his  eyes,  his  hands,  and  his  feet,  which  have  com- 
mitted iniquities,  till  tlie  thirticlli  day;  and  in  all 
these   thirty   days   tlie   soul   and  body  are  judged 


together.  Wherefore  the  soul  during  this  time 
remains  here  upon  earth,  and  is  not  sufi'ered  to  go  to 
the  place  to  which  it  belongs.  The  sixth  is  the 
judgment  of  Hell.  The  seventh  is,  that  his  soul 
wanders,  and  is  driven  about  the  world,  finding  no 
rest  anywhere  till  the  days  of  her  punishment  are 
ended.  These  are  the  seven  judgments  inflicted  upon 
men ;  and  these  are  what  are  signified  in  the  threat 
ening,  '  Then  will  I  walk  contrary  unto  you  also  in 
fury  ;  and  I,  even  I,  will  chastise  you  seven  times  for 
your  sins.'  Lev.  xxvi.  28."  The  Jews,  we  have 
said,  hold  the  doctrine  of  trans-migration,  some  pass- 
ing into  human  bodies,  others  into  beasts,  others  into 
vegetables,  and  others  still  into  stones. 

It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  enumerate  the 
idle  and  frivolous  ceremonies  enjoined  by  the  Rabbis 
in  dressing  and  undressing,  washing  and  wiping  the 
face  and  hands,  and  otlier  actions  of  daily  life.  To 
instance  one,  which  is  mentioned  by  Buxtorf :  "A 
Jew  ought  to  put  on  the  right  shoe  first,  and  then 
the  left ;  but  the  left  shoe  is  to  be  tied  first,  and  the 
right  afterwards.  If  the  shoes  have  no  latchets  or 
strings,  the  left  shoe  must  be  put  on  first.  In  un- 
dressing, the  left  shoe,  whether  with  or  without 
latchets  or  strings,  is  in  all  cases  to  be  taken  ofi 
first."  But  passing  to  matters  of  more  importance, 
those  which  concern  the  public  worship  of  the  Jews, 
we  remark  that  a  congregation,  according  to  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Rabbis,  requires  at  least  ten  men  who 
have  passed  the  thirteenth  year  of  their  age ;  and  it 
this  number  is  found  in  any  locality,  they  may  pro- 
cure a  Synagogue  (which  see) ,  or,  as  it  is  often 
termed,  a  little  sanctuary. 

Various  fonns  of  prayer  are  prescribed  to  be  used 
in  the  synagogue  as  well  as  in  private  devotion.  The 
prayers  are  appointed  to  be  said  all  of  them  in  He- 
brew, and  the  most  important  of  them  are  called  She- 
inoneh  Esreh,  or  the  eighteen  prayers,  to  which  an- 
other has  been  added,  directed  against  heretics  and 
apostates,  thus  makingthe  number  of  prayersnineteen, 
though  they  are  still  called  by  the  original  name.  In 
addition  to  these  prayers,  the  daily  service  consists  of 
the  reading  of  three  portions  of  Scripture,  an  exer- 
cise which  is  termed  Kiriath  Shema,  or  reading  of 
the  Shema,  which  is  the  commencing  word  of  the 
first  of  these  three  portions  in  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
All  except  women,  servants,  and  little  children,  are 
enjoined  to  read  these  passages  twice  every  day. 
The  Shema  and  the  nineteen  prayers  are  never  to  be 
omitted  at  the  stated  seasons  of  devotion.  There 
are  also  numerous  sliort  prayers  and  benedictions 
which  every  Jew  is  expected  to  repeat  daily.  The 
members  of  the  synagogue  arc  required  to  repeat,  at 
least,  a  hundred  benedictions  every  day.  The  htur- 
gies  adopted  by  the  Jews  vary,  in  some  few  particu- 
lars, in  difterent  countries,  but  iu  the  main  body  of 
the  prayers  thoy  all  agree.  It  is  customary  to  chant 
the  prayers  rather  tlian  ri'ad  them. 

Among  the  modern  Jews  tlie  ancient  mode  of  com- 
puting tlie  day,  from  sunset  on  one  evening  to  sunset 


JEWS  (Modern)  in  America. 


24S 


Bri  tlie  fullowiiig  evening,  is  still  retained.  Their 
Salilmth  commeiicos  at  sunset  on  I'ridiiy,  and  teiini- 
natcH  at  sunset  on  Saturday.  Notliing  o»t;lit  to  be 
undertaken  on  a  Friday,  uidcss  it  can  be  (inislied  Ije- 
foro  tlie  evening.  In  the  aftonioon  of  tliat  day  tliey 
wasli  and  cle.'in  themselves,  trim  their  hair,  and  pare 
their  nails.  They  begin  witli  the  left  hand,  but  deem 
it  improper  to  cut  the  nails  on  two  adjoining  fingers 
in  succession.  As  to  the  parings  of  tlie  nails,  the 
Talmud  declares,  "  He  that  throws  them  on  the 
ground  is  an  impious  man  ;  ho  that  buries  them  is  a 
just  man  ;  he  that  tlu'ows  them  into  tlie  ilre  is  a  pious 
and  perfect  man." 

The  writings  of  the  Rivbbis  contain  numerous  re- 
gulations concerning  meats  and  drinks.  For  exam- 
ple, the  Jews  are  not  permitted  to  taste  the  flesli  of 
any  four-footed  animals  but  those  which  both  chew 
the  cud  and  part  tlie  hoof;  as  sheep,  oxen,  and 
goats.  They  are  forbidden  to  eat  rabbits,  hares,  or 
Bwine.  They  are  allowed  to  eat  no  (ish  but  such  as 
have  both  scales  and  fins,  no  birds  of  prey,  nor  any 
reptile.  They  are  prohibited  from  eating  the  blood 
of  any  beast  or  bird,  and  also  from  eating  of  any 
creature  that  dies  of  itself.  Mr.  Allen,  in  his  '  Mo- 
dern Judaism,'  thus  describes  the  mode  in  which 
animals  designed  to  be  eaten  by  Jews  are  slaugh- 
tered :  "  Cattle,  for  their  use,  are  required  to  be 
slaughtered  by  a  Jew,  duly  qualified  and  specially 
appointed  for  that  purpose.  After  an  animal  is 
killed,  he  examines  whether  the  inward  parts  are 
perfectly  sound.  If  he  find  the  least  blemish  of  any 
kind,  the  whole  carcase  is  rejected  as  unfit  for  Jew- 
ish tables.  If  it  be  found  in  the  state  required,  he 
atfixes  to  it  a  leaden  seal,  on  one  side  of  which  is  the 
word  Cosher,  which  signifies  right,  and  on  the  other 
the  day  of  the  week  in  Hebrew  characters.  At  every 
Christian  butcher's,  who  sells  meat  to  the  Jews,  there 
is  a  Jew  stationed,  who  is  appointed  by  the  riders 
of  the  synagogue  to  superintend  it.  When  the  ear- 
case  is  cut  up,  he  is  also  to  seal  the  respective  pieces. 

"  Of  those  beasts  which  are  allowed,  they  are  not 
to  eat  the  hind  quarters  unless  the  sinew  of  the 
thigh  is  taken  out,  which  is  a  troublesome  and  ex- 
pensive operation,  requiring  a  person  duly  qualified 
and  specially  appointed  for  that  particular  purpose ; 
and  therefore  it  is  rarely  done. 

"  Previously  to  boiling  any  meat,  they  are  required 
to  let  it  lie  half  an  hour  in  water  and  an  hour  in  salt, 
iiUil  then  to  rinse  off  the  salt  with  clean  water.  This 
Is  designed  to  draw  out  any  remaining  blood." 

From  the  prohibition  in  the  Law  of  Moses  against 
seething  a  kid  in  his  mother's  milk,  the  Jews  infer 
that  they  must  not  eat  meat  and  butter  together. 
Hence  the  vessels  used  for  meat  must  not  Ije  em- 
ployed for  things  consisting  either  wholly  or  part  of 
milk,  and  for  eating  and  dressing  vessels  they  are 
obliged  to  use  dilTerent  utensils.  They  purchase 
their  kitchen  utensils  perfectly  new,  lest  they  may 
previously  have  been  in  the  possession  of  Gentiles, 
»iid  may  have  been  used  for  forbidden  meats. 


JEWS  (Moder.n)  in  Amf.rica.  Jews  from  the 
Spanish  Peninsula  appear  to  have  settled  in  America 
shortly  after  its  discovery  by  Columbus.  In  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century  they  were  found  in  Drazil 
under  the  name  of  New  Christians.  They  obtained 
considerable  accessions  to  their  numbers  in  that 
country  by  the  arrival  of  emigrants  from  France. 
At  length  Brazil  was  conquered  by  the  arms  of 
Holland,  and  forthwith  considerable  bodies  of  Dutch 
Jews  crossed  the  Atlantic,  accompanied  by  two  Itjib- 
bins,  and  founded  a  Jewish  colony  in  Brazil.  Soon 
after  their  settlement  in  the  country,  they  rose  to 
great  prosperity  and  infiuence  under  the  fostering  care 
of  the  Dutch  govermnent,  which  encouraged  them 
by  the  entire  toleration  of  their  religion,  while  the 
.lews,  in  their  turn,  rendered  essential  service  to  the 
State,  by  defending  the  country  against  the  Sjianiards 
and  Portuguese.  But  in  1054  the  Dutch  lost  pos- 
session of  Brazil,  that  part  of  South  America  having 
again  become  a  colony  of  Portugal ;  and  in  conse- 
quence the  Jews  were  under  the  necessity  of  seeking 
a  settlement  elsewhere.  A  considerable  portion  of 
them  established  themselves  in  another  part  of  the 
New  World,  the  Dutch  West  Indian  Company  hav- 
ing, in  1G59,  aribrded  them  a  place  of  residence  at 
Cayenne.  Their  number  was  speedily  increased  by 
the  arrival  of  several  families  of  Portuguese  .lews 
from  Lisbon.  The  progress  of  tlie  colony,  how- 
ever, was  hindered  by  a  war,  first  with  Portugal,  and 
then  with  France,  which  in  1GG4  took  the  coiuitry, 
and  scattered  the  Jews  who  had  settle'l  there. 

A  more  prosperous  and  lasting  settlement  was 
effected  by  Portuguese  Jews  at  Surinam.  This  co- 
lony was  planted  by  Lord  Willoughby  in  the  time  of 
Charles  II.,  the  charter  beiag  dated  in  lGtJ2,  and  at 
the  invitation  of  its  founder  the  colony  was  joined 
by  a  number  of  industrious,  and  even  distinguished, 
Israelites,  who  had  left  Cayenne.  The  Jews  were 
here  placed  on  a  footing  of  entire  equality  with  the 
English,  while  they  were  left  at  perfect  liberty  in  all 
matters  of  religion.  In  a  few  years  the  colony 
passed  from  the  hands  of  the  English  into  those  of 
the  Dutch,  and  a  considerable  number  of  Jewish 
families  at  this  period  went  along  with  the  English 
to  form  a  colony  at  Jamaica.  Many  Jews,  however, 
preferred  to  remain  under  Dutch  protection  at  Suri 
nam,  where  several  individuals  belonging  to  Hebrew 
families  distinguished  themselves,  first  in  defence  of 
the  colony  in  1089  against  the  French,  and  after- 
wards, both  in  that  and  the  succeeding  century, 
against  the  Indians  and  Negroes.  The  prosperity  of 
the  synagogue  at  Surinam,  however,  was  considera- 
bly diminished  by  internal  disputes,  which  arose 
among  the  Jews  themselves.  They  were  afterwards 
joined  by  some  German  Jews,  but  the  decayed  con- 
dition of  the  colony,  for  many  years  past,  has  not  a 
little  retarded  the  progress  of  the  Jewish  population. 
Another  settlement  of  Jews  has  long  existed  at 
Curafoa,  which,  though  originally  a  Spanish  colony 
has  for  a  very  long  period  been  in  the  hands  of  th» 


246 


JEWS  (Modern)  in  Britain 


Dutch.  It  was  not  till  the  eighteenth  century,  how- 
ever, that  they  possessed  a  synagogue,  wliich,  in  a 
ehort  time,  was  followed  by  a  second.  The  Jewish 
population  of  the  colony  is  now  reduced  to  less  than 
J, 000  souls. 

Jews  are  found  in  every  portion  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America.  Probably  the  first  Jew- 
ish settlement  was  formed  at  New  Amsterdam,  when 
it  was  under  the  Dutch  government  about  1660.  But 
the  number  of  the  Israelites  seems  to  have  increased 
more  slowly  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  as 
we  find  that  till  1827  only  one  Jewish  synagogue  was 
required  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Since  that  period 
five  other  congregations  have  been  formed,  and  all 
their  places  of  v/orship  are  often  crowded.  The 
number  of  Jews  in  the  city  of  New  York  was  cal- 
culated a  few  years  ago  to  amount  to  10,000  ;  but 
Jewish  emigrants  arrive  so  rapidly  fi'om  all  parts  of 
the  Old  AVorld,  that  their  number,  in  all  probability, 
much  exceeds  the  calculation  now  referred  to.  In 
the  United  States,  the  Jews  were  lately  computed  at 
60,000  males,  from  thirteen  years  and  upwards.  The 
whole  Jewish  population  of  the  United  States,  in- 
cluding women  and  children,  may,  therefore,  be  said 
to  reach  150,000.  In  a  few  of  the  synagogues  in 
North  America,  the  service  is  conducted  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  but  these  are  rare  exceptions,  the  He- 
brew being  almost  universally  the  language  used  in 
public  worship.  The  Jews  enjoy  perfect  liberty  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  consequence  they  are  often 
found  in  places  of  tmst,  and  their  names  may  be 
seen  on  the  rolls  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  houses 
of  Congress. 

JEWS  (Modern)  in  Britain.  Jews  appear  to 
have  settled  in  England  so  far  back  as  the  time  of 
the  Saxon  Heptarchy.  Accordingly,  a  reference  to 
them  occurs  in  an  ecclesiastical  canon  of  Egbert, 
archbishop  of  York,  in  A.  D.  7-10,  which  prohibited 
Christians  from  taking  any  part  in  the  Jewish  festi- 
vals. By  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  the 
Jews  are  declared  to  be  tlie  property  of  the  king. 
When  William  the  Conqueror  came  over  from  Nor- 
mandy to  England,  many  Jews  accompanied  him ; 
and  they  are  mentioned  in  the  time  of  William  Rufus, 
the  second  king  of  the  Norman  line,  as  being  pos- 
sessed, in  various  instances,  of  great  wealth,  living 
in  splendid  mansions  in  London  and  other  towns, 
and  having  wliole  streets  named  after  them. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  the  Jews  were  treated  with 
great  cruelty  and  inhumanity  in  England.  They 
were  bani.shed  from  the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  At  the  coronation  of  Kichard  Coeur-de- 
Ijion,  they  were  prohibited  under  heavy  penalties 
from  appearing  in  the  streets,  and  some  having  ven- 
tured to  disobey  the  royal  order  were  discovered  by 
the  populace,  and  rudely  as-saulted.  Both  in  Lon- 
don and  the  provinces  the  utmost  indignities  and 
insults  wore  heaped  Ufion  the  poor  despised  children 
of  Abraham.  It  was  at  length  reeolved  to  make  a 
general  massacre  of  the  entire  Jewish  population  iii 


England.  They  offered  to  ransom  their  lives  witt 
money, — a  privilege  which  was  denied  them,  so  thai 
being  rendered  desperate,  many  of  them  slew  theii 
wives  and  children,  declaring  that  it  was  better  to 
die  courageously  for  the  Law  than  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  Christians.  They  then  committed  their  pro- 
perty to  the  flames,  and  madly  slew  one  another. 

The  same  system  of  policy,  in  reference  to  tiie 
Jews,  was  pursued  by  John,  the  brother  and  succes- 
sor of  Richard.  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
A.  D.  1199,  he  bestowed  upon  them  all  the  privileges 
they  could  desire  ;  but  these  plausible  enactments 
were  only  intended  to  conceal  his  real  designs.  He 
seized  upon  the  treasures  of  the  Jews,  and  compelled 
them,  by  the  most  cruel  tortures,  to  pour  their  wealth 
into  the  royal  coffers.  His  son  Heniy  III,  followed 
in  the  footsteps  of  his  father,  persecuting  the  Jews 
in  reahty,  while  passing  decrees  in  their  favour. 
Worn  out  at  length  by  the  ill-treatment  which  they 
had  endured  during  several  reigns,  the  Jews  ear- 
nestly petitioned  to  be  allowed  to  leave  the  country. 
Tills,  however,  was  not  granted,  and  their  suffer- 
ings were  protracted  for  some  years  longer,  when  in 
1290  Edward  I.  banished  them  from  the  kingdom. 
The  Jews  now,  with  their  families  and  all  the  pro- 
perty which  they  had  been  able  to  rescue  from  the 
hands  of  their  spoilers,  quitted  the  country  to  tha 
number  of  about  16,000.  Many  of  the  exiled  He- 
brews threw  themselves  into  the  sea  in  despair,  and 
others  with  difficulty  reached  the  Continent  in  a 
state  of  extreme  destitution. 

For  three  centuries  and  a-half  the  Jews  were  pro» 
hibited  from  setting  foot  on  the  shores  of  England, 
although  the  other  European  powers,  both  Protestant 
and  Romish,  gave  them  free  access  to  their  different 
countries.  Oliver  Cromwell,  however,  who,  on  reli- 
gious groimds,  was  not  unfavom'able  to  the  Jews, 
became  deeply  convinced  of  the  impolicy  of  exclud- 
ing this  industrious  and  enterprising  nation  from  all 
connection  with  the  English  people.  Probably 
aware  of  the  good  inclinations  of  the  Protector  to- 
wards them,  the  Jews  on  the  Continent  despatched 
Manasseh  ben  Israel  on  a  mission  to  the  English 
court,  with  a  request  to  be  allowed  to  reside  and 
freely  to  exercise  their  religion  in  any  part  of  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Ireland.  On  receiving  this  pe. 
tition,  Cromwell  summoned  a  meeting  of  clergy,  law- 
yers, and  merchants,  to  state  theirviews  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  Protector  himself  on  this  occasion  pleaded 
eloquently  on  behalf  of  the  Jews,  urging  on  Scrip- 
tural as  well  as  other  grounds,  the  high  expediency 
of  rc-adniitting  the  Jews  into  England.  But  the 
majority  of  the  meeting,  particularly  the  clergy  and 
merdiants,  declared  themselves  wholly  opposed  to 
the  propo.sal,  and  thus  the  question  was  meanwhile 
deferred.  Without  any  formal  enactment  in  theii 
favour,  however,  the  Jews  were  tolerated  in  Great 
Britain,  though  not  as  English  subjects,  or  as  form- 
ing a  Jewish  synagogue.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II 
the  Jews  obtained  leave   to  erect  a  synagogue  iu 


JINA3-JIN3. 


247 


r^niidoii,  and  to  exercise  their  religion  with  Unre- 
stricted (Voedom.  And  it  is  a  somewliat  reinarkahle 
fact,  talieii  in  connection  willi  tliis  tolerant  enactment, 
th.'it  tlie  negotiations  for  the  m.arriago  of  Charles 
witli  the  Infanta,  Catherine  of  Portugal,  were  carried 
on  hy  General  Monk,  through  tlie  mediiun  of  a  Por- 
tuguese .Tew ;  and  tlie  Infanta  was  accom]ianicd  to 
England  hy  two  hrolhers,  who  both  of  them  openly 
professed  the  religion  of  Moses.  From  th.at  time 
the  Portuguese  .syn.agogue  in  London  began  to  flou- 
rish, its  numbers  being  increased  by  the  emigration 
of  distinguished  Jcwi.sh  families  from  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, but  especially  from  the  Netherlands.  These 
families  have  lived  and  prospered  in  London,  parti- 
cularly since  the  reign  of  King  William  in  the  end  of 
the  seventeentli  century. 

The  .Jews,  from  the  period  of  the  Revolution  of 
1G88,  when  numbers  came  over  with  the  Prince  of 
Orange  from  Holland,  have  ever  proved  themselves 
loyal  and  obedient  subjects  of  the  English  govcrn- 
fiient,  readily  aiding  in  every  emergency,  both  in 
person  and  with  their  capital ;  and  in  the  rebellion 
l)f  1745,  they  gave  ample  proof  of  their  fidelity  to 
the  reigning  Protestant  dynasty.  Accordingly,  the 
government,  appreciating  the  exemplary  conduct  of 
the  Jews,  brought  a  bill  into  Parliament  in  1753, 
"granting  to  all  Jews,  who  had  resided  in  Great  Bri- 
tain or  Ireland  for  the  space  of  three  years,  the 
rights  of  English  citizenship,  with  the  exception  of 
patronage  and  admission  to  Parliament."  The  bill 
passed,  though  violently  opposed  both  in  the  House 
and  in  the  country ;  but  such  was  the  excitement 
produced  by  the  success  of  the  measure,  and  so  many 
were  the  earnest  petitions  for  its  repeal,  tliat  the 
Parliament  was  at  length  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
wishes  of  the  people,  and  to  accede  to  a  propositi 
introduced  by  ministers  with  that  view.  The  Jews 
themselves  had  expressed  no  great  anxiety  for  such  a 
law  in  their  favour,  fearing,  as  they  did,  th.at  when 
thus  placed  on  a  footing  with  the  Christians,  some 
of  the  Israelites  might  be  induced  to  renounce  the 
religion  of  their  fathers. 

From  the  period  of  the  first  Revolution  in  France, 
a  liberal  and  tolerant  sjiirit  has  made  great  progress 
in  England,  and  efforts  have,  from  time  to  time,  been 
made  towards  the  absolute  emancipation  of  the  Jews. 
The  ancient  laws  relative  to  Israel  have  not  been 
formally  repealed,  but  they  have  been  allowed  si- 
lently to  fall  into  desuetude.  They  possess  the 
right  of  voting,  and  are  eligible  for  the  office  of 
magistrates  in  towns.  A  Jew  has  been  Lord  Mayor 
of  London,  and  another  has  been  sheriff  of  the  city. 
In  the  face  of  the  law,  which  excludes  Jews  from 
Parliament,  Baron  Lionel  Rothschild,  an  Israelite, 
has  been  elected  again  and  again  as  one  of  the  mem- 
ners  to  represent  the  city  of  Loudon  in  Parliament. 
This  striking  popular  demonstration,  in  favour  of  the 
Jews,  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  bill  into  the 
House  of  Commons,  with  the  sanction  of  the  govern- 
ment, to  change  the  form  of  the  oath  which  is  ad- 


ministered to  members  on  taking  their  seats.  A 
clause  which  occurs  in  the  oath  contains  the  words, 
"on  the  faith  of  a  Christian,"  which,  of  course,  can 
not  1)0  conscientiously  used  by  a  Jew,  and  must,  as 
long  as  they  are  retained,  form  an  effectual  barrier 
to  the  entrance  of  a  Jew  into  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Almost  every  session,  for  some  years  past, 
a  bill  for  the  modification  of  the  oath,  by  the  exclu- 
sion, in  the  case  of  the  Jews,  of  the  obnoxious  clause, 
has  been  p.assed  by  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
rejected  by  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  tlie 
course  of  the  present  year  (18.58),  however,  the  lords 
have  yielded,  and  the  Jews  are  now  eligible  as  mem- 
bers of  Parliament,  and  allowed  to  occujjy  the  high- 
est offices  in  the  government.  Many  conversions 
from  Jud.aism  to  Christianity  have  taken  place  of  late 
years  in  Great  Britain,  and  some  converted  Jews  are 
at  this  hour  exercising  their  gifts  as  Christian  min- 
isters in  connection  with  the  Church  of  England. 

JINAS,  saints  among  the  J.^INS  (which  see)  in  In 
dia.  A  saint  is  called  aJina,  as  being  the  victor  over 
all  human  passions  and  infirmities.  He  is  supposed  to 
be  possessed  of  thirty-six  superhuman  attributes,  four 
classes  of  which  regard  the  person  of  a  Jtita,  such  as 
the  beauty  of  his  form,  the  fragrance  of  his  body, 
the  white  colour  of  his  blood,  the  curling  of  his 
hair,  its  non-increase,  and  the  beard  and  nails,  his 
exemption  from  all  natural  impurities,  from  hun- 
ger and  thirst,  from  infirmity  and  decay — properties 
which  are  considered  to  be  born  with  him.  He  can 
collect  around  him  millions  of  human  beings,  gods, 
men,  and  animals,  in  a  comparatively  small  space  ; 
his  voice  is  audible  to  a  great  distance,  and  his  lan- 
guage is  intelligible  to  animals,  men,  and  gods.  The 
back  of  his  head  is  encircled  with  a  halo  of  light, 
brighter  than  the  sun,  and  for  an  immense  interval 
around  him  wherever  he  moves,  there  is  neither 
sickness  nor  enmity,  storm  nor  dearth,  plague  nor 
war.  Eleven  attributes  of  this  kind  are  ascribed 
to  him.  The  remaining  nineteen  are  of  celestial  ori- 
gin, as  the  raining  of  flowers  and  perfumes,  the  sound 
of  heavenly  drums,  and  the  menial  offices  rendered 
by  Indra  and  the  gods. 

The  Jinas,  twenty-four  in  number,  though  similar 
in  their  general  character  and  attributes,  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other  in  colour,  stature,  and  longe- 
vity. Two  of  them  are  red,  two  white,  two  blue, 
two  black,  the  rest  are  of  a  golden  hue,  or  a  yellow- 
ish brown.  In  regard  to  stature  and  length  of  life, 
they  undergo  a  gradual  decrease  from  Rishabha  the 
first  Jina,  who  was  five  hundred  poles  in  stature,  and 
lived  8,400,000  great  years,  toMahavira,  flietwentv- 
fourth  Jina,  who  had  degenerated  to  the  size  of  man, 
and  was  not  more  than  forty  years  on  earth.  It  is 
not  improbiible,  as  Professor  H.  II.  Wilson  suggests, 
that  these  Jain  legends,  as  to  their  Jinas  or  saints, 
are  drawn  from  the  legendary  tales  as  to  the  seriea 
of  the  ancient  Budhas. 

JINS,  an  intermediate  race,  according  to  the  Mo- 
hammedans, between  angels  and  men.    They  believe 


248 


J]SU— JOIIANNITES 


tliem  to  be  made  of  fire,  but  with  grosser  bodies  than 
tlie  angels.  The  Jim  are  said  to  propagate  tlieir 
kind,  and,  tlioiigh  long-lived,  not  to  be  immortal. 
These  beings  are  supposed  to  have  inhabited  the 
earth  previous  to  tlie  creation  of  Adam,  under  a 
succession  of  sovereigns.  Mohammed  professed  to 
be  sent  as  a  preacher  to  tliem  as  well  as  to  men  ; 
and  in  tlie  chapter  of  the  Koran  which  bears  their 
name,  he  introduces  them  as  uttering  tliese  words  : 
"  Tliere  are  some  among  us  who  are  upriglit,  and 
there  are  some  among  us  who  are  otherwise ;  we  are 
of  dirt'erent  ways,  and  we  verily  thought  that  we 
could  by  no  means  frustrate  God  in  the  earth,  neither 
could  we  escape  him  by  flight :  therefore,  when  we 
heard  the  direction,  we  believed  therein.  There  are 
Jloslems  among  us,  and  others  who  swerve  from 
rigliteousness." 

JISU,  a  god  among  the  Japanese,  whose  office  it 
is  to  convey  souls  to  the  infernal  regions. 

JOACHIMITES,  the  followers  of  the  famous 
Joachim,  abbot  fii-st  of  Corace,  then  of  Floris  in 
Calabria,  in  the  twelfth  centuiy.  Tliis  remarkable 
man  was  supposed  by  the  common  people  to  be 
divinely  inspired,  and  equal  to  the  ancient  prophets. 
Ilis  predictions,  which  were  numerous,  were  most  of 
them  included  in  a  work  which  bore  the  name  of 
'  The  Everlasting  Gospel.'  This  strange  treatise 
consisted  of  tlu-ee  books,  and  was  full  of  enigmatic 
and  ambiguous  predictions.  An  Introduction  to  this 
book  was  wTitten  by  some  obscure  monk,  wlio  pro- 
fessed to  explain  its  prophecies,  applying  them  to 
tlie  Franciscans.  Botli  tlie  university  of  Paris  and 
Pope  Alexander  IV.  condemned  the  Introduction, 
and  ordered  it  to  be  burned.  This  latter  production, 
wliich  belongs  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, has  been  ascribed  to  John  of  Parma,  general  of 
the  Franciscans ;  or  more  probably  to  a  Franciscan 
monk  named  Gerhard,  who  adhered  to  tlie  party  of 
tlie  S/iiritiials,  and  is  known  to  have  faxoured  the 
opinions  of  the  abbot  Joachim.  '  The  Everlasting 
Gospel'  describes  in  strong  language  the  growing 
corruption  of  the  church,  and  Pascbalis  holds  a  pro- 
minent place  in  the  picture.  The  Popes  in  general 
come  in  for  a  large  share  of  reproach,  on  account  of 
the  Crusades,  by  which  Joachim  alleges  they  had 
exhausted  the  nations  and  resources  of  Clu'istendoin 
among  barbarous  tribes,  under  the  specious  pretence 
of  cai-rying  to  them  salvation  and  the  cross.  "  Grief 
over  the  corruption  of  the  church,"  says  Neander, 
"  longing  desire  for  better  times,  profound  Christian 
feeling,  a  meditative  mind,  and  a  glowing  imagina- 
tion, such  are  tlic  peculiar  characteristics  of  his  spirit 
and  of  his  writings.  Ilis  ideas  were  presented  for 
the  most  part  in  tlie  form  of  comments  and  medita- 
tioiig  on  the  New  Testament ;  but  the  Language  of 
the  Bible  furnished  him  only  with  such  hints  as 
might  tuni  up  for  the  matter  wliicli  he  laid  into 
(liem  by  his  allegorizing  mode  of  interiirelation ; 
all  hough  the  types  which  he  supposed  he  found  pre- 
tiiiiieil  in  the  Scriptures,  reacted  in  giving  sliaiJC  to 


his  intuitions.  As  his  writings  and  ideas  found  great 
acceptance  in  tliis  age  among  those  who  were  dis- 
satisfied with  the  present,  and  who  were  longing 
after  a  difi'erent  condition  of  the  cluuxli ;  and  the 
Franciscans,  who  might  easily  fancy  they  discovered, 
even  in  that  which  is  certainly  genuine,  in  Joachim's 
writings,  a  prophecy  referring  to  their  order,  so  a 
strong  temptation  arose  to  tlie  forging  of  works  under 
his  name,-  or  the  interpolating  those  which  really 
proceeded  from  him.  The  loose  connection  of  the 
matter  in  his  works,  made  it  easy  to  insert  passages 
from  other  hands ;  and  this  character  of  the  style 
renders  a  critical  sifting  of  them  difficult." 

The  title  of  Joachim's  book,  'The  Everlasting 
Gospel,'  is  borrowed  from  Rev.  xiv.  6,  and  by  this 
expression  he  understood,  following  the  view  of 
Origen,  a  new  spiritual  apprehension  of  Christianity, 
as  opposed  to  the  sensuous  Romish  point  of  view, 
and  answering  to  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  A 
great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  publication  in 
1254  of  the  '  Introductory  to  the  Everlasting  Gos- 
pel,' which  claimed  all  the  prophecies  of  Joacliim, 
as  referring  to  the  Franciscan  order,  and  alleged  that 
St.  Fi'ancis  was  that  apocalyptic  angel  whom  John 
saw  Ajnug  in  the  midst  of  heaven.  Joachim  had 
taught  that  two  imperfect  ages  or  dispensations  were 
past,  those  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son ;  and  that 
a  third  more  perfect  was  at  hand,  that  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  'Introductory'  of  Gerhard,  however, 
alleged  that  the  gospel  of  Christ  would  be  abrogated 
in  the  year  1260,  and  the  new  and  eternal  gospel 
would  take  its  place,  and  that  the  ministers  by  whom 
this  new  dispensation  would  be  introduced  were  to 
be  itinerant  barefooted  friars.  Tlie  commentary  thus 
grafted  upon  the  writings  of  Joachim  by  a  Francis- 
can monk,  excited  the  utmost  indignation  against 
the  mendicant  monks,  and  the  University  of  Paris 
complained  so  loudly  against  the  '  Introductory," 
that  by  order  of  the  Pope  it  was  publicly  burnt. 

JOGIS.    See  Yogis. 

JOHANNITES,  a  sect  which  arose  in  Constanti 
nople  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  deriving 
their  name  from  John  Chiysostom,  the  validity  of 
whose  deposition  they  refused  to  acknowledge.  On 
Sundays  and  festival  days  they  held  their  private 
meetings,  which  were  conducted  by  clergymen 
who  thouglit  like  themselves,  and  from  these  alone 
they  would  receive  the  sacraments.  So  keenly  did 
they  feel  in  regard  to  the  deposition  of  their  bishop, 
that  sanguinary  tumults  ensued.  This  schism  spread 
more  widely  in  the  church,  and  many  bishops  and 
clerg)'men  joined  the  party.  They  were  encouraged 
by  the  Roman  church,  which  constantly  maintained 
the  innocence  of  Chiysostom.  Atticus,  the  second 
successor  of  the  deposed,  being  of  a  conciliatory  spi- 
rit, introduced  the  name  of  Chrysostom  into  the 
church  prayers  olTcred  in  behalf  of  bishops  who  had 
died  in  She  orthodox  faith.  Through  the  influence 
of  the  same  benevolent  jm^late,  a  universal  anmesty 
was  obtained  for  all  the  adliercnts  of  Clirysostoni 


JOHN  (St.)  n.vi'Tisr's  Day— JORDAN  (Batiiisg  in  the). 


248 


bmong  tlio  clerRy.  Thus  a  slill  mure  extensive 
schism  was  oljviiitcil ;  Imt  a  sjiiall  party  of  .Johan- 
uiteH  Ktill  coiitiiiueil  (o  hold  their  ^;r(jimil  at  Cunhtaii- 
thioi)lo.  The  first  wlio  succcciIlmI  in  piittin;;  an  end 
to  tlio  scliism  in  tliat  city  was  the  patriarch  I'ro- 
chis,  who  pri^vailed  upon  tlie  emperor  'I'heodo.sius 
II.  in  A.  t).  4.'!8,  to  allow  the  remains  of  Chrysostom 
to  be  brought  back  to  Constantinople,  and  to  be 
buried  there  with  solemn  pomp;  and  having  thus 
gratilied  the  remnant  of  the  Johannites,  he  persuaded 
I  hem  to  connect  themselves  once  more  with  the 
dominant  church. 

■lOlIN  (St.),  Ciiiii.sTiANS  OK.     See  Mknii.kans. 

.lOIIN  (St.)  Kai'TISt's  Dav,  a  Christian  festi- 
val, which  is  Iraccil  back  to  the  tifth  century.  It 
was  instituted  in  coMunemoralion  uf  the  nativity  of 
John  the  llai)tist ;  the  only  nativity  besides  that  of 
our  Lord  celebrated  in  the  cluucli,  hut  allowed  on 
account  of  its  special  coimection  with  the  birth  of 
the  Saviom-.  It  is  held  on  the  24th  of  June.  In 
a.  1).  50G  it  was  received  among  the  great  feasts  like 
ICaster,  Christmas,  and  other  festivals  ;  and  was  cele- 
brated with  equal  solemnity,  and  in  much  the  same 
nuumer. 

JOHN  (St.)  Baptist's  Mahtykdom,  a  festival 
celebrated  in  the  Greek  church  on  the  29th  of 
August. 

JOHN  (St.)  Evangelist's  Dav,  a  Christian 
I'estival  celebrated  in  connnemoration  of  John  the 
beloved  disciple.  It  is  observed  on  the  27th  of 
December.  In  the  Greek  church,  the  2Gth  of  Sep- 
tend)er  is  consecrated  to  the  Assumption  of  the 
l?ody  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  The  same  church 
has  also  a  festival  in  honour  of  this  evangelist, 
which  is  celebrated  on  the  8tli  of  May. 

JOHNSONIANS,  the  followers '  of  Mr.  John 
.lolmson,  who  was  for  many  years  a  Baptist  minister 
in  Liverpool,  in  the  eighteenth  century.  His  jjecu- 
liar  sentiments  may  be  thus  brielly  stated.  He 
held  that  faith  is  not  a  duty  wliicli  God  requires  of 
man,  hut  a  grace  which  it  is  impossible  to  convert 
into  a  duty,  and  which  cannot  be  required  of  any 
created  being.  The  want  of  faith,  therefore,  in  his 
view,  was  not  a  sin,  but  a  mere  vacuity  or  nonen- 
tity. The  principle  of  faith  then  was  regarded  by 
Mr.  Johnson  as  a  work  not  wrought  by  man,  but  the 
operation  of  God,  ami  hence  it  is  not  tlie  soul  of  man 
which  believes,  but  the  principle  (jf  grace  within 
him.  He  maintained  that  the  holiness  of  the  first 
man  Adam  was  inferior  to  that  of  the  angels,  much 
more  to  that  of  the  saints,  who  are  raised  above  the 
angels  in  glory.  He  regarded  it  as  not  the  duty  of 
the  ministers  of  the  gospel  to  preach  the  law,  or  to 
incidcate  moral  duties  upon  their  peojile,  seeing  they 
are  appointed  not  to  preach  the  law,  but  the  gospel. 
Still  further,  Mr.  Johnson  held  that  the  blessings  of 
spiritual  grace  and  eternal  life  being  secured  in  Christ 
prior  to  the  fall,  were  never  lost,  and  consequently 
could  not  be  restored.  This  excellent  lkii)tist  minis- 
ter entertained  high  supra-lapsarian  notions  on  the 


subject  of  the  Divine  decrees,  and  he  admitted  the 
universality  of  the  death  of  Christ.     On  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  his  followers  seem  to  have  endjraccd 
the  I.SDWKi.MNC   Sciii;mi-;  (which   see),    with  Cal 
vinistic  views  of  justification  and  the  atonement. 

In  the  last  Census,  that  of  1851,  no  congregations 
of  this  body  are  rejiorted  as  now  existing  in  Eng- 
lam).  It  does  not  a|ipear  that  the  Jiiliiixonians  ever 
bad  a  footing  in  cither  Scotland  or  Ireland. 

JORDAN  (liATiiiNu  IN  Tin;),  an  aimual  ceremony 
observed  by  the  Syrian  Christians,  as  well  as  by 
(! reeks,  Nestorians,  Copts,  and  many  others,  whii 
pluiig(!  naked  into  the  river  at  the  sujjpo.sed  sjiot 
where  the  miraculous  passage  of  the  Israelites  wab 
ellcctcd,  and  where  also  our  blessed  liOrd  was  bap- 
tized. It  is  pert'ornied  at  Easter  by  pilgrims  who 
have  come  from  all  [larts,  and  encountered  the  utmost 
privations  and  difliculties,  in  order  to  purify  them- 
selves in  the  sacred  waters.  Not  unfrequently  the 
nundier  of  pilgrims  on  such  occasions  amounts  to 
several  thousand  people  of  both  sexes  and  all 
nations.  "  Once  a-year,"  says  Mr.  Stanley,  in  his 
'  Sinai  and  Palestine,'  "  on  the  Monday  in  Passion 
Week,  the  desolation  of  the  plain  of  Jericho  is 
broken  by  the  descent  from  the  Juda;an  hills  of  (we, 
six,  or  eight  thousand  pilgrims,  who  are  now,  from 
all  parts  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  gathered  within 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  The  Turkish  governor  is 
with  them,  an  escort  of  Turkish  soldiers  accompanieii 
them,  to  protect  them  down  the  desert  hills  against 
the  robbers,  wlio,  from  the  days  of  the  good  Samaritan 
downwards,  have  infested  the  solitary  pass.  On  a 
bare  space  beside  the  tangled  thickets  of  the  modern 
Jericho — distinguished  by  the  square  tower,  now  the 
castle  of  its  chief,  and  called  by  pilgrims  '  the  House 
of  Zaccheus' — the  vast  encampment  is  spread  out, 
recalling  the  image  of  the  tents  which  Israel  here 
first  pitched  by  Gilgal.  Two  hours  before  dawn,  the 
rude  Eastern  kettle- drum  rouses  the  sleeping  mul- 
titude. It  is  to  move  onwards  to  the  Jordan,  so  as 
to  accomplish  the  object  before  the  great  heat  of  the 
lower  valley  becomes  intolerable.  Over  the  inter- 
vening desert  the  wide  crowd  advances  in  almost 
perfect  silence.  Above  is  the  bright  Paschal  moon — 
before  tnem  moves  a  bright  flare  of  torches — on  each 
side  huge  watch-fires  break  the  darkness  of  the  night, 
and  act  as  beacons  for  the  successive  descents  of  the 
road.  The  sun  breaks  over  the  eastern  hills  as  the 
head  of  the  cavalcade  reaches  the  brink  of  the  Jordan 
Then  it  is,  for  the  first  time,  that  the  European 
traveller  sees  the  .sacred  river,  rushing  through  its 
thicket  of  tamarisk,  willow,  and  agnus-castus,  with 
rapid  eddies,  and  of  a  turbid  yellow  colour,  like  the 
Tiber  at  Rome,  and  about  as  broad — sixty  or  eighty 
feet.  The  chief  features  of  the  scene  are  the  white 
cliti's  and  green  tnickets  on  each  bank,  though  at  this 
spot  they  break  away  on  the  western  side,  so  as  to 
leave  an  open  space  for  the  descent  of  the  pilgiinii. 
Beautiful  as  the  scene  is,  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel 
a  momentary  disappointment  at  the  conviction,  pr<v 


250 


JOKMUXGAND— JUBILATION  (The  Gut  of). 


duced  by  the  first  glance,  thai  it  cannot  be  the  spot 
either  of  the  passage  of  Joshua  or  of  the  baptism  of 
Jolni.  The  high  eastern  banks  (not  to  mention  tlie 
other  considerations  named  before)  preclude  both 
events.  But  in  a  few  moments  the  great  body  of 
pilgrims,  now  distinctly  visible  in  the  breaking  day, 
appear  on  the  ridge  of  tlie  last  teiTace.  None,  or 
liardly  any,  are  on  foot.  Horse,  mule,  ass,  and  camel, 
in  promiscuous  confusion,  bearing  whole  families  on 
their  backs — a  father,  mother,  and  three  children 
perhaps  on  a  single  camel — -occupy  the  vaciuit  spaces 
between  and  above  the  jungle  in  all  directions. 

"  If  the  traveller  expects  a  wild  burst  of  enthu- 
siasm, such  as  that  of  the  Greeks  when  they  caught 
the  first  glimpse  of  the  sea,  or  the  German  armies  at 
(he  sight  of  the  Rhine,  he  will  be  disappointed. 
Nothing  is  more  remarkable  in  the  whole  pilgrimage 
to  the  Jordan,  from  first  to  last,  than  the  absence  of 
any  such  chsplays.  Nowhere  is  more  clearly  seen 
that  debberative  business-like  aspect  of  their  devo- 
tion so  well  described  in  Kothen,  unrelieved  by  any 
e.vpression  of  emotion,  unless,  perhaps,  a  slight  tinge 
of  merriment.  They  dismount,  and  set  to  work  to 
perform  their  bathe ;  most  on  the  open  space,  some 
farther  up  amongst  the  thickets;  some  plunging  iu 
naked — most,  however,  with  white  dresses,  which 
they  bring  with  them,  and  which,  having  been  so 
used,  are  kept  for  their  windhig-sheets.  Most  of 
the  bathers  keep  within  the  shelter  of  the  bank, 
where  the  water  is  about  four  feet  in  depth,  though 
with  a  bottom  of  very  deep  mud.  The  Coptic  pil- 
grims are  curiously  distinguished  from  the  rest  by 
the  boldness  witli  which  they  dart  into  the  main 
current,  striking  the  water  after  their  fashion  alter- 
nately with  their  two  arms,  and  playing  with  the 
eddies,  which  hurry  them  down  and  across,  as  if  they 
were  in  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile ;  crashing  through 
(he  thick  boughs  of  the  jungle  which,  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  stream,  intercepts  their  progress,  and  then 
re-crossing  the  river  higher  np,  where  they  win  wade, 
assisted  by  long  poles  which  they  have  cut  from  the 
opposite  thickets.  It  is  remarkable,  considering  the 
mixed  assemblage  of  men  and  women  in  such  a  scene, 
there  is  so  little  appearance  of  levity  and  indecorum. 
.\  primitive  domestic  character  |)ervades  in  a  singular 
form  the  whole  scene.  The  families  which  have  come 
on  their  single  mule  or  camel  now  bathe  together 
with  the  utmost  gravity,  the  fatlier  receiving  from 
the  mother  the  infant,  which  has  been  brought  to 
receive  the  one  innnersiun  which  will  sullice  for  the 
rest  of  its  life,  and  thus,  by  a  cm'ious  economy  of 
resources,  save  it  from  the  expense  and  danger  of  a 
future  pilgrimage  in  after  years.  In  about  two  hours 
the  shores  are  cleared;  with  the  same  quiet  they 
remount  their  camels  and  horses ;  and  before  the 
noonday  heat  has  set  in,  are  again  encamped  on  the 
upper  plain  of  Jericho.  At  the  dead  of  night,  the 
drum  again  wakes  them  for  their  homeward  march. 
'I'he  torches  again  go  before  ;  behind  follows  the  vast 
inullitudf,  mounted,  passing  in  profound  silence  over 


that  silent  plain — so  silent,  that  but  for  the  tinkling 
of  the  drum,  its  departm-e  would  hardly  be  per- 
ceptible. The  troops  stay  on  the  ground  to  the  end, 
to  guard  the  rear,  and  when  the  last  roll  of  the  drum 
announces  that  the  last  soldier  is  gone,  the  whole 
plain  returns  to  its  perfect  sohtude." 

From  the  time  when  our  Lord  was  baptized  in  the 
Jordan,  this  river  has  always  had  a  peculiar  sacred 
interest  attached  to  it.  Hence,  as  we  leani  from  the 
writer  whom  we  have  just  quoted,  "In  the  mosaics 
of  the  earliest  churches  at  Rome  and  Ravenna,  before 
Christian  and  Pagan  art  were  yet  divided,  the  Jordan 
appears  a  river-god,  poiu'ing  his  streams  out  of  his 
uni."  It  was  the  earnest  wish  of  Constantine,  the 
first  Christian  Emperor,  and  has  been  the  wish  ot 
multitudes  since  his  time,  to  be  baptized  in  the 
waters  of  the  Jordan  ;  and  for  this  purpose  not  Ro- 
manists and  Greeks  oidy,  but  many  Protestants  also, 
have  carried  oft'  and  carefidly  preserved  water  taken 
from  the  sacred  river. 

JORMUNGAND,  the  Midgard  serpent  of  Hip 
Scandinavian  mythology,  begotten  by  Loki.  The 
Prose  Edda  relates  that  Thor  fished  for  this  serpent, 
and  caught  him.  (See  Hyjiir.)  Thor  gains  great 
renown  for  killing  the  Midgard  serpent;  but  at  the 
same  time,  recoiling  nine  paces,  falls  dead  upon  the 
spot,  suflbcated  with  the  floods  of  venom  wliich  the 
dying  serpent  vomits  forth  upon  him.  See  Scan- 
dinavians (Religion  of  the  Ancient). 

JOTUN,  the  giants  of  the  ancient  Scandinavians. 

JOTUNHEIM  (Giants'  home),  the  region  of  the 
giants  in  the  old  Scandinavian  cosmogony. 

JOY  OF  THE  LAW  (Festival  of  the),  a 
name  given  to  the  ninth  day  of  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles among  the  Modern  Jews.  "  On  this  day," 
says  Mr.  Allen,  "  three  manuscripts  of  the  Penta- 
teuch are  taken  out  of  the  ark,  and  carried  by  the 
Cliassaii  and  two  other  persons  round  the  altar. 
Then  they  are  laid  upon  the  desk,  and  three  portions 
are  read  by  three  different  persons,  one  portion  from 
each  manuscript.  The  first  of  these  portions  is  the 
last  section,  or  thirty-third  and  thirty-fourth,  chapters 
of  Deuteronomy ;  for  this  is  the  day  on  which  the 
annual  reading  of  the  law  is  concluded.  But  as  soon 
as  this  course  is  finished,  it  is  immediately  recom- 
menced. The  second  portion  now  read  consists  oi 
the  first  chapter,  and  first  three  vei'ses  of  the  second 
chapter,  of  Genesis.  '  The  reason  of  which,'  it  is 
said,  '  is  to  .show  that  man  should  be  continually 
employed  in  reading  and  stiulving  the  Word  of 
God.' 

"  On  this  day  those  odices  of  the  synagogue 
which  are  annual  arc  put  np  to  public  auction  for 
the  year  ensuing,  and  assigned  to  the  best  bidder. 
The  whole  of  these  nine  days  is  a  season  of  great 
joy  and  festivity,  and  the  last  is  the  most  joyful  and 
festive  of  all." 

JUBILATION  (The  Gift  of),  a  luivilege alleged 
by  theurgic  mysticism  to  be  granted  to  emineni 
Iioniish    saints,  wlierebv  thev  are  eu'diled   in   their 


,TTIUILl!;i:-J  UBILKK  (RomisiO. 


251 


lust  iMuinciits  to  siiij;  a  triuinijliiiiit  ileiilli-soiif^.  Tims 
Alalia  of  Oigiiys,  wlieii  on  tlic  point  of  deatli,  sang, 
we  are  told,  without  remission,  for  tlirce  days  and 
ni,L;lils,  lier  ecstatie  swan-song. 

.lUlilLKE,  a  season  of  festival  and  rcslitiition 
among  tlic  ancient  Jews,  wliieli  followed  seven  Sab- 
liatic  years,  thus  oeeurring  every  fiftieth  year.  The 
name  is  supposed  by  Calniet  to  bo  derived  from  a 
Hebrew  word  liohil,  which  means  to  restore;  because 
lands  which  liad  been  alienated  were  restored  to  their 
original  owners.  The  Septnagint  translates  the  word 
yi)})il  by  remission,  and  Jo.sepluis  by  liberty.  The 
Scriptural  warrant  for  the  observance  of  the  jubilee 
by  the  Jews  is  contained  in  Lev.  xxv.  8 — 13,  and 
runs  as  follows :  "  And  thou  shalt  number  seven 
.^abbaths  of  years  unto  thee,  seven  tunes  seven  year-s: 
.iiid  the  space  of  the  seven  sabbaths  of  years  shall  be 
unto  thee  forty  and  nine  years.  Then  shalt  thou 
cause  the  trumpet  of  the  jubilee  to  sound  on  the 
tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  in  the  day  of  atone- 
ment shall  ye  maUe  the  trmnpct  sound  throughout 
.■dl  yoiu-  land.  And  ye  shall  hallow  the  liflieth  year, 
and  proclaim  liberty  throughout  all  tlu^  laud  unto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof:  it  shall  bea  jubilee  untoyou: 
and  ye  shall  return  every  man  unto  his  possession, 
and  ye  shall  return  every  man  unto  his  family.  A 
jubilee  shall  that  fiftieth  year  be  unto  you:  ye  shall 
not  sow,  neither  reap  that  which  groweth  of  itself  in 
it,  nor  gather  the  grapes  in  it  of  thy  vine  undressed. 
l''or  it  is  the  jubilee  :  it  shall  bo  holy  unto  you :  ye 
shall  eat  the  increase  thereof  out  of  the  field.  In 
the  year  of  this  jubilee  ye  shall  return  every  man 
unto  his  possession."  The  return  of  the  year  of 
jubilee  was  amiounced  by  sound  of  trumpet  on  the 
tenth  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  answering  to  our  Oc- 
tober. The  first  jidjilee  occurred  on  the  sixty-fourth 
year  after  the  Israelites  entered  into  the  land  of 
Canaan.  From  that  period  seventeen  jubilees  wore 
reckoned  until  the  Babylonish  captivity,  which  fell 
out  in  the  end  of  a  Sabbatical  year,  and  the  thirty- 
sixth  year  of  the  jubilee.  After  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  Babylon,  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple, 
the  jubilee  festival  seems  never  to  have  been  ob- 
served. 

It  has  been  much  disputed  among  the  Jews  whe- 
ther the  fiftieth  or  the  forty-ninth  year  was  the  year 
of  jubilee.  Jlaimonides  maintained  the  lormer, 
while  many  eminent  Rabbis  have  declared  in  favour 
of  the  latter.  There  were  two  special  advantages 
which  arose  from  the  year  of  jubilee, — the  manumis- 
sion of  servants,  and  the  restoration  of  families  to 
their  ancient  possessions.  Servants  were  not  abso- 
lutely freed  from  bondage  until  the  tenth  day  of 
1  isri,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  commenced  the  year 
of  jubilee  ;  but  fornine  days  before,  they  spent  their 
time  in  festivities  and  amusements  of  every  kind,  and 
wore  garlands  upon  their  heads  in  token  of  joy  for 
their  approaching  liberty.  But  the  most  remarkable 
privilege  which  the  jubilee  brought  along  with  it,  was 
Ihfi  restoration  of  houses  and  lands  to  their  original 


owners.  The  Jews,  it  is  well  known,  were  remarkably 
strict  in  preserving  their  genealogies,  that  each  family 
nnght  be  able  to  establish  its  right  to  the  inheritanec 
of  its  ancestors  ;  and  thus,  although  an  estate  might 
change  hands  a  hundred  times,  it  of  necessity  returned 
every  fiftieth  year  to  itsoriginalowner.  In  purchasuig 
an  estate,  accordingly,  the  practice  among  the  Jews 
was  to  consider  how  many  years  had  passed  since  the 
last  jubilee,  and  then  to  purehasc  the  profits  of  the 
remaining  years  till  the  next.  No  man  was  allowed 
to  sell  his  house  or  his  field  till  the  time  of  jubilee, 
uidcss  constrained  by  poverty  to  do  so  ;  and  eve 
after  he  had  sold  it,  the  purchaser  must  surrender 
the  estate  should  the  original  owner,  before  the  year 
of  Jubilee,  be  in  such  circumstances  that  he  can  re 
deem  it.  Nay,  even  a  near  relative  could  redeem 
the  land  An-  the  benefit  of  the  original  proprietor. 
Hebrew  servants  sold  to  strangers  or  into  the  family 
of  proselytes,  had  the  privilege  of  redemption  either 
by  themselves  or  their  relatives.  Josephus  informs 
us  that  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  history 
there  was  a  general  cancelling  of  debts  at  the  return 
of  jubilee.  The  political  advantages  of  such  an  ar- 
rangement as  that  of  the  jubilee  are  obvious.  The 
Hebrew  government  was  thus  made  to  rest  on  an 
ecpial  agrarian  law.  It  made  provision,  as  Dr.  Graves 
remarks,  in  his  '  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,'  for  the 
support  of  000,000  yeomamy,  with  from  six  to 
twenty-five  acres  of  land  each,  which  they  held  in- 
dependent of  all  temporal  superiors,  and  which  they 
might  not  alienate,  but  on  condition  of  their  revert- 
ing to  the  families  which  originally  possessed  them, 
every  fiftieth  year. 

JUBILEE  (Romish),  a  ceremony  celebrated  by 
the  Church  of  Rome  at  stated  periods,  with  gi'eat 
pomp  and  splendid  preparations.  It  was  fii'st  insti- 
tuted by  Pope  Boniface  VIII. ,  at  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  In  the  year  1299,  a  notion 
was  extensively  propagated  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Rome,  that  those  who  should,  in  the  course  of  the 
following  year,  visit  the  church  of  St.  Peter's,  would 
obtain  the  pardon  of  all  their  sins,  and  the  same 
privilege  would  be  enjoyed  on  every  hundredth  year 
In  conformity  with  this  popular  expectation  and 
belief,  he  sent  an  epistle  throughout  Christendom, 
which  contained  the  assertion  that  a  jubUee  of  in- 
dulgences was  sanctioned  by  the  ancient  ecclesias- 
tical law,  and  therefore  he  decreed  that,  on  every 
hundredth  year,  all  who  should  confess  and  lament 
their  sins,  and  devoutly  visit  St.  Peter's  chm-ch  at 
Rome,  shoidd  receive  a  plenaiy  indulgence ;  or,  in 
other  words,  a  complete  remission  of  all  sins,  past, 
present,  and  to  come.  An  indulgence  of  this  kind 
had  hitherto  been  Hmited  to  the  Crusaders.  The 
consequence  was,  that  multitudes  crowded  to  Rome 
from  all  parts  on  the  year  of  jubilee,  and  it  was 
estimated  that  2,000,000  people  visited  Rome  iii  the 
course  of  the  year  1300.  Mr  Gibbon,  in  his  'De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,'  thus  describee 
the  state  of  matters  on  that  occa-sion  : — "  The  wpI- 


252 


JUDAISM -J UDE-rf  DAY  (St.). 


come  sound,"  says  lie,  "  was  [iropagated  througliout 
Cliristemloin,  ami  at  tirst  t'roiu  the  nearest  provinces 
of  Italy,  and  at  length  tVoni  tlie  remote  kingdoms  of 
Himgary  and  Britain,  the  highways  were  thronged 
with  a  swarm  of  pilgrims,  wlio  .sought  to  e.\piato 
their  sins  in  a  journey,  however  costly  and  laborious, 
which  was  exempt  from  the  perils  of  military  service. 
All  exceptions  of  rank  or  .sex,  of  age  or  infirmity, 
were  forgi'tten  in  the  conmion  transport;  and  in  the 
streets  an.l  churches  many  were  trampled  to  death 
by  the  ea.^erncss  of  devotion.  The  calculation  of 
their  numbers  could  not  be  easy  or  accurate,  and  they 
liave  probably  been  magnified  by  a  dexterous  clergy, 
well  apprised  of  the  contagious  etiect  of  example ; 
yet  we  are  assured  by  a  judicious  historian,  who 
assisted  at  the  ceremony,  tliat  Kome  was  never 
replenished  with  less  than  two  hundred  thousand 
.strangers ;  and  another  spectator  has  fixed  at  two 
millions  the  total  concoiu'se  of  the  year.  A  trifiing 
oblation  from  each  individual  would  acciunulate  a 
royal  treasure ;  and  two  priests  stood  day  and  night 
with  rakes  in  their  hands,  to  collect,  without  count- 
ing, the  heaps  of  gold  and  silver  that  were  poured  on 
the  altars." 

The  experiment  far  exceeded  the  expectation  of 
either  the  Pope  or  tlie  people,  and  the  treasury  was 
so  amply  replenished  by  the  contributions  of  the 
|iilgrims,  that  a  century  was  naturally  thought  too 
distant  an  interval  to  secure  so  obvious  an  advantage 
for  the  Church.  Clement  VI.,  therefore,  repeated 
the  jubilee  in  A.  i).  1350;  and  Urban  VI.,  in  A.  u. 
1.380,  reduced  the  interval  to  thirty-three  years,  the 
supposed  length  of  time  to  wliich  the  life  of  our  Lord 
on  earth  extended.  Finall}',  Paid  II.,  in  1475,  estab- 
lished that  the  festival  of  the  jubilee  should  be  cele- 
brated every  twenty-five  years,  which  continues  to  be 
the  interval  at  which  this  great  festival  is  observed. 
As  a  recent  specimen  of  a  jubilee  bull,  we  make  an 
extract  from  that  whieli  was  issued  by  the  Pope  in 
18'24,  appointing  the  jubilee  for  the  following  year  : 
•'  We  have  resolvc'd,"  says  he,  "  by  virtue  of  the 
authority  given  to  us  from  heaven,  fully  to  nnlock 
that  sacred  treasiu'c  composed  of  the  merits,  sufl'er- 
ings,  and  virtues  of  Christ  otu'  Lord,  and  of  his  virgin 
mother,  and  of  all  the  saints  which  the  author  of 
human  salvation  has  intrusted  to  our  dispensation. 
To  you,  therefore,  venerable  brethren,  patriarchs, 
primates,  archbishops,  bishops,  it  belongs  to  explain 
with  porsjiicuily  the  power  of  indulgences:  what  is 
their  cliicacy  in  the  remission  not  only  of  the  cano- 
nical penance,  but  also  of  the  temporal  punishment 
due  to  the  divine  justice  for  past  sin;  and  what 
succour  is  afforded  out  of  this  heavenly  treasure, 
from  the  merits  of  Christ  and  his  saints,  to  such  as 
have  departed  real  penitents  in  (iod's  love,  yet  before 
they  had  duly  satisfied  by  fruits  worthy  of  penance 
for  sins  of  commission  and  omission,  and  are  now 
[lurifying  in  the  fire  of  Purgatory."  The  last  jubilee 
took  place  in  1850,  under  the  auspices  of  the  jn'esent 
I'ojv!   Pius  IX. 


JUDAISM,  the  system  of  doctrine  and  practic. 
maintained  by  the  Jews.  See  Jiiws  (Ancient) 
Jews  (iModern). 

JUDAIZING  CHRISTIANS.  The  Christian 
chinch,  at  its  first  formation,  was  composed  of  two 
seiiarate  and  distinct  classes  of  converts — those  drawn 
from  the  ranks  of  the  Jews,  and  those  drawn  from 
the  ranks  of  the  heathens.  The  converts  from  Ju 
daism  brought  with  them  into  the  Christian  church 
many  strong  prejudices  in  favour  of  Jewish  rites  and 
observances,  which  they  were  most  unwilling  to  re 
gard  as  of  temporary  and  not  permanent  obligation. 
Accordingly,  we  find  tlie  Judaizing  party,  at  a  very 
early  period,  making  an  effort  to  persuade  Paul  to 
yield  to  their  views  in  circumcising  Titus,  though  a 
Gentile  convert.  The  Apostle  firndy  resisted  their 
demands  in  this  matter;  but  soon  afterwards,  some 
persons  belonging  to  the  same  party  followed  liim  to 
Antioch,  where  they  had  almost  succeeded,  by  their 
intemperate  zeal,  in  raising  a  schism  in  the  church. 
The  points  in  dispute  were  referred  to  a  meeting  ol 
the  apostles  and  elders  which  was  held  at  Jerusalem, 
wliere,  after  the  most  careful  deliberation,  it  was 
agreed  that  circumcision  should  be  declared  not  to  be 
binding  upon  the  Gentiles,  and  nothing  farther  was 
exacted  than  the  abstaining  from  meats  offered  to 
idols,  and  from  blood,  and  from  things  strangled,  and 
from  fornication  ;  and  by  this  arrangement,  which 
was  obviously  intended  for  a  transition  state  of  the 
church,  the  opposition  between  the  Jewish  and  Hel- 
lenist parties  was  broken  down.  (See  Blood.)  By 
the  decision  of  the  brethren  at  Jerusalem,  harmony 
was  restored  in  the  church  at  Antioch.  The  Judaiz- 
ing party,  however,  gradually  increased  to  such  an 
extent,  that  all  the  churches  which  Paul  had  planted 
were  agitated  by  controversy,  so  that  the  Apostle's 
peace  of  mind  was  disturbed,  and  even  his  life  en- 
dangered. In  the  heat  of  the  controversy,  the 
labours  of  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  were 
brought  to  a  close. 

The  ministry  of  the  Apostle  John  in  Asia  Minor 
went  far  to  reconcile  the  contending  parties ;  but 
still  the  opposition  of  the  Judaizing  Christians  was 
not  wholly  suppressed,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  the  controver.sy  raised  by  these 
zealots  for  the  Mosaic  law  continued  to  be  carried 
on  with  nearly  as  much  vigour  as  in  apostolic  times 
Nay,  a  church  founded  on  Judaizing  principles 
existed  at  Pella  down  to  the  fifth  century.  That 
there  were  other  churches  of  the  same  kind  in  dif- 
ferent places  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  from 
the  tenacity  witli  which  many  Jewish  converts  ad- 
hered to  the  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses.  All 
Judaizers,  however,  in  course  of  time,  as  we  learn 
from  Irena:iis,  came  to  be  known  by  the  name  of 
Kmionites  (which  see). 

JUDAS  (St.)  Ai.i'iiEUS  (Dav  of),  a  festival 
celebrated  in  the  Greek  church  on  the  10th  June. 

J  (IDE'S  DAY  (St.).  See  Si.mun  (,St.)  and  Judk 
(St.),  Dav  of. 


ICiJGAI tINT-DAY— .1 UIXJM EST  (Cfat-rai,). 


253 


,I[Jl)a\[ICN'r-DAV'.  'I'lie  time  of  tho  gerieml 
jiiil^'mont  is  a  scicret  wliioli  (iod  liafl  rosorvi'd  for 
liiiiiseir.  Hence  we  are  exiiressly  iiifonned  hy 
tlie  Iteiloemor,  "  Of  that  day  and  liniii-  Jiiiowetli  no 
njan,  tio,  not  tlio  angels  (jf  licavcn."  I'nini  vanons 
exjjressiiins  wliicli  occur  in  the  Apostolle  Kpisth's,  it 
would  appear  that,  at  a  very  early  period  in  I  lie 
history  of  the  Christian  church,  an  idea  hegan  to  he 
entertained  by  some  that  the  day  of  the  J^ord  was 
near.  Thus,  in  the  Second  I'-pistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians,  I'aul  beseeches  them  not  to  be  shaken  in  mind 
or  troubled,  as  if  the  day  of  Christ  were  at  liand.  It 
is  called  a  day,  but  that  term  in  Scripture  is  often 
used  indelinitely,  sometimes  for  a  longer,  sometimes 
a  shorter  period.  What  is  to  he  the  duralion  of  the 
Judgment- Day  wo  are  in  utter  ignorance  ;  but  of  one 
thing  we  are  assured,  that  whereas  "  it  is  appointed 
inito  all  men  once  to  die,  after  death  conielh  Ihe 
judgment." 

JIJDG.MKNT-HALL  oi'  I'lMTK.  The  solemn 
scene  of  our  liord'.s  appearance  in  the  judgment-hall 
of  the  Uomau  governor,  is  represented  in  the  coinse 
of  the  Romisli  ceremonies  which  are  annually  held  .at 
Rome  during  Holy  Week.  Mr  Seymour  thus  de- 
scribes it  from  personal  observation  : — "  The  gospel 
is  read  by  three  priests.  One  of  them  personates 
the  evangelist  who  wrote  the  gospel ;  and  his  part  is 
to  read  the  narrative  as  detailed.  A  second  per- 
sonates Pontius  Pilate,  the  maid  at  the  door,  the 
priest.'!,  the  Pli.ariseos;  and  hi,s  p.irt  is  to  read  those 
sentences  wliieh  were  spoken  hy  tliem.  The  third 
personates  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  and  bis  part  is  to 
read  the  words  which  were  uttered  by  him  on  the 
occasion.  To  give  the  greatcjr  effect  to  the  whole, 
the  choir  is  appointed  to  undertake  those  parts  which 
were  the  words  of  the  multitude.  The  dilVerent  voices 
of  the  priests  reading  or  intoning  their  dilVerent  parts 
— Pilate  speaking  in  one  voice,  Christ  in  another, 
while  the  choir,  breaking  forth,  fill  the  whole  of  the 
vast  church  with  tlie  shout,  '  Crucify  him !  Crucify 
him  r  and  again  witli  the  cry  '  Not  this  man,  but 
Harabbas  !'  produce  a  most  singular  elTect." 

J UnCaiHNT  (Glnriiai.).  That  there  will  be  a 
period  of  lin.al  retribution,  when  men  shall  be  siun- 
moned  to  impartial  judgment,  according  to  their 
character  and  actions,  is  a  doctrine  botli  of  reason 
and  revelation.  The  simple  notion  of  a  Supreme 
Heing  necessarily  supposes  him  to  be  jiossessed  of 
perfect  justice,  as  well  as  the  other  moral  attributes 
which  are  essential  to  bis  ch.aracter  as  the  ruler  of 
the  universe.  On  contemplating,  however,  the  state 
of  matters  around  us,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck 
with  the  evident  inequality  of  Ihe  distribiuion  of  the 
goods  and  ills  of  this  life.  The  wicked  may  often  be 
seen  to  spend  their  days  in  prosperity,  and  the 
righteous  in  adversity  and  sorrow.  Such  an  anoma- 
lous arrangsment  as  this  seems  plainly  to  point 
to  a  period  of  future  adjustment,  when  each  man 
shall  receive  his  linal  recompense,  according  to  the 
deeds   done   in   the   boilv,   whether  thev  have   been 


good,  or  whether  they  have  been  evil.  If  there  Ih  h 
just  (iod,  who  sits  upon  Ihe  throne  of  the  miivcrse, 
the  inference  is  undoubted,  that  it  mu^t  ultimately  be 
well  with  the  righteous,  and  ill  wiih  Ihe  wicked. 
Hence,  among  the  unenlightened  heathen,  in  all  agCB, 
the  belief  has  imifurinly  prevailed  of  a  general  judg- 
ment. In  ancient  times,  the  idolaters  of  Oreece  and 
Rome  believed  that  when  the  souls  of  men  left  their 
bodies  at  death,  tliey  appeared  before  certain  judges — 
Minos,  Khadamanthus,  and  Mucus — who,  after  an 
impartial  investigation,  pronounced  sentence  lipon 
them,  consigning  them  either  to  the  abodes  of  bliss, 
or  to  the  regions  of  torment.  The  notions  of  the 
heathen,  however,  referred  sidely  to  a  private  and 
inilividual,  not  to  a  public  and  general  JLulgment. 

It  is  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  alone  that  we  are  in 
debtcd  for  the  knowledge  of  a  general  judgment, 
which  will  lake  place  in  the  sight  of  an  a.'-.sembled 
universe.  The  following  passages,  among  others, 
clearly  establish  this  point:  Acts  xvii.  31,  "Be- 
cause he  hath  appoinleil  a  day,  in  the  which  he 
will  judge  tha  world  in  righteousness  by  that  miuj 
whom  he  hath  ordained;  whereof  he  bath  given 
assurance  unto  all  men,  in  that  be  hath  raised  him 
from  the  dead ;"  2  Cor.  v.  10,  "  For  we  must  all 
appear  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Christ;  that  every 
one  may  receive  tho  things  done  in  his  body,  accord- 
ing to  that  he  hath  done,  whether  it  be  good  or  bad;" 
Mat.  XXV.  31,  32,  "When  the  Son  of  man  shall  come 
in  his  glory,  and  all  Ihe  holy  angels  with  him,  then 
shall  he  sit  upon  the  throne  of  bis  glory:  and  before 
him  .shall  be  gathereil  all  nations :  and  he  shall  sepa- 
rate them  one  from  another,  .ns  a  shepherd  dividetb 
his  sheep  from  Ihe  goats."  "  A  general  judgment," 
saj's  Dr.  Dick,  "at  which  all  the  descendants  of 
Adam  will  be  present,  scc^ns  necessary  l<i  the  display 
of  the  justice  of  God,  to  such  a  manifestation  of  it  as 
will  vindicate  bis  government  from  all  the  charges 
which  impiety  has  brought  against  it,  satisfy  all 
doubts,  and  leave  a  conviction  in  th.e  minds  of  all 
intelligent  creatures  that  he  is  righteous  in  all  bis 
ways,  and  holy  in  all  bis  works.  It  is  expedient 
that,  at  the  winding  up  of  the  scheme,  all  its  parts 
should  be  seen  to  be  worlhj'  of  Him  by  whom  it  was 
arranged  and  conducted.  In  this  way,  those  who 
have  witnessed,  with  many  disquieting  thoughts,  the 
irregularity  and  disorder  in  the  present  system,  will 
have  ocular  evidence  that  there  never  wa.s  Ihe 
slightest  deviation  from  Ihe  principles  of  equity,  and 
that  Ihe  cause  of  perplexity  was  the  delay  of  their 
full  operaticin.  They  will  see  the  good  and  the  bad 
no  longer  mingled  together,  and  apparently  treated 
alike,  but  sep.araled  into  two  classes,  the  one  on  the 
riglit  hand  of  the  Judge,  aiu]  the  other  on  his  left, 
and  distinguished  as  much  at  least  by  their  respective 
sentences  as  by  the  places  which  they  occujiy.  We 
perceive,  then,  the  reason  that  the  judgment  {<as.sed 
upon  each  individual  at  tho  termination  of  bis  life 
will  be  solemnly  ratified  at  Ihe  end  of  the  world. 
There  may  be  auotlier  reason  h  r  the  public  exerciiic 


254 


JUDICIUM  DKI— JUGGERXATII. 


of  justice  in  the  final  allotment  of  the  lunnan  race. 
It  may  be  intended  to  be  a  spectacle  to  the  universe; 
It  may  be  an  act  of  the  divine  administration,  which 
will  extend  its  influence  to  all  the  provinces  of  his 
empire.  AVe  are  sure  that  angels  will  witness  it ; 
and  if  there  are  other  orders  of  rational  creatures,  it 
may  be  a  solemn  lesson  to  them,  by  wliich  thoy  will 
be  contirmed  in  fidelity  to  their  Creator,  and  tilled 
with  more  profound  veneration  of  his  inlinite  excel- 
lencies." 

The  Day  of  Judgment  is  tlie  last  article  in  the 
creed  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  will  be  ushered  in, 
as  they  believe,  by  the  angel  Israfil,  who  will  sound 
a  trumpet,  the  tir.st  blast  of  which  will  not  only 
overthrow  cities,  but  level  mountains;  the  second, 
that  of  extermination,  will  annihilate  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  earth,  and  lastly  the  angel  of  death;  and  at 
the  third,  or  blast  of  resuiTection,  they  will  be 
restored  to  life,  and  rise  to  the  final  judgment.  All 
will  appear  naked ;  but  those  who  are  designed  for 
Paradise  will  receive  clothes,  and,  during  the  trial  of 
the  wicked,  will  surround  the  throne  of  God.  The 
judgment,  according  to  the  Moslem  notions,  is  thus 
described  in  Algazali's  creed : — "  He  shall  also  be- 
lieve in  the  balance  wherein,  with  the  weights  of 
atoms  and  mustard  seeds,  works  will  be  weighed 
with  the  utmost  exactness.  Then  the  books  of  the 
good  works,  beautiful  to  behold,  will  be  cast  into  the 
scale  of  light,  by  which  the  balance  shall  be  depressed 
according  to  their  degrees  with  God,  out  of  tlie 
favour  of  God  and  the  books  of  evil  deeds  into  tlie 
scale  of  darkness,  by  which  the  balance  shall  lightly 
ascend,  by  the  justice  of  the  Most  High.  It  must 
also  be  believed  that  there  is  a  real  way  extended 
over  the  middle  of  hell,  sharper  than  a  sword,  and 
finer  than  a  hair,  on  wliich,  by  the  divine  decree,  the 
feet  of  unbelievers  shall  slip,  so  tliat  they  shall  fall 
into  the  tire,  while  the  feet  of  believers  will  remain 
firm  on  it,  and  they  will  be  led  into  an  habitation 
that  will  last.  It  must  also  be  believed  that  the 
faithful  will  then  drink  out  of  Moliammed's  lake, 
which  will  prevent  tlieir  tliirstiiig  any  more.  Its 
breadth  is  a  month's  journey,  and  the  water  is  whiter 
than  milk  and  sweeter  than  lioney  ;  the  cups  placed 
round  are  as  numerous  as  the  stars,  and  it  is  supplied 
by  two  pipes  from  the  river  Cauther.  Men  must 
also  believe  in  the  iinal  reckoning,  which  will  be 
strict  with  some,  with  others  more  indulgent,  while 
they  who  are  near  to  God  will  enter  the  garden 
without  any.  Then  God  will  question  any  of  his 
proj  diets  whom  he  pleases  concerning  his  mission, 
and  whom  he  pleas^.i  of  the  unbelievers  the  reason 
of  their  accusing  is  liars  those  who  were  sent  to 
tliem.  He  will  also  interrogate  heretics  concerning 
the  Sonnah,  and  the  Moslems  concerning  their 
works." 

Throughout  almost  the  wdiole  of  the  teiilli  century, 
ICiirojie  was  agitated  with  the  expectation  that  the 
lay  of  general  judgment  and  final  consummation  was 
at  band.     The  idea  was  founded  on  Itev.  xx.  2 — 4, 


"  And  he  laid  hold  on  the  dragon,  that  old  serpent, 
which  is  the  Devil,  and  Satan,  and  bound  him  a 
thousand  years,  and  cast  him  into  the  bottondrss 
pit,  and  shut  him  up,  and  set  a  seal  upon  him,  that 
he  should  deceive  the  nations  no  more,  till  the  thou- 
sand years  should  be  fulfilled  ;  and  after  that  he  mr.st 
be  loosed  a  little  season.  And  I  saw  thrones,  and 
they  sat  upon  them,  and  judgment  was  given  unto 
them  :  and  I  saw  the  souls  of  them  that  were  be- 
headed for  the  witness  of  Jesus,  and  for  the  word  ol 
Goil,  and  which  had  not  worshipped  the  beast,  neither 
bis  image,  neither  had  received  his  mark  upon  their 
foreheads,  or  in  their  hands;  and  they  lived  and. 
reigned  with  Christ  a  thousand  years."  This  passage 
was  interpreted  to  mean,  that  after  a  thousand  years 
from  the  birth  of  Christ,  Satan  would  be  let  loose. 
Antichrist  would  appear,  and  the  end  of  the  world 
would  come.  Accordingly,  the  utmost  excitement 
and  alami  prevailed.  Many,  transferring  their  pro- 
perty  to  the  churches  and  monasteries,  set  out  fur 
Palestine,  where  they  supposed  Christ  would  come 
down  from  heaven  to  judge  the  world.  Others 
gave  up  their  all  to  the  priests  and  monks  ;  while  in 
many  instances  the  deed  of  gift  distinctly  bore  as  its 
reason  these  words,  "  The  end  of  the  world  being 
now  at  hand."  Not  before  the  close  of  the  century 
did  the  delusion  finally  pass  away.  From  that  [leriod 
down  to  the  present  day,  individuals  have  occasion- 
ally been  found  who  have  persuaded  themselves,  and 
sought  to  convince  others,  that  the  final  judgment 
was  near.  But  the  precise  time  v/iien  that  great 
event  will  happen  is  wisely  concealed,  that  men  may 
be  always  on  the  watch,  seeking  ever  to  be  ready  ; 
for  at  such  an  hour  as  we  think  not  the  Son  of  man 
Cometh. 

JUDICIUM  DEI.    See  Ordeal. 

JUGA,  or  JuGALis,  a  .surname  of  Juno  (which 
see),  as  presiding  over  marriage.  She  had  a  temple 
under  this  name  in  the  forum  at  Rome. 

JUGATINUS,  a  god  of  marriage  among  the  an- 
cient Romans. 

JUGGERNATH,  or  Jagat-Nath  (the  lord 
of  the  world),  a  popular  object  of  worship  in  the 
district  of  Cuttack,  on  the  sea-coast  of  Orissa,  in 
Hindustan.  This  Hindu  deity  is  a  form  of  Vitlinti. 
The  pagoda  or  temple  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  Juggernath  stands  close  to  the  sea-shore,  and, 
from  its  peculiar  prominence,  serves  as  an  impor- 
tant sea-mark  in  guiding  mariners  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Ganges.  The  image  is  a  carved  block  of 
wood,  of  frightful  aspect,  painted  black,  with  a  dis- 
tended mouth  of  a  bloody  colour.  On  festival  days, 
the  throne  of  the  idol  is  placed  upon  a  stupendous 
moveable  tower,  sixty  feet  high,  resting  on  wheels. 
Juggernath  is  accompanied  with  two  other  idols,  of  a 
white  and  yellow  colour,  each  on  a  separate  tower, 
and  sitting  upon  thrones  of  nearly  an  equal  height. 
Attached  to  the  principal  tower  are  six  ropes.  In 
which  the  people  drag  it  along.  The  othciating  high 
priest  is  stationed  in  front  of  the  idol,  and  all  aninnd 


.irin.i'.s    .ii;mi'f,u.s. 


255 


it  aro  tlioiisaiiils  of  massive  sculptures,  which  cm- 
blorniifically  ropi'osoiit  those  scenes  of  revolting  iii- 
ilecency  ami  hoi-i'id  cruelty  which  arc  the  essential 
characteristics  of  tliis  worship.  Tlie  procession  of 
tlic  idol  is  thus  (k'Hcrihed  hy  Mr.  Stia'lin;^,  in  his 
'  Account  of  Orissa  :' — "  On  tlic  .■ippointcil  day,  after 
various  prayers  and  ceremonies,  tlie  images  aro 
brought  from  thi'ir  throne  to  the  out.side  of  the  Lion- 
gate,  not  with  decency  and  reverence,  but  a  cord 
being  fastened  round  their  necks,  they  are  dragged 
by  the  priests  down  the  steps  and  lhron','h  the  mud, 
while  others  keep  their  tigm'es  erect,  and  help  their 
movements  by  shoving  from  behind,  in  the  most  in- 
dilferent  and  unceremonious  maimer.  Thus  the  mon- 
strous idols  go,  rocking  and  pitching  along,  through 
the  crowd,  until  they  reach  the  cars,  which  they  are 
made  to  ascend  hy  a  similar  process,  up  an  inclined 
platform,  reaching  from  the  stage  of  the  machine  to 
the  ground.  On  the  other  hand,  a  powerful  sen- 
timent of  religious  enthusiasm  pervadi^s  the  admiiing 
nudtitudi;  of  pilgrims  when  the  images  lirst  make 
thiMr  appearance  through  the  gate.  They  welcome 
them  with  shouts  and  cries;  and  when  the  monster 
luggernaut,  the  most  hideous  of  all,  is  dragged  forth, 
the  last  in  order,  the  air  is  rent  with  .acclamations. 
After  the  images  have  been  safely  lodged  in  their 
vubicles,  a  box  is  brought  forth,  containing  the  golden 
or  gilded  feet,  hands,  and  ears  of  the  great  idol,  which 
aro  lixed  on  the  proper  parts  with  due  ceremony,  and 
a  scarlet  scarf  is  carefully  arranged  round  the  lower 
part  of  the  body,  or  pedestal.  The  joy  and  shouts 
of  the  crowd  on  the  first  movement  of  the  cars,  the 
creaking  sound  of  the  wheels,  as  these  ponderous 
machines  roll  along,  the  clatter  of  hundreds  of  harsh- 
sounding  instruments,  and  the  general  appearance  of 
such  an  immense  mass  of  human  beings,  produce  an 
astounding  effect." 

As  the  car  moves  with  its  monstrous  idol,  nund)ers 
of  devotees  cast  themselves  imder  its  wheels,  and  are 
instantly  crushed  to  pieces  ;  widle  such  instances  of 
self-immolation  are  hailed  witli  the  acclamations  of 
applauding  thousands.  The  worship  of  this  idol  in 
his  temple  exhibits  only  a  scene  of  the  most  disgust- 
ing obscenity.  The  temple  of  Juggernatli  is  regarded 
as  the  most  .s.aerod  of  all  the  Hindu  places  of  worship, 
and  immense  crowds  of  pilgrims  resort  thither  an- 
nually, calculated  by  the  late  Dr.  Carey  to  amount 
to  1,200,000,  multitudes  of  whom  die  by  the  way 
from  want,  disease,  or  exhaustion.  At  fit'ty  miles' 
distance,  the  sands  are  whitened  with  the  skulls  and 
bones  of  pilgrims,  who  have  perished  before  reaching 
the  sacred  spot. 

The  temple  of  tlii-^  deity  at  Orissa  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  cek'hrated  ofall  the  buildings  erected  for  his 
worship,  but  many  other  shrines  .sacred  to  Jugger- 
natli are  found  througliout  Hindustan.  "As  there 
are  numbers  of  sacred  rivers  in  Indi.i,"  says  Dr.  Dutf, 
"  but  the  Ganges,  from  being  the  most  sacred,  has 
acquired  a  monopoly  of  fame — so  there  are  many 
shrines  of  .luggernath  in  India,  though  the  one  at 


i'uri,  from  being  the  largest  and  most  venerated,  han, 
in  like  manner,  acquired  exclusive  celebrity.  In 
hundreds,  or  rather  thousands  of  places,  where  llieie 
aro  no  temples,  properly  so  called,  there  are  still 
images  and  cars  of  .Juggernatli,  fashioned  after  the 
model  of  the  great  prototypes  at  Orissa.  'I'here  i.s 
scarcely  a  large  village  in  all  liengal  without  its  car 
of  .Juggernatli.  In  Calcutta  and  its  neighbourhood 
there  are  scores  of  them — varying  in  size  from  a  few 
feet  lip  to  thirty  or  forty  in  height.  What  a  view 
imist  ojiiui  up  to  you  of  the  fearful  extent  anil  mag- 
nitude of  this  destructive  superstition,  when  you  try 
to  realize  the  fact,  that,  on  the  anniver.sary  occasion 
of  the  car-festival,  all  the  millions  of  liengal  are  in 
motion  ;  that,  when  the  great  car  at  Puri  is  dragged 
forth  amid  the  shouts  and  acclamations  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  assembled  from  all  parts  of  India,  on 
the  very  same  day,  and  at  the  very  same  hour,  there 
are  hundreds  of  cars  rolled  along  throughout  the 
widely  scattered  districts  and  cities  and  villages  ol 
the  land;  so  that  there  are  not  merely  hundiedsol 
thousands,  tut  literally  millions,  simultaneously  en- 
gaged ill  tne  celebration  of  orgies,  so  stained  with 
licentiousness  and  blood,  that,  in  the  comparison,  we 
might  almost  pronounce  the  Hacchanalia  of  Greece 
and  Koine  innocent  and  jnire  !" 

JUIILICS,  a  name  given  to  aerial  spirits  or  demons 
among  the  Laplanders,  from  whom  they  receive  a 
sort  of  adoration,  though  no  statues  or  images  of  them 
exist.  This  spirit-worship  is  conducted  under  par- 
ticidar  trees.  On  Christmas  Eve,  and  the  d.iy  fol 
lowing,  they  celebrate  what  is  called  the  Festival  o( 
the  Juhles.  On  this  occasion  there  is  a  strict  absti 
iienoe  from  animal  food ;  and  of  the  articles  used  foi 
refreshment,  they  carefully  reserve  some  fragments, 
which  are  thrown  into  a  box  made  of  birch,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  branch  of  a  tree  behind  the  house, 
that  the  spirits  may  have  an  opportunity  of  feasting 
upon  thein.  Schclfer  considers  this  festival  as  par- 
taking partly  of  a  Christian  and  partly  of  a  I'agan 
character. 

JU-JU.    See  Fetish- Worship. 

JUMALA,  the  supreme  deity  of  the  inhabitants 
ol  Lapland.  He  was  represented  by  a  wooden  idol 
in  human  form,  seated  on  a  sort  of  altar,  with  a  crown 
on  his  head  and  a  bowl  in  liis  lap,  into  which  the 
devotees  threw  their  voluntary  oblations.     See  L.\r'- 

L.VNDERS  (Kr.r.IGION  Ol-'). 

JUMXOUTKl,  a  village  on  the  banks  of  the  rivei 
Jumna,  and  considered  by  the  Hindus  a.s  a  spot  o( 
remarkable  sanctity — Hindus  who  perforin  the  pil- 
grimage to  this  place  iVuin  the  low  countries  being 
themselves  almost  deilled  after  this  adventure.  Along 
the  lianks  of  this  river  are  a  r.ace  of  Hindus  who,  like 
the  I'aisees,  worship  the  sun.  The  devout  among 
them  will  on  no  account  taste  food  while  the  orb  is 
above  the  horizon,  and  many  are  found  who  refuse  to 
sit  down  during  the  day  while  the  sun  is  visible. 

JUMl'KUS,  a  name  given  to  those  who  practised 
jumping  or  leaping  as  an  e\e"cise  of  divine  worship 


!!66 


JUNO— JUSTICERS  (Itinerant). 


and  expressive  of  holy  joy.  This  strange  practice 
was  commenced  about  the  year  1760  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Wales,  among  the  followers  of  Han-is, 
Rowland,  Williams,  and  others,  who  were  instru- 
mental in  giving  rise  to  a  serious  awakening  among 
the  people  in  that  district.  The  novel  custom  was 
disapproved  by  not  a  few  of  those  who  waited  on  the 
ministry  of  tliese  pious  and  zealous  men  ;  but  it  was 
seriously  defended  in  a  pamphlet  published  at  the 
time  by  Mr.  William  Williams,  who  is  generally 
termed  the  Welsh  poet.  The  arguments  of  this 
singular  production  were  chiefly  drawn  from  Scripture. 
The  practice  wliich  gave  rise  to  the  name  of  Jump- 
ers, spread  over  a  great  part  of  Wales,  and  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  to  find  congregations  when  engaged 
in  solemn  wcirship  disturbed  by  individuals  groaning, 
t.ilking  aloud,  repeating  the  same  words  thirty  or 
forty  times  in  succession ;  some  crying  in  Welsli, 
glory,  glory,  others  bawling  Amen  witli  a  loud  voice, 
and  others  still  jumping  until  they  fell  down  quite 
exhausted.  Mr.  Evans,  in  his  Sketch  of  the  Deno- 
minations of  the  Christian  world,  describes  a  meet- 
ing among  Jumpers  which  he  himself  witnessed. 
"  About  the  year  1785,"  says  he,  "  I  myself  happened 
very  accidentally  to  be  present  at  a  meeting,  which 
terminated  in  jumpiii(i.  It  was  held  in  the  open  air, 
on  a  Sunday  evening,  near  Newport,  in  Monmouth- 
shire. The  preacher  was  one  of  Lady  Huntingdon's 
students,  who  concluded  his  sermon  with  the  recom- 
mendation of  jumping ;  and  to  allow  him  the  praise 
of  consistency,  he  got  down  from  tlie  chair  on  which 
he  stood,  and  jumped  along  with  them.  The  argu- 
ments he  adduced  for  this  purpose  were,  that  David 
danced  before  the  ark — that  the  babe  leaped  in  the 
womb  of  Elizabeth — and  that  the  man  whose  lame- 
ness was  removed,  leaped  and  praised  God  for  the 
mercy  which  he  had  received.  lie  expatiated  on 
these  topics  with  uncommon  fervency,  and  then 
drew  the  inference,  that  tliei/  ought  to  .show  tn'milar 
expressions  of  joy,  for  the  blessings  which  Jesus 
Christ  had  put  into  their  po.ssession.  He  then  gave 
an  empassioned  sketch  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Sa- 
viour, and  hereby  roused  the  passions  of  a  few 
around  him  into  a  state  of  violent  agitation.  About 
tiine  men  and  seven  women,  for  some  little  time, 
rocked  to  and  fro,  groaned  aloud,  and  then  jumjml 
with  a  kind  of  frantic  fury.  Some  of  the  audience 
dew  in  all  directions;  otliers  gazed  on  in  silent 
amazement !  They  all  gradually  dispersed,  except 
the  junijKrs,  who  continued  their  exertions  from  eight 
in  the  evening  to  near  eleven  at  night.  I  saw  the 
conclusion  of  it ;  they  at  last  kneeled  down  in  a 
circle,  holding  each  other  by  the  band,  while  one  of 
them  prayed  with  great  fervour,  and  then  all  rising 
up  from  olV  their  knees,  departed,  liut  previous  to 
their  dispersion,  they  wildly  pointed  up  towards  the 
sky,  and  reminded  one  another  that  they  should 
soon  meet  thei'C,  and  be  never  again  separated !  I 
quitted  the  spot  with  astonishmenl."  Such  scenes  as 
that  now  described  could  only  have  occurred  among 


people  of  a  warm,  fervid,  enthusiastic  temperamenl 
whose  feelings  had  been  wrought  up  to  a  high  pitch 
of  religious  excitement. 

JUNO,  a  heal  lien  goddess  regarded  by  the  an- 
cient Romans  as  the  Queen  of  Heaven.  She  cor- 
responds to  the  IIi:ra  (which  see)  of  the  Greeks 
This  female  divinity  was  worshipped  at  Rome  from 
very  early  times,  and  at  a  later  period  she  had  a 
temple  reared  to  her  honour  on  the  Aventine  hill. 
She  was  the  special  protector  and  patron  of  the  fe- 
male sex,  and  presided  over  all  connected  with  mar- 
riage. Women  sacrificed  to  her  on  their  birth-day, 
but  more  especially  at  the  festival  of  the  Mutronaliu, 
on  the  1st  of  March.  The  month  of  June,  which 
received  its  name  from  this  goddess,  was  considered 
in  ancient  times  as  a  particularly  .suitable  period  for 
marriage.  A  law  was  passed  at  Rome  in  the  reign 
of  Numa,  that  no  prostitute  .should  be  allowed  to 
touch  the  altar  of  Juno,  and  if  she  did  happen  to 
touch  it,  that  she  should  appease  the  oft'eiuled  god- 
dess by  oft'ering  a  female  lamb  in  sacrifice. 

JUPITER,  the  lord  of  heaven  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  who  jiresided  over  all  celestial  phenomena, 
such  as  thunder,  rain,  hail,  and  all  atmospheric 
changes.  He  was  the  hu.sband  of  Juno  (which 
see.)  When  the  people  wished  for  rain,  they  di- 
rected their  prayers  to  Jupiter.  He  was  regarded 
.as  the  best  and  greatest  of  the  gods,  and  therefore 
his  temple  occupied  a  conspicuous  position  on  the 
summit  of  the  Capitoline  hill.  He  was  the  special 
guardian  and  protector  of  Rome  ;  hence  the  first  offi- 
cial act  of  a  consul  was  to  sacrifice  to  this  god,  and  a 
general  who  had  been  successful  in  the  field  offered 
up  his  special  thanks  to  Jupiter.  The  Roman  games 
and  Ferioe  were  celebrated  in  his  honour.  All  hu- 
man events  were  under  the  control  of  this  deity,  and, 
accordingly,  Jupiter  was  invoked  at  the  commence- 
ment of  any  undertaking,  whether  sacred  or  secular. 
Rams  were  sacrificed  to  Jujiiter  on  the  ides  of  everj 
month,  and  in  the  beginning  of  every  week.  He 
was  the  guardian  of  law,  and  the  patron  of  justice 
and  virtue.  The  white  colour  was  sacred  to  him, 
and  white  animals  were  sacrificed  to  propitiate  him. 
The  Jupiter  of  the  Romans  was  identical  with  the 
yieus  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Ainmmi  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. 

JUSTICE,  an  essential  attiibute  of  the  Divine 
Being  as  he  is  described  in  the  Word  of  God,  where 
we  are  informed  that  he  is  "just  and  true  in  all  his 
ways,"  as  well  as  "  holy  in  all  his  works."  This 
moral  attribute  of  Deity  has  been  distinguished  into 
absolute  and  relative,  universal  and  ))arlicular.  The 
one  refers  to  the  absolute  rectitude  of  his  nature,  the 
other  to  his  character  and  actings  as  a  moral  gover- 
nor. The  one,  therefore,  regards  what  he  is  in  Inm- 
self,  the  other  what  ho  is  in  relation  to  his  creatures. 

JUSTICERS  (Itinkhant),  ofliccrs  appointed  by 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  king  of  England,  to  watch 
over  the  interests  of  the  Jews  resident  within  the 
kingdom.     They  were  instructed  to  protect  the  He 


JUTURNA— KAAliA. 


251 


Drews  against  all  oijpiession,  to  secure  them  in  tlieii' 
interests  anil  prnjii'ily,  to  (leciile  all  controversies  or 
(]iiarrols  between  llii'iri  iuiil  the  Clirislians,  to  keep 
tlio  seal  of  llieir  corporal  ion,  and  the  keys  ol' their 
public  treasury.  The  .luslicers.  in  short,  were  (o 
superintend  the  civil  alliiirs  of  the  ,)ews  throughout 
all  parts  of  England. 


JUTIJKNA,  the  nymph  of  a  well  in  J.,atiimi,  the 
water  of  which  wa.s  considered  so  [leculiarly  sacrefl, 
that  it  was  used  in  almost  all  sacrilices.  A  chapel 
was  dedicated  to  this  nymph  at  ifnme  in  the  Campus 
iMartius,  and  sacrilices  were  ofVered  to  her  on  11th 
■lanuary  hoth  by  the  state  and  hy  private  iiidiviilualK 

.lUVKNTAS.     See  lli:i.i:. 


K 


KAAH.\,  a  building  at  Mecca,  in  Arabia,  wbicli 
has  long  been  famed  as  tlie  annual  resort  of  mul- 
titudes of  iMohannnedan  pilgrims.  The  legendary 
history  of  its  origin  is  curious.  When  Adam  .and 
Kve  were  driven  out  of  I'aradise,  Adam  fell  on  the 
mountain  in  Ceylon  which  is  still  known  by  tlie 
name  of  .\dam's  Peak,  where  the  print  of  Adam's 
foot  is  still  shown ;  and  the  mountain  is  regardeil  as 
sacred  both  by  the  Rudhists  and  Mohammedans, 
Hve,  on  the  other  hand,  fell  on  the  shore  of  the  Ited 
Sea,  where  the  fort  of  Jeddah  now  stands,  and  the 
tomb  of  Eve,  at  the  gate  of  the  town,  is  one  of  the 
sacred  places  to  be  visited  in  the  Hadj.  For  two 
lumdred  years  our  lirst  parents  are  said  to  have  wan- 
liered  over  the  earth  in  search  of  each  other,  and  at 
length  they  met  together  on  Mount  Ararat.  De- 
lighted at  discovering  his  beloved  partner,  Adam 
lifted  uj)  his  hands  in  thanksgiving  to  God,  and  im- 
plored that  another  of  the  blessings  he  had  lost  might 
be  restored  to  him,  namely,  the  shrine  in  Paradise  at 
which  he  had  been  wont  to  worship,  and  round  which 
the  angels  used  to  move  in  a<li]ring  processions.  His 
prayer  was  heard,  and  a  tabernacle  formed  of  radiant 
clouds  was  lowered  down  by  the  hands  of  angels, 
towards  which  Adam  thenceforth  turned  in  prayer, 
and  walked  round  it  daily  seven  times,  in  imitation 
of  the  sacred  processions  of  the  angels. 

When  Adam  died,  the  tabernacle  of  clouds  was 
again  taken  np  into  heaven,  and  another  similar  in 
form  was  built  of  stone  and  clay  in  the  .same  place  by 
Seth,  the  son  of  Adam.  The  Deluge,  of  course, 
washed  this  building  away,  and  it  is  said  to  have 
been  rebuilt  by  Ishniael,  assisted  by  bis  father  Ab- 
raham. While  engaged  in  rearing  this  building,  the 
angel  Gabriel  brought  them  a  stone,  saiil  to  have 
been  one  of  the  precious  stones  of  Paradise,  which 
they  inserted  in  a  corner  of  the  outer  wall  of  the 
Kaaba,  where  it  remains  to  this  day,  to  be  devoutlv 
kissed  by  the  Hadi  or  pilgrim  to  Mecca.  The  pre- 
sent Kaaba  is  of  no  great  antiipiity,  having  been 
renewed  no  fewei  than  eight  times,  and,  as  far  as 
could  he,  with  the  old  materials,  a  reddish  .sandstone. 
The  singular  appearance  of  the  structure,  however, 


alVords  strong  evidence  tlial  it  has  been  scriii)ulon»ly 
restored  after  the  original  design.  The  last  building 
was  nearly  w.ashed  away  by  a  torrent  which  inun- 
dated the  town,  and  the  present  was  erected  so  late 
as  lO'il  by  .\inurath  IV.  It  was  rebuilt  before  Mo- 
hammed had  commenceil  his  public  career,  and  it  it 
cm-ious  that  he  shoulil  have  been  the  person  chosen 
to  lift  the  black  stone  into  its  place. 

The  appearance  of  the  Kaaba  is  thus  described  by 
15m-ckhardt  the  traveller: — "It  contains  but  one 
small  apartment,  then  level  with  the  ground,  but  now 
raised  so  much  above  it,  that  it  can  only  be  entered 
by  a  moveable  ladder.  The  walls  are  hung  with  a 
rich  red  silk,  interwoven  with  flowers  and  silver  in- 
scriptions, which  was  replaced  by  the  Pasha,  and  the 
old  hangings  were  cut  up  and  sold  to  devotees  at 
enormous  prices.  'J"he  room  is  opened  oidy  three 
days  in  the  year,  and  many  pilgi-ims  never  enter  it, 
for  it  is  not  obligatory  :  it  can  receive  very  few  at  a 
time,  and  a  fee  is  exacted,  to  the  indignation  of  the 
(H'vout,  who  regard  it  as  desecrating  the  holiest  spot 
upon  earth.  It  is  customary  to  pray  on  entering,  and 
I  overheard  ejaculations  which  seemed  to  come  from 
the  heart : — '  0  God  of  the  Koran,  forgive  me,  my 
parents,  and  my  children,  and  deliver  our  necks  from 
hell  tire.'  The  Kaaba  must  have  a  singular  appear- 
ance, for  it  is  visible  for  no  more  than  a  fortnight, 
being  constantly  clothed  with  a  black  damask  veil, 
in  which  pr.iyers  are  embroidered,  and  as  this  mate- 
rial, an  animal  product,  is  unclean,  it  is  lined  with 
cotton.  Openings  are  left  for  the  sight  of  the  black 
and  while  stones.  Both  are  said  to  have  been  once 
of  the  same  colour,  which  the  first  is  reported  to  have 
lost  in  conscrjueiice  of  sin;  but  the  surface  has  pro- 
bably been  blackened  by  time,  aided  by  the  kisses 
and  touches  of  a  long  succession  of  pilgrims.  It  is 
an  irregular  oval,  seven  inches  in  diameter,  appa- 
rently a  mass  of  smaller  stones  conglomerated  in  a 
cement,  and  encircled  by  a  silver  baud.  It  is  pro- 
bably an  aijrolite,  and  owes  its  reputation,  like  many 
others,  to  its  fall  from  the  sky.  This  house  of  God, 
as  it  is  called,  is  said  to  have  been  first  clothed  by 
the  Hamyarite  kings  of  Yemen,  seven  centuries  be 


2J8 


KABIR  PANTHIS. 


fore  the  birtli  of  tlie  Piopliet ;  and  tliese  covers  used 
to  be  put  on  one  over  another,  till  the  end  of  the  first 
century  of  Islam.  It  has  since  been  yearly  renewed, 
and  the  old  cover  cut  up.  The  privilege  of  clothing 
it,  which  was  assumed  by  Kelan,  Sultan  of  Egypt,  on 
tlie  conquest  of  that  country  by  Selim,  passed  over 
to  liim  and  his  successors.  An  adequate  idea  of  the 
building  may  be  formed  from  the  views  in  Reland 
;iud  Sale,  and  especially  that  in  D'Ohson's  work.  It 
stands  in  an  oblong  square  250  paces  by  200,  but  as 
it  has  been  enlarged,  it  no  longer  occupies  the  centre. 
It  is  nearly  enclosed  by  a  circle  of  slight  pillars  at  a 
little  distance,  around  which  are  the  four  stations  for 
the  orthodox  sects." 

The  Mohammedans  generally  believe  that  if  all 
the  pilgrims  were  at  the  same  moment  to  visit  the 
Ivaaba,  the  enclosure  would  contain  them  all.  Burck- 
hardt  calculates  that  35,000  might  attend,  but  he 
never  could  count  more  of  them  than  10,000. 

IvABIR  PANTHIS,  the  followers,  among  the 
Hindus,  of  Kabir,  whom  they  allege  to  have  been  the 
incarnate  Deity,  who,  in  the  form  of  a  child,  was 
foimd  floating  on  a  lotus  in  a  lake  or  pond  near 
Benares,  by  tlie  wife  of  a  weaver  named  Nima,  who, 
with  her  husband  Nuri,  was  attending  a  wedding 
procession.  The  Kabir  I'anthis  believe  tliat  their 
founder  was  present  in  the  world  three  hundred  years, 
or  from  A.  D.  1149  to  A.  n.  1449.  The  probability 
is,  that  he  lived  at  the  latter  of  these  two  periods, 
more  especially  as  Nanak  Sliah,  who  began  to  teach 
about  A.  D.  1490,  and  who  originated  the  Hindu  sect 
of  the  SlMis,  is  considered  to  have  been  deeply  in- 
debted to  the  writings  of  his  predecessor  Kabir. 
The  Moslems  claim  Kabir  as  having  been  a  professor 
of  the  faith  of  Islam,  and  a  contest  is  said  to  have 
arisen  between  them  and  the  Hindus  respecting  the 
disposal  of  his  corpse,  the  latter  insisting  on  burning, 
the  former  on  burying  it.  In  the  midst  of  this  dis- 
pute, Kabir  himself  is  said  to  have  appeared,  and 
desiring  them  to  look  under  the  cloth  supposed  to 
cover  his  mortal  remains,  immediately  vanished  ;  but, 
on  obeying  his  instructions,  they  found  nothing  under 
the  cloth  but  a  heap  of  (lowers,  one-half  of  which 
was  removed  to  l>eiiares,  and  burnt,  whilst  the  head 
of  the  Moli.ammedan  party  erected  a  tomb  over  flie 
other  portion  at  tlie  place  where  Kabir  had  died. 

The  Kdhir  Pantliis  being  chiefly  favourers  of 
Vishnu,  are  iricludod  among  the  Vaishnava  sects ; 
but  it  is  no  part  of  their  faith  to  worship  any  Hindu 
deity,  or  to  observe  any  of  the  riles  or  ceremonies  of 
the  Hindus,  whether  orthodox  or  schismatical.  Those 
ot  the  members  of  the  sect  who  mingle  with  the  world, 
confonn  outwardly  to  all  the  usages  of  their  tribe  and 
caste,  and  some  of  them  even  pretend  to  worship  the 
Hindu  gods,  though  this  is  not  considered  consistent 
with  their  tenets.  Those,  however,  who  have  retired 
from  the  world,  and  given  themselves  up  to  a  life  of 
seclusion,  abslaiii  from  all  the  onlinary  practices  of 
the  Hindus,  and  employ  themselves  chiefly  in  chant- 
ing hymns   to  the  invisible    Kabir.     They   use   no 


Mantra  nor  fixed  form  of  salutation ;  they  have  no 
peculiar  mode  of  address.  The  frontal  marks,  if 
worn,  are  usually  those  of  the  Vaishuuva  sects,  or 
they  make  a  streak  with  sandal-wood  or  gopichandana 
along  the  ridges  of  the  nose.  A  necklace  and  rosai')' 
of  Tidasi  are  also  worn  by  them  ;  but  all  these  out- 
ward signs  are  considered  of  no  importance,  and  the 
inward  man  is  the  only  essential  point  to  be  attended 
to. 

Professor  II.  II.  Wilson  thus  explains  some  of  the 
characteristic  doctrines  of  the  Kabir  Panthis: — "They 
admit  of  but  one  God,  the  creator  of  the  world  ;  and 
in  opposition  to  the  Vedanta  notions  of  the  absence 
of  every  quality  and  form,  they  assert  that  he  has 
body,  formed  of  the  five  elements  of  matter,  and  that 
he  has  mind  endowed  with  the  three  Guiias,  or  qua- 
lities of  being  ;  of  course  of  inefl'able  purity  and  irre- 
sistible power :  he  is  free  from  the  defects  of  human 
nature,  and  can  assume  what  particular  shape  he 
will :  in  all  other  respects  he  does  not  difftr  from 
man,  and  the  pure  man,  the  Sddh  of  the  Kabir  sect, 
is  his  living  resemblance,  and  after  death  is  his  asso- 
ciate and  equal;  he  is  eternal,  without  end  or  begin- 
ning, as,  in  fact,  is  the  elementary  matter  of  which 
lie  Consists,  and  of  which  all  things  are  made,  residing 
in  himliefore  they  took  their  present  form,  as  the 
parts  of  the  tree  abide  in  the  seed,  or  flesh,  blood, 
and  bone  may  be  considered  to  be  present  in  the 
seminal  fluid  :  from  the  latter  circumstance,  and  the 
identity  of  their  essenti.al  nature,  proceeds  the  doe- 
trine,  that  God  and  man  are  not  only  the  same,  but 
that  they  are  both  in  tlie  same  manner,  every  thing 
that  lives  and  moves  and  has  its  being:  other  sects 
have  adopted  these  phrases  literally,  but  the  followers 
of  Kabir  do  not  mean  by  them  to  deny  the  indivi- 
duality  of  being,  and  only  intend  these  tests  as  asser- 
tions of  all  nature  originally  participating  in  common 
elementary  principles."  "  The  moral  code  of  the 
Kabir  Panthis,"  says  the  same  eminent  Orientalist, 
"is  short,  but,  if  observed  faithfully,  is  of  a  rathev 
favourable  tendency.  Life  is  the  gift  of  God,  and 
must  not,  therefore,  be  violated  by  his  creatures. 
Humanity  is,  consequently,  a  cardinal  virtue,  and 
the  shedding  of  blood,  whether  of  man  or  animal,  a 
heinous  crime.  Truth  is  the  other  great  principle 
of  llieir  code,  as  all  the  ills  of  the  world,  and  igno- 
rance of  God,  are  attribulable  to  origiiiid  falsehood. 
Retirement  from  (he  world  is  desirable,  because  the 
passions  and  desires,  the  hopes  and  fears,  which  the 
social  state  engenders,  are  all  hostile  to  lrau(|uillii v 
and  puri(y  of  spirit,  and  prevent  (hat  undisturbed 
meditation  on  man  and  (Sod  which  is  necessary  to 
their  comprehension.  The  last  great  point  is  the 
usual  sum  and  substance  of  every  sect  amongst  the 
Hindus,  implicit  devotion  in  word,  act,  and  thought 
to  the  Guru,  or  spiritual  guide:  in  this,  however,  the 
characteristic  spirit  of  the  Kabir  Panthis  appe.irs,  iind 
(he  pupil  is  enjoined  (o  scrutinize  his  teaclier's  doc- 
trines and  acts,  and  to  be  first  satisfied  that  he  is  tlu 
sage  he  pretends  to  be,  before  he  resigns  him  df  ti 


TvADR  (Ai,)— K'AI-'l'llIS  fliij.rcKiN  of  tuk). 


259 


liis  control.  This  sect,  indeed,  is  rcin.irkably  liberal 
Ml  this  respect,  and  the  most  fre(iuciitly  reeurriii;; 
I(!xt8  of  Kabir  are  those  which  enforce  an  attentive 
examination  of  the  doctrine  that  he  otVers  to  his 
disciples,  'riie  chief  of  each  comnuniity  has  absohile 
authority  over  his  de|ieiidants:  tlu^  only  piniishinents 
he  can  award,  however,  are  moral,  not  physical  — 
n'rofjnlar  comluct  is  visited  by  reproof  and  admoni- 
tion :  if  the  oll'ender  does  not  reform,  the  (lin-ii 
refuses  to  receive  his  salutation;  if  still  inein-able, 
the  only  finthcr  inlliclinn  is  (expulsion  fmni  the 
fraternity." 

The  sect  of  Kaliir  I'.inthis  is  very  wiilely  dilVnscd 
throughout  Hindustan.  It  is  siilit  into  a  variety  of 
subdivisions,  and  there  are  actually  twelve  branches 
of  it  traced  up  to  the  foinider,  among  whom  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  well  as  descent  prevails.  Of 
he  establishments  of  this  sect,  the  Kabir  Chaiu'a  at 
Benares  is  pre-eminent  in  dignity,  and  it  is  constantly 
visited  by  wandering  members  of  the  .sect.  The 
Kabir  Panthis  are  very  numerous  in  all  the  provinces 
of  Upper  and  Central  India,  excejit,  perhaps,  in 
Ikng.al  itself.  Their  doctrines  are  taught  in  a  great 
variety  of  works  in  diU'erent  di.alects  of  India ;  but 
the  great  authority  to  which  they  are  wont  to  refer 
IS  the  Vijek,  which,  however,  rather  inveighs  .against 
other  systems  than  explains  its  own. 

KADR  (Ai,),  the  title  of  the  ninety-seventh  chap- 
.er  of  the  Koran,  which  contains  an  account  of  God's 
tending  down  the  Kor.an  to  Mohannned  from  heaven. 
Hence  it  represents  God  as  saying,  "The  night  of 
W  Ka(h'  is  better  than  a  thousand  months."  Mo- 
hammedan doctors  are  by  no  means  agreed  what 
night  Al  Kadr  really  is,  but  the  majority  of  them 
consider  it  to  be  one  of  the  ten  last  nights  of  the 
Ramadan.  They  believe  that  in  this  night  the 
divine  decrees  for  the  ensuing  3-e,ar  are  annually  fixed 
and  settled. 

KAFFIRS  (Rp.r.iGiox  or  Tin:).  The  word  Kaffir, 
which  signifies  unbeliever,  is  now  confined  to  the  in- 
habitants of  KafTnland,  in  South  Africa.  It  was 
given,  however,  by  the  Moorish  navigators  of  the 
Indian  Oce.an  to  the  inh<abifants  of  the  south-eastern 
coast  of  Africa,  and  was  borrowed  from  them  by  the 
Portuguese.  The  Kaftirs  form  one  tribe  of  the  great 
Rechuana  family,  and  their  country,  which  lies  be- 
yond the  Fish  River,  is  bounded  by  the  oce.an  on  the 
south,  and  a  range  of  mountains  on  the  north,  .and 
beyond  them  lie  the  Amapondo  and  Zoolu  tribes. 
The  Kaflirs  are  in  personal  apiiearance  a  remarkably 
handsome  race  of  men,  bolil  and  warlike  in  their 
character,  of  lofty  stature  and  graceful  deportment. 
They  wear  no  clothing  but  a  clniik  of  skin.  They 
are  a  pastoral  people,  and  their  Hocks  .and  herds 
constitute  their  chief  care.  They  have  been  gene- 
rally alleged  to  be  altogether  destitute  of  a  form  of 
religion  of  any  kind,  and  th.at  the  utmost  which  can 
De  said  of  them  in  this  respect  is,  that  they  ret.ain 
a  few  unmeaning  rites  .and  ceremonies  of  a  supersti- 
tious kind.     It  is  of  importance,  however,  to  remark, 


that,  for  fifty  years  past,  the  Kaflirs  have  been  in 
contact  with  Christian  missionaries  and  colonistH,  and 
thus  have  been  learning  something  about  God;  so 
that  it  is  now  dillicult  to  distingui.sh  between  tlicir 
former  ami  their  present  knowledge.  .Mr.  .MofTat 
says  that  they  are  utterly  destitute  of  theological 
ideas.  Dr.  Vamlerkemp,  the  first  missionary  who 
labocned  among  them,  gives  this  testimony  as  to  the 
extent  of  tluur  religious  knowledge: — "  If  iiy  religiori 
we  mean  reverence  for  God,  or  the  external  action 
by  which  that  reverence  is  expressed,  1  never  conld 
perceive  that  they  had  any  religion,  or  any  idea  o( 
the  existence  of  {!od.  1  am  sjieaking  nationally,  for 
there  are  many  individuals  who  h,ave  some  notion  oi 
bis  existence,  which  they  have  received  from  .adjacent 
nations.  A  decisive  proof  of  the  truth  of  what  I 
here  say  with  respect  to  the  n.ational  .atheism  of  the 
Kaliirs  is,  that  they  have  no  word  in  their  language 
to  express  the  idea  of  the  Deity,  the  individuals  just 
mentioned  calling  him  'Thiko,  which  is  a  corruption 
of  the  name  by  which  God  is  called  in  the  language 
of  the  Hottentots,  literally  signifying,  one  that  in- 
duces pain." 

We  learn,  however,  from  .Mr.  Mofi'at,  who  has 
laboured  for  many  years  as  a  missionary  in  South 
Al'rica,  that  the  K.aftirs  use  the  word  UliUnnjaio  de- 
note the  Supreme  Being;  but  the  lirob.ahilily  is,  that 
the  god  whom  they  describe  by  this  name  is  no  other 
than  a  deified  chief  or  hero,  who  at  some  remote 
period  had  aft.ained  distinction  in  their  country. 
Their  ideas  of  the  most  elementary  religions  truths 
are  undoubtedly  obscure  and  indistinct,  and  yet  they 
have  some  superstitious  rites  which  deserve  to  be 
noticed.  Mr.  Laing,  a  mission.ary  now  labouring  in 
Kaflirland,  has  kindly  connnunicated  to  us  .an  accounl 
of  their  present  customs,  which  we  present  in  his 
own  words: — "  1.  Circumcision.  Young  men  are 
circumcised  about  the  age  of  puberty.  I  could  never 
observe  anything  of  a  religious  nature  connected  wiih 
this  custom.  When  the  rite  is  performed,  the  young 
men  are  separated  from  society,  and  paint  themselves 
white.  A  hut  is  made  for  them,  and  they  live  a  few 
months  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  people  ;  but  at  the 
various  kr.aiils  from  which  they  come,  dances  from 
time  to  time  are  held,  the  young  men  being  p.ainted 
white,  and  dressed  in  a  short  kilt  m.ade  of  the  leaves 
of  a  particular  tree,  which  are  kept  const<antly  shaking 
by  the  motions  of  the  body.  AVhen  the  term  of  sepa- 
ration comes  to  an  end,  the  young  men,  .after  burning 
their  clothes  .and  hut,  and  performing  certain  washings, 
are  .admitted  into  the  society  of  men,  and  treated  as 
such.  This  seems  to  fix  the  Kaffir  circumcision  as  a  civil 
rite.  A  person  who  liJis  not  been  circumcised,  though 
a  man  by  years,  was  formerly,  and  in  heathen  dis- 
tricts is  still,  despised.  A  number  of  Christian  young 
men,  who  left  ofV  the  custom  of  circumcision  so  far 
as  I  know,  are  able  to  maintain  a  respectable  position 
in  life  even  in  the  eyes  of  their  he.athen  neighbours, 
though  uncircumcised.  There  .are  immoial  practices 
connected  with  the  dances  which,  not  to  speak  of  the 


260 


KAIOMORTS— KALI  (Maha). 


apostolic  letter  which  frees  us   from   this   burden, 
render  this  custom  incompatible  with  Christianity. 

"  2.  Tsivivane.  Any  traveller  going  throu-h  Katfir- 
land,  will  see  here  and  there  heaps  of  stones  thrown 
down,  without  any  reference  to  order.  Some  of  these 
heaps  are  large,  indicating,  I  tliink,  that  the  Katfirs 
must  have  been  a  considerable  time  in  possession  of 
tlie  country.  What  are  these  Tsivivane?  They  are 
lasting  proofs  tliat  the  Kaflirs  sought  success  in  their 
enterprises  from  some  unseen  being.  When  out  on 
a  journey,  they  were  accustomed  to  throw  a  stone  to 
one  of  these  Tsivivane,  and  to  pray  for  success  in 
their  expedition.  They  could,  however,  give  no  de- 
finite account  of  the  nature  of  the  being  from  whom 
they  sought  aid.  Along  the  paths  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  the  tall  grass  knotted.  This  I  understand 
to  be  a  custom  similar  to  the  Tsivivane,  viz.,  a  means 
of  seeking  good  speed  in  their  journey. 

"  3.  Witchcraft.  In  common  with  many,  perliaps 
all  nations  in  some  period  of  their  history,  the  Kaffirs 
believe  in  witchcraft,  and  have  been  in  tlie  habit  of 
punishing  witches  in  the  most  cruel  manner.  They 
looked  on  these  characters  as  the  most  wicked  of 
maidvind,  and  not  fit  to  live.  I  never  could  find  that 
they  had  a  correct  idea  of  the  general  depravity  of 
man,  and  their  view  of  sin  is  best  explained  by  our 
word  crime.  They  would  often  deny  that  they  had 
sin,  but  as  to  witches  being  sinners  they  never  had  a 
doubt.  They  connected  the  eH'ects  of  witchcraft  with 
certain  substances,  such  as  hair,  blood,  nail-parings, 
or  other  fragments  of  the  human  body,  and  this  thing 
which  bewitclied  tliey  called  Ubuti.  Other  sub- 
stances were  u.sed,  as  they  held,  for  the  purpo.se  of 
bewitching.  These  witches  (I  mean  the  word  to  be 
applied  to  men  and  women)  were  believed  to  exert 
a  powerful  though  unseen  influence  over  their  vic- 
tims, even  to  the  depriving  them  of  life. 

"  4.  Idini — Sacrifice.  This  rite  is  performed  to  the 
ancestors  of  the  Kaffirs,  not  to  the  Supreme  Being. 
They  .seem  to  think  that  by  burning  fat,  or  rather 
bones  to  them,  they  can  appease  their  anger.  Thesi' 
Minis,  so  far  as  I  know,  were  seldom  oft'ered.  The 
idea  of  sacrifice  seems  to  be  comiected  with  them,  as 
they  were  practised  for  the  purpose  of  averting  evil. 

"  5.  Hero  worship.  I  have  heard  an  intelligent 
man,  yet  a  rude  heathen,  avowing  that  he  and  his 
peojde  were  worshippers  of  famous  ancestors.  There 
must  have  been  some  traces  of  such  idolatry,  fn>ni 
what  I  have  heard;  but  this  kind  of  worship  ap))e.u> 
to  have  been  dying  out  about  llie  time  the  mission 
aries  arrived. 

"  G.  Future  state.  When  we  .spoke  to  the  Kaffirs 
as  to  the  innnorlality  of  the  soul,  they  told  us  th.'U 
they  knew  nothing  of  its  existence  after  the  death  of 
the  body.  From  some  exj)ressions  which  they  make 
use  of  to  the  dying,  or  in  reference  to  them  after  they 
are  dead,  it  seems  that  at  one  time  they  must  have 
believed  in  the  inmiorlalily  of  the  soul.  For  exam|ile, 
to  a  person  who  is  aI)out  to  die  they  will  s.ay,  '  'I'nu 
are  going  home  to  day — look  on  us 


'■  7.  Hy  touching  a  dead  body,  they  become  iin 

clr.-lll. 

"  H.  When  a  husband  dies,  bis  wife  or  wives  gc 
out  to  the  field  or  woods  for  a  time." 

From  all  tliat  can  be  ascertained  on  the  religion  oi 
the  Kaffirs,  it  seems  that  those  of  them  who  are  still 
in  their  heathen  state  have  no  idea,  (1.)  of  a  Supreme 
Intelligent  Ruler  of  the  universe  ;  (2.)  of  a  Sabbath  ; 
(.'5.)  of  a  day  of  judgment ;  (4.)  of  the  guilt  and 
pollution  of  sin  ;  (5.)  of  a  Saviour  to  deliver  them 
from  the  wrath  to  come. 

KAIOMOUTS,the  primitive  man,  according  to  the 
Zendavesta,  of  the  ancient  Persians.     See  Abf.sta. 

KALA  (Maiia),  the  male  form  of  the  Hindu  god 
Shiva,  in  his  character  of  Time,  the  great  destroyer 
of  all  things. 

KALENDERS  (pure  gold),  wandering  Dei-viuhe-^ 
among  the  Mohammedans,  whose  souls  are  supposed 
to  be  piu-ified  by  severe  penances.  To  this  degraded 
class  belong  the  spies,  the  assassins,  and  the  plun- 
derers that  we  read  nf  among  tlie  Dervishes;  and 
from  tbem  also  have  sprung  numerous  false  prophets 
at  different  times.  Their  pretensions,  however,  are 
encouraged  only  by  the  lowest  ranks  of  society,  and 
they  are  not  acknowledged  as  brethren  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  regular  confraternities.  In  India  these 
Mussulman  mctKlicants  are  not  numerous,  and  thev 
ai'e  held  in  little  esteem.  They  wear  in  that  country 
a  peculiar  costume,  consisting  of  a  conical  felt  hat 
worked  into  chequers  of  white,  red,  and  black  ;  and 
their  gown,  which  descends  from  the  neck  to  the  call 
of  the  leg,  is  of  diamond-shaped  patches  of  the  same 
colours.  A  few  gourds  for  earn-ing  water  are  bung 
over  the  shoulder  or  at  the  waist;  and  usually  i) 
bright  steel  rod,  sometimes  headed  with  a  trident, 
completes  their  equipment.  They  never  marry,  but 
are  of  habits  exceedingly  dissolute  and  debauched, 
and  are  always  most  sturdy  and  importunate  beggars. 
They  regard  themselves  as  olijccts  of  the  special 
favour  of  Heaven. 

KALI  (i\lA)iA),  a  Hindu  goddess,  the  persoiulled 
energy  or  consort  of  Shiva  imder  a  peculiar  form. 
This  is  the  most  cruel  arid  revengefid  of  all  the 
Hindu  divinities.  Such  is  her  thirst  for  blood,  that 
in  one  of  her  forms  she  is  represented  as  having 
"  actually  cut  her  own  throat,  that  the  blood  issuing 
thence  might  spout  into  her  mouth."  Images  of  this 
disgusting  spectacle  are  at  this  day  to  be  seen  in 
some  districts  of  Bengal.  All  torlmvs  which  a  de- 
votee can  possibly  inflict  upon  himself  are  considered 
as  agreeable  to  her.  If  he  should  cut  ofi'  a  portion 
(pf  bis  own  flesh,  and  present  it  as  a  burnt  sacrifice, 
the  offering  would  be  most  acceptable.  Ur.  Diifl 
informs  us  that  "  by  the  blood  drawn  from  lishesand 
tortoises  tlie  goddi-ss  is  jjleased  one  month ;  a  croco- 
dile's bhjod  will  please  her  three;  that  of  certain 
wild  .animals  nine;  that  of  a  bull  or  guana  a  year; 
an  antelope  or  wild  boar's  twelve  years ;  a  butlalo's, 
rhinoceros's,  or  tiger's,  a  hundred  ;  a  lion's,  a  rein- 
deer's, or  a  man's  (mark  the  combination),  a  thousand 


KALI-AGB— KANTlANfJ. 


261 


Hut  by  tlie  blood  of  tliree  men  slain  in  Bacrilicc  bIig 

is  pleaseil  a  liiiinlreil  llK>ll^aIlll  yt^ars."  Kolibers, 
(liii!Ves,  anil  niunliMciH,  lawless  dt'siicrailocs,  in  slioit, 
of  every  kind,  wurslii]!  Kali  an  tlieiravowud  |)atnine.s«, 
and  ollbr  bloody  nacrilices  to  (H'opitiatu  the  Cavoiii' 
and  secure  Ibe  proteclion  of  I  be  goddess.  Tbe 
Thii(j«,  in  partieular,  conduct  tlieir  sanguinary  de|jre- 
dalions  under  lier  s[iccial  auspices.  In  bonour  of 
Kdli,  one  of  tlic  most  popular  of  tbe  Hindu  festivals 
is  annually  observed  willi  great  pomp  and  ceremony 
— tbe  CllARAK  I'u.lAll  (wliicb  see),  or  swinging  fes 
tival.  Private  sacrilices  are  sometimes  olVered  to 
Kali,  .an  instance  of  wliicb  is  (pioted  by  Dr.  Dull', 
from  tbe  statement  ol'  a  llritisb  oliicer  of  liigb  cliar- 
acter: — "  A  Hindu  Fa(|uir,  dressed  in  a  fantastical 
garb,  worked  upon  tlic  mind  of  a  wealtby  Iiigb-caste 
lirabnian  woman,  to  tbe  extent  of  making  ber  believe 
tbat  be  was  ber  s]iiritual  guide,  ebargcd  willi  a  nies- 
.sage  from  tbe  goddess,  demanding  a  bnman  sacrilice. 
Sbe  declared  berself  ready  to  obey  tbe  divine  order, 
and  asked  wbo  was  tlio  victim.  Tbe  Faquir  pointed 
to  ber  own  son,  a  young  man  about  twenty-five  years 
old,  tbe  beir  to  tbe  family  property.  Tbe  deluded 
motber  waited  till  tbe  unconscious  youtb  was  asleep, 
and  in  tbe  silence  of  tbe  nigbt  slio  struck  liim  on  tbe 
bead  witb  an  axe,  and  killed  liim.  Tbis  done,  sbe 
tut  up  llio  body,  inider  tbe  direction  of  ber  siiiritual 
guide,  tlie  Faquir — presented  a  part,  boiled  witb  rice, 
as  a  peace  otl'ering,  witb  tbe  usual  ceremonies,  to  tbe 
image  of  tbe  goddess ;  part  to  tbe  wretcb  wbo  per- 
Bouitied  tbe  spiritual  messenger:  tlie  rest  sbe  buried 
witb  so  little  care,  tliat  tbe  place  of  its  deposit  was 
discovered  by  tbe  vidtures  bovering  over  tbe  ground, 
and  tbus  brougbt  to  tlie  notice  of  tbe  Englisb  com- 
inissioner  by  tbe  police." 

KALI-YIJG,  tbe  last  of  tbe  cbronological  cycles 
of  tbe  Hindus,  tbrougli  wbicb  tbe  world  is  said  to  be 
lit  present  passing,  wben  tbe  powers  of  darkness  and 
disorder  liave  become  predominant  in  tbe  soul  of  man, 
and  when  external  nature  groans  beneath  the  burden 
o}'  iniquity. 

KALUv.V  I'UUAXA,  one  of  tbe  divine  writings 
of  the  Hindus,  which  is  chieHy  devoted  to  a  recital 
of  tlie  ditVerent  modes  of  worshipping  and  appeasing 
the  goddess  Kai.i  (which  see). 

KALKI  AVATAR,  the  tenth  and  last  of  the 
AvATAUS  (which  see),  when  Vishnu,  in  human  form 
and  seated  on  a  white  horse,  shall  give  the  signal  for 
the  destruction  of  tbis  visible  universe. 

KALl'A,  in  Hindu  chronology,  a  day  oi  Brahiixi, 
equal  to  four  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty 
millions  of  golar  years. 

IvAMAC,  the  god  of  love  among  the  Hindus. 

KAMIMITSI.     t^ee  Sintoi.sts." 

KAMlSIiNIO,  a  garment  of  ceremony  among  the 
Japanese,  worn  on  festivals  and  other  solemn  occa- 
sions. It  consists  of  two  parts,  a  short  cloak,  with- 
out sleeves,  called  katageno,  and  a  sort  of  petticoat 
called  valcama,  fastened  about  the  waist  by  a  band. 
ISoth  arc  of  a  particular  form,  and  of  coloured  stufl's. 


They  are  used  only  on  days  of  ceremony  and  at 

funerals. 

KAMT.SCHADALK.S  (KDi.KiiuN  ok).   See  SilA- 

MAMSTS. 

KAMYlI-MUiajMJ  (desire  for  death),  modes 
of  suicide  formerly  prescribed  in  the  i^haBlras  or 
Sacred  Kooks  of  the  Hindus.  Tbe  commonest  mode 
is  drowning  in  tbe  Ganges,  but  somctiineB  the  self- 
murderer  submits  to  being  buried  alive.  In  certain 
tenqiles  in  India  there  was  formerly  an  instrument 
by  which  a  pcM'son  could  decapitate  himself.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  sharp  crescent- shaped  inslrinnent,  witb  a 
chain  and  Hiirriip  at  each  horn.  Tbe  devotee  placed 
the  sliarji  edge  on  tbe  back  of  his  neck,  and  his  feet 
in  the  stirru|i8,  then  gave  a  violent  jerk  witb  bis 
legs,  and  bis  bead  was  instantly  severed  from  his 
body. 

KAN'CHICLIVAS,  a  sect  of  Hindus  which  is  said 
to  be  not  uncommon  in  the  south  of  India,  and  whose 
worship  is  tbat  of  Siiltii,  tbe  personilicd  energy  of  the 
divine  nature  in  action.  It  is  said  to  be  distinguished 
by  one  peculiar  rite,  the  object  of  which  is  to  con- 
found all  tbe  ties  of  female  alliance,  and  to  enforc» 
not  oidy  a  community  of  women  amongst  tbe  votaries, 
but  disregard  even  to  natural  restraints. 

KANTIANS,  .1  sect  of  German  thinkers  in  tbe 
last  century,  who  adopted  the  philosophical  principles 
of  iMnmanuel  Kant.  Tbis  eminent  philosopher  was 
born  at  Kcinigsberg  in  1724.  His  mind  early  dis- 
played a  taste  for  the  study  of  abstract  truth,  which 
rendered  bini  so  conspicuous  in  tbis  department,  thai, 
while  yet  a  coinparati\ely  young  man,  be  was  ap- 
pointed ])rofessor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  tbe 
university  of  bis  native  town.  In  the  course  of  a 
long  life,  be  made  such  valuable  discoveries  in  ab- 
stract science,  that  be  gave  rise  to  a  new  school  of 
German  philosophy,  tbe  influence  of  which  has  ex- 
tended down  to  tbe  present  day.  Tbe  work  in  which 
he  first  developed  his  own  jieeuliar  principles  was  bis 
'  Critique  of  I'ure  Reason,'  which  be  published  in 
1781,  following  it  np  by  various  other  treatises  ex- 
planatory of  bis  jdiilosophical  ."iystein  in  its  ditl'creni 
bearings. 

The  Kantian  pbiIoso|ihy  was  designed,  in  the  iirst 
instance,  to  meet  and  to  neutralize  tbe  sceptical 
principles  set  forth  by  David  Hume,  who,  by  attempt- 
ing to  trace  all  truth  to  experience,  unsettled  the 
foundations  of  bnman  knowledge.  Tbe  philosoplicr 
of  Kijnigsberg,  however,  showed  that,  independently 
altogether  of  experience,  there  are  a  ^Wor;  principles 
which  originate  solely  from  the  operation  of  tbe  mind 
itself,  and  are  distinct  from  any  sensible  element. 
Thus  Kant  pointed  out  the  very  important  distinction 
between  a  priori  m\d  a  posteriori  knowledge. 

Another  distinction  of  great  importance  was  tirsi 
clearly  developed  by  Kant,  that,  namely,  between 
analytic  and  synthetic  judgments.  In  the  fomier,  as 
be  showed,  the  attribute  or  predicate  is  necessarily 
contained  in  tbe  sulject ;  while  in  the  latter  it  is  not 
contained   in,  but  is  distinct  from  tbe  subject.     The 


2G2 


ICANTIANS. 


foniierjudgments,  therefore,  are  a  pn'on,  and  tlie  latter 
iire  some  of  them  a  f/cwri  and  others  a  posteriori.  Hu- 
man knowledge,  according  to  this  system,  is  composed 
of  two  elements,  the  empirical  or  a  jmsteriori  element, 
and  the  transcendental  ora^»v'ori  element,  which  is  de- 
rived from  theintelhgence.  In  the  Kantian  philosophy 
there  are  three  faculties:  Perception,  which  has  to 
Jo  with  single  objects;  Understanding  with  notions; 
and  Reason  with  ideas.  Time  and  space  are  the 
universal  forms  of  things.  Understanding  thinks 
and  judges  according  to  certain  categories  which  are 
not  in  the  objects,  but  in  the  mind  itself.  Reason 
has  the  ideas,  universe,  soul,  Ciod  ;  but,  as  Kant  be- 
lieved, the  existence  of  these  ideas  cannot  be  proved. 
Dr.  Kahnis  gives  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  Kantian  prin- 
ciples in  these  words: — "The  human  mind  has,  in 
its  a  priori  medium,  forms  to  which  miiversality  and 
necessity  belong  (in  opposition  to  scepticism),  but 
only  a  subjective  one ;  but  it  cainiot  claim  to  know 
objective  being — the  thing  in  itself  (in  opposition  to 
dogmatism).  If,  then,  our  theoretical  reason  must 
allow  the  things  external  to  it  not  to  be  cognizable, 
practical  reason  has  a  firm,  iinmoveable  ground.  It 
demands,  with  absolute  necessity  {categorical  impe- 
rative) :  Act  as  a  general  being,  i.e.,  as  a  inember  of 
the  universe,  as  a  rational  being.  But  man  has  within 
himself  desires,  the  common  aiin  and  object  of  which 
is  the  gratification  of  self.  While  practical  reason 
.'iays.  Act  as  a  general  rational  being,  the  desires  say, 
Act  as  a  particular  being,  in  an  arbitrary  way.  lie 
only  is  virtuous  who,  in  his  actions,  is  not  determined 
by  desires,  but  by  reason.  But  virtue  would  be 
without  a  sphere,  unless  objects  of  action  were 
brought  to  it  by  the  desires.  The  territory  of  virtue, 
and  that  of  desires,  mutually  require  one  another. 
Now,  it  is  here  that  the  idea  of  God,  which  was  given 
up  on  the  territory  of  pure  reason,  obtains  its  right 
as  a  postulate  of  practical  reason.  The  domain  of 
virtue,  and  that  of  desires,  are  heterogeneous  worlds, 
but  yet  ordained  for  one  another.  Hence  there  must 
be  a  power  which  has  harmonized  both  of  these  do- 
mains, and  that  power  is  God.  As  virtue  does  not 
reach  the  highest  good  in  this  world,  which  highest 
good  consists  in  the  unity  of  that  which  reason  and 
the  desires  seek  after,  i.e.,  worthiness  ami  happiness, 
this  ideal  must  needs  be  realised  in  another  life  after 
death.  The  theological  results  of  his  criticism,  Kant 
has  developed  in  his  '  Religion  within  the  limits  of 
reason.'  He  rejects  any  staml-point  which  places 
itself  ill  opposition  to  the  positive  in  Christianity 
(naturalism),  but  is  in  favour  of  a  ration.al  faith 
(ratiomili.im)  connecting  itself  with  it.  Tliis  connec- 
tion he  gained  by  changing,  by  means  of  an  allego- 
rical exposition,  the  doctrine  of  the  Scriptures  and 
the  Church  into  moral  religion." 

Thus  Kant  held  that  pure  reason  has  no  power  to 
make  any  certain  .statement  concerning  supernatural 
truths,  and  that  the  existence  of  God,  liberty,  and 
iimiiortality,  are  postulates  of  practical  reason.  Thus 
it  was  that  Rutionaliim,  which  from  that  time  formed 


a  constant  opposition  to  Snpra-naturolism,  had  i(» 
origin  in  the  critical  philosophy  of  Kant,  wliich 
limited  itself  within  an  order  of  ideas  purely  subjec- 
tive, from  which  it  could  not  iind  an  outlet  without 
having  recourse  to  practical  reason,  whicli  again  was 
founded  on  ideas  drawn  from  speculative  reason. 
Religion,  in  the  view  of  Kant,  consists  in  this,  that 
in  reference  to  all  our  duties,  we  consider  God  the 
legislator,  who  is  to  be  reverenced  by  all.  He  com- 
bated the  idea  that  reason  is  competent  to  decide 
what  is,  and  what  is  not,  revealed.  He  introduced  the 
systein  of  moral  interpretation  according  to  which 
Scripture  ought  to  be  explained,  apart  from  itn 
original  historical  meaning,  in  such  a  manner  as  is 
likely  to  prove  beneficial  to  the  moral  condition  ol 
the  people. 

The  opinions  of  Kant  on  the  subject  of  the  Divine 
existence  are  thus  noticed  by  Hagenbach  in  his 
'  History  of  Doctrines  :' — "  In  his  opinion  the  exist- 
ence of  God  can  be  proved  on  speculative  gromids 
only  in  a  threefold  manner;  either  by  the  physico- 
theological,  or  the  cosmological,  or  the  ontological 
argument.  These  are  the  only  modes  of  argumenta- 
tion, nor  is  it  possible  that  there  should  be  more. 
The  ontological  proof  is  not  admissible,  because  its 
advocates  confound  a  logiciU  predicate  with  a  real. 
'  A  hundred  real  dollars  do  not  contain  anything 
more  than  a  hundred  possible.  .  .  .  But  in  reference 
to  my  property,  a  hundred  real  dollars  are  more  than 
the  mere  idea  of  that  sum  {i.e.,  of  its  possibihty).' 
..."  The  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being  is  in  many 
respects  a  very  profitable  idea ;  but  because  it  is  a 
mere  idea,  it  cannot  by  itself  enlarge  our  knowledge 
of  that  which  exists;'  for  '  a  man  might  as  well  in- 
crease his  knowledge  by  mere  ideas,  as  a  merchant 
augment  his  property  by  adding  some  ciphers  to  the 
sum-total  on  his  books.'  In  opposition  to  the  cos- 
mological proof,  he  urged  that  its  advocates  promise 
to  show  us  a  new  way,  but  bring  us  back  to  the  old 
(ontological)  proof,  because  their  argument  is  also 
founded  on  a  dialectic  fiction.  In  reference  to  the 
physico-theological  proof  he  said,  '  This  argument  is 
always  deserving  of  oiu'  respect.  It  is  the  earliest, 
clearest,  and  most  adapted  to  common  sense.  It 
eidivens  the  study  of  nature,  from  which  it  also  de- 
rives its  existence,  and  through  which  it  obtains  new 
vigour.  It  shows  to  us  an  object  and  a  design  where 
we  should  not  have  discovered  them  b}'  independent 
observation,  and  enlarges  our  knowdedge  of  nature  by 
making  us  acquainted  with  a  particular  unity  whose 
principle  is  above  nature.  But  this  knowledge  exerts 
a  reacting  inlluence  upon  its  cause,  viz.,  the  idea 
from  which  it  derives  its  origin,  and  so  confirms  tiie 
belief  in  a  supremo  Creator,  that  it  becomes  an  irre 
sistihle  conviction.  Nevertheless  this  argument  can- 
not secure  apodictical  certainty;  at  the  utmost  it 
might  prove  the  existence  of  a  builder  of  the  world, 
but  not  that  of  a  creator  of  the  world.  Morality  and 
a  degree  of  happiness  corresponding  to  it  are  the  two 
elements  constituting  the  supreme  good.     But  the 


KAI'ALIKA -KARENS  (Keligion  or;. 


203 


virtuous  do  not  always  attain  it.  There  must,  tliere- 
fnre,  |je  a  compcnsatiim  in  llie  world  to  come.  At 
I  lie  same  lime  tlKTc  must  be  a  lieinL,'  tliat  |)ussesseH 
Iwtli  tile  rcqiiisile  iMlelliguuec  and  llie  will  to  biin;^ 
'tbout  tliis  conipensation.  llenee  tlio  existence  of 
(Jod  is  a  poslidate  of  praetical  reason.'" 

Kant  held  the  doctrine  of  innate  evil  in  in.ui,  but 
be  did  not  under.stand  by  it  original  sin  in  the  sense 
in  which  that  expression  is  used  by  theologians  gene- 
rally. Ill  his  opinion  the  Scriptural  narrative  of 
.Ydam's  fall  is  only  a  symliol,  which  ho  explains 
according  to  the  iirinciples  of  moral  interpretation. 
The  proposition,  "  Man  is  by  nature  wicked,"  he 
explains  as  meaning  simply,  "  lie  is  wicked  because 
he  belongs  to  the  human  race."  Hence  he  comes  to 
the  conclusion,  "That  which  man,  considered  from 
the  moral  point  of  view,  is,  or  is  to  be,  whether  good 
or  bad,  depemls  on  his  own  actions."  In  connection 
with  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  Kant  maintaini'd 
the  restoration  of  man  by  means  of  his  liberty.  To 
reach  this  end,  man  stands  in  inicd  of  an  ideal,  which 
is  presented  to  him  in  the  Scriptural  doctrine  con- 
cerning Christ,  whom  ho  regards  as  the  personified 
idea  of  the  good  principle.  The  idea  has  its  seat  in 
our  reason;  for  the  practical  purposes  of  an  example 
being  given,  a  character  is  sullicicnt  which  rcsendjles 
the  idea  as  much  as  possible. 

Kant  considered  the  death  of  Christ  as  having 
only  a  .symbolico-moral  significance,  and  he  main- 
tained that  man  must,  after  all,  deliver  himself.  '■  A 
substitution,  in  the  proper  sense  of  that  word,"  .'■'ays 
he,  "  caimot  take  place.  It  is  ini[iossiblo  that  liabi 
lities  should  be  transmissible,  like  debts.  Neither 
does  the  amendment  of  our  life  pay  off  former  debts. 
Thus  man  would  have  to  expect  an  infinite  punish- 
meut  on  account  of  the  infinite  guilt  which  he  has 
contracted.  Nevertheless  the  forgiveness  of  sin  i.^ 
possible.  For  inasnuich  as,  in  consequence  of  the 
contrast  existing  between  moral  perfection  and  ex 
ternal  hapjiiness,  he  who  amends  his  conduct  has  to 
undergo  the  same  sufferings  as  he  who  perseveres  in 
his  evil  course,  and  the  former  bears  those  suli'eririgs 
with  a  dignified  mind,  on  account  of  good,  he  will- 
ingly submits  to  them  as  the  punishment  due  to  his 
former  sins.  In  a  physical  aspect  he  continues  the 
same  man,  but,  in  a  moral  aspect,  he  has  become  a 
new  man  ;  thus  the  latter  suffers  in  the  room  of  the 
former.  But  that  which  takes  place  in  man  himself', 
as  an  internal  act,  is  manifested  in  the  person  of 
Christ  (the  Sou  of  God)  in  a  visible  manner,  as  the 
personified  idea;  that  wliich  the  new  man  fakes  upon 
himself,  while  the  old  man  is  dying,  is  set  forth  in 
the  representative  of  mankind  as  that  death  which  he 
Butfered  once  for  all." 

In  regard  to  the  mode  of  man's  deliverance  from 
sin,  Kant  held  that  man  possesses  the  power  of 
amending  his  conduct  by  his  own  efiorts,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  plainly  states  in  his  '  Religion  within 
the  Boundary  of  Pure  Reason' — "  The  moral  culture 
of  man  must  not  commence  with  the  amendment   of 


his  conduct,  but  with  a  complete  cliangc  of  IiIh  mude 

of  thinking  and  the  establishment  of  bis  character." 
The  importance  of  faith  was  also  maiiitaineil  by  the 
Kijiiigsberg  pliilosopher,  but  he  made  a  distinction 
between  failh  in  the  doctrines  of  the  chinch  and  the 
faith  of  religiim  ;  tiiat  is,  in  bis  view,  llie  religion  ol 
reason,  ascriljing  only  to  the  latter  an  influence  upon 
morality,  lie  pointed  out  the  importance  and  necK?- 
sify  of  a  society  ba.sed  upon  moral  principles,  or  the 
esfablishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God  upon  earth, 
which  he  viewed  in  no  higher  than  a  merely  moral 
a.-'pect. 

The  philosophy  of  Kant  was  completely  o|iposed 
to  the  boasted  piinciides  of  llbiminism,  which  had 
dilfused  themselves  so  widely  in  Germany  towards 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Variom 
writers,  accordingly,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
I'jbei'hai'd  and  .Mendelssohn,  hastened  to  protest 
•■igainst  the  Kantian  doctrines.  A  large  circle  of 
pupils,  however,  gathered  around  the  sage  of  Kiinigs- 
berg,  and,  in  their  enthusiasm,  they  eagerly  sought 
to  make  the  abstract  doctrines  of  their  masler  intel- 
ligible and  agreeable  to  the  public  mind.  But  the 
most  inlluential  organ  of  the  new  philosoiihy  was  the 
'Jenaischc  Ijitcraturzeitung,'  or  Jena  Literary  Ga- 
zette, edited  by  Schiitz.  Nor  was  the  admiration  ol 
I  he  Kantian  .system  confined  to  literary  circles;  the 
iheologians  also  expounded  its  doctrines  from  the 
puljiit,  and  the  whole  country  rang  with  the  praises 
of  Kant.  Accordingly,  the  R.-lTfO.N.\LlSTS  (which 
see),  who  had  arisen  out  of  the  Kanliaiis,  soon  be 
came  a  numerous  and  influential  class  in  Germany, 
placing  human  reason  far  above  divine  revelation, 
and  bringing  down  the  theology  of  Heaven  to  a 
level  with  the  weak  and  erring  fancies  of  men. 

KAl'ALIKA,  a  sect  of  Hindus  who,  seven  or 
eight  centuries  ago,  sacrificed  hum;m  victims  to  Kali, 
and  other  hideous  personifications  of  the  SaLti  of 
S/iiva.  The  Kopalilca  is  thus  described  in  one  of  the 
Hindu  records :  "  His  body  is  smeared  with  ashes 
from  a  funeral  pile,  around  his  neck  hangs  a  string  of 
human  skulls,  his  forehead  is  streaked  with  a  black 
line,  his  hair  is  woven  into  the  matted  braid,  his 
loins  are  clothed  with  a  tiger's  skin,  a  hollow  skul' 
is  in  his  left  band  for  a  cup,  and  in  his  right  he 
carries  a  bell,  which  he  rings  incessantly,  exclaiming 
aloud,  //(/.'  Samb/tu  B/iuinira — Ho!  lord  of  A'k//." 

K.\.riLA,  a  celebrated  Hindu  sage,  supposed  by 
many  of  his  followers  to  have  been  an  incarnation  of 
Deity.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Sankhya  school 
of  philosophy.     See  S.\XKHV.\  Systkm. 

K.VRA  LINGIS,  a  sect  of  Hindu  ascetics,  found 
only  occasionally  among  the  most  ignorant  portions 
of  the  community.  They  wander  up  and  down  in  a 
state  of  uudity,  and  are  professed  worsliippere  of 
Sliii'ii. 

KARAITES.    See  Caraites. 

ILVRENS  (Rkligion  of).  The  Karens  are  a 
race  of  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  hilly  jiarts  in  thf 
south  and  east  of  Burmah.     Numbers  of  tliHin  are  f 


■25i 


KAlvEXS  (KuLiGioN  ui\) 


be  found  also  in  Siam  and  Laos.  Tliey  are  a  quiet, 
intelligent  people,  living  chiefly  by  iigiiciilture.  The 
first  notice  of  this  interesting  race  is  found  in  tlie 
travels  of  Marco  Polo,  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  Kev.  E.  Kincaid,  who  visited  them  so  recently 
as  1837,  fells  us  tliat  they  regard  themselves  as  the 
first  and  most  extensive  of  all  the  races  in  the  world. 
It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  in  their  oral  songs  are  to  be 
found  remarkable  traditions  in  reference  to  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  and  of  the  human  race,  the  apos- 
tasy of  man,  the  loss  of  divine  knowledge,  and  pro- 
mises in  reference  to  their  future  enliglitenment ;  all 
of  them  beautifully  accordant  with  the  Mosaic  records. 
"  When  America,"  says  Mr.  Kincaid,  "  was  inha- 
bited only  by  savages,  and  our  ancestors  in  Britain 
and  Germany  were  dwelling  in  the  rudest  tents,  and 
clothed  witli  the  skins  of  beasts,  and,  in  dark  forests 
of  oak,  practising  the  most  cruel  and  revolting  forms 
of  heathenism,  the  Karens  stood  firm  in  the  great 
truth  of  one  eternal  God,  the  Creator  of  all  things, 
and  the  only  rightful  object  of  adoration.  From  age 
to  age,  they  chanted  songs  of  praise  to  Jehovah,  and 
looked,  as  their  songs  directed,  towards  the  setting 
sun,  from  whence  white  men  were  to  come  with  the 
f/ood  book,  and  teach  them  the  worship  of  the  living 
God.  Buddlrism,  claiming  to  embody  all  science 
and  literature,  and  all  tliat  pertains  to  the  physical 
and  moral  world — propounding  a  system  of  morals 
admirably  suited  to  carry  the  understanding,  while  it 
fosters  tlie  pride  and  arrogance  and  selfishness  so 
deeply  seated  in  fallen  humanity — reaching  back  in 
its  revelations  through  illimitable  ages,  and  obscurely 
depicting  other  worlds  and  systems,  and  gods  rising 
and  passing  away  for  ever — surrounding  itself  with 
pagodas  and  shrines  and  temples  and  priests,  as  im- 
posing as  pagan  Komo,  and  a  ritual  as  gorgeous  as 
Kome  papal — has  failed  to  gain  an  ascendancy  over 
the  Karen  race.  Arbitrary  ]ujwer,  surrounded  by 
imperial  pomp  and  splendour,  has  neitlier  awed  nor 
seduced  them  from  their  simple  faith.  The  preser- 
vation of  this  widely-scattered  people  from  the  de- 
grading heathenism  which  darkens  every  part  of  this 
vast  continent,  is  a  great  and  unfathomable  mystery 
of  God's  providence.  They  have  seen  the  proudest 
monuments  of  heathenism  rise  around  them — many 
of  them  glittering  in  the  sun  like  mountains  of  gold, 
and  in  their  con.struction  tasking  the  energies  of  an 
empire;  still  they  chanted  their  oral  songs,  and 
looked  towards  the  setting  sun  for  white  men  to 
bring  the  promised  book  of  Jehovah.  They  have 
seen  dynasties  rise  aiul  fall,  age  after  age,  and  yet 
their  faith  has  never  failed  them." 

This  remarkable  peojile,  though  widely  scattered 
over  the  Hurnian  10mi)ire,  are  completely  distinct 
from  the  Uurmans,  by  whom  they  are  looked  upon 
lis  inferiors  and  slaves,  whom  they  are  entitled  to 
treat  with  harshness  and  cruelty.  To  escape  from 
their  oppressors,  the  Karens  are  often  compelled  to 
wander  from  place  to  place,  and  establish  temporary 
Jwellliig- places  In  remote  districts.     Tliev  have  no 


outward  form  of  religion  nor  established  priesthood 
but  believe  in  the  existence  of  God  and  a  state  ol 
future  retribution.  Among  their  ancient  traditions, 
which  they  fondly  cherish,  and  carefully  transmit 
from  sire  to  son,  are  some  strange  prophecies,  which 
predict  their  future  elevation  as  a  race,  and  that 
white  strangers  from  across  the  sea  would  come  to 
bring  them  the  Word  of  God.  Accordingly,  when, 
about  tliirty  years  since,  Mr  Boardnian,  an  American 
missionary,  appeared  among  them,  they  were  quite 
prepared  to  listen  to  his  preaching,and  evinced  a  pecu- 
liar interest  in  the  truths  of  the  Gospel.  I'he  tidings 
of  the  arrival  of  a  white  teaclier  soon  spread  among 
the  Karens,  and  great  lunnbers  flocked  to  the  house 
of  the  missionary.  Mr.  Newcomb,  in  his  '  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Missions,'  relates  an  interesting  story  of  the 
deified  book,  which,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
brief  career  of  Mr.  Boardman,  shows  the  Karens  in  a 
very  favom'able  light : — "  It  had  been  left  in  one  of 
their  villages  some  twelve  years  before  by  a  travelling 
Mussulman,  who  was  understood  to  have  told  the 
people  it  was  to  be  worshipped  as  sacred.  Though 
entirely  ignorant  of  its  contents,  tlie  person  with, 
whom  it  was  left  carefully  preserved  it,  and,  in  virtue 
of  possessing  it,  became  a  kind  of  sorcerer,  of  great 
importance  among  the  people.  It  was  brought  one 
day  to  Mr.  Boardman,  and  on  being  unrolled  from 
the  coverings  in  which  it  was  enveloped,  it  proved  to 
be  the  '  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  the  Psalms, 
printed  at  Oxford.  From  this  period  Mr.  Boardman 
devoted  the  remnant  of  his  too  brief  life  almost  ex- 
clusively to  labours  among  the  Karens.  Early  in 
1829,  he  made  an  excursion  to  the  jungle  and  moun- 
tains where  their  villages  were  most  numerous,  and 
saw  much  of  their  condition  and  modes  of  life  in  their 
native  wilds.  lie  also  conferred  with  the  British 
Commissioner  fur  the  district,  and  formed  liberal 
plans  for  schools,  and  other  agencies  of  civilization, 
while  he  gave  a  large  part  of  every  day  to  preaching 
and  conversation  among  the  people.  In  the  summer 
of  1830,  however,  his  strength  had  become  exceed- 
ingly reduced  by  repealed  attacks  of  hecmorrhage  of 
the  lungs,  and  he  sailed  for  Maulmain.  Here  he 
regained  a  temporary  strength,  and  after  a  few  months 
returned  to  Tavoy,  where  he  found  many  converts 
waiting  to  be  baptized,  and  still  many  more  daily 
visiting  the  zayat  for  religious  inquiry  and  instruction. 
.\  large  number  were  baptized  by  Moung-Ing,  one  ol 
the  native  ISurman  preachers,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Boardnum.  Just  at  this  time  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Mason  arrived  at  Tavoy  as  auxiliaries  to  the  mission, 
and  in  their  conqiany,  and  that  of  Mrs.  Boardman, 
this  excellent  mi.>-sionary  made  an  excursion  info  the 
country  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  and  baptizing  a 
large  mniiber  of  converts,  who  had  often  visited  him 
in  the  city.  The  journey  of  three  days  was  accom- 
plished, and  the  baptism  of  thirty-fom-  persons  was 
lierformed  in  his  presence  by  the  Kev.  Mr.  Mason.  But, 
ere  he  could  reach  Ins  home  in  Tavoy,  he  sunk  be- 
neath the  exhausting  malady  which  had  long  pretcoil 


KAKMA— KASI. 


!26b 


iipun  his  cuiistitutioii.     His  tomb  is  at  Tavoy,  and 

tlie  niiirblc  slal)  which  covers  it  is  iiiscriljcd  willi  a 
simple  cpitapli,  whicli  recoi'ds  liis  heroic  Kerviccs 
for  tlie  ICareiis  of  llic  iiciglibouriiig  forests  and  nioim- 
taiiis." 

Tlio  laljoiirs  of  iMr.  lioarchnaii  were  followed  up 
by  Mr.  Mason,  liis  successor  iu  the  mission  ainons 
the  Karens,  and  it  is  gratifyini;  to  know  that  a  i>eoplc 
to  whom  so  uMieh  interest  has  attached,  have  received 
the  Gospel  with  far  greater  readiness  than  the  l!iu'- 
nians  among  whom  they  live.  In  1832,  Mr.  iMason, 
writing  from  a  Karen  village,  says — "  I  no  longer 
date  from  a  heathen  land.  Heathenism  has  lied  these 
banks.  1  eat  the  rice  and  fruits  cultivated  by  Chris- 
tian bands,  look  on  the  liclds  of  Christians,  see  no 
dwellings  but  those  of  ('bristian  families.  I  am 
seated  in  the  midst  of  a  Christian  village,  surrounded 
by  a  peoply  that  love  as  Christians,  converse  as 
Christiana,  act  like  Clu'islians,  and,  iu  my  eyes,  look 
like  Christians." 

The  Karens,  though  many  of  them  are  acquainted 
with  the  liurnian  language,  have,  nevertheless,  a 
language  of  their  own,  which,  however,  previous  to 
the  arrival  auujng  them  of  the  American  missionaries, 
had  not  been  reduced  to  writing.  Accordingly,  the 
missionaries,  with  the  aid  of  some  Christian  Karens, 
nuide  an  alphabet  of  its  elemental  sounds,  compiled 
a  spelling-book  of  its  most  conunon  words,  and  trans- 
lated two  or  three  tracts.  This  was  the  begiiniing 
of  a  most  useful  and  important  work,  which  has 
since  been  carried  onward  with  activity  and  zeal,  and 
the  Karens  now  rejoice  iu  a  written  Language  taught 
iu  their  schools,  and  in  a  Christian  literature,  at  least 
iu  its  rudimental  state.  A  number  of  villages  have 
been  formed  wholly  composed  of  Christian  Karens, 
who  are  supplied  with  churches  and  ministers  of  the 
(lospel,  who  are  several  of  them  converted  natives. 
In  1840,  nearly  two  hundred  of  these  simple-hearted 
and  interesting  people  were  baptized,  and  diu-iug  the 
year  1844,  upwards  of  2,000  professed  their  faith, 
and  were  admitted  to  bajitism.  An  entire  change 
came  over  the  population  of  the  district  in  which  the 
missionaries  laboured,  and  tlie  people  generally  as- 
sumed an  aspect  of  higher  civilization.  Tn  1843  they 
were  subjected  to  cruel  persecution  on  the  part  of 
their  Ikirman  opijressors.  T>arge  numbers  of  the 
CIn'istian  Karens  were  seized,  and  chained  together, 
and  conveyed  to  distant  prisons,  from  wdiich  they 
were  liberated  oidy  by  the  payment  of  a  large  ran- 
som. These  surterings  were  endured  with  heroic 
fortitude,  and  with  so  firm  and  unHinching  adherence 
to  the  faith  which  they  bad  embraced,  that  many 
were  thereby  induced  to  join  the  ranks  of  the  Chris- 
nan*.  Worn  out  with  the  violence  of  the  persecu- 
tion, large  companies  of  the  Karens  left  their  homes, 
and  tied  across  the  nioimtaius  to  Arracan,  where  they 
obtained  a  peaceful  settlement,  and  attracted  no  small 
symjiatby  from  the  Europeans  who  were  resident  iu 
that  quarter.  Karly  in  1840,  the  Karen  mission  was 
separated  from  the  Biirnian  mission,  and  organized 

II 


on  an  independent  footing.  From  this  date  botli 
these  missions  greatly  extended  the  sphere  of  their 
inlluence,  and  in  ISM  the  Karen  churches  at  Maul- 
niain  were  reported  as  containing  upwards  of  1,700 
inembers.  A  theological  school  was  formed  for 
educating  Karen  preachers,  and  a  nornjal  school  for 
training  teachers,  besides  a  nundjer  of  other  schools. 
In  the  mission  at  Tavoy,  which  has  been  established 
.ihncjst  exclusively  for  the  Karens,  there  were  in  that 
same  year  stated  to  bo  twenty-seven  churches,  con- 
taining about  1,800  mcndjers.  The  Arracan  mission 
consisted  of  two  stations.  In  the  Sandoway  mission, 
which  was  designed  for  the  Karens  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  and  also  for  those  beyond  the  mountains  in 
Hurmah  proper,  where  the  gospel  could  not  be 
preached,  theniunber  of  churches  was  thirty-six,  and 
the  wliole  number  of  church  members  about  4,500. 

In  the  commencement  of  1852,  war  broke  out 
between  Great  ]5ritain  and  Burmah,  and  in  the  end 
of  the  same  year  the  entire  southern  portion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Burmah,  including  the  ancient  province 
of  Pegu,  v.-.as  incorporated  with  the  territories  o( 
British  India.  A  change  was  now  eflected  in  the 
whole  aspect  of  affairs  in  so  far  as  the  Karens  were 
concerned.  They  were  no  longer  exposed  to  per- 
secution, and  multitiules  of  them,  no  longer  deterred 
by  the  tyrainiy  of  priests  or  riders,  eagerly  embraced 
the  gospel.  In  consequence  of  the  changes  etVected 
by  the  war,  the  American  missions  in  Burmah  have 
been  entirely  re-organized,  ami  such  has  been  the 
success  of  missionary  work  anujng  the  Karens,  that 
there  are  about  12,000  church  members,  ami  a  Chris- 
tian population  little  short  of  100,000. 

KAKMA,  a  tenn  used  in  the  system  of  the 
lludlikts  to  denote  action,  consisting  both  of  merit 
and  demerit ;  that  is,  moral  action,  which  is  con- 
sidered as  the  power  that  controls  the  world.  When 
a  human  being  dies,  his  Karma  is  transferred  to  some 
other  being,  reculating  all  the  circiuustances  of  his 
existence.     Pee  Budhists. 

KAUMA-WIS.WA,  one  of  the  four  things  which, 
according  to  the  Budbist  system,  cannot  be  under- 
stood by  any  one  who  is  not  a.  Budlia.  This  point, 
called  Kdniin-v'iswja,  denotes  bow  it  is  that  eflects 
are  produced  by  the  instrumentality  of  Karma 
(which  see).  The  other  three  things  which  only  a 
lUidha  can  comprehend  are,  {\.)  Irdhi-vmiya^hovi 
it  was  that  Budha  could  go,  in  the  snapping  of  a 
linger,  from  the  world  of  men  to  the  Brahiimlohas ; 
(2.)  Loha-wisaya,  the  size  of  the  universe,  or  how  it 
was  first  brought  into  existence ;  (3.)  Budha-wisuya, 
the  power  and  wisdom  of  Budha. 

KARTIKEYA,  the  son  of  <S7(!Va  or  Ma/iadeva, 
the  Hindu  god  of  war  He  is  famous  for  having 
destroyed  a  demon  named  Tarika,  who  set  himself 
up  against  the  gods. 

K.\.SI    (the   magnificent),   the    ancient   name   of 

Bi;n.\i;i:s  (which  see),  and  the  name  by  which  it  is 

still  called  among  the  Brahniaus.   The  Hindu  priest* 

are  fond  of  extolling  the  glory  of  the  holy  city,  and 

•A    * 


26B 


IvASlNA. 


lience  tliey  sedulously  propagate  among  the  people 
legends  of  the  striuigest  desciiption,  which  they 
allege  have  come  to  them  from  the  gods.  Thus,  in 
reference  to  the  origin  of  Kasi,  they  give  the  follow 
iug  description  : — "  The  world  itself,  since  the  day  of 
its  creation,  has  remained  supported  upon  the  thou- 
sand heads  of  the  serpent  Ananta  (eternity),  and  so 
it  will  continue  to  be  upheld  until  the  connnand  of 
Bralima  shall  be  proclaimed  for  it  to  be  for  ever  en- 
veloped in  the  coils  of  that  interminable  deity.  Now, 
when  the  judgment  takes  place,  the  city  of  Kasi, 
with  a  circumference  of  seven  kos  (about  ten  miles) 
from  its  centre,  will  alone  remain  tirm ;  for  it  rests 
not  upon  the  hsads  of  Ananta,  but  is  fixed  npon  tlie 
three  points  of  the  trident  of  Siva  or  Maliadeo,  to 
whose  care  it  will  be  entrusted.  All  who  now  die 
witliin  its  walls  are  blessed,  and  those  who  are  found 
within  it  cm  that  eveutfid  day  shall  be  blessed  a 
thousandfold.  Ages  before  the  Mahonnnedan  con- 
quest of  this  city  by  Sultan  Mahoramed,  which  hap- 
pened in  tlie  eleventh  century ;  ages  before  it  was 
made  subservient  to  the  I'atans,  which  was  a  hundred 
centuries  earlier ;  ages  before  Kasi  was  the  second 
capital  of  the  Hindoo  kingdom  of  Kanaoj,  which  was 
the  case  a  hundred  centuries  before  that;  ages  before 
history  has  any  record,  Siva  built  this  wonderful 
city — of  the  pm'est  gold,  and  all  its  temples  of  pre- 
cious stones ;  but,  alas !  the  iniquity  of  man  conta- 
minates and  destroys  the  beauty  of  everything  divine; 
in  consequence  of  the  heinous  sins  of  the  people,  the 
precious  material  of  this  sacred  place  was  deteriorated, 
and  eventually  changed  into  stone,  by  permission  of 
the  founder  Siva."  Kasi  is  emphatically  a  city  of 
priests,  for  it  has  been  computed  that  out  of  the 
000,000  souls  who  form  its  population,  80,000  are 
officiating  Ijrahnians  attached  to  the  temples,  exclu- 
sive of  the  thou.sands  who  daily  visit  it  from  other 
parts  of  the  country.  The  greater  number  of  the 
temples  are  dedicated  to  Shiva,  or  to  his  son  Gancsa, 
and  are  endowed  some  of  them  with  overflowing 
fluids  for  their  support,  while  to  others  are  attached 
the  revenues  of  large  tracts  of  land. 

KASINA,  an  ascetic  rite  among  the  Budhists,  by 
which  it  is  supposed  that  a  miraculous  energy  may 
be  received.  There  are  ten  descriptions  of  this  rite. 
I.  Pat/uiwi,  earth;  2.  Ajm,  water;  3.  Trjo,  tire; 
4.  Wayn,  wind ;  5.  Nila,  blue ;  6.  Pita,  golden ; 
7.  Loliitii,  blood-red;  8.  Odata,  white;  9.  Aloka, 
light;  10.  yl/,-((j!(j,  Kjiace. 

The  priest  who  performs  the  first  of  these  kinds  of 
Ki-t-niia  nmst  form  a  small  circle,  which  he  can  easily 
lix  his  eye  upon.  The  circle  nuist  be  formed  of  clay 
of  a  light-red  colour,  placed  upon  a  frame  made  of 
four  sticks,  covered  over  with  a  piece  of  cloth,  a 
skin,  or  a  mat,  upon  which  the  clay  must  be  spread, 
free  from  grass,  roots,  pebbles  and  sand.  The  clay 
nuist  be  kneaded  into  a  proper  consistency,  and 
formed  into  a  circle  one  sjian  and  four  inches  in 
iliametcr.  The  ))ricst  must  now  take  water  that  falls 
Irom  ft  rock,  and   reudei-  the  clay  jierfectly  smooth  ; 


then,  having  bathed,  he  must  sweep  the  place  where 
the  frame  is  erected,  and  place  a  seat,  which  must  be 
quite  smooth,  and  one  span  four  inches  high,  at  the 
distance  of  two  culjits,  and  one  span  from  the  frame. 
Kemaining  upon  this  seat,  he  must  look  steadfastly 
at  the  circle,  and  engage  in  meditation  on  the  evils 
arising  from  the  repetition  of  existence,  and  tlie  best 
modes  of  overcoming  them  ;  on  the  benetits  received 
by  those  who  practise  the  dhjamis  and  other  modes 
of  asceticism  ;  on  the  excellencies  of  the  three  gems ; 
and  he  must  emleaxour  to  secure  the  same  advantages 
He  must  notice  the  colour  of  the  circle,  and  not  only 
think  of  it  as  composed  of  earth,  but  remember  that 
the  earthy  particles  of  his  own  body  are  composed  ol 
the  same  element.  He  must  continue  to  gaze  and 
to  meditate  until  the  niudtta  be  received,  that  is, 
inward  illumination,  by  which  all  scepticism  will  be 
removed,  and  purity  attained. 

The  Ajm-Kasina  is  performed  by  catching  a  por 
tion  of  water  in  a  cloth  as  it  falls  from  the  sky  in 
rain,  before  it  has  reached  the  ground;  or,  if  rain 
water  cannot  be  procured,  any  other  water  may  be 
used.  The  water  is  poured  into  an  alms-bowl  or 
similar  vessel,  and  the  priest,  having  chosen  a  retired 
place,  must  sit  down  and  meditate,  gazing  upon  the 
water,  and  reflecting  that  the  perspiration  and  other 
fluids  of  his  own  body  are  composed  of  the  same 
material. 

The  Tejo-Kasina  is  practised  by  taking  wood,  dry 
and  firm,  cutting  it  into  small  pieces,  and  placing  it 
at  the  root  of  a  tree,  or  in  the  coml  of  the  wi/iani, 
where  it  must  be  ignited.  He  must  then  take  a  mat 
nuide  of  shreds  of  bamboo,  or  a  skin  or  a  cloth,  and 
making  in  it  an  aperture  one  span  and  four  inches  in 
diameter,  he  naist  place  it  before  him,  and  looking 
through  the  aperture,  be  nuist  meditate  on  the  fire, 
and  reflect  tliat  the  lire  in  his  own  body  is  of  a 
similar  nature,  flickering  and  inconstant. 

The  WayaKasina  is  performed  by  sitting  at  the 
root  of  a  tree,  or  some  other  convenient  place,  and 
thinking  of  the  wind  passing  through  a  window  or 
the  hole  of  a  wall ;  the  Nila-Kasina  by  gazing  on  a 
tree  covered  with  blue  flowers,  or  a  vessel  tilled  with 
blue  flowers,  or  a  blue  garment  covered  with  flowers; 
the  Ptta-Kasimi  by  gazing  on  a  golden-coloured 
object;  the  Lo/iilu-Kasiiia  on  a  circle  made  with 
vermilion ;  and  in  Odota-Ktminu  on  a  vessel  of  lead 
or  silver,  or  the  orb  of  the  moon.  In  AIi)l-a-Kasiiia, 
the  priest  must  gaze  upon  the  liglit  passing  through 
a  hole  in  the  wall,  or,  better  still,  U])on  the  light 
which  passes  through  a  hole  made  in  the  side  of  an 
earthen  vessel  which  has  a  lanqj  placed  within  it 
When  the  Akaso-Kfisimi  is  practised,  the  sky  is 
looked  at  through  a  hole  in  the  roof  of  a  hut,  or 
through  a  hole  of  the  prescribed  dimensions  made  in 
a  skin. 

From  the  practice  of  Kastiia  in  any  one  of  ils 
forms,  a  Uudhist  priest  expects  to  derive  many  ad 
vantages.  More  particularly,  he  acquires  the  jiowei 
of  working  miracles  according  to  the  species  o( h'asina 


KASWA  (Al)— KEITHIANS. 


267 


practised.  Tims  Mr.  Speiice  Iliirdy,  in  lii.s  '  Eastern 
Monacliism,'  informs  us  of  the  kind  of  power  received 
from  eaili : — "  liy  tlie  practice  of  I'athawl-Ktuiiiiii, 
the  priest  will  receive  the  power  to  multiply  himself 
many  times  over,  to  pass  throuj^li  the  air,  or  walk 
nu  the  water,  and  to  cause  an  earth  to  he  made  on 
which  he  can  walk,  stand,  .sir,  and  lie.  liy  A/m- 
KiisiiKi  he  can  cause  the  earlh  to  float,  create  rain, 
river.s,  and  seas,  shake  the  earlh  and  rocks,  and  the 
dwellings  thereon,  and  cause  watcu-  to  proceed  from 
all  parts  of  the  hody.  By  'I\jo-Kn«ina  he  can  cause 
smoke  to  proceed  from  all  parts  of  the  hody,  and  hre 
to  comB  down  from  heaven  like  rain,  hy  the  ;,din-y 
that  proceeds  from  his  person  ;  he  can  overpower  that 
which  comes  from  the  person  of  another;  he  can 
dispel  darkness,  collect  cotton  or  fuel,  and  other 
comhustibles,  and  cause  them  to  burn  at  will ;  cause 
a  light  which  will  give  the  power  to  see  in  any  place 
as  with  divine  eyes;  ami  when  at  the  point  of  death, 
he  can  cause  his  body  to  be  spontaneously  burnt. 
IJy  Wai/n-K(uiiiia  he  can  move  as  lleetly  as  the  wiiul, 
cause  a  wind  to  arise  whenever  he  wLshes,  and  can 
cause  any  substance  to  remove  from  one  place  to 
anotluu-  without  the  intervention  of  a  second  person. 
Hy  the  other  Ktufinan  respectively,  the  priest  who 
practises  them  in  a  proper  manner  can  cau.se  liguris 
to  appear  of  dilVerent  colours,  change  any  substance 
whatever  into  gold,  or  cause  it  to  be  of  a  blood  reil 
colour,  or  to  shine  as  with  a  bright  light ;  change 
that  wlilcli  is  evil  into  that  which  is  good ;  cause 
things  to  appear  that  are  lost  or  liidden ;  see  into  the 
midst  of  I'ocks  and  the  earth,  and  penetrate  into 
them  ;  pass  through  walls  and  solid  substances  ;  and 
drive  away  evil  desire." 

KASWA  (Ai.),  the  favourite  camel  on  which  Mo- 
hammed entered  Mecca  in  triumph. 

KE,  one  of  the  entities  and  essences  in  the  dualis 
tic  .system  of  the  Chinese  pliilosophers.  It  consists 
of  matter  most  ethereal  in  its  texture,  and  may  be 
styled  the  ultimate  material  element  of  the  universe, 
the  primary  matter  which  acts  as  the  substratum  oji 
which  things  endued  with  form  and  other  qualities 
rest,  or  from  which  they  have  been  gi-adually  evolved. 
The  Ke,  when  resolved  into  its  constituent  element.^, 
gives  birth  to  two  opposite  essences,  to  I'aHi/and  Yin, 
which  are  the  phases  under  which  the  Ultimate  Prin- 
ciple of  the  universe  displays  itself  in  the  plienomenal 
world.  From  the  constant  evolution  and  interaction 
of  these  opposite  essences  resulted  every  species  ot 
formal  matter  and  the  mixed  phenomena  of  the 
world. 

KEBLA,  or  Knii,.\,  the  name  which  the  Mo- 
hammodans  give  to  that  jiart  of  the  world  where  the 
temple  of  Mecca  is  situated,  towards  which  the  face 
of  the  Moslem  worshipper  is  turned  wdieu  he  recites 
his  prayers.  In  the  Koran,  the  express  command  is 
given  by  the  Arabian  jirophet,  "Thou  shalt  turn  thy 
face  towards  the  sacred  temple  of  Mecca."  In 
another  passage,  however,  are  these  words,  "  God  is 
I  .ord  of  the  east  and  west,  and  which  way  soever  you 


turn  your  face  in  prayer,  yon  will  lind  the  pretence 
of  dod." 

KEITIIFAN'S,  an  ofl'slioot  from  the  Society  oi 
I'ricnils  or  Quakers  in  North  America.  They  de- 
riveil  their  name  from  their  originator,  George  Keith. 
This  individual  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  a  man  o( 
considerable  ability  and  literary  attainments,  and  for- 
merly a  rigid  I'resbyterian.  lie  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  .Vberdeen,  where  he  took  the  degree  of 
M.A.  The  circumstances  attendant  on  his  conver- 
sion to  the  opinions  of  the  Friends  c.iunot  now  be 
discovered,  but  it  is  well  known  that  for  many  years 
he  was  sul)j(!ct<-d  to  sore  trials,  long  imprisonmeulH. 
ami  heavy  lines,  because  of  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
which  he  had  conscientiously  embraced.  His  acute 
•■md  powerful  mind  tilled  him  peculiarly  for  public 
disputations,  and,  accordingly,  he  was  not  unfre 
quently  employed  in  defending  the  Society  from 
unjust  aspersions.  lie  wrote  also  .several  powerful 
treatises  in  support  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Friends. 

About  the  year  1 082,  he  left  Scotland  to  conduct 
a  Friends'  school  at  Ivhnonton,  in  the  county  ol 
Middlesex;  but  the  pi'rsecution  to  which  he  was 
here  exposed  led  hiju  to  remove  to  London,  where, 
however,  instead  of  receiving  the  protection  he  had 
looked  for  from  priestly  domination,  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  live  months  in  Newgate.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  George  Keith  began  to  im- 
bibe some  strange  speculative  opinions,  chiefly  de- 
rived from  the  writings  of  Van  llelmont.  Among 
other  absurd  notions,  he  enibi^jed  the  doctrine  of 
tlie  transmigration  of  souls.  lie  helil  some  curious 
notions  respecting  our  first  parents,  and  alleged  that 
much  of  the  Mosaic  narrative  in  the  Old  Te.stament 
was  to  be  regarded  as  allegorical.  In  a  work  which 
he  published  in  1G.J4,  entitled,  '  Wisdom  advanced 
in  the  correction  of  many  gross  and  hurtful  errors.' 
he  gave  to  the  world  some  of  the  wild  fancies  in 
which  he  now  indulged.  His  opinions  found  no 
favour  with  Friends  in  I'.ngland,  and  probably  from 
this  cause,  as  well  as  from  a  desire  to  escape  per- 
secution, he  emigrated  to  New  Jersey  in  America. 
After  being  employed  for  a  time  in  determining  the 
boundary  line  between  East  and  AVest  Jersey,  he 
removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  vias  intrusted 
with  the  head  mastership  of  the  grammar  school, 
which,  however,  he  retained  for  only  a  single  year, 
at  the  end  of  which  he  began  to  travel  as  a  minister 
111  rsew  England.  In  waiulering  from  place  to  place, 
he  engaged  in  public  disputalions,  but,  in  conducting 
them,  he  evinced  so  much  acrimony,  that  he  injured 
perhaps  rather  than  advanced  the  cause  which  he 
professed  to  advocate. 

Naturally  proud  and  \ain-gloriou8,  George  Keith 
soon  began  to  find  fault  with  the  Society,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  matter  of  discipline.  Friends  treated 
him  with  great  forbearance  and  tendeniess,  but  he 
became  increasingly  captious  and  self-willed,  and  at 
length  he  quitted  the  Society,  along  with  several 
other  Friends  who  adhered  to  him.     The  unhappy 


26S 


KEITIIIANS. 


apostasy  of  George  Keith  gave  rise  to  a  spirit  of 
discord  among  Friends  in  Pennsylvania,  wliicli  gave 
much  concern  to  tlie  members  of  tlie  Society,  not 
only  in  America,  but  also  in  ICngland.  Some  Friends 
in  Aberdeen  who  had  long  known  George  Keith,  ad- 
dressed an  earnest  appeal  to  him  on  the  subject  of  the 
ditl'erences  to  which  he  had  given  rise  in  the  Society. 
An  admonitory  letter  was  also  sent  from  Frienils  in 
England  to  Friends  in  America  on  the  points  in  dis- 
pute. Nothing,  however,  would  move  the  unhappy 
man,  but  proceeding  from  bad  to  worse,  he  and  his 
adherents  set  up  a  separate  meeting  of  their  own, 
under  the  designation  of  Clu-istian  Quakers  and 
Friends. 

Rut  though  George  Keith  had  now  assumed  an 
independent  position,  he  did  not  cease  on  that  ac- 
count to  harass  and  annoy  the  Society  at  large,  pre- 
ferring charges  of  unsoundness  against  them.  At 
the  Quarterly  Jteeting  of  Ministers,  held  in  January 
1692,  Keith  accused  them  of  meeting  "to  cloak 
heresies  and  deceit, '  aud  maintained  "  that  there 
were  more  damnable  heresies  and  doctrines  of  devils 
among  the  Quakers  than  among  any  profession  of 
Protestants."  Sucli  audacious  and  unmeasured  abuse 
could  not  be  passed  over  in  silence.  Two  Friends 
were  appointed  to  visit  Keith,  and  to  call  upon  him 
to  retract  his  words.  He  receis'ed  the  deputation 
with  the  utmost  haughtiness,  and  instead  of  listening 
to  their  counsels,  he  told  them  that  "  he  trampled 
upou  the  judgment  of  the  meeting  as  dirt  under  his 
feet."  All  hopes  of  a  reconciliation  were  now  gone, 
and  the  Society  came  to  the  resolution  of  issuing  a 
declaration  of  disunity  with  him.  The  testimony 
issued  on  the  occasion  was  drawn  up  in  the  form  of 
an  address  to  the  Society,  in  which  the  grounds  of 
the  proceeding  were  set  forth.  Before  publishing 
the  document,  it  was  thought  right  to  give  George 
Keitli  or  those  of  his  party  who  might  wish,  an  oppor- 
tunity of  perusing  it.  He  declined  the  otl'er,  however, 
and  not  only  so,  but  he  maliciously  published  to 
the  world  that  in  the  proceedings  with  respect  to 
liini,  all  gospel  order  and  Clu-istian  kindness  had 
been  violated.  Against  the  judgment  of  the  Quar- 
terly Meetiug  of  Ministers,  Keith  determined  to  ap- 
peal to  the  ensuing  Yearly  Meeting.  Meanwhile  he 
published  several  pamphlets  in  vindication  of  him- 
self, which  excited  so  strong  a  feeling  in  his  favour, 
that  many  Friends  united  with  him  and  Ids  party, 
and  a  wide  and  distressing  schism  ensued.  Sejiarate 
meetings  were  set  up  at  Philadel[)hia,  Burlington, 
Neshaminy,  and  other  jdaccs.  Families  were  divided, 
and  the  ties  o(  friendship  broken.  Husbands  and 
wives,  professedly  of  the  same  faith,  no  longer  wor- 
shipped in  the  same  house,  and  seldom,  in  short,  has 
a  more  painful  spirit  of  division  prevailed  in  any 
Cln-istian  body  than  was  displayed  on  this  occasion. 

At  the  Yearly  Meoling  in  1GI)2,  wdiieli  was  held 
at  Burlington,  it  was  fidly  expected  that  George 
Keith  would  follow  up  the  appeal  which  he  had  taken 
against   the  judgment   of   the   Quarterly    Meeting. 


When,  however,  the  Yearly  Meeting  bad  convened 
instead  of  proceeding  in  the  usual  course  of  the  dis 
cipline,  he  aud  his  party  met  separately,  callinj* 
themselves  the  Yearly  Meeting,  and  proceeded  to 
give  judgment  in  favour  of  their  leader,  and  issued 
an  epistle  to  that  effect.  Tliey  also  drew  up  a  Con- 
fession of  Faitli,  with  the  view  of  vindicating  their 
claim  to  genuine  Quakerism.  In  these  circumstances 
Friends  judged  it  right  to  give  forth  a  testimony  in 
condemnation  of  the  conduct  of  Keith,  and  a  fiaper  to 
that  purport  was  signed  by  two  hundred  and  fourteen 
Friends.  Siuiilar  testimonies  condemnatory  of  Keith 
and  his  adherents  were  given  forth  at  the  Yearly 
Meeting  in  New  England,  in  Maryland,  and  in  Long 
Island. 

Finding  his  conduct  so  generallj'  condemned  in 
America,  Keith  resolved  to  seek  the  judgment  of  the 
Yearly  Meeting  of  London  on  his  case.  Thither 
accordingly,  be  proceeded  in  1694,  and  after  a  full 
investigation  of  the  whole  matters  in  dispute,  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  prepare  a  document  em- 
bodying the  sense  and  judgment  of  the  meeting  on 
the  case,  with  the  special  injunction  that  those  "that 
have  separated  be  charged  in  the  name  and  power  ot 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  meet  together  with  Friends 
in  the  love  of  God."  The  document  having  been 
drawn  up,  and  approved  by  the  Yearly  Meeting, 
was  communicated  to  George  Keith  as  the  deliberate 
judgment  of  Friends,  but  instead  of  receiving  it  in 
a  proper  spirit,  he  asserted  that  the  advice  was  that 
of  a  party,  and  not  of  the  Society  itself.  He  sought 
also  to  attract  sympathizers  and  friends,  but  in  vain ; 
only  a  few  evinced  the  slightest  feeling  in  his  favour. 
The  Yearly  Meeting  in  London  perceiving  that  the 
decision  affected  not  Keith  alone,  but  all  those  in 
America  who  had  separated  with  him,  addressed  a 
Christian  exhortation  to  them  in  reference  to  their 
separation  from  Friends  as  a  body,  and  calling  upon 
them  to  seek  a  reconciliation  with  their  brethren. 
All  efibrts  to  accomplish  an  object  so  desirable  were 
utterly  unavailing.  At  the  next  Yearly  Meeting  in 
London,  the  unsatisfactory  conduct  of  George  Keith 
was  again  brought  under  notice.  He  was  allowed  to 
read  a  written  statement  in  vindication  of  his  eon 
duct,  concluding,  however,  with  an  offer  to  prove  that 
tlie  writings  of  Friends  contained  gi-oss  errors.  On 
his  withdrawal  the  meeting  decided  not  to  own  nor 
receive  him  nor  his  testimony  while  he  remains 
therein,  but  to  testify  against  him  and  his  evil  works 
of  .strife  and  division.  On  the  following  day  Keith 
was  admitted  to  hear,  and  if  ho  inclined,  to  reply  to 
the  decision  of  the  meeting.  On  this  occasion  he 
broke  forth  into  the  most  bitter  and  intemperato 
language  towards  Friends,  and  left  the  meeting 
abruptly.  The  Yearly  Meeting  now  unanimously 
agreed  no  longer  to  recognize  this  turbulent  man  as 
one  in  religious  profession  with  them.  Accordingly 
they  issued  the  following  minute :  "  It  is  the  sense 
and  judgment  of  this  meeting,  that  the  said  George 
Keith  is  gone  from  the  blessed  unity  of  the  peace- 


KELAM— KERnELA. 


209 


dble  Spirit  of  our  Lord  Jesiis  Christ,  niid  hath  tliere- 
by  Boparatcd  himself  from  the.  holy  fellowsliip  of  the 
Church  of  Christ ;  and  tliat  wliilst  he  is  in  an  iiiiro- 
concilud  and  uiicliarilaljlo  state,  lie  oiif^ht  not  to 
preacli  or  pray  in  any  of  Friends'  nieetinf^s;  nor  be 
owned  or  received  as  one  of  us;  until,  by  a  public 
anil  hearty  acknowledgment  of  the  f;reat  ofl'ence  he 
hath  {;iven,  and  hurt  he  hath  dcjue,  and  eondennia- 
tion  of  liimself,  therefore,  he  f^ives  proof  of  his  uii- 
fei2;ned  repentance,  and  does  his  endeavour  to  remove 
and  take  oli'  tlie  reproach  he  hath  brought  upon 
Truth  and  Friends ;  which,  in  the  love  of  (lod,  we 
heartily  desire  for  his  soul's  sake." 

George  Keith  was  thus  formally  cut  off  from  the 
Society  of  Friends,  as  no  longer  wortliy  of  church 
fellowship,  and  he  therefore  comnneneed  holding  se- 
parate meetings  at  Turner's  Hall  in  London,  where 
he  attracted  crowds  for  a  time  to  hear  his  discourses, 
which  were  full  of  the  most  bitter  invectives  againsi 
Friends.  While  this  factious  individual  was  thus 
endeavouring  to  gain  adiicrents  in  England,  his  par- 
lizans  in  America  were  busily  engaged  in  disturbing 
the  jieace  and  unity  of  Friends  in  that  country.  In 
a  short  time,  however,  the  Transatlantic  Keitliians 
Wcanie  divided  among  themselves,  and  were  .split 
Into  ditl'erent  sections.  "The  Separatists,"  say  Friends 
from  Philadelphia  in  1G98,  "grow  weaker  and  weak- 
er; many  of  them  gone  to  the  Baptists,  some  to  the 
Episcopalians,  and  the  rest  are  very  inconsiderable 
lind  mean,  some  of  whom  come  now  and  then  to  onr 
/ueetings,  and  some  have  lately  brought  in  letters  of 
condemnation."  The  following  year  they  had  so  far 
dwindled  away  that  we  find  Friends  declaring  tliem 
to  be  almost  extinct.  Li  an  account  of  this  sect 
written  by  Edwards,  he  makes  a  similar  statement 
in  regard  to  them.  "  They  soon  declined,"  he  says  ; 
"  their  head  deserted  them,  and  went  over  to  the 
Episcopalians.  Some  followed  him  thither;  some 
returned  to  the  Penn  Quakers,  and  some  went  to 
other  societies.  Nevertheless  many  persisted  in  the 
separation.  These,  by  resigning  themselves,  as  tliey 
.said,  to  the  guidance  of  Scrijjture,  began  to  find 
water  in  the  commission.  Matt,  xxviii.  19  ;  Bread  and 
Wine,  in  the  command.  Watt.  xxvi.  2G,  30;  Com- 
munity of  goods,  love  feasts,  kiss  of  charity,  right 
hand  of  fellowship,  anointing  the  sick  for  recovery, 
and  washing  the  disciples'  feet,  in  other  texts. — The 
Keithian  Quakers  ended  in  a  kind  of  transformation 
into  Keithian  Baptists.  They  were  called  Quaker- 
Baptists,  because  they  still  retained  the  language, 
dress  and  maimers,  of  the  Quakers.  But  they  ended 
in  another  kind  of  transformation  into  Seventh-day 
ISaptists,  though  .some  went  among  the  First-day 
Baptists,  and  other  societies.  However,  these  were 
the  beginning  of  the  Sabbatarians  in  this  province." 

For  some  years  after  he  had  been  disowned  by  the 
body,  Keith  continued  to  wear  the  garb  and  to  use 
the  language  of  a  Friend,  but  about  the  year  1700 
he  laid  aside  these  peculiarities,  and  joined  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  accepting  ordination  at  the  hands  of  a 


bishop.  In  the  course  of  two  years  after  his  ordina- 
tion he  proceeded  to  America  as  a  miKsioniiry,  under 
the  aus]iices  of  the  "Society  for  the  I'ropagation  oi 
the  (jiospel  ill  Foreign  Parts."  One  of  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  his  mission  he  declared  to  be  to  "gatliei 
Qu.ikers  from  Quakerism  to  the  Mother  Church,'' 
and  during  the  two  years  he  now  spent  in  Aineriea,  lie 
freipiently  engaged  in  public  disputation  with  Friends 
on  their  peculiar  tenets.  Al  h'liglh  he  returned  tc, 
ICngland,  where  he  Ijoasted  of  the  remarkable  succesi 
which  had  attended  his  labours  on  the  other  side  ol 
the  Atlantic.  Whether  true  or  false,  his  statementf 
were  credited,  and  gained  for  him  such  favour  thai 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  living  of  Edburton  in  Sus- 
sex, lie  did  not  long  survive  to  enjoy  his  promo- 
tion, for  in  1714  his  labours  in  the  work  of  the  min- 
istry were  brought  by  de.ath  to  a  final  termination. 
It  is  said  that  his  last  hours  on  earth  were  disturbed 
with  feelings  of  bitter  remorse  on  account  of  the 
turbulent  life  he  had  led.  He  was  even  alleged  to 
have  given  utterance  to  these  words,  "  I  wish  I  had 
dierl  when  I  was  a  Quaker;  for  then  I  am  sure  it 
would  have  been  well  with  my  soul."  Before  the 
death  of  their  founder  the  Keilhians  had  been  wholly 
scattered,  some  having  joined  the  Baptists  and  other 
denominations  of  Christians,  while  the  great  majority 
returned  to  the  Society  of  Friends. 

KELAM,  the  science  of  the  Word,  a  term  used  by 
the  Mohammedans  to  describe  their  scholastic  divi- 
nity. On  this  part  of  their  system  the  writings  ol 
Mohammedan  doctors  are  very  numerous,  their  opi 
nions  being  much  divided. 

KKKAMIANS,  a  Mohammedan  sect,  who  main 
tained  that  (iod  was  possessed  of  a  bodily  form. 
They  derived  their  name  from  the  originator  of  the 
sect,  Mohammed  ben  Keram. 

KEH.\KI,  a  Hindu  sect  who  worshipped  Deri  in 
her  terriiic  forms,  and  were  wont  to  otVer  up  humar. 
saerifiees.  The  onl)'  votaries  belonging  to  this  sect 
still  remaining  in  India  are  those  who  inflict  upon 
themselves  bodily  tortures,  and  pierce  their  flesh 
with  hooks  or  spits,  following  such  practices  as  are 
carried  on  in  Bengal  at  the  Charaic  Puja  (which 
.see). 

KERBELA,  a  place  esteemed  peculiarly  sacred  by 
the  SciliiTES  (which  see),  in  consequence  of  the  tomb 
o(  Ifcisscin  the  son  of -4//  having  been  erected  there. 
It  is  a  favourite  place  of  pilgrimage  to  the  Persian 
ilohammedans,  who  are  wont  even  to  cany  off  a 
small  portion  of  the  sacred  soil,  and  to  put  it  in  pads 
or  bags  for  the  purpose  of  jjlacing  it  before  them  at 
their  devotions,  that  their  foreheads  may  rest  upon 
it  as  they  prostrate  themselves.  Tliey  thus  flatter 
themselves  that  they  are  worshipping  on  holy  ground. 
The  Schiite  pilgrims  resorting  annu.ally  to  Kcrhela 
are  estimated  at  80,000,  and  the  stream  is  incessant, 
for  this  pilgrimage  has  not,  like  that  to  Mecca,  a  tiied 
season.  Another  peculiar  diti'erence  is  the  succes- 
sion of  caravans  of  the  dead  carried  in  cofVins  to  be 
interred  at  Kerbela ;  and  the  revolting  custom  is  pro- 


270 


KER[  and  KETIB— Keys  (Power  of  the). 


moted  by  tlie  idea  that  by  this  act  of  postlninioiis 
merit  they  shall  atone  for  the  greatest  crimes.  Eiglit 
thousand  corpses  are  said  to  be  brought  annually  from 
Persia.  Kerbela  rivals  the  Kaaba  as  a  place  of  pil- 
grimage, the  former  being  tlie  favourite  resort  of  the 
Schiites,  tlie  latter  of  the  Somn'tex. 

KERI  and  KETIB  (Ileb.  read  and  written).  In 
many  Jewish  manuscripts  and  printed  editions  of  the 
Old  Testament,  a  word  is  often  found  with  a  small 
circle  attp^hed  to  it,  which  is  called  Kelili  or  written  ; 
or  with  an  asterisk  over  it  and  a  word  written  in  the 
margin  of  the  same  line,  this  being  tlie  Kcri  or  read- 
ing. The  intention  of  tliese  two  Masoretic  marks  is 
to  give  direction  to  write  in  this  manner,  but  read  in 
that  manner.  They  are  supposed  by  some  Jewish 
writers  to  have  been  invented  by  Ezra ;  but  others 
maintain,  with  much  greater  probability,  that  their 
origin  is  to  be  dated  no  farther  back  than  the  time 
of  the  Masorites.  Where  there  occurs  a  various 
reading,  the  wrong  reading,  the  Kelib  is  written  in 
the  text,  and  the  true  reading,  the  Keri  is  written 
on  the  margin.  The  Jews  do  not  always  insist  that 
as  an  invariable  rule,  we  should  follow  the  Keri  ;  on 
the  contrary  they  hold  that  we  .should  prefer  the 
Ketib  when  it  is  authorized  by  the  ancient  versions 
and  gives  a  better  meaning. 

KETUBIM.     See  H.^giograpii.v. 

KEYS  (The  Power  of  the).  This  expression, 
which  has,  since  the  Reformation,  formed  the  sub- 
iect  of  a  keen  controversy  between  the  Romanists 
and  the  Protestants,  i.s  derived  from  Mat.  xvi.  19, 
"  And  I  will  give  unto  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  :  and  whatsoever  thou  shall  bind  on  earth 
shall  be  bound  in  heaven  :  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt 
loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven."  The  key 
is  often  used  in  Scripture  metaphorically  as  a  sj'm- 
bol  of  government,  power,  and  authority.  Thus  I.'^-a. 
xxii.  22,  "  And  the  key  of  the  house  of  David  will  I 
lay  upon  bis  shoulder;  so  he  shall  open,  and  none 
shall  shut;  and  he  shall  shut,  and  none  shall  open." 
In  the  East,  a  key  was  generally  worn  by  the  stew- 
ards of  wealthy  families  as  a  symbol  or  token  of  their 
ortice.  To  give  a  person  a  key  was  therefore  frequently 
used  to  denote  the  investing  him  with  a  situation  of 
authority  and  trust.  Hence,  when  our  Saviour  as- 
sures Peter  that  be  would  give  him  the  keys  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  many  Protestant  writers  inter- 
pret his  words  as  implying  the  power  of  preaching 
\he  gospel  oliicially,  of  administering  the  sacraments 
fts  a  steward  of  the  mysteries  of  God,  and  as  a  faith- 
ful servant  whom  the  Lord  hath  set  over  his  house- 
hold. Other  Protestant  divines  again  allege  that  to 
Peter  personally  and  exclusively  was  assigned  the 
power  of  the  keys,  that  is  the  honour  of  opening  the 
gates  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  or  in  other  words, 
the  Christian  or  gospel  dis])ousation  to  the  Jews  at 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  then  to  the  Gentiles  when 
he  went  down  to  Cornelius  at  Ca-sarea.  The  Roman 
Catholics,  on  the  other  hand,  maintain  that  by  the 
power  of  the  keys  we  must  under.stand  a  special  au- 


thority given  to  Peter  over  the  cluirch  of  Christ, 
supreme  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  which  they  allege 
belongs  also  to  the  Pope,  as  being  the  successor  ol 
Peter,  and,  therefore,  having  the  power  of  excommu- 
nicating and  absolving,  as  well  as  of  opening  and 
shutting  the  gates  of  Paradise  at  pleasure. 

The  ancient  Jewish  Rabbis  or  Doctors,  if  we  mav 
credit  the  statements  of  later  Jewish  writers,  received 
a  key  in  entering  upon  their  office  as  an  emblem  of 
the  grand  ofiicial  duty  which  it  was  incumbent  upon 
them  faithfully  to  discharge,  that  of  opening  the 
meaning  of  the  law  by  their  public  teaching.  The 
expression,  "  the  power  of  the  keys,"  is  exegetically 
explained  by  the  phrase,  "  binding  and  loosing," 
which  Lightfoot,  Schoetgen,  and  others  skilled  in 
Rabbinical  lore,  explain  as  denoting  the  power  ot 
declaring  what  was  binding  on  men's  consciences ; 
and  that  from  the  obligation  of  which  they  were 
loosed  or  free.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the 
power  of  binding  and  loosing  which  is  mentioned  by 
our  Lord  as  an  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys  in 
Mat.  xvi.  19,  already  quoted,  is  stated  elsewhere  as 
having  been  conferred  not  on  Peter  alone,  but  on  all 
the  apostles.  Thus  in  Mat.  xviii.  18,  Jesus  says, 
addressing  the  whole  apostolic  college,  "  Verily  I  say 
unto  you.  Whatsoever  ye  shall  bind  on  earth  shall 
be  boimd  in  lipa\en:  and  whatsoever  ye  shall  loose 
on  earth  .shall  be  loosed  in  heaven."  The  Fathers 
also  generally  agree  in  ascribing  to  all  the  apostles 
the  power  of  the  keys.  Jesus  claims  for  himself  the 
power  of  the  keys  when  he  .s.ays,  "  I  am  he  that  hath 
the  key  of  David,  that  openeth  and  no  man  shutteth, 
and  shutteth  and  no  man  openeth."  Such  expres- 
sions plaiidy  indicate  that  Christ  has  sole  power  and 
authority  in  his  church.  Whatever  may  therefore 
be  the  extent  of  the  power  which  is  given  to  the 
apostles  in  conferring  upon  them  the  power  of  the 
keys,  it  must  be  something  essentially  difierrnt  froui 
the  kingly  power  and  authority  of  Christ. 

The  power  of  the  keys  as  exercised  by  the  apos- 
tles and  their  associates  was  peculiar  to  themselves. 
They  sometimes  inflicted  miraculous  punishment 
u]ion  notorious  ofl'enders,  as  upon  Ananias  and  Sap- 
lihira,  and  Elymas  the  sorcerer.  And  in  many  cases 
also  they  loosed  ]iersons  from  supernatural  diseases 
But  the  power  of  the  keys,  in  so  far  as  it  has  de- 
scended to  the  Christian  ministry,  simply  implies 
two  things — ,an  authority  to  jireach  the  gospel,  and 
an  authority  to  administer  discipline  in  the  churdi 
by  binding  and  loo.sing,  by  inflicting  and  removing 
censures.  And  their  proceedings,  when  conducted 
agreeably  to  Scripture,  are  believed  to  be  ratilied  in 
heaven. 

The  Church  of  l!(jme  considers  the  power  of  the 
keys  as  extending  beyond  the  infliction  of  churcn 
censures  to  the  remission  or  retention  of  sins.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  the  Roman  Pontifical  a  prayer  occiu-s 
in  the  consecration  of  a  blshoji,  beseccbiiig  that  th« 
power  of  the  keys,  of  remitting  and  retaining  sins 
mif;hl  be  given  to  every  one  ordained  to  that  oliice 


KHAKIS     K II  ATA. 


271 


The  Council  of  Trent  also  confirms  this  view  of  the 
inatiRr  by  their  decision,  which  flechires  the  power  of 
(Ik;  keys  to  have  been  left  l)y  Ohiist  to  "nil  priests 
his  vicars  as  presidents  and  jndf;cs,  to  whom  all 
iriortal  sins  were  rel'ened  into  which  llie  faithful 
niiglit  fall."  Dens  again  says,  "That  I'eler  did  not 
receive  the  keys  as  a  private  [lerson,  but  as  sn|jrenie 
pastor,  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  Chnrch  ;  and  from 
liim,  by  ordinary  rij^lil,  the  ])ower  of  the  keys  is  de- 
rived to  other  superiors,  bi.sliops,  and  ])astors  of  the 
Church."  The  theory  of  tlu"  I'apacy,  however,  which 
is  taught  by  many  Komish  divines,  is,  that  the  power 
of  the  keys,  which  was  conferred  upon  I'eter,  belongs 
to  the  I'ope  as  the  successor  of  I'eter;  and  even  ad- 
mitting that  it  was  given  by  Christ  to  all  the  apostles, 
and  therefore  has  desceiuled  to  the  priests  and  bishops 
their  successors,  they  hold  that  it  must  bo  principally 
Vested  in  the  Pope  as  the  bishop  of  bishops,  and  the 
head  of  all  ecclesiastical  inlluenco  and  authority  in  the 
rluu'ch  on  earth.  Tims  Romanists  seek  to  vest  in  the 
i'ope  a  supremacy  over  the  church,  and  in  the  highest 
sense  in  which  the  words  can  apply  to  any  one  on 
earth,  in  him  is  vested  the  power  of  the  keys.  In 
npimsition  to  this  claim  which  Uonianisis  allege  for 
the  I'ope,  Protestants  contend  that  it  rests  on  a  series 
of  unfounded  assumptions;  for  instance,  on  the  su- 
premacy of  Peter,  his  having  actually  been  bishop  of 
Rome,  and  the  transmission  of  his  power  to  all  fiittu'e 
bishops  of  Rome. 

KHAKIS,  one  of  the  Vaishmwa  sects  of  Hindus, 
founded  by  Kil,  a  disciple,  though  not  immediately, 
of  Ramanand.  The  history  of  the  sect  is  not  well 
known,  ami  it  seems  to  be  of  modern  origin.  Its 
niendjers,  though  believed  to  be  numerous,  appear  to 
be  either  confined  to  a  few  particular  districts,  or  to 
lead  a  wandering  life.  The  Khakis  are  distinguished 
from  the  other  Vaishnavas  by  the  application  of  clay 
and  ashes  to  their  dress  or  persons.  Those  who 
reside  in  fixed  establishments  generally  dress  like 
other  VaisJinavas,  but  those  who  lead  a  wandering 
life,  go  either  naked,  or  nearly  so,  smearing  their 
bodies  with  the  pale  gray  mixture  of  ashes  and  earth. 
They  also  frecpiently  wear  the  Jata,  or  braided  hair, 
alter  the  fashion  of  the  votaries  of  Shira,  some  of 
whose  characteristic  practices  they  follow,  blending 
them  with  the  worship  of  Vishnu,  of  Sita,  and  par- 
ticularly of  Hanuman.  Many  Kliakk  are  found  about 
Parakhabad,  but  their  principal  seat  is  at  Hanuman 
Gerk,  in  Oude. 

KHALIP.     See  C.vlipii. 

KHAND.VS,  the  elements  of  sentient  existence 
among  the  Budliists,  of  which  there  are  five  con- 
stituents:— (1.)  The  organized  body,  or  the  whole  of 
being,  apart  from  the  mental  processes ;  (2.)  Sensa- 
tion ;  (3.)  Perception  ;  (4.)  Discrimination  ;  (5.)  Con- 
sciousness. The  four  last  Khdnilns  are  results  or 
properties  of  the  first,  which  nuist  be  understood  as 
including  the  soul  as  well  as  the  body.  At  death, 
the  Budliists  believe  the  Khandas  entirely  vanish. 
Gotama  says  that  none  of  the  Khandas,  taken  sepa- 


rately, are  the  self,  and  that,  taken  conjointly,  they 
are  not  the  self.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  soul 
apart  from  the  five  Khandas. 

KHAND(JUA,  an  incarnation  of -S'A/w,  the  same 
which  is  called  also  PillAlHAV  (which  see).  The 
[jrincipal  temple  of  Khuiidiha  is  at  Jejiu'i.  It  was 
I'udowed  by  Ilolkar  with  an  annual  sum  of  10,0(X) 
rupees,  and  the  Peshwa's  government  granted  a  like 
sum.  A  large  sum  also  accrues  to  the  temple  from 
its  oUcrings,  jiart  of  which  were  demanded  back  by 
government,  till,  on  Christian  principles,  this  branch 
of  revenue  was  abandoned  by  Sir  Robert  Grant.  A 
fraternity  of  Vira,  amounting  to  about  fifty  nn/n,  is 
attached  to  the  temple,  besides  a  sisterhood  of  twice 
the  nundjer  of  Murali.  One  of  the  Vira  is  required 
at  the  annual  festival  to  run  a  sword  through  his 
thigh,  and  afterwards  to  walk  through  the  town  as  if 
nothing  had  happened  to  him.  The  Murali  arc  un- 
married females,  consecrated  by  their  parents  to  the 
god,  and  sent,  when  they  grow  nj),  to  the  temple  at 
Jejuri,  that  they  may  lead  a  life  of  sacred  pros- 
titution. 

KHARE.HTES,  orrevolters,  a  Mohanuncdan  sect 
who  originally  withdrew  from  Ali,  and  maintain  that 
the  Imam  need  not  be  of  the  tribe  of  Korcish,  nor 
even  a  freeman,  provided  he  be  just  and  qualified 
They  maintain  too,  that  if  unfit  he  may  be  deposed, 
and  that  the  ofiice  itself  is  not  indispensable. 

KIl.VTA,  or  ScARi'  of  Blessincs,  an  article 
which  is  considered  in  Thibet  as  conveying  to  the 
individual  on  whom  it  is  bestowed  many  blessings 
from  above.  It  is  thus  described  by  M.  Hue,  in  his 
'  Travels  in  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  China :" — "  The 
Khata  is  a  piece  of  silk,  nearly  as  fine  as  gauze,  and 
of  so  very  pale  a  blue  as  to  be  almost  white.  Its 
length  about  triples  its  breadth,  and  the  two  extre- 
mities are  generally  fringed.  There  are  Kliatas  of 
all  sizes  and  all  prices,  for  a  Khata  is  an  object  with 
which  neither  poor  nor  rich  can  dispense.  No  one 
ever  moves  unless  provided  with  a  supjjly.  AVIicn 
you  go  to  pay  a  visit,  when  you  go  to  ask  a  favour, 
or  to  acknowledge  one,  you  begin  with  di.^playing  the 
Khata;  you  take  it  in  both  hands,  and  otier  it  to  the 
l)erson  whom  you  desire  to  honour.  When  two 
friends,  who  have  not  seen  each  other  for  a  long 
time,  meet,  their  first  proceeding  is  to  interchange  a 
Khata ;  it  is  as  much  a  matter  of  course  as  shaking 
hands  in  Europe.  When  you  write,  it  is  usual  to 
enclose  a  Khata  in  the  letter.  We  cannot  exiiggcrate 
the  importance  which  the  Thibetians,  the  Si-Fan,  the 
Iloung-Mao-Eul,  and  all  the  people  who  dwell  to- 
wards the  western  shores  of  the  Blue  Sea,  attach  to 
the  ceremony  of  the  Khata.  With  them,  it  is  the 
purest  and  sincerest  expression  of  all  the  noblest 
sentiments.  The  most  gracious  words,  the  nuisi 
magnificent  presents,  go  for  nothing,  if  nnaccompaniid 
with  the  Khata;  whereas,  with  the  Khata,  the  com- 
monest oVyects  become  of  infinite  value.  If  any  one 
comes,  Khata  in  hand,  to  ask  you  a  favour,  to  refuse 
the  favour  would  be  a  great  breach  of  propriety 


i;7i! 


KIIATIB— KHONDo. 


riiis  Tliibetiaii  custom  is  very  general  among  tlie 
I'artai's,  and  especially  in  their  Lamaseries ;  and 
Kliatas,  accordingly,  form  a  very  leading  feature  o( 
commerce  with  the  Chinese  at  Tang-Keou-Eul.  The 
'rhibetian  embassy  never  passes  through  the  town 
without  purcliasing  a  prodigious  number  of  these 
articles." 

KHATIB,  an  ordinary  Mohannnedan  priest,  wlio 
conducts  the  worship  of  tlie  mosque  on  the  Fridays. 
He  recites  the  prayers,  and  often  preaches  a  sermon. 
KHATMEII,  a  recitation  of  the  whole  Kuraii, 
whicli  occupies  about  nine  hours,  and  is  customary 
at  tlie  funerals,  weddings,  and  public  festivals  of 
.Mohammedans,  being  regarded  as  meritorious  in 
those  who  bear  the  expense. 

KHEMAH,  one  of  the  principal  female  disciples 
of  BuDHA  (which  see). 

KHIKKHAH  (Arab.,  a  torn  robe),  a  name  given 
lo  the  dress  generally  worn  by  Dervishes  (which 
see).  The  Mussulmans  pretend  that  it  was  the  dress 
of  the  ancient  propliets. 

KHLESTOVSHCIIIKI  (from  Slav.,  khlestat,  to 
Hog),  a  sect  of  dissenters  from  the  liiisno- Greek 
church.  Tliey  are  a  kind  of  Fktijdlants,  and  a 
branch  of  the  Skopt/.i  (which  see).  They  impose 
upon  themselves  flagellation  and  some  otlier  pen- 
ances, and  tliey  are  said  to  have  mysterious  doc- 
trines and  rites,  marked  by  the  wildest  superstition. 
They  are  accused  of  the  same  guilty  extravagances 
which  were  ascribed  to  the  Adamites  (which  see). 
The  police  of  Moscow,  it  seems,  surprised  one  of 
their  meetings  in  1840,  and  it  was  proved,  by  the  in- 
vestigation which  followed  on  this  discovery,  that 
the  KIdestovshcliUd  are  only  a  lower  or  preparatory 
grade  of  the  Skophi;  that  they  have  a  community 
of  women,  although,  in  order  to  conceal  it,  they  live 
in  couples,  married  by  priests  of  the  established 
clun-ch.  At  their  meetings  they  often  jump  about 
until  they  fall  down  from  exliaustion  ;  a  practice 
not  alto-ether  unknown  even  in  England.  (See 
Jumpers.) 

KHONDS  (RELIGION  OF  the).  Tlie  Khonds  are 
a  wild  aboriginal  tribe  in  Orissa,  that  iiortion  of  Hin- 
dustan wbicli  lies  between  the  mountains  of  the 
Oekkan  and  tlie  sea-coast.  Their  religion  is  very 
peculiar,  and  in  its  whole  features  entirely  distinct 
from  Hinduism.  Their  supreme  god  is  called  BuuA- 
I'ennou  (whicli  see),  the  god  of  liglit,  who  created 
for  him.self  a  consort,  the  earth-godde.ss  called  Turi- 
Pciinou,  the  source  of  evil  in  the  world.  The  god  of 
light  arrested  the  action  of  physical  evil,  while  lie 
lett  man  at  perfect  liberty  to  reject  or  receive  moral 
evil.  They  who  rejected  it  were  deified,  while  the 
great  mass  of  niankind  who  received  it  were  con- 
demned to  all  kinds  of  physical  sufTering,  with  death, 
besides  being  deprived  of  tlie  immediate  care  of  the 
Creator,  and  doomed  to  the  lowest  slate  of  moral 
degradation.  Bura-Pennou  and  liis  consort,  mean- 
while, contended  for  superiority,  and  thus  I  he  ele- 
ments of  good  and  evil  came  to  be  in  constant  collisinn 


both  in  the  heart  of  man  and  in  the  world  around 
him.  At  this  point  the  Khonds  diverge  into  two 
sects,  which  are  thus  described  by  Major  Macpliersoii 
in  an  interesting  memoir  read  before  the  Asiatic 
Society,  and  inserted  in  tlieir  Journal : — "  One  sect," 
says  lie,  "  holds  that  the  god  of  light  completely 
conquered  the  earth-goddess,  and  employs  her,  still 
the  active  principle  of  evil,  as  the  instrument  of  his 
moral  rule.  That  he  resolved  to  provide  a  jiartial 
remedy  for  the  consequences  of  the  introduction  of 
evil,  by  enabling  man  to  attain  to  a  state  of  moderate 
enjoyment  upon  earth,  and  to  jiartial  restoration  to 
communion  with  the  Creator  after  death.  And  that, 
to  eflect  this  purpose,  lie  created  those  classes  o( 
subordinate  deities,  and  assigned  to  them  the  office — 
first,  of  instructing  man  in  the  arts  of  life,  and  regu- 
lating the  powers  of  nature  for  his  use,  upon  the  con- 
dition of  his  paying  to  them  due  worship  ;  secondly, 
of  administering  a  system  of  retributive  justice 
through  subjection  to  which,  and  through  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue  during  successive  lives  upon  earth,  the 
soul  of  man  might  attain  to  beatification.  The  other 
sect  hold,  upon  the  other  hand,  that  the  earth-god- 
dess remains  unconqnered;  that  the  god  of  light 
could  not,  in  opposition  to  her  will,  carry  out  his 
purpose  with  respect  to  man's  temporal  lot;  and 
that  man,  therefore,  owes  his  elevation  from  the  state 
of  physical  suffering  into  which  he  fell  through  the 
reception  of  evil,  to  the  direct  exercise  of  her  power 
to  confer  blessings,  or  to  her  permitting  him  to  receive 
the  good  which  flows  from  the  god  of  light,  through 
the  inferior  gods,  to  all  who  worship  them.  AVitl 
respect  to  man's  destiny  after  death,  they  believe 
that  the  god  of  light  carried  out  his  purpose.  An(\ 
they  believe  that  the  worship  of  the  earth-goddess 
by  human  sacrifice,  is  the  indispensable  condition  on 
which  these  blessings  have  been  granted,  and  their 
continuance  may  be  hoped  for;  the  virtue  of  the  rite 
availing  not  only  for  those  who  practise  it,  but  for  all 
niankind. 

"  In  addition  to  these  human  sacrifices,  which  still 
continue  to  be  ofi'ered  annually,  in  order  to  appease 
the  wrath  of  Tari,  and  propitiate  her  in  favour  of 
agriculture,  there  is  a  fearful  amount  of  infanticiilc 
among  the  Khoiid  people.  It  exists  in  some  of  the 
tribes  of  the  sect  of  Boora  to  such  an  extent,  that  no 
female  infant  is  spared,  exccjit  when  a  woman's  first 
child  is  female;  and  that  villages  containing  a  hun- 
dred houses  may  be  seen  without  a  female  child." 

The  revolting  rites  of  human  sacrifice  and  female 
infanticide  have  prevailed  from  time  immemorial 
among  these  barbarous  people.  The  Briti.'ili  goveni- 
mcnt,  however,  has  happily  succeeded  in  almost  coni- 
plctidy  aboli.shing  these  bloody  rites.  Many  children, 
who  had  been  stcilen  from  their  parents,  and  sold  to  the 
Khonds  for  sacrifice,  have  been  rescued  from  a  cruel 
death,  and  put  into  asylums  for  Christian  education 
.iiul  training.  The  manner  in  which  the  revolting 
human  sacrifices  were  conducted  by  the  Khonds  is 
thus  described  by  Mr.  Fry,  a  gnverumcnt  agent,  who 


KIIORS-KIIOTBEII. 


273 


•18  rescued  mnnberii  from  tlie  Bacril'icial  Unite : — 
'  The  victim,"  he  informs  us,  "  is  surrounded  by  a 
crowd  of  liidt'-intoxicated  Klionds,  and  is  dragged 
around  some  open  space,  wlu'ii  llie  savages,  witli 
loud  siiouts,  rush  on  the  victim,  cutting  the  Hving 
llcsli  piecenu^d  from  the  bones,  till  nothing  remains 
but  the  head  aiul  bowels,  which  are  left  untouchi'd. 
Oi^atli  has  by  this  time  released  thi^  unhappy  victim 
from  his  torture;  tho  luiad  and  bowels  are  then 
burnt,  and  tho  ashes  mixed  with  grain."  These 
Ab^riah  sacrilicos,  as  they  arc  called,  are  almost 
aliolislicd. 

KHOKS,  a  god  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Slavo 
niaus,  an  image  of  whom  existed  at  Kiotf  before  the 
introduction  of  Christianity.     They  were  wont  to 
oiler  to  this   deity  the  Icnrovaij,    or  wedding-cake, 
and  to  sacrillce  hens  in  honour  of  him. 

KIIOTBEII,  a  prayer  which  Mohammed  was 
accustomed  to  recite,  and  in  which  example  bo  was 
followed  by  his  successors.  It  consists  of  two  parts. 
The  tirst  is  appropriated  to  tho  Deity,  the  prophets, 
the  iirst  four  caliphs  and  their  contemporaries.  Tho 
second  includes  tho  prayer  for  the  reigning  sovereign. 
Tho  Kliotbeh  at  present  in  use  on  tho  Fridays  in  tlie 
Mohammedan  mosques  in  Turkey  is  as  follows : — 
"  Thanks  be  to  the  Most  High,  that  supreme  and 
immortal  Being  who  has  neither  wife  nor  children 
nor  equal  on  earth  or  in  the  heavens,  who  favours 
acts  of  compunction  in  his  servants,  and  pardons 
their  iniquities.  We  believe,  we  confess,  we  bear 
witness,  that  there  is  no  God  but  (jod  alone,  the  solo 
God,  who  acbnits  no  association.  Happy  belief,  to 
which  is  attached  heavenly  blessedness.  We  also 
believe  in  our  Lord  our  support,  our  master  Moham- 
med his  servant,  bis  friend,  his  prophet,  wdio  has 
been  directed  in  tho  true  way,  favoured  by  divine 
oracles,  and  distinguished  by  marvellous  works.  May 
tho  divine  blessing  be  on  him,  on  his  posterity,  on 
his  wives,  on  bis  disciples,  on  the  orthodox  klialifs 
endowed  with  doctrine,  virtue,  and  sanctity,  and  on 
the  viziers  of  his  age,  particularly  on  the  Imam,  the 
true  khalif  of  God's  prophet,  the  prince  of  believers, 
Abubekr,  the  pious  certilier,  pleasing  to  theEtenial; 
on  the  Imam,  the  true  khalif  of  God's  prophet,  the 
prince  of  believers,  Omar,  the  pure  discriminator, 
pleasing  to  God;  on  tlie  Imam,  the  true  khalif  of 
God's  propliet,  the  prince  of  believers,  Othman,  the 
possessor  of  the  two  lights;  on  the  Imam,  the  true 
khalif  of  God's  propliet,  the  prince  of  believers,  Ali, 
the  generous,  the  upright,  pleasing  to  God ;  on  the 
two  great  Imams,  perfect  in  virtue  and  doctrine,  dis- 
tinguished in  knowledge  and  in  works,  illustrious  in 
race  and  in  nobility,  resigned  to  the  will  of  God  and 
the  decrees  of  destiny,  patient  in  reverses  and  mis- 
fortunes, the  princes  of  the  heavenly  youth,  the  pupils 
of  the  eyes  of  the  faithfid,  the  lords  of  true  believers, 
Hassan  and  Ilossein,  pleasing  to  God,  to  whom  may 
all  be  equally  pleasing.  O  ye  assistants,  0  ye  faith- 
ful, fear  God,  and  submit  to  Him.  Omar,  pleasing 
to  God,  has  said,  The  prophet  of  God  pronounced 

II. 


these  words :  Let  there  be  no  actions  but  those 
foinided  on  good  intentions.  The  prophet  of  God  is 
trnlhful  in  what  he  .said.  He  is  truthful  in  what  he 
said.  Ali,  the  friend  of  God,  and  tho  minister  of  tho 
heavenly  oracles,  said,  Know  that  the  best  word  is 
tho  Word  of  God,  most  powerful,  most  merciful,  most 
coinpashionate.  Hear  his  holy  connnandment.  When 
you  hear  tho  Koran,  listen  to  it  with  respect,  and  in 
silence,  for  it  will  be  made  to  yon  piety.  I  take 
refuge  with  God  from  the  stoned  devil.  In  the  name 
of  God,  the  merciful,  the  compassionate  in  truth, 
good  deeds  efface  bad  ones." 

Here  the  iireacher  repeats  several  verses  of  the 
Koran,  to  which  the  muc:::dm  chant  Amen.  He  tiien 
commences  tho  second  Klwlbch,  which  runs  thus: — 
"  In  honour  to  his  prophet,  and  for  distinction  to  iiis 
liuro  soul,  this  high  and  gi-eat  God,  wlio.se  word  is  an 
order  and  a  command,  has  said.  Certainly  God  and 
his  angels  bless  tho  prophet.  Bless  him,  ye  believers, 
addi'oss  to  him  pure  and  sincere  salutations.  O  God, 
bless  Moliannned,  the  Emir  of  Emirs,  the  chief  of  the 
prophets,  who  is  perfect,  accomplished,  endowed  with 
eminent  qualities,  tlie  glory  of  the  human  race,  our 
lord  and  the  lord  of  both  worlds,  of  temporal  and  o 
elornal  life.  0  ye  who  are  enamoured  of  his  beauty 
and  of  bis  fame,  address  to  him  pure  and  sincere 
salutations.  Bless,  O  God,  Mohammed,  and  the 
posterity  of  Mohammed,  as  thou  hast  blessed  Abra- 
ham and  tho  posterity  of  Abraliam.  Certainly  thou 
art  adorable,  thou  art  great ;  sanctify  Mohammed, 
and  the  posterity  of  Mohammed,  as  thou  hast  sanc- 
tified Abraham  and  the  posterity  of  Abraham.  Cer- 
tainly thou  art  adorable,  thou  art  great.  0  God, 
have  pity  on  the  orthodox  khalifs,  distinguished  by 
doctrine,  virtue,  and  heavenly  gilts,  with  which  thou 
hast  laden  those  who  have  acted  with  truth  and 
justice.  0  God,  assist,  sustain,  and  defend  thy  ser- 
vant, the  greatest  of  sultans,  the  most  eminent  of 
khalifs,  the  king  of  Arabs,  and  Ajene,  the  servant  of 
the  two  holy  cities,  sultan,  son  of  a  sultan.  Sultan 

,  whose  khalifat  may  the  Supreme  Being  make 

eternal,  and  perpetual  his  empire  and  power.  Amen. 
O  God,  exalt  those  who  exalt  religion,  and  lower 
those  who  lower  religion.  Protect  the  Moslem  sol- 
diers, the  orthodox  armies,  and  grant  us  health,  tran- 
quillity, prosperity  to  us,  to  pilgrims,  to  the  military, 
to  citizens,  as  well  to  those  at  home  as  to  those  who 
travel  by  land  and  sea;  tinally,  to  the  whole  Moslem 
lieople.  Health  to  all  the  prophets  and  all  the 
heavenly  messengers.  Etemal  praises  to  God.  the 
Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe.  Certainly 
God  commands  equity  and  benevolence,  he  com- 
mands and  recommends  the  care  of  our  relations,  he 
prohibits  unlawful  things,  sins,  prevarications.  He 
counsels  you  to  obey  his  precepts,  and  to  keep  them 
carefully  in  your  memory." 

A  Khotbeh,  in  substance  the  same,  i.s  used  on  the 
tirst  Friday  after  the  New  Year.     Besides  the  bene- 
diction on  the  prophet,  his  four  successors,  and  ttie 
two  sons  of  Ali,  a  blessing  is  invoked  on  their  mother 
2a 


274 


KllUMBANDAS— KIRCHENTAG. 


Fatiraah,  and  grandmotlier  Khadijah ;  Ayesha,  the 
mother  of  the  faithful,  and  the  rest  of  the  prophet's 
pure  wives ;  on  tlie  six  who  remained  of  the  ten 
noble  and  just  persons  who  swore  allegiance  under 
the  tree,  Talha,  Alzobier,  Saad,  Said,  Abdulrahman, 
Ibn  Auf,  and  all  the  companions,  and  the  two  suc- 
ceeding generations.  This  prayer,  and  frequently  a 
moral  discourse,  is  delivered  from  the  pulpit  by  the 
Khatib.  who  holds  a  wooden  sword  reversed,  a  cus- 
tom said  to  be  peculiar  to  the  cities  taken  from  the 
unbelievers. 

KHUMBANDAS,  an  order  of  beings  among  the 
Btidfikts,  who  are  believed  to  be  the  attendants  of 
Wiriidha,  who  is  one  of  the  four  guardian  deicas. 
The  Khumbandas  have  blue  garments,  hold  a  sword 
and  shield  of  sapphire,  and  are  mounted  on  blue 
horses.  They  form  one  of  the  thirteen  orders  of  in- 
telligence, exclusive  of  the  supreme  Bitdhas.  They 
are  monsters  of  immense  size  and  disgusting  form. 

KID- WORSHIP.  A  remarkable  prohibition  oc- 
curs in  three  difierent  passages  of  the  Old  Testament, 
couched  in  these  words,  "  Thou  shalt  not  seethe  a 
kid  in  his  mother's  milk."  This  precept  has  been 
supposed  to  be  intended  to  guard  the  Hebrews 
against  some  idolatrous  or  superstitious  practice  of 
the  neighbouring  heathen  nations.  In  this  explana- 
tion some  of  the  Jewish  expositors  coincide,  though 
they  have  not  been  able  to  cite  any  instance  of  such 
a  practice.  Dr.  Cudworth,  however,  in  his  Treatise 
on  the  Lord's  Supper,  states,  that  in  an  old  Caraite 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  it  is  mentioned  as 
having  been  a  practice  of  the  ancient  heathens  when 
they  had  gathered  in  all  their  fruits,  to  take  a  kid 
and  boil  it  in  the  milk  of  its  dam,  and  then  in  a 
magical  way  to  go  about  and  besprinkle  witli  it  their 
trees,  fields,  gardens,  and  orchards  ;  thinking  that  by 
this  means  they  would  fructify  and  bring  forth  fruit 
more  abundantly  the  following  year.  Horace  seems 
to  allude  to  a  custom  of  this  kind.  Abarbanel  also 
refers  to  such  a  practice  as  followed,  in  some  parts  of 
Spain,  even  in  his  time.  Spencer  mentions  a  similar 
rite  as  in  use  among  the  Sabians.  Bloody  sacrifices 
of  cocks  and  kids  are  wont  to  be  ofl'ered  to  the  Hindu 
god  Vishnu. 

KIBW,  a  holy  city  among  the  ancient  Slavonians. 
It  was  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper  or 
Borysthenes.  In  this  city  nearly  all  the  gods  of  the 
Slavic  race  were  at  one  time  assembled.  The  inhab- 
itants of  Kiew,  in  their  aimual  voyages  to  the  Black 
Sea  in  the  month  of  June,  were  wont  to  disembark 
on  an  island,  at  the  distance  of  four  days' jounicy 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  there  they  ofl'ered 
'.heir  sacrifices  under  an  oak. 

KILHAMITKS.  Sec  Mi:tiiodist  (AVksleyan) 
Nkw  Connexion. 

KING,  the  canonical  sacred  books  of  the  Chinese, 
which  arc  believed  to  be  the  most  ancient  literary 
monuments  of  China,  and  to  possess  an  authority  far 
higher  than  any  other  ancient  writings.  All  these 
productions  of  the  shwQ-jin,  or  holy  man,  are  consi- 


dered to  be  absolutely  and  infallibly  true.  The  old- 
est of  the  sacred  books  is  the  Yih-king,  said  to  have 
been  written  by  Fuh-he,  the  reputed  founder  of  the 
Chinese  civilization.  The  second  of  the  Chinese 
sacred  books  is  the  Shoo-lcing,  which  is  chiefly  his- 
torical, stretching  from  the  reign  of  Yaou,  one 
of  the  very  earliest  emperors,  to  the  life-time  of 
Confucius.  Tlie  She-ldmj  is  the  third  of  the  sacred 
books,  comprising  311  odes,  and  other  lyrics,  gen 
erally  breathing  a  moral  tone.  Inferior  in  autho 
rity  to  these  three,  but  still  regarded  as  a  sacred 
book,  is  the  Le-lcc,  the  Chinese  book  of  rites  and 
manners.  The  four  just  mentioned,  along  with  the 
Tsun-tsew,  a  historical  work  by  Confucius,  form  the 
Woo-king  or  Five  Sacred  AVritings  of  the  Chinese, 
the  monuments  of  the  "holy  men"  of  antiquity,  and 
hence  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  all  history  and 
ethics,  politics,  philosophy,  and  religion  in  China. 
KING  OF  SACRIFICES.    See  Rex  Sacror 

L'M. 

KINIAN  SUDDAR.     See  Cloth  (Purchask 

OF  the). 

KINSMAN.    See  Avenger  of  Blood. 

KIRCHENTAG  (Ger.  church  diet),  a  free  asso- 
ciation of  pious  professors,  ministers,  and  laymen  of 
Protestant  Germany,  for  the  discussion  of  the  reli- 
gious and  ecclesiastical  questions  of  the  day,  and  for 
the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  practical  Chris- 
tianity embraced  under  the  term  Inner  Mission 
(which  see).  It  was  originated  in  1848,  and  meets 
annually  in  one  of  the  leading  cities  of  Germany. 
Its  doctrinal  basis  is  the  Bible  as  explained  by  the 
ecumenical  symbols  and  evangelical  confessions  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  It  comprehends  four  Protes- 
tant denominations,  the  Eutheran,  German  Reform- 
ed, United  Evangelical,  and  the  Moravian,  but  it 
holds  fraternal  intercourse  with  all  foreign  Evangeli- 
cal Societies  and  Churches,  who  hold  the  basis  of  the 
Diet,  and  may  choose  to  send  delegates  to  represent 
them  at  its  meetings.  All  parts  of  Germany,  espe- 
cially Prussia  and  Wurtemberg,  send  delegates  to  this 
body;  but  it  is  discountenanced  and  disowned  by 
the  rationalists  and  semi-rationalists  as  well  as  the 
rigid  Lutherans. 

This  German  Cliurch  Diet  originated  with  the 
most  eminent  evangelical  ministers  and  laymen  of 
Germany,  headed  by  a  true  Christian  nobleman,  von 
Bethmann  Ilollweg,  who  has  presided  at  every  one 
of  its  meetings.  The  first  Kirchentag,  which  consisted 
of  five  hundred  members,  met  on  the  21st  of  Septem- 
ber 1848  in  Wittenberg,  and  in  that  \ery  church  to 
the  doors  of  which  Luther  affixed  his  ninety-five 
theses.  "It  was  indeed,"  says  Mr.  T'.iomas  II.  Glad- 
stone, "  a  new  and  interesting  sight  to  behold  the 
learned  professor  seated  side  by  side  with  the  simple- 
minded  Christian,  the  dignified  ecclesiastic  taking 
brotherly  counsel  with  the  humble  lay-missiwuary  or 
jirovincial  school  teacher.  It  was  no  less  a  strangely 
novel  spectacle  to  see  the  strongest  upholders  of  the 
respective  orthodoxies,  Lutheran  and  Reformed,  for- 


lURCIIENTAG. 


276 


ycttin;;  doctriiiiil  (litVurenccs  in  tlie  lianiioiiy  of 
Cliristian  purpose  and  Cliriatian  love;  still  more  to 
see  the  olycct  of  their  common  jealousy,  the  '  Unit- 
ed' Church,  as  well  as  the  Moravian  and  other  dis- 
senting communities,  coiniiletin^  the  picture  of  Chris- 
tian union  and  brotherly  love  by  being  admitted  to 
their  association  witliout  question  of  their  ecclesias- 
tical polity  or  church  rule.  All  seemed  to  point  to 
the  dawning  of  a  better  day.  And  the  tempest  of 
persecution  with  wliich  the  church  was  assailed,  ap- 
peared already  converted  into  a  blessing,  in  tlie  re- 
cognition of  its  essential  unity,  and  the  sense  of  the 
mutual  depciulence  of  its  parts  as  members  of  that 
mystic  bddy  wliich  is  one  in  its  living  Head.  This 
feeling  of  Christian  fellowship  was  heightened  to  the 
sublime,  and  received  an  expression  too  deeply  af- 
fecting over  to  be  erased  from  the  memory  of  those 
who  witnessed  the  scone,  when,  at  a  solemn  moment 
on  the  last  day,  the  earnest  Kruinmaclier,  in  one  of 
liis  fervent  addresses,  pledged  the  members  to  stand 
true  to  one  another  in  the  day  of  persecution,  wliich 
seemed  about  to  bur>t  upon  them,  and  received  in 
the  prolonged  affirmation  of  the  whole  assembly,  the 
assurance  that  they  would  bear  each  other  as  mem- 
bers of  one  family  in  their  hearts  and  prayers,  would 
receive  each  other  in  the  day  of  persecution  to  house 
and  home  till  the  storm  should  be  overpast,  and 
would  account  as  their  own  sisters  and  their  own 
children  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  brother  who 
should  seal  his  testimony  by  the  martyr's  death." 

This  first  meeting  of  the  Kirchentag  lasted  for 
three  days,  and  the  result  of  its  deliberations,  which 
were  conducted  with  the  greatest  order  and  solem- 
nity, was  that  two  veiy  important  resolutions  were 
unanimously  passed : — 

"  1.  That  an  invitation  should  be  addressed  to  all 
the  Protestant  churches  of  Germany,  to  hold  on  the 
.5th  of  November  1848,  the  Sunday  following  the 
anniversary  of  the  Reformation,  a  day  of  general 
prayer  and  humiliation,  in  order  to  begin  the  work 
of  the  regeneration  of  Protestantism  with  the  same 
spirit  of  true  evangelical  repentance,  with  which 
Luther  commenced  the  Reformation,  and  which  he 
so  clearly  expressed  in  the  very  first  of  his  ninety- 
five  theses. 

"  2.  A  resolution  to  form  a  confederation  of  all 
those  German  churches  which  stand  on  the  gi-ound 
of  the  reformatory  confessions,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
an  amalgamation  of  these  churches  and  an  extinction 
of  their  peculiarities  and  relative  independence,  but 
for  the  representation  and  promotion  of  the  essential 
unity  and  brotherly  harmony  of  the  evangelical 
churches ;  for  united  testimony  against  every  thing 
unevangelical ;  for  mutual  counsel  and  aid ;  for  the 
decision  of  controversies  ;  for  the  furtherance  of  ec- 
clesiastical and  social  reforms,  especially  Inner  Mis- 
sion ;  for  the  protection  and  defence  of  the  divine 
mid  human  rights  and  liberties  of  the  evangelical 
church ;  for  forming  and  promoting  the  bond  of 
Bnion  with  all  evangelical  bodies  out  of  Germany." 


The  Kirchentag,  like  the  Kvangelical  Alliance,  is 

not  a  union  of  churches,  but  a  union  of  Chrintians, 
both  ministers  and  laymen.  It  is  not  a  legislativo 
assembly,  but  a  meeting  of  Christians  from  all  parta 
of  the  world,  for  the  purpo.se  of  consulting  about  the 
common  interests  of  the  Redeemer's  kingdom.  But 
at  the  same  time  it  ditlers  from  the  Evangelical  Al- 
liance in  one  point,  that  from  its  first  formation  it 
contemplated  a  confederation  of  the  churches  of  the 
Reformation. 

From  its  first  formation  in  1848,  the  Kirchentag 
has  met  every  year  except  185.5,  when  it  would  have 
met,  as  had  been  fully  arranged,  at  Halle,  bad  not  the 
cholera  broken  out  in  that  city.  Its  two  lirst  meet- 
ings took  place  at  Wittenberg,  but  ever  since  they 
have  been  held  at  difi'erent  towns,  and  the  attend- 
ance of  members  lias  of  course  varied  in  amount. 
The  meetings  of  the  lurchentag  continue  for  four 
days,  two  of  which  are  devoted  to  the  congress  oi 
Inner  Mission.  Each  session  is  opened  and  closed 
with  devotional  exercises,  and  the  business  is  exclu- 
sively of  a  spiritual  character,  and  separate  sessions 
are  held  early  in  the  morning,  and  late  in  the  even- 
ing for  special  objects  of  a  practical  kind,  such  as 
Sabbath  observance,  prison  discipline,  the  establish- 
ment of  houses  of  refuge,  the  cultivation  of  religious 
art,  and  similar  matters. 

The  meeting  of  the  Kirchentag  at  Berlin  in  1853, 
was  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  the  meetings 
which  have  been  held.  On  that  occasion  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  of  1530  was  unanimously  adopted  as 
the  fundamental  symbol  of  the  entire  Evangelical 
Chiu'ch  of  Germany  in  all  its  branches,  with  the  dis- 
tinct luiderstandhig,  however,  that  the  tenth  article 
on  the  Lord's  Supper  should  not  exclude  the  Re- 
formed doctrine  on  the  subject,  and  that  this  whole 
act  should  not  interfere  at  all  with  the  peculiar  posi- 
tion of  those  churches  which  never  adopted  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  Two  thousand  members  ot 
the  Kirchenta(i  solemnly  gave  their  assent  to  this 
decision,  which  was  bailed  by  the  king  of  Prussia, 
and  the  pious  Protestants  of  Gennany,  as  a  most 
gratifying  testimony  of  the  doctrinal  miity  which 
prevailed  in  thegi'eat  sections  of  German  Protestant- 
ism, while  at  the  same  time  it  was  a  most  powerful 
protest  against  both  Romanism  and  Rationalism. 

The  meetings  which  have  been  held  since  1853 
have  been  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  union  and 
Christian  love.  Questions  of  gi-eat  practical  import- 
ance have  been  discussed  -ivitli  the  utmost  indepen- 
dence of  mind,  and  yet  with  the  most  commendable 
meekness  and  forbearance.  Thus  the  Kirchentag 
has  exercised  a  most  salutary  Christian  influence, 
not  only  upon  the  cities  in  which  its  meetings  are 
held,  but  even  upon  the  renjotest  parts  of  Germany. 
It  has  promoted  the  cause  of  Christian  union  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  But  tbe  impulse  which  it  has 
given  to  the  work  of  Inner  Mission  (which  see), 
may  well  be  regarded  as  the  crowning  act  of  thu 
Kirchentag,  and  though  it  is  possible  that  the  pro- 


276 


KIRIATII  SHEMA— KISS  OF  PEACE. 


gress  of  a  high-clmrch  Lutheran  si^irit  may  ultimately 
break  up  this  friendly  confederation  of  Chiistian 
ministers  and  laymen,  tlie  benefit  which  has  already 
accrued  from  it  to  the  cause  of  ijractical  Christian- 
ity and  Christian  philanthropy  will  not  soon  be  for- 
gotten. 

KIRIATII  SIIEMA  (Heb.  tlie  reading  of  the 
Shema),  the  recital  by  the  Jews  of  certain  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  called  Siiema 
(which  see). 

KIRIN,  a  monster  which  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  in  the  fabulous  legends  of  the  Chinese  and  the 
Japanese.  It  is  supposed  to  be  not  only  gentle,  in- 
nocent, and  inoflensive,  but  virtuous  and  holy.  It  is 
never  seen,  therefore,  but  at  the  appearance  of  a  par- 
ticular constellation,  and  at  the  nativity  of  some 
worthy  benefactor  of  his  race.  The  Kirin  of  Japan 
IS  a  di-agon  with  three  claws,  and  that  of  China  with 
five. 

KIRK  (Ger.  Icirchc,  Gr.  Icm-iakc,  Sax.  or  Tent. 
kerlce),  a  place  set  apart  for  divine  worship.  It  is 
also  applied  to  the  congregation  which  assemljles  in 
one  place,  and  to  the  various  congregations  which  in 
their  collective  capacity  form  one  commmiion. 

KISLAR  AGA,  the  chief  of  the  black  eunuchs 
in  Turkey,  who  is  intrusted  with  superintendence  of 
all  the  mosques. 

KISSING  (S.iCREn).  The  ancient  heathens  were 
accustomed  to  kiss  the  hands,  the  feet,  the  knees,  or 
even  the  mouths  of  the  gods.  It  was  also  accoimted 
a  pait  of  devotion  to  kiss  the  doors  of  the  temples, 
the  pillars  and  the  posts  of  the  gates.  Among  ido- 
laters, in  times  as  remote  as  the  days  of  Job,  it 
seems  to  have  been  a  customary  act  of  woi-ship  to 
their  distant  or  unseen  deities  to  kiss  the  hand.  To 
this  there  is  an  evident  allusion  in  Job  xxxi.  26,  27, 
"  If  I  beheld  the  sun  when  it  sliined,  or  the  moon 
walking  in  briglitness ;  and  my  heart  liath  been  se- 
cretly enticed,  or  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand." 
At  the  inauguration  of  the  ancient  Jewish  kings,  the 
principal  men  of  the  kingdom,  as  an  expression  of 
their  homage  to  the  new  monarch,  kissed  either  his 
feet  or  his  knees.  A  reference  to  this  act  of  homage 
seems  to  be  made  in  Ps.  ii.  12,  "  Kiss  the  Son,  lest 
he  be  angry,  and  ye  ))erish  from  the  way,  when  his 
wrath  is  kindled  but  a  little.  Blessed  arc  all  they 
that  put  their  trust  in  liim."  An  Oriental  shows  his 
respect  to  a  superior  by  kissing  his  hand  and  putting 
it  to  his  forehead;  but  if  the  superior  be  of  a  kind 
and  condescending  turn  of  mind,  he  will  snatch 
away  his  hand  as  soon  as  the  other  has  touched  it ; 
then  the  inferior  puts  his  own  fingers  to  his  lips,  and 
afterwards  to  his  forehead.  The  Mohammedan  pil- 
grims, as  a  religious  duty,  kiss  the  black  stone  in  the 
Kaara  (which  see)  at  Mecca.  Kissing  as  a  mark 
of  idolatrous  reverence  is  referred  to  in  Ilosea  xiii. 
2,  "  Let  the  men  that  sacrifice  kiss  the  calves ;"  and 
I  Kings  xix.  18,  "And  every  mouth  which  hath  not 
kissed  him,"  that  is,  TJaal.  The  Roman  Catholics 
make  very  freipitnt  use  of  this  ceremony  in  religious 


worship.  Thus  they  kiss  the  crucifix  and  the  relics 
of  saints.  In  sprinkling  the  holy  water,  the  priest 
kisses  the  asperrjillum  or  sprinkling  brush ;  and  at 
the  procession  on  Palm-Sunday  the  deacon  kisses  the 
pahn  which  he  presents  to  the  priest.  In  the  rite  of 
ordination,  as  laid  down  in  the  Romish  Pontifical, 
the  ordained  priests  kiss  the  hand  of  the  Pontitt'- 
On  numberless  occasions  the  ceremony  of  kissing  as 
a  religious  rite  is  practised  among  Romanists.  One 
of  the  most  extraordinary  instances,  however,  of  the 
use  of  this  mode  of  expressing  sacred  homage  and  re- 
.spect  is  that  of  kissing  the  Pope's  foot  or  toe,  which 
has  been  required  by  Popes  as  a  token  of  respect  from 
the  secular  power  since  the  eighth  century.  The 
first  who  received  this  honour  was  Pope  Consfantine 
I.  It  was  paid  him  by  the  Emperor  Justinian  II.  on 
his  entry  into  Constantinople  in  A.  D.  710.  But  the 
first  Pope  who  made  it  imperative  was  Valentine  I. 
about  A.  D.  827,  who  required  every  one  to  kiss  his 
foot ;  and  from  that  time  this  mark  of  reverence  ap- 
pears to  have  been  expected  by  all  the  Popes. 
When  this  ceremony  is  to  be  performed,  the  Pope 
wears  a  slipper  with  a  cross  upon  it  which  is  kissed. 
KISS  OF  PEACE.  One  of  the  most  conspi- 
cuous features  in  the  character  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians, was  the  love  which  they  bore  one  to  another ; 
and  in  token  of  Christian  afl'ection  they  were  accus- 
tomed when  they  met  together  to  kiss  each  other. 
Tliis  outward  expression  of  love  was  manifested  in 
their  private  houses,  at  their  public  meetings,  and  on 
all  suitable  occasions.  Such  a  practice,  however, 
was  avoided  on  the  public  streets,  lest  it  should  be 
misunderstood  and  misrepresented  by  their  lieatlien 
fellow-citizens.  When  they  met  their  pastor  they 
were  accustomed  to  bow  their  heads,  and  to  receive 
his  benediction,  but  afterwards,  when  gi'eater  rever- 
ence was  attached  to  the  clerical  ofiice,  the  practice 
was  introduced  of  kissing  the  hands  of  their  pastor, 
and  embracing  his  feet.  In  the  early  Christian 
church  after  baptism  had  been  administered  to  a  con- 
vert, he  was  received  into  the  church  by  the  fir.st 
ki.ss  of  Christian  brotherhood,  the  salutation  of  peace, 
and  from  that  time  he  had  the  right  of  saluting  all 
Christians  with  this  fraternal  sign.  But  Clement  of 
Alexandria  complains  that  even  in  his  day  the  kiss 
of  peace  had  become  a  mere  fonn,  a  matter  of  out- 
ward disjiLiy,  which  excited  the  suspicion  of  the 
heathen.  This  early  Father  objects  to  such  a  cere- 
mony on  the  ground  that  love  shows  itself  not  in  the 
brotherly  kiss,  but  in  the  disjiosition  of  the  heart. 
This  outward  fonn  of  salutation,  however,  as  a  token 
of  Christian  afi'ection,  ajipe.ars  to  have  been  an  apos- 
tolic custom,  as  it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
writings  of  the  apostles.  Thus,  for  example,  it  is 
referred  to  in  Rom.  xvi.  16,  1  Cor.  xvi.  20,  2  Cor 
xiii.  12,  1  Thess.  v.  26,  and  1  Pet.  v.  14.  This 
practice  continued  in  use  for  several  centuries.  It 
was  usual  after  baptism,  Iwlli  in  the  ca.se  of  infnits 
and  adults,  as  late  as  the  fifth  ccntm-y,  but  after  that 
lime  it  seems  to  have  been  superseded  by  the  .simple 


KITCIir  MANITO-KNKICLING  IN  PRAYER. 


277 


Balutatioii,  Pax  tecum,  Peace  be  witli  you.  'I'lie  kiss 
of  peace  was  also  one  of  the  rites  of  the  Bacramental 
service,  ami  not  only  so,  but  it  was  observed  on  com- 
mon occasions  of  public  worship.  Jt  was  omitted  on 
(lood  Friday  in  commemoration  of  the  traitorous 
kiss  of  .Judas  Iscariot.  To  prevent  the  abuses  which 
might  natm'ally  arise  out  of  this  practice,  the  dilVcr- 
ent  sexes  were  not  permitted  to  interchange  this 
salutation  with  one  another.  Tlie  kiss  of  peace  was 
ol'ton  a  matter  of  taunt  and  reproach  on  the  part  of 
the  enemies  of  Christi.inity,  but  it  w.as  still  con- 
tinued through  the  eightli  and  ninth  centuries,  even 
to  the  thirteenth,  when  it  appears  to  have  ceased. 
According  to  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Laodiiea, 
the  presbyters  were  appointed  first  to  give  this  kiss 
to  tlie  bishop,  and  then  the  laity  were  to  exchange 
it  among  themselves.  At  the  ordination  of  a  bishop, 
it  was  customary  after  his  consecration  for  all  the 
bishops  and  clergy  present  to  salute  him  with  a  holy 
kiss  in  the  Lord.  The  solemn  kiss  formed  also  an 
essential  part  of  the  ceremony  of  espousals  or  be- 
trothal among  the  ancient  Christians.  Such  impor- 
tance, indeed,  did  Constantine  attach  to  this  token 
of  contract  between  the  parties  betrothed  to  each 
other,  that  he  laid  it  down  as  a  law,  and  it  was 
afterwards  embodied  in  the  Code  of  .Justinian,  that 
if  a  man  betrothed  a  woman  by  the  intervention  of 
the  kiss,  then  if  either  party  died  before  marriage, 
the  heirs  of  the  deceased  party  were  entitled  to  half 
the  donations,  and  the  survivor  to  the  other  half; 
but  if  the  contract  was  made  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  solemn  kiss,  then  upon  the  death  of  either 
party  before  marriage,  the  whole  of  the  espousal 
gifts  must  be  restored  to  the  donor  or  his  heirs  at 
law.  A  corrupt  practice  crept  into  some  places, 
but  was  strictly  forbidden  by  the  canons, — that 
of  giving  the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  dead ;  and  such 
a  practice  receives  a  favourable  mention  from  the 
author  who  calls  himself  Dionysius  the  Areopa- 
gite.  It  was  evidently  the  ofl'spring  of  a  blind  su- 
perstition, and  accordingly,  when  it  began  to  creep 
into  France  about  a.  d.  578,  the  council  of  Auxerre 
piissed  a  decree  declaring  it  unlawful  to  give  the  kiss 
of  peace  to  the  dead. 

KITCMI  MANITO,  the  n.ame  by  which  the 
Great  Spirit  was  known  among  various  tribes  of  the 
old  American  Indians.  This  is  the  foremost  mem- 
ber in  the  series  of  good  divinities.  See  Manitoes. 
North  American  Indians  (Religion  of  the). 

KITO,  a  god  wdiom  the  Chinese  soldiery  honour 
as  their  patron. 

KITOO,  a  particular  prayer  which  is  used  by  the 
Japanese  in  all  seasons  of  public  distress. 

KITU,  homage  or  reverence  paid  by  one  person 
to  another,  among  the  natives  of  Japan.  Inferiors 
being  seated  on  their  heels  according  to  the  Japanese 
fashion,  testiiied  their  respect  for  their  superiors  by 
laying  the  palms  of  their  hands  on  the  Hoor,  and 
bending  their  bodies  so  low  that  their  foreheads 
almost  touched  the  gi-ound.    This  is  called  the  A'(V/(. 


The  superior  responded  by  laying  the  palms  of  liil 
hands  upon  his  knees,  and  nodding  or  bowing,  more 
or  less  low,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  other  party. 

KNHF.hKKS.    See  Ge.nufi.ectentk.s. 

KNKFLING  IN  PRAYER.  This  seems  to  be 
a  proper  and  becoming  attitude  in  devotion,  and 
abundant  authority  for  the  practice  is  found  in  Scrip- 
ture. Thus  we  find  it  distinctly  mentioned  in 
2  Chron.  vi.  13,  Dan.  vi.  10,  Luke  xxii.  41,  Acts  vii. 
CO,  and  Kph.  iii.  14.  The  expression  to  bow  the 
knee,  is  referred  to  in  1  Kings  xix.  18,  as  denoting 
to  perform  an  act  of  worship ;  and  in  this  sense  it  is 
used  in  the  Hebrew,  in  Isa.  Ixvi.  .3,  "lie  that  wor- 
siiips  idols,"  is  literally  "  lie  that  bows  the  knee"  tf 
them.  In  the  early  Christian  church,  the  act  of 
kneeling  was  reg.arded  as  a  sign  of  humiliation  before 
God ;  hence  it  was  uniformly  required  of  all  who 
had  fallen  under  the  censure  of  the  church  for  their 
oflences.  Basil  calls  it  the  lesser  penance,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  act  of  prostration  which  w;is  termed 
the  greater  penance.  Constantine,  followed  by  Thco- 
dosius,  enacted  a  law  that  on  festival  days  prayers 
were  to  be  offered  by  the  congregation  not  kneeling 
but  standing.  The  primitive  Christians  conducted 
their  devotions  in  a  kneeling  posture  during  six  days 
of  the  week,  but  in  a  standing  attitude  on  the  Lord's 
day.  Justin  Martyr  accounts  for  the  difierence 
thus,  "  Forasmuch  as  we  ought  to  remember  both 
our  fall  by  sin,  and  the  grace  of  Christ,  by  which  wa 
rise  again  from  our  fall ;  therefore  we  pray  kneeling 
six  days  as  a  symbol  of  our  fall  by  sin  ;  but  our  not 
kneeling  on  the  Lord's  day  is  a  symbol  of  the  resur 
rection,  whereby,  through  the  gi-ace  of  Christ  we  are 
delivered  from  our  sins,  and  from  death,  that  is  mor- 
tified thereby."  The  standing  attitude,  instead  of  the 
kneeling,  was  adoptedalso  during  the  time  of  Pentecost. 
The  practice,  however,  of  refraining  from  kneehng 
on  the  Lord's  day,  and  the  time  of  Pentecost,  seems 
not  to  have  been  uniformly  observed  by  aU  the 
churches,  for  we  find  the  council  of  Nice  decreeing, 
"  Because  there  are  some  who  kneel  on  the  Lord's 
day,  and  in  the  days  of  Pentecost ;  that  all  things 
may  be  imiformly  perfoimed  in  every  parish  or  dio- 
cese, it  seems  good  to  the  holy  synod  that  prayers 
be  made  to  God  standing."  Hilary  also  speaks  of  it 
as  an  apostolical  practice,  neither  to  last  nor  worship 
kneeling  on  the  Lord's  day,  or  the  fifty  days  between 
Easter  and  Pentecost.  Jerome  reckons  it  among 
the  traditions  of  the  universal  church.  Cassian  says 
of  the  Egyptian  churches,  that  from  Saturday  night 
to  Sunday  night,  and  all  the  days  of  Pentecost,  they 
neither  kneeled  nor  fasted.  On  all  other  occasions 
kneeling  was  a  common  and  ordinary  posture  of  de- 
votion, so  that  prayer  was  often  termed  bendmg  the 
knees.  It  is  the  almost  miiversal  practice  of  Chris- 
tians to  kneel  in  private  prayer,  and  even  in  the 
public  devotions  of  the  sanctuary ;  some  churches 
prefer  the  kneeling,  while  others  prefer  the  standing 
attitude. 

KNEPH.    SeeCNEPH. 


!!78 


KNIGHTHOOD  (Ecclesiastical  Orders  of)— KORAN  (Al). 


KNIGHTHOOD  (Ecclesiastical  Orders  of). 
During  the  time  of  tlie  Crusades  (wliioli  see),  a  spi- 
rit of  chivalry  developed  itself  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  which  accounted  it  the  highest  of  all  deeds 
of  piety  to  do  battle  with  the  infidels.  The  warlike 
spirit  came  to  be  combined  with  the  monastic,  and 
from  this  apparently  incongruous  union  arose  the 
several  Orders  of  Christian  Knighthood. 

In  A.  D.  1119,  nine  knights  of  Jerusalem  first  con- 
gtituted  themselves  into  an  ecclesiastical  order,  under 
Hugh  de  Payens  as  grand-master.  Tliis  new  order 
of  knighthood  attracted  tlie  notice  and  the  approval 
of  St.  Bernard,  who  quickly  spread  their  fame 
throughout  the  western  world;  and  in  1128  they 
received  the  sanction  of  the  church  through  a  decree 
of  the  synod  of  Troyes.  This  of  com'se  led  to  tlieir 
rapid  increase  in  numbers,  wealth,  and  influence. 
Their  example  was  speedily  followed  by  the  brethren 
of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  in  Jerusalem.  Both 
orders  having  been  invested  with  special  privileges 
by  the  Pope,  were  not  long  in  attaining  property  and 
power.  A  spirit  of  jealousy,  however,  arose  be- 
tween them,  and  they  showed  themselves  to  be  more 
zealous  for  the  honour  and  advantage  of  their  re- 
spective orders,  than  for  the  Holy  Land.  Com- 
plaints, accordingly,  began  to  arise  in  all  quarters  on 
the  immorality,  faithlessness,  and  pride  of  these 
knights,  particularly  the  Templai'S.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Ptoleraais  in  1291,  they  first  withdrew  to 
Cyprus.  Then  the  Hospitallers  in  1309  settled  in 
Rhodes.  The  Templars,  however,  repaired  to  the 
west,  and  took  up  their  abode  chiefly  in  Paris. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  other  lesser  orders  of  eccle- 
siastical knighthood  sprung  up,  which  were  for  the 
most  part  connected  with  the  order  of  the  Cister- 
cians (which  see).  During  the  siege  of  Ptolemais, 
in  A.  D.  1190,  the  Order  of  German  or  Teutonic 
knights  came  into  existence;  but  having,  in  1226, 
withdrawn  into  Prussia  to  conquer  the  Pagan  inha- 
bitants of  that  countrj',  they  joined  in  1237  with  the 
Order  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword  against  the  in- 
fidel Livonians.  Another  minor  order  of  knights 
was  formed,  under  the  direction  of  the  Dominicans, 
for  conducting  the  war  against  the  Albigenses  in  the 
south  of  France.  Afterwards,  this  order  settled  in 
Northern  Italy,  and  was  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Rejoicing  Brothers.  The  three  principal  orders  of 
Christian  knighthood,  however,  wliich  were  formed 
in  the  twelfth  century  for  the  defence  of  Christianity 
against  the  infidels,  were,  1.  The  Knights  of  St.  John 
of  Jerugjilem,  whose  primary  object  was  to  relieve 
and  assist  the  crowds  of  pilgrims  who  visited  the 
Holy  Land.  2.  The  Knights  Templars,  who  were  a 
strictly  military  order,  intetuled  to  guard  tlie  roads, 
and  to  protect  the  Christians  from  the  assaults  of  the 
Mohannnedans.  3.  The  Teutonic  Knights  of  St. 
Mary,  whose  office  it  was  to  care  for  and  specially 
tend  the  soldiers  wounded  in  the  holy  wars.  The 
two  latter  orders  have  been  long  extinct,  the  Templars 
having  been  abolislied  by  Pope  Clement  in  1311  ; 


but  the  Knights  of  St.  John  have  found  an  asylum 
in  the  island  of  Malta,  where  they  still  exist. 

KNIPPERDOLINGS,  a  section  of  the  Anabap- 
tists (which  see)  who  appeared  in  Germany  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  deriving  their  name  from  their 
leader,  Bertrand  Knipperdoling.  They  are  alleged 
to  have  denied  original  sin,  and  justification  by  faith, 
and  to  have  rejected  infant  baptism.  They  are  also 
accused  of  having  alleged  the  right  of  every  Chris- 
tian to  preach  and  administer  the  sacraments,  and  to 
have  held  that  all  things  ought  to  be  in  common. 

KODESH,  a  certain  prayer  in  the  daily  monung 
service  of  the  Jewish  synagogue,  so  efficacious,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  modem  Jews,  that  when  the  son 
says  it  publicly,  he  delivers  his  father  and  his  mother 
out  of  hell.  Hence,  in  the  case  of  a  Jewish  funeral, 
when  the  relatives  return  home,  and  the  prayers  for 
the  dead  have  been  repeated,  the  sons  of  the  deceased, 
or  his  nearest  male  relatives,  repeat  the  Kodesh. 
This  prayer,  which  is  supposed  to  be  possessed  of 
the  most  wonderful  efficacy,  runs  as  follows : — "  0 
may  the  mighty  power  of  the  Lord  be  now  magnified, 
as  thou  hast  declared,  saying,  0  Lord!  remember  thy 
tender  mercies  and  thy  loving  kindnesses,  for  they 
have  been  of  old.  May  his  great  name  be  exalted 
and  sanctified  throughout  the  world,  which  he  hath 
created  according  to  his  will.  May  he  establish  his 
kingdom  in  your  lifetime,  and  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
whole  house  of  Israel ;  soon,  and  in  a  short  time,  and 
say  ye  Amen — Amen.  May  his  great  name  be 
blessed  and  glorified  for  ever  and  ever.  May  his 
liallowed  name  be  praised,  glorified,  exalted,  magin 
fied,  honom'ed,  and  most  excellently  adored :  blessed 
is  he,  far  exceeding  all  blessings,  hymns,  praises,  and 
beatitudes,  that  are  repeated  throughout  the  world ; 
and  say  ye  Amen.  May  our  prayers  be  accepted 
with  mercy  and  kindness.  May  the  prayers  and 
supplications  of  the  whole  house  of  Israel  be  accepted 
in  the  presence  of  their  Father  who  is  in  heaven  : 
and  say  ye  Amen.  Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord, 
from  henceforth  and  for  evermore.  May  the  fulness 
of  peace  from  heaven,  with  life,  be  granted  unto  us 
and  all  Israel :  and  say  ye  Amen.  My  help  is  from 
the  Lord,  who  made  heaven  and  eai'th.  May  he  who 
maketh  peace  in  his  high  heavens,  bestow  peace  on 
us  and  on  all  Israel :  and  say  ye  Amen." 

KODOM  (Sommona),  another  name  for  Budha 
Gotama  (which  see). 

KOHATIIITES,  a  division  of  the  Levites,  who 
were  of  the  family  of  Kohath.  Their  special  duty, 
as  laid  down  in  Num.  iv.  1 — 15,  was  to  carry  the 
ark  and  sacred  vessels  of  the  Tabemacle  dmlng  the 
marches  of  the  Israelites.     See  Levites, 

KOIVE,  the  high-priest  of  the  Pagan  inhabitants 
of  ancient  Prussia.  When  it  thundered,  they  be- 
lieved that  tlieir  Koive  was  conversing  with  their  god 
Pekun  (which  see),  and  hence  they  fell  down  in 
adoration  of  tliat  deity,  and  implored  of  him  to  semi 
them  more  propitious  weather. 

KORAN   (Al),  (Arab.,  the  Reading),  the  smied 


KORAN  (Al). 


279 


book  of  tliG  Moliammodaiis,  wliicli  prohalily  derives 
its  name  from  the  ii:iBsaf,'e  wliicli  the  aiif;el  (ialjriel 
is  Hiiid  to  have  first  revealed  to  tiic  jiropliet :  "  Uead! 
ill  tlie  name  of  tliy  Lord  wlio  lialli  ereateil  tlieo,  wlio 
liatli  eroated  man  of  congealed  Idood  — read !  for  tliy 
Lord  is  most  bounteous.  lie  it  is  who  lias  taught  by 
tlio  pen,  who  has  taught  man  what  he  did  not  know." 
The  Koran  claims  to  bo  possessed  of  a  higher  iiis|)ira- 
tion  than  the  Christian  Scriptures,  inasmuch  as  in 
tlieir  case  the  inspiration  was  conveyed  through  the 
medium  of  holy  men,  wliilc  in  the  Koran  fjod  himself 
is  the  only  speaker.  This  book  is  said  to  have  been 
delivered  not  all  at  once,  but  in  successive  portions, 
extending  over  a  p(U'iod  of  twenty-three  years.  To 
accoiuit  for  this,  it  has  been  alleged  that  the  Koran 
liad  existed  from  eternity  with  God,  and  had  been 
conveyed  from  the  preserved  table  in  the  divine 
presence  to  the  lowest  lie.aven,  from  which  it  was 
communicated  in  greater  or  less  portions,  as  needed, 
by  the  angel  Gabriel.  In  one  passage,  indeed,  the 
Koran  professes  to  have  been  sent  down  in  a  iiiglit, 
the  blessed  night  of  Al  Kadr ;  but  the  numerous 
contradictions  which  occur  in  the  book,  afford  ample 
proof  that  it  must  have  been  written  at  different 
times,  if  not  by  different  persons.  Thus  in  prayer 
the  faithful  are  ordered  in  one  pas.sage  to  turn  to- 
wards .Jerusalem,  and  in  another  passage  they  are 
coramanded  to  tuni  towards  Mecca,  while  in  a  tldrd 
they  are  taught  tliat  it  is  of  no  importance  in  what 
direction  they  turn  in  prayer.  Idoliiters  are  ordered 
in  one  passage  to  he  tolerated,  and  in  another  to  be 
exterminated,  iiiit  passing  from  the  internal  evi- 
dence, which  the  book  itself  affords,  that  it  is  not 
eternal,  but  must  have  been  created,  some  Moham- 
medan doctors  are  accustomed  to  argue  against  its 
eternity,  on  the  gi-ound  that  there  cannot  be  two 
etenial  Beings,  the  Deity  Jind  the  Koran ;  and  the 
Caliph  Almamun  held  this  opinion  so  firmly,  that 
he  persecuted  those  wlio  declared  the  Koran  to  be 
uncreated  and  eternal.  After  a  protracted  contro- 
versy on  the  subject,  both  parties  came  to  acquiesce 
in  the  opinion  of  Algazali,  wliicli  he  thus  expressed  : 
— "  The  Koran  is  pronounced  with  the  tongue,  writ- 
ten in  books,  and  kept  in  the  memory,  and  yet  is 
eternal,  subsisting  in  the  Divine  essence,  .and  not 
separate  from  it." 

In  the  preparation  of  this  .sacred  book,  it  li.ns  been 
generally  alleged  th.at  wliile  the  uniformity  of  style 
which  characterizes  it,  and  the  frequent  recurrence 
of  the  same  identical  terms  .and  phrases,  show  it  to 
have  been  the  production  of  one  man,  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  for  niiiny  of  the  facts  and  ide.is,  at  .ill 
events,  Mohammed  was  indebted  to  other  persons. 
Hence  the  Mohanimed.an  authors  mention  several 
assistants,  and  in  particular  Salman,  a  Persian,  who 
conmiunicated  to  him  from  the  Zend  Avesia  some  of 
the  Zoroastrian  doctrines,  such  .as  the  description  of 
heaven  and  hell,  but  more  especially  of  the  niirrow 
bridge  Ai.  Sirat  (which  see),  and  of  the  houris  or 
black-eyed  damsels  which  enhance  the  joys  of  the 


Moh.ammedan  Paradise.  The  early  Christian  writern 
again  speak  of  a  Nestorian  monk  called  SergiuB  hi 
lending  Mohammed  valuable  assistance  in  the  com- 
position of  the  Koran.  There  ia  no  satisfactory  evi 
dence,  however,  that  Mohammed  received  aid  in  iiiii 
great  work,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
he  was  its  sole  author.  AV'lien  the  prophet  died,  the 
record  w.as  left  in  the  utmost  confusion.  Not  being 
able  himself  to  write,  he  was  under  the  necesBity 
of  employing  a  secretjiry  or  amanuensis.  Of  these 
he  is  said  to  have  had  in  the  course  of  his  life  no 
fewer  than  lifteen,  the  most  eminent  of  them  being 
Abnbekr  and  Othniiui,  both  sons-in-law,  and  both  in 
succession  reaching  the  Caliphate.  Jt  would  appear 
tluat  even  while  Mohammed  lived,  the  faithful  were 
allowed  to  make  copies  for  their  owti  use,  while 
many  people  committed  them  to  memory.  Wlien 
the  prophet,  accordingly,  had  closed  his  earthly 
career,  the  Koran  consisted  simply  of  scattered  leaves, 
which  had  never  been  brought  together,  and  many 
p.ass.ages  existed  only  in  the  memories  of  some  of  the 
faithful.  Abubekr  was  the  first  who  collected  the 
scattered  fragments  into  a  volume,  without  regard  to 
date,  but  putting  only  the  long  chapters  first.  It 
w.as  soon  discovered,  however,  that  other  copies,  at 
least  of  portions,  were  in  circuLation,  having  a  variety 
of  ditferent  readings.  To  secure  an  accuriite  text, 
therefore,  Othman,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  the  Ilegira, 
ordered  .all  the  versions  to  be  submitted  to  a  com- 
mittee of  learned  men,  who  were  directed,  whenever 
they  difVered  aliout  a  word,  to  transl.ate  it  into  its 
equivalent  in  the  Koreishite  dialect  of  the  Arabic, 
wliich  w.as  the  origin.al  language  in  which  the  book 
was  written.  Having  thus  secured  a  perfect  text, 
Othman  published  a  new  and  st.andard  edition  of  the 
Koran,  ordering  all  others  to  be  destroyed.  Hence 
there  are  no  various  readings  of  any  consequence, 
though  some  minor  discrepancies  are  still  found,  in 
consequence  of  the  text  having  been  .anterior  to  the 
use  of  vowels  and  signs. 

JIohammed.an  doctors  have  in  many  cases  been 
puzzled  to  account  for  the  evident  inconsistencies 
and  direct  contradictions  which  occur  occasionally 
tliroughout  the  Koran.  Unless  satisfactorilyexpLained, 
these  must  necess.arily  niilit.ate  against  the  alleged 
ch.aracter  of  the  book  as  being  directly  inspired.  To 
obviate  this  serious  objection,  accordingly,  an  inge- 
nious theory  b.as  been  devised,  which  is  termed  the 
doctrine  of  abrogation.  I^eanied  Mussulmans  have 
alleged  three  kinds  of  .abrog.ation,  to  which  all  pas- 
s.ages  in  the  Koran  may  be  referred  :■ — 1.  Where  the 
letter  is  abrog.ated,  though  the  sense  remains.  2 
Where  the  sense  is  abrogiited,  but  the  letter  remains; 
and,  3.  Where  both  the  letter  and  tlie  sense  are  in 
palpable  contradiction  to  some  other  letter  .and  sense 
in  some  other  chapter,  or  else  to  the  known  practice 
of  tlie  faithful.  A  convenient  doc'rine  of  this  kind 
enables  a  commcnt.ator  on  the  Koran  to  reduce  its 
most  contr.adictory  passages  to  complete  order  and 
consistency ;   not,  however,   by  explaining,   but   by 


280 


KOUNBOUM. 


explaining  away  the  difticulties;  not  by  unloosing, 
but  by  summarily  cutting  the  knot. 

The  Koran  consists  of  114  portions  or  cliapters, 
Bome  very  long,  others  containing  no  more  than  two 
or  three  sentences.  The  introductory  chapter,  called 
the  "  Opening,"  consists  of  seven  verses,  and  is  used 
by  Mohammedans  as  frequently  as  the  Lord's  Prayer 
by  Christians.  The  rest  of  the  volume  is  arranged 
according  to  the  length  of  the  chapters,  which,  as  a 
whole,  are  called  Asivai:  Each  chapter  is  desig- 
nated by  a  name  drawn  from  the  subject,  or  from  a 
prominent  word.  The  title  of  each  chapter  states 
where  it  was  revealed  to  the  prophet ;  and  thus  we 
leam  that  eighty-three  of  these  chapters  were  re- 
vealed at  Mecca,  twenty-eight  at  Medina,  and  three 
are  doubtful.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between 
the  first  class  of  these  chapters  and  the  second. 
Those  revealed  at  Mecca  are  full  of  admonitions ; 
those  at  Medina  are  full  of  commands,  evidently  dic- 
tated with  the  authority  of  a  sovereign. 

The  literary  merit  of  the  Koran  is  undoubtedly  of 
a  high  order,  considering  the  time  of  its  produc- 
tion, and  the  circumstances  of  its  author.  The 
materials  have  been  drawn  from  a  variety  of  sources, 
Jewish,  Christian,  and  Zoroastrian,  and  the  style  is 
somewhat  obscure  from  its  elliptical  character ;  but 
many  of  those  skilled  in  Arabic  literature  have  not 
hesitated  to  regard  it  as  on  the  ■whole  a  work  of 
wonderful  merit.  To  the  English  reader,  who  has 
■iccess  only  to  the  translation  of  Sale,  nuicli  of  its 
beauty  disappears  from  tlie  foolish  legendary  stories 
and  the  tiresome  repetitions  with  which  it  abounds. 
Even  Gibbon  declares,  speaking  of  the  Koran,  "The 
European  infidel  will  peruse  with  impatience  the 
endless  incoherent  rhapsody  of  fable  and  precept  and 
declamation  which  seldom  excites  a  sentiment  or  an 
idea,  -which  sometimes  crawls  in  tlie  dust,  and  is 
sometimes  lost  in  the  clouds.  The  Divine  attributes 
exalt  tlie  fancy  of  the  Arabian  Missionary,  but  his 
loftiest  strains  must  yield  to  the  sublime  simplicity 
of  the  book  of  Job."  From  the  pen  of  the  sceptical 
historian,  this  estimate  has  at  all  events  the  merit  of 
impartiality.  The  Koran,  indeed,  can  never,  even  as 
a  literary  composition,  stand  a  comparison  with  the 
Scriptures,  whether  of  the  Old  or  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Yet  the  matchless  beauty  of  the  Koran  is 
regarded  by  the  followers  of  the  I'rophet  of  Arabia 
as  an  article  of  faith,  which  it  is  heresy  to  deny  or 
even  to  doubt. 

The  Mohammedan  looks  upon  the  Koran  as  the 
Word  of  God,  and  therefore  he  regards  it  with  a  re- 
verence which  degenerates  into  superstition.  The 
Faithful  consider  it  not  only  as  containing  a  .sacred 
message,  but  as  in  itself  a  sacred  object.  They  dare 
not  touch  it  with  unwashcn  hands,  and  the  warning  is 
generally  written  upon  the  cover,  "  Let  none  touch 
it  but  those  who  are  purified."  They  hold  it  with 
great  care  and  I'espect  while  they  read,  keeping  it 
above  their  girdles.  All  of  them  who  understand 
the  Arabic  language  are  in  the  habit  of  reading  it. 


In  the  schools  it  is  the  schoolbook  which  they  leam 
to  read,  and  a  title  equivalent  to  "Rememberer"  is 
given  to  those  who  have  committed  it  wholly  to 
memory.  It  is  a  high  rehgious  act  to  transcribe  the 
entire  book ;  and  sovereigns  have  accounted  it  an 
honourable  and  sacred  employment  to  perform  this 
laborious  task.  On  festivals,  at  fimerals,  and  other 
public  occasions,  its  recital  by  hired  readers  is  es- 
teemed an  act  of  piety,  beneficial  alike  to  the  living 
and  the  dead.  For  the  guidance  of  public  reciters, 
it  is  divided  into  sixty  portions,  or  into  thirty  sec- 
tions, each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  four. 

The  Koran  is  often  used  or  rather  abused  for  su- 
perstitious purposes.  Thus  the  whole  volume  is 
sometimes  transcribed  in  a  very  small  character, 
put  in  a  case,  and  hung  round  the  neck  as  a  charm. 
Some  favourite  chapters  are  worn  about  the  person, 
and  considered  to  carry  good  fortune  with  them,  as 
well  as  to  deliver  from  diseases  and  calamities  of 
every  kind.  Fourteen  chapters  when  recited  require 
prostration.  Two  are  reconnnended  on  the  authority 
of  Mohammed,  according  to  tlie  Traditions,  as  the 
best  for  repeating  in  prayer,  namely  the  113th  and 
the  114th  chapters;  both  of  which  the  commenta- 
tors say  were  revealed  to  free  Mohammed  from  the 
incantations  of  a  Jew  and  his  daughters.  The  112tli 
chapter,  that  on  the  unity  of  God,  is  said  to  be  worth 
a  third  of  the  Koran. 

Mohammed  admitted  that  there  had  been  divine 
revelations  before  his  time,  among  which  were  the 
Law  given  to  Moses,  the  Psalter  to  David,  and  the 
Gospel  to  Jesus;  but  all  former  communications 
from  God  to  men  are  considered  by  the  Faithful  as 
having  been  abrogated  by  the  Book  given  to  the 
Arabian  Prophet.  The  contest  is  still  carried  on 
among  Mohammedan  theologians  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  Koran,  whether  it  was  eternal  like  God  himself, 
or  created  at  the  moment  of  its  revelation ;  and  the 
very  continuance  of  such  a  controversy  clearly  shows 
the  higli  estimation  in  which  the  Book  is  held,  not 
only  among  the  great  mass  of  illiterate  Moslems,  but 
even  among  the  learned  portion  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans, who  have  made  the  study  of  the  Koran  the 
object  of  their  lives.  See  Mohammed  Mohamme- 
dans. 

KOUNBOUM  (Thibetian,  ten  thou.sand  images), 
a  place  in  the  country  of  Anido  in  Thibet,  where 
grows  a  wonderful  tree,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Tree  of  Ten  Thousand  Images.  According  to  a 
legend  which  is  credited  by  the  people,  this  wonder- 
ful tree  sprung  from  the  hair  of  Tsong-Kaba,  h 
celebrated  liudliist  reformer,  who  founded  the  great 
monastery  of  Khal-dan,  near  Lliassa.  in  1409.  and  by 
whose  inlluence  a  niunbcr  of  changes  was  effected 
both  in  the  administration  and  the  ritual  system  ot 
Thibetian  iiudhism.  (See  Lamaists.)  The  Tree 
of  Ten  Thousand  Images  is  thus  described  by  M. 
Hue,  who  personally  visiled  it :  "At  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  on  which  the  Lamasery  stands,  and  not  fai 
from  the  principal  Buddhist  temple,  is  a  great  squur* 


KOURKN  OF  THE  THOUSAND  LAMAS— KRISHNA. 


281 


enclosure,  formed  by  brick  walls.  Upon  entering 
this  we  were  able  to  examine  at  leisure  the  marvellous 
tree,  some  of  the  branches  of  which  had  already 
manifested  themselves  above  the  wall.  Our  eyes 
were  tirst  directed  with  earnest  curiosity  to  the 
leaves,  and  we  were  tilled  with  an  absolute  conster- 
nation of  astoniHlinient  at  llndjni;  that,  in  [mint  of 
fact,  there  wrre  upon  each  of  the  leaves  well-formed 
Thibetian  characters,  all  of  a  green  colour,  some 
darker,  some  lighter  than  the  leaf  itself.  Our  tirst 
impression  was  a  suspicion  of  fraud  on  the  part  of 
the  Lamas  ;  but,  after  a  minute  examination  of  every 
detail,  we  could  not  discover  the  least  deception. 
The  characters  all  appeared  to  us  portions  of  the 
leaf  itself,  equally  with  its  veins  and  nerves ;  the 
position  was  not  the  same  in  all ;  in  one  leaf  they 
would  be  at  the  top  of  the  leaf,  in  another,  in  the 
middle ;  in  a  third,  at  the  base,  or  at  the  side ;  the 
younger  leaves  represented  the  characters  only  in  a 
partial  state  of  formation.  The  bark  of  the  tree  and 
its  branches,  which  resemble  that  of  the  plane  tree, 
are  also  covered  witli  these  characters.  AVhen  you 
remove  a  jiiece  of  old  bark,  the  young  bark  under  it 
exhibits  the  indistinct  outlines  of  characters  in  a 
germinating  state,  and,  what  is  very  singular,  these 
new  characters  are  not  unfrequently  ditferent  from 
those  which  they  replace.  We  examined  everything 
with  the  closest  attention,  in  order  to  detect  some 
trace  of  trickery,  but  we  could  discern  nothing  of 
the  sort,  and  the  perspiration  absolutely  trickled 
down  our  faces  under  the  intluence  of  the  sensations 
which  this  most  amazing  spectacle  created.  More 
profound  intellects  than  ours  may,  perhaps,  be  able 
to  supply  a  .satisfactory  explanation  of  the  mysteries 
of  this  singular  tree ;  but  as  to  us,  wc  altogether  give 
it  up.  Our  readers  possibly  may  smile  at  our  igno- 
rance ;  but  we  care  not,  so  that  the  sincerity  and 
truth  of  our  statement  be  not  suspected. 

"  The  Tree  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Images  seemed 
to  us  of  great  age.  Its  trunk,  which  three  men 
could  scarcely  embrace  with  outstretched  arms,  is 
not  more  than  eight  feet  high ;  the  branches,  instead 
of  shooting  up,  spread  out  in  the  shape  of  a  plume 
of  feathers,  and  are  extremely  bushy ;  few  of  them 
are  dead.  The  leaves  are  always  green,  and  the 
wood,  which  is  of  a  reddish  tint,  has  an  exquisite 
odour,  something  like  that  of  cinnamon.  The  Lamas 
informed  us  that  in  summer,  towards  the  eighth 
moon,  the  tree  produces  large  red  Howers  of  an  ex- 
tremely beautiful  character.  They  informed  us  also 
that  there  nowhere  else  exists  another  such  tree; 
that  many  attempts  have  been  made  in  various  La- 
maseries of  Tartaiy  and  Thibet  to  propagate  it  by 
seeds  and  cuttings,  but  that  all  these  attempts  have 
been  fruitless. 

"  The  Emperor Khang-Hi,  when  upon  a  pilgrimage 
to  Kounboum,  constructed,  at  his  own  private  ex- 
pense, a  dome  of  silver  over  the  Tree  of  the  Ten 
Thousand  Images ;  moreover,  he  made  a  present  to 
the  Grand  Lama  of  a  fine  black  horse,  capable  of 


travelling  a  thousand  lis  a  day,  and  of  a  saddle 
adorned  with  precious  stones.  The  horse  is  dead, 
but  the  saddle  is  still  shown  in  one  of  the  Buddhist 
temples,  where  it  is  an  object  of  special  veneration, 
lielbre  quitting  the  Lamasery,  Khang-Hi  endowed 
it  with  a  yearly  revenue,  for  the  support  of  360 
J.,amas." 

The  Lamasery  of  Kounboum,  in  which  there  arc 
nearly  4,000  Lamas,  is  so  famous,  that  the  worship- 
pers of  Hudha  resort  thither  in  pilgrimage  from  all 
parts  of  Tartary  and  Thibet,  so  that  not  a  day  passes 
in  which  there  are  not  pilgrims  amving  and  depart 
ing.  On  the  four  great  festivals,  particularly  the 
Feast  of  Flower.s,  which  takes  place  on  the  fifteenth 
day  of  the  tirst  moon,  the  congregation  of  strangers 
is  immense. 

KOUREN  OF  THE  THOUSAND  LAMAS, 
a  celebrated  Lamasery  in  Tartary,  which  dates  from 
the  invasion  of  China  by  the  Mantchous.  When  the 
founder  of  the  now  reigning  dynasty  in  China  was  on 
his  way  to  I'ekin,  he  met  a  Thibetian  Lama  who  en 
couraged  him  in  his  warlike  enter|irize  by  predictin^l 
his  success,  whereupon  the  Mantchou  chief  invited 
the  friendly  Lama  to  visit  him  when  he  should  be 
installed  in  the  imperial  palace  iit  I'ekin.  The  re- 
sult of  the  war  was,  as  the  Lama  had  foretold,  fa- 
vourable to  the  Mantchous,  and  in  token  of  gratitude 
the  new  Emperor  presented  the  Thibetian  priest  with 
a  large  extent  of  land  on  which  to  construct  a  Lama- 
sery, and  revenues  suflicient  for  the  maintenance  of 
a  thousand  Lamas.  The  Lamasery  has  made  such 
progress  in  prosperity,  liowever,  from  the  time  of  its 
erection  that  it  now  contains  more  than  four  thou 
sand  Lamas.  The  Grand  Lama  of  this  Lamasery  is 
also  the  govenior  of  the  district,  who  makes  laws, 
administers  justice,  and  appoints  magistrates.  When 
he  dies  his  subjects  go  in  search  of  him  in  Thibet, 
where  he  is  understood  to  pass  into  another  person 
who  is  to  be  his  successor. 

KRISHNA,  the  eighth  of  the  Avatars  (which 
sec),  or  incaniations  of  Vislmu.  His  name  does  not 
occur  in  the  Big-  Veda,  the  earliest  of  the  Vedas,  so 
that  he  cannot  be  considered  as  a  deity  of  the  Vai- 
dic  period.  The  first  appearance  of  Krishna- worship 
is  in  the  Biiagavat-Gita  (which  see),  a  work  whicii 
Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson,  its  recent  editor  and  translator, 
is  disposed  to  place  no  farther  back  than  between 
1!.  c.  100  and  A.  d.  300.  In  this  poem,  which  chietly 
consists  of  a  conversation  between  two  friends,  Ar- 
junaand  Krishna,  the  latter  of  them  plainly  declares 
concerning  himself,  "  '  I  am  the  cause  of  the  produc- 
tion and  dissolution  of  the  whole  imiverse.  There 
exists  no  other  thing  superior  to  me.  .  .  On  me  is 
all  the  universe  suspended,  as  numbers  of  pearls  on 
a  string ; '  adding  also,  that  he  was  the  mystic  syl- 
lable AuM  (which  see)  in  all  the  Vedas."  Arjuna, 
recognizing  the  divinity  of  Krishna,  olTers  up  to  him 
the  following  remaikable  prayer :  "  The  universe,  0 
Krishna !  is  justly  delighted  with  thy  glory,  and  de- 
voted to   thee.     The  Rakshasas  [evil  spirits]  flee, 


282 


KRISHNA 


atfrighted,  to  the  divers  quarters  of  heaven,  and  all 
the  multitudes  of  the  Siddhas  [derai-gods]  salute 
thee.  And,  indeed,  why  should  they  not  adore  thee, 
0  great  one !  thee,  the  first  creator,  n:ore  important 
even  than  Brahmd  himself?  0  infinite  king  of  gods  ! 
habitation  of  the  universe !  thou  art  the  one  indivi- 
sible, the  existing  and  not  existing  [spirit  and  matter], 
tliat  wliieh  is  supreme.  Thou  art  the  first  of  the 
gods,  the  most  ancient  person.  Thou  art  the  supreme 
receptacle  of  this  universe.  Thou  knowest  all,  and 
mavest  be  known,  and  art  the  supreme  mansion. 
By  thee  is  this  universe  caused  to  emanate,  0  thou 
of  endless  forms.  .  .  Thou  All !  Of  infinite  power 
and  immense  might,  thou  comprehendest  all ;  there- 
fore thou  art  All.  As  I  took  thee  merely  for  a 
friend,  I  beseech  thee  witliout  measure  to  pardon 
whatever  I  may,  in  ignorance  of  this  thy  greatness, 
have  said  from  negligence  or  affection,  such  as,  0 
Krishna !  0  son  of  Yadu  !  0  friend  !  and  everything 
in  which  I  may  have  treated  thee  in  a  joking  man- 
ner, in  recreation,  repose,  sitting,  or  meals,  whether 
in  private,  or  in  the  presence  of  these,  eternal  One  ! 
Thou  art  the  father  of  the  animate  and  inanimate 
world." 

In  the  earlier  avatars,  Vishnu  had  only  exhibited  a 
portion  of  his  godhead,  but  Krishna  was  a  full  mani- 
festation, an  actual  incarnation  of  the  preserving 
deity.  But  although  the  Bhaf/avat- G ila  plainly 
acknowledges  Krishna  as  Vishnu  in  human  shape, 
and  claiming  all  the  attributes  of  Supreme  Deity, 
being  even  called  "the  Lord  of  the  world,"  "the 
Creator,"  "  the  Lord  of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Shiva," 
yet  ages  elapsed  before  Krishna- worship  became  a 
prominent  feature  in  the  Hindu  system.  Lassen 
thinks  it  was  introduced  in  the  hope  of  counter- 
balancing the  influence  of  Budhism  at  a  time  when 
that  system  was  threatening  to  overspread  the  whole 
of  Hindustan ;  and  this  view  coincides  with  that  of 
Elphinstone,  who  refers  this  and  all  the  other  forms 
of  worship  addressed  to  particular  incarnations,  to  a 
period  later  than  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century 
of  our  era.  Even  then  indeed  Krishnaism,  if  we 
may  so  speak,  was  in  a  comparatively  undeveloped 
form,  and  it  was  not  till  several  centuries  after,  that 
the  legend  of  Krishna  came  to  exhibit  the  fullness 
and  completeness  in  which  it  appears  iti  the  Hindu 
Purdnils. 

Several  Orientalists  of  high  name  have  been  struck 
with  the  remarkable  coincidences  of  the  legend  of 
Krishna  and  the  narratives  of  Holy  Scripture.  To 
account  for  these.  Sir  William  Jones  advances  the 
supposition  that  "spurious  Gospels  which  abounded 
in  the  first  age  of  Christianity  had  been  brought  to 
India,  and  the  wildest  part  of  them  repeated  to  the 
Hindus,  who  engrafted  them  on  the  old  fable  of 
Cesava,  the  Apollo  of  Greece."  This  theory  has 
been  adopted  by  other  writers,  who  have  pointed 
out  the  Gospel  of  St.  Thomas,  better  known  as  the 
"  Gospel  of  Infancy,"  wbidi  was  circulated  at  an 
early  period  on  the  coast  of  Malabar.     And  when  we 


reflect  that  the  Bhagavat-Gita  in  which  Ki-ishna  is 
set  forth  in  his  highest  aspect,  as  an  incarnation  oi 
and  identical  with  the  Supreme  Being,  is  generally 
believed  to  be  a  production  of  an  age  long  posterior 
to  the  publication  of  the  Sacred  Volume,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  some  of  the  ideas  of  the  Hindu  legend 
may  have  been  borrowed  from  the  narratives  of  tlie 
Clu'istian  Scriptui-es. 

Krishna-worship  prevails  to  a  great  extent  among 
the  Hindus  of  the  Vaishnava  sects,  particularly 
among  the  wealthy  and  the  women.  Another  form 
of  this  worship,  however,  which  is  more  popular  still 
is  the  Bala  Gopala,  the  infant  Krishna,  the  worship 
of  whom  is  very  widely  diffused  among  all  ranks  ol 
Indian  society.  This  species  of  worship  is  called  from 
the  title  of  its  teachers,  the  religion  of  the  Golcu- 
last'ha  Gosains ;  and  in  their  temples  and  houses 
the  image  of  Krishna  represents  a  chubby  boy  o( 
the  dark  hue  of  which  Vishnu  is  always  representee^ 
and  eight  times  a-day  the  homage  of  the  votaries  of 
this  god  is  paid  to  the  image.  The  eight  daily  cere- 
monials  are  thus  described  by  Professor  H.  H.  Wil- 
son:  '^  1 .  Mangala :  the  morning  levee.  The  image 
being  washed  and  dressed,  is  taken  from  tlie  couch, 
where  it  is  supposed  to  have  slept  during  the  night, 
and  placed  upon  a  seat,  about  half  an  hour  aftet 
sunrise  :  slight  refreshments  are  then  presented  to  it. 
with  betel  and  Pan:  lamps  are  generally  kept  burn 
ing  during  this  ceremony.  2.  Smigdra:  the  image 
having  been  anointed  and  perfumed  with  oil,  cam- 
phor, and  sandal,  and  splendidly  attired,  now  holds 
his  public  court :  tliis  takes  place  about  an  hour  and 
a  half  after  the  preceding,  or  when  four  Ghetis  of  the 
day  have  elapsed.  3.  Givala :  the  image  is  now  visit- 
ed, preparatory  to  his  going  out  to  attend  the  cattle 
along  with  the  cow-herd  ;  this  ceremony  is  Iwld  about 
forty-eight  minutes  after  the  last,  or  when  six  Gheria 
have  passed.  4.  Raja  Bhoga :  held  at  midday, 
when  Krishna  is  supposed  to  come  in  from  the  pas- 
tures, and  dine ;  all  sorts  of  delicacies  are  placed  be- 
fore the  image,  and  both  those,  and  other  articles  of 
food  dressed  by  the  ministers  of  the  temple,  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  numerous  votaries  present,  and  not 
unfrequently  sent  to  the  dwellings  of  worshipppi's 
of  some  rank  and  consequence.  5.  Uttlaipan:  tliu 
calling  up.  The  summoning  of  the  god  from  his 
siesta:  this  takes  place  at  six  Gheris,  or  between 
two  and  three  hours  before  sunset.  6.  BhSga;  the 
afternoon  meal :  about  half  an  hour  after  the  pre- 
ceding. 7.  Sandhya;  about  sunset:  the  evening 
toilet  of  the  image,  when  the  ornaments  of  the  day 
are  taken  oft',  and  fresh  unguent  and  perfume  ap 
plied.  8.  Sayan ;  retiring  to  repose :  the  image, 
about  eight  or  nine  in  the  evening,  is  placed  upon  a 
bed,  refreshments  and  water  in  proper  vases,  toge- 
ther with  the  betel-box  and  its  appurtenances,  are 
left  near  it,  when  the  votaries  retire,  and  the  temjile 
is  shut  till  the  ensuing  morning." 

On  each  of  these  occasions  similar  rites  are  gone 
through,  flowers,  perfumes,  and  food  being  presented 


KRITA— KUTUCHTA. 


283 


before  tlie  image,  while  the  praises  of  Krishna  are 
repeated  in  Sansltrit  stanzas,  accompanied  with  a 
variety  of  prostrations  and  obeisances. 

KKITA,  or  Satya  Aon,  tlie  age  of  trntli,  accord- 
ing to  tlie  Hindu  system,  being  tlie  earliest  in  the 
history  of  the  human  race,  in  which  man  sprung 
from  the  hand  of  his  Creator,  pure  and  sinless,  not 
divided  into  conllicting  orders,  and  with  all  his  facul- 
ties working  together  in  harmony. 

KSIIATTKYA,  tlie  military  caste  of  the  Hindus, 
sprung  from  the  arm  of  IJrahma,  whose  ollice  it  is  to 
defend  their  fellows  from  internal  violence  and  out- 
ward assault.  The  duties  of  this  caste  as  laid  down 
in  the  Code  of  Menu  are  to  defend  the  people,  give 
alms,  and  read  the  Vedas ;  and  at  any  age  up  to 
twenty-two  and  twenty-four,  they  must  be  invested 
with  the  mark  of  the  caste.  Tlie  Kshattrya  caste  is 
extinct,  or  in  other  words,  it  is  no  longer  found  as  a 
distinct  division  of  society.  But  the  whole  country  of 
Itajputana  claims  to  be  inhabited  by  Kshattryas,  al- 
though they  want  the  sacrificial  thread  with  which 
the  members  of  this  caste  were  originally  invested. 

KTISTOLATR^.  See  Aphthartodocites, 
Creaticola:. 

ICULIKA,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Narjas  or  ser- 
pents (see  Serpent-Worship),  in  the  Hindu  my- 
thology, who  complained  to  the  Lord  of  the  wiiverse 
that  for  no  fault  of  his  he  was  continually  tomiented 
by  the  Suras  or  inferior  gods.  In  answer  to  the 
prayer  of  Kulika,  or  Kulik^tu,  as  he  is  sometimes 
tenned,  Brahma  is  said  to  have  enjoined  that  he 
should  henceforth  receive  adoration  like  the  devas 
from  each  human  being,  and  that  mortals  who  re- 
fused to  pay  such  worship  to  him,  should  be  cut  ofV 
by  some  unnatural  death,  and  deprived  of  the  power 
c*"  rising  higher  in  the  scale  of  created  beings.  In 
regard  to  the  right  intei-pretation  of  this  myth,  Mr. 
Hardwick,  hi  his  'Chnst  and  other  Masters,' ingenious- 
ly remarks :  "  It  directs  us  to  behold  in  Kuhketu  an 
emblem  of  the  earth  before  it  had  been  subjected  to 
human  culture,  when  it  felt  itself  toi-mented  by  the 
Suras,  or,  in  other  words,  assaulted  by  the  amiies  of  the 
firmament — the  rain,  the  lightning,  and  the  tempest. 
In  the  midst  of  this  disorder,  man,  who  had  been 
hitherto  regardless  of  the  soil  on  which  his  lot  is 
cast,  and  the  material  out  of  which  his  body  is  con- 
structed, was  bidden  by  the  Lord  of  creation  to  ren- 
der homage  to  the  powers  and  processes  of  nature, 
to  propitiate  the  ungenial  elements,  and  welcome  in 
all  forms  around  him  the  immediate  presence  of 
Divinity.  According,  therefore,  to  this  myth,  the 
serpent  was  not  absolutely  and  directly  charged  with 
the  origination  of  all  evil ;  yet  suspicions  of  such 
agency  were  nevertheless  implied  from  first  to  last 
in  the  conception  of  the  story.  There  was  lurking 
under  its  fantastic  imagery  an  idea  that  matter,  in 
the  whole  compass  and  duration  of  it,  was  intrin- 
sically evil,  and  might  therefore  be  identified  with 
that  which  was  the  recognized  embodiment  of  the 
evil  principle." 


KUMANO-GOO,  a  species  of  ordeal  in  use  among 
the  Japanese  for  the  detection  of  crime.  The  Goo 
is  a  piece  of  paper,  formally  sealed  with  the  signet 
of  the  Ja.mmai!OS  (which  sec),  whereon  are  drawn 
several  mysterious  characters,  and  the  figures  of 
ravens  as  well  as  other  ill-omened  birds.  Thi.s 
charm,  they  imagine,  defends  them  against  the  at- 
tacks of  all  malicious  spirits ;  and  for  this  reason 
every  houselioldcr  nails  one  of  them  upon  the  street 
door.  All  Guos,  however,  have  not  an  equal  ellicaey. 
The  most  powerful,  and  those  which  are  most  dreaded 
by  the  demons,  come  from  a  place  called  Kumano. 
The  ordeal  of  Kmimno-Goo  consists  in  making  tht 
party  accused  swallow  a  small  piece  of  Goo  in  a 
certain  quantity  of  water.  If  he  be  really  guilty, 
the  Goo  twinges  and  gripes  him  in  the  most  violent 
manner,  till  he  is  obliged  to  confess  his  guilt. 

KUSA,  the  sacred  grass  of  the  Hindus.  On  the 
Kusa,  the  Yogi,  or  Hindu  ascetic,  whose  business  is 
the  restraining  of  his  passions,  must  sit,  with  his 
mind  fixed  on  one  object  alone,  keeping  his  head, 
his  neck,  his  body,  steady  without  motion,  his  eyes 
fixed  upon  the  point  of  his  nose,  looking  at  no  other 
place  around. 

KUSALA,  merit  among  the  Budhists,  which  is 
included  in  Karma  (which  see).  "  There  are  three 
principal  meanings,"  says  Mr.  Speiice  Hardy,  "  of 
the  word  kusala,  viz.,  freedom  from  sickness,  exemp- 
tion from  blame,  and  reward;  but  as  used  by  Uudha, 
its  primary  idea  is  that  of  cutting,  or  excision.  It 
has  a  cognate  use  in  the  word  kusa,  the  sacrificial 
gi-ass  that  cuts  with  both  its  edges  the  hand  of  him 
who  lays  hold  of  it  carelessly.  That  which  is  cut  by 
kusala  is  kldsha,  evil  desire,  or  the  cleaving  to  exist 
ence.  Akusala  is  the  opposite  of  kusala.  That 
which  is  neither  kusala  nor  akusala  is  awydkrata ; 
it  is  not  followed  by  any  consequence ;  it  receives  no 
reward,  either  good  or  bad." 

KUTUCHTA,  the  chief  priest  of  the  Calmuc 
Tartars  and  Western  Jlongols.  In  foiTner  times  he 
was  subject  to  the  Dalai-Lama  (which  see)  of 
Thibet,  but  in  course  of  time,  being  far  distant  from 
his  superior,  he  made  a  schism  among  the  Lainaists, 
and  established  himself  as  an  independent  ecclesias- 
tical ruler,  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Dalai- Lama 
himself.  The  chief  magistrates  and  persons  of  dis- 
tinction are  alone  allowed  to  approach  his  sacred 
presence;  and  when  he  gives  them  his  blessing,  he 
lays  his  hand  upon  their  foreheads,  having  a  chaplet 
in  it  at  the  same  time,  similar  to  those  carried  by  the 
Lamas.  The  Kutuchta  never  exposes  himself  to 
public  view,  but  on  some  particular  days  when  lie 
comes  forth  surrounded  with  the  utmost  pomp  and 
ceremony.  He  is  carried  in  procession  to  a  tent, 
covered  with  Chinese  velvet,  where  he  sits  cross- 
legged  on  a  throne,  erected  on  a  large  square  emi- 
nence, surrounded  with  a  large  number  of  cushions 
on  which  are  seated  the  subordinate  Lamas.  On 
either  side  of  the  chief  pontiti"  are  placed  two  idols,, 
which  represent  the  Divine  essence.     As  soon  as  th* 


284 


KWAMBAK— KYRKO  UAU. 


Kutuchta  has  taken  \\U  Beat  upon  the  tlirone,  tlie 
music  with  wliich  he  was  ushered  into  the  tent  ceases, 
and  the  whole  assembly  iirst  prostrate  themselves  on 
the  ground,  and  then  burst  forth  into  loud  acclama- 
tions of  praise  to  the  Deity,  and  lofty  eulogiums  upon 
the  Kutuchta.  The  Lamas  now  throw  odoriferous 
herbs  into  their  censers,  and  with  these  they  perfume 
the  idols,  the  pontit}',  and  the  whole  congregation. 
As  soon  as  this  ceremony  is  over,  each  Lama  depo- 
sits his  censer  at  the  feet  of  tlie  pontift',  and  the 
leading  one  of  their  number  takes  seven  separate 
cups  tilled  with  ditierent  ingredients,  such  as  milk, 
honey,  tea,  or  brandy,  presenting  them  as  an  otfering 
to  the  idols.  Then  he  takes  seven  other  cups,  filled 
with  the  same  ingredients,  and  presents  them  to  the 
Kutuchta.  During  this  part  of  the  ceremony,  the 
crowd  of  people  present  rend  the  air  with  their  cries 
in  praise  of  tlie  sovereign  pontitl',  who  first  tastes 
the  oblations,  and  then  distributes  the  remainder  to 
the  heads  of  the  several  tribes.  Tlie  Kutuchta  now 
withdraws  with  the  same  pomp  and  pageantry  as  he 
entered.  "  To  the  idea  of  immortality,"  says  Picart, 
"  wliich  these  people  entertain  of  their  Kutuchta, 
another  is  added,  which  is  altogether  as  whimsical 
and  extravagant,  and,  no  doubt,  as  deeply  imprinted 
on  their  imaginations  as  the  former;  viz.  that  after 
the  Kutuchta  is  grown  old  with  the  decrease  of  the 
moon,  he  renews  his  youth  at  the  change  of  the  same 
planet.  The  whole  mystery  of  this  fantastical  no- 
tion consists  in  the  holy  father  sutlering  his  beard  to 
grow  from  one  new  moon  to  another,  and  never 
shaving  himself,  but  at  her  first  appearance  ;  at  which 
time  he  dresses  himself  in  all  his  splendour,  paints 
his  face ;  and  besmears  it  all  over  with  white  and 
red,  as  is  custom.ary  among  the  Moscovites.  As  to 
the  notion  of  this  grand  pontirt"s  immortality,  the 
origin  and  foundation  of  it  is  this.  All  these  Tartars 
hold  the  metempsychosis,  or  transmigi'ation  of  souls ; 
and  this  received  opinion  induces  them  to  imagine, 
tliat  the  soul  of  the  expiring  Kutuclita  enters,  imme- 
diately after  his  decease,  into  the  body  of  his  succes- 
sor; or,  at  least,  that  the  soul  of  tlie  latter  receives 
all  the  operations,  and  is  endowed  with  all  the  powers 
and  faculties  of  tlie  soul  of  the  deceased.  For  which 
reason,  he  who  is  intended  to  be  the  old  pontiff's 
successor,  must  constantly  attend  him,  tliat  the  sold 
of  the  holy  father  may  qualify  the  young  one,  if  I 
may  be  allowed  the  expression,  for  his  approaching 
godhead ;  tliat  the  young  soul  may  eveiy  day  have 
familiar  converse  witli  tlie  old  one,  possess  all  her 
qiialitie::,  and  become,  as  it  were,  tlie  very  same." 

K\VA.MI'..\K,  the  first  officer  at  the  court  of  the 
Da  nil   (which  see)   in  Japan,  and   represents  that 


pontiff  when  the  dignity  devolves  on  a  woman  or  a 
child. 

KWAN-Sni-IN,  one  of  three  divinities  unknown 
to  the  original  Budliists,  but  worshipped  in  China  as 
scarcely  inferior  to  Gautama  Budlia  himself.  He  is 
also  known  by  the  name  of  Padma-pani,  or  lotus- 
bearer,  and  he  is  considered  as  the  author  of  all  joy 
and  happiness  in  the  family  circle,  and  has  even  been 
deputed  to  admini.ster  the  government  of  the  whole 
earth.  In  many  districts  of  Thibet  he  is  incarnate, 
under  the  name  of  Padma-jmni,  in  the  person  of  the 
Dalai-Lama  (which  see),  and  no  cry  so  often  meets 
the  ear  of  the  traveller  in  that  country  as  Om ! 
Mani-Padme!  Hum. — "  Gloiy  to  the  lotus-bearer, 
Hum !"  Both  in  Thibet  and  in  Mongolia  this  deity 
is  represented  sometimes  with  innumerable  eyes  and 
hands,  and  sometimes  with  as  many  as  ten  heads,  all 
bearing  crowns,  and  rising  conically  one  above  another. 
Throughout  GMma,  Kwan-shi-in  is  exhibited  with  a  fe- 
male figure,  and  decorations  usually  worn  by  females. 

KYllIE  ELEISON  (Gr.,  0  Lord,  have  mercy), 
a  response  made  by  the  people,  and  an  earnest  sup- 
plication for  mercy,  introduced  at  an  early  period 
into  the  Christian  church.  According  to  Augustin, 
it  was  in  use  in  the  Syriac,  Armenian,  and  other 
Oriental  languages.  The  Council  of  Vaisen,  A.  D. 
492,  ordered  its  introduction  into  the  churches  o( 
France  in  both  the  moniing  and  evening  prayer  and 
the  commmiion  service ;  and  in  the  preamble  of  the 
decree,  it  is  declared  to  be  a  veiy  useful  and  agree- 
able custom  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  all  the  pro- 
vinces of  Italy  and  tlie  Ea.st.  Gregory  the  Great 
introduced  a  threefold  foi-m :  L  0  Lord;  2.  Lord, 
have  mercy ;  3.  Christ,  have  mere)'.  And  each,  it 
would  seem,  was  to  be  thrice  repeated  with  reference 
to  the  sacred  Trinity. 

KYRKO-HANDBOK,  the  ritual  of  the  Swedish 
Church,  revised  and  published  in  1811.  It  is  divided 
into  fifteen  chapters,  containing  the  Psalms ;  the 
morning  prayer  and  commmiion  service;  the  evening 
prayer  and  the  holy-day  service ;  the  Litany ;  the 
forms  of  baptism,  conrinnation,  marriage,  and  church- 
ing of  women  ;  the  funeral  service  ;  the  forms  of  con- 
secration of  churches  and  of  bishops ;  the  form  ot 
ordination  of  priests,  &c. 

KYRKO-ORDNINGEN,  a  work  first  published 
in  1G8G,  containing  the  laws  regulating  the  govern- 
ment and  discipline  of  the  Church  of  Sweden. 

KYKKO-RAD  (Swed.  church  council),  a  church 
court  in  Sweden,  inferior  to  the  diocesan  consistories, 
and  nearly  answering  to  a  presbytery.  It  is  com- 
posed partly  of  laymen,  who  arc  elected  by  the  par 
i-iauiifis.    See  Sweden  (Church  of). 


LAHADISTS— LABRADOK  and  GUEliNLAND. 


285 


LABADISTS,  a  sect  wliich  arose  in  IIoll:iiicl  in 
llio  seventeenth  century,  originated  by  .lolm  Ija- 
badio,  a  Frciiclnnan,  of  an  ardent  and  enthusiastic 
temperament.  Ori^jinally  reared  in  connection  witli 
the  Church  of  Rome,  lie  entered  tlie  order  of  tlie 
Jesuits,  from  whicli,  liowever,  he  was  dismissed  in 
lO.'J'J.  He  now  joined  tlie  Kefornied  cluu'cli,  and 
became  a  devcjtcd  and  exemplary  pastor,  jierforming 
the  ministerial  functions  witli  reputation  in  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Holland.  At  lengtli  he  began  to 
[jreach  and  to  propagate  new  and  peculiar  opinions, 
which  resembled  in  many  points  the  doctrines  of  the 
Mystics  (which  see).  He  speedily  gathered  around 
him  a  number  of  fullowers,  wlio  were  called  Lahadhts, 
and  who  resided  first  at  Middleljnrgh,  in  Zealand, 
and  afterwards  at  Amsterdam.  In  IfiTO  the  sect 
settled  at  Herworden,  in  Westphalia,  under  the 
special  patronage  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  the  Elector  I'alatiue.  After  a  time,  Labadie  was 
compelled  to  remove  his  establi-shment  to  Altona, 
in  South  Holland,  where  its  founder  died  in  1G74, 
when  the  conmiunity  finally  removed  to  Wiewert, 
in  North  Holland,  and  soon  after  sunk  into  ob- 
livion. 

The  Labadists  agreed  with  Schwenkfeld  and  the 
Anabaptists  in  attaching  great  importance  to  internal 
revelation,  by  which  the  external  revelation  is  ren- 
dered intelligible,  and  from  which  it  receives  its 
authority.  They  also  entertained  very  strong  views 
as  to  the  purity  of  the  visible  church,  maintaining 
that  it  ought  not  to  consist  of  professing  disciples  of 
Christ,  but  of  really  sanctitied  Christians,  striving 
after  perfection  in  holiness. 

EABAKUM,  the  military  standard  of  the  fir.st 
Christian  Emperor,  Constantine.  The  circumstances 
wliich  led  to  his  adoption  of  the  Labarum  are  de- 
tailed by  Eusebius,  and  are  in  substance  ae  'oUows. 
Constantine  had  resolved  to  make  an  attempt  to 
deliver  Rome  from  the  tyranny  of  Maxentius,  but 
feeling  that  he  needed  a  higher  than  human  aid,  he 
prayed  earnestly  to  God  that  he  would  assist  him  in 
the  difficult  enterprise  in  which  he  was  engaged. 
About  mid-day,  when  crossing  the  country  with  his 
lirmy,  he  ofTered  up  this  prayer,  and  inmiediately 
there  appeared  in  heaven  near  the  sun  a  bright 
ehiuing  cross,  on  which  was  inscribed  these  words  in 
the  Greek  language  :  "  By  this  sign.  Conquer."  This 
sign,  which  was  seen  in  tlie  sky  both  by  the  soldiers 
and  their  leaders,  was  followed  by  a  secret  vision,  in 
which  the  Son  of  God  appeared  to  the  Emperor, 
holding   in  his  hand   the   symbol  of  the  cross,  and 


commanded  him  to  form  a  standard  on  the  same 
model,  under  which  his  soldiers  would  march  to 
victory.  Constantine  hastened  to  obey  the  solemn 
command,  and  forthwith  a  standard  was  framed  by 
the  most  skilful  artificers,  under  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  the  Emperor  himself.  It  was  in  the  form  ol 
a  long  spear,  overlaid  with  gold,  and  having  a  cross 
beam  towards  the  top.  Ujion  the  summit  there  was 
a  golden  crown,  enclosing  the  two  first  letters  of  the 
name  Christ  intersecting  each  other.  From  the  cross 
beam  was  suspended  a  silken  veil,  in  wliich  were 
inwrought  images  of  the  Emperor  and  of  his  chil- 
dren. 

The  name  given  to  this  standard  was  Labarum,  a 
word  the  literal  meaning  and  correct  derivation  of 
wliich  are  miknowii.  The  monogram  containing  the 
two  initial  letters  of  the  name  of  the  Messiah,  and 
wliich  were  so  formed  as  also  to  represent  a  cross, 
was  afterwards  engraved  upon  the  shields  of  the 
soldiers,  and  fixed  upon  their  helmets.  Fifty  men, 
chosen  for  their  strength,  valour,  and  piety,  were 
appointed  to  the  care  of  the  Labarum,  which  long 
continued  to  be  carried  at  the  liead  of  the  Roman 
army,  and  to  be  considered  the  sure  token  of  victor)-. 
It  is  only  right  to  state  that  the  account  of  the  mira- 
culous sign  is  related  by  Eusebius  alone,  and  that  the 
information  of  the  historian  was  derived  from  the  tes- 
timony of  Constantine  himself,  continned  by  an  oath. 
Eusebius  considers  the  testimony  of  the  Emperor  as 
.satisfactory,  but  at  the  same  time  he  states  that  if 
the  narrative  had  been  given  by  any  other  person, 
he  would  not  easily  have  been  believed. 

LABIS,  the  name  which  the  modem  Greeks  give 
to  the  spoon  used  in  administering  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine  to  the  laity. 

LABORANTES,  a  name  sometimes  applied  in 
the  early  Christian  writers  to  the  CoriAT^  (which 
see). 

LABRADOR  and  GREENLAND  (Religion 
of).  These  remote  countries,  bordering  on  the 
Arctic  regions,  are  deeply  interesting  in  a  religious 
aspect,  being  the  seats  of  two  missions  of  the  United 
Brethren,  which  liave  been  maintained  in  these  cold 
inhospitable  regions  for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 
Hans  Egede,  a  Danish  missionary,  who  is  often 
styled  the  Apostle  of  Greenland,  first  took  up  hi^ 
abode  in  that  country  in  1721  ;  and  from  that  timt 
down  to  the  present  day.  have  the  Moravians  con- 
tinued to  send  thither  laborious  and  self-denying 
missionaries,  who,  amid  the  severest  privations,  and 
almost  insuperable  difficulties,  have  carried  on  th« 


286 


LABRADOR  AND  GREENLAND  (Religion  oi). 


work  of  evangelization  among  the  benighted  natives 
of  these  desolate  regions.  It  would  appear  that  so 
early  as  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  a  colony  from 
Iceland,  headed  by  Eirek,  surnamed  the  Red,  settled 
in  Greenland.  Leif,  the  son  of  Eirek,  having  made 
a  voyage  to  Norway,  was  there  persuaded  to  embrace 
Christianity,  and  on  his  return  he  was  accompanied 
by  a  priest  to  convert  the  new  colony.  The  settle- 
ments in  Greenland  adopted  Christianity,  and  con- 
tinued to  increase  and  flourish.  They  were  divided 
into  the  East  and  the  West  Bygd  or  inhabited  dis- 
tricts, the  uninhabited  country  being  termed  Ubygd. 
At  a  later  period  the  West  Bygd  contained  ninety 
faniis,  with  four  chmxhes ;  the  East  Bygd,  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety  farms,  and  two  towns,  with  one 
L-athedral,  eleven  churches,  and  three  monasteries. 
The  fli-st  bishop  was  ordained  in  A.  D.  1121,  the  seven- 
teenth and  last  in  1404.  After  this  nothing  more  is 
known  of  the  first  Greenland  colonies.  "  The  learned 
men  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy,"  says  Mr.  Blackwell 
ui  his  valuable  edition  of  Mallet's  '  Northern  Anti- 
quities,' "  when  they  recalled  to  mind  that  a  Chris- 
tian community  had  existed  on  these  remote  shores 
for  upwards  of  four  centmies,  coiUd  only  account  for 
its  extinction  by  a  sudden  catastrophe.  Some  sup- 
posed that  the  settlements  had  been  ravaged  by  the 
pirates  who  infested  the  north  seas  at  the  close  of 
the  fourteenth  century;  others,  that  the  great  pesti- 
lence of  1348,  caUed  the  Black  Death,  had  swept  off 
the  greater  part  of  the  population,  and  that  the  sur- 
vivoi-s  had  been  massacred  by  the  Esquimaux.  But 
it  seems  very  unlikely  that  pirates  would  have  di- 
rected their  marauding  expeditions  to  such  a  poor 
countiy  as  Greenland,  and  although  the  colony  may 
probably  have  been  visited  by  the  terrible  scourge 
so  graphically  described  by  Boccaccio  in  the  intro- 
duction to  his  Decameron,  we  believe  there  is  no 
documentary  evidence  to  show  that  this  was  actually 
the  case.  We  know  at  least  that  upwards  of  half  a  cen- 
tury later  there  was  still  a  bishop  at  Garda,  and  may 
therefore  conclude  that  the  colonists  were  able  to 
resist  the  attacks  of  the  Esqiumaux,  with  whom  they 
appear  to  have  been  in  constant  hostility.  The  real 
cause  of  the  gi-adual  decay  and  final  extinction  of 
these  settlements  was,  no  doubt,  the  peniicious  sys- 
tem of  commercial  policy  pursued  by  the  raotlier 
country." 

Along  with  the  first  colonics  their  rebgion  seems 
also  to  have  disappeared,  for  when  Egede  settled  on 
(he  West  coast  of  Greenland  in  1721,  he  found  the 
people  in  a  state  of  darkness  and  heathenism,  having 
no  other  priests  but  angekoks,  who  were  little  better 
than  sorcerers.  The  Grcenlanders,  when  Egede 
came  among  them,  held  that  there  was  a  spiritual 
Being,  whom  they  called  Torngarsuk,  to  whom  they 
ascribed  a  supcrtuitural  power,  though  not  recogniz- 
ing him  as  the  Creator.  Tlie  (ingckoks  were  divided 
in  the  ideas  which  they  entertained  of  this  great 
Being.  Some  alleged  that  be  is  without  form  or 
•hape;  others  gave  liim  the  form  of  a  bear;  others 


pretended  tliat  be  had  a  large  body  and  only  one  aiin 
while  others  still  considered  him  so  small  that  he  was 
no  larger  than  the  finger  of  a  man's  hand.  Some  con- 
sidered him  as  immortal,  while  others  believed  that  a 
puff  of  wind  could  drive  him  out  of  existence.  They 
assigned  him  his  abode  in  the  lower  regions  of  the 
earth,  and  they  said  also  that  he  lived  in  the  water. 
They  maintained  that  a  spirit  resided  in  the  air,  which 
they  named  Inncrtii-rirsok ;  and  another  called  Er- 
loersotok,  who  fed  upon  the  intestines  of  the  dead, 
and  was  said  to  have  a  ghastly,  haggard  counte 
nance,  with  hollow  eyes  and  cheeks.  Each  elemeni 
they  believed  had  its  governor  or  president,  which 
they  called  Innucc,  and  from  these  the  angekoks  re- 
ceived their  torngak  or  familiar  spirits,  which  again 
in  the  case  of  others  were  simply  their  own  deceased 
parents. 

The  angekok  or  conjuring  priest  is  thus  described 
by  Egede : — "  If  one  aspires  to  the  office  of  an  an- 
gekok, and  has  a  mind  to  be  initiated  into  these 
mysteries,  he  must  retire  from  the  rest  of  mankind, 
into  some  remote  place,  from  all  commerce ;  there  he 
must  look  for  a  large  stone,  near  which  he  must  sit 
down  and  invoke  Torngarsuk,  who,  without  delay, 
presents  himself  before  him.  This  presence  so  ter- 
rifies the  new  candidate  of  angekokism,  that  he  im- 
mediately sickens,  swoons  away,  and  dies ;  and  in  this 
condition  he  lies  for  three  whole  days  ;  and  then  be 
comes  to  life  again,  arises  in  a  newness  of  life,  ani 
betakes  himself  to  his  home  again.  The  science  o 
an  angekok  consists  of  three  things.  1.  That  be 
mutters  certain  spells  over  sick  people,  in  order  t(r 
make  them  recover  their  former  health.  2.  He  com- 
munes with  Torngarsuk,  and  from  him  receives  in- 
struction, to  give  people  advice  what  course  they  are 
to  take  in  affairs,  that  they  may  have  success,  and 
prosper  therein.  3.  He  is  by  the  same  informed  of 
the  time  and  cause  of  any  body's  death  ;  or  for  what 
reason  any  body  comes  to  an  imtimely  and  uncom- 
mon end ;  and  if  any  fatality  shall  befall  a  man." 
These  impostors  persuade  the  poor  ignorant  people 
that  with  then-  hands  and  feet  tied  they  can  momil 
up  to  heaven,  or  descend  to  the  lower  regions  of 
the  eaith,  where  the  fierce  Torngarsuk  holds  his 
court.  A  young  angekok  can  only  undertake  this 
journey  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  because  at  that  time 
the  rainbow,  which  they  believe  to  be  the  lowennost 
heaven,  is  nearest  to  the  earth.  Tin's  wonderful  feat 
is  thusperfoimed  :  "  A  number  of  spectators  assemble 
in  the  evening  at  one  of  their  houses,  wliere,  after  it 
is  grown  dark,  eveiy  one  being  seated,  the  angekok 
causes  himself  to  be  tied,  his  head  between  bis  legs 
and  bis  hands  behind  his  back,  and  a  drum  is  laid  at 
his  side ;  thereupon,  after  the  windows  are  shut  and 
the  light  put  out,  the  assembly  sings  a  ditty,  which, 
they  say,  is  the  composition  of  their  ancestors  ;  when 
they  have  done  singing  the  angekok  begins  with 
conjuring,  muttering,  and  brawling;  invokes  Torn- 
garsuk, who  instantly  presents  himself,  and  conversei 
with  him  (lierc  the  masterly  juggler  knows  how  to 


LAIJKADUK  AND  (iUEBM.ANI)  (I{ki,i(;i..n  ok). 


287 


play  Ills  trick,  in  changing  the  tone  of  liis  voice,  and 
countorlViting  one  rllfforent  from  hi«  own,  whicli 
makes  the  too-crcdiilons  liearer.s  believe,  tliat  tliis 
counterfeited  voice  is  tliat  of  Tonigarsiik,  wIjo  con- 
verses witli  tlic  angekok).  In  the  nicanwliile  he 
works  himself  loose,  and,  as  they  believe,  mounts  up 
into  heaven  tln-ough  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  passes 
through  the  air  till  he  arrives  into  the  highest  of 
heavens,  where  the  souls  of  angekok  poglit,  that  is, 
the  chief  angekoks,  reside,  l)y  whom  be  gets  infor- 
mation of  all  ho  wants  to  know.  And  all  this  is  done 
in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye." 

The  atxjekoks  pretend  to  cure  all  kinds  of  diseases, 
simply  by  muttering  inarticulate  somids  or  blowing 
upon  the  sick.  One  mode  in  which  they  exercise 
their  medical  power  is,  by  laying  the  patient  upon 
bis  back,  and  tying  a  ribbon  or  string  round  his 
head,  liaving  a  stick  fastened  to  the  other  end  of  the 
siring  with  which  they  lift  up  the  sick  person's  head 
from  the  ground  and  let  it  down  again  ;  and  at  every 
lift  the  angekok  communes  with  his  Torrjak  ov  fami- 
liar spirit  about  the  state  of  the  patient  whether  he 
shall  recover  or  not;  if  the  head  is  heavy,  it  is  a 
sign  of  death,  and  if  light,  of  recovery.  These  ab- 
siu'd  conjurers  actually  persuade  sick  persons,  in 
some  cases,  that  they  have  the  power  to  create  within 
them  new  souls,  provided  they  are  sufficiently  re- 
munerated for  their  trouble.  The  heathen  Green- 
landers  are  very  credulous,  and  therefore  much 
addicted  to  the  use  of  amulets  or  charms,  whieli  they 
wear  about  their  arms  and  necks.  These  potent 
spoils  consist  of  some  pieces  of  old  wood,  stones  or 
hones,  bills  and  claws  of  bii'ds,  or  anything  else  which 
they  suppose  to  be  efiicacious  hi  jireaerving  them  from 
diseases  and  other  calamities,  or  m  bringing  them 
success  in  their  tislung  expeditions. 

Strange  notions  as  to  the  origin  and  creation  of  all 
things  a):e  entertained  by  the  inhabitants  of  these 
northern  regions.  TheLi'  own  people  they  believe  to 
have  spriuig  from  the  ground,  but  foreigners,  whom 
they  call  Kahluncet,  they  suppose  to  have  descended 
from  a  race  of  dogs.  The  dead,  as  they  imagine, 
pass  into  the  land  of  souls  ;  some  go  to  heaven,  and 
others  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  which  last  they  re- 
gard as  a  delightful  country,  where  the  sim  sliines 
continually  and  the  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  an 
inexhaustible  stock  of  all  sorts  of  choice  provisions. 
The  centre  of  the  eai'th,  besides,  being  the  residence 
of  Torngarsuk,  is  also  inhabited  by  a  notorious  fe- 
male personage,  whom  the  missionary  Egedc  thus 
describes,  along  with  the  mansion  in  which  she  holds 
her  residence :  "  She  is  said  to  dwell  in  the  lower 
parts  of  the  earth  imder  the  seas,  and  has  the  empire 
over  all  fishes  and  sea-animals,  as  unicorns,  morses, 
seals,  and  the  like.  The  bason  placed  under  her 
lamp,  into  which  the  train  oil  of  the  lamp  drips  down, 
ewanns  with  all  kinds  of  sea  fowls,  swimming  in  and 
hovering  about  it.  At  the  entry  of  her  abode  is  a 
totys  de  garde  of  sea  dogs,  who  mount  the  guard, 
Bnd  staud  sentinels  at  her  gates  to  keep  out  the 


crowd  of  petitioners.  None  can  get  admittance  tiiere 
but  angekoks,  provided  they  are  accompanied  by 
Ihcir  Toriigak,  or  familiar  si)irit«,  and  not  otherwise. 
In  their  journey  thither  Ibcy  first  pass  through  the 
mansions  of  .'dl  the  souls  of  the  deceased,  which  look 
as  well,  if  not  better,  than  ever  they  did  in  this 
world,  and  want  for  nothing.  After  they  have 
passed  through  tins  region,  they  come  to  a  very 
long,  broad,  and  deep  whirlpool,  which  they  are  to 
cross  over,  tliere  being  nothing  to  pass  upon  but  a 
great  wheel  like  ice,  which  turns  about  with  a  sur- 
[irising  rapidity,  and  l)y  the  means  of  this  wheel  the 
spirit  helps  bis  angekok  to  get  over.  Tltis  diffi- 
culty being  sunnounted,  the  next  thing  they  en- 
counter is  a  large  kettle,  iji  which  hve  seals  are  put 
to  be  boiled  ;  ;uid  at  last  they  an-ive,  with  much  ado, 
at  the  residence  of  the  devil's  grandame,  where  the 
familiar  spirit  takes  the  angekok  by  the  band 
through  the  strong  guard  of  sea  dogs.  The  entry  is 
large  enough,  the  road  that  leads  is  as  narrow  as  a 
small  rope,  and  on  both  sides  nothing  to  lay  lu^ld  on, 
or  to  support  one ;  besides  that,  there  is  midenieath 
a  most  frightfid  abyss  or  bottomless  pit.  AVithin 
this  is  the  apartment  of  the  infernal  goddess,  who 
oli'ended  at  this  unexpected  visit,  shows  a  most 
ghastly  and  wrathfid  countenance,  pidling  the  hair 
off  her  head  :  she  thereupon  seizes  a  wet  wing  of  a 
fowl,  which  she  lights  in  the  fire,  and  claps  to  their 
noses,  which  makes  them  very  faint  and  sick,  and 
they  become  her  prisoners.  But  the  enchanter  or 
angekok  (being  beforehand  instructed  by  his  Tonigak 
bow  to  act  his  part  in  tliis  dismal  expedition)  takes 
hold  of  her  by  the  hair,  and  drubs  and  bangs  her  so 
long,  till  she  loses  her  strength  and  yield* ;  and  in 
this  condjat  his  familiar  spirit  does  not  f-tand  idle, 
but  lays  about  her  with  might  and  main.  Konnd 
the  infernal  goddess's  face  bangs  the  agleiTutit, 
which  the  angekok  endeavours  to  rob  her  of.  For 
this  is  the  charm  by  which  she  draws  all  fishes 
and  sea  animals  to  her  dominion,  wliicb  no  sooner  is 
she  deprived  of,  but  instantly  the  sea  animals  in 
shoals  forsake  her,  and  resort  with  all  speed  to  their 
wonted  shelves,  where  the  Greenlanders  catch  them 
in  great  plenty.  When  this  great  business  is  done, 
the  angekoks  with  their  Tonigak,  proud  of  .succesB, 
make  the  best  of  their  way  home  again,  where  they 
find  the  road  smooth,  and  easy  to  what  it  was  before. 

"  As  to  the  souls  of  the  dead,  in  their  travel  to 
this  happy  country,  they  meet  with  a  sharp-pointed 
stone,  upon  which  the  angekoks  tell  them  they  must 
slide  or  glide  down,  as  there  is  no  other  passage  to 
get  through,  and  this  stone  is  besmeared  with  blood; 
perhaps,  by  this  mystical  or  bieroglypnical  image, 
they  thereby  signify  the  adversities  and  tribulations 
those  have  to  struggle  with  who  dcsue  to  attain  to 
happiness." 

It  was  to  a  people  whose  whole  religion  thu« 
consisted  of  a  mass  of  absurd  superstitions  that 
the  apostolic  Egede  devoted  twenty-five  years  of 
active   missionary   work.      For    ten    weary    years, 


288 


LABKAIJUU  AND  GREENLAND  (Keligion  oi-j. 


after  first  entering  upon  his  work,  he  persevered 
iu  liis  labours,  with  very  little  apparent  success.  But 
at  length  a  new  era  began  to  dawn  upon  benighted 
Greenland.  In  1731,  two  baptized  Greenlanders, 
who  had  been  taken  to  Denmark,  gave  such  inter- 
esting mfurmation  as  to  the  state  of  their  country- 
men, that  a  little  band  of  devoted  Christian  brothers 
was  sent  from  the  congi-egation  at  Ilerrnluit  as  a 
reinforcement  to  the  Danish  mission  to  Greenland. 
On  reaching  their  destination,  they  fixed  upon  a 
place  of  settlement,  to  which  they  afterwards  gave 
the  name  of  New  Herrnhut.  Having  made  all  neces- 
sary preparations,  they  engaged  in  their  missionary 
work  with  the  utmost  diligence  and  assiduity.  Nor 
did  they  labour  in  vain.  By  the  Divme  blessing, 
they  soon  succeeded  ui  gathering  around  them  a 
small  company  of  Cliristian  converts,  who,  feeling  the 
power  of  the  truth  on  their  own  hearts,  sought  to 
communicate  tlie  glad  tidings  of  salvation  to  others 
also.  Thus  the  mission  prospered  more  and  more. 
From  time  to  time,  the  hands  of  the  missionaries 
were  strengthened,  and  their  hearts  encouraged,  by 
the  arrival  of  other  brethren,  who  came  to  aid  them 
in  their  glorious  work.  Two  settlements  were  in 
course  of  time  formed,  where  a  goodly  company  of 
Christian  Greenlanders  composed  the  church.  In 
the  winter  of  1768,  an  aged  aiigekok  renounced  his 
mode  of  life,  and  confessed  that  he  and  the  other 
sorcerers  had  deceived  the  people.  This  unexpected 
event  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  good  cause,  and  so 
extensive  was  the  awakening  among  the  natives,  that 
in  httle  more  than  twelve  months  200  Greenlanders 
were  added  to  the  cliurch  by  baptism.  From  this 
period  the  work  was  carried  on  with  redoubled 
energy.  In  1774,  a  third  settlement  was  formed  in 
the  south  of  Greenland,  at  a  place  which  they  termed 
Lichtenau.  Here  the  labours  of  the  missionaries 
met  with  remarkable  success,  so  that  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  the  numbers  of  church  members  ex- 
ceeded those  at  either  of  the  otlier  stations. 

In  1801,  so  great  had  been  the  progress  made  in 
tlie  work  of  the  mission  at  all  the  stations,  tliat  tlie 
people  on  the  western  coast  of  Greenland  had  nearly 
all  embraced  Christianity,  and  of  tlie  women,  the  last 
one  that  remained  in  heathenism  was  baptized  in 
January  of  this  year.  Numbers  were  now  added  to 
the  membersliip  of  the  church  from  time  to  time. 
The  year  1823  was  rendered  remarkable  by  the 
printing  and  circulation  of  the  first  complete  New 
Testament  in  the  Greenland  language.  At  this  time 
tlie  three  congregations  under  the  care  of  the 
Brethren  consisted  of  1,278  persons.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  a  new  Moravian  settlement  was  formed  at 
the  most  southern  extremity  of  Greenland,  at  a  place 
called  ijy  the  missionaries  Frcdericksthal.  Of  this 
station  the  missionary  had  the  gratification  of  writ- 
ing, und(!r  date  October  1825 — "  Since  our  arrival 
here  in  June  1824,  104  heathens  have  been  bap- 
tized." Thus  four  Moravian  settlements  are  now  in 
successful  operation  in  Greenland.    Tlie  missionaries, 


however,  have  been  not  a  Httle  discouraged  by  the 
conduct  of  the  Danish  government,  in  repeatedly 
issuing  prohibitions  to  the  Greenland  converts  against 
their  residing  in  communities  near  the  Moravian 
settlements.  The  obstacle  thus  put  by  the  govern- 
ment in  the  way  of  the  success  of  the  mission  has, 
iu  the  good  providence  of  God,  been  overruled  for 
good.  It  has  led  to  the  formation,  in  1851,  of  a 
seminary  at  New  Herrnhut  for  training  native  assist- 
ants. The  most  recent  reiiort  of  the  Greenland  Mo- 
ravian mission  conveys  the  gratifying  statement  that 
there  are  in  all  twelve  missionaries,  and  that  the 
churches  contain  842  communicants,  while  the  nuni 
ber  of  persons  under  instruction  amounts  to  2,001 

The  mission  to  Labrador  commenced  at  a  con- 
siderably later  period  than  that  to  Greenland.  An 
attempt  was  made,  indeed,  in  1752  to  establish  a 
settlement  in  the  country,  but  it  proved  unsuccess- 
ful, and  it  was  not  until  1769  that  George  III.  pre- 
sented 100,000  acres  of  land  to  the  Moravian  brethren 
to  aid  them  in  commencing  a  mission  on  the  coast  oi 
Labrador.  The  same  year  a  society  was  established 
in  London  to  assist  in  the  prosecution  of  the  same 
impoWant  object.  The  enterprise  was  headed  by 
Jens  Haven,  who  had  previously  laboured  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  Greenland.  The  spot  on  which  the  settle- 
ment was  established  received  the  name  of  Nain,  and 
is  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  Labrador.  The  Es- 
quimaux showed  themselves  uniformly  friendly  to  the 
missionaries  from  the  date  of  their  first  arrival  in  the 
country.  The  aiigckols  here,  as  in  Greenland,  pos- 
sessed gi-eat  influence  over  the  people,  who  were,  hi 
fact,  ferocious  savages,  habituated  to  the  gratification 
of  the  most  brutal  passions.  But  no  sooner  did  the 
inissionai-ies  commence  operations,  than,  to  their 
agreeable  surprise,  they  found  the  people  ready  and 
even  eager  to  receive  instruction.  In  the  course  o( 
a  few  years  two  additional  settlements  were  estab 
lished,  one  at  Okkak,  about  150  miles  north  of  Nain, 
and  another  at  llopedale,  some  distance  to  the  south 
of  Nain.  The  cause  now  made  rapid  progress  among 
the  Esquimaux,  and  in  the  spring  of  1804,  the  hearts 
of  the  devoted  missionaries  were  refreshed  by  the 
manifestation  of  a  decided  revival  of  religion,  which 
commenced  at  Nain,  and  soon  spread  to  the  other 
stations.  This  work  of  grace  continued  several 
years,  and  many,  both  old  and  young,  were  added 
to  the  church  of  Christ.  Early  in  1811,  thenorthern 
coast  of  Labrador  was  explored,  with  a  view  to  the 
formation  of  a  settlement  in  tliat  quarter;  but,  after 
five  months  spent  in  minutely  examining  the  country, 
tlio  idea  was  abandoned,  and  has  never  since  been 
revived.  About  the  year  1820,  portions  of  the  New 
Testament  were  translated  and  printed  in  the  Esqui- 
maux language  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
.Society,  and  so  higlily  was  the  gift  jirized  by  the 
people,  that  they  began,  of  their  own  accord,  to 
collect  seals'  blubber,  by  way  of  niakirg  up  a  small 
ciiiitribution  towards  the  expenses  of  that  society. 

Ill  Labrador,  as  in  Greenland,  the  hdioiirs  of  tlio 


LACE  OF  BLUE— LAMAISM. 


889 


missioiiiiiiftB  have,  from  the  beginning,  bueii  carried 
on  iimiii  iiiiuiy  discouragements  and  privations;  but 
tlieir  trials  have  been  borne  with  patience  and  resig- 
nation, wliile  tlieir  hearts  are  cheered  by  the  ample 
tokens  wliich  they  are  from  time  to  time  receiving 
that  tliey  are  not  labouring  in  vain,  nor  spending 
tlieir  strength  for  nought  or  in  vain.  From  recent 
accounts,  the  state  of  the  mission  is  very  encouraging. 
There  are  (ilteen  missionary  brethren  carrying  on 
tlieir  operations  in  these  inhospitable  regions.  The 
communicants  in  the  churches  amount  to  394,  and 
those  under  instruction  to  1,357  persons. 

LACK  OF  BLUE,  or  Sacrkd  Fringe.  No 
small  importance,  both  among  the  ancient  and  the 
modern  Jews,  has  been  attached  to  the  hem  or 
border  of  the  upper  garment.  On  turning  to  the 
law  of  Moses,  we  find,  in  Num.  xv.  38 — 40,  the 
command  given,  "  Speak  unto  the  children  of  Israel, 
and  bid  them  that  they  make  them  fringes  in  the 
borders  of  their  garments  througliout  their  genera- 
tions, and  that  they  put  upon  the  fringe  of  the  bor- 
ders a  ribband  of  blue :  and  it  shall  be  unto  you  for 
a  fringe,  that  ye  may  look  upon  it,  and  remember  all 
the  conunaudments  of  the  Lord,  and  do  them ;  and 
that  ye  seek  not  after  your  own  heart  and  your  own 
eyes,  after  which  ye  use  to  go  a  whoring :  that  ye 
may  remember,  and  do  all  my  commandments,  and 
be  holy  unto  yoiu'  God."  In  Exodus  xxviii.  28,  in 
the  directions  for  the  dress  of  the  high-priest,  it  is 
said,  "  They  shall  bind  the  breastplate  by  the  rings 
thereof  unto  the  rings  of  the  ephod  with  a  lace  of 
blue,  that  it  may  be  above  the  curious  girdle  of  the 
ephod,  and  that  the  breastplate  be  not  loosed  from 
the  ephod."  The  Pharisees  were  blamed  by  om- 
blessed  Lord  for  ostentatiously  making  broad  the 
borders  of  their  garments.  Among  the  modem 
Jews,  every  male  is  obliged  to  have  a  garment  with 
ftinges  at  the  four  corners ;  and  every  morning  when 
he  puts  on  this  garment,  he  must  take  the  fringes 
in  his  hands,  and  say,  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord 
our  God,  king  of  the  uiuverse  !  who  hath  sanctitied 
us  with  his  commaiulments,  and  commanded  us  the 
commandment  of  the  fringes."  Our  Lord,  in  ful- 
filling all  righteousness,  wore  also  the  garment  with 
the  fringes,  and  this  being  the  part  of  the  dress 
which  more  peculiarly  marked  out  the  Israelite,  the 
sick  often  sought  to  touch  it,  that  they  might  be 
healed. 

LACERATIONS.  See  Cuttings  in  the  Flesh. 

LACHESIS  (from  Gr.  lanchaiw,  to  allot),  one  of 
the  Fates  (which  see)  among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans.  The  olfice  of  Lachesis  was  supposed 
to  be  to  turn  the  wheel  of  fate,  and  thus  to  determine 
the  fortune  of  life. 

LACHRYMATORIES,  small  glass  or  earthen 
vessels,  in  which,  among  the  ancient  heathen,  were 
put  the  tears  which  surviving  friends  or  relatives 
wept  for  the  dead.  These,  with  their  contents,  were 
buried  with  the  urns  and  ashes  of  the  deceased. 

LACINIA,  a  surname  of  Juno  (which  see),  under 


wliich  she  was  worshipped  in  the  neighbourhood  ot 

Croton,  where  she  liad  a  sanctuary. 

JjACTURCIA,   a  goddess    among    the    ancient 

Romans,  who  preserved  the  tender  plants  with  Iheif 

milky  juice. 

LACTURNUS,  an  ancient  Roman  divinity,  who 

was  believed  to  protect  the  young  fruits  of  the  field. 

Some  have  considered  Laclumus  to  bo  a  surname  ol 

Saturn. 
LADY-DAY.    See  Annunciawon. 
LAFS-AL-JEMIN  (Ileb.  the  thief  on  the  right 

hand),  a  festival  observed  by  the  Syrian  Christians 

in  commemoration  of  the  penitent  thief.     Thig  faU» 

upon  the  Octave  of  their  Easter. 

LAG,  the  name  given  by  the  modem  Jews  to  the 
festival  of  the  thirty-third  of  Oiner,  the  Hebrew  word 
Lay  representing  the  number  thirty-three.  See 
Omkr  (Festival  of  the  TiiiuTY-THrni)  of). 

LAIIA,  a  tablet  suspended  in  a  Budhist  Wihara 
(which  see)  in  Ceylon,  upon  which  any  matter  might 
be  written,  about  which  it  was  intended  that  the 
priests  should  be  informed. 

LAITY  (Gr.  laos,  people),  a  term  used,  from  an 
early  period  in  the  history  of  Christianity,  to  denote 
the  body  of  the  church  in  contradistinction  from  the 
clergy.  The  word  is  not  found  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  it  occurs  in  ancient  Christian  writers. 
According  to  Rheinwald  and  Gieseler,  the  distinc- 
tion between  laity  and  clergy  was  unknomi  till  the 
second  century.  Previous  to  this,  all  performed 
the  office  of  priests  as  they  had  occasion,  and  even 
after  that  time  laymen  were  sometimes  heard  in  the 
public  assemblies.     See  Clergy. 

LAKSHANA,  characteristic  beauties  or  signs  of 
a  supreme  Budha.  These  were  divided  into  three 
kinds:  1.  The  216  Mangabja-lakshana,  of  which 
there  were  108  on  each  foot.  2.  The  32  M»ha- 
punisha-lakshana  or  superior  beauties.  3.  The  8 
Anawyanjana-lahshana  or  inferior  beauties. 

LAKSHMI,  a  Hindu  female  divinity,  one  of  the 
many  consorts  of  Vishnu,  and  therefore  worshipped 
by  the  Vaishnava  sects,  but  particidarly  the  followers 
of  Ramamija.  In  the  Mahubhurut,  all  divine  beings 
are  alleged  to  proceed  from  Krishna,  and  among 
these  Lakshvii  comes  from  his  mind ;  but  in  one  of 
the  Puranas,  Ganesa  is  represented  as  calling  her 
the  great  Lakshmi,  the  mother  of  the  world,  who 
was  made  from  the  left  side  of  Jiud/ia,  the  favourite 
consort  of  Vishnu.  This  goddess  is  usually  described 
as  possessed  of  singular  beauty  and  grace,  and  she  is 
considered  as  the  goddess  of  wealth. 

LAMAISM,  the  name  which  Budhism  has  assumed 
in  Thibet.  It  seems  to  have  found  its  way  into  that 
country  at  nearly  the  same  date, — the  first  century 
of  our  era, — as  it  was  introduced  into  China,  where  it 
is  known  by  the  name  of  Foism.  In  Thibet,  how- 
ever, the  divinities,  which  were  worsliip|)ed  before 
the  entrance  of  Budhism,  namely,  the  genii  of  thf 
hills  and  valleys,  and  woods  and  rivers,  are  stiU 
adored  by  the  poorer  classes  with  the  express  sanc- 
2b* 


m 


LAMAISM. 


lion  of  the  Lamas :  but  while  these  remnants  of  the 
.■incient  religion  are  still  tolerated,  Budhism,  which 
found  a  ready  acceptance  at  an  early  period  among 
the  great  mass  of  the  Thibetans,  has,  since  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century,  continued  with  scarcely  a 
single  inteiTuption  to  be  recognized  as  the  religion 
of  the  whole  country.  Hence  the  extensive  preva- 
lence in  Thibet  of  a  system  of  religious  mendicants. 

Laraas  or  monks  are  to  be  found  swarming  in  every 
town  and  district.  In  their  official  ceremonies  they 
wear  silken  vests,  adonied  vrith  images,  and  have  a 
lettered  border  of  sacred  texts  woven  into  the  scarf. 
At  every  turn  the  traveller  meets  some  of  these 
Budhist  priests,  each  of  them  cairying  in  his  hand 
the  Tchu-chor  or  prayer-cylinder,  a  single  revolution  of 
which  is  considered  to  be  equivalent  to  a  roll  of  prayers. 
In  every  family,  one  at  least  of  the  children  is  trained 
up  to  the  priestly  office.  And  the  pecuhar  modili- 
cation  which  Budhism  has  assumed  in  passing  into 
the  form  of  Lamaism,  fully  accounts  for  the  enor- 
mous increase  in  the  number  of  Thibetan  and  Tartar 
Laraas  over  those  of  other  Budhist  countries.  In 
Tartaiy  we  learn  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  eldest 
son  of  each  family,  all  the  rest  of  the  children  are 
reared  as  Lamas,  and  accordingly  the  Lamaseries  of 
that  country  are  built  so  large  as  to  contain  ten, 
twenty,  and  even  thirty  thousand  of  these  mendicant 
monks.  In  consequence  of  the  enormous  number  of 
priests  which  are  found  in  Thibet  and  Tarlary,  the 
ordinary  law  of  Budhism  m  Ceylon  and  elsewhere, 
which  prohibits  mendicants  from  earning  their  bread 
by  any  manual  employment,  is  totally  abandoned  in 
both  these  countries,  so  that  the  Lamas  are  allowed 
to  follow  various  trades  even  while  residing  in  the 
convents. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  modifications  wliich 
have  been  introduced  into  Budhism  in  Tartary  and 
Thibet  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Grand  or  Dalai-Lama 
(which  see).  This  liigh  official  ruler,  who  in  former 
times  was  the  sole  depositary  both  of  temporal  and 
spiritual  power,  is  believed  to  be  an  incarnation  of 
Gautama  Budha,  whose  spirit  still  wanders  about  in 
successive  birllis  and  deaths  from  Lama  to  Lama. 
While  each  of  tlie  ordinary  priests  is  a  chaberon  or 
incarnate  Budha  (see  Budha,  Living),  this  is  more 
especially  and  in  a  still  higher  sense  true  of  the 
Dalai-Lama,  who  sits  in  the  shrine  of  the  temple 
and  is  worshipped  as  a  deity,  while  his  supremacy  is 
acknowledged  by  all  the  otlier  inmates  of  the  Lama- 
series in  Tliibet,  Tartary,  and  China.  This  notion 
of  hereditary  incarnations  seems  to  have  existed 
several  centuries  before  it  was  introduced  into  tliose 
countries.  Tlius  Major  Cunningham,  in  his  work  on 
the  History  and  Statistics  of  Ladak,  tells  us  of  one 
Urgyan  Rinpoche,  wlio,  in  the  eiglitli  century,  was 
Invited  into  Thibet,  and  founded  the  confraternity  of 
red  Lamas,  and  who,  the  Major  alleges,  was  believed 
to  have  been  an  incaniation  of  the  Budha  Amilahha 
or  0-nie-to.  the  fourth  of  the  celestial  Budhas  of  that 
rrgion.     We  have  no  mention  of  any  other  incarna- 


tion until  the  commencement  of  the  iifteenth  cen- 
tm'y,  when  Tsong-Kaba,  the  Budhist  reformer,  ap- 
peared, who  was  regarded  as  an  incarnation  either  of 
0-me-to,  or  of  Manjusri.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
the  latter  half  of  the  same  centiuy  that  the  idea  of 
perpetual  incarnations  was  fuUy  matured.  "  Then  it 
was,"  says  Mr.  Hardwick,  in  his  '  Christ  and  other 
Masters,'  "  that  one  chief  abbot,  the  '  perfect  Lama,' 
instead  of  passing,  as  he  was  entitled,  to  his  ultimate 
condition,  determined  for  the  benefit  of  mankind  to 
sojourn  longer  on  the  earth  and  be  continuously  new- 
born. As  soon  as  he  was  carried  to  his  grave  in 
1473,  a  search  was  instituted  for  the  personage  who  had 
been  destined  to  succeed  him.  This  was  found  to  be 
an  infant,  who  established  its  title  to  the  honour  by 
appearmg  to  remember  various  articles  which  were 
the  property  of  the  Lama  just  deceased,  or  rather 
were  the  infant's  O'svn  property  in  earlier  stages  of 
existence.  When  the  proofs  of  such  identity  were 
deemed  irrefragable,  the  new  candidate  was  formally 
promoted  to  the  vacant  chair :  and  in  the  fifth  abbot 
of  this  series  originated  the  famous  hierarchy  of  the 
Dalai-Lamas  (in  1640).  So  fascinating  grew  the 
theory  of  perpetual  incarnations,  that  a  fresh  succes- 
sion of  rival  Lamas  (also  of  the  yellow  order)  after- 
wards took  its  rise  at  Teshu-laraby,  whUe  the  Dalai- 
Lamas  were  enthroned  in  Lhassa ;  and  at  present 
every  convent  of  importance,  not  in  Tibet  only,  but 
in  distant  parts  of  Tatary,  is  claiming  for  itself  a  like 
prerogative.  Each  confraternity  believes  that  the 
departed  abbot  is  still  actually  present  with  his  sub- 
jects though  enslu'ouded  in  a  different  body.  Con- 
scious of  the  dark  malignity  of  demons,  quivering  at 
the  thought  of  men  who  practise  demoniacal  arts  and 
lead  astray  by  their  enchantments,  these  Tibetians 
are  'in  bondage  to  fear;'  their  only  refuge  is  the 
presence  and  superior  holiness  of  one  who,  by  his 
mastery  over  all  the  adverse  forces  of  creation,  is 
believed  to  rescue  his  true  followers  from  the  rage  of 
their  oppressor.  The  reUgion  of  Tibet  is  thus  from 
day  to  day  assimiing  all  the  characteristics  of  man- 
worship.  Anxious  cravings  after  some  invincible 
protector,  there  impel  the  human  spirit  to  fashion  for 
itself  a  novel  theory  of  salvation;  and  the  sight  o' 
one  who  styles  himself  incaniate  deity  excludes  all 
living  faith  in  God  and  in  the  things  invisible." 

The  Budhism  of  Thibet  in  the  form  of  Lamaism  is 
not  the  Budliism  of  Chakia-Mouni  (which  see),  nor 
is  it  the  Budhism  of  the  earliest  race  of  its  disci- 
ples as  it  is  seen  in  Ceylon.  The  doctrine  of  an 
Adi-I'udha  (which  see),  or  a  Supreme  Creator, 
evidently  a  modern  graft  upon  the  ancient  system  oi 
Budhism,  which  is  essentially  atheistic,  is  found  in 
Nepdl  and  portions  of  Thibet,  borrowed  probably 
from  the  adjacent  Brahmanism  of  India.  And  this 
origin  of  the  theistic  notion  of  an  Adi-Budha  is  still 
further  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  other  ideas  liave 
been  derived  from  the  mystical  system  of  the  Hindu 
Tanlri^ts,  such  as  the  theory  of  the  Budhist  Salclis, 
or  the  female  energies  of  the  Dhydni  Budhas.   Froni 


LAMAISM. 


291 


the  essence  of  tlie  Adi-Budlia  aie  believed  to  have 
spontaneously  emanated  five  intelligences  of  tlie  first 
order,  called  celestial  Uiidli.as,  which  in  turn  give 
origin  to  other  five  intelligences  of  the  second  order 
called  BODIIISATWAS  (which  see).  These  last,  which 
are  called  in  China  Pusas,  and  are  esteemed  by  the 
ordinary  Foists  as  gods,  are  sim|ily  links  connecting 
the  Supreme  Being  or  Adi-Bud/ia  with  the  lower 
orders  of  created  beings. 

nie  Chakya-Mouni  of  the  Mongoli;ui  Tartai's  ha-s 
indeed  his  votaries  in  Thibet,  not  only  as  the  Shakya- 
Thubba  of  Ladak,  but  as  the  Sommona-Kodom  or 
Gautama  of  other  regions.  The  Thibetan  sacred 
books,  which  extend  to  one  hundred  volumes,  are 
called  Kd-gyur,  that  is,  translation  of  Commandment, 
on  account  of  their  being  translated  from  the  Sanskrit, 
or  from  the  ancient  Indian  langiuige,  by  which  may  be 
understood  the  Pracrita  or  dialect  of  Magadha,  the 
principal  seat  of  the  Budhist  faith  in  India  at  that 
period.  These  sacred  books  were  imported  into 
Thibet,  and  translated  there  between  the  seventh  and 
thirteenth  centuries  of  our  era,  but  mostly  in  the 
ninth.  They  are  in  substance  the  same  as  the  sacred 
books  of  Ceylon,  though  the  account  of  their  origin 
is  widely  ditferent. 

There  is  undoubtedly  a  nearer  approximation  to 
the  truth  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  Divine  Be- 
ing, in  the  Lamaisni  of  Tartary  and  Tliibet  than  in 
the  Budhism  of  Ceylon.  Another  peculiar  feature 
of  Lamaism,  is  that  there  su^e  iiuiumerabic  liv- 
ing Budhas,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  Dalai- 
Lama.  Budha  is,  nevertheless,  the  sole  sovereign 
of  the  universe,  with  a  body,  a  spiritual  sub- 
stance, without  beginning  and  without  end.  But 
while  there  is  thus  evidently  at  the  foundation  of 
the  system  of  Lamaism  a  firm  belief  in  the  existence 
of  one  Supreme  Being,  invisible  and  incorporeal,  it 
is  mixed  up  in  the  doctiine  of  living  Budhas  with  a 
«trange  species  of  msui-worship,  which  is  so  preva- 
lent and  so  engrossing,  as  to  make  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  lose  sight  of  all  higher  notions  of  the 
Divine  Being. 

Among  the  Lamaists  of  Thibet,  the  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  their 
religious  creed  ;  so  that  in  tlieir  opijiion  to  kill  any 
living  creature  whatever  is  to  incur  the  danger  of 
homicide,  since  the  smallest  insect  may  happen  to 
be  the  transmigration  of  a  man.  But  while  the  Thi- 
betan Lamaists  are  thus  strict  in  this  matter,  the 
Foists  of  China  have  little  or  no  scruple  on  the  sub- 
ject of  destroying  animal  life;  and  yet  to  show 
some  regard  for  the  great  Budhist  principle,  they 
now  and  then  dedicate  some  pigs  to  Budha,  which 
are  permitted  to  live  their  usual  terra,  and  die  a  na- 
tural death. 

A  remarkable  analogy  has  sometimes  been  pointed 
out  in  rites  and  customs  between  the  Lamaism  of 
Thibet  and  the  Christianity  of  the  Middle  Ages.  This 
has  been  particularly  noticed,  and  partly  accounted 
for  by  M.  Hue,  himself  a  Romanist  missionary,  in  his 


'  Travels  in  Tartary  and  Thibet : '  "  Upon  the  most 
superficial  examination,"  says  he,  "  of  the  reforms 
and  innovations  introduced  by  Teong-Kaba  into  the 
Lamanesque  worship,  one  must  be  struck  with  their 
affinity  to  Catholicism.  The  cross,  the  mitre,  the 
dalmatica,  the  cope,  which  the  Grand  Lamas  weaj 
on  their  journeys,  or  when  they  are  performing  some 
ceremony  out  of  the  temple  ;  the  service  with  double 
choirs,  the  psalmody,  the  exorcisms,  the  censer,  sus- 
pended from  five  chains,  ajid  which  you  can  open  or 
close  at  pleasure;  the  benedictions  given  by  the 
Lamas  by  extending  the  right  hand  over  the  heads 
of  the  faithful ;  the  chaplet,  ecclesiastical  celibacy, 
spiritual  retirement,  the  worship  of  the  saints,  the 
fasts,  the  processions,  the  litanies,  the  holy  water, 
all  these  are  analogies  between  the  Budhists  and 
ourselves.  Now,  can  it  be  said  that  these  analogies 
are  of  Christian  origin  ?  We  think  so.  We  have 
indeed  found,  neither  in  the  traditions  nor  in  the 
monuments  of  the  coimtry,  any  positive  proof  ol 
their  adoption,  still  it  is  perfectly  legitimate  to  put 
forward  conjectures  which  possess  all  the  character 
istics  of  the  most  emphatic  probability. 

"  It  is  known  that,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  at 
the  time  of  the  domination  of  the  Mongol  emperors, 
there  existed  frequent  relations  between  the  Euro- 
peans and  the  peoples  of  Upper  Asia.  We  have  al- 
ready, in  the  former  part  of  our  nan-ative,  refeiTed  to 
those  celebrated  embassies  which  the  Tartar  con(|uer- 
ors  sent  to  Rome,  to  France,  and  to  England.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  barbarians  who  thus  visited  Eu- 
rope must  have  been  struck  with  the  pomp  and  splen- 
dour of  the  ceremonies  of  Catiiolic  worship,  and  must 
have  carried  back  with  them  into  the  desert  enduring 
memories  of  what  they  had  seen.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  also  known  that,  at  the  same  period,  brethren  of 
various  religious  orders  undertook  remote  pilgrim- 
ages for  the  purpose  of  introducing  Christianity  into 
Tartary ;  and  these  must  have  penetrated  at  the 
same  time  into  Thibet,  among  the  Si-Fan,  and  among 
the  Mongols  on  the  Blue  Sea.  Jean  de  Montcorvin, 
Archbishop  of  Peking,  had  already  organized  a  choir 
of  Mongol  monks,  who  daily  practised  the  recitation 
of  the  psalms,  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic 
faith.  Now,  if  one  reflects  that  Tsong-Kaba  lived 
precisely  at  the  period  when  the  Christian  religion 
was  being  introduced  uito  Central  Asia,  it  will  be  no 
longer  matter  of  astonishment  that  we  find,  in  re- 
formed Buddhism,  such  striking  analogies  with  Chris- 
tianity." 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  these  strikmj 
points  of  similarity  between  Lamaism  and  Romanism 
are  confined  to  the  countries  of  Tartary  and  Tliibet. 
Lamaism,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  is  not  older 
than  the  thirteenth  century  of  the  present  era.  Bud- 
hism was,  no  doubt,  unknown  in  Thibet  600  years 
before ;  but  it  was  only  under  Kublai-Khan,  A.  D. 
1260,  that  the  adherents  of  that  system  were  reduced 
under  the  dominion  of  a  regular  hierarchy,  by  the 
appointment  of  the  first  Grand  Lama      At  this  very 


292 


LAMAS. 


time,  when  tlie  introduction  of  the  new  liierarchy  was 
likely  to  be  accompanied  with  other  changes  and 
raoditications,  the  Thibetians  were  brought  into  com- 
munication with  Christiiuiity,  more  especially  in  the 
(orm  of  Romanism.  The  Khans  had  at  their  court 
not  only  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  Budhists,  but 
Roman  Catholic  and  Nestorian  missionaries  ;  and  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  the  arrival  of  a  strange  Lama 
from  the  far  west  is  said  to  have  made  great  changes 
in  the  aspect  of  rehgious  worship  in  Thibet.  Hence 
in  all  probability  those  pecidiar  analogies,  wliich  have 
b«en  so  distinctly  noticed  by  the  Abb^  Hue.  M. 
Abel-R^musat,  in  his  '  Melanges  Asiatiques,'  thus 
explains  the  processes  by  which  the  innovations  re- 
ferred to  may  have  been  introduced  into  Lamaism. 
"  At  the  time,"  he  says,  "  when  the  Budhist  pa- 
triarchs established  themselves  in  Thibet,  the  por- 
tions of  Tartaiy  which  adjomed  that  countiy  were 
full  of  Christians.  The  Nestorians  had  founded 
cities  there,  and  converted  wliole  nations.  At 
a  later  period  the  conquests  of  the  followers  of 
Ginghis-Khan  collected  there  strangers  from  all 
countries  ;  Georgians,  Armenians,  Russians,  French, 
Mussulmans,  sent  thither  by  the  caliph  of  Bagdad ; 
Catholic  monks,  charged  with  important  missions  by 
the  sovereign  Pontiff  and  by  St.  Louis.  These  last 
carried  with  them  church  ornaments,  altars,  and  re- 
lics, '  to  see,'  says  Joinville,  '  if  they  could  attract 
those  people  to  our  faith.'  They  celebrated  the 
ceremonies  of  their  rehgion  in  the  presence  of  the 
Tartar  princes.  These  gave  them  an  asylum  in  their 
tents,  and  permitted  them  to  rear  chapels,  even  with- 
in the  precincts  of  then-  palaces.  An  Italian  arch- 
bishop, estabUshed  in  the  imperial  city  by  order  of 
Clement  V.,  had  built  a  church  there,  in  which 
three  bells  summoned  the  faithful  to  worship,  and 
he  had  covered  the  walls  with  pictures  representing 
religious  subjects.  Syrian  Christians,  Roman  Ca- 
thohcs,  Schismatics,  Mussulmans,  Idolaters,  all  lived 
mingled  and  confounded  together  at  the  court  of  the 
Mongol  emperors,  who  were  always  ready  to  receive 
new  modes  of  worship,  and  even  to  adopt  them,  pro- 
vided that  they  demanded  on  their  part  no  belief, 
and  more  especially  provided  that  they  imposed  upon 
them  no  constraint.  We  know  that  the  Tartars 
passed  willingly  from  one  sect  to  another,  embraced 
a  new  faith  with  the  utmost  ease,  and  just  as  readily 
renounced  it  to  relapse  again  into  idolatry.  It  was 
in  the  midst  of  these  changes  that  the  new  seat  of 
the  Budhist  patriarchs  was  founded  in  Thibet.  Is  it 
at  all  wonderful,  then,  that  interested  in  multiplying 
the  number  of  their  followers,  anxious  to  impart  more 
splendour  to  their  worship,  they  should  have  appro- 
priated to  themselves  some  liturgical  practices,  some 
of  those  foreign  pompous  ceremonies  which  attracted 
the  crowd  ;  that  tliey  should  have  even  introduced 
some  of  those  institutions  belonging  to  the  West, 
wliicli  tlie  ambassadors  of  the  caliph  and  of  tlie  sov- 
ereign Pontiff  united  in  praising  so  highly,  and  which 
circumstances  disposed  them  to  imitate.     The  coin- 


cidence of  places  and  times  authorizes  this  conjecture, 
and  a  thousand  peculiarities,  which  I  cannot  men- 
tion here,  would  convert  it  into  demonstration." 

The  Lamaists  of  Thibet  are  strict  in  their  atten 
tion  to  religious  observances  of  all  kinds.  Pilgrim- 
ages, noisy  ceremonies  in  the  Lamaseries,  prostra- 
tions on  the  tops  of  their  houses,  we  favourite 
exercises ;  and  even  when  engaged  in  ordinaiy  busi- 
ness, they  carry  about  with  them  rosaries,  which 
they  are  ever  tm'nuig  and  twisting  while  they  are 
incessantly  murmuring  prayers.  Hue  mentions 
that  at  Lha-Ssa,  where  the  Dalai-Lama  resides, 
the  people  are  in  the  habit  of  gathermg  together  in 
groups  in  the  evenmg  in  the  principal  parts  of  the 
town,  and  in  the  pubhc  squares,  where  they  kneel 
down  and  chant  prayers,  which  vary  according  to  the 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  prayer,  however,  which 
they  repeat  on  the  rosary  is  always  the  same,  and 
consists  only  of  six  syllables.  Om!  Mcmi-Padme, 
Hum,  or  as  it  is  generally  called  by  way  of  abbre- 
viation simply  Mani.  This  sacred  formida  is 
regarded  as  of  such  importance  that  it  is  in  every 
one's  mouth,  and  inscribed  on  the  walls  and  public 
places,  as  well  as  in  the  houses. 

LAMAS,  the  Budhist  priests  of  Tartaiy  and  Thi- 
bet. They  are  regarded  as  incarnations  of  Budha  or 
living  Budhas,  and  are  presided  over  by  the  Dalai- 
Lama,  who  possesses  a  readily  acknowledged  spirit- 
ual authority  over  the  whole  priesthood,  and  until  a 
recent  period  was  possessed  of  large  tracts  of  coim- 
try,  over  wliich  he  exercised  undisputed  temporal 
sovereignty.  Formerly,  indeed,  the  Dalai-Lama 
was  the  supreme  ruler  of  the  nation,  but  at  length 
one  of  the  royal  family,  at  the  death  of  the  principal 
Lama,  declared  that  the  spirit  of  the  deceased  eccle- 
siastic had  entered  into  his  body,  and  by  tliis  means 
he  regained  the  power  which  had  been  usurped  by 
the  priests.  The  dress  of  the  Grand  Lama  is  yel- 
low, and  that  of  other  Lamas  of  inferior'  rank  is 
red.  The  Lamas  of  Chinese  Tartary  are  so  numer- 
ous, that  they  amount  to  about  a  third  of  the  entire 
population  ;  and  being  under  a  law  of  celibacy,  the 
Chinese  government  readily  encourage  their  increase 
by  gifts  and  endowments  of  every  kind  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  population  of  tlie  Mongolian  Tartars 
from  a  natural  fear  that,  as  formerly,  they  may  yet 
again  revolutionize  the  empire.  The  Lamas  reside 
in  convents  called  Lamaseries,  which  are  built  round 
about  the  Budhist  temples,  like  the  wiharas  of  Cey- 
lon ;  and  their  time  is  chiefly  spent  in  prayers  fot 
the  people,  which  are  generally  conducted  by  the 
Tcnu-CHOR  (which  see)  or  prayer  cylinder,  and  in 
pursuing  the  occujiation  of  mendicants  to  increase 
the  revenues  of  the  Lamasery.  These  convents, 
which  generally  contain  thousands  of  priests,  are  so 
liberally  endowed,  that  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  pro- 
ductive lands  of  Thibet  are  said  to  be  appropriated 
to  the  support  of  the  priesthood. 

M.  Hue  represents  the  Lamas  as  generally  distiii 
guished  by  their  skill  in  the  decorative  arts  both  ol 


LAMAS. 


293 


painting  and  sculpture.  On  tliis  subject  he  says  : 
"Tlie  Lamas  are  tlie  only  artists  wlio  contribute  to 
the  ornament  and  decoration  of  the  temples.  The 
paintinf^s  are  quite  distinct  from  the  taste  and  the 
principles  of  art  as  understood  in  Kurope.  The  fan- 
tastical and  the  grotesque  predominate  inside  and 
out,  both  in  carvings  and  statuary,  and  the  person- 
ages represented,  with  the  exception  of  Buddha,  have 
generally  a  monstrous  and  satanic  aspect.  The 
clothes  .seem  never  to  have  been  made  for  the  per- 
sons upon  whom  they  are  placed.  The  idea  given 
is  that  of  broken  limbs  concealed  beneath  awkward 
garments. 

"  Amongst  these  Lama  paintings,  however,  you 
sometimes  come  across  specimens  by  no  means  des- 
titute of  beauty.  One  day,  during  a  visit  in  the 
kingdom  of  Gechekten  to  the  great  temple  called 
Allon-SomnS  (Temiile  of  Gold),  we  saw  a  picture 
which  struck  us  with  astonishment.  It  was  a  large 
piece  representing,  in  the  centre,  Buddha  seated  on 
a  rich  carpet.  Around  this  figure,  which  was  of  life 
tize,  there  was  a  sort  of  glory,  composed  of  minia- 
tures, allegorically  expressing  the  Thousand  Virtues 
of  Buddha.  We  could  scarcely  withdraw  oui'selves 
from  this  picture,  remarkable  as  it  was,  not  only  for 
ihe  purity  and  grace  of  the  design,  but  also  for  the  ex- 
pression of  the  faces  and  the  splendour  of  the  colour- 
ing. All  the  personages  seemed  full  of  life.  We 
asked  an  old  Lama,  who  was  attending  us  over  tlie 
place,  what  he  knew  about  this  admirable  work. 
'  Sirs,' said  he,  raising  his  joined  hands  to  his  fore- 
head in  token  of  respect, '  this  picture  is  a  treasure  of 
the  remotest  antiquity ;  it  comprehends  within  its 
surface  the  whole  doctrine  of  Buddha.  It  is  not  a 
Mongol  painting ;  it  came  from  Thibet,  and  was  exe- 
cuted by  a  saint  of  the  Eternal  Sanctuary.' 

"  The  artists  here  are,  in  general,  more  successful 
in  the  landscapes  than  in  the  epic  subjects.  Flowers, 
birds,  trees,  mythological  animals,  are  represented 
with  great  truth  and  with  infinitely  pleasing  efiect. 
The  colouring  is  wonderfully  full  of  life  and  fresh- 
ness. It  is  only  a  pity  that  the  painters  of  these 
landscapes  have  so  very  indifferent  a  notioa  \s  to 
perspective  and  chiaro-oscuro. 

"  The  Lamas  are  far  better  sculptors  than  paint- 
ers, and  they  are  accordingly  very  lavish  of  carv- 
ings in  their  Buddhist  temples.  Everywhere  in  and 
about  these  edifices  you  see  works  of  this  class  of 
art,  in  quantity  bespeaking  the  fecundity  of  the 
artist's  chisel,  but  of  a  quality  which  says  little  for 
his  taste.  First,  outside  the  temples  are  an  infi- 
nite number  of  tigers,  lions,  and  elephants  crouching 
upon  blocks  of  granite  ;  then  the  stone  balustrades 
of  the  steps  leading  to  the  great  gates  are  covered 
with  fantastic  sculptures  representing  birds,  reptiles, 
and  beasts,  of  all  kinds,  real  .and  inia;^'inary.  Inside, 
the  walls  are  decorated  with  relievos  in  wood  or 
stone,  executed  witli  great  spirit  and  truth." 

The  Lamas  are  considered  as  of  two  parties,  which 
»re  known  by  the  names  of  Eed  Cap  Lamas  and 


Yellow  Cap  Lamas.  The  former  are  by  far  the 
most  ancient  of  the  confratenn'ties,  having  originated 
a.s  early  as  the  eighth  century  after  Chrint ;  while 
the  latter  did  not  exist  until  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  they  arose  under  the  aus 
pices  of  the  great  Budhist  reformer  Tseng  Kaba. 
By  degrees  the  Yellow  Caps  became  the  predomi- 
nant sect,  and  the  reforms  proposed  by  Tseng  JCaba 
were  adopted  throughout  Thibet,  and  afterwards  be- 
came, by  imperceptible  degrees,  established  in  all  the 
kingdoms  of  Tartary.  The  Bonze-i  of  China  still 
retain  the  ancient  rites,  with  the  exception  of  some 
innovations  which  belong  to  particular  localities  ;  but 
the  distinction  between  the  two  classes  of  Lamas  is 
retained  in  China,  those  who  adhere  to  the  reformed 
faith  of  Tsong  Kaba  being  known  as  the  Yellow, 
while  those  who  cleave  to  the  old  worship  are  termed 
the  Grey  Lamas.  These  two  sects  were  at  one  time, 
doubtless,  violently  opposed  to  each  other,  but  now 
they  live  together  in  perfect  harmony. 

From  the  immense  numbers  of  Lamas  found  in 
Tartary  and  Thibet,  the  traveller  cannot  fail  to  be 
struck  with  the  difficulty  of  meeting  the  expenses  of 
such  a  large  staff  of  priests  by  public  endowments. 
In  addition  to  the  lands  which  go  towards  their 
maintenance,  the  authorities  make  a  distribution  of 
meal  every  third  month  to  all  the  Lamas  without  dis- 
tinction, but  the  quantity  is  altogether  inadequate  ; 
and,  accordingly,  this  government  grant  is  supple- 
mented by  the  voluntary  offerings  of  the  pUgi-ims, 
which,  however,  are  divided  among  the  Lamas  ac- 
cording to  the  position  which  each  holds  in  the  hier- 
archy, and,  accordingly,  there  are  many  who  receive 
nothing  at  all  from  this  source.  In  addition  to  the 
offerings  which  are  made,  cither  in  tea  or  money, 
the  Lamas  earn  a  subsistence  for  themselves  by 
some  handicraft  trade  or  by  engaging  in  commerce  ; 
and  some  of  them  by  printing  and  transcribing  the 
Lamanesque  books.  The  art  of  medicine,  also,  is 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Lamas,  chiefly  from  an 
impression  which  prevails  among  the  Tartars,  that 
every  disease  is  caused  by  the  visitation  of  a  demon, 
who  must,  therefore,  be  expelled  by  a  priestly  exor- 
cism before  the  patient  can  possibly  recover. 

The  Materia  Medica  of  the  Lamas  is  almost  wholly 
limited  to  pulverized  vegetables,  either  in  the  form 
of  infusion  or  pills ;  but  if  no  medicine  should  hap- 
pen to  be  at  hand,  the  Lama,  not  in  the  least  dis- 
concerted, simply  writes  the  names  of  a  few  reme- 
dies upon  scraps  of  paper,  which  having  moistened 
he  rolls  up  into  the  form  of  pills,  administering  them 
to  the  patient,  who  confidently  swallows  them,  be- 
lieving that  to  swallow  the  name  of  a  remedy  is 
equally  efficacious  with  swallowing  the  remedy  itself. 
Having  acted  the  physician,  the  Lama  next  proceeds 
to  act  the  priest,  repeating  prayers  suited  to  the 
rank  of  the  Tchutgour  or  demon  to  be  expelled.  If 
the  patient  be  poor,  the  exorcism  is  a  brief  offhand 
process,  but  if  he  be  rich,  the  process  is  lengthened 
out  by  numerous  prayers  and  ceremonies.     M.  Hue 


294 


LAMAS. 


mentions  the  case  of  a  wealthy  chiefs  aunt,  who 
having  fallen  sick,  a  Lama  was  sent  for,  who  in- 
stantly declared  that  tlie  patient  was  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  demon  of  considerable  rank,  who  must 
be  forthwith  expelled  at  wliatever  cost.  Eiglit  other 
Lamas  were  called  in,  who  set  about  constructing 
from  dried  herbs,  a  large  figure  which  they  called  the 
Demon  of  Intermittent  Fevers,  and  which  when 
completed  they  placed  on  its  legs  by  means  of  a  stick 
in  the  patient's  tent. 

"  The  ceremony,"  says  M.  Hue,  "  began  at  eleven 
o'clock  at  night ;  the  Lamas  ranged  themselves  in  a 
semicircle  round  the  upper  portion  of  the  tent,  with 
cymbals,  sea-shells,  bells,  tambourines,  and  other 
instruments  of  the  noisy  Tartar  music.  The  re- 
rtiaiuder  of  the  circle  was  completed  by  the  members 
of  the  family,  squatting  on  the  gi-ound  close  to  one 
another,  the  patient  kneeling,  or  rather  crouclied  on 
her  heels,  opposite  tlie  Demon  of  Intermittent  Fevers. 
The  Lama  doctor-in-chief  had  before  him  a  lai'ge 
copper  basin  filled  with  millet,  and  some  little  images 
made  of  paste.  The  dung-fuel  threw,  amid  much 
«moke,  a  fantastic  and  quivering  light  over  the 
strange  scene. 

"  Upon  a  given  signal,  the  clerical  orchestra  exe- 
cuted an  overture  harsh  enougli  to  frighten  Satan 
himself,  the  lay  congregation  beating  time  with  their 
liands  to  tlie  charivari  of  clanging  instruments  and 
ear-splitting  voices.  The  diabolical  concert  over,  the 
Grand  Lama  opened  the  Book  of  Exorcisms,  which 
he  rested  on  Iiis  knees.  As  he  chanted  one  of  the 
forms,  he  took  from  the  basin,  from  time  to  time,  a 
handful  of  millet,  wliich  he  threw  east,  west,  north, 
and  south,  according  to  the  Rubric.  The  tones  of 
his  voice,  as  he  prayed,  were  sometimes  mournful 
and  suppressed,  sometimes  vehemently  loud  and 
energetic.  All  of  a  sudden,  he  would  quit  the  re- 
gular cadence  of  prayer,  and  have  an  outburst  of  ap- 
parently indomitable  rage,  abusing  the  herb  puppet 
with  fierce  invectives  and  furious  gestures.  The 
exorcism  terminated,  he  gave  a  signal  by  stretching 
out  his  arms,  right  and  left,  and  the  other  Lamas 
struck  up  a  tremendously  noisy  chorus,  in  hurried, 
dashing  tones ;  all  the  instruments  were  set  to  work, 
and  meantime  the  lay  congregation,  having  started 
up  with  one  accord,  ran  out  of  the  tent,  one  after  the 
Dther,  and  tearing  round  it  like  mad  people,  beat  it 
at  their  hardest  with  sticks,  yelling  all  the  wliile  at 
the  pitch  of  their  voices  in  a  manner  to  make  ordi- 
nary hair  stand  on  end.  Having  thrice  performed 
tliis  demoniac  round,  they  re-entered  the  tent  as  pre- 
cipitately as  they  had  quitted  it,  and  resumed  their 
seats.  Then,  all  the  others  covering  their  faces  with 
their  hands,  the  Grand  Lama  rose  and  set  fire  to  the 
herb  figure.  As  soon  as  the  liames  rose,  he  uttered 
a  loud  cry,  which  was  repeated  with  interest  by  the 
rest  of  the  company.  The  laity  immediately  rose, 
seized  the  burning  figure,  carried  it  into  the  plain, 
away  from  the  tents,  and  tliere.  as  it  consumed, 
liiathematized  it  with  all  sorts  of  imprecations ;  tlie 


Lamas  meantime  squatted  in  the   tent,   tranquilly 
chanting  their  prayers  in  a  grave,  solemn  tone. 

"  Upon  the  return  of  the  family  from  their  valor- 
ous expedition,  the  praying  was  exclianged  for  joy- 
ous felicitations.  By-aud-by,  each  person  provided 
with  a  hghted  torch,  the  whole  party  rushed  simul- 
taneously from  the  tent,  and  formed  into  a  proces- 
sion, the  laymen  first,  then  the  patient,  supported  on 
either  side  by  a  member  of  the  family,  and  lastly,  the 
nine  Lamas,  making  night  hideous  with  their  music. 
In  this  style  the  patient  was  conducted  to  another 
tent,  pursuant  to  the  orders  of  the  Lama,  who  had 
declared  that  she  must  absent  herself  from  her  own 
habitation  for  an  entire  month. 

"  After  this  strange  treatment,  the  malady  did  not 
return.  The  probability  is,  that  the  Lamas,  having 
ascertained  the  precise  moment  at  which  the  fever- 
fit  would  recur,  met  it  at  the  exact  point  of  time  by 
tliis  tremendous  counter-excitement,  and  overcame 
it." 

The  Lamas  are  invited  also  to  officiate  at  funerals, 
not,  however,  in  every  case,  but  only  when  the  de- 
ceased is  wealthy,  and  in  consequence  the  process  of 
burning  the  corpse  is  conducted  with  great  solemnity. 
On  such  occasions  the  Lamas  suiTound  the  tomb 
during  the  combustion  and  recite  prayers.  The  pro- 
cess of  burning  being  completed,  they  destroy  the  fur- 
nace, and  cany  the  bones  to  tlie  Grand  Lama,  who 
reduces  them  to  a  fine  powder,  and  having  added  to 
them  an  equal  quantity  of  meal,  he  kneads  the 
whole  with  care,  and  constructs  with  his  own  hands 
cakes  of  diflerent  sizes,  wliich  he  places  one  upon  the 
other  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid.  These  cakes  thus 
prepared  by  the  Grand  Lama  are  conveyed  with 
great  pomp  to  a  little  tower  whicli  has  been  built 
beforehand  to  receive  them. 

In  the  ordinary  prayers  in  the  Budhist  temples, 
the  Lamas  having  been  summoned  by  the  loud  sound 
of  a  sea-conch,  enter  barefooted  and  in  solemn  si- 
lence, and  after  three  prostrations  to  the  living 
Budha,  take  their  seats  on  a  divan  cross-legged  and 
always  in  a  circle.  The  whole  service  consists  of 
prayers,  which  are  murmured  with  a  low  voice,  and 
psalms  which  are  sung  in  a  grave,  melodious  tone, 
interrupted,  however,  at  certain  intervals  by  instru- 
mental music,  so  loud  and  harsh  and  dissonant  as  to 
be  altogether  out  of  keeping  with  the  rest  of  the 
exercises. 

The  Lamas,  though  all  of  them  possessing  a  sa- 
cred character,  and  held  in  great  reverence  by  the 
people,  are  by  no  means  uniform  in  their  mode  of 
life.  Some  of  them,  under  the  name  of  Domesti* 
Lamas,  either  settle  in  the  small  Lamaseries,  or  live 
at  lionie  with  their  families,  retaining  little  more  of 
their  ]iriestly  office  than  its  red  and  yellow  dress. 
Another  class  consists  of  Wandering  Lamas,  who 
travel  from  place  to  place  all  over  their  own  and  the 
adjacent  countries,  subsisting  on  what  jirovisions 
ihey  may  pick  up  on  their  journey.  A  third  class 
is  composed  of  the  Lamas  who  live  in  commmiitv. 


LAMASERY. 


29i 


And  pay  more  attention  than  the  other  Lamsxs  to 
prayer  and  study.  Tliese  I'orrn  the  inmates  of  a 
IjAMASKkv  (which  see).  In  Tiutary  ihe  Lamas  do 
not  criiljrace  the  profession  of  the  pnesthood  from 
intelligent  and  deliberate  choice,  but  are  destined  to 
it  from  birth  by  their  parents.  As  they  gi'ow  up 
they  become  accustomed  to  the  life  of  a  Lama,  and 
iu  course  of  time  they  come  generally  to  prefer  it  to 
every  other.  Some  are  foimd  to  retire  to  places  of 
seclusion,  and  pass  tlioir  days  iu  comtemplation  and 
devotion.  Such  contemplative  Lamas,  however,  are 
by  no  moans  numerous. 

LAMASEKY,  a  collection  of  small  houses  built 
around  one  or  more  Budhist  temples  in  Tartary  and 
Thibet  as  a  residence  for  the  Lamas.  Its  size  and 
elegance  is  wholly  dependent  on  the  means  of  the 
proprietor.  In  Tartaay  the  Lamaseries  are  all  con- 
structed of  brick  and  stone.  Only  the  poorest 
Lainaa  build  their  dwellmgs  of  earth,  and  even  these 
are  so  well  whitewashed  that  it  is  difficult  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  rest.  In  some  cases  gi-ants  ai'e 
made  from  the  pubhc  treasmy  to  assist  in  the  erec- 
tion of  Budhist  temples,  with  their  accompanying 
Lamaseries,  but  the  gi'eater  part  of  the  expense  is 
defrayed  by  voluntary  subscription.  Lama  collec- 
tors go  forth  properly  attested  to  gather  the  neces- 
sary funds,  carrying  with  them  a  sacred  basin  for 
the  purpose.  " They  disperse  themselves  through- 
out the  kingdom  of  Tartary,  beg  alms  from  tent  to 
tent  in  the  name  of  the  Old  Buddha.  Upon  enter- 
ing a  tent  and  explaining  the  object  of  their  jouiuey, 
by  showing  the  sacred  basin  in  which  the  ofl'erings 
are  placed,  they  are  received  with  joyful  enthusiasm. 
There  is  no  one  but  gives  something.  The  rich 
place  in  the  '  badir'  ingots  of  gold  and  silver;  those 
who  do  not  possess  the  precious  metals,  ofl'er  oxen, 
horses,  or  camels.  The  poorest  contribute  according 
to  the  extent  of  their  means ;  they  give  lumps  of 
butter,  furs,  ropes  made  of  the  hair  of  camels  and 
horses.  Thus,  in  a  short  time,  are  collected  innnense 
sums.  Then,  iu  these  deserts,  apparently  so  poor, 
you  see  rise  up,  as  if  by  enchantment,  edifices  whose 
grandeur  and  wealth  would  defy  the  resources  of  the 
richest  potentates." 

Some  of  the  Tartar  Lamaseries  are  so  large — for 
example  the  Great  Kom-eu — that  they  are  capable  of 
accommodating  30,000  Lamas.  The  plain  unassuming 
residences  of  the  Lamas  contrast  strongly  with  the 
elegance  of  the  temples  around  which  they  are 
placed.  The  houses  of  the  superior,  however,  difl'er 
from  those  of  the  other  Lamas,  by  having  each  of 
them  a  small  pagoda  or  tower,  at  the  top  of  which 
dies  a  triangular  flag  of  some  gay  colour-,  with  the 
rank  of  the  inmate  inscribed  upon  it  in  letters  of 
gold.  Blue  Town  in  Tartary  is  more  particularly 
noted  for  its  Lamaseries,  there  being  within  its  walls, 
five  great  buildings  of  this  kind,  each  inhabited  by 
more  than  2,000  Lamas,  besides  fifteen  lesser  estab- 
lishments, connected  with  the  former.  In  that  single 
city  reside  no  fewer  than  20,000  regular  llamas,  not 


to  speak  of  a  multitude  in  ditierent  quartern  of  tb« 
town  engaged  in  commerce.  The  fiuest  of  all  the 
Lauiaseries  iu  Blue  Town,  is  that  which  in  termed 
tlie  Lamasery  of  the  Five  Towers,  in  which  the 
Jlobiltjan  lives,  that  is,  a  Grand  Lama,  who  after 
having  been  identified  with  the  substance  of  Budha, 
has  already  undergone  several  times  the  process  of 
transmigration. 

The  Lamaseries  in  Tartary  have  generally  endow- 
ments from  the  public  funds,  and  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  the  revenues  are  divided  among  the 
Lamas  according  to  their  ecclesiastical  dignity.  The 
Chahcrons  or  Livliirj  BudUas  are  generally  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  most  important  Lamaseries,  and  to 
receive  the  benediction  of  one  of  these  incarnations 
of  Budha,  is  imagined  to  convey  so  many  advantages, 
that  the  couvent  in  which  he  resides  soon  becomes  a 
place  of  gi-eat  resort,  and  rapidly  rises  to  fame  in  the 
country.  "  There  is  no  Tartar  kingdom,"  says  M. 
Hue,  the  only  authority  on  the  subject,  "  which  does 
not  possess,  in  one  of  its  Lamaseries  of  the  first 
class,  a  living  Buddha.  Besides  this  superior,  there 
is  always  another  Grand  Lama,  who  is  selected  from 
the  members  of  tlie  royal  family.  The  Thibetian 
Lama  resides  in  the  Lamasery,  like  a  living  idol, 
receiving  every  day  the  adorations  of  the  devout, 
upon  whom  iu  retmn  he  bestows  his  blessing.  Every- 
thing wliich  relates  to  prayers  and  liturgical  cere- 
monies, is  placed  under  his  immediate  superinten- 
dence. The  Iilongol  Grand  Lama  is  charged  with 
the  administration,  good  order,  and  executive  of  the 
Lamaseiy ;  he  governs  whilst  his  colleague  is  con 
tent  to  reign. 

"Below  these  two  sovereigns,  are  several  subal- 
tern ofiicers,  who  du-ect  the  details  of  the  adminis- 
tration, the  revenues,  the  sales,  the  purcliases,  and 
the  disciphne.  The  scribes  keep  the  registers,  and 
draw  up  the  regulations  and  orders  which  the  gover- 
nor Lama  promulgates  for  the  good  keeping  and 
order  of  the  Lamasery.  These  scribes  are  generally 
well  versed  in  the  Mongol,  Thibetian,  and  some- 
times in  the  Chinese  and  Wantchou  languages. 
Before  they  are  admitted  to  this  employment,  they 
are  obliged  to  undergo  a  very  rigorous  examination, 
in  presence  of  all  the  Lamas  and  of  the  principal 
civil  authorities  of  the  country. 

"  After  this  staff  of  superiors  and  ofiicers,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Lamasery  are  divided  into  Lama- 
raasters  and  Lama-disciples  or  Chabis;  each  Lama 
has  under  his  direction  one  or  more  Chabis,  who  live 
in  his  small  house,  and  execute  all  the  details  of  the 
household.  If  tlie  master  possesses  cattle,  they  take 
charge  of  them,  milk  the  cows,  and  prepare  the  but- 
ter and  cream.  In  return  for  these  services,  the 
master  directs  his  disciples  in  the  study  of  the 
prayers,  and  initiates  them  into  the  Uturgy.  Every 
morning  the  Chabi  must  be  up  before  liis  master : 
his  first  task  is  to  sweep  the  chamber,  to  light  a 
fire  and  to  make  the  tea;  after  that  he  takes  his 
prayer-book,  presents  it  respectfully  to  his  master 


296 


LAMIjE— LAMPADON  HEMERA. 


and  prostrates  himself  thrice  before  him,  without 
Baying  a  single  word.  This  sign  of  respect  is  equi- 
valent to  a  request  that  the  lesson  he  has  to  learn  in 
the  course  of  the  day  may  be  marked.  The  master 
opens  the  book,  and  reads  some  pages,  according  to 
the  capacity  of  his  scholar,  who  then  makes  three 
more  prostrations  in  sign  of  thanks,  and  retm-ns  to 
liis  afiairs. 

"  The  Chabi  studies  his  prayer-book,  when  he  is 
disposed  to  do  so,  there  being  no  iixed  period  for 
that ;  he  may  spend  his  time,  sleeping  or  romping 
with  the  other  young  pupils,  without  the  slightest 
interference  on  the  part  of  his  master.  When  the  hour 
for  retiring  to  bed  has  amved,  he  recites  the  lesson 
assigned  him  in  the  morning,  in  a  monotonous  man- 
ner ;  if  the  recitation  is  good,  be  is  looked  upon  as 
having  done  his  duty,  the  silence  of  his  master  being 
the  only  praise  he  is  entitled  to  obtain ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  he  is  not  able  to  give  a  good  account  of  his 
lesson,  the  severest  punishment  makes  him  sensible 
of  his  fault.  It  often  happens,  that  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, the  master,  laymg  aside  liis  usual  gra- 
vity, rustles  upon  his  scholar,  and  overwhelms  him 
at  once  with  blows  and  ten'ible  maledictions.  Some 
of  the  pupils,  who  are  over  maltreated,  run  away 
and  seek  adventures  far  from  their  Lamasery ;  but 
in  general  they  patiently  submit  to  the  punishment 
inflicted  on  them,  even  that  of  passing  the  night  in 
the  open  air,  without  any  clothes  and  in  full  winter. 
We  often  had  opportunities  of  talking  with  Chabis, 
and  when  we  asked  them  whether  there  was  no 
means  of  leaniing  the  prayers  without  being  beaten, 
they  ingenuously,  and  with  an  accent  manifesting 
entire  conviction,  replied,  that  it  was  impossible." 

Among  the  Budhists,  a  devotee  acquires  peculiar 
merit  by  making  the  circuit  of  a  Lamasery,  prostrat- 
ing himself  with  his  forehead  to  the  gi'ound,  at  every 
step  he  takes.  This  ceremony  must  be  performed 
witliout  intermission,  so  strictly  that  the  pilgrims  are 
not  permitted,  on  pain  of  losing  all  spiritual  benefit, 
to  pause  for  even  a  single  moment.  Each  prostra- 
tion must  be  perfect,  so  that  the  body  shall  be 
stretched  flat  along  the  ground,  and  the  forehead 
touch  the  earth,  while  the  aiTQs  are  sp'-ead  out  in 
front,  and  the  hands  joined  as  if  in  the  exercise  of 
prayer.  Before  rising  the  pilgrim  describes  each 
time  a  semicircle  on  the  ground  by  means  of  a  goat's 
horn,  which  he  holds  in  either  hand,  the  hne  being 
completed  by  drawing  the  arm  down  to  the  side. 
All  devotees,  however,  do  not  subject  themselves  to 
this  diilicult  and  even  painful  exercise.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  prostrating  themselves  while  they  are  per- 
forming the  circuit,  they  carry  with  them  instead,  a 
load  of  prayer-books,  and  in  this  case,  when  they  have 
completed  the  circuit  with  their  lieavy  burden,  they 
are  considered  to  have  recited  all  the  prayers  con- 
tained in  the  books  they  have  carried.  Another 
mode  of  performing  the  pilgrimage  round  a  Lama- 
lery  is  by  simply  walking  the  circuit,  while  the  de- 
votee employs  himself  in  counting  the  beads  of  his 


long  chaplet,  or  turning  the  wheel  of  liis  Tchu-Chm 
or  prayer-cylinder. 

Lha-Ssa  in  Thibet  is  the  chief  seat  of  Budhist 
worship,  being  the  residence  of  the  Dalai-Lama.  In 
this  district  alone  there  are  counted  more  than  thirty 
large  Lamaseries,  the  principal  of  which,  those  ot 
Khaldan,  of  Preboung,  and  of  Sera,  contain  each  of 
them  nearly  15,000  Lamas.  The  last  mentioned  oi 
these  convents  is  remarkable  for  three  large  temples 
of  several  stories  high,  all  the  rooms  of  which  are 
entirely  gilt.  Hence  the  name  Sera,  which  in  Thi- 
betian  signifies  golden.  In  the  chief  of  these  three 
temples  is  contained  the  famous  Tortche  (which 
see),  or  sanctifymg  instrument,  which  is  held  in 
great  veneration,  and  at  the  New  Year's  festival  is 
carried  in  procession  with  great  pomp  to  Lha-Ssa  to 
be  adored  by  the  people. 

LAMB  OF  GOD.    See  Agnus  Dei. 

LAMB  PASCHAL.    See  Passovek. 

LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  See  Articles  (Lam- 
beth). 

LAMIjE,  evil  spirits,  believed  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  assume  the  form  of  beautiful 
women,  and  to  entice  away  young  children  for  the 
purpose  of  devom-ing  them.  The  notion  was  thought 
to  have  had  its  origin  in  an  ancient  legend,  which 
represented  Lamia,  a  Libyan  queen  of  singular 
beauty,  to  have  attracted  tlie  regards  of  Zeus,  and 
thus  brought  upon  herself  the  jealousy  of  Hera,  who 
in  revenge  robbed  her  of  her  childi'en.  Lamia,  in 
revenge  and  despair,  robbed  others  of  their  children, 
and  cruelly  devoured  them.  Hence  ai-ose  the  story 
of  Lamice  or  cruel  spirits,  who  excited  great  alarm. 
Horace  mentions  them  in  his  Art  of  Poetry. 

LAMMAS-DAY,  a  festival  celebrated  in  the 
Romish  church  on  the  1st  of  August,  annually,  in 
memory  of  the  imprisonment  of  the  Apostle  Peter. 

LAMPADARY,  an  oflicer  in  the  Greek  church, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  light  up  the  church  as  occasion 
requires,  and  supply  the  lamps  with  oil. 

LAMPADEPHORIA,  (Gr.  lampa.%  a  torch,  and 
phero,  to  carry),  games  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
wliich  consisted  in  carrying  an  unextinguislied  torcli 
through  certain  distances  by  a  successive  chain  of 
runners,  each  taking  it  up  at  the  point  where  another 
left  it.  The  fu'st,  after  running  with  it  a  certain 
distance,  handed  it  to  the  second,  and  the  second,  in 
like  manner,  to  the  third,  those  who  let  the  torcli  go 
out,  losing  the  game.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  what 
was  the  precise  origin  of  these  games  ;  but  in  all  pro- 
bability they  were  connected  with  the  worshiji  of 
Prometheus,  wlio  was  alleged  to  have  been  the  first 
wlio  brought  fire  down  from  heaven  for  the  use  of 
man.  But  as  the  race-course  extended  from  the 
altar  of  the  three  gods,  who  were  the  patrons  of 
lire,  namely,  Prometheus,  Athena,  and  Hephaistos,  to 
the  Acropolis,  the  Lampadepho-ria  were,  no  doubt, 
intended  to  do  honour  to  these  three  deities,  who 
had  given  and  tauffht  men  the  use  of  fire. 

LAMPADON  HEMERA(Gr.  the  day  of  torches), 


LAMP— LAMPETIANS. 


2!rt 


the  name  given  to  the  fiftli  day  of  tlie  IOlbusinian 
Mystekiks  (which  see),  because  on  tliat  day  the 
initiated  marclicd  two  and  two  in  procession,  each 
witli  a  torch  in  liis  hand,  into  tlic  temple  of  Ceres  at 
I'jleiisis.  In  this  procession  the  Dadiicli  with  a  large 
torch  led  tlie  way.  The  torches  were  passed  from 
liand  to  hand,  and  the  smoke  and  flames  whicli  they 
caused  were  believed  to  impart  a  purifying  inlhionce 
upon  all  around.  The  use  of  torches  on  this  occa- 
sion is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  circum- 
stance that  Ceres,  while  wandering  through  the 
earth  in  search  of  lier  lost  child,  lighted  her  path  by 
torclies. 

LAMP  (The),  a  ceremony  practised  by  the  Ma- 
RONITE  Cnuitcil  (which  see),  by  way  of  anoint- 
ing for  the  sick.  They  make  a  cake  somewhat 
larger  than  the  consecrated  wafer  of  the  llomanists, 
and  put  upon  it  seven  pieces  of  cotton  twisted  with 
little  pieces  of  straw,  and  put  all  together  into  a  ba- 
son with  some  oil.  Having  read  a  portion  of  one  of 
the  gospels  and  epistles,  with  some  prayers,  they  set 
fire  to  all  the  cottons.  They  now  anoint  with  this 
oil  the  forehead,  breast,  and  arms  of  every  one  pre- 
sent, and  particularly  of  the  sick  person,  saying  at 
each  unction,  "  May  the  Almighty,  by  this  sacred 
unction,  pardon  all  thy  sins,  and  strengthen  thy 
limbs  as  he  did  those  of  the  poor  man  who  was  trou- 
bled with  the  palsy."  Then  they  let  the  lamp  burn 
till  all  the  oil  is  exhausted.  This  rite  is  administered 
not  to  the  dying,  as  in  the  case  of  the  extreme  unc- 
tion of  the  Romish  church,  but  to  those  who  are 
sick,  even  though  not  mortally. 

LAMPS.  In  all  ages  we  find  lamps  used  in  the 
religious  rites  and  customs  of  various  nations.  A 
burning  lamp  is  mentioned  at  a  very  early  period  in 
connection  with  the  ratification  of  the  covenant  made 
with  Abraham.  Thus  Gen.  xv.  17,  "  And  it  came  to 
pass,  that  when  the  sun  went  down,  and  it  was  dark, 
behold  a  smoking  furnace,  and  a  burning  lamp  that 
passed  between  those  pieces."  In  illustration  of  this 
very  ancient  mode  of  ratifying  a  covenant,  Roberts 
remai-ks,  "  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  bunting 
lamp  or  tire  is  still  used  in  the  East  in  conlinnation 
of  a  covenant.  Should  a  person  in  the  evening  make 
a  solemn  promise  to  perform  something  for  another, 
and  should  the  latter  doubt  his  word,  the  former  will 
Bay,  pointing  to  the  flame  of  the  lamp,  '  That  is  the 
witness.'  On  occasions  of  greater  importance,  when 
two  or  more  join  in  a  covenant,  should  the  fidelity  of 
any  be  questioned,  they  will  say, '  We  invoke  the 
lamp  of  the  Temple.'  Wlien  an  agi-eement  of  this 
kind  has  been  broken,  it  will  be  said,  '  Who  would 
have  thought  this,  for  the  lamp  of  the  Temple  was 
hivoked.'" 

The  Jews  were  accustomed  in  ancient  times  to 
light  lamps  at  their  festivals,  and  particularly  at  the 
feast  instituted  by  Judas  Jlaccabsus,  which,  from 
that  circumstance,  received  the  name  of  the  Feast  of 
Lights.  Herodotus,  the  father  of  profane  history, 
mentions  a  feast  under  this  name,  which  was  cele- 


brated among  the  ancient  Egyptian*.  "  They  also 
meet,"  ho  says,  "  at  Sais  to  offer  sacrifice  during  a 
certain  night,  when  every  one  lights  in  the  open  air 
a  number  of  lamps  around  his  house.  The  lamps 
consist  of  small  cups  filled  with  salt  and  oil,  having 
a  wick  floating  in  each,  which  burns  all  ni<^ht.  This  is 
call(;d  the  '  Feast  of  the  burning  of  Lamps.'"  In  the 
M'li/nwas  of  the  Singhalese  Hudhists,  where  the  sacred 
books  are  read,  lamjis  and  lanterns  are  suspended  in 
great  profusion  and  variety,  and  it  is  accounted  an 
act  of  merit  for  the  people  to  hold  lamps  in  their 
hands  or  upon  their  heads  while  the  priests  are 
reading.  In  many  ancient  nations  the  sepulchres 
wore  wont  to  bo  lighted  up  with  lamps,  which  were 
kept  constantly  burning.  This  is  still  the  custom  in 
Jai)an,  where,  in  the  case  of  a  wealthy  man  who  has 
died,  150  lamps  are  kept  constantly  burning  in  his 
tomb.  Lamps,  indeed,  have  in  all  ages  been  a  com- 
mon ornament  in  the  temples  of  the  heathen,  espe- 
cially on  festivals.  TertuUian  and  Lactantius  both 
of  tliera  speak  of  this  custom  as  prevailing  among 
the  heathen.  The  Christians,  also,  seem  to  have 
learned  this  custom  from  the  idolaters  around  them. 
Hence  we  find  one  of  the  AposUitical  canons  forbid- 
ding Christians  to  carry  oil  to  any  heathen  temple, 
or  Jewish  .synagogue,  or  to  set  up  lights  on  their  fes- 
tivals under  penalty  of  excommunication.  In  a 
canon  also  of  the  council  of  Eliberis,  Cliristians  are 
prohibited  from  setting  up  lamps  in  public  under  the 
same  penalty.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  from  the  very 
existence  of  such  canons,  that  some  tendency  must 
have  been  shown  by  the  Christians  to  imitate  the 
heathen  in  the  use  of  lamps  as  an  essential  part  of 
certain  religious  rites. 

LAMPS  (Festival  of),  celebrated  annually  iu 
Rajast'han,  in  honour  of  the  Hindu  goddess  Laksh- 
Mi  (which  see).  Tliis  brilliant  festival  is  called  the 
Dewali,  when  every  city,  village,  and  encamiiment 
exhibits  a  most  brilliant  spectacle.  For  weeks  be- 
fore workmen  are  busy  night  and  day  in  the 
manufacture  of  lamps  for  the  occasion,  and  all  ranks, 
from  the  palace  to  the  cottage,  provide  thcm.'elves 
with  these  means  of  illumination  in  a  form  more  or 
less  costly.  Stuft's,  pieces  of  gold,  and  sweetmeats, 
are  carried  in  trays,  and  consecrated  at  the  temple 
of  Lakshmi,  to  whom  the  day  is  consecrated.  The 
Rana,  on  this  occasion,  honours  his  prime  minister 
with  his  presence  at  dinner,  and  this  chief  oflicer  of 
state,  who  is  always  of  the  mercantile  caste,  pours 
oil  into  a  terra  cotta  lamp,  which  his  sovereign  holds  ; 
the  same  libation  of  oil  is  permitted  by  each  of  the 
near  relations  of  the  minister.  On  this  day  it  is  in- 
cumbent upon  every  votary  of  LaJcshmi  to  try  the 
chance  of  the  dice,  and  from  their  success  in  the 
dewali,  the  prince,  the  chief,  the  merchant,  and  the 
artizan  foretell  the  state  of  their  cofl'ers  for  the  en- 
suing year. 

LAMPETIANS,  an  early  Christian  sect  who 
maintained  that  the  Sabbath  ought  to  be  held  as  a 
fast.  Another  sect,  bearing  this  name,  was  founded 
2c 


298 


LAMPTER— LANTERNS  (Chinese  Feast  of). 


in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Lampetius,  a  Syrian 
monk,  wlio  seems  to  liave  embraced  opinions  unfa- 
vourable to  monastic  vows.  lie  lield  tliat  as  man  is 
bom  fi-ee,  no  Clu-istian  ought  to  do  any  thing  com- 
pulsorily  or  by  necessity.  Hence  he  denied  the 
lawfidness  of  all  vows,  even  those  of  obedience. 

LAMPTER,  the  torchbearer,  a  surname  of  Dio- 
nysvs.  under  which  he  was  worshipped  at  Pelleue,  in 
Acliaia,  where  a  festival  called  Lampteria  was  cele- 
brated in  lionour  of  this  god. 

LANITHO,  a  demon  of  the  air,  wor.shipped  among 
the  inliabitants  of  the  Molucca  islands. 

LANTERNS  (Chinese  Feast  of),  a  festival  ob- 
served on  the  first  full  moon  of  the  New  year.     Its 
chief  characteristic  seems  to  be,  that  it  aft'ords  a  display 
of  ingenuity  and  taste  in  the  construction  and  meclia- 
nism  of  an  infinite  variety  of  lanterns  made  of  silk, 
varnish,  horn,  paper,  and  glass,  some  of  them  sup- 
plied with  moving  figures  of  men  galloping  on  horse- 
back, figliting  or  performing  various  feats,  together 
with  niunerous  representations  of  beasts,  birds,  and 
other  living  creatures,  the  whole  in  full  motion.    The 
moving  principle  is  a  horizontal  wheel  turned  by  the 
draught  of  air  created  by  the  heat  of  the  lamp.    The 
circular  motion  is  communicated  in  various  directions 
by  fine  threads  attached  to  the  moving  figures.    The 
following  is  a  grapluc  description  of  the  gay  specta- 
cle which  a  Chinese  town  presents  on  this  strange 
festival :   "  The  scene  by  night  was  sufficiently  gay 
and  exciting.      Thousands  upon  thousands  of  large 
transparent  lanterns  of  all  colours,  and  covered  with 
figures  and  large  black  Chinese  characters,  lined  the 
sides  of  the  street,  in  which  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren were  walking  to  and  fro,  dressed  in  their  gay- 
est and  best  holiday  suits.      Here  Chinese  music 
broke  on  the  ear  as  some  merry  parties  went  by  in 
hired  carriages,  and  here  a  stationary  orchestra  sent 
forth  still  louder  and  more  joyous  strains.    Here  was 
a  theatre,  quite  open  in  front  and  on  both  its  flanks, 
on  which  grotesquely  attired  actors  were  performing 
popular  comedies  and  farces  ;  and  here  a  highly  ex- 
cited group  was  listening  attentively  to  a  street- 
reader  or  itinerant  story-teller,  who  was  reciting  some 
great  and  marvellous  incident  that  occurred  thou- 
sands of  years  ago.    Other  groups  of  Chinamen  were 
listening  with  eager  ears  to  inventive  fortune-tellers, 
who  were  promising  wealth,  health,  long  life,  and 
unalloyed  happiness,  to  all  such  as  could  afl'ord  to 
pay  well  for  the  predictions.    Children  belonging  to 
the  upper  classes,  decked  out  in  the  gayest-coloured 
and  most  fantastic  clothing,  were  slowly  drawn  about 
in  little  low  carts,  and  increased  the  universal  hub- 
bub with  their  shrill  voices.    Here  an  immense  crowd 
was  amused  \vith  the  tricks  of  a  lad  dressed  up  as  a 
tiger,  with  a  monstrous  head  and  two  glaring  lamps 
for  eyes,  who  crouched,  sprang,  and  jumped  about 
like  the  real  wild  beast,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a 
most  unearthly  music;  and  here  a  still  greater  crowd 
was  collected  round  several  men,  who  had  their  bo- 
dies painted  like  tigeis,  a  tail  stuck  on  behind,  and 


a  chain  round  tJie  waist,  which  was  held  by  other 
men  supposed  to  be  their  keepers.  This  was  the 
true  Chinese  '  game  of  tigers.'  The  fellows,  mus- 
cular and  exceedingly  nimble,  imitated  the  move- 
ments of  the  wild  beast  admirably,  and  some  of  them 
so  fully  entered  into  the  character  and  worked  them- 
selves up  to  such  a  pitch  of  excitement,  that  they 
seized  and  tore  to  pieces  with  their  teeth  a  live  kid 
that  was  thrown  among  them.  The  profession  is 
hereditary :  there  are  whole  families  that  bear  the 
soubriquet  of  '  Tigers,'  and  in  which  the  boys,  as  soon 
as  tliey  are  strong  enough  to  bear  the  fatigue,  are 
taught  by  their  fathers  to  personate  the  animal,  and 
imitate  its  every  action  or  movement. 

"  Tlie  brilliantly  illuminated  junks  were  gliding 
over  the  tranquil  bosom  of  the  lake,  and  innumera 
ble  kites,  with  small  bright  lanterns  appended  to 
them,  were  flying  in  the  calm  blue  heavens,  now 
surmounting  and  now  crossing  each  other  like  so 
many  gigantic  fire-flies ;  and  as  kite-flying  is  not  in 
China  solely  a  juvenile  amusement,  many  of  these 
toys  or  playthings  were  put  up  and  held  by  men  of 
mature  age  and  with  portentous  pig-tails.  In  a  sort 
of  amphitheatre,  lighted  up  with  lanterns  and  torches, 
other  men,  young  and  old,  were  busily  engaged  in 
shuttle-cock,  using,  not  their  hands  and  battledores 
as  we  do,  but  their  feet. 

"  In  another  enclosure  were  quail  fights  and  cock 
fights,  with  people  betting  desperately  on  the  issue. 
But  gambling  of  some  kind  or  other  was  rife  in 
nearly  eveiy  quarter,  as  was  also  the  noxious  prac- 
tice of  opium-smoking.  On  either  side  of  the  streets 
were  low  stalls,  illumuiated  with  coloured  lamps,  be- 
hind which  were  seated  the  retjiilers  of  all  manner  of 
sweets  and  confectionery,  who,  to  attract  the  passers- 
by,  knocked  two  pieces  of  wood  together,  and  pro- 
claimed with  stentorian  voice  the  excellence  of  their 
commodities ;  and  from  the  pathway  on  this  side 
and  on  that,  merry  parties  were  seen  in  the  open 
shops,  enjoying  themselves  with  cards,  dice,  songs, 
ifistruraental  music,  frolics  and  games,  and  other 
amusements.  Unhappily,  besides  the  opium-smoking 
and  the  gambhng,  other  vices  were  exhibited  in  the 
most  barefaced  manner,  and  scenes  occurred  which 
made  the  good  missionary  thrill  with  horror,  and  feel 
more  than  ever  how  blessed  a  thing  it  would  be  to 
instil  into  these  benighted  profligate  people  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  gospel  and  the  saving  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity." 

The  Chinese  ascribe  the  origm  of  this  strange  fes- 
tival to  a  misfortune  which  befell  a  certain  mandarin 
whose  daughter,  as  she  was  walking  one  evening  on 
the  bank  of  a  river,  accidentally  fell  into  the  water 
and  was  di-owned.  The  disconsolate  father  ran  to 
her  assistance,  attended  by  all  liis  domestics.  In  order 
to  discover  the  body  of  his  child,  he  put  out  to  sea 
along  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  place,  bearing  each 
in  his  hand  a  liglitc-J  lantern.  The  wliole  uight  ivas 
.spent  in  search  of  the  corpse,  but  in  vain.  The 
year  following,  on  the  same  day  of  the  month,  the 


_ 


LANTERNS  Japanese  Feast  op)— LAPLANDERS  (Rehoion  of). 


299 


banks  of  the  river  were  again  lighted  up  with  num- 
berless lanlenis,  and  from  tliat  time  tlie  custom  was 
annually  observed,  of  holding  a  Feast  of  Lanterns. 
The  classicjil  reader,  in  jierusing  the  accoHiil  of  this 
Cliinese  festival,  will  probalily  call  to  mind  the  Ce- 
radm  of  the  ancient  Komans,  when  women  ran  up 
and  down  with  lighted  torches  in  memory  of  the 
niodo  in  which  Ceres  wandered  in  search  of  her 
daughter  Proserpine.  It  has  been  suppo.sed,  how- 
ever, that  the  Chinese  boiTowed  the  notion  of  this 
festival  from  a  similar  practice  adopted  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  in  honour  of  Isis.  (See  Lamps.) 
Another  Chinese  legend  gives  a  different  origin  to 
the  feast,  deriving  it  from  an  extravagant  project  of 
one  of  their  emperors,  who  shut  himself  up  with  Ids 
concubines  in  a  magniiicent  palace,  which  he  pur- 
l)osely  erected,  and  lighted  up  with  immense  lan- 
Icms  suspended  from  the  roof,  that  he  might  always 
have  a  serene  and  luminous  sky  over  his  bead,  wliich 
might,  in  course  in  time,  make  liim  forget  the  va- 
rious revolutions  of  the  old  world.  The  subjects  of 
the  foolish  emperor,  enraged  at  bis  conduct,  rose  in 
rebellion,  and  demolished  bis  splendid  palace.  In 
order  to  transmit  to  posterity  this  event  in  their  liis- 
tory,  the  Chinese  instituted  the  Feast  of  Lanterns, 
wliich  has  been  ever  since  recognized  as  an  estab- 
lished festival. 

LANTERNS  (Japanese  Feast  of),  the  fifteenth 
flay  of  the  seventh  Japanese  month  is  set  apart  as  a 
festival  devoted  to  the  honour  of  parents  and  ances- 
tors. Every  Japanese,  whose  parents  are  still  alive, 
considers  this  a  happy  day.  On  the  evening  of  the 
thirteenth,  the  Ifays  (which  see),  are  taken  from 
their  cases,  and  a  repast  set  before  them  of  vegeta- 
bles and  fruits.  In  the  middle  is  set  a  vase  in  which 
perfumes  are  burnt,  and  other  vases  containing 
flowers.  Towards  evening  lantenis  suspended  from 
long  bamboos,  are  lighted  before  each  gi'avestone, 
and  a  supjily  of  provisions  laid  down  for  the  refresh- 
ment of  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  The  same  cere- 
mony is  repeated  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month. 
Before  daybght  on  the  sixteenth,  the  articles  placed 
at  the  graves  are  packed  into  small  boats  of  straw, 
provided  with  sails  of  paper  or  cloth,  which  are  car- 
ried in  procession  with  vocal  and  instrumental  music 
to  the  water-side,  where  they  are  laimched  by  way 
of  dismissing  the  soids  of  the  dead  who  are  supposed 
now  to  retum  to  their  graves.  "  This  festival,"  says 
Titsingh,  speaking  of  its  celebration  at  Nagasaki, 
"  produces  a  highly  pictiu'esque  eflect.  Outside  the 
town,  the  view  of  it  from  the  island  Desiraa  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful.  The  spectator  would 
almost  imagine  that  he  beheld  a  toiTent  of  fire  pour- 
ing from  the  hill,  owing  to  the  immense  niunber  of 
small  boats  that  are  carried  to  the  shore  to  be  timied 
adrift  on  the  sea.  In  the  middle  of  the  night,  and 
when  there  is  a  brisk  wind,  the  agitation  of  the 
water  causing  all  these  lights  tc  dance  to  and  fro, 
produces  an  enchanting  scene.  The  noise  and 
bustle   in   the  town,   the   sound  of  gongs  and  the 


voices  of  the  priests,  combine  to  form  a  discord  t)i«t 
can  scarcely  be  conceived.  Tlie  whole  bay  seems  to 
be  covered  with  irjtifn  falui.  Though  these  barkH 
have  sjiils  of  paper,  or  stronger  stuO'  very  few  oi 
them  pass  the  place  where  our  ships  he  at  anchor. 
In  spite  of  the  guards,  thou.sands  of  paupers  rush 
into  the  water  to  secure  the  small  copper  coin  and 
other  thuigs  placed  in  them.  Next  day,  they  strip 
the  barks  of  all  that  is  left,  and  the  tide  uirries  them 
out  to  sea.     Thus  terminates  this  ceremony." 

LANTHILA,  a  malignant  deity  worshipped  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Molucca  Islands.  To  this 
evil  being  all  the  Nitos  or  wicked  spirits  are  subject. 

LAOSYNACTES,  officers  in  the  Greek  church, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  collect  together  the  deacons  and 
the  people. 

LAO-TSE,  the  founder  of  the  Chinese  sect  of  the 
TjIOISTS  (which  see). 

LAPHR7EUS,  a  surname  oi  Apollo  at  Calydon. 

LAPHRIA,  a  surname  of  Artemis  at  Calydon.  It 
was  also  a  surname  of  Athena. 

LAPHRIA,  a  festival  celebrated  every  year  at 
Patrse  in  Acliaia,  in  honour  of  Artemis.  Pausanias 
gives  a  minute  description  of  the  mode  of  its  cele- 
bration. Aroimd  the  altar  of  the  goddess  were 
placed  a  number  of  pieces  of  green  wood,  each  six- 
teen yards  long,  and  steps  were  made  to  lead  up  to 
the  altar.  The  festival  opened  with  a  gorgeous  pro- 
cession, which  marched  to  the  temple  of  Artemis, 
followed  by  the  priestess,  who  rode  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  stags.  On  the  second  day  animals  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  were  sacrificed,  by  being  thrown  aUve 
on  a  pile  of  dry  wood,  wliich  had  been  previously 
laid  upon  the  altar,  and  was  now  set  on  fire.  Thus 
the  animals  were  consumed. 

LAPHYSTIUS,  a  surname  of  Zeus,  ajid  also  of 
Dionysus,  probably  derived  from  a  mountain  in 
Boeotia. 

LAPIS  (Lat.  a  stone),  a  surname  of  Jupiter  at 
Rome,  a  stone  being  sometimes  set  up  as  a  sj-mbol 
of  the  god,  and  in  several  representations  of  this 
deity  be  was  made  to  carry  a  stone  in  his  hand  in- 
stead of  a  thunderbolt. 

LAPLANDERS  (Religion  of).  This  country 
is  the  most  northendy  part  of  Eui-ope,  bordering  in- 
deed upon  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Both  the  Lapps  and 
the  Finns  appear  to  have  occupied  a  much  larger 
portion  of  Scandinavia  than  they  at  present  possess. 
These  two  people,  however,  are  supposed  to  belong 
to  distinct  races,  characterized  by  diflerent  physiolo- 
gie^'d  and  psychological  peculiarities.  The  Lapp  is 
remai-kable  for  his  obstinacy,  suspicion,  and  child- 
ishness, while  the  Firm  is  noted  for  his  energy  and 
austere  earnestness.  The  Lapps  consider  it  an  hon- 
our to  belong  to  the  Fuins,  but  the  Finns  look  upon 
the  Lapps  with  the  most  contemptuous  disdain.  It  it 
not  unlikely  that  the  Lapps  were  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants of  Finland  and  Esthonia;  aud  that  at 
some  remote  period  they  had  been  conquered  by  the 
Finns.     The  whole  country  of  Lapland  is  divided 


300 


LAPLANDERS  (Religion  op). 


into  three  parts,  bearing  the  name  nf  Russian,  Swed- 
ish, and  Norwegian  Lapland  and  Finmark. 

The  rehgion  of  the  Lapps  approaches  at  various 
points  to  that  of  the  Finns.  (See  Finns,  Religion 
OF.)  They  seem  to  have  had  the  same  Supreme 
Deity,  under  the  name  of  Jumala,  who  was  probably 
the  same  with  Thor,  whom  thev  wor.shipped  in  con- 
jtmction  with  Storjunhare  and  Baiva,  the  latter  being 
considered  as  the  god  of  the  sun  or  tii'e.  They  wor- 
shipped also  Ajeka,  whose  image  was  of  wood,  and 
Stourra  Phase,  who  was  always  represented  under  the 
figure  of  a  stone.  Ajeka  was  adored  as  the  author  of 
life,  and  the  supreme  ruler  of  the  human  race.  His 
image  was  usually  kept  in  a  sort  of  rustic  temple,  form- 
ed of  branches  of  fir  and  birch,  and  raised  in  the  rear 
of  their  huts.  A  rude  table  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  sanctuary  served  at  once  for  an  altar  and  a 
pedestal  for  the  idol,  which  was  the  trmik  of  a  birch- 
tree.  In  selecting  the  special  tree  for  the  purpose, 
a  birch  with  a  round  root  was  sought  as  being  best 
adapted  to  represent  a  human  head.  For  the  con- 
venience of  the  deity,  a  nail  with  a  small  flint  was 
put  into  the  hand  of  the  idol  that  he  might  strike  a 
light  whenever  he  chose.  Behind  him,  and  round 
the  edge  of  the  table,  the  horns  of  the  deer  that  had 
been  sacrificed  to  his  honour  were  arranged  in  heaps, 
and  immediately  in  front  was  placed  a  box  filled 
with  small  pieces  of  flesh,  taken  from  every  part  of 
the  victim,  with  melted  grease  pom-ed  over  them. 

The  Laplanders  held  Stourra  Passe  as  a  favourite 
household  deity,  every  family  having  an  image  of 
him  in  the  foim  of  a  rough  stone,  which  they  might 
happen  to  have  found  in  the  mountains,  with  a  re- 
Bemblance,  however  remote,  to  a  human  figure,  which 
they  imagined  to  have  been  impressed  upon  it  by  the 
god  himself.  The  stone,  which  was  usually  large, 
was  placed  upon  a  little  mound  with  a  pile  of  rein- 
deer's horns  behind  it ;  other  smaller  stones  were 
ranged  around  the  large  one,  that  which  was  nearest 
in  size  to  it  being  called  the  wife  of  the  god,  the  third 
in  degree  his  son  or  daughter,  and  the  rest  his  ser- 
vants. Regnard,  a  Frenchman,  who  travelled  in 
Lapland  in  1681,  mentions  having  seen  such  stones 
as  those  now  described,  which  he  alleges  were  still 
secretly  worshipped  by  the  Laplanders,  though  at 
that  time  they  were  avowedly  Christians.  It  was 
plain  to  Regnard  that  they  regarded  these  stones 
with  reverence,  from  the  alarm  which  they  mani- 
fested on  his  attempting  to  carry  them  away.  They 
expressed  great  dread  of  the  vengeance  of  the  of- 
fended god,  and  their  fears  were  instantly  quieted 
when  the  traveller  desisted  from  liis  threatened 
spoliation. 

The  Laplanders  usually  sacrificed  to  their  deities 
at  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  none  but  men  were  allowed 
to  officiate  or  even  be  present  on  such  occasions. 
It  was  usual  at  these  sacred  times  to  erect  a  new 
statue  to  Ajeka,  who  was  allowed  one  every  year. 
Before  sacrificing  a  deer  to  the  deity,  they  inquired 
by  means  of  the  magic  drum  (see  Drum,  Sacred), 


whetherthe  intended  victim  would  be  acceptable  or  not 
to  the  god.  The  mode  of  solving  this  important  qiies- 
tion  was  by  fastening  to  one  of  their  magic  rings  a 
few  hairs  taken  from  the  neck  of  the  victim,  and  by 
laying  them  upon  the  head  of  the  drum,  which  wa.^ 
then  beaten  by  one  of  the  party.  If,  in  consequence 
of  the  concussion,  the  magic  ring  should  turn  and 
point  to  the  figure  of  the  god  who  was  to  be  propi- 
tiated, such  a  movement  was  regarded  as  an  infal 
lible  sign  that  he  would  be  well  pleased  with  the 
oblation.  But  if,  notwithstanding  the  violent  con 
cussion  made  by  beating  the  drum,  the  magic  ring 
remained  motionless,  it  was  considered  to  be  an  un- 
favourable omen  in  so  far  as  that  particular  deity 
was  concerned.  The  offeruig,  therefore,  was  devoted 
to  another  deity,  and  the  same  ceremony  was  re 
newed,  with  the  hope  of  better  success. 

In  their  sacrifices  the  Laplanders  presented  the 
homs  of  the  reindeer  as  an  oblation  to  the  deity,  and 
the  mouth  of  the  idol  was  smeared  with  fresh  blood. 
When  the  image  was  placed  on  the  top  of  an  inac- 
cessible height,  the  victim  was  sacrificed  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain,  and  a  stone  dipped  in  its  blood  was 
thrown  as  far  as  possible  towards  the  image.  By  this 
ceremony  they  imagined  that  they  had  fully  acquitted 
themselves  of  their  duty  to  the  god.  Another  pe- 
culiar custom  was  to  place  branches  of  trees  upon 
the  consecrated  stones  twice  a-year,  pine  branches 
in  the  summer,  and  birch  branches  in  the  winter. 
While  thus  engaged,  they  were  in  the  habit  of  judg- 
ing of  the  disposition  of  the  god  by  the  weight  o) 
the  stone  which  represented  him.  If  it  was  light, 
the  god  was  thought  to  be  propitious,  but  if  it  was 
so  heavy  as  to  be  immovable,  the  god  was  imagined 
to  be  angr}',  and  his  vengeance  was  dreaded.  The 
spots  where  these  idols  of  stone  were  found  wero 
called  holy  mountains,  a  name  wliich  some  of  them 
retain  to  this  day.  The  Laplanders  seem  to  have  had 
no  official  priesthood,  but  any  one  who  wished  to  pro- 
pitiate a  deity,  consulted  the  drum,  and  performed 
the  sacrifice  himself.  Reindeer  were  their  principal 
offerings,  but  in  some  cases  dogs  were  also  used  as 
sacrificial  victims.  Divine  honours  were  anciently 
paid  in  Lapland  to  the  sun,  and  also  to  the  spirits  of 
the  dead,  but  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  was 
worshipped  under  any  material  representation.  Wlien 
victims  were  destined  to  be  sacrificed  to  Baive  or  the 
sun,  they  were  distinguished  by  a  white  thread ;  and 
when  they  were  destined  to  be  devoted  to  the  spirits 
of  the  dead,  they  were  marked  by  a  string  of  black 
wool.  In  most  cases  it  appears  that  a  part  of  the 
deer  oflered  in  sacrifice  was  eaten  by  the  worship- 
pers ;  sometimes  it  was  buried,  but  little  seems  to 
have  ever  been  given  to  the  gods  except  the  bones 
and  horns,  and  occasionally  a  portion  of  the  en 
trails. 

Besides  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  the  Laplander! 
believed  in  the  exi.stence  of  Juhles  (which  see),  or 
aerial  spirits,  and  paid  them  a  sort  of  adoration, 
Schefier  supposes  that  the  idea  of  these  spirits  ii 


LAPSED  CHRISTIANS. 


301 


coniiected  witli  tliu  appearance  of  the  angels  to  tlie 
slieplieids  of  IJetiilehcm  at  the  biitli  of  our  blessed 
Lord.  At  ChristMi.as  Eve,  the  Juhln  are  supposed 
to  (loat  in  the  air  in  greater  numbers,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  articles  of  food  used  on  that  occasion 
are  put  into  baskets  and  suspended  on  the  branches 
of  trees  for  the  refrosbment  of  these  spirits. 

LAPSED  CHRISTIANS,  a  name  given  to  those 
among  the  early  Christians  who,  amid  the  severe 
persecutions  to  which  they  were  exposed,  lost  their 
courage,  and  resorted  to  measures  which  were  re- 
garded as  a  virtual  denial  of  the  faith,  and  which 
sctually  excluded  them  from  the  communion  of  the 
church.  Many  of  these  were  afterwards  seized  with 
strong  feelings  of  remorse,  and  made  earnest  appli- 
cation for  restoration  to  the  fellowship  of  the  faith- 
ful. Hence  numerous  cases  of  this  kind  came  under 
tlie  consideration  of  the  church,  which  from  their 
novelty  and  delicacy  led  to  considerable  dilVerence  of 
opinion.  The  state  of  the  controversy  in  the  third 
century  on  the  subject  of  the  restoration  of  the 
lapsed  is  thus  clearly  stated  by  Neandcr :  "  The 
question  now  arose,  whether  their  wishes  should  be 
complied  with  : — was  their  petition  to  be  absolutely 
rejected,  or  should  a  middle  course  be  inu-sued,  by 
holding  out  to  them,  indeed,  the  hope  of  being  I'e- 
Btored  to  the  fellowship  of  tlie  church ;  but  before 
the  privilege  was  actually  granted  them,  by  subject- 
ing their  conduct  to  a  longer  probation,  and  requiring 
evidence  of  continued  penitence  ?  Should  the  same 
course  be  pursued  with  all  the  lapsed,  or  should  the 
treatment  be  varied  according  to  the  dillerence  of 
circumstances  and  the  character  of  the  offences? 
The  CliMch  at  this  time  was  still  without  any  gen- 
erally acknowledged  principles  of  Church  penance  in 
cases  of  this  sort.  There  was  one  party  who  were 
for  refusing  to  grant  absolution,  on  any  conditions, 
to  such  as  bad  violated  their  baptismal  vow  by  one 
of  the  so-called  mortal  sins.  Following  that  Jewish 
principle  which  did  not  allow  aZ?  duties  to  be  regard- 
ed alike  as  duties  to  God,  and  all  sins  alike,  as  sins 
against  God,  men  made  an  arbitrary  distinction, — 
for  which  they  cited  as  their  authority  the  passage 
1  Samuel  ii.  25, — between  sins  against  God  and 
against  man ;  and  to  the  former  was  reckoned  every 
act  of  denying  the  faith,  though  the  degree  of  guilti- 
ness, if  the  denial  was  simply  a  yielding  to  the  weak- 
ness of  sense,  might  be  far  inferior  to  that  involved 
in  some  of  the  so-called  sins  against  man.  Cyprian, 
who  was  in  the  habit  of  calling  Tertullian  especially 
his  teacher,  might  perhaps,  from  the  study  of  that 
father's  writings,  have  received  a  bias  towards  the 
principles  of  the  more  rigid  party  with  regard  to 
pecance. 

"  But  if  Cyprian  was  an  advocate  of  this  principle 
when  he  iirst  entered  on  the  episcopal  office,  yet, 
cherishing  as  he  did  the  heart  of  a  father  towards 
his  church,  ho  could  not  fail  to  be  shaken  by  the 
great  multitude  of  the  lapsed,  who,  sometimes  with 
bitter  teai-s  of  repentance,  entreated  him  to  giant 


them  ab.solution.  Must  all  these,  many  of  whom,  a* 
for  example,  the  libe.lkilici,  had  fallen  only  from  de 
feet  of  knowledge,  and  others  from  siinjily  yielding 
to  the  flesh  under  the  severity  of  their  tortures,  re 
main  for  ever  excluded  from  tlic  blessed  comnuinity 
of  their  brethren,  and,  in  Cyprian's  view,  from  that 
Church  in  which  alone  was  to  be  found  the  way  to 
heaven  ?  The  paternal  heart  of  the  bishop  revolted 
at  the  thought,  but  he  dared  not  act  here  upon  his 
own  responsibility.  In  this  stale  of  indecision  he 
declared  that  the  fallen  should  be  received  and  ex- 
horted to  repentance ;  but  that  the  decision  of  theii 
fate  should  be  reserved  to  that  time  when,  on  the 
restoration  of  peace,  the  bishops,  clergy,  and  churches, 
in  joint  and  cautious  deliberation,  after  having  exa- 
mined the  question  in  all  its  bearings,  should  be  able 
to  unite  on  some  common  principles,  in  relation  to  a 
matter  where  every  Christian  was  so  deeply  inter- 
ested. Besides,  there  was  a  great  ditVerence  between 
the  offences  of  these  fallen  brethren.  While  some, 
merely  to  avoid  the  sacrifice  of  their  worldly  posses- 
sions, had,  without  a  struggle,  even  hastened  up 
to  the  altars  of  the  gods ;  others  had  fallen  only 
through  ignorance,  or  under  the  force  of  torture. 
The  disorders  of  the  times  made  it  impossible  to 
examine  carefully  into  the  dillerence  of  offences,  and 
the  dillerence  of  moral  character  in  the  individuals. 
Moreover,  those  that  had  fallen  sliould,  by  practical 
demonstration  of  their  penitence,  render  themselves 
worthy  of  re-admission  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
Church, — and  the  persecution  itself  presented  them 
with  tlic  best  opportunity  for  this.  '  He  who  can- 
not endure  the  delay,'  says  Cyprian,  '  may  obtain 
the  crown  of  martj-rdom.'  " 

While  some  pastors  were  disposed  to  adopt  very 
severe  measures  in  the  case  of  the  lapsed,  the  great 
majority  agreed  in  following  a  uniform  course  of 
discii)line  which  subjected  the  lapsed  penitents  to  a 
term  of  probation,  shorter  or  longer  according  to  the 
aggravation  of  their  fall.  Those  who  had  been  com- 
pelled against  their  will  to  engage  in  idolatrous 
practices  were  restored  immediately  on  application. 
Those  who  apostatized  as  soon  as  they  were  brought 
before  a  heathen  tribunal,  or  who  after  boldly  avow- 
ing their  belief  in  Christianity,  lapsed  into  idolatry 
while  confined  in  prison,  were  subjected  to  a  proba- 
tion varied  according  to  circumstances.  Those,  how 
ever,  who  deceived  the  magistrates  by  purchasing 
an  indulgence,  or  by  allowing  their  slaves  to  be  tor- 
tured instead  of  them,  were  visited  with  a  heavier 
discipline.  But  those  of  the  lapsed  who  underwent 
the  most  rigorous  treatment  were  the  Traditores,  as 
they  were  called,  who  had  given  up  their  Bibles  to 
be  burned  by  the  heathen.  This  was  accounted  a 
most  heinous  otVence,  and  such  as  were  convicted  of 
it  were  excluded  from  the  church  for  ten,  twenty, 
and  even  thirty  years;  nay,  some  were  not  admitted 
to  the  fellowship  of  the  faithful  till  they  had  reached 
their  dying  bed.  It  sometimes  happened  that  lapsed 
Christians,  who  had  been    sentenced  by  the  church 


802 


LARARIUM— LARES. 


to  a  protracted  probation,  became  impatient  under 
tlie  infliction,  and  procured  testimonials  in  tlieir 
favour  from  faifliful  confessors  who  liad  boldly  con- 
fronted martyrdom  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  and  whose 
certificate  would  naturally  carry  great  weiglit  with 
it  in  the  estimation  of  their  fellow-Christians.  This 
practice,  in  course  of  time,  gave  rise  to  great  abuse, 
exciting  in  the  minds  of  the  confessors  themselves  a 
feeling  of  spiritual  pride,  which  was  deeply  injurious 
to  tlieir  progress  in  tbe  divine  life,  and  leading  some 
of  them  to  indulge  the  unscriptural  notion,  that  by 
their  sufferings  they  had  expiated  their  sins.  Some 
of  them,  accordingly,  in  their  certificates  to  the 
lapsed,  expressed  themselves  with  a  tone  of  autho- 
rity as  if  their  word  was  sulBcient  to  exculpate  and 
discharge  their  fallen  bretlu-en. 

Cyprian  took  a  determined  stand  against  the  ex- 
aggerated reverence  paid  to  these  confessors,  and  the 
false  confidence  which  men  put  in  their  intercession. 
But  while  thus  faithfully  protesting  against  the  un- 
due respect  shown  to  the  confessors,  Cyprian  was  so 
inconsistent  as  himself  to  yield  to  the  prevailing 
spirit  of  the  midtitude,  which  was  not  a  httle  en- 
couraged by  the  countenance  received  from  the  Ro- 
man church.  In  A.  D.  251,  a  council  was  held  of  the 
North  African  cluu'ch,  to  which  Cyprian  belonged, 
and  the  vexed  question  of  the  lapsed  having  been 
carefully  considered,  it  was  resolved  to  adopt  a  mid- 
dle course  between  that  excessive  severity  which 
cut  them  off  from  all  hope,  and  a  lax  indulgence  in 
complying  with  their  wLshes.  In  regard  to  those, 
however,  who  evinced  no  signs  of  repentance  in  their 
conduct,  but  who  first  expressed  a  desire  for  the 
communion  wlien  on  their  sickbed,  the  .synod  de- 
clared that  such  a  desire  should  not  be  granted. 
The  guilt  of  the  Lapsed  Christians  was  more  or  less 
heinous  according  to  circumstances.  Hence  the 
distinction  into  the  Thurijkati,  the  Sacrificati,  and 
the  Libellatici,  whose  different  characters  led  to  dis- 
putes upon  the  6ul>ject  of  discipline  in  the  early 
Christian  church. 

In  the  case  of  clergymen  who  lapsed  in  time  of 
persecution,  it  was  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  they 
might  on  repentance  be  restored  to  the  peace  of 
the  church  as  laymen,  but  they  were  not  allowed 
to  officiate  or  communicate  as  ecclesiastics  any 
longer.  Cyprian  says,  that  tliis  was  the  rule  at 
Rome  and  over  all  the  world,  if  bishops  or  any 
other  lapsed  in  time  of  persecution,  to  admit  them 
to  do  penance  in  the  church,  but  withal  to  remove 
them  from  the  function  of  the  clergy  and  hon- 
our of  the  priesthood.  It  was  accounted  a  heinous 
crime  in  any  minister  to  refuse  to  receive  and  recon- 
cile penitent  lapsers  after  they  had  made  canonical 
satisfaction.     The  clergyman  who  was  guilty  of  such 

manifest  abuse  of  ministerial  authority  was  to  be 
deposed,  because  he  was  thereby  guilty  of  grieving 
Christ,  who  said,  "  There  is  joy  in  heaven  over  one 
linner  that  repenteth."    See  Apostasy,  Censukes 

iECCLliSIASTICAI,). 


LARARIUM,  that  part  in  the  interiorof  an  ancient 
Roman  house  which  was  appropriated  to  the  Lares 
or  household  gods,  and  where  the  moniiug  devotions 
were  wont  to  be  offered  up. 

LARENTALIA,  a  festival  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  which  was  held  in  honour  of  AcCA  La- 
EENTiA  (which  see),  the  nurse  of  Reraulus  and  Re- 
mus. It  was  also  observed  in  honour  of  the  Lare* 
generally. 

LARENTIA  (Acca).    See  Acca  Laeentia. 

LAKES,  the  household  gods  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans. The  word  is  most  probably  derived  from  hr, 
friendly,  because  families  regarded  them  as  spe- 
cially watching  over  their  interests.  The  Lares,  as 
tutelary  spirits,  were  sometimes  confounded  with  the 
souls  of  deceased  persons.  Thus  Apuleius  considers 
the  private  or  domestic  Lares  to  have  been  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  who  had  acquitted  themselves  well  in 
this  world  ;  while  the  spirits  of  the  unhonoured  dead 
wandered  about,  frightening  people  under  the  name 
of  Larvm  or  Lemures.  The  Lares  were  believed  to 
watch  over  the  interior  of  every  man's  household, 
and  to  preserve  from  injury  both  his  family  and  his 
property.  Yet  they  were  not  regarded  as  divinities 
like  the  Penates,  but  as  guardian  spirits,  whose  place 
was  the  chimney-piece,  and  whose  altar  was  the 
domestic  hearth,  on  which  each  individual  made 
offerings  of  incense  to  them  in  his  own  house.  Ovid 
Bjjeaks  of  only  two  Lares,  and  these,  like  the  Pen- 
ates, were  worshipped  in  the  form  of  little  figures  or 
images  of  wax,  earthenware,  or  terra  cotta,  and  of  me- 
tal, especially  silver.  Their  dress  was  short,  to  indi- 
cate their  readiness  to  serve,  and  they  held  a  sort  ot 
horn  of  plenty  in  their  bands,  as  the  emblem  of  hos- 
pitality and  good  housekeeping.  Tatius,  king  of 
the  Sabines,  is  said  to  have  built  a  temple  to  the 
Lares.  Plutarch  distinguishes  them,  like  the  genii, 
into  good  and  evil ;  and  they  were  also  divided  into  ' 
public  and  private.  The  public  Lares  were  placed  at 
the  intersection  of  roads,  and  on  the  highways,  being 
esteemed  the  patrons  and  protectors  of  travellers. 
There  were  Lares  of  the  cities,  and  Lares  of  the 
country.  When  the  Roman  youth  laid  aside  the 
bull,  which  was  a  heart-shaped  ornament  wom  till 
they  were  fourteen  years  of  age,  they  dedicated  it  to 
the  Lares.  Slaves,  also,  when  they  had  obtained 
their  freedom,  hung  up  their  chains  to  these  deities. 
At  an  early  period  the  Romans  offered  young  people 
in  sacrifice,  both  to  the  Lares  and  Penates ;  but  in 
course  of  time  human  sacrifices  were  abolished,  and 
animals  substituted,  jjarticularly  hogs,  in  the  case  of 
public  offerings ;  while  in  private,  wine,  incense, 
poppy-heads,  woollen  bandages,  and  images  of  straw 
were  presented.  The  Lar  familiaris  was  regarded 
as  an  essential  part  of  the  household  furniture,  and 
was  carried  with  the  family  wherever  they  went. 
Servius  Tidlius  is  said  to  have  instituted  the  wor- 
ship of  the  public  Lares,  and  though  for  a  time  it 
declined  in  importance,  it  was  renewed  by  Augus- 
tus.    There  was  a  temple  to  the  Lares  at  Rome  lb 


LAT— LATIN  CHURCH  (Eabtebn). 


303 


the  Via  Sacra,  !n  which  there  were  two  images,  sup- 
posed to  be  those  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  with  the 
stone  liguie  of  a  dog  placed  in  front  of  them.  Tlie 
iipartment  in  a  wealthy  Iiouse  where  the  images  of  the 
Lares  stood,  was  called  the  Lauaiuum  (wliich  see). 
Pious  people  prayed  to  them  every  day,  but  they 
were  more  especially  worshipped  on  the  Kalends, 
Nones,  and  Ides  of  every  montli.  When  a  Roman 
liouseliold  sat  down  to  meals,  a  portion  of  the  food 
was  offered  to  the  Lares.  On  any  joyful  occasion 
wreaths  of  flowers  were  tastefidly  thrown  around  their 
images.  When  a  bride  entered  the  house  of  her 
husband  for  the  first  time,  she  made  a  solemn  sacri- 
fice to  the  Lares,  invoking  them  to  be  propitious  to 
her  throughout  her  married  life. 

That  the  practice  of  having  household  gods  or 
Lares  existed  in  early  times  is  plain  from  the  ier- 
aphim,  which  were  in  the  possession  of  Lahan  in 
Mesopotamia,  as  we  find  noticed  in  Gen.  xxxi.  19, 
"  And  Laban  went  to  shear  his  sheep :  and  Rachel 
had  stolen  the  images  that  were  her  father's."  These 
teraphim,  which  are  mentioned  frequently  in  the 
Old  Testament,  are  alleged  by  the  Jewish  writers  to 
have  been  images  in  the  shape  of  men,  or  at  least  with 
a  human  head,  and  to  have  been  placed  in  niches  in 
the  wall  with  lamps  burning  before  them.     See  Tek- 

APHIM. 

LAT  (Al).  The  deity  having  this  name,  whicli 
means  in  Arabic,  "  the  goddess,"  was  worshipped  by 
the  ancient  Arabian  tribe  of  Thakif,  who  dwelt  at 
Taif  to  the  eastward  of  Mecca.  The  temple  of  Lat 
was  at  a  place  called  Naklah. 

LATERANUS,  a  deity  mentioned  by  Amobius 
as  presiding  over  hearths  made  of  bricks.  Some 
have  supposed  him  to  be  identical  with  Vulcan. 

LATIALIS,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  as  the  presid- 
ing deity  of  Latium.  In  his  honour  the  Latin  Ferice 
were  annually  observed  on  the  Alban  Mount. 

LATINiE  FERI^.    See  Feri^  Latins. 

LATIN  CHURCH.  See  Rome  (Church 
of). 

LATIN  CHURCH  (Eastern).  In  those  parts  of 
the  East  where  the  Latin  tongue  was  spoken,  Chris- 
tianity had  many  of  its  early  converts,  and  Csesarea, 
which  was  the  Roman  capital  of  Palestine,  gradually 
rose  in  ecclesiastical  importance  mitil  it  asserted  a 
superiority  even  over  Jerusalem.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, when  Christianity  became  the  established  reli- 
gion of  the  Roman  Empire,  multitudes  of  devout  pil- 
grims resorted  to  the  Holy  Land,  that  they  might 
visit  the  hallowed  scenes  of  Bible  history;  and 
when  raonasticisra  was  introduced  from  Egypt  into 
Syria,  various  establishments  of  monks  were  formed 
in  difterent  parts  of  the  country.  These  institutions 
were  available  both  for  the  Eastern  and  the  West- 
ern churches.  But  when  the  Monophysite  contro- 
versy, toward  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  divided 
the  inmates  of  these  Syrian  monasteries  into  different 
reUgious  parties,  and  the  eager  contest  for  superiority 
wai)  commencing  between  the  bishop  of  Constantino- 


ple and  the  Pope  of  Rome,  Gregory  VIII.  raised  « 
liospice  at  Jerusalem  for  the  special  aeconnnodation 
of  the  Western  pilgrims.  One  effect  of  the  crusades 
was  to  advance  the  interests  of  Ronjc  in  the  East, 
while  the  professed  object  of  these  expeditions  was 
to  liberate  the  Christians  of  the  Greek  or  Eastern 
church.  Thus  has  the  Latin  clmrch  ever  maintained 
a  branch  in  close  communion  wiili  lier  in  the  East, 
but  in  comparison  of  the  Orthodox  Apostolic  or 
Greek  church,  it  has  always  been  a  feeble  remnant. 
The  only  remains,  indeed,  of  the  church  of  the  cru- 
sades are  the  monasteries  of  the  Terra  Santa,  whose 
inmates  are  Franciscan  monks,  to  whom  are  intrusted 
both  the  guardianship  of  the  holy  places,  and  the 
spiritual  superintendence  of  that  small  part  of  the 
population  which  adheres  to  the  Latin  ritual.  The 
superior  of  these  monks,  who  bears  the  title  of  tho 
"  Most  Reverend  Warden,"  holds  his  appointment 
directly  from  Rome.  The  support  of  the  monasteries, 
wliich  are  twenty-two  in  number,  is  derived  from 
the  Society  tie  Propaganda  Fide,  as  well  as  from 
the  gratuities  bestowed  by  the  travellers  who  avail 
themselves  of  the  hospitality  which  these  institu- 
tions afford.  Besides  these  monks  of  the  TeiTa 
Santa,  there  are  otlier  monastic  establisbments  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Palestine.  On  Mount  Carmel  is 
found  the  convent  of  Elias,  which  is  among  the 
largest,  most  substantial,  and  best  regulated  in  the 
land,  and  the  high  altar  of  the  chapel  is  reared  over 
the  reputed  cave  where  Elijah  dwelt.  The  former 
building  was  recently  destroyed  by  Abdallah  Pasha, 
but  it  has  been  reconstructed  on  a  more  magnificent 
scale.  The  Carmelite  friars  have  had  an  institution 
on  this  mountain  from  time  immemorial.  The  Ca- 
puchins, also,  have  missions  at  Beiriit,  Tripoli,  Da- 
mascus, Aleppo,  and  on  Mount  Lebanon,  where  also 
the  Jesuits  have  long  had  a  residence.  Besides  all 
these,  the  Lazarites  have  four  missions  in  Palestine, 
and  there  is  an  apostolic  vicariate  of  Aleppo.  The 
Jesuits,  in  various  parts  of  the  East,  aware  of  the 
unpopidarity  which  attaches  to  their  name,  assume  to 
themselves  the  denomination  of  Lazarists,  and  other 
titles,  which  may  conceal  their  real  character.  Since 
the  origin  of  the  Society,  the  Jesuits  have  had  mis- 
sions among  the  Eastern  Christians,  where,  by  the 
establishment  of  schools  and  other  means,  they  have 
succeeded  in  gaining  over  large  numbers  to  Rome. 

Dr.  Wilson  ,  in  his  '  Lands  of  the  Bible,'  gives  an 
account  of  the  state  of  the  Eastern  Latin  church  at 
Smyrna  :  "  There  are  in  Smyrna  one  Roman  Catho- 
lic bishop  (archbishop)  and  sixty-seven  priests.  Of 
the  latter,  forty  are  secular  or  parish  clergy,  nuie  are 
Capuchins,  seven  are  Zoccalonti,  ten  are  Lazarists, 
and  one  is  a  Dominican.  .  .  .  There  are  also 
twelve  '  Sisters  of  Charity.'  In  Smj-rna  there  are 
three  large  churches  and  two  chapels.  One  of  the 
latter  is  in  the  French  Seamen's  hospital.  There  is 
also  a  church  at  Bujah,  and  another  at  Baniabit. 
The  churches  in  Smyrna  are  usually  known  by  the 
names  of  French,  Austrian,  and  Lazarist.     The  re 


504 


LATITUDINARIANS— LAVER. 


gularly  officiating  clergy  in  the  French  church  are  the 
Capuchins ;  in  the  Austrian,  the  Zoccalonti ;  and  in 
the  Lazarist,  tlie  Lazai'ist  priests.  The  Capuchins 
and  the  Zoccalonti  have  each  a  monastery.  Tlie  La- 
zarite  priests  have  an  elementary  school  of  about  three 
hundred  boys.  The  '  Sisters  of  Charity'  have  a 
school  of  about  three  hundred  girls.  .  .  The  col- 
lege of  the  Propaganda  is  under  tlie  direction  of  the 
bishop,  and  contains  about  two  hundred  pupils,  fifty 
of  whom  board  in  the  establishment.  Most  of  the 
professors  are  of  the  secular  clergy.  Among  them 
are  tlu-ee  Armeuo-Catholic  priests.  Languages  are 
chiefly  taught  in  the  Propaganda.  .  .  Few  con- 
versions to  the  Koman  Catholic  faith,  as  far  as  we 
know,  occm-  in  Sraynia  and  the  vichiity.  The  sys- 
tem is  principally  aggressive,  we  apprehend,  by 
means  of  the  schools.  Considerable  numbers  of 
youth,  even  Protestant  youth,  are  thus  brought  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  Roman  priesthood  ;  and  the 
result  will  probably  be,  either  that  they  will  become 
papists,  or  be  indid'erent  to  all  religions.  Among 
the  Protestants  there  are  few  who  are  decided- 
ly anti-Roman  Catholic.  Of  the  papal  popula- 
tion in  Sm}Tna  and  the  adjacent  villages,  we  cannot 
speak  with  certainty.  There  are  probably  from 
eight  to  ten  thousand.  This  estimate  does  not  in- 
clude a  few  papal  Armenians  and  Greeks." 

At  Antioch  there  are  Maronite,  United  Greek,  and 
Syrian  patriarchs,  and  elsewhere  an  Armenian  and 
a  Chaldean  patriarcli,  all  in  communion  with  Rome, 
and  it  is  calculated  that  in  Asiatic  Turkey  alone 
there  are  not  fewer  than  1,000,000  who  acknowdedge 
the  supremacy  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  The  adherents  of 
the  Latin  chiu"ch  at  Constantinople  are  under  the 
apostolic  vicar  of  that  place,  and  enjoy  tlie  civil  pro- 
tection of  the  European  ambassadors,  not  being  con- 
sidered as  direct  subjects  of  the  Porte.  The  con- 
verts from  the  Greek  to  the  Latin  church  form  a 
distinct  religious  conununity  under  the  name  of  the 
Gh-eek- Catholic  or  Melchite  Church  (whicli  see). 

LATIN  VERSIONS.    See  Bible. 

LATITUDINARIANS,  a  term  applied  to  those 
divines  in  England,  who,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
endeavoured  to  bring  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians, 
and  Independents  into  one  communion,  by  compro- 
misuig  their  dift'erences.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  highly  respected  names  of  Cliillingworth, 
Cudworth,  Tillotson,  and  Stillingfleet.  These  men, 
and  others  who  agreed  with  them,  were  zealous  sup- 
porters of  the  Cliurch  of  England,  without,  however, 
regarding  the  Episcopal  form  of  Church  government 
as  essential  to  the  constitution  of  the  Clu'istian 
church.  They  were  not  disposed,  therefore,  to  ex- 
clude from  the  communion  of  the  church  those  who 
simply  preferred  other  forms  of  worship  and  disci- 
pline. Attaching  less  imporlaiice  than  many  of 
their  brethren  to  a  strict  adherence  to  creeds  and 
confessions,  they  were  ready  to  merge  the  Arminian- 
ism  which  tlicn  prevailed  in  the  Cliurcli  of  England, 
and  the  Calvinism  which  prevailed  among  the  Pres- 


byterians and  Independents,  in  the  v/ider  and  more 
comprehensive  designation  of  Christians.  Hence  the 
rise  of  the  name  Latitudinarians,  wliich  was  applied 
to  those  men  who,  lamenting  tlie  divisions  which 
existed  among  Clmstians,  were  disposed  to  extend 
the  baud  of  Christian  brotherhood  to  all  who  held 
those  points  which  they  regarded  as  essential  to  sal- 
vation. 

LATONA.    See  Leto. 

LATRIA,  that  species  of  worship  which  by  Ro- 
manist writers  is  regarded  as  due  to  God  alone.  It 
is  yielded  also  to  the  host  or  consecrated  wafer. 
See  Adoration. 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS.    See  Mormons. 

LAUDISTI,  a  society  which  was  instituted  in 
Florence  a.  d.  1316,  for  the  performance  of  religious 
lauds.  This  society  still  exists,  and  is  in  active 
operation. 

LAUDS,  the  name  which  was  given  to  llie  ser- 
vice whicli  followed  next  after  the  nocturn  before  the 
Reformation.  The  Lauds  ai'e  now  merged  in  the 
Matins.  The  term  Lauds  is  also  frequently  apphed 
to  hymns  in  church  music.  In  the  Church  of  Rome 
Lauds  are  appointed  for  cock-crowing,  or  before 
break  of  day.     (See  Canonical  Hours.) 

LAUD'S  LITURGY.    See  Covenanters. 

LAURA,  a  name  given  to  a  cluster  of  small  cells 
in  which  monks  in  ancient  times  lived  together  in  a 
desert,  each  monk  occupying  a  separate  cell.  Tiie 
most  celebrated  Lauras  mentioned  in  ecclesiastical 
history  were  situated  in  Palestine. 

LAUREL,  a  plant  wliich  was  sacred  to  Apollo  tlie 
god  of  prophecy,  and  much  used  by  those  who  pre- 
tended to  inspiration.  The  heads  of  ancient  seers 
were  usuaUy  adorned  with  lam'el  wreaths,  while  they 
carried  in  their  hand  a  laurel  branch  by  way  of  a 
magic  wand. 

LAURENCE  (St.),  Regular  Canons  of,  a 
Romish  Order  of  Rehgious  in  the  province  of  Dau- 
phin^ in  France.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
St.  Benedict,  in  the  sixth  century,  and  to  have  con- 
tinued to  flom-ish  for  a  considerable  time.  At  length 
the  irruption  of  the  Vandals  destroyed  the  monastery, 
but  it  was  rebuilt  in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  een- 
tuiy,  and  granted  by  Odo,  Count  of  Savoy,  to  a  monk 
of  the  name  of  Gerard,  and  his  canons.  This  donation 
was  confirmed  in  1065  by  Cumbert,  bishop  of  Turin, 
who  added  to  it  above  forty  additional  churclies.  By 
this  means  the  Order  was  considerably  enlarged,  and  it 
speedily  became  so  important  that  the  Popes  and  the 
Counts  of  Savoy  bestowed  upon  it  various  special 
privileges.     It  had  formerly  thirty  priories. 

LAVACRUM.     See  Font. 

LAVER,  one  of  the  vessels  of  the  ancient  Jewisli 
tabernacle,  used  by  the  priests  to  wasli  their  liands 
and  feet  before  entering  upon  their  holy  ministra- 
tions. No  detailed  account  is  given  in  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture of  its  form  or  dimensions,  but  reasoning  by 
analogy  from  the  brazen  sea  in  the  temple,  it  has 
been  generally  supposed  that  the  laver  was  of  a  cir- 


LAVER  OP  REGENERATION— LAWYERS. 


305 


cular  form.  It  stood  between  tlie  table  of  the  con- 
!;rc?;atioii  and  the  altar,  and  is  described  by  Moses  as 
having  liad  a  fnot,  tliat  is  a  basis  or  pediment  upon 
wliicli  the  Uwev  rested.  Tliis  vessel  was  constructed 
from  tlie  brazen  ornaments  whicli  tlie  women  liad 
presented  for  the  use  of  the  tabernacle.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  laver  stood  upon  another 
l)asin  more  wide  and  shallow,  like  a  cup  on  a  saucer; 
and  that  the  latter  received  from  several  spouts  in 
the  upper  basin  the  water  which  was  allowed  to 
escape  when  the  priests  washed  themselves  with  the 
water  which  fell  from  tlie  upper  basin.  IIow  the 
priests  washed  their  hands  and  theii'  feet  at  tlie  laver 
is  uncertain.  "  That  tliey  did  not  wash,"  says  the 
■editor  of  the  Pictorial  Bible,  "  in  either  the  laver  or 
its  base  seems  clear,  because  then  the  water  in  which 
they  washed  would  have  been  rendered  impure  by 
those  who  washed  before  or  with  them ;  and  as  we 
know  that  Orientals  do  not  like  to  wash  in  a  basin, 
after  our  manner,  in  which  the  water  with  which  we 
uommence  wasliing  is  clearer  than  that  with  which 
we  linisli,  but  at  a  falling  stream,  where  each  sncces- 
Bive  affusion  is  of  clean  water,  we  incline  to  think 
that  the  priests  either  washed  themselves  with  the 
stream  as  it  fell  from  the  spouts  into  the  base,  or 
else  received  in  proper  vessels  so  much  water  as 
they  needed  for  the  occasion.  The  Orientals,  in 
their  wasliings,  make  use  of  a  vessel  with  a  long 
spout,  and  wash  at  the  stream  which  issues  from 
thence,  the  waste  water  being  received  in  a  basin 
which  is  placed  underneath.  This  seems  to  us  to 
illustrate  the  idea  of  the  laver  with  its  base,  as  well 
as  the  ablutions  of  the  priests.  The  laver  had  thus  its 
upper  basin,  from  which  the  stream  fell,  and  the  under 
basin  for  receiving  tlie  waste  v/ater;  or  it  is  quite 
compatible  with  the  same  idea  and  practice  to  sup- 
pose that,  to  prevent  too  great  an  expenditure  of 
water,  they  received  a  quantity  in  separate  vessels, 
using  it  as  described,  and  the  base  receiving  the 
water  which  in  washing  fell  from  their  hands  and 
feet.  This  explanation,  although  it  seems  to  us  pro- 
bable, is,  necessarily,  little  more  than  conjectural. 
The  Jewish  commentators  say  tliat  any  kind  of  water 
might  be  used  for  the  laver ;  but  that  the  water  was 
to  be  changed  every  day.  They  also  state  that  ab- 
lution before  entering  the  tabernacle  was  in  no  case 
dispensed  with.  A  man  might  be  perfectly  clean, 
might  be  quite  free  from  any  ceremonial  impurity, 
and  might  even  have  washed  his  hands  and  feet  be- 
fore he  left  home,  but  stiU  he  could  by  no  means 
enter  the  tabernacle  without  previous  ablution  at  the 
laver." 

In  the  temple  of  Solomon  there  was  a  veiy  large 
laver  of  brass,  called  the  molten  sea,  which  was  ten 
cubits  in  diameter,  five  deep,  and  thirty  in  circum- 
ference. In  addition  to  the  brazen  sea,  there  were 
ten  smaller  lavers  of  brass,  which  were  situated  five 
on  the  north  side,  and  five  on  the  south  side  of  the 
court.  The  Hesh  of  the  \actims  that  w^ere  sacrificed 
wa.s  washed  in  these  smaller  lavers,  wliich  were  each 


four  cubits  in  circumference,  and  rested  od  base* 
and  wheels  of  brass. 

In  the  second  temple  the  laver  stood  between  the 
altar  and  the  porch,  not  directly  before  the  altar, 
but  removed  towards  the  north.  The  size  and  mea- 
sure of  this  ve.ssel  is  not  described  in  the  Sacred 
Writings,  but  the  Jewish  Itabbis  have  professed  to 
give  a  minute  account  of  it.  The  mode  in  which  the 
process  of  bathing  in  the  laver  was  conducted  is  thus 
described.  The  priest  laid  his  right  hand  upon  his 
right  foot,  and  his  left  hand  upon  his  left  foot,  and 
while  the  water  ran  from  the  spout  he  stood  in  a 
stooping  posture  and  washed  his  hands  and  feet.  He 
that  went  about  the  service  with  unwashen  hands 
and  feet  in  the  morning  was  liable  to  death  by  the 
hand  of  God ;  and  if  a  priest  was  clean  before,  yet 
he  durst  not  officiate  before  he  had  bathed.  During 
the  service  he  must  stand  upon  the  bare  pavement ; 
his  body  must  be  bathed  in  cold  water  before  he  en- 
tered ;  then  he  was  to  wash  his  hands  and  feet,  and 
stand  in  thin  linen  and  on  the  cold  pavement  all  the 
time  of  his  ministration. 

The  typical  design  of  the  laver  was  obviously  to 
teach  the  necessity  of  the  inward  purification  of  the 
soul,  under  the  outward  emblem  of  the  washing  of 
the  body  ;  and  if  this  inward  purity  was  necessary  to 
all  who  would  serve  God  faithfully,  more  especially 
was  the  cultivation  of  it  incumbent  upon  those  who 
were  officially  engaged  in  the  ministrations  of  the 
sanctuary.  Thus  while  the  altar  on  which  the  vic- 
tims were  offered  was  a  symbol  of  justification,  the 
laver  with  its  purifying  foimtain  was  a  symbol  ot 
sanctification. 

LAVER  OF  REGENERATION,  a  name  some- 
times given  in  the  early  Christian  church  to  the  or- 
dinance of  Baptism  (which  see). 

LAVERNA,  the  Roman  goddess,  who  patron- 
ized thieves  and  fraudident  persons  of  every  kind. 

LAVIPEDIUM.    See  Pedilavium. 

LAW,  a  tenn  which  is  used  in  the  Sacred  Writings 
under  a  variety  of  diiferent  significations.  Sometimes 
it  is  employed,  as  in  the  Book  of  Psalms,  to  denote 
the  whole  of  the  revealed  will  of  God  as  contained  in 
the  Bible.  On  some  occasions  it  implies  the  whole 
rehgion  of  the  Jews,  and  on  other  occasions  it  is 
limited  to  their  ritual  or  ceremonial  observances,  and 
also  in  a  still  more  restricted  sense  to  the  Decalogue 
or  Ten  Commandments.  In  some  passages,  however, 
it  signifies  the  Law  of  Nature  inscribed  on  the  con- 
sciences of  men,  and  therefore  binding  upon  them  by 
the  authority  of  their  Creator. 

LAW  (Joy  of  the).    See  Joy  of  the  Law. 

LAW  (Oral).    See  Okal  Law. 

LAW  (Written).    See  Bible. 

LAW^'ERS,  a  term  applied  by  the  Jews  to  those 
who  interjireted  and  expounded  the  Mosaic  Law, 
more  especially  the  Traditionary  or  Oral  Law.  A 
lawyer  and  a  scribe  were  evidently  synonymoug 
words,  as  is  evident  from  a  comparison  of  Mat.  ixii. 
35,  and  Mark  xii.  28,  the  same  person  being  styleo 


?06 


LAY  BAPTISM— LECHEATES. 


in  the  former  passage  a  lawyer,  and  in  the  latter  a 
scribe.  Basnage  regards  the  lawyers  as  identical 
with  the  modem  Caraites  (which  see),  inasmuch 
as  they  adhered  closely  to  the  text  of  the  Law,  and 
totally  disregarded  all  traditions.  Dr.  Macknight, 
hrwever,  alleges  that  the  duty  of  the  Jewish  lawyers, 
Btn  tly  so  called,  was  to  give  themselves  up  to  the 
private  study  of  the  Law,  while  the  employment  of 
the  scribes  was  to  expound  the  Law  in  public. 

LAY  BAPTISM.  In  the  early  Christian  church 
it  was  required  that  none  should  dispense  the  ordi- 
nance of  baptism  in  ordinary  cases,  except  the  regu- 
lar inisters,  but  in  cases  of  extremity,  where  an 
ordained  minister  was  not  at  hand,  and  the  candidate 
was  thought  to  be  near  death,  a  layman  was  allowed 
to  baptize.  This  doctrine  is  still  maintained  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  even  a  midwife  is  allowed, 
where  a  priest  is  not  within  reach,  to  baptize  an  in- 
fant in  its  dying  moments.  Considerable  difference 
of  opinion  exists  in  the  Church  of  England  on  the 
§ubject  of  Lay  Baptism. 

LAY  BROTHERS.    See  Brotheks  (Lay). 

LAY  CHANCELLORS.    See  Chancellors. 

LAY  COMMUNION.    See  Communion  (Lay). 

LAZARITES,  an  order  of  monks  instituted  in 
France  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  M.  Vincent. 
They  have  a  seminary  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris.  The 
Jesuits  assume  this  name  in  vai-ious  parts  of  the 
Continent  to  conceal  their  real  character. 

LAZARUS  (St.),  Day  op,  a  festival  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  observed  on  the  21st  day  of  Febru- 
ary, in  memory  of  Lazarus  a  painter,  who  lived  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  in  the  reign  of  Tlieodosius  Icono- 
dastes.  This  saint  was  distinguished  as  a  painter 
of  images,  and  on  this  account  he  incurred  the  re- 
sentment of  the  Emperor.  No  sufferings,  however, 
could  deter  him  from  his  favourite  employment,  and 
in  spite  of  persecution,  therefore,  he  persisted  in 
painting  images.  On  this  account  his  raemoi-y  is 
held  in  veneration  by  Romftnists. 

LE,  the  ultimate  immaterial  element  of  the  uni- 
verse, according  to  the  philosojihical  system  of  Confu- 
cius, the  Chinese  sage.  It  is  the  Absolute  regarded 
in  association  with  material  essences,  and  manifest- 
ing itself  in  virtue  of  such  association  as  the  cause 
of  organization  and  of  order.  With  this  principle 
the  spirit  of  man  is  strictly  one  and  consubstantial. 
The  />e  therefore  is  identical  with  the  Tae-lceih,  the 
Absolute  or  literally  the  Great  Extreme.  Beyond  it 
as  the  highest  ]iinnacle  of  heaven,  the  one  ultimate 
power,  the  entity  without  an  opposite,  no  human 
thought  whatever  is  capable  of  soaring.  Itself  in- 
comprehensible, it  girdles  the  whole  frame  of  nature 
animate  and  inanimate.  From  it  alone,  as  from  the 
foiintainhead  of  being,  issued  everything  that  is. 
Creation  is  the  periodic  flowing  forth  of  it.  "The 
Absolute  is  like  a  stem  shooting  upwards ;  it  is 
parted  into  twigs,  it  puts  out  leaves  and  blossoms ; 
forth  it  springs  incessantly,  until  its  fruit  is  fidly 
npe ;  yet  even  then  the  power  of  reproduction  never 


ceases  to  be  latent  in  it.  The  vital  juice  is  there 
and  so  the  Absolute  still  works  and  works  indefi 
nitely.  Nothing  hinders  or  can  hinder  its  activitj 
until  the  fruits  have  all  been  duly  ripened  and  acti 
vity  gives  place  to  rest." 

LEADER  (Class),  a  lay-officer  among  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists.  Every  person  connected  witii 
the  denomination  is  a  member  of  some  class  ove! 
which  there  is  a  Leader,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  eaclj 
person  in  his  class  at  least  once  a-week,  in  order  t(i 
inquire  into  their  spiritual  condition,  and  to  give  sucll 
exhortations,  consolations,  warnings,  or  reproofs,  ai 
may  be  suited  to  their  peculiar  condition  and  circum- 
stances. He  must  also  receive  what  each  is  willing  to 
give  to  the  poor,  or  to  the  support  of  gospel  ordinances 
The  Leader  is  required  to  meet  the  minister  and 
stewards  of  the  society  once  a-week,  in  order  to  in- 
form the  minister  of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any  that 
walk  disorderh',  and  will  not  be  reproved.  It  is  his 
busmess  also  to  pay  to  the  stewards  every  week  what 
he  has  received  from  Iiis  class  in  the  week  preceding, 
and  to  show  his  account  of  what  each  person  has 
contributed.  Tlie  Class-Leaders  being  the  most 
numerous  officers  in  the  whole  communion,  have 
great  influence,  more  especially  from  their  permanent 
residence,  not  being  Hable  to  removal  as  the  minis- 
ters are.  No  person  can  be  admitted  into  the  Wes- 
leyan  Society  if  he  is  objected  to  by  the  Class- 
Leaders  ;  nor  can  any  one  be  excluded  from  church 
fellowship  without  their  concm-rence.  Females  are 
also  in  many  cases  Class-Leaders,  the  members  of 
their  class  being  females.  See  Methodists  (Wes- 
leyan). 

LEADERS'  MEETING,  the  lowest  of  the  infe- 
rior courts  among  the  Wesleyan  Methodists.  It  is 
composed  of  the  travelling  preachers  stationed  for 
the  time  being  in  tlie  circuit,  along  with  the  Stewards 
and  Class-Leaders  whether  male  or  female.  In 
every  chapel,  congregation,  and  society,  there  is  a 
Leaders'  meeting.  The  consent  of  this  court  is 
necessary  to  the  admission  of  a  member  into  the  so- 
ciety, or  the  appointment  or  removal  of  a  Leader  or 
Steward.  Along  with  the  Trustees  of  the  chapel, 
the  Leaders'  meeting  has  the  power  of  determining 
whether  or  not  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
shall  be  dispensed  there ;  and  they  have  the  charge 
of  the  fund  for  the  reUef  of  poor  and  distressed 
members  of  the  society.  See  Methodists  (Wes- 
leyan). 

LEAGUE  AND  COVENANT  (The  Solemn). 
See  Covenant  (The  Solemn  League  and). 

LECANOMANCY,  a  species  of  divination  per 
formed  by  means  of  a  bason  with  wedges  of  gold  or 
silver  marked  with  certain  characters.  The  wedgel 
were  suspended  over  the  water,  and  the  demon  for 
mally  invoked,  when  he  gave  tlie  response  in  a  low 
hissing  sound  passing  through  the  fluid.  See  Divi- 
nation. 

LECHEATES,  a  surname  of  Zms,  under  wliich 
he  was  worshipped  at  Aliphera.     The  name  w;is 


LECTERN— LEGENDS  (RoMisn). 


307 


applied  to  liim  aa  tlie  fatliei'  of  Athena,  and  the  pro- 
rector  of  women  ill  cliildljed. 

LECTERN,  tlie  rcjuliii,i;-deslc  in  ancient  clnirdies 
in  England.  It  was  generally  constrncted  of  wood, 
but  at  a  later  period  it  was  connnorily  made  of  brass, 
and  formed  in  the  shape  of  an  eagle  with  out- 
stretched wings. 

LECTIO AKI  I,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
C0PIAT>«  (which  see). 

LECTIONAUIUM,  a  calendar  of  lessons  to  be 
read  during  Divine  service  in  Christian  churches. 
The  most  ancient  work  of  this  kind  is  generally 
thought  to  be  Hippolytus's  Canon  Paschalis,  which, 
however,  points  out  only  those  lessons  suited  to  the 
festivals.  There  exists  a  Lectioncn-ium  which  has 
been  attributed  to  Jerome,  but  is  generally  believed 
to  have  been  the  production  of  a  much  later  writer, 
ome  time  after,  however,  there  were  several  calen 
dars  composed  for  the  use  of  the  French  churches, 
the  oldest  of  which  is  the  Lectionarium  Gallicanum. 
See  Lessons. 

LECTISTERNIUM,  a  ceremony  observed  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  on  occasion  of  extraor- 
dinary solenniities.  It  was  performed  by  placing 
the  images  of  the  gods  on  couclies,  with  a  rich  feast 
set  before  them.  The  most  remarkable  ceremony  of 
this  kind  was  the  Epidum  Jovis  or  Feast  of  Jupiter 
lit  Rome,  which  was  celebrated  in  the  Capitol  where 
the  image  of  Jupiter  was  made  to  recline  on  a  couch, 
while  the  statues  of  Juno  and  Minerva  were  placed 
on  chairs  by  his  side. 

LECTORS.    See  Readers. 

LECTURERS,  a  term  applied  before  the  Refor- 
mation to  persons  who  were  appointed  to  read  lec- 
tures before  the  universities.  Afterwards  the  word 
was  used  to  denote  ministers  in  England  who,  deriv- 
ing a  stipend  from  a  sum  of  money  mortified  by  some 
wealthy  individual,  or  from  voluntary  contributions 
under  the  license  of  the  bishop,  preached  in  parish 
churches  at  such  times  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
ministrations  of  the  regular  hicumbent.  The  appoint- 
ment of  lectureships,  both  in  London  and  through- 
out the  country,  was  one  of  the  modes  by  which 
the  Puritans  sought  in  the  reign  of  EUzabeth,  and 
that  of  James  I.,  to  supply  the  lack  of  ability  and 
piety  in  the  established  churches.  The  High  Church 
party  looked  upon  these  efficient  lecturers  with  great 
contempt,  and  Archbishop  Laud  regarded  them  with 
feelings  of  jealousy  and  no  little  uneasiness,  more  es- 
pecially as  many  of  the  nobles  retained  private  lec- 
turers in  their  mansions,  and  employed  them  to  preach 
on  their  estates  and  in  the  neighbouring  towns.  At 
Laud's  suggestion  the  king  instructed  the  bishops 
to  suppress  lectures  if  preached  in  parish  churches 
in  the  afternoon,  and  to  substitute  catechetical  lec- 
tures in  their  place.  Nay,  the  archbishop  went 
farther,  and  procured  an  act  to  be  passed  in  1633. 
confiscating  to  the  king's  use  the  money  which  had 
been  appropriated  to  the  support  of  these  lecture- 
elups.     This  enactment,  however,  did  not  succeed  in 


abolishing  these  useful  institutions,  and  in  1C37 
Laud  persuaded  the  king  to  issue  instructions  pro- 
hibiting lecturers  from  preacliing  unless  they  would 
consent  to  say  the  Common  I'rayer  in  hood  and  sur- 
plice— a  condition  with  which  of  course  they  refused 
to  comply.  During  the  Commonwealth,  lecturers 
were  favoured,  and  consequently  increased  in  num- 
ber. After  the  Restoration,  however,  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  indicted  a  heavy  blow  upon  the  system 
of  lectureships,  enacting  as  it  did  that  no  person 
should  be  allowed  or  received  as  a  lecturer  unless  he 
declared  his  unfeigned  assent  and  consent  to  the 
Thirty-Nine  Articles  and  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  and  to  the  use  of  all  tlie  rites,  ceremonies, 
forms,  and  orders  therein  contained.  The  same  acl 
enjoined  that  prayers  should  always  be  read  before 
a  lecture  was  delivered.  Lecturers  of  parislies  in 
England  are  now  generally  chosen  by  the  vestry  or 
principal  inhabitants,  and  are  usually  afternoon 
preachers.  There  are  also  lecturers  in  connection 
with  most  cathedral  churches,  and  various  lecture- 
ships have  been  founded  by  private  individuals,  such 
as  the  Boyle,  the  Bampton,  and  the  Hidsean  Lec- 
tures. 

LEGATE,  a  cardinal  or  bishop  whom  the  Pope 
sends  as  his  ambassador  to  sovereign  princes.  He  is 
the  vicegerent  and  representative  of  His  Holiness, 
invested  with  plenary  powers  to  act  in  his  stead  at  a 
foreign  comt.     There  are  three  kinds  of  Legates. 

1.  Legates  a  latere,  sent  from  his  side,  or  directly 
from  him,  invested  with  most  of  the  functions  of  the 
Pope  himself.  They  can  absolve  excommunicated 
persons,  call  synods,  grant  dispensations  in  cases  re- 
served to  the  Pope,  fill  up  vacant  dignities  or  bene- 
fices, and  hear  ordinary  appeals.  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
and  also  Cardinal  Pole  were  legates  of  this  kind. 

2.  Legati  Nati,  such  as  hold  their  commission  by 
virtue  of  office.  Before  the  Reformation  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  held  this  species  of  legatine 
authority  in  England.  3.  Legati  Dati,  special  Legates 
holding  thek  authority  from  the  Pope  by  special 
commission.  For  the  time  being  they  are  superior 
to  the  other  two  orders.  Such  legates  began  to  be 
appointed  after  the  tenth  century,  and  they  often 
stretched  their  authority  to  a  most  miwarrantable 
extent.  They  held  councils,  promulgated  canons, 
deposed  bishops,  and  issued  interdicts  at  their  dis- 
cretion. The  functions  of  a  Legate  cannot  be  exer- 
cised until  he  is  forty  miles  distant  from  Rome. 

LEGENDS  (Romish),  wonderful  narratives  pro- 
fessing to  treat  of  the  lives  and  supernatural  doings 
of  the  saints  of  the  Romish  calendar.  The  Legend  was 
originally  a  book  used  Id  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
containing  the  lessons  that  were  to  be  read  at  divine 
service.  Hence  the  Hves  of  saints  and  martyrs  came 
to  be  called  Legends,  because  chapters  were  to  be  read 
out  of  them  at  matins,  and  in  the  refectories  of  the  re- 
ligious houses.  The  Golden  Legend  is  a  collection  of 
the  lives  of  the  saints,  composed  by  John  de  Vors- 
gine,  vicar-general  of  the  Dominicans,  and  afterwards 


308 


LEGION  (The  Thundering). 


arcbbishop  of  Genoa,  who  died  ia  1208.  The  Bre- 
viiry  abounds  in  Legends  of  saints,  wliich  every  Ro- 
mish priest  is  bound  daily  to  peruse.  For  the  edifi- 
cation of  the  laity  of  the  church  of  Rome,  Alban 
Butler's  laborious  English  work,  entitled  '  Lives  of 
the  Saints,'  contains  Legends  of  more  than  1,500 
saints,  male  and  female.  The  grand  treasury  of  Ro- 
mish Legends  is  the  gigantic  work  of  the  Bollan- 
dists  in  Latin,  entitled  '  Acta  Sanctorum,'  the  Acts 
of  the  Saints,  which  has  already  reached  more  than 
fifty  folio  volumes,  and  will  probably,  before  it  is 
completed,  contain  at  least  30,000  saints.  This 
work  was  begun  by  a  Jesuit  of  the  name  of  BoUan- 
dus,  and  was  continued  at  Brussels  by  a  succession  of 
editors,  imtil  the  breaking  out  of  the  tirst  Prencli 
Revolution,  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century, 
when  it  had  reached  its  fiftieth  volume.  An  addi- 
tional volume  has  since  been  published.  A  recent 
addition  has  been  made  to  the  Legends  of  the  Ro- 
mish church  by  the  publication,  in  1846,  of  the 
lives  of  five  saints  who  were  canonized  in  1839. 
This  latest  contribution  to  Romish  Legends  was  the 
work  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  who  has  thus  employed 
liimself  in  giving  currency  to  stories  which  savour 
more  of  the  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  than  of 
the  enlightened  hterature  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy. 
See  Breviart. 

LEGION  (The  Thundering),  a  name  given  to 
a  legion  of  Christian  soldiers  in  the  army  of  Marcus 
Antoninus  in  his  war  against  the  Marcomanni,  in 
A.  D.  174.  Eusebius,  on  the  authority  of  Ai)ollina- 
rius  and  Tertullian,  relates  that  the  soldiers  of  this  le- 
gion, being  reduced  to  extremities  by  a  severe  and 
protracted  drought,  fell  down  upon  their  knees,  and 
prayed  to  God,  when  immediately  a  violent  thunder 
storm  came  on  which  dispersed  the  aflriglited  Ger- 
mans, and  tlie  copious  showers  which  fell  refreshed 
the  soldiers  of  the  emperor.  The  result  was,  that 
the  Roman  army  was  victorious,  and  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  event,  the  emperor  conferred  upon  the 
Christian  soldiers  the  name  of  the  thundering  legion, 
while  he  himself  ceased  to  persecute  the  Christians. 
The  miraculous  event  as  recorded  by  Eusebius,  has 
given  rise  to  considerable  difi'erence  of  opinion  among 
the  learned,  some  attributing  it  to  supernatural,  and 
otliers  to  natural  causes.  The  following  view  of  this 
much-controverted  subject  is  given  by  Neander: 
'•  In  this  account,  truth  and  falsehood  are  mixed  to- 
gether. In  the  first  place,  it  cannot  be  true  that  the 
emperor  was  lad  to  put  a  stop  to  the  persecution  of 
the  Christians  by  any  event  of  this  time  ;  for  the 
bloody  perisecution  at  Lyons  did  not  take  place  till 
three  years  afterwards.  Again,  the  '  thundering 
legion,'  or  '  the  twelfth  of  the  Roman  legions,'  had 
borne  this  name  from  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Au- 
gustus. The  fact  at  bottom,  namely,  that  the  Ro- 
man army,  about  that  time,  was  rescued  from  a 
threatening  danger  by  some  such  remarkable  provi- 
dence, is  undeniable.  The  heathen  themselves  ac- 
knowledged it  to  be  the  work  of  Ileaven;  they 


ascribed  it,  however,  not  to  the  Christian's  God,  noi 
to  their  prayers,  but  to  their  own  gods,  to  their  Ju- 
piter, and  to  the  prayers  of  the  emperor,  or  of  the 
pagan  army ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  blind  superstition 
which  attributed  the  storm  to  the  spells  of  an  Egyp- 
tian necromancer.  The  emperor,  it  is  said,  stretched 
forth  his  hands,  in  supplication  to  Jupiter,  with  the 
words,  '  This  hand,  which  has  never  yet  shed  human 
blood,  I  raise  to  thee.'  There  were  paintings  in 
which  he  was  represented  in  the  attitude  of  prayer, 
and  the  array  catching  the  ram  in  their  helmets. 
The  emperor  has  expressed  his  own  conviction  ot 
the  matter  upon  a  medal,  where  Jupiter  is  exhibited 
launching  his  bolts  on  the  barbarians,  who  he  stretch- 
ed upon  the  ground ;  and  perhaps,  also,  at  the  close 
of  the  tu-st  Book  of  the  Monologues,  where  he  men 
tions,  among  the  things  for  which  he  was  indebted, 
not  to  himself,  but  to  the  gods  and  his  good  fortune, 
what  had  happened  among  the  Quades.  It  is  cer- 
tain, therefore,  that  this  remarkable  event  can  have 
had  no  influence  in  changing  the  disposition  of  tlie 
emperor  towards  the  Christians.  But  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  the  latter  are  to  be  charged  with 
making  up  a  false  story.  The  matter  admits  of  a 
natural  explanation.  It  is  not  impossible  that,  in 
the  thmidering  legion,  there  were  Christians ;  per- 
haps a  large  number  of  them ;  for  it  is  certain  that 
it  was  but  a  party  among  them  who  condemned  the 
military  profession.  And  although  it  was  dilBcult 
for  Christians  at  all  times,  and  especially  under  an 
emperor  so  unfavoiu-ably  disposed,  to  avoid  partici- 
pating, while  connected  with  a  Roman  army,  in  the 
rites  of  paganism,  yet  they  might  succeed  in  doing 
so  under  particular  circumstances.  The  Christian 
soldiers,  then,  resorted,  as  they  were  ever  wont  to  do 
on  like  occasions,  to  prayer.  The  deliverance  which 
ensued  they  regarded  as  an  answer  to  their  prayers ; 
and,  on  their  retimi  home,  they  mentioned  it  to  their 
brethren  in  the  faith.  These,  naturally,  would  not 
fail  to  remind  the  heathen  how  much  they  were  in- 
debted to  the  people  whom  they  so  violently  perse- 
cuted. Claudius  ApoUinaris,  bishop  of  Hierapolis 
in  Phrygia,  might  have  heard  the  story,  soon  after 
the  event  itself,  from  the  Christian  soldiers  belong- 
ing to  this  legion,  which  had  returned  to  its  winter 
quarters  in  Cappadocia ;  and  he  introduced  it,  either 
in  an  apology  addressed  to  this  emperor,  or  in  other 
apologetical  works.  Tertullian  refers  to  a  letter  of 
the  emperor,  addressed  probably  to  the  Roman  Se- 
nate, in  which  be  owns  that  the  deliverance  was  due 
to  the  Christian  soldiers.  But  this  letter,  if  it  con- 
tained, in  so  many  words,  a  .statement  of  this  sort, 
must,  as  appears  evident  fron\  the  above  remarks, 
have  been  either  a  .spurious  or  interpolated  one.  It 
may  be  a  question,  however,  wjiether  the  letter  con- 
tained any  distinct  a,lfirmation  of  this  sort, — whether 
the  emperor  may  not  have  spoken  simply  of  soldiert, 
and  Tertullian  explained  it,  according  to  his  own  be- 
lief of  Christian  soldiers.  lie  expresses  himself,  at 
any  rate,  with  some  degree  of  hesitation.     How  the 


LEIBNITZ  (Philosophy  of)— LENT. 


309 


ChriHlians  might  possibly  sometimes  interpret  the 
rolijjious  profession  of  the  Iipathens  according  to  the 
principles  of  their  own  faitli,  is  shown  by  another 
account  of  this  event,  wliich  we  lind  in  Tcrfiillian. 
It  is  in  these  words :  '  Marcus  Aurelius,  in  the  Ger- 
man expedition  also,  obtained,  throuf^h  the  prayers 
olVered  to  God  by  Christian  soldiers,  showers  of  rain, 
during  that  time  of  thirst.  When  has  not  the  land 
been  delivered  from  drought,  by  our  goniculations 
and  fasts  ?  In  such  cases,  tlie  very  people,  when  they 
cried  to  the  God  of  gods,  who  alone  is  mighty,  gave 
our  God  the  glory,  under  the  name  of  Jupiter.'" 

LEGISTS.    See  Decketists. 

LEIBNITZ  (Philosophy  of).  This  eminent 
German  metajihysician  was  bom  at  Leipzig  in  1648, 
and  died  in  1716.  His  philosophy  was  throughout 
a  system  of  pure  idealism.  (See  Idealists.)  Spirit 
was  divorced  from  matter,  soul  from  body,  and  the 
sole  principle  of  connection  between  the  two  was 
that  of  a  pre-established  harmony,  which  enabled 
them  mysteriously  to  move  in  concert  without  in- 
fluencing each  other.  Change,  therefore,  whether 
occurring  in  matter  or  in  mind,  is  caused  not  by  an 
influence  ft-om  without,  but  by  an  internal  moving 
influence  from  witliin.  Thought,  therefore,  while  it 
corresponds  with  external  objects  and  events  by  a 
imiversal  law  of  harmony,  is  simply  a  consciousness 
of  changes  which  are  taking  place  in  the  soul  itself. 
At  the  head  of  the  whole  system  of  Monads,  which 
constitute  the  material  and  spiritual  worlds,  Leibnitz 
[)laced  the  Deity,  whom  he  termed  the  Monad  of 
Monads.  Each  of  these  monads  is  in  some  degree  a 
mirror  of  the  universe ;  aU  of  them  are  acting  spon- 
taneously, for  it  is  the  property  of  aU  beings  to  act, 
and  yet  they  are  all  of  them  subordinate  to  the  order 
of  the  best  possible  universe,  for  Leibnitz  regarded 
optimism  as  essential  to  the  veiy  notion  of  God. 
Thus  liberty  is  in  tlris  system  combined  with  neces- 
sity. 

While  Leibnitz  sought  to  invent  a  philosophical 
system  which  should  harmonize  all  the  apparent  dis- 
cordances of  the  universe,  he  aimed  also  at  a  recon- 
ciliation between  philosophy  and  Christianity,  in 
opposition  to  the  sceptical  dualism  of  Bayle,  against 
whom  he  wrote  his  Theodicee.  He  held  with  Des 
Cartes  and  Spinosa,  that  clearness  is  the  measure  of 
truth.  The  true,  he  alleged  to  be  that  which  does 
not  contradict  itself,  and  that  for  which  a  sufficient 
reason  can  be  adduced.  The  first  principle  proves 
the  possibility,  and  the  second  the  reality.  The  first 
is  the  criterion  of  necessary  matter,  and  the  second 
of  contingent  matter. 

Leibnitz,  however,  though  he  laid  down  several 
important  principles,  had  been  prevented  from  re- 
ducing the  whole  to  a  regular  system.  This  task 
was  reserved  for  Christian  Wolfl",  his  distinguished 
correspondent  and  friend,  who,  on  the  death  of  his 
master,  was  regarded  as  the  most  eminent  expositor 
of  the  Leibnitzian  philosophy.  While  professing  to 
follow   in  the  footsteps  of  his  great   predecessor, 


Wolff  considerably  modified  the  system  of  mooadb. 
80  as  to  establish  a  decided  difi'erenee  between  mat- 
ter and  mind  in  their  real  essence;  and  while  he 
retained  the  theory  of  pre-established  liannony,  he 
confined  it  to  the  nuittial  influence  of  soul  and  body. 
In  conducting  his  philosophical  researches,  this  dis- 
tinguished commentator  on  Leibnitz  adopted  the 
geometrical  method,  and  considered  all  truths  as 
holding  to  each  other  relations  analogous  to  those  of 
numbers.  Thus  mathematical  demonstration  came 
to  be  applied  to  questions  of  pure  metaphysics,  and 
following  the  example  of  AVollV,  a  school  arose  which, 
though  it  flourished  for  a  time,  speedily  gave  way  to 
a  more  rational  method  of  handling  metaphysical 
topics. 

LE-KE,  one  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Confuci- 
aniiti  of  China.  It  is  the  acknowledged  guide  to 
rites  and  manners,  prescribing  rules  for  all  the  rela- 
tionships of  life,  and  the  established  orders  of  so- 
ciety.    See  KtNG. 

LEMURES,  spirits  of  the  dead,  which  were  be- 
lieved by  the  ancient  Romans  to  return  to  the  world, 
and  annoy  and  torment  the  living,  more  especially  in 
the  darkness  of  the  night.  Certain  ceremonies  were 
resorted  to  annually  on  the  9tli,  11th,  and  1.3th  of 
May,  in  order  to  avert  the  evils  arising  from  the 
visits  of  these  mischievous  spectres.  The  master  of 
the  house  rose  at  midnight,  and  going  outside  the 
door  made  certain  signs.  He  then  washed  his  hands 
in  spring  water,  and  turning  round  took  black  beans 
into  his  mouth,  which  he  afterwards  threw  behind  his 
back  tliat  the  Lemures  might  gather  them.  He  then 
uttered  some  words,  again  washed  his  hands,  made  a 
noise,  and  called  to  the  spirits  nine  times  to  be  gone. 
Prom  this  time  they  lost  their  power  to  do  injuiy. 
On  the  three  days  set  apart  for  these  ceremonies,  all 
the  temples  were  shut,  and  it  was  accounted  unlucky 
for  women  to  many  not  only  during  the  thi'ee  days 
of  the  Lemvralia,  as  they  were  called,  but  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  month  of  May. 

LENJEA.    See  Dionysia. 

LEN^US,  a  surname  of  Dionysus  (which  see), 
as  being  the  god  of  the  Lenos  or  vintage. 

LENT,  a  season  of  fasting  which  precedes  the  fes- 
tival of  Easter,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced with  the  view  of  commemorating  our  Saviour's 
temptation,  and  his  fasting  forty  days  in  the  wilder- 
ness. At  first  it  seems  to  have  been  a  voluntaiy 
fast,  continuing  forty  hours,  corresponding  to  Friday 
and  Saturday  before  Easter,  and  comprising  the  en- 
tire period  during  which  our  Redeemer  lay  in  the 
grave.  In  process  of  time  this  fast  underwent  con- 
siderable changes,  and  from  a  voluntary  it  became  a 
regularly  prescribed  fast,  observed  not  by  penitents 
and  catechumens  only,  but  by  Christians  generally. 
In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  the  fast  was  extended 
to  thirty-six  days.  The  four  days  which  were  after- 
wards added  to  make  it  forty  days,  were  introduced 
either  by  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  sixth  centjuy,  or 
by  Gregory  II.  in  the  eighth.     This  fast,  styled  ths 


iJlO 


LEIPSIC  CONFERENCE— LEOPARD-WORSHIP 


carnival,  from  caro  vale, '  farewell-flesh,'  began  with 
Ash-Wednesday,  and  ended  with  the  Saturday  be- 
fore Easter,  which  was  observed  with  great  solem- 
nity, and  was  denominated  the  great  sabbath.  The 
entire  week  before  Easter  was  termed  the  Great 
week,  and  Passion  week-  The  forty  days  of  the 
Fast  of  Lent  are  sometimes  accounted  for  by  refer- 
ring to  the  example  of  Moses,  Elias,  and  our  Lord, 
all  of  whom  fasted  forty  days.  The  Fast  of  Lent 
does  not  include  all  the  days  between  Ash- Wednes- 
day and  Easter,  the  Sundays  not  being  counted  be- 
cause the  Lord's  Day  has  always  been  held  as  a  fes- 
tival, and  not  as  a  fast.     See  Easter. 

LEIPSIC  CONFERENCE,  a  disputation  wHcb 
took  place  at  Leipsic  in  1631,  between  certain  Lu- 
theran and  Reformed  divines  in  Germany,  with  a 
view  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  union  between  the 
two  chuiohes.  They  discussed  all  the  articles  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  to  which  the  Reformed  were 
ready  to  subscribe,  and  also  set  forth  a  formula  of 
union,  or  rather  an  exposition  of  the  articles  in 
controversy.  The  Conference,  however,  led  to  no 
satisfactory  result. 

LEIPSIC  DISPUTATION,  a  pubUc  discussion 
which  was  held  at  Leipsic  in  1519,  between  John 
Eckius  on  tlie  one  side,  and  Carlstadt  and  Luther  on 
tlie  other.  It  began  on  the  27th  of  June,  and  con- 
tinued till  the  1.3tli  of  July.  During  the  iirst  week 
Eckius  and  Carlstadt  disputed  respecting  free-will. 
During  the  second  week  Eckius  disputed  with  Lu- 
ther respecting  the  primacy  of  the  Pope.  In  the 
third  week  Eckius  again  disputed  with  Luther  on 
repentance,  pui-gatory,  indulgences,  and  priestly  ab- 
solution. The  last  three  days  were  spent  in  dispu- 
tations between  Eckius  and  Carlstadt.  The  univer- 
sities of  Paris  and  Erfurt  were  proposed  and  accepted 
as  judges  of  the  disputation.  Luther,  however,  re- 
served to  himself  the  power  of  appeal  from  the  uni- 
versities to  a  coimcil.  But  no  decision  was  come  to 
on  the  discussion,  and  every  one  commented  on  it 
according  to  his  own  feelings.  "  At  Leipsic,"  said 
Luther,  "  there  was  great  loss  of  time,  but  no  seek- 
ing after  truth."  This  important  discussion,  how- 
ever, was  not  without  fruit.  The  arguments  of 
Lutlier,  though  they  failed  in  convincing  his  oppo- 
nent, sunk  deep  into  the  minds  of  not  a  few,  who 
were  simply  present  as  hearers.  Poliander,  the 
secretary  and  friend  of  Eckius,  was  won  over  by  this 
discussion  to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  Jolm 
Cellarius,  a  learned  professor  of  Hebrew,  who  liad 
been  one  of  the  most  violent  opponents  of  tlie  Re- 
formed doctrines,  underwent  a  complete  change  in 
his  religious  views.  Prince  George  of  Anhalt,  then 
oidy  twelve  ye^rs  old,  was  so  convinced  b)'  Luther's 
reasonings,  that  he  fearlessly  ranged  himself  on  the  side 
of  the  Gospel.  The  elVect  upon  tlie  minds  of  the 
students  also  was  so  strong,  that  great  numbers  of  them 
repaired  to  Witlemberg  that  they  migh^  sit  at  the  feet 
of  Lntlier.  The  Leipsic  disputntinii,  however,  accom- 
plished, above  all,  a  signal  lienclit  to  the  cause  of  truth, 


in  the  holy  impulse  which  it  gave  to  Melaiicthon 
"From  that  hour,"  says  D'Aubign^,  "his  extensive 
learning  bowed  before  the  Word  of  God.  He  re- 
ceived the  evangelical  truth  with  the  simplicity  of  a 
child;  explained  the  doctrine  of  salvation  with  a 
gi-ace  and  perspicuity  that  charmed  all  his  bearers ; 
and  trod  boldly  in  that  path  so  new  to  him,  for,  said 
he,  '  Christ  will  never  abandon  his  followers.'  Hence- 
forward the  two  friends  walked  together,  contending 
for  hberty  and  trnth, — the  one  with  the  energy  of 
St.  Paul,  the  other  with  the  meekness  of  St.  John. 
Lutlier  has  admirably  expressed  the  difference  of 
their  callings.  '  I  was  bom,'  said  he,  '  to  contend  on 
the  field  of  battle  with  factions  and  with  wicked 
spirits.  This  is  why  my  works  abound  with  war 
and  tempests.  It  is  my  task  to  uproot  the  stock 
and  the  stem,  to  clear  away  the  briars  and  under- 
wood, to  fill  up  the  pools  and  the  marshes.  I  am 
the  rough  woodman  who  has  to  jirepare  the  way  and 
smootli  the  road.  But  Philip  advances  quietly  and 
softly ;  he  tills  and  plants  the  ground ;  sows  and 
waters  it  joyfully,  according  to  the  gifts  that  God 
has  given  him  with  so  liberal  a  hand.' "  The  gi'eat- 
est  efl'ect  of  the  discussion,  however,  was  that  which 
was  produced  on  the  mind  of  Luther  himself. 
" '  The  scales  of  scholastic  theology,'  said  he,  '  fell 
then  entirely  from  before  my  eyes,  under  the  trium- 
phant presidence  of  Doctor  Eck.'  The  veil  which 
the  School  and  the  Church  had  conjointly  drawn 
before  the  sanctuary  was  rent  for  the  reformer  from 
top  to  bottom.  Driven  to  new  inquiries,  he  ai-rived 
at  unexpected  discoveries.  With  as  much  indigna- 
tion as  astonishment,  he  saw  the  evil  in  all  its  mag- 
nitude. Searching  into  the  annals  of  the  Church, 
he  discovered  that  the  supremacy  of  Rome  had  no 
other  origin  than  ambition  on  the  one  hand,  and  ig- 
norant credulity  on  the  other.  The  narrow  point  oi 
view  imder  which  he  had  hitherto  looked  upon  the 
Church  was  succeeded  by  a  deeper  and  more  ex- 
tended range.  He  recognised  in  the  Christians  of 
Greece  and  of  the  East  true  members  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church ;  and  instead  of  a  visible  chief,  seated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  he  adored,  as  sole  chief  of 
the  people  of  God,  an  invisible  and  eternal  Redeem- 
er, who,  according  to  his  promise,  is  daily  in  the 
midst  of  every  nation  upon  earth,  with  all  who  be- 
lieve in  His  name.  The  Latin  Cluirch  was  no  longer 
in  Luther's  estimation  the  universal  Church ;  he  saw 
the  narrow  barriers  of  Rome  fall  down,  and  exulted 
in  discovering  beyond  them  the  glorious  dominions 
of  Christ." 

LEONES  (Lat.  lions),  a  name  which,  according 
to  Porphyry,  was  given  to  the  priests  of  Mithrat 
among  the  ancient  Persians. 

LIOONISTS,  an  apjiellation  given  sometimes  to 
the  Waldicnses  (which  sec),  because  of  their  con- 
nection witli  Leoua  or  Lyons  in  France. 

LEOPARD-WORSHIP.  The  leopard  is  a  for- 
midable animal,  and  is  bold  in  great  dread  by  the 
natives  of  dift'erent  parts  of  Africa.     It  is  all  the 


LERNiiEA— LESSONS. 


3U 


niore  dreaded  in  consequence  of  a  superstitious  no- 
tion which  prevails,  particularly  in  Southern  Guinea, 
that  wicked  men  frequently  metamorphose  them- 
selves into  tigers,  and  commit  all  sorts  of  depreda- 
tions without  the  liability  or  possibility  of  being 
killed.  Large  villages  are  sometimes  abandoned  by 
their  inhabitants,  because  they  are  afraid  to  attack 
these  animals  on  account  of  their  supposed  superna- 
tural powers.  In  Daliomey  this  animal  is  accounted 
so  sacred  that  if  any  one  shoidd  kill  it,  he  would  be 
held  to  have  committed  sacrilege,  and  would  bo  of- 
fered up  in  sacrifice  to  propitiate  the  olVonded  god. 
The  people  of  that  country  look  upon  the  leojiard  as 
representing  the  supreme  god,  whom  they  call  Sell, 
worshipping  him  with  the  utmost  reverence.  Should 
any  man  be  killed  by  a  leopard,  his  relatives,  in- 
stead of  lamenting  over  the  event,  rejoice  that  he 
has  been  taken,  as  they  believe,  to  the  land  of  good 
spirits  ;  and  in  token  of  their  satisfaction,  they  treat 
the  animal  with  the  utmost  kindness.  Leopards 
seem  to  have  abounded  in  Egypt,  as  on  the  monu- 
ments the  priests  otfering  incense  are  usually  clothed 
in  a  leopard's  skin.  Sir  John  G.  Wilkinson  tells  us 
that  this  leopard-skin  dress  was  worn  on  all  the 
principal  solemnities,  and  that  the  king  liiniself 
adopted  it  on  similar  occasions. 

LERNjEA,  mysteries  celebrated  at  Lerna  in  Ar- 
golis,  in  honour  of  Demeter  (which  see). 

LESSONS,  portions  of  Scripture  appointed  in 
many  chm'ches  to  be  read  in  the  course  of  Divine 
service.  In  the  ancient  Jewish  church  the  reading 
of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  formed  a  most 
important  part  of  the  worship  of  the  synagogue. 
The  Books  of  Moses  were  divided  for  this  purpose 
into  fifty-four  sections,  corresponding  to  the  Sab- 
baths in  a  year,  one  being  allowed  for  their  in- 
tercalated years  in  which  there  might  be  fifty-four 
Sabbaths.  These  sections  were  read  successively  one 
on  each  Sabbath.  When  a  less  number  of  Sabbaths 
occurred  in  a  year,  two  sections  were  read  together 
as  one  on  the  last  Sabbath,  so  that  the  whole  Penta- 
teuch might  be  read  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Selec- 
tions were  also  made  from  the  historical  and  prophet- 
ical books,  which  received  the  general  name  of  the 
Prophets.  One  of  these  selections  was  read  every 
Sabbath-day  along  with  the  corresponding  portion  of 
the  Law.  Hence  in  Acts  xiii.  15,  we  find  the  Jews 
ni  Antioch  in  Pisidia  reading  the  Law  and  the  Pro- 
phets. In  the  early  Christian  church  the  reading  of 
the  Scriptures  was  an  essential  part  of  public  wor- 
ship, at  which  all  persons  were  allowed  to  be  present. 
The  portions  read  were  partly  taken  from  the  Old 
Testament,  and  partly  from  tlie  New.  Justin  Mar- 
tyr is  the  first  who  mentions  the  reading  of  the 
Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  together  with 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament.  This  writer 
also  mentions  a  special  officer  in  the  church  called  a 
Reader,  whose  duty  it  was  to  read  the  Scriptures, 
after  which  an  exhortation  or  exposition  bearing  on 
the  passages  read  was  delivered  by  the  minister. 


The  Apostolical  Constitutions  enjoin  the  reading  ol 
the  Scriptures  as  an  important  part  of  public  wor- 
ship. At  first  there  was  no  established  order  for  the 
reading  of  them,  but  afterwards  the  bishop  appointed 
the  lessons.  Even  as  late  as  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries,  instances  occur  of  such  appointments  by 
the  bishop.  "The  earliest  division  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament," .says  Coleman,  "  was  into  the  gospels  and 
the  epistles,  coiTesponding  to  the  law  and  the  pro- 
phets of  the  Jewish  scriptures.  This  division  aji- 
pears  in  the  writings  of  Tcrtullian  and  Irenaius,  and 
must,  accordingly,  have  been  anterior  to  their  time. 
The  reading  was  directed  according  to  this  division, 
one  lesson  from  each  being  read  alternately.  Be- 
tween the  reading  of  these  Psalms  were  sung,  or 
selections  from  the  Old  Testament  were  read.  When 
there  was  nothing  peculiar  to  direct  the  reading,  the 
scriptures  were  read  consecutively,  according  to 
their  established  order ;  but  this  order  was  inter- 
rupted on  their  festivals,  and  other  occasions.  At 
Easter  the  account  of  the  resurrection  was  read  from 
each  of  the  evangelists  successively.  The  season  of 
Pentecost,  from  Easter  to  Whitsuntide,  was  set 
apart  for  the  reading  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
The  Western  church  connected  with  this  the  read- 
ing of  the  Epistles  and  of  the  Apocalypse.  During 
Lent  Genesis  was  read ;  and  as  early  as  the  third 
century  the  book  of  Job  was  read  iii  Passion-week. 
In  a  word,  though  we  have  no  complete  order  of  the 
lessons  read  through  tlie  year,  it  is  to  be  presumed 
that  the  reading  was  directed  by  an  established  rule 
and  plan,  especially  on  all  the  principal  festivals  and 
solemnities  of  the  church." 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson  in  the  ancient  church,  the 
audience  knelt  down  and  prayed  in  some  such  words 
as  these,  "  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us."  The  reading 
began  and  closed  with  a  set  fonn.  Cyprian  alleges 
that  the  reader  saluted  the  audience  by  saying,  "  Peace 
be  with  you."  This,  however,  was  afterwards  used 
only  by  the  presbyter  or  bisho])  at  the  commence- 
ment of  pubUe  worship,  and  before  the  sermon.  It 
was  customary  for  the  reader  to  awaken  attention  at 
the  outset  by  saying,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord,"  in  the 
Lesson  from  the  Old  Testament  or  from  the  Gos- 
pels, or  "  Beloved  brethren,  in  the  Epistles  it  is 
wTitten."  At  the  close  of  the  Lesson  the  people 
frequently  responded  by  saying,  "  Amen,"  or  "  We 
thank  thee,  Lord,"  "We  thank  thee,  0  Christ."  This 
custom,  however,  gave  rise  to  so  many  abuses,  that  the 
people  were  foi'bidden  to  respond,  and  the  minister 
closed  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  by  saying,  "  Bless 
ed  be  God,"  and  that  of  the  Evangelists  by  saying, 
"  Glory  be  to  thee,  O  Lord."  At  first  the  reading 
was  performed  fiom  the  Ambo  (which  see),  but 
afterwards  the  Gospel  and  the  Epistle,  out  of  rever- 
ence for  these  parts  of  Scripture,  were  read,  the  for- 
mer on  the  right  hand,  and  the  latter  on  the  left  of 
the  altar.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  subdeacon  to  read 
or  chant  the  Epistles  :  and  of  the  deacon  to  rehearse 
the  Gospels.     The  apostolical  constitutions  recom- 


312 


LETHE— LEUCOPHRYNE. 


mend  both  minister  and  people  to  stand  during  the 
reading  of  the  Gospels,  wliile,  diu-ing  the  reading  of 
other  portions  of  the  Scriptiu'e,  they  sat.  Particu- 
lar Lessons  from  tlie  Gospels  and  Epistles  were 
read  on  certain  Sabbaths  and  festival  days.  These 
special  Lessons  were  tenned  Pericopm.  Their  ori- 
gin has  been  much  disputed  among  the  learned. 
Some  have  traced  them  to  apostolic  times ;  others 
allege  that  they  origuiated  in  the  fourth  century ; 
while  others  still  trace  them  back  no  farther  than 
the  eighth  century. 

The  arrangements  of  the  Church  of  England,  in 
reference  to  the  Lessons  appointed  to  be  read  in 
public  worship,  are  thus  described  by  Dr.  Hook : 
■'  For  all  the  first  Lessons  on  ordinary  days,  she 
directs  to  begin  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  with 
Genesis,  and  so  continue  till  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  read  over,  only  omitting  Chronicles, 
wliich  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  with  the  books 
of  Samuel  and  Kings  ;  and  other  particular  chapters 
in  other  books,  either  because  they  contain  the 
names  of  persons,  places,  or  other  matters  less  pro- 
fitable to  ordinary  readers.  The  com-se  of  the  first 
Lessons  for  Sundays  is  regulated  after  a  different 
manner :  from  Advent  to  Septuagesima  Sunday, 
some  particular  chapters  of  Isaiah  are  appointed  to 
be  read,  because  that  book  contains  the  clearest  pro- 
phecies concerning  Christ.  Upon  Septuagesima 
Sunday  Genesis  is  begun  ;  because  that  book,  which 
treats  of  the  fall  of  man,  and  the  severe  judgment 
of  God  inflicted  on  the  world  for  sin,  best  suits  with 
a  time  of  repentance  and  mortification.  After  Gene- 
sis follow  chapters  out  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, as  they  lie  in  order ;  only  on  festival  Sun- 
days, such  as  Easter,  Whitsunday,  &c.,  the  particular 
history  relating  to  that  day  is  appointed  to  be  read  ; 
and  on  the  Saints'  days  the  Church  appoints  Les- 
sons out  of  the  moral  books,  such  as  Proverbs,  Eccle- 
siastes,  &c.,  and  also  from  the  Apocrypha,  as  con- 
taining excellent  instructions  for  the  conduct  of 
life.  As  to  the  second  Lessons,  the  Church  observes 
tlie  same  course  both  on  Sundays  and  week-days ; 
reading  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in 
tlie  morning,  and  the  Epistles  in  the  evening,  in  the 
order  tliey  stand  in  the  New  Testament ;  excepting 
on  Saints'  days  and  Holy-days,  when  such  Lessons 
are  appointed  as  either  explain  the  mystery,  relate 
the  histoiy,  or  apply  the  example  to  us."  Thus  the 
Scripture  Lessons  are  arranged  throughout  the  year 
with  a  view  to  the  reading  of  all  Scripture  publicly 
or  privately,  according  to  the  calendar,  and  the  Les- 
sons for  Sabbath  are  such  as  to  alTord  continuous 
Scriptural  instruction,  and  to  lead  the  worshipper  to 
tlie  personal  reading  of  tlie  Bible  for  his  own  edifi- 
cation. 

In  the  Romish  missal  each  mass  has  two  Scrip- 
ture Lessons;  the  one  called  'the  Epistle,'  and  the 
other  '  the  Gospel.'  The  Lessons  from  the  apo.sto- 
lic  epistles  are  generally  mucli  shorter  than  from  the 
(Cospels.    The  Scripture  Lessons  of  the  church  of 


Rome  are,  for  the  most  part,  taken  from  the  Vulgat* 
version,  the  version  of  Jerome.  In  the  Breviary  oi 
Prayer-Book  of  the  Romish  priests,  there  are  selec- 
tions given  from  Scripture  by  way  of  Lessons,  which, 
however,  are  neither  continuous  nor  complete,  though 
the  theory  of  the  Breviary,  undoubtedly,  is  that  all 
Seriptme  should  be  read  through  in  the  course  of  a 
year. 

LETHE,  the  personification  of  oblivion  among 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  gave  also 
the  name  of  Lethe  to  a  river  in  the  infernal  regions. 
See  Hell. 

LETHON,  the  goddess  of  childbearlng,  known 
by  various  names  among  ancient  heathen  nations. 
She  was  worshipped  by  tki  Greeks  under  the  name 
of  Artemis,  while  the  Scythians  termed  her  Tomyris, 
and  at  a  later  period  she  was  admitted  into  the  mytho- 
logy of  Egjiit  under  the  name  of  Lethon.  She  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  identical  with  the  Latona  of  the 
Romans.  In  Egypt  this  goddess  was  represented  by 
a  frog,  probably  on  account  of  its  prolific  power  ;  but 
soon  afterwards  .slie  was  worshipped  under  the  name 
of  Biito,  and  was  thouglit  to  have  the  power  of  driv- 
ing away  frogs.  On  the  monuments  she  is  some- 
times called  Tene,  and  also  Buto,  and  at  other  times, 
in  a  compound  form,  Tene-Buto.  At  first  she  ap- 
pears with  the  head  of  a  frog,  and  afterwards  witli 
tlie  head  of  a  vulttu-e,  and  armed  with  a  bow  and 
arrows. 

LETHRA,  now  Leire,  in  the  island  of  Zealand, 
the  city  of  the  gods  among  the  ancient  Danes.  Thii 
was  the  holy  place  where  the  nation  assembled  Jn 
offer  up  their  sacrifices,  to  present  their  prayers,  and 
to  receive  the  choicest  blessings  from  the  gods. 

LETO,  the  wife  of  Zeus,  by  whom  she  was  the 
mother  o(  Ajjollo  and  Artemis.  She  was  only  wor- 
shipped in  conjunction  with  her  children.  Hera  bo 
ing  jealous  of  her,  as  being  a  favourite  of  Zeus,  pro- 
cured her  expulsion  from  heaven,  and  liaviiig  been 
changed  into  a  quail,  she  foimd  a  resting-place  in 
Delos,  where  her  cliildreu  were  born,  and  she  and 
they  were  afterwards  worshipped. 

LETTERS  CANONICAL.  See  Canonical 
Letters. 

LETTERS  DOIISSORY.  See  Dimissory  Let- 
ters. 

LETTERS  OF  ORDERS.  When  a  bishop  in 
England  ordains  a  clergyman,  either  as  a  priest  or 
deacon,  he  gives  him  a  certificate  which  is  termed 
Letters  of  Orders.  Churchwardens  are  entitled  to 
demand  a  sight  of  these  letters  when  any  one  offers 
to  officiate  in  a  parish  church. 

LEUC^iUS,  a  surname  of  Zeits,  under  wliich  ho 
was  worshipped  at  Lepreus  in  IClis. 

LEUCOPETRIANS,  a  class  of  people  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Greek  church,  who  adopted  the  views 
of  Leucopetrus,  which  jiroceeded  on  an  allegorical 
interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures. 

LEUCOPHRYNE,  a  surname  of  Artfviii.  undoT 
whicli  she  was  worshipped  at  Leucophrys  in  Phry- 


LEVANA— LEVITES. 


813 


gia,  where  she  liad  a  temple,  as  well  a8  at  Magnesia, 
on  the  Maeaiider. 

LIOVANA  (from  levare,  to  raise),  a  Roman  god- 
dess, who  presided  over  tlie  rearing  of  new-born 
children. 

LEV[RATE,  a  law  among  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
in  virtue  of  which,  when  a  man  died  without  issue, 
it  became  the  duty  of  his  next  surviving  brother  to 
marry  his  widow,  with  the  view  of  raising  up  a  first- 
born son  to  succeed  to  the  inheritance.  Michaolis 
derives  the  name  from  an  old  Latin  word  kmr,  which 
is  said  to  signify  a  husband's  brother.  The  law  was 
more  ancient  than  the  time  of  Moses,  having  been  in 
operation  in  Palestine  among  tlie  Canaanites  and  the 
ancestors  of  the  Israelites.  Moses  indeed,  in  Lev. 
xviii.  16.  ex])lieitly  forbids  a  man  to  marry  his  bro- 
ther's wife,  but  he  lays  down  an  important  exception 
to  this  law  in  Deut.  xxv.  5 — 10,  and  the  reason  of 
this  exception  was,  that  families  and  iidioritances 
might  be  preserved  unbroken  until  the  coming  of 
Messiah.  The  law,  as  it  previously  existed,  was  not 
changed  by  Moses,  but  simply  modified  in  various 
respects.  Thus  he  expressly  prohibited  the  mar- 
riage of  a  brotlier's  widow,  if  there  were  children  of 
his  own  alive.  He,  no  doubt,  allowed,  and,  indeed, 
enjoined  tlie  brother  to  marry  the  widow  of  his  child- 
less brother,  but  if  he  was  disinclined  to  take  such  a 
itep,  he  was  not  to  be  compelled  to  do  so,  but  had 
oidy  to  declare  in  court  that  he  had  no  inclination 
to  marry  his  brother's  widow,  and  then  he  was  at 
liberty.  But  if  the  brother  did  not  choose  to  marry 
her,  she  was  not  allowed  to  marry  another  man  until 
he  had  first  set  her  at  liberty.  This  ceremony  of 
giving  a  brother's  widow  leave  to  marry  again  is 
called  Caliza  (which  see),  or  the  loosing  of  the 
hoe.  When  there  were  several  brothers,  the  Mish- 
na  states,  that  if  the  eldest  refused,  application  must 
be  made  to  each  of  the  younger  brothers,  and  if  none 
of  them  would  comply,  the  eldest  was  to  be  com- 
pelled either  to  marry  the  widow,  or  to  submit  to 
the  indignity  involved  in  the  Caliza.  By  the  Ge- 
mava,  both  the  obligation  and  the  liberty  of  marry- 
mg  the  wife  of  a  deceased  brother,  are  restricted  to 
the  eldest  of  the  surviving  brothers.  Among  the 
modern  Jews,  the  rabbies  invariably  enjoin  their 
disciples  to  refuse  compliance  with  the  precept,  and 
notliing  remains  of  the  original  institution  except  the 
iieremony  of  releasing  both  parties  from  a  connection 
.vhicli  is  never  permitted  to  be  formed. 

LEVITES,  the  descendants  of  Levi,  the  son  of 
fudali,  and  forming  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Is- 
rael. Not  having  joined  in  the  worship  of  the  golden 
calf,  they  received  the  high  honour  of  being  chosen 
by  Jehovah  to  be  the  priests  of  the  Hebrews  instead 
of  the  first-bom.  From  the  tribe  of  Levi,  Aaron 
and  his  posterity  were  consecrated  to  the  office  of 
the  priesthood.  The  high-priest  ranked  as  the  head 
both  of  the  priests  and  Levites.  The  other  Levites 
discharged  inferior  religious  duties,  but  for  the  more 
menial  employments  they  were   allowed  servants. 

n. 


It  would  appear  from  Numb.  viii.  5 — 22,  that  in  the 
first  instance  the  Levites  were  solemnly  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  Israelites,  and  set  apart  for  their 
special  sacred  duties  by  a  peculiar  ceremony.  Hav- 
ing washed  and  shaved  the  whole  body,  they  brought 
a  bullock,  with  a  meatoffering  and  oil,  to  the  altar 
for  a  burnt-olVering,  and  another  bullock  for  a  sin- 
ofl'ering.  Moses  then  sprinkled  them  with  water, 
after  which  the  chief  of  the  Israelites  laid  their 
hands  upon  them,  and  thus  consecrated  them  to  the 
work  of  the  Lord.  The  Levites,  in  the  presence  of 
the  people,  prostrated  themselves  before  God  in 
token  of  entire  surrender  of  themselves  to  his  ser- 
vice, liisiiig  from  the  ground  they  laid  hands  upon 
the  bullocks,  and  then  slew  them.  Such  were  the 
ceremonies  attending  the  consecration  of  the  whole 
body  of  the  Levites.  They  were  not  enjoined  to 
wear  any  particular  dress,  but  in  the  time  of  David 
those  who  removed  the  ark  were  dressed  in  white 
robes. 

The  duties  of  the  Levites  consisted  in  giving  to 
the  priests  all  necessary  assistance  in  the  discharge 
of  their  duties,  and  in  keeping  guard  round  the  Ta- 
bernacle, and  afterwards  round  the  Temple.  When 
journeying  through  the  wildeniess,  it  was  the  office 
of  the  Levites  to  carry  the  Tabernacle  and  all 
Its  sacred  utensils.  They  had  the  charge  of  the 
sacred  revenues,  and  purchased  all  needful  supplies 
of  wine,  oil,  frankincense,  and  other  articles  used  for 
religious  purposes.  In  the  more  recent  periods  of 
the  Jewish  state,  they  slew  the  victims  for  the  altar, 
and  after  the  time  of  David  they  seem  to  have  acted 
as  singers  and  players  on  instruments  in  the  Tem- 
ple. The  Levites  were  divided  into  three  families, 
the  Kohathitcs,  the  Gershonites,  and  the  Merarites, 
each  of  wliom  bore  different  parts  of  the  Tabemacle 
and  its  furniture  during  the  journey  through  the 
wilderness.  The  laborious  duties  which  devolved 
upon  the  Levites  were  only  discliarged  between  the 
ages  of  thirty  and  fifty,  while  the  lighter  duties  were 
performed  between  twenty-five  and  thirty,  or  be- 
yond the  age  of  fifty.  In  later  times  they  com- 
menced the  performance  of  the  easier  duties  at 
twenty'  years  of  age. 

From  the  date  of  the  building  of  the  Temple  an 
entire  change  took  place  in  tlie  an'angements  made 
as  to  the  duties  of  the  Levites.  They  were  calcu- 
lated to  amount  to  38,000,  and  were  divided  into 
four  classes ;  24,000  being  set  apart  to  assist  the 
priests.  4,000  as  porters,  4,000  musicians,  and  6,000 
judges  and  genealogists.  On  the  division  of  tlie 
land  of  Canaan,  the  Levites  had  forty-eight  cities 
assigned  to  them  as  ])laces  of  residence,  thirteen  of 
which  were  appropriated  to  the  priests,  along  with 
the  tithes  of  com,  fruit,  and  cattle.  The  Levites 
paid  to  the  priests  the  tenth  part  of  all  their  tithes. 

In  the  ancient  Christian  church  the  deacons  were 

sometimes  called  by  the  name  of  Levites,  to  show 

the  harmony  which  existed  between  the  Jewish  and 

Christian  churches,  the  bishop  corresponding  to  th« 

2d* 


314 


LHA-SSA-MOROU— LIBELLI  PACTS. 


liigh-priest,  tlie  presbyters  to  the  priests,  and  the 
deacons  to  tlie  Levites. 

LHA-SSA-MOROU,  a  festival  observed  annually 
by  the  Lamas  of  Thibet  on  the  tliird  day  of  the  first 
moon.  It  is  thus  described  by  tlie  Abb^  Hue:  "All 
the  Buddhist  monasteries  of  the  province  of  Oui 
open  their  doors  to  tlieir  numerous  inhabitants,  and 
you  see  great  bodies  of  Lamas,  on  foot,  on  liorse- 
back,  on  asses,  on  oxen,  and  carrying  their  prayer- 
books  and  cooking  Htensils,  amving  tumultuously  by- 
all  the  roads  leading  to  Lha-Ssa.  The  town  is 
soon  overwhelmed  at  all  points,  by  these  avalanches 
of  Lamas,  pouruig  from  all  the  surrounding  moun- 
tains. Those  wlio  cannot  get  lodgings  in  private 
houses,  or  in  public  edifices,  encamp  in  the  streets 
and  squares,  or  pitch  their  little  travelhng  tents  in 
the  country.  The  Lha-Ssa-Morou  lasts  six  entire 
days.  During  this  time,  the  tribunals  are  closed, 
the  ordinary  course  of  justice  is  suspended,  the  min- 
isters and  public  functionaries  lose  in  some  degree 
their  authority,  and  all  the  power  of  the  government 
is  abandoned  to  this  formidable  army  of  Buddliist 
monks.  There  prevails  in  the  town  an  inexpressi- 
ble disorder  and  confusion.  Tlie  Lamas  rim  through 
the  streets  in  disorderly  bands,  uttering  frightful 
cries,  chanting  prayers,  pushing  one  another  about, 
quarrelling,  and  sometimes  having  furious  contests 
with  their  fists.  Although  the  Lamas  generally 
show  little  reserve  or  modesty  during  tliese  festive 
days,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  they  go  to  Lha- 
Ssa  merely  to  indulge  in  amusements  incompatible 
with  their  religious  character  ;  it  is  devotion,  on  the 
contrary,  wliich  is  their  chief  motive.  Their  piu-- 
pose  is  to  implore  the  blessing  of  the  Tal^-Lama, 
and  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  celebrated  Buddhist 
monastery  called  Morou,  which  occupies  the  centre 
of  the  town.  Hence  the  name  of  Lha-Ssa-Morou 
given  to  these  six  festive  days." 

LIBAMINA,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient  Romans 
to  denote  the  bunch  of  hair  which  was  cut  from  the 
forehead  of  a  victim  about  to  be  sacrificed,  and 
which  was  thrown  into  the  fire  as  a  kind  of  first- 
fruits. 

LIBANOMANCY  (Gr.  libanos,  frankincense,  and 
manteia,  divination),  a  species  of  divination,  which 
was  performed  by  throwing  a  quantity  of  frankin- 
cense into  the  fire,  and  observmg  the  manner  of  its 
burning,  and  the  smell  which  it  enntted.  If  it 
burned  quickly  and  sent  forth  an  agreeable  smell,  the 
omen  was  favom-able,  but  if  the  reverse  liappcncd,  it 
was  unfavourable. 

LIBATION,  a  practice  followed  from  early  times 
of  pouring  liquors,  generally  wine,  upon  sacrificial 
victims.  The  quantity  of  wine  used  among  the  an- 
cient Hebrews  for  a  libation  was  the  fourth  part  of 
a  hin,  or  rather  more  than  two  pints,  which  were 
poured  upon  tlie  victim  after  it  was  killed,  and  the 
Beveral  pieces  of  it  were  laid  upon  the  altar  ready  to 
be  consumed  by  the  flames.  (See  Minciia.)  Li- 
batione  have  among  all  heathen  nations  also  formed 


a  part  of  the  sacrificial  ritual,  and  no  true  worshippei 
presumed  to  touch  the  cup  with  his  lips  before  tlie 
presiding  divinity  had  his  share.  In  regard  to  tlie 
ancient  Egyptians,  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  says:  "A 
libation  of  wine  was  frequently  oS'ered,  togethei'  with 
incense ;  flowers  were  often  presented  with  them 
and  many  sacrifices  consisted  of  oxen  or  other  ani- 
mals, birds,  cakes,  fruit,  vegetables,  ointments,  and 
other  things,  with  incense  and  libation.  Wine  was 
frequently  presented  m  two  cups.  It  was  not  then 
a  libation,  but  merely  an  ofiering  of  wine  ;  and  since 
the  pouring  out  of  wine  upon  the  altar  was  a  preli 
miliary  ceremony,  as  Herodotus  observes,  common 
to  all  their  sacrifices,  we  find  that  the  king  is  often 
represented  making  a  libation  upon  an  altar  covered 
with  oft'erings  of  cakes,  flowers,  and  the  joints  of  a 
victim  killed  for  the  occasion.  The  Egyjitian  artists 
did  not  bind  themselves  to  one  instant  of  time  in 
their  representations  of  these  subjects.  The  liba- 
tion, therefore,  appears  to  be  poured  over  the  mass 
of  oft'erings  collected  upon  the  altar ;  but  the  know- 
ledge of  their  mode  of  drawing,  and  the  authority  of 
Herodotus,  explain  that  the  libation  was  poiu-ed  out 
before  the  oft'erings  were  placed  upon  it ;  and  in- 
stances are  even  found  in  the  sculptures  of  this 
preparatory  ceremony.  Two  kinds  of  vases  were 
principally  used  for  libation,  and  the  various  kinds 
of  wine  were  indicated  by  the  names  affixed  to 
them." 

Among  the  ancient  heathens  bloody  sacrifices 
were  usually  accompanied  with  libations,  which  were 
performed  by  tlu-owing  wine  and  incense  upon  the 
flesh  of  the  animal,  while  it  was  burning  upon  the 
altai'.  In  forming  a  treaty  with  a  foreign  nation, 
libations  always  accompanied  the  sacrifices  which 
were  ofi'ered  on  such  occasions.  But  libations  were 
sometimes  made  independently  altogether  of  sacri- 
fices. Thus  at  entertainments  it  was  customary  to 
pour  out  a  portion  of  wine  as  an  ofiering  of  thanks- 
giving to  the  gods.  The  wine  nsed  in  libations  was 
always  unmixed  with  water,  but  sometimes  they 
consisted  of  milk,  honey,  and  other  fluids,  either  pure 
or  diluted  with  water. 

LIBELLATICI.  In  the  persecution  of  the  Chris 
tians  by  Decius  Trajan,  an  edict  was  issued  A.  D. 
2,50,  requiring  Christians  to  conform  to  the  ceremo- 
nies of  the  pagan  religion,  and  if  they  declined  to 
sacrifice  to  the  gods,  threats  and  afterwards  tortures 
were  to  be  employed  to  compel  submission.  Many 
heathen  magistrates,  either  from  avarice  or  a  desire 
to  spare  the  Christians,  exempted  them  from  sacri- 
ficing, provided  they  jnirchased  a  certificate  or  libel 
as  it  was  called,  attesting  that  they  had  satisfactorily 
complied  with  the  requisitions  of  the  edict.  Those 
wlio  procured  sucli  a  certificate  received  the  name  of 
Lihcllatici.     See  IjAI'sed  Cukistians. 

LIBELLI  PACIS  (Lat.  certificates  of  peace).  In 
the  persecutions  under  the  Roman  Emperors,  it  too 
often  liapjiencd  that  Christians  through  fciu'  of  man 
denied  tlie  faith  of  Christ.     Many  persons  in  these 


LIBELLI  PCENITENTIALES— Lin RRTINE3. 


315 


eircuinataiiccs  (imlini;  themselves  excluded  IVom  the 
privileges  of  tlic  eliiii'cli,  were  seized  with  remorse,  and 
eagerly  longed  for  restoration  to  the  fellowship  of 
the  faithful.  In  order  to  facilitate  their  re-admis- 
Bion,  some  resorted  to  individuals  who  liad  earned  a 
high  Christian  character  by  their  readiness  to  endure 
martyrdom  for  Christ's  sake,  and  sought  from  tlieni 
certificates  of  church  fellowship,  whicli  they  imagined 
would  lead  to  their  speedier  recovery  of  their  lost 
position  among  their  fellow-Christians.  These  cer- 
tificates granted  hy  confessors  to  lajised  Christians, 
were  called  by  the  njuno  of  Uhelli  pacis,  and  gave  rise 
to  a  keen  controversy,  in  which  Cyprian  took  au  ac- 
tive part. 

LIBELLI  PfENITENTIALES  (Lat.  certificates 
of  penitence),  documents  which  came  to  be  fre- 
quently issued  in  the  eighth  century  by  tlie  Romish 
priesthood,  granting'  immediate  absolution  to  those 
who  confessed  their  sins  to  the  priest,  and  declared 
themselves  ready  to  fidiU  the  appointed  penance, 
even  though  thpy  were  not  prepared  to  partake  of 
the  communion.  At  the  time  when  great  offoris 
were  made  for  the  improvement  of  the  church,  as 
was  especially  the  case  in  the  age  of  Charlemagne, 
it  was  a  main  object  with  the  church  reforiners  of 
the  period  to  abolish  the  libelli  j'cenitenttales,  which 
had  led  to  so  many  corruptions,  and  to  restore  the 
primitive  laws  of  the  church  to  their  proper  autho- 
rity and  force. 

LIBENTINA,  a  surname  of  Veims  among  tlie 
ancient  Romans,  as  the  patroness  of  licentiousness. 

LIBER,  the  name  used  by  the  Roman  poets  to 
denote  the  Greek  Dionysus  or  the  Bacdais  of  their 
own  prose  writers.  The  name,  however,  properly 
belongs  to  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  who,  along 
with  the  corresponding  goddess.  Libera,  presided 
over  vineyards  and  fruitful  fields.  The  worship  of 
these  two  deities  was  often  combined  with  that  of 
Ceres ;  and  all  tln-ee  had  a  temple  at  Rome,  near  the 
Circus  Flaminius.  hificra  was  considered  by  the 
Romans  as  identical  with  Cora  or  Persephone,  the 
daughter  of  Demeter. 

LIBERA.     See  Liber. 

LIBERALIA,  a  festival  observed  annually  by  the 
ancient  Romans  on  the  17th  of  March,  in  honour  of 
LiBEU  (which  see).  It  was  ranch  more  innocent 
and  simple  in  its  character  than  the  Bacchanalia; 
and,  accordingly,  it  continued  to  be  celebrated  at 
Roine  after  that  festival  was  suppressed.  On  the 
day  on  which  the  Liberalia  were  held,  a  procession 
of  priests  and  priestesses  wearing  ivy  garlands, 
marched  through  the  city  bearing  wine,  honey,  cakes, 
and  sweetmeats,  along  with  a  portable  altar,  having 
in  the  middle  of  it  a  firepan  in  which  sacrifices  were 
burnt.  On  this  joyful  occasion  the  Roman  youths, 
who  had  reached  their  sixteenth  year,  were  invested 
with  the  tor/a  virilis,  or  dress  of  manhood.  Angus- 
tin  complains  that  in  his  time  the  Liberalia  were 
celebrated  with  no  little  immorality  and  licentious- 
Bees. 


1j11!ICKAT(_)K,  a  surname  of  Jujiiter,  under  wliich 
a  temple  was  reared  to  him  by  Augnstim  on  the 
Aventino  hill. 

LIBERTA.S,  a  personification  of  liberty,  worship- 
ped as  a  goddess  by  the  ancient  Romans.  Tiberius 
Sempronius  Gracchus  built  a  temple  to  her  honour 
on  the  Aventine  hill. 

LIBERTINES.  In  Acts  vi.  9,  we  find  mention 
nuide  of  a  synagogue  at  .lerusalein  belonging  to  a  clas* 
of  (lersons  who  are  called  Liherlincs.  The  word  Liber- 
tini  among  the  ancient  Romans,  denoted  those  persons 
who  had  been  released  from  legal  servitude ;  and  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  the  Libertines  who  had  a  syna- 
gogue at  Jerusalem  may  have  been  slaves  of  Jewish 
origin,  or  proselytes  after  manumission.  By  Gro- 
tius,  Vitringa,  and  other  writers,  they  are  supposed  to 
have  been  the  descendants  of  Jewish  caittives  carried 
to  Rome  by  Pompey  and  others,  but  who  bad  obtained 
their  liberty.  That  large  numbers  of  such  people 
existed  at  that  time  in  Judea,  is  rendered  highly  pro- 
bable from  a  passage  which  occurs  in  the  second 
book  of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus,  where  the  historian, 
while  he  describes  a  certain  class  of  persons  as  being 
of  the  race  of  Libertines  or  freedmen,  and  infected, 
as  he  calls  it,  with  foreign,  that  is  with  Jewish  super- 
stition, tells  us  at  the  same  time  that  they  were  so 
numerous  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  that 
four  thou.sand  of  them,  who  were  of  age  to  carry 
arms,  were  sent  to  the  island  of  Sardinia ;  and  tliat 
all  the  rest  of  them  were  ordered  either  to  renounce 
their  religion,  or  to  depart  from  Italy  before  a  cer- 
tain day.  This  statement  of  Tacitus,  confirmed  by 
Suetonius,  enables  us  to  accoimt  for  the  number  of 
Libertines  in  Judea,  and  also  for  their  having  had  a 
synagogue  in  Jerusalem  at  the  period  of  which  Luke 
was  speaking,  which  was  about  fifteen  years  after 
their  banishment  from  Italy  by  the  edict  of  Tiberius. 

LIBERTINES,  a  sect  which  arose  in  Flanders  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  caUing  themselves  Spirituals. 
It  was  founded  by  certain  persons  of  extravagant 
views,  headed  by  Pocquet  and  Quintin.  Though 
originated  in  Flanders,  the  sect  made  its  way  into 
France,  where  it  found  favoiu-  with  many  of  the  Re- 
formed, and  more  especially  with  Margaret,  the 
queen  of  Navarre,  aud  sister  of  Francis  I.  They 
held  that  God  works  all  things  in  all  men,  or  is  the 
cause  and  author  of  all  human  actions,  and,  therefore, 
they  maintained  that  the  distinction  which  is  com- 
monly alleged  between  good  and  bad  actions  is  un- 
warranted, inunorality  or  sin  being  impossible.  They 
taught  that  true  religion  consists  in  the  union  of  the 
soul  with  God,  and  if  any  man  shall  succeed  in  at- 
taining this  by  means  of  habitual  contemplation  on 
spiritual  and  divine  things,  he  may  thereafter  impli- 
citly follow  the  instincts  of  his  own  nature,  and 
whatever  he  may  do  he  will  be  free  from  sin  in  this 
world,  and  united  to  God  in  the  world  to  come. 
Mosheim  supposes  this  sect  to  have  been  descended 
from  the  Beghards,  or  from  the  Brethren  of  the  Fret 
Spirit,  both  of  which  flourished  in  Flanders  in  the 


iil6 


LIBETHRIDES— LIGHTS  OF  WALTON. 


fourteeiitli  and  fifteenth  centuries.  Calvin  devoted 
a  special  treatise  to  the  exposure  of  the  errors  of  the 
Libertine.-;  whicli  were  spreading  rapidly  among  the 
Reformed  both  in  Flanders  and  in  France.  By  his 
faithfulness,  in  pointing  out  the  erroneous  nature  of 
tlieir  opinions,  Calvin  gave  great  offence  to  the 
queen  of  Navarre,  who,  though  she  had  neither  im- 
bibed their  sentiments  nor  joined  their  sect,  was 
favoLU'ably  inclined  towards  the  leaders,  whom  she 
regarded  as  good  men.  As  soon  as  the  Reformer 
understood  that  liis  exposure  of  the  Libertines  had 
offended  the  royal  lady  who  had  conferred  so  many 
benefits  upon  tlie  Church  of  Clnnst,  he  replied  to 
her  with  great  meekness  and  moderation,  at  tlie  same 
time  frankly  censuring  her  imprudence  in  hospita- 
bly receiving  men  whose  opinions  were  opposed  to 
religion  and  sound  morality,  and  not  only  so,  but  in 
admitting  them  to  be  authorized  ministers  of  Christ. 
The  Treatise  of  Calvin  was  successful  in  checking 
tlie  progress  of  the  Libertines  in  France,  and  limit- 
ing their  influence  to  the  coimtry  which  gave  them 
origin. 

The  sect  which  we  have  thns  briefly  described  has 
sometimes  been  confounded  with  tlie  Libertines  of 
Geneva,  with  whom  Calvin  maintained  an  almost  im- 
interrupted  warfare  throughout  the  whole  of  his  min- 
isterial life.  The  Genevan  Libertines  were  not,  how- 
ever, speculative  heretics  like  the  Libertines  of  Flan- 
ders ;  they  were  practical  infidels,  who  disliked  the 
strictness  of  Calvin's  discipline,  as  much  if  not  more 
than  his  sound  theology.  From  such  men  the  stern 
and  uncompromising  Reformer  received  violent  op- 
position, and  even  bitter  persecution. 

LIBETHRIDES,  a  name  given  to  the  M^ises,  de- 
rived, as  some  suppose,  from  a  well  called  Libethra 
in  Tlirace,  or  as  others  think,  from  a  mountain  in 
TlH-ace,  where  there  was  a  grotto  sacred  to  the  Nine. 

LIBITINA,  a  goddess  among  the  ancient  Italians 
who  presided  over  funeral  rites.  In  later  times  she 
seems  to  have  been  identified  with  Persephone,  pro- 
bably in  consequence  of  her  connection  with  the  in- 
terment of  the  dead.  The  temple  of  Libitina  at 
Rome,  contained  ever}'  kind  of  article  that  was  re- 
quired at  funerals.  Probably  from  this  circumstance 
these  articles  were  called  Libitina,  but  particularly 
the  bed  on  wliich  the  dead  body  was  burned;  and 
the  undertakers  at  funerals  were  called  Libitinarii. 
In  the  Roman  poets  the  word  Libitina  is  often  used 
for  death.  At  the  temple  of  this  goddess  a  register 
was  kept  of  the  names  of  all  who  died,  and  a  small 
registration  fee  was  demanded. 

LIBRA  (Lat.  a  pound),  a  name  applied  formerly 
to  the  suffragans  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  because 
they  amounted  in  number  to  seventy,  being  the  num- 
ber of  solidi  in  a  Roman  Libra.  These  assessors  of 
•he  Roman  bishop  constituted  liis  ]irovincial  council. 

LIBKI  CAROLINI,  a  celelirated  treatise  which 
ii])pfarcd  A.  n.  790,  by  way  of  protest  against  the 
decrees  of  the.  Second  Nicciic  council  in  favour  of 
iMAnn-WoRSllIP  (which  see).     It  was  published  in 


the  name  of  Charlemagne,  but  it  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  he  was  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
work  by  various  theologians  of  his  time,  particularly 
by  the  famous  English  monk.  Alcuin. 

LIFTERS,  a  small  sect  in  the  West  of  Scotland 
in  1783,  which  held  that  the  "  lifting"of  the  elementa 
before  the  consecration  prayer  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  ordinance. 

LIGHT  (Friends  of).  These  Lichtfreunde,  as 
they  are  called  in  Germany,  are  a  few  independent 
rationalistic  congregations  in  the  Saxon  province  of 
Prussia.  They  owe  their  origm  to  the  excitement 
caused  between  1841  and  1848,  by  Ulich  of  Magde- 
burg, a  preacher  of  eloquence  and  talent,  but  of  the 
lowest  religious  views.  These  Friends  of  Light  as- 
sumed a  completely  political  aspect,  and  were  bitter 
in  their  opposition  to  the  Prussian  government,  but 
at  length  they  were  entirely  swept  away  by  the  Re 
volution  of  1848. 

LIGHT  (Inward).    See  Friends  (Society  of). 

LIGHT  (Old)  ANTIBURGHERS.  See  Old 
Light  Antiburghers. 

LIGHT  (Old)  BURGHERS.  See  Old  Light 
Burghers. 

LIGHTS  (Feast  of),  a  name  applied  by  Jose 
phus  to  the  Jewish  Feast  of  Dedication  (which 
see). 

LIGHTS  (Feast  of),  an  appellation  given  by 
the  Greek  cliurch  to  the  festival  of  Epiphany 
(which  see),  because  on  that  day  Jesus  was  baptized, 
and  the  ordinance  of  baptism  is  with  them  often 
called  an  Illnmination. 

LIGHTS  IN  BAPTISIVI.  In  the  ancient  Chris- 
tian church  the  practice  seems  to  have  existed  of 
the  baptized,  after  the  ceremony  was  ended,  carrying 
lighted  tapers  in  their  hands.  Gregory  Nazianzen 
mentions  this  among  other  cei'emonies  as  following 
the  administration  of  baptism.  "The  station,"  says 
he,  "  when  immediately  after  baptism  tliou  shalt  be 
placed  before  the  altar,  is  an  emblem  of  tlie  glory  of 
the  life  to  come ;  the  psalmody  with  which  thou 
shalt  be  received  is  a  foretaste  of  those  hymns  and 
songs  of  a  better  life ;  and  the  lamps  which  thou 
shalt  light  are  a  figure  of  those  lamps  of  faith 
wherewith  bright  and  virgin  souls  shall  go  forth  to 
meet  the  bridegroom."  Others  suppose  it  to  be  an 
emblem  of  the  illumination  of  the  Spirit  in  baptism, 
and  designed  to  be  an  allusion  to  our  Saviour'fi 
words,  "  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men,  that 
others  seeing  your  good  works  may  glorify  your 
Father  which  is  in  heaven."  In  the  bapti.sjn  of  per- 
sons of  high  rank,  it  sometimes  liaiiiiened  that  not 
only  the  baptized  parties  thcmsclvos,  but  the  whole 
of  their  retinue  and  attendants,  were  clotliod  in  white 
garments,  and  carried  lamps  in  their  hands. 

LIGHTS  OF  WALTON,  a  class  of  enthusiasts 
who  appeared  in  tlie  seventeenth  century  at  Walton- 
on-Tliamcs,  Snrrey,  England.  The  story  of  the  rise 
of  this  jieople  is  curious.  In  tlie  beginning  of 
Lent   1649,  Mr.   Fawcet,  then   minister  of  Walton, 


LIGHTS  ON  THE  ALTAR— LILITH. 


317 


havinji;  preached  in  tlie  afternoon,  when  he  liad  con- 
oliidt'd,  it  was  nearly  dai'lt,  and  six  soldiers  came  in- 
to the  church,  one  with  a  liglitcd  candle  in  a  lantern, 
and  Ibnr  with  candles  unlightcd.  The  iirst  soldier 
addressed  the  people,  declarini;  that  he  had  been  fa- 
voured with  a  vision,  and  had  received  a  message 
from  God,  which  they  nuist  listen  to  and  be- 
lieve on  pain  of  diunnation.  This  message  con- 
sisted of  live  liglits :  1.  The  Sabbath  is  abolished; 
and  here,  said  he,  "  I  shoidd  put  out  my  first  light, 
but  the  wind  is  so  high  that  I  cannot  light  it." 
2.  Tithes  are  abolished.  3.  Ministers  are  abolished. 
4.  Magistrates  arc  abcjlished,  repeating  the  same  con- 
cluding words  as  he  had  uttered  under  tlie  first  head. 
Then  taking  a  Bible  from  his  pocket,  lie  declared 
that  it  also  was  abolished,  as  containing  only  beg- 
garly elements,  which  were  unnecessary  now  that 
Christ  was  come  in  his  glory  with  a  full  measure  of 
his  Spirit.  Tlien  taking  the  lighted  candle  from  his 
lantern,  he  set  fire  to  the  pages  of  the  Bible,  after 
which,  extinguishing  the  candle,  he  added,  "  and 
liere  my  fifth  light  is  extinguished."  This  closed 
the  scene  on  the  Lu/hU  of  Walton. 

LIGHTS  ON  THE  ALTAR.  An  ancient  cus- 
tom, we  learn  on  the  testimony  of  Jerome  alone, 
existed  in  the  Eastern  churches  of  carrying  lights 
before  the  Gospel  when  it  was  to  be  read.  They 
lighted  candles,  he  tells  us,  partly  to  demonstrate 
their  joy  for  the  good  news  which  the  Gospel 
brought,  and  partly  by  an  outward  symbol  to  repre- 
sent that  light  of  which  the  Psalmist  speaks  when 
he  says,  "  Thy  word  is  a  light  unto  my  feet,  and  a 
lamp  unto  my  path."  Though  Jerome  declares  that 
in  his  time  no  such  custom  existed  in  the  Western 
Cluuxh,  it  came  at  length  to  be  the  universal  prac- 
tice of  that  church  to  have  lighted  caudles  on  the 
altar,  as  well  as  before  pictures  or  images  of  the 
Virgin  and  other  saints.  In  the  reign  of  King  Ed- 
ward VI.,  we  find  the  injunction  issued  in  1547,  that 
"all  deans,  archdeacons,  parsons,  vicars,  and  other 
ecclesiastical  persons,  shall  sutler  from  henceforth  no 
torches  nor  candles,  tapers  or  images  of  wax,  to  be 
set  before  any  image  or  picture.  But  only  two 
lights  upon  the  high  altar  before  the  sacrament, 
which  for  the  signification  that  Christ  is  the  very 
true  light  of  the  world,  they  shall  sutler  to  remain 
still."  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  however,  injunc- 
tions were  given  to  the  ecclesiastical  visitors  of  1559 
to  remove  from  the  parish  churches  in  England  all 
crucifixes,  relics,  and  lighted  tapers,  although  her 
Majesty  long  retained  in  her  own  chapel  both  the 
crucifix  and  lighted  tapers.  Lights,  however,  still 
j  continued  to  be  used  on  the  altar  in  many  of  the 
parish  churches  in  England,  notwithstanding  the 
prohibition,  and  at  this  day  they  are  found  in  some 
churches,  while  the  Tractarian  party  defend  the  prac- 
tice by  alleging  that  as  no  Act  of  Parliament  or 
Act  of  Convocation  ever  repealed  the  injunction  of 
Edward  VI.  in  1547,  to  which  we  have  referred,  it 
is  still  in  force,  and  therefore,  the  practice  of  having 


two  lights  upon  the  altar  is  enjoined  by  the  lawg  and 
sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  the  Church  of  England. 

LIKNON,  a  long  basket  in  which  the  image  of 
DionyKm  was  carried  in  the  festivals  of  ancient 
Greece,  which  were  called  Dionysia.  The  Lilcnon 
was  the  winnowing  van  into  which  the  com  wan 
received  after  thrashing,  and  therefore  being  con- 
nected with  agriculture,  it  was  naturally  used  in  the 
rites  of  both  Bacdius  and  Ceres.  It  was  also  em- 
ployed to  carry  the  instruments  of  sacrifice,  and  the 
first-fruits  or  other  ollerings. 

LIKNOPHOROS,  the  person  whose  duty  it  was 
to  carry  the  LiKNON  (which  see),  in  the  Dionysiac 
processions.    See  Canepiioros. 

LILITH,  the  first  wife  of  Adam,  according  to 
Rabbinical  tradition  among  the  Jews.  The  strange 
story  is  thus  related  in  Jewish  legends.  "  When  the 
blessed  God  created  the  first  man,  whom  he  formed 
alone,  without  a  companion,  he  said,  It  is  not  good 
that  the  man  should  be  alone :  and  therefore  he 
created  a  woman  also  out  of  the  ground,  and  named 
her  Lilith.  They  innnediately  began  to  contend 
with  each  other  for  superiority.  The  man  said :  It 
behoves  thee  to  be  obedient ;  I  am  to  rule  over  thee. 
The  woman  replied :  We  are  on  a  perfect  equality ; 
for  we  were  both  formed  out  of  the  same  earth.  So 
neither  would  submit  to  the  other.  Lilith,  seeing 
this,  uttered  the  Shem-ham2>horas7i"  that  is,  pro- 
nounced the  name  Jehovah,  "  and  instantly  flew  away 
through  the  air.  Adam  then  addressed  himself  to 
God,  and  said :  Lord  of  the  universe  I  the  woman 
whom  thou  gavest  me,  has  flown  away  from  me. 
God  immediately  dispatched  three  angels,  Sennoi, 
Sansennoi,  and  Sammangeloph,  to  bring  back  the 
fugitive  :  he  said  to  them  :  If  she  consent  to  return, 
well ;  but  if  not,  you  are  to  leave  her,  after  declaring 
to  her  that  a  lumdred  of  her  children  shall  die  every 
day.  These  angels  then  pursued  her,  and  found  her 
in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  in  the  mighty  waters  in 
which  the  Egyptians  were  to  be  afterwards  destroy- 
ed. They  made  known  to  her  the  divine  message, 
but  she  refused  to  retm-n.  They  threatened,  unless 
she  would  return,  to  drown  her  in  the  sea.  She 
then  said :  Let  me  go ;  for  I  was  created  for  no  other 
piu-pose  than  to  debilitate  and  destroy  young  infants  ; 
my  power  over  the  males  will  extend  to  eight  days, 
and  over  the  females  to  twenty  days,  after  their 
birth.  On  hearing  this,  the  angels  were  proceeding 
to  seize  her  and  carry  her  back  to  Adam  by  force  : 
but  Lilith  swore  by  the  name  of  the  living  God,  that 
she  would  refrain  from  doing  any  injury  to  infants, 
wherever  and  whenever  she  should  find  those  angels, 
or  their  names,  or  their  pictm-es,  on  parchment  or 
paper,  or  on  whatever  else  they  might  be  written  or 
drawn :  and  she  consented  to  the  punishment  de- 
nounced against  her  by  God,  that  a  hundred  of  her 
children  should  die  every  day.  Hence  it  is  that 
every  day  witnesses  the  death  of  a  hundred  young 
demons  of  her  progenj'.  And  for  this  reason  we 
write  the  names  of  these  angels  on  shps  ot  paper  oi 


318 


LIMA— LINGA. 


parchment,  and  bind  tliein  upon  infants,  tliat  Lilith, 
on  seeing  tliem,  may  remember  lier  oatli,  and  may 
abstain  from  doing  our  infants  any  injury."  An- 
otlier  rabbinical  writer  says  :  "  I  have  also  lieard  that 
when  the  child  laughs  in  its  sleep  in  the  niglit  of  the 
sabbatli  or  of  the  new  moon,  the  Lilith  laughs  and 
toys  with  it ;  and  that  it  is  proper  for  the  fcithcr,  or 
mother,  or  any  one  that  sees  the  infant  laugh,  to 
tap  it  on  the  nose,  and  say,  Hence,  begone,  cursed 
Lilith;  for  thy  abode  is  not  here.  Tliis  sliould  be 
said  three  times,  and  each  repetition  should  be  ac- 
companied with  a  pat  on  the  nose.  Tliis  is  of  great 
benefit,  because  it  is  in  the  power  of  Lilith  to  de- 
stroy children  whenever  she  pleases." 

To  the  modem  Jews,  Lilith  is  an  object  of  great 
dread,  more  especially  when  a  child  is  about  to  be 
born,  because  they  imagine  that  she  has  been  trans- 
formed into  a  female  demon,  and  takes  delight  in 
injuring  and  even  destroying  young  children. 
Hence  when  a  Jewish  woman  approaches  the  period 
of  her  coniinemeut,  the  husband  inscribes  on  each  of 
the  walls  or  partitions  around  the  bed,  along  with  the 
names  of  Adam  aud  Eve  in  Hebrew  characters,  the 
words  Chuts  Lilith,  that  is,  "  begone  Lilith."  (See 
Birth.)  On  the  inside  of  the  doors  also  he  writes 
the  names  of  three  angels,  which  it  is  believed  will 
defend  the  child  from  the  injuries  which  it  might 
otherwise  receive  from  Lilith. 

LILY  (Sacked).    See  Lotus-Worship. 

LIMA,  a  goddess  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
who  protected  the  threshold  of  their  houses. 

LIMBUS  INFANTUM,  a  place  to  wliich,  ac- 
cording to  some  Romish  divines,  tlie  souls  of  those 
childi-en  go  who  die  without  liaving  been  baptized, 
and  where  they  endure  the  eternal  punishment  of 
loss,  tliough  not  of  sense.  As  no  unbaptized  child, 
according  to  their  view,  can  enter  heaven,  this  place 
will  never  be  evacuated. 

LIMBUS  PATRUM,  a  place  in  which  Roman 
Catholic  divines  allege  the  souls  of  the  ancient  patri- 
archs remained  until  the  advent  of  Christ,  who  before 
his  resurrection  appeared  to  them,  and  opened  for 
them  an  access  to  heaven.  It  is  the  same  with 
paradise  or  Abraham's  bosom.  "  It  is  in  Scripture 
called  'hell,'  or  'the  lower  parts  of  the  earth.' 
(Psalm  xvi.  10 ;  Eph.  iv.  9.)  The  Rhemish  anno- 
tators,  on  Luke  xvi.  22,  describe  it  as  follows : — 
'  The  bosom  of  Abraham  is  the  resting-place  of  all 
them  that  died  in  perfect  state  of  grace  before  Christ's 
time,  heaven  before  being  shut  from  men.  It  is 
called  in  Zacliary  "  a  lake  without  water,"  and  some- 
times "a  prison,"  but  most  commonly  of  the  Divines 
Limbus  Patrum,  for  that  it  is  thought  to  have  been 
the  higher  part  or  brim  of  hell,  the  places  of  punish- 
ment being  far  lower  than  the  same,  which,  there- 
fore, be  called  Infernum  Inferias,  "  the  lower  liell." 
Where  this  mansion  of  tlio  Fathers  stood,  or  whether 
it  be  any  part  of  hell,  Augustine  doubteth  ;  but  that 
there  was  such  a  place,  neither  he  nor  any  Catholic 
man  ever  doubted :  as  all  the  Fathers  make  it  most 


certain,  that  cm-  Saviour,  descending  to  hell,  weu( 

thither  specially,  and  dehvered  the  said  Fathers  out 
of  that  mansion.'  Papists  say  that  this  place  it 
now  tenantless,  as  purgatory  hereafter  will  also  be.'' 
See  Purgatory. 

LIMENIA,  a  surname  of  several  ancient  lieatben 
deities,  botli  male  and  female,  such  as  Zeus,  Artemis. 
Aphrodite,  Priapus,  and  Pan. 

LIMENTINUS,  the  god  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, who  presided  over  the  tlu'esholds  of  their 
houses,  to  which  they  always  attached  a  pecuhar 
importance  approaching  to  sacredness. 

LIMINA  MARTYRUM  (Lat.  thresholds  of  the 
martyrs),  an  expression  sometimes  used  by  Jerome 
to  denote  Christian  churches. 

LIMNATIDES,  inferior  divinities  wbo  presided 
over  lakes  in  the  ancient  heathen  mythology. 

LIMNETES.  a  surname  of  several  deities  among 
the  ancient  heathens,  as  for  example,  Dionysus  at 
Athens,  and  Artemis  at  Sicyon. 

LIMUS,  an  article  of  dress  worn  around  the 
loins  by  the  ancient  Roman  popa,  or  oiEciating  priest 
at  the  sacrifices. 

LIMUS,  a  Grecian  god  corresponding  to  the  Ro- 
man Fames,  the  personification  of  Hunger.  Accord- 
ing to  Hesiod,  Limits  was  sprung  from  Em;  and 
Virgil  places  Fames  among  the  monsters  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  infernal  regions. 

LINDIA,  a  sm-name  of  Athena,  derived  from  a 
town  of  the  same  name  in  Rhodes,  where  a  temple 
was  erected  to  !ier  honour. 

LINEA,  an  article  of  clerical  dress,  mentioned  in 
the  Life  of  Cyprian,  the  precise  nature  of  which  ia 
not  known.  Baronius  conjectures  it  to  have  been 
the  bishop's  rochet,  but  of  this  there  is  no  proof,  and 
the  only  thing  that  can  be  said  is,  that  it  was  pro- 
bably some  garment  made  of  linen. 

LINGA,  the  emblem  of  the  fertility  and  produc- 
tiveness of  nature,  being  one  of  the  principal  forms, 
and  indeed  almost  the  only  form,  under  which  Shiva 
has  been  woi'shipped  in  Hindustan  for  at  least  a 
thousand  j'ears  past.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  ancient 
object  of  worship  adopted  in  India  posterior  to  the 
period  of  the  Vedas,  which  inculcate  almost  exclu- 
sively the  worship  of  the  elements,  particularly  fire. 
It  is  doubtful  how  far  the  Vedas  sanction  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Linr/a,  but  it  forms  the  chief  subject  of 
several  of  the  Puranas.  According  to  Creuzer,  tlie 
Trimurtti  v  as  the  first  element  in  tlie  faith  of  the 
Hindus,  and  the  second  was  the  Limja.  The  extent 
to  which  the  Linga-worship  prevails  throughout 
India  is  thus  noticed  by  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson  in 
the 'Asiatic  Researches:'  "Its  prevalence  through- 
out the  whole  tract  of  the  Gancje-'^,  as  far  as  Baiares, 
is  sufiiciently  conspicuous.  In  I'cngal,  the  teniplef 
are  commonly  erected  in  a  rai.gc  of  six,  eight,  Of 
twelve,  on  each  side  of  a  Ghat,  leading  to  the  river. 
At  Kalna  is  a  circular  groujie  of  one  hundred  and 
eight  temples,  erected  by  the  liaja  of  Bardwan 
Each  of  the  temples  in  Bengal  consists  of  a  siuglo 


LION-WORSIIIP. 


31'J 


chamber,  of  a  square  form,  suriiicninteil  hy  Ji  ]iyratni- 
dal  centre ;  tlic  area  of  eacli  is  very  small,  the 
Linga,  of  black  or  white  marble,  occupies  tlie  cen- 
tre ;  tlie  olVcrings  are  presentefl  at  the  threshold. 
Benares,  liowevcr,  is  the  peculiar  scat  of  this  form 
of  worship :  the  principal  deity,  Viaweswara,  is 
a  Li»(/a,  and  most  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  pil- 
grimage are  similar  blocks  of  stone.  Particular 
divisions  of  the  pilgrimage  direct  visiting  forty- 
seven  Linijas,  all  of  ]irc-eminent  sanctity  ;  but  there 
are  hundreds  of  inferior  note  still  worshipped,  and 
thousands  whose  fame  and  fashion  have  passed  away. 
If  we  may  believe  Siva,  indeed,  he  counted  a  hun- 
dred Pardrrdhyas  in  Kasi,  of  which,  at  the  time  he 
is  supposed  to  tell  this  to  Devi,  he  adds  sixty  croro, 
or  six  hundred  millions,  were  covered  by  the  waters 
of  the  Ganges.  A  Pardrrdhya  is  said,  by  the  com- 
mentator on  the  Kasi  Khanda,  in  which  this  dialogue 
occurs,  to  contain  as  many  years  of  mortals  as  are 
equal  to  fifty  of  Brahma\'i  years." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  universality  of  this 
species  of  worship  at  the  period  of  the  Moliammedan 
Invasion  of  India  in  the  eleventh  century.  At  that 
time  there  were  twelve  great  Lingas  set  up  in 
various  parts  of  India,  several  of  which  were 
destroyed  by  the  early  Mohammedan  conquerors. 
One  of  them,  demolished  by  Mahmud  of  Grhizni, 
was  a  block  of  stone  of  four  or  five  cubits  long,  and 
proportionate  thickness.  It  was  called  tlie  idol  of 
Somnath,  which  was  said  by  some  historians  to  have 
been  carried  from  the  Kmiba  on  the  coming  of  Mo- 
hammed, and  transported  to  India.  The  Brahman- 
ical  records,  however,  refer  it  to  the  time  of  Krishna, 
implying  an  antiquity  of  4,000  years, — a  statement 
which  must  be  considered  as  savouring  of  Oriental 
exaggeration.  It  is  very  probable,  however,  ^that 
the  worship  of  Shiva,  under  the  tj'pe  of  the  Linga, 
prevailed  throughout  India  as  early  as  the  fifth  or 
sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

One  of  the  forms  in  which  the  Linga  worship  ap- 
pears is  that  of  the  Lingayets,  LingawanU,  or  Jan- 
GAMAS  (which  see),  the  essential  characteristic  of 
which  is  wearing  the  emblem  on  some  part  of  the 
dress  or  person.  The  type  is  of  a  small  size,  made 
of  copper  or  silver,  and  is  commonly  worn  suspended 
m  a  case  round  the  neck,  or  in  the  turban.  The 
morning  devotions  of  the  worsliippers  of  the  Linga, 
as  an  emblem  of  Shiva,  is  thus  described  by  Dr. 
Duff  in  his  '  India  and  India  Mission :  "  After  as- 
cending from  the  waters  of  the  river,  they  distri- 
bute themselves  along  the  muddy  banks.  Each 
then  takes  up  a  portion  of  clay,  and,  beginning  to 
mould  it  into  the  form  of  the  Lingam,  the  symbol  of 
his  tutelary  deity,  devoutly  says,  '  Reverence  to 
Ilara  (a  name  of  Shiva),  I  take  this  lump  of  clay.' 
Next  addressing  the  clay,  he  says,  '  Shiva,  I  make 
thy  image.  Praise  to  Salpani  (Shiva,  the  holder  of 
the  trimda,  or  trident).  O  god,  enter  into  this  image  ; 
take  lite  within  it.  Constant  reverence  to  Maliesa 
(Shiva),  whose  form  is  radiant  as  a  mountain  of  sil- 


ver, lovely  as  the  crescent  of  the  moon,  and  resplen 
dent  with  jewels ;  having  four  hands,  two  bearing 
weapons  (the  mace  and  the  trident),  a  third  con- 
ferring blessing,  and  the  fourth  dispelling  fear; 
serene,  lotus-seated,  worshipped  by  surrounding 
deities,  and  seated  on  a  tiger's  skin.  Reverence  to 
the  holder  of  the  pinaca  (a  part  of  the  Lingam). 
Come,  O  come !  vouchsafe  thy  jiresence,  vouchsafe 
thy  presence :  approach,  rest,  and  tarry  here.  The 
Lingam,  or  symbol  of  Shiva,  being  now  formed,  he 
presents  to  it  water  from  the  Ganges,  and  various 
offerings,  saying,  '  Lave  thy  body  in  the  Ganges,  0 
lord  of  animals.  I  offer  thee  water  to  wash  thy  feet. 
Prai.se  to  Sliiva.  Take  water  to  wash  thy  hands ; 
smell  this  sandal-wood ;  take  these  (lowers  and 
leaves ;  accept  this  incense,  and  this  flame ;  con- 
sume this  ottering  of  mine  (consisting  of  plantains, 
cucumbers,  oranges,  plums,  and  other  fruits) ;  take 
one  more  draught  of  this  stream  ;  raise  thy  mouth, 
and  now  take  betel-nut'  (with  various  other  roots 
and  vegetables).  He  then  worships,  rehearsing  the 
names  and  attributes  of  the  god  ;  and  offers  flowers 
all  round  the  image,  commencing  from  the  east, — 
ad<ling,  '  Keceive,  0  Shiva,  these  offerings  of  flowers. 
I  also  present  these  fragrant  flowers  to  thy  consort, 
Durga.  Thus  do  I  worship  thee.'  As  an  act  oi 
merit,  he  repeats,  as  often  as  he  can,  the  names  ol 
Shiva  ;  counting  the  number  of  times  on  his  fingers. 
Again  and  again  he  worships  and  bows,  beating  his 
cheeks,  and  uttering  the  mystical  words,  horn,  bom. 
He  last  of  all  throws  the  flowers  into  the  water 
prays  to  Shiva  to  grant  him  temporal  favours  and 
blessings ;  twines  his  fingers  one  into  the  other ; 
places  the  image  once  more  before  him ;  and  then 
flings  it  away."  It  may  at  first  view  appear  incon- 
sistent that  Shiva,  the  god  of  destruction,  should  be 
worshipped  under  an  emblem  denoting  life-giving 
productiveness,  but  this  is  explained  by  referring  to 
the  doctrine  of  Metempsychosi-i,  which  is  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  Hinduism,  and  according  to  whicli, 
to  destroy  is  only  to  regenerate  in  a  new  form.  The 
Linga  was  venerated  also  among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans  under  a  different  name.     See  Phallus. 

LINGAYETS.     See  Jangamas. 

LION- WORSHIP.  In  all  ages  the  lion  has  been 
looked  upon  as  the  noblest  of  animals,  the  king  of 
the  forest,  the  most  powerful  of  the  beasts  of  prey. 
We  find  very  frequent  references  to  this  animal  in 
the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  It  was  the  symbol 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
Jewish  prophets  it  is  frequently  introduced  to  give 
force  and  significance  to  their  figurative  language. 
There  is  the  most  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  lion 
anciently  inhabited  the  deserts  of  Egypt,  though  it 
is  no  longer  found  there.  To  what  extent  it  was  an 
object  of  worship  in  Egypt  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  remarks  of  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  :  "  The 
worship  of  the  lion  was  particularly  regarded  in  the 
city  of  Leontopolis;  and  other  cities  adored  thii 
animal  as  the  emblem  of  more  than  one  deity.    I* 


320 


LION-WORSHIP. 


was  the  symbol  of  strengtli,  and  tlieref'ore  typical  of 
the  Egyptian  Hercules.  With  this  idea,  the  Egyp- 
tian sculptors  frequently  represented  a  powerful  and 
victorious  monarch,  accompanied  by  it  in  battle, 
though,  as  Diodorus  says  of  Osymandyas,  some  sup- 
pose the  king  to  have  been  really  attended  by  a 
tame  lion  on  these  occasions.  Macrobius,  Proclus, 
Horapollo,  and  others,  state  that  the  lion  was  typi- 
cal of  the  sun  ;  an  assertion  apparently  borne  out  by 
the  sculptures,  which  sometimes  figure  it  bonie  up- 
on the  backs  of  two  lions.  It  is  also  combined  with 
other  emblems  appertaining  to  the  god  Re.  In  the 
connexion  between  the  lion  and  Hercules  may  be 
traced  the  relationship  of  the  sun  and  tlie  god  of 
strength. 

"  Macrobius  pretends  that  the  Egyptians  employed 
the  lion  to  represent  tliat  part  of  the  heavens  where 
tlie  sun,  during  its  annual  revolution,  was  in  its  great- 
est force,  '  The  sign  Leo  being  called  the  abode  of  the 
sun;'  and  the  different  parts  of  this  animal  are  re- 
puted by  him  to  have  indicated  various  seasons,  and 
the  increasing  or  decreasing  ratio  of  the  solar  power. 
The  head  he  supposes  to  have  denoted  the  '  present 
time,'  which  Horapollo  interprets  as  the  tj-jje  of 
vigilance :  and  the  fire  of  its  eyes  was  considered 
analogous  to  the  fiery  look  which  the  sun  constantly 
directs  towards  the  world.  In  the  temple  of  Dak- 
keh,  the  lion  is  represented  upon  the  shrine  or  sacred 
table  of  the  ibis,  tlie  bird  of  Hermes  ;  and  a  monkey, 
the  emblem  of  the  same  deity,  is  seen  praying  to  a 
lion  with  the  disk  of  the  sun  upon  its  head.  Some 
also  believed  the  lion  to  be  sacred  to  the  Egyptian 
Minerva ;  and  .lElian  says  the  Egyptians  conse- 
crated it  to  Vulcan,  '  attributing  the  fore  part  of  this 
animal  to  fire,  and  the  hinder  parts  to  water.'  Some- 
times the  lion,  the  emblem  of  strength,  was  adopted 
as  a  type  of  the  king,  and  substituted  for  the  more 
usual  representation  of  royal  power,  the  sphinx  ; 
which,  when  formed  by  the  human  head  and  lion's 
body,  signified  the  union  of  intellectual  and  physical 
strength.  In  Southern  Ethiopia,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  modern  town  of  Shendy,  the  lion-headed  deity 
seems  to  have  been  the  chief  object  of  worship.  He 
holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  great  temple  of 
Wady  Owdteb,  and  on  the  sculptured  remains  at 
Wady  Benat ;  at  the  former  of  which  he  is  the  first 
in  a  procession  of  deities,  consisting  of  Re,  Neph, 
and  Pthah,  to  whom  a  monarch  is  making  offerings. 
On  the  side  of  the  propylajum  tower  is  a  snake  with 
V  lion's  head  and  human  arms,  rising  from  a  lotus  ; 
atul  in  the  small  temple  at  the  same  place,  a  god 
with  tliree  lions'  lioads  and  two  pair  of  arms,  holds 
the  principal  place  in  the  sculptures.  This  last  ap- 
pears to  be  peculiarly  marked  as  a  type  of  physical 
strength  ;  which  is  still  fartlier  expressed  by  the 
choice  of  the  number  three,  indicative  of  a  material 
or  physical  sense.  The  lion  also  occurs  in  Ethiopia, 
devouring  the  prisoners,  or  attacking  the  enemy,  in 
Company  with  a  king,  as  in  the  l''gy]itian  sculptures. 
According  to  Plutarch,  '  the  lion  was  worshipped  by 


the  Egyptians,  who  ornamented  the  doors  of  theii 
temples  with  the  gaping  mouth  of  that  animal,  be- 
cause the  Nile  began  to  rise  when  the  sun  was  in 
the  constellation  of  Leo.'  Horapollo  says,  lions 
were  placed  before  the  gates  of  the  temples,  as  the 
symbols  of  watchfulness  and  protection.  And  '  be- 
ing a  type  of  the  inundation,  in  consequence  of  the 
Nile  rising  more  abundantly  when  the  sun  is  in  Leo, 
those  who  anciently  presided  over  the  sacred  works, 
made  tlie  water-spouts  and  passages  of  fountains  in 
the  form  of  lions.'  The  latter  remark  is  in  perfect  ac- 
cordance with  fact, — many  water-spouts  terminating 
in  li(ms'  heads  still  remaining  on  the  temples.  .(Elian 
also  says,  that  '  the  people  of  the  great  city  of  He- 
liopolis  keep  lions  in  the  vestibules  or  areas  of  the 
temple  of  their  god  (the  sun),  considering  them  to 
partake  of  a  certain  divine  influence,  according  to 
the  statements  of  the  Egyptians  themselves,  and 
temples  are  even  dedicated  to  this  animal.' 

"  The  figure  of  a  lion,  or  the  head  and  feet  of  that 
animal,  were  frequently  used  in  chairs,  tables,  and 
various  kinds  of  furniture,  and  as  ornamental  devices. 
The  same  idea  has  been  common  in  all  countries, 
and  in  the  earliest  specimens  of  Greek  sculpture. 
The  lions  over  the  gate  of  Mycense  are  similar  to 
many  of  those  which  occur  on  the  monuments  of 
Egypt.  No  mummies  of  lions  have  been  found  in 
Egypt.  Tliey  were  not  indigenous  in  the  country, 
and  were  only  kept  as  curiosities,  or  as  objects  o( 
worship.  In  places  where  they  were  sacred,  they 
were  treated  with  great  care,  being  '  fed  with  joints 
of  meat,  and  provided  with  comfortable  and  spacious 
dwellings,  particularly  in  Leontopolis,  the  city  of 
lions  ;  and  songs  were  sung  to  them  during  the  hourfc 
of  their  repast.'  The  animal  was  even  permitted  to 
exercise  its  natural  propensity  of  seizing  its  prey,  in 
order  that  the  exercise  might  preserve  its  health,  for 
wliich  purpose  a  calf  was  put  into  the  enclosure. 
And  having  killed  the  victim  thus  offered  to  it,  the 
lion  retired  to  its  den,  probably  without  exciting  in 
the  spectators  any  thought  of  the  cruelty  of  grant- 
ing this  indulgence  to  their  favourite  animal." 

Mithras,  which  is  a  solar  god,  was  represented 
with  a  lion's  head.  In  his  mysteries  the  second  de- 
gree was  that  of  the  lion.  At  a  later  period  the 
armorial  bearings  of  Persia  have  been  a  lion  with 
the  sun  rising  on  its  back,  and  the  Shah  distributes 
to  his  most  honoured  servants  the  order  of  the  lion. 
Adad,  the  god  of  the  Syrians,  was  seated  upon  the 
back  of  a  lion,  which  represents  his  solar  nature.  In 
South  America  the  first  discoverers  found  atTaba."ico 
an  image  of  a  lion,  to  which  the  natives  oftered  hu- 
man sacrifices,  whose  blood  flowed  into  a  reservoir, 
on  the  margin  of  which  stood  the  statue  of  a  man  in 
stone,  who  was  represented  looking  attentively  at 
the  blood. 

Dr.  Livingstone,  in  his  'Travels  in  Africa,' men- 
tions a  tribe  who  believe  that  the  souls  of  their  chiefa 
enter  into  lions,  and.  therefore,  they  never  attempt 
to  kill  them  ;  they  even  believe  that  a  chief  niaj 


LITiE— LITERS  FORMATjE. 


321 


metamorphose  liimself  into  a  lion,  kill  any  one  lie 

chooses,  and  then  return  to  the  human  I'orni ;  there- 
fore, when  they  see  one,  they  commence  clapping 
their  hands,  which  is  their  usual  mode  of  salutation. 

LIT^E,  a  personilicalion  of  the  prayers  of  peni- 
tence among  the  ancient  Greeks.  Homer  mentions 
them  as  being  daughters  of  Zcua. 

LITANIKS.  This  word  was  anciently  used  to 
denote  all  kinds  of  prayers,  whether  oll'ered  publicly 
in  the  church,  or  privately  by  individuals.  Euse- 
bius  and  Ghrysostom,  as  well  as  other  early  writers, 
use  it  in  this  general  sense.  In  a  law  made  by  Ar- 
cadius,  in  the  fourth  century,  against  Arians,  that 
liereticjil  sect  was  forbidden  to  make  Lilanks  within 
the  city,  either  by  night  or  by  day,  evidently  refer- 
ring to  the  whole  exercises  of  their  religious  assem- 
blies, including  hymns  and  psalmody,  as  well  as 
prayers.  Special  prayers,  under  the  name  of  Lita- 
tiie-i,  appear  to  have  been  used  in  the  Eastern  Church 
in  the  foiwth  and  lifth  centuries  ;  while  in  the  West- 
ern Church  such  prayers  received  the  name  of  Ko- 
gtitions,  which  was  afterwards  exchanged  for  that 
of  Litanies. 

In  this  limited  sense,  Litanies  are  said  to  have  been 
first  introduced  by  Mamercus,  bishop  of  Vienna,  in 
France,  about  the  year  450.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  they  were  in  use  before  his  time,  and  that 
the  merit  of  the  French  bishop  consisted  in  the  ap- 
plication of  them  to  Rogation  days.  The  first  coun- 
cil of  Orleans,  A.  D.  511,  established  three  days  of 
solemn  fasting,  and  ordered  them  to  be  kept  with 
Itogations  or  Litanies.  In  the  Spanish  churches 
decrees  in  regard  to  the  use  of  Litanies  were  passed 
by  several  councils  of  Toledo  ;  and  in  A.  D.  694,  the 
seventeenth  council  held  in  that  city  ordain- 
ed that  Litanies  should  be  used  in  every  month 
throughout  the  year.  By  degrees  they  became  more 
frequent,  and  at  length  these  soleinn  supplications 
were  employed  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  the  an- 
cient stationary  days  in  all  churches. 

Litanies  were  divided  into  two  classes  in  former 
times,  the  Greaterand  the  Lesser  Litany.  The  Greater 
Litany  was  originated  by  Gregory  the  Great,  who 
appointed  it  for  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  April,  imder 
the  name  of  the  seven-formed  Litany,  because  on 
that  day  he  ordered  the  church  to  go  in  procession 
in  seven  distinct  classes ;  first,  the  clergy,  then  the 
laymen,  next  the  monks,  after  them  the  virgins,  then 
the  married  women,  next  the  widows,  and  last  of 
all  the  poor  and  the  children.  French  writers 
allege  that  the  Litany  of  JIamercus,  and  not  that 
of  Gregory,  was  termed  the  Great  Litany.  As  to 
the  Lesser  Litany,  Bingham  conjectures  it  to  have 
been  simpiv  the  Kijvie  Elason,  or  Lord  have  mercy 
upon  us,  which  short  form  of  supplication  was  used 
in  all  churches,  and  as  a  part  of  all  their  daily  offi- 
ces. The  Greater  Litany  was  sometimes  tei-med 
ExoMOi.OGEsrs  (which  see). 

It  occasionally  happened,  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Chrysostom,  that  the  Christians  went  barefoot   in 

II 


processions  into  the  open  fields,  wh  re  they  made 
their  Ijilanjes,  c;irrying  crosses  upon  their  shoulders 
as  the  badge  of  their  profession.  The  laws  of  Jus- 
tinian expressly  appointed  that  these  Litanies  should 
not  be  celebrated  without  the  bishop  or  the  clergy, 
and  that  the  people  on  these  occisions  should  be 
dressed  in  a  simple  and  plain  manner.  In  the  J>itan- 
ies  of  the  ancient  church  no  prayers  or  invocations 
were  made  to  saints  or  angels  as  in  the  modem 
Litanies  of  the  Romish  church. 

The  Litany  of  the  Church  of  England,  though  not 
copied  from  any  ancient  form,  is  evidently  of  great 
antiquity.  At  one  time  it  formed  a  distinct  service, 
but  afterwards  it  was  combined  with  the  morning 
jirayer,  though  occupying  a  separate  place  in  the 
I'rayer-Book.  Formerly  it  was  appointed  by  the 
rubric  that,  "after  moniing  prayer,  the  people  being 
called  together  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  and  assem- 
bled in  the  church,  the  Engli.sh  Litany  shall  be  said 
after  the  accustomed  manner,"  and  it  was  also  re- 
quired that  "  every  householder,  dwelling  within 
half  a  mile  of  the  church,  should  come,  or  send  some 
one  at  the  least  of  his  household,  fit  to  join  with  the 
minister  in  prayers."  The  practice  wa.s  formerly 
observed,  and,  indeed,  still  exists  in  some  English 
churches,  of  holding  morning  prayer  at  eight  o'clock, 
and  the  Litany  and  communion  at  ten. 

LITAOLANE'.  The  Bechuanas  in  South  Africa 
have  a  curious  tradition,  that  a  monster  of  an  im- 
mense size,  at  a  very  remote  period  of  time,  swal- 
lowed up  all  mankind,  with  the  exception  of  a  single 
woman,  who  conceived  miraculously,  and  brought 
forth  a  son,  to  whom  she  gave  the  name  of  Litao- 
lan^.  This  progeny  of  the  woman  attacked  the 
monster,  who  swallowed  him  up  alive,  but  being 
armed  with  a  knife,  he  cut  open  an  outlet  for  himself 
friini  the  belly  of  the  monster,  and  thus  he  and  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  in  him  obtained  deliverance. 
But  though  rescued  from  death,  men  sought  to  de- 
stroy their  deliverer,  who,  however,  defies  all  their 
threats.  In  this  tradition  there  seems  to  be  a  remote 
allusion  to  the  Deluge,  and  also  to  the  Messiah. 

LITERiE  CLERICS  (Lat.  clerical  letters),  a 
name  given  by  Cyprian  to  letters  written  by  a  bishop 
in  ancient  times  to  a  foreign  church,  and  which  were 
sent  by  the  bands  of  one  of  the  clergy,  usually  a 
subdeacon. 

LITERS  FORMATS  (Lat.  formed  letters),  let- 
ters of  credence  given  by  a  bishop  or  pastor  in  the 
early  Christian  church,  to  such  members  of  the 
church  as  proposed  to  travel  to  foreign  countries. 
They  were  called  Fnrmatte,  or  formed,  because  they 
were  written  in  a  peculiar  form,  with  some  particular 
marks  or  characters,  so  that  they  could  be  easily 
distinguished  from  counterfeits.  It  was  the  sole 
prerogative  of  the  bishop  to  grant  these  letters,  which 
were  generally  of  three  kuids  : — 1.  Commendatory 
Letters,  those  ,v!  idi  were  gi-anted  to  persons  of 
quality,  or  to  persons  whose  reputation  had  been 
called  in  qnestion,  or  to  the  clergy  who  had  occasion 
2e* 


522 


LITHOMANCY— LlTURGIEo. 


to  travel  into  foreign  countries.  2.  Canonical  Let- 
ters, those  which  were  granted  to  all  who  were  in 
the  peace  and  communion  of  tlie  church.  3.  Divm- 
sory  Letters,  tliose  which  were  only  granted  to  the 
clergy  when  the)'  removed  from  one  district  to  an- 
other. 

LITHOM  ANCY  (Gr.  lilhos,  a  stone,  and  manteia, 
divination),  a  species  of  divination  performed  by 
means  of  stones.  The  stone  used  for  this  purpose 
was  washed  in  spring  water  by  candle  light,  and  the 
person  engaged  in  divining,  having  purified  himself, 
covered  his  face,  repeated  a  form  of  prayer,  and 
placed  certain  characters  in  a  certain  order.  Tlien 
tlie  stone  was  said  to  move  of  itself,  and  in  a  soft 
gentle  murmur  to  give  the  answer.  By  this  sort  of 
divination  Helena  is  said  to  liave  foretold  the  de- 
struction of  Troy. 

LITURGIES.  The  Greek  word  leiturgm  occurs 
frequently  in  the  New  Testament  under  the  sense 
of  public  ministry,  including  all  the  ceremonies 
belonging  to  Divine  service.  It  was  probably  used 
in  the  same  signification  by  Cln-ysostom  and  Tlieo- 
doret.  Both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches 
it  became  the  practice  to  apply  the  word  in  a  re- 
stricted meaning  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. In  many  modern  Protestant  churches,  it  has 
come  to  denote  the  common  prayer,  and  among 
Romanists  the  mass. 

Mr.  Riddle,  in  his  '  Manual  of  Christian  Anti- 
quities,' divides  the  Liturgies  which  have  been  used 
in  different  churches  into  four  families  or  classes. 
(1.)  The  great  Oriental  Liturgy,  which  seems  to  have 
prevailed  in  all  churches,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
Hellespont,  and  thence  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Greece.  (2.)  The  Alexandrian  or  ancient  Liturgy  of 
Egypt,  Abyssinia,  and  the  country  extending  along 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  West.  (3.)  The  Ro- 
man, which  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  of  Italy, 
Sicily,  and  the  civil  diocese  of  Africa.  (4.)  The 
Gallican,  which  was  used  throughout  Gaul  and 
Spain,  and  probably  in  the  exarcliate  of  Ephesus  un- 
til the  fourth  century. 

The  earliest  known  Liturgy  is  the  Clementuie, 
found  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  which  are  not 
supposed  to  date  farther  back  than  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, Epiphanius  being  the  first  author  who  mentions 
such  a  production  by  name.  There  is  no  evidence 
whatever  that  before  that  time  a  Liturgy,  or  set  form 
of  prayers,  existed  in  the  Christian  church  ;  but  sev- 
eral ecclesiastical  writers  allege,  that  for  three,  if  not 
for  four  centm-ies,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  adminis- 
tered by  a  traditional  form  derived  from  the  apos- 
tles, which,  however,  in  consequence  of  the  strict 
maintenance  of  the  Akcani  Discitlina  (which  see), 
was  not  allowed  to  be  committed  to  writing  lest  the 
Christian  myHteries  should  be  revealed  to  the  Hea- 
then. In  this  way  the  fact  has  been  attempted  to 
be  explained,  that  although  the  Clementine  Liturgy 
is  the  model  on  which  all  poi.terior  Liturgies  were 
framed,  it  was  never  used  by  any  chui'ch,  even  after 


the  churches  came  to  employ  written  Liturgies  ic 

public  worship.  This  then,  which  is  believed  to  be 
the  most  ancient  Liturgy,  is  supposed  to  be  the  old 
traditional  form  used  in  all  churches  before  that  form 
was  committed  to  writing  in  any  one  church.  But 
when  the  several  churches  began  to  put  their  Litur- 
gies into  writing,  they  adopted  such  a  step  without 
being  sanctioned  by  the  decree  of  any  general  coun- 
cil, or  without  agreeing  upon  one  specific  form  for 
all  churches,  as  they  did  upon  one  common  creed  in 
the  first  four  general  councils.  Each  church,  in 
fact,  composed  a  Liturgy  for  itself. 

Next  in  antiquity  to  the  Clementine  Liturgy  it 
that  of  St.  Basil,  which  can  be  traced,  with  some  de- 
gree of  certainty,  to  the  fourth  century.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  who  compiled  a  commu- 
nion-office in  writing  for  the  use  of  his  own  church 
His  Liturgy  was  not  only  used  in  Csesarea,  of  which 
place  he  was  archbishop,  but  it  was  received  by  sev- 
eral other  churches,  and  used  by  them  along  with 
their  own,  not  constantly,  but  on  some  particular 
occasions.  Thus,  in  the  Greek  church,  the  Liturgy 
of  St.  Basil  is  used  upon  all  the  Sundays  of  Lent, 
except  Pahn-Sunday,  upon  the  Thursday  and  Satur- 
day of  Passion-week,  upon  Christmas-eve,  and  the 
eve  of  the  Epiphany,  and  upon  St.  Basil's-day.  The 
use  of  this  Liturgy  by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  the  churches  under  their  care,  is  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fiict,  that  from  a  period  before  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  A.  D.  451,  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  became  possessed  of  the  jurisdiction 
which  had  anciently  belonged  to  the  exarch  of  Cse- 
sarea.  "  This  was  the  form,"  says  Mr.  Riddle,"  which 
soon  prevailed  tlu-oughout  the  whole  exarchate  of 
C.nesarea  and  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople, 
where  it  has  remained  in  use  ever  since.  This  was 
the  form  which  was  received  by  all  the  patriarchate 
of  Antioch,  translated  into  Coptic,  revised  by  the 
patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  and  admitted  into  their 
church,  used  alike  by  the  ortliodox  and  heretics.  At 
this  day,  after  the  lapse  of  near  fifteen  hundred  years, 
the  Litiu'gy  of  Basil  prevails,  without  any  substantial 
variety,  from  the  northern  shores  of  Russia  to  the 
extremities  of  Abyssinia,  and  from  the  Adriatic  and 
Baltic  Seas  to  the  farthest  coast  of  Asia.  In  one 
respect  this  Liturgy  must  be  considered  as  the  most 
valuable  that  we  possess.  We  can  trace  back  the 
words  and  expressions  of  the  greater  poition  to  about 
the  year  370  or  380.  This  is  not  the  case  with 
any  other  Liturgy.  The  expressions  of  all  other 
Liturgies  we  cannot  certainly  trace  in  general  be 
yond  the  fifth  century." 

The  Liturgy  of  Basil,  however,  as  used  in  the 
Greek  church,  contains  some  interpolated  passages, 
as  is  admitted  on  all  hands ;  and  when  it  was  intro- 
duced into  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  it  seems 
to  have  undergone  several  alterations,  intended,  as  is 
probable,  to  accommodate  it  to  the  ancient  Alexan- 
drian or  Egyptian  Liturgy,  which  was  attributed  to 
the  Evangelist  Mark.     The  Liturgy  which  is   in 


LITURGIES. 


323 


daily  use  in  the  Greek  church  is  that  of  Chrydon- 
tom,  in  which  the  order  followirif;  iiiiiiieiliately  after 
the  dismissal  of  catechumens  is  identical  witli  that  of 
Basil.  Another  liturgy  bearing  the  name  of  tlie 
Apostle  James  is  still  used  also  in  the  Greek  cluu  ch, 
but  only  on  the  festival  of  St.  James's  day.  This 
Liturgy,  which  was  anciently  used  in  tlie  patriarchate 
of  Antioch,  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Clemen- 
tine Liturgy.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  the  ati- 
cient  Liturgy  of  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  of  wliich 
James,  the  brotlier  of  our  Lord,  was  the  first  bisliop 
or  pastor.  One  passage  which  occurs  in  it,  and  in 
no  other  Liturgy,  seems  to  give  strong  coufirmatiiin 
to  this  supposition.  Thus  in  the  beginning  of  tlie 
prayer  for  the  clmrch  universal,  it  is  said,  "  Wc 
oft'er  also  to  thee,  O  Lord,  for  thy  holy  |ilaccs  whiith 
thou  hast  glorified  with  tlio  Divine  presence  of  thy 
Christ,  and  the  appearance  of  thy  most  Holy  Spirit ; 
but  chiefly  for  glorious  Sion,  the  Mother  of  all 
churches." 

The  great  Oriental  Liturgy  includes  the  Liturgies 
of  James,  of  Basil,  and  of  Chrysostom.  I5ut  another 
Liturgy  of  great  antiquity,  and  differing  from  the 
Oriental  oidy  in  the  order  of  its  parts,  was  used 
throughout  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria.  Though 
attributed  to  Mark,  and  bearing  his  name,  it  was 
probably  of  no  earlier  date  than  the  end  of  the  fourth 
or  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  It  was  en- 
larged by  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  known  among  the 
Monophysites  by  his  name,  while  the  orthodox  still 
continued  to  use  the  name  of  St.  M,ark.  This  Li- 
turgy was  received  by  the  churches  of  Egypt,  Libya, 
and  Pentapolis,  and  accordingly,  there  occurs  in  the 
general  intercession  those  remarkable  words,  "  Raise 
the  waters  of  the  river  to  their  just  heiglit,"  which 
evidently  refer  to  the  waters  of  the  Nile.  In  this 
Liturgy,  as  in  the  others  already  noticed,  there  are 
various  obvious  interpolations. 

In  the  Abyssinian  church,  a  peculiar  liturgy  in  the 
old  Ethiopic  language  is  used,  which  resembles  con- 
siderably the  Alexandrian  liturgy,  but  fixes  its  locality 
by  mentioning  the  Abwm  or  Patriarch  by  name,  and 
also  the  King.  Tliere  occur  in  it,  besides,  the  names 
of  a  number  of  their  own  saints,  and  a  petition  that 
the  prayers  of  the  angels  may  be  heard  in  our  behalf. 
The  Nestorians  also  had  a  Liturgy  of  their  own,  in 
which  a  passage  is  introduced  favouring  their  pecu- 
liar views  in  regard  to  the  person  of  Christ.  TIius 
in  the  eucharistic  prayer,  these  words  occur,  "  He 
took  the  form  of  a  servant,  perfect  man,  of  a  rea- 
sonable, intelligent,  and  immortal  soul,  and  human 
flesh  subsisting,  and  joined  it  to  himself,  uniting 
it  with  himself  in  glory,  power,  and  honour."  The 
last  clause  in  the  mouth  of  a  Nestorian  was  in- 
tended to  deny  the  personal  union  of  the  Divine 
and  human  natures  in  Christ.  The  Monojihysite 
churches  of  the  East  have  also  an  ancient  Liturgy, 
which  has  fewer  interpolations  than  any  of  the 
other  Liturgies  extant ;  it  has  one  peculiarity,  how- 
ever, that  after  the  words  of  institution  in  mak- 


ing the  oblation,  the  prayer  is  directed  to  the  Son. 
and  not  to  the  Father.  The  Cojitg  have  an  entire 
Liturgy  or  Communion  office,  in  which  every  peti- 
tion is  directed  to  the  Son. 

Of  the  Western  Liturgies  the  Gothic  or  Gotliico- 
Gallican  was  used  in  that  part  of  Gaul  which  wa» 
anciently  called  Gallia  Narboriensis,  including  the 
jirovinces  of  Xarbonne,  Languedoc,  Provence,  and 
Savoy.  The  Gallican  Liturgy  was  used  in  the  other 
provinces  of  Gaul  until  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
when  (t  was  exchanged  for  the  Roman  by  a  decree 
of  that  ]n-ince.  Mr.  Palmer,  the  author  of  the 
'  Origincs  Liturgicie,'  thinks  that  this  ancient  liturgy 
originated  with  the  church  of  Lyons,  which  was  in- 
timately connected  with  the  churches  of  Asia  and 
Phrygia.  Nearly  allied  to  the  ancient  Gallican  wai 
the  Mozarabic  Liturgy,  which  was  used  probably 
from  the  fifth  century  in  the  Spanish  churches.  This 
Liturgy  is  attributed  by  Isidore  to  the  Apostle  Peter. 
It  was  abolished  in  Spain  by  Gregory  VII.  about 
1080.  The  ancient  Gallican  form  seems  to  have 
been  adopted  in  the  early  British  church.  From  the 
time  of  Patrick,  A.  D.  4,S2,  the  Iri-sh  are  thought  to 
have  used  the  Roman  Liturgy,  and,  about  a  century 
after,  the  ancient  British  Liturgy  was  introduced. 

The  Roman  Liturgy  has  been  generally  attributed 
to  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  latter  jiart  of  the  sixth 
century ;  some  writers,  however,  allege  that  he 
merely  revised  an  old  liturgy,  which  was  then  iu 
use  in  the  Latin  church.  The  Ambrosian  Liturgy 
indeed  is  supi.osed  to  have  been  prepared  by  Am 
brose,  archbishop  of  Milan,  so  early  as  the  fourth 
century,  and  when  Gregoiy's  Missal  was  appointed 
to  be  used  in  all  the  "SA' esteni  churches,  the  church 
of  Milan  in.sisted  on  maintaining  an  independent 
po.sition,  and  persisted  in  using  its  own  liturg)-,  tak- 
ing shelter  under  the  high  authority  of  St.  Ambrose. 
Some  Romish  writers  allege  their  Canon  or  Liturgy 
to  be  more  ancient  than  the  time  of  Gregory,  and 
attribute  its  composition  to  Pope  Gelasius,  who  flou- 
rished about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  Others 
ascribe  it  to  Musseus,  a  presbyter  of  Marseilles,  about 
the  year  4.'J8,  and  others  still  to  Voconius,  bishop  ot 
Castille,  in  Mauritania,  about  460.  And  yet  it  is 
very  unlikely  that  the  Church  of  Rome  should  have 
adopted  a  Liturgy  prepared  by  a  French  presbyter, 
or  an  African  bishop,  while  the  churches  of  theur 
own  respective  countries  refused  for  centm-ies  to  ac- 
knowledge it.  But  if  the  Missal  was  not  wholly  com- 
posed by  Gregoiy,  at  all  events  he  introduced  .sev- 
eral alterations  in  it ;  more  especially  he  added  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  which  had  not  been  used  before  in  the 
Canon  of  that  church.  The  probability  is,  that  the 
Missal  even  though  it  were  established  as  a  certainty 
to  be  the  sole  production  of  Gregory  the  Great,  has 
since  that  time  undergone  considerable  alterations. 
And  down  to  the  date  of  the  council  ot  Trent  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  Roman  Canon  was  used  in 
various  forms,  and  accompanied  with  different  ritei 
and  prayers  in  dillerent  churches. 


.124 


LITURGIES  (Jewish)— LOCULUS. 


The  Anglo-Saxon  Liturgy,  which  differed  from 
tliat  of  the  British  Cliurcli,  was  fonned  from  the 
Sacramentary  of  Gregory,  which  was  brouglit  over 
by  the  monk  Augustine  and  his  companions  at  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century.  "  As,  however,"  observes 
Mr.  Riddle,  "  each  bishop  had  the  power  of  making 
some  improvements  in  the  Liturgy  of  his  cluirch,  in 
process  of  time  different  customs  arose,  and  several 
became  so  established  as  to  receive  the  names  of 
their  respective  churches.  Thus  gradually  the 
'Uses'  or  customs  of  York,  Sarum,  Hereford,  Ban- 
gor, Lincoln,  Aberdeen,  &c.,  came  to  be  distinguish- 
ed from  each  other."  The  Roman  Liturgy  continued 
to  be  used  with  occasional  modifications  in  England 
until  the  Reformation ;  in  France,  Italy,  and  Ger- 
many, from  the  days  of  Charlemagne  until  tlie  pre- 
sent time ;  and  in  Spain  from  Gregory  VII.  until 
now. 

LITURGIES  (Jewish).  The  modern  Jews 
have  three  Liturgies,  the  German,  the  Portuguese, 
and  the  Italian,  but  all  in  Hebrew.  The  litm-gical 
eervice  used  in  the  sjiiagogue  worship  is  said  to  be  of 
great  antiquity.  The  most  solemn  and  indispensable 
part  of  it  consists  of  the  Shemoneli  Esrah  or  the 
Eighteen  Prayers.  The  Kiriath  SJteina,  or  reading 
of  tlie  Slienia,  is  also  regarded  as  an  important  part 
of  Divine  service.  It  must  be  repeated  twice  a-day, 
and  is  generally  attempted  to  be  recited  by  a  Jew  as 
a  confession  of  faith  in  his  last  moments.  Those 
present  with  the  dying  man  will  repeat  the  tirst 
verse,  and  "Jehovah  is  God,"  till  he  expires,  that 
he  may  be  said  to  die  in  the  faith. 

LITURGY  (English).  See  Common  Prayer 
(Book  op). 

LITURGY  (Liverpool),  a  Liturgy  which  was 
published  at  Liverpool  in  1652.  It  was  the  compo- 
sition of  some  Presbyterians  who  thought  proper  to 
lay  aside  extem|)oraneous  prayer  for  a  set  form. 
Mr.  Orton  styles  it  scarcely  a  Christian  Liturgy,  and 
says  that  the  name  of  Christ  is  hardly  mentioned  in 
the  Collect,  and  the  Spirit  quite  banished  from  it. 

LIVER,  a  word  which  occurs  in  Exod.  xxix.  13, 
in  the  directions  there  given  for  the  sacrifice  at  the 
consecration  of  the  Jewish  priests.  Calmet  supposes 
that  the  ancients  were  in  the  habit  of  eating  the  liver 
covered  with  or  wrapped  in  the  caul,  and  he  thinks 
it  probable  that  in  ofi'ering  sacrifice,  the  liver  was  in 
the  same  manner  enfolded  in  the  caul  before  it  was 
laid  upon  the  altar.  Professor  Bush  translates  the 
expression,  instead  of  "  the  caul  above  the  liver,"  as 
it  is  in  our  version,  "  the  lobe  over  or  by  the  liver," 
meaning  thereby  the  larger  lobe  of  the  liver  includ- 
ing the  gall-bladder.  In  Ezek.  xxi.  21,  among  sev- 
eral modes  of  divination  practised  by  the  king  of 
Babylon,  it  is  said,  "  he  looked  in  the  liver."  This 
was  the  portion  of  the  intestines  of  a  sacrificial  vic- 
tim wliich  diviners  chiefly  inspected.  (See  Caput 
ExTOiiUM.)  Divination  by  tlie  liver  was  termed 
Hrpalo^c/tpiii,  and  so  important  did  the  augurs  ac- 
count this  pKrt  of  the  victim,  that  theit  attention 


was  directed  to  it  in  the  first  instance,  and  if  it  aiv 
peared  very  unhealthy,  no  observations  were  made 
on  the  other  parts,  as  it  was  judged  unnecessary,  the 
omen  being  accounted  decidedly  unfavourable. 

If  the  liver  exhibited  its  natural  healthy  colour  and 
condition,  or  if  it  was  double,  or  there  were  two  livers, 
and  if  tlie  lobes  inclined  inwards,  the  signs  were  highly 
fjivourable,  and  success  in  any  proposed  object  was 
deemed  to  be  insured ;  but  nothing  but  dangers  and 
misfortimes  were  foreboded  when  there  was  too  much 
dryness,  or  a  band  between  the  parts,  or  if  it  was 
without  a  lobe,  and  still  more  when  the  liver  it.self 
was  wanting,  which  is  said  to  have  sometimes  hap- 
pened. The  omens  were  likewise  considered  full  of 
evil  when  the  liver  had  any  blisters  or  ulcers ;  if  it 
was  hard,  thin,  or  discoloured  ;  had  any  humour  upon 
it ;  or  if,  in  boiling,  it  l)ecame  soft,  or  was  displaced. 
The  signs  which  appeared  on  the  concave  part  of  the 
liver  concerned  the  family  of  the  person  offering  the 
sacrifice ;  but  those  on  the  gibbous  side  affected  his 
enemies;  if  either  of  these  parts  were  shrivelled, 
corrupted,  or  in  any  way  unsound,  the  omen  was 
unfortunate,  but  the  reverse  when  it  appeared  sound 
and  large.  jEschylus  makes  Prometheus  boast  of 
having  taught  man  the  division  of  the  entrails,  if 
smooth  and  of  a  clear  colour,  to  be  agreeable  to  the 
gods ;  also  the  various  forms  of  the  gall  and  the  liver. 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  considered 
an  unfortunate  omen  if  the  liver  was  injured  by  a 
cut  in  killing  the  victim. 

ijIVING,  a  term  often  used  in  England  to  de 
note  a  Benefice  (which  see). 

LOANGO  (Religion  of.)    See  Fetish- WOK 

SHIP. 

LOCALES,  a  name  anciently  given  to  ecclesias 
tics,  who  were  ordained  to  a  ministerial  charge  in 
some  fixed  place.  Thus  in  the  coimcil  of  Valentia 
in  Spain,  a  decree  was  passed  that  every  priest  he- 
fore  ordination  should  give  a  promise  that  he  would 
be  localis.  Ordination  at  large,  indeed,  was  not  re- 
garded as  valid,  but  null  and  void. 

LOCHEIA,  a  surname  of  Artemis,  as  being  the 
guardian  of  women  in  childbirth. 

LOCI  COMMUNES  (Lat.  common  places),  a 
body  of  divinity  published  by  Melancthon  in  1521, 
being  the  first  Protestant  Sj'stem  of  Theology  which 
appeared  in  Germany.  It  was  held  in  such  high 
repute  in  tlie  sixteenth  century,  and  even  long  after, 
that  it  was  regarded  as  a  model  of  doctrine  for  profes- 
sors and  students,  as  well  as  for  all  who  desired  a 
clear  systematic  view  of  Divine  truth.  This  cele- 
brated work  passed  through  sixty  editions  in  the  life 
time  of  the  author,  and  was  the  means  of  greatly 
advancing  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 

LOCULUS,  a  name  given  to  a  coffin  among  the 
ancient  Romans,  which  was  frequently  made  of 
stone.  Sometimes  it  was  formed  of  stone  from  As- 
sos  in  Troas,  which  consumed  the  whole  body,  with 
the  exception  of  the  teeth,  in  fin'ly  days.  Hence  it 
was  called  Sarcophuyua  or  llesh-consumer,  a  name 


LOEMIUS— LOKI. 


325 


vwhicli  came  to  be  applied  to  a  colliii  ol'  any  kind,  or 
even  a  tonil). 

LOEMlUri,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  as  delivering 
t'roiM  a  plague.  Under  this  name  he  was  worshipped 
at  Ijindiis  in  Rliodes. 

LOGOS  (Gr.  Word),  a  term  applied  by  the  Kvan- 
gelist  John  to  the  second  Person  of  the  Blessed 
Trinity.  The  intention  of  the  sacred  writer  in 
using  such  an  epithet  in  speaking  of  Christ  was  pro- 
bably twofold  ;  first,  to  denote  His  essential  presence 
in  the  Father,  in  as  full  a  sense  as  the  attribute  of 
wisdom  is  cs.scntial  to  Him ;  secondly,  to  denote  His 
mediatorship  as  the  Interpreter  or  Word  between  God 
and  His  creatures.  It  has  been  a  favourite  conjecture 
with  many  writers,  that  the  idea  of  the  Logos  was 
borrowed  by  John  from  the  Platonic  philosophy,  or 
that  it  was  the  result  of  a  combination  of  the  Alex- 
andrian-Jewish theology  with  the  Christian  doctrine. 
This  supposition,  however,  is  at  utter  variance  with 
the  fact,  that  the  notion  of  the  Logos  commended 
itself  not  only  to  those  Christian  teachers  in  the 
early  church  who  were  in  favour  of  Platonism,  but 
also  to  those  wlio  were  disposed  to  look  with  suspi- 
cion upon  every  doctrine  derived  from  that  quarter. 
It  was  admitted  by  church-fathers  of  all  views,  and 
even  of  the  most  opposite  tendencies.  Nay,  even 
some  heretics  received  it  only  to  pervert  it  for  tlie 
purpose  of  doing  away  with  the  notion  of  the  Son's 
personality.  Such  was  the  error  of  Paulus  of  Samo- 
sata  and  Marcellus ;  who  from  the  fleeting  and 
momentary  character  of  a  word  spoken,  inferred  that 
the  Divine  Word  was  but  the  temporaiy  manifesta- 
tion of  God's  gh)ry,  in  the  man  Christ  Jesus.  And 
it  was  to  counteract  this  tendency  that  the  Fathers 
speak  of  Him  as  the  permanent,  real,  and  living 
Word. 

At  a  very  early  period,  the  doctrine  of  the  Lo- 
gos gave  rise  to  much  controversy.  Thus  the 
Monarcliians  either  refused  to  receive  the  doctrine, 
or  those  who  did  consent  to  admit  it,  understood  by 
the  Logos  simply  a  divine  energy,  the  divine  wisdom 
or  reason  whicli  illuminates  the  souls  of  the  pious. 
In  opposing  this  heretical  view,  both  the  Western 
and  the  Kastern  churches  looked  upon  the  Logos 
from  a  ditferont  stand-point.  In  the  latter,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  subordination  of  the  Persons  in  the  Blessed 
Trinity  was  established  in  connection  with  the  hy- 
postatical  view  of  the  Logos.  The  etibrts  of  the 
former,  on  the  other  hand,  were  directed  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  unity  of  the  Divine  essence  in 
coiniection  with  the  distinction  of  the  hypostases. 
Origen,  in  accordance  with  his  strong  tendency  to 
allegorical  explanations  of  Scripture,  alleged  both  the 
designations  of  the  Logos,  and  the  name  Logos  itself, 
to  be  symbolical.  He  strove  to  banish  all  notions  of 
time  from  the  notion  of  the  generation  of  the  Logos. 
It  was  in  his  view  an  eternal  now,  and  the  genera- 
tion a  timeless  eternal  act.  Origen,  in  all  probability, 
was  indebted  for  these  notions  to  his  education  in  the 
Plutonic  school.    To  maintain  the  principle  of  subor- 


dination, ho  allirrned,  that  wo  are  not  to  conceive  ot  a 
natural  necessity  in  the  case  of  the  generation  of  the 
Son  of  God;  but  as  in  the  cfi.se  of  the  creation,  we 
must  conceive  of  an  act  flowing  from  the  Divine  will. 
And  further,  in  opposition  to  the  Monarchians,  Ije 
held  the  personal  independence  of  the  Logos;  while 
they  considered  the  name  of  God  the  Father  to  be  a 
designation  of  the  primal  divine  essence,  and  all  be- 
sides this  to  be  something  derived.  Sabellius,  how- 
ever, taught  that  tlie  Father,  Logos,  and  Holy  Ghost 
are  designations  of  three  dilTerent  phases,  under 
which  the  one  divine  essence  reveals  itself.  The 
Logos  is  first  hypcstatized  in  Christ,  but  only  for  a 
time.  The  divine  power  of  the  Logos  appropriated 
to  itself  a  human  body,  and  by  this  appropriation 
begat  the  Person  of  Christ,  and  after  having  accom- 
plished the  great  object  of  his  manifestation,  the 
Logos  will  return  back  again  into  oneness  with  the 
Father,  and  thus  God  will  be  all  in  all. 

In  the  Western  churcli,  again,  Tertullian  looked  up- 
on the  Logos  from  a  totally  different  point  of  view,  and 
maintained  the  doctrine  of  one  divine  essence,  shared 
in  a  certain  gradation  by  three  persons  most  inti- 
mately connected.  "  The  Son,  so  far  as  it  concerns 
the  divine  essence,"  says  Neander,  "  is  not  numeri- 
cally distinct  from  the  Father ;  the  same  essence  of 
God  being  also  in  the  Son  ;  but  he  differs  in  degree, 
being  a  smaller  portion  of  the  common  mass  of  the 
divine  essence.  Tims  the  prevailing  view  in  the 
Western  church  came  to  be  this  :  one  divine  essence 
in  the  Father  and  the  Son  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  a 
subordination  in  the  relation  of  the  Son  to  the  Fa- 
ther. Here  were  conflicting  elements.  The  process 
of  development  must  decide  which  of  the  two  should 
gain  the  preponderance.  This,  then,  constituted  the 
difference  between  the  two  churches : — that  while, 
in  the  Eastern  church,  the  prominence  given  to  the 
distinctions  in  the  Triad  did  not  leave  room  for  the 
consciousness  of  the  unity  ;  in  the  Western  church, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  unity  of  essence,  once  decid- 
edly expressed,  caused  the  subordination  element  to 
retire  more  into  the  back-ground." 

LOGOTHETES,  an  ofiicer  in  the  Greek  Church, 
who  is  intendant  of  the  Patriarch's  household,  and 
another  who  is  a  kind  of  inspector-general  of  the 
church. 

LOKI,  the  evil  principle  of  tlie  ancient  Scandina- 
vians, whom  they  regarded  also  as  a  deity.  The  Edda 
calls  him  "  the  calumniator  of  the  gods,  the  grand 
contriver  of  deceit  and  fraud,  the  reproach  of  gods 
and  men.  He  is  beautiful  in  his  figure,  but  his  mind 
is  evil,  and  his  inclinations  inconstant.  Nobody  ren- 
ders him  divine  honours.  He  surpasses  all  mortals 
in  the  arts  of  perfldy  and  craft."  He  has  had  many 
children,  besides  three  monsters  who  owe  their  birth 
to  him,  the  wolf  Fenrir,  the  Midgard  serjient,  and 
Hela  or  Death.  The  Edda  contains  an  account  ol 
the  exploits  of  Loki,  his  stratagems  against  the  gods, 
their  resentment,  and  tlie  vengeance  which  they 
sought  to  inflict  upon  him,  seizing  and  shutting  him 


326 


LOLLARDS. 


up  in  a  cavern  formed  of  tliree  keen-edged  stones, 
where  he  rages  witli  such  violence,  that  he  causes  aU 
the  eartliquakes  that  happen.  There,  we  are  told, 
he  will  remain  till  the  end  of  the  ages,  when  he  shall 
be  slain  by  Heimdall,  tlie  door-keeper  of  the  gods. 

LOLLARDS,  the  name  given  to  various  Chris- 
tian fellowships,  which  arose  at  first  around  Ant- 
werp in  the  Netherlands,  about  the  commencement 
of  the  foui-teenth  century.  The  object  of  these  fel- 
lowships was  the  revival  of  serious  practical  piety, 
and  at  their  origin,  as  we  learn  from  Gieseler,  they 
associated  together  for  the  purpose  of  waiting  upon 
patients  dangerously  sick,  and  burying  the  dead. 
They  were  held  in  high  estimation,  and  increased 
rapidly  in  numbers.  Gregory  XL,  in  1377,  issued 
a  bull  for  their  protection,  acknowledging  that  there 
were  among  them  such  as  lived  humbly  and  lion- 
estly,  in  pureness  of  faith,  decent  raiment,  poverty 
and  chastity,  and  devoutly  fi-equented  the  places  of 
worship.  Boniface  IX.,  in  a  buU  dated  1394,  de- 
clares conceniing  them,  in  terms  of  high  commenda- 
tion, that  "  they  receive  into  their  domiciles  tlie 
poor  and  wretched,  and  to  the  utmost  of  their  power 
practise  other  works  of  charity,  inasmuch  as  when 
required,  tliey  visit  and  wait  upon  the  sick,  minister 
to  their  wants,  and  also  attend  to  the  burial  of  the 
dead."  Acting  thus  in  a  spirit  of  true  beneficence 
and  charity,  tlie  Lollards,  like  the  Berjhards  and  Be- 
gumcs,  difi'used  a  healthful  influence  all  around  them. 
Gradually,  however,  they  seem  to  have  degenerated, 
and  in  course  of  time  they  are  said  to  have  laid  them- 
selves open  to  the  charges  of  an  aversion  to  all  use- 
ful industry,  along  with  a  propensity  to  mendicancy 
and  idleness,  an  intemperate  spu-it  of  opposition  to 
the  church,  and  a  sceptical  and  more  or  less  pan- 
theistical mysticism.  From  the  cells  in  which  they 
lived,  the  Lollards  were  sometimes  called  Cellitf.s 
(which  see).  So  strongly  did  they  commend  them- 
selves to  jiublic  notice  by  their  deeds  of  charity  that 
Cliarles,  duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1472,  obtained  a  bull 
from  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  by  which  they  were  ranked 
among  the  religious  orders  delivered  from  the  juris- 
diction of  their  bisliops ;  privileges  which  were  ex- 
tended still  farther  by  Julius  II.  in  150G. 

LOLLARDS,  a  term  of  reproach  applied  to  the 
followers  of  Wyclille  in  tlie  fourteenth  century. 
This  eminent  forerunner  of  the  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land was  born  in  1324,  at  a  small  village  near  Rich- 
mond, in  the  county  of  York.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Oxford,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  talents,  and  the  zeal  and  diligence 
with  wliich  he  prosecuted  his  studies,  both  in  philo- 
sophy and  theology.  In  the  former  department  ho 
subsequently  signalised  himself  as  an  ardent  defender 
of  the  Realists  in  opposition  to  the  Nominalists,  who 
had  revived  since  the  time  of  William  Occam.  His 
mind  was  chielly  directed  to  rehgious  matters,  more 
especially  in  connection  with  the  existing  corrup- 
tions. He  had  studied  the  prophecies  of  Joachim, 
which  was  at  that  time  a  favourite  work  with  those 


who  longed  after  the  regeneration  of  the  church. 
With  a  mind  naturally  earnest  and  practical,  he  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  subject,  and  gave  to  the  world 
his  views  in  a  treatise,  "  On  the  last  times  of  the 
Church,"  the  first  work  in  wliicli  he  appeared  before 
the  public.  In  the  commencement  of  his  career  as 
a  Reformer,  Wyclifl'e  found  a  sympathizing  friend  in 
Islep,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  showed  him 
much  favour,  and  promoted  him  to  an  honourable 
office  in  connection  with  the  university  of  Oxford. 
His  kind  patron,  however,  soon  after  died,  and  a  man  of 
a  very  different  stamp  having  succeeded  him,  Wyc- 
liffe  was  displaced,  and  the  monks  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled from  the  college  were  restored.  Thinking 
himself  wronged,  Wyclifle  appealed  to  the  Roman 
chancery,  but  in  the  meantime  the  course  of  events 
called  forth  his  reforming  tendencies  into  such  pro- 
minence, that  he  was  not  likely  to  receive  any  coun- 
tenance from  the  Roman  see.  The  English  paidia- 
ment,  in  1365,  resolved  to  resist  the  claim  of  Pope 
Urban  V.  who  attempted  the  revival  of  an  annual 
payment  of  1,000  marks  as  a  tribute  or  feudal  ac- 
knowledgment, that  the  realm  of  England  was  held 
at  the  pleasure  of  tlie  Pope.  His  claim  was  founded 
upon  the  surrender  of  the  crown  by  King  John  to 
Pope  Innocent  III.  The  payment  ha-d  been  discon- 
tinued for  thirty-three  years,  and  now  that  Urban 
again  urged  tlie  claim,  a  keen  controversy  arose. 
The  mendicant  friars,  and  particularly  the  Francis- 
cans, who  had  long  distinguished  themselves  as  va- 
liant defenders  of  Rome,  called  upon  King  Edward 
to  pay  the  tribute,  alleging  that  if  he  failed  to  accede 
to  the  Pope's  demands,  the  sovereignty  of  England 
was  forfeited. 

In  these  circumstances  Wyclifl'e  boldly  met  the  chal- 
lenge of  the  friars,  and  published  a  treatise,  in  which 
he  not  only  asserted  the  right  of  the  king  supported  by 
his  parliament  to  repudiate  the  Pope's  claim  for  quit 
rent  or  tribute,  but  maintained  also  that  the  clergy, 
neither  as  individuals  nor  as  a  general  body,  were 
exempted  from  civil  jurisdiction.  In  conducting  his 
argument  in  this  remarkable  production,  one  great 
principle  lay  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole,  that  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  formed  the  ultimate  standard  of 
all  law.  The  ability  and  stem  independence  with 
which  he  bad  defended  the  rights  of  the  crown  against 
the  aggressions  of  Rome  made  WyclitJe  an  object  of 
warm  admiration  among  his  countrymen,  and  Ed- 
ward III.,  in  recognition  of  the  valuable  service  which 
he  had  rendered  to  the  nation,  appointed  him  one  of 
tlie  royal  chaplains.  In  1372  he  was  made  Doctor  of 
Theology,  and  his  influence  was  rapidly  increasing 
Many  a  withering  exposure  of  the  corruptions  of  the 
church  now  issued  from  liis  pen.  The  mendicant 
monks  in  particular  allied  forth  from  him  the  most 
hitter  invectives.  Nor  were  his  writings  neglected  by 
his  countrymen.  They  were  eagerly  i)cruscd  by  mul 
titudcs,and  men  of  all  ranks  hailed  him  as  the  dauntless 
and  unflinching  enemy  of  those  flagrant  ecclesiastical 
alnises  whicli  >~<u'e  fast  undermining  the  influence  of 


LOLLARDS. 


327 


tho  pricstliood,  and  were  likely  soon,  if  not  refonned, 
to  render  religion  itself  an  object  of  mockery  and 
contempt.  For  some  time  tlie  goveniment  of  Eng- 
land had  attempted  by  nej^otiation  to  obtain  from 
tlio  Pope  a  redress  of  some  of  tliu  most  promi- 
nent ecclesiastical  grievances.  All  eflTort.s  of  this 
kind,  however,  were  utterly  ineffectual,  and  it  was 
at  length  resolved,  in  1374,  to  .send  an  embassy  com- 
posed of  seven  persons  to  I'ope  (4regory  XL  to  con- 
fer with  him  on  thi.s  subject.  Wycliffe  was  one  of 
the  seven  commissioners  nominated  by  the  crown  for 
this  purpose.  The  conference  took  place  at  Bruges, 
and  lasted  two  whole  years  without  attaining  to  any 
great  extent  the  obiect  for  which  it  had  been  held.  It 
had  a  powerful  intluence,  however,  upon  the  thought- 
ful mind  of  Wyclitfe,  and  did  much  to  prepare  him 
for  the  responsible  position  which  lie  was  destined 
in  the  providence  of  God  to  occupy  as  the  morning 
star  of  the  Refonnation.  His  eyes  were  now  opened 
to  the  true  character  of  the  papacy,  and  from  this 
time  he  spoke  and  wrote  against  its  worldly  spirit, 
and  its  injurious  etlects  both  upon  individuals  and 
communities.  Its  corruption  he  chiefly  traced  to  its 
cupidity. 

After  his  return  to  England  Wycliffe  was  present- 
ed to  tho  rectory  of  Lutterworth  in  the  county  of 
Leice.ster,  ofliciating  also  as  teacher  of  theology  at 
Oxford.  As  a  pastor  he  laboured  indefatigably, 
seeking  by  ardent  and  prayerful  study  of  the  Bible 
to  instruct  the  people  in  divine  things.  The  Ro- 
mish priesthood  had  long  been  accustomed  to  give 
the  sermon  a  subordinate  place  in  public  worship, 
but  Wycliffe  restored  it  to  its  due  importance  as  a 
means  of  suppljdng  the  religious  wants  of  the  peo- 
ple. With  him  originated  the  idea  of  travelling 
preachers,  men  who  went  about  barefoot  in  long 
robes  of  a  russet  colour,  preaching  salvation  through 
the  cross  of  Clirist.  These  men  styled  themselves 
"  poor  priests,"  and  were  subsequently  called  Lol- 
lards, a  name  similar  to  that  of  the  Beghards 
(which  see).  These  men  associated  themselves  to- 
gether for  the  purpose,  says  Wycliffe,  "  of  following 
to  the  utmost  the  example  of  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles; of  labouring  where  there  was  the  most  need  as 
long  as  they  still  retained  the  vigour  of  youth,  with- 
out condemning  other  priests  who  faithfully  did  tlieir 
duty." 

By  these  exertions  for  the  diffusion  of  the  Gospel 
among  all  classes  of  the  people,  Wychtle  attracted 
some  friends,  but  many  enemies.  A  numerous 
body,  especially  of  the  begging  monks,  as  he  him- 
self intimates,  sought  his  death.  No  means  were 
left  untried  to  check  the  spread  of  his  opinions  and 
to  destroy  bis  rajiidly  advancing  popularity  and  in- 
fluence. In  1376  they  extracted  from  his  lectures, 
writsngs,  and  sern  ons,  nineteen  propositions  which, 
as  being  in  their  view  heretical,  they  forwarded  to 
Rome  for  papal  condemnation.  These  had  refer- 
ence chiefly  to  the  unlimited  power  of  the  Pope ; 
the  secular  possessions  of  the  chm-ch;  the  rights  of 


laymen  over  priests ;  the  power  of  the  key*,  and 
the  conditional  validity  of  excommunication.  In 
consequence  of  the  representations  thus  made  to  him, 
Gregory  XL,  in  1377,  issued  three  bulls  against 
Wyclifle,  which  he  sent  to  England  by  a  nuncio,  one 
of  them  being  addressed  to  King  Edward  III.  The 
propositions  forwarded  to  his  Holiness  by  the  priests 
were  condemned  with  various  quali/ications.  The 
Pope  cJilled  the  special  attention  of  the  king  to  the 
doctrines  promulgated  by  the  Reformer,  as  being 
not  only  opjiosed  to  the  Catholic  faith,  but  subver- 
sive of  good  order  in  tho  country.  He  complained 
that  such  opinions  should  have  been  allowed  to  gain 
ground  among  the  people,  and  commanded  that 
Wycliffe  should  be  forthwith  thrown  into  chains  and 
imprisoned  ;  that  he  sliould  be  examined  as  to  hii 
doctrines,  and  the  answers  reported  to  Rome,  after 
which  directions  for  his  further  treatment  should 
bo  waited  for  from  that  court.  The  papal  bulls, 
however,  met  with  no  favour  in  England,  except 
from  the  bishops. 

The  death  of  Edward  HI.  and  the  succession  of  hia 
son,  Richard  II.,  tended  to  strengthen  the  cause  which 
Wycliffe  had  so  ably  espoused.  The  parliament  was 
now  decidedly  in  favour  of  a  determined  resistance 
to  the  pecuniary  demands  of  the  Pope.  Two  noble- 
men of  gi-eat  power  and  influence  in  the  coimtry, 
John  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  and  the  marshal 
Henry  Percy,  had  ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of 
the  Reformer,  and  came  opeidy  forward  as  his 
avowed  patrons  and  supporters.  He  had  a  numerous 
band  of  adherents  also  among  the  people,  and  these 
were  every  day  on  the  increase.  In  such  circum- 
stances it  was  found  to  be  impossible  to  execute  the 
papal  bulls  literally ;  but  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  the  bishop  of  London  summoned  Wycliffe 
to  appear  before  them  at  a  court  which  they  set  up 
at  Lambeth.  The  Reformer  attended,  accompanied 
by  his  two  noble  patrons,  and  the  court  was  obliged 
to  be  satisfied  with  the  explanations  which  he  gave 
of  the  nineteen  propositions. 

One  of  the  greatest  services  which  Wyclifle  con- 
ferred upon  the  cause  of  true  religion  in  England, 
was  the  publication  of  his  translation  of  the  Bible 
in  1380.  Being  ignorant  of  both  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  languages,  his  translation  was  founded  upon 
the  Vulgate,  but  even  under  this  disadvantage,  the 
preparation  of  a  vernacular  version  of  the  Sacred 
Writings  was  at  the  time  an  inestimable  blessing  to 
the  people,  enabling  them  to  read  in  their  own  lan- 
guage the  words  of  eternal  life.  The  priests  were 
indignant  that  the  laity  should  thus  have  it  in  their 
power  to  draw  their  religious  opinions  directly  from 
the  Bible,  and  with  the  utmost  virulence  they  as- 
sailed the  reputation  of  the  undaunted  Reformer. 
But  the  opposition  of  the  clergy  only  roused  him  to 
go  forward  in  exposing  the  errors  both  in  doctrine 
and  practice  which  had  crept  into  the  church.  Id 
1381,  he  appeared  as  the  opponent  of  transubstantia- 
tion,  contending  against  every  mode  of  a  bodily  pro 


S28 


LOLLARDS. 


sence  of  Christ,  and  maintaining  tliat  the  bread  and 
wine  are  nothing  more  than  symbols  of  Ciirist's  body 
and  blood,  with  the  additional  explanation  that  in 
the  case  of  believers  they  were  active  symbols,  plac- 
ing those  wlio  partook  of  them  with  real,  living  faith, 
in  the  position  of  an  actual  union  with  Christ.  The 
theses  which  the  Reformer  published  on  this  point, 
were  couclied  in  these  terms,  "The  right  faith 
of  a  Christian  is  this,  that  this  commendable  sacra- 
ment is  bread  and  body  of  Clu-ist,  as  Christ  is  true 
God  and  true  man ;  and  this  faith  is  founded  on 
Christ's  ovm  words  in  tlie  Gospels."  The  sympathy, 
however,  which  lie  had  met  with  in  attacking  other 
abuses  and  errors  failed  to  attend  him  in  this  con- 
test. The  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford 
summoned  twelve  doctors  to  consider  the  point,  .and 
with  their  concurrence  he  published  a  solemn  judg- 
ment declaring  the  theses  put  forth  by  Wycliife  on 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  to  be  heretical ; 
and  the  preaching  of  these  views  was  forbidden  on 
penalty  of  imprisonment  and  excommunication. 

Undeterred  by  the  opposition  which  assailed  him 
and  his  doctrines,  Wycliffe  went  forward  steadily  in 
the  accompHshment  of  his  great  mission  as  a  church 
reformer.  Every  day  he  became  more  violent  in 
attacking  the  mendicants,  declaring  that  their  whole 
mode  of  life  was  at  variance  with  the  life  of  Clirist, 
and  that  instead  of  giving  themselves  up  to  idle- 
ness and  inaction,  they  ought  rather  to  employ 
themselves  in  preaching  the  gospel  of  Christ  wher- 
ever duty  called  them.  This  interference  with  the 
vows  of  the  friars  gave  great  offence  to  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  who  had  been  one  of  the  Reformer's  early 
patrons  and  friends  ;  but  neither  the  favour  nor  the 
frowns  of  the  great  could  persuade  this  earnest- 
minded  champion  of  the  truth  to  deviate  by  one 
hair's  breadth  from  the  path  of  rectitude.  A  council 
was  convened  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to 
examine  into  the  heresy  of  Wycliffe ;  but  its  pro- 
ceedings were  interrupted  by  the  occurrence  of  an 
earthquake,  which  gained  for  it  the  name  of  the 
earthquake-council.  By  this  council  a  number  of 
Wyclitfe's  propositions  were  condemned  either  as 
heretical  or  erroneous ;  and  through  the  influence  of 
the  archbishop.  King  Richard  was  induced  to  issue  a 
command  to  put  all  persons  under  an  arrest  who 
taught  WyclifBte  doctrines. 

The  spread  of  the  reformed  opinions  taught  by 
Wyclifl'e  received  considerable  impulse  from  a  papal 
scliism  wliich  took  place  about  this  time,  two  rival 
popos  being  busily  engaged  contending  for  the  mas- 
tery. Rome  and  Avignon  were  issuing  their  fierce 
fulminalions  agiunst  each  other.  The  question,  who 
was  the  true  Pope,  was  agitating  the  whole  of  Chris- 
tendom, and  in  a  paper  on  the  schi.«m,  Wycliffe  says, 
"  Trust  we  already  in  the  help  of  Christ,  for  he  hatli 
begun  already  to  lielp  us  graciously,  in  that  he  liath 
clove  the  head  of  anticliri.st ;  and  made  the  two  parts 
li;;ht  one  a^'ainst  tlie  oilier  " 

The  death  of  the  great  forerunner  of  the  Refor- 


mation was  now  at  hand.  While  hearing  maes  on 
the  day  of  the  Holy  Innocents  in  1384,  in  liig  own 
church  at  Lutterworth,  he  was  suddenly  seized  with 
an  attack  of  apoplexy,  which  rendered  him  speech- 
less, and  after  lingering  a  short  time  he  was  cut  off, 
and  his  useful  life  brought  to  a  sudden  close.  Con- 
sidering the  age  in  which  he  lived,  this  eminent  man 
had  remarkably  clear  views  of  Divine  truth  on  some 
points,  mingled  no  doubt  with  not  a  few  errors.  The 
great  Protestant  principle,  of  Christ  the  only  author 
of  salvation,  in  opposition  to  the  woi-ship  of  saints, 
occupied  a  prominent  place  in  his  theological  system. 
But  at  the  same  time  he  admits,  that  those  saints 
ought  to  be  worshipped  who  are  known  to  be  such 
from  the  Word  of  God.  He  believed  that  in  the 
early  church  two  orders  of  the  clergy  were  sulBcient, 
priests  and  deacons ;  in  the  time  of  Paul,  bishop  and 
presbyter  were  the  same.  Scripture  in  his  view  was 
the  rule  of  reformation,  and  every  doctrine  and  pre- 
cept ought  to  be  rejected  which  does  not  rest  on 
that  foundation.  He  held  that  conversion  is  solely 
the  work  of  God  in  the  heart  of  a  sinner;  that 
Chi-ist  is  the  all  in  all  of  Christianity ;  that  faith  is 
the  gift  of  God,  and  the  one  essential  principle  of 
s|)iritual  life  is  communion  with  Christ.  In  the  es- 
timation of  this  faithful  servant  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
the  sublimest  calling  on  earth  is  that  of  preaching 
the  word  of  God.  The  true  church  he  maintained  to 
be  Christ's  believing  people,  and  their  exalted  Re- 
deemer the  best,  the  only  true  Pope,  but  the  earthly 
Pope  is  a  sinful  man,  who  might  even  be  condemned 
on  the  great  day.  With  far-seeing  sagacity  lie  pre- 
dicted that  a  monk  would  yet  arise  from  whom  should 
proceed  the  regeneration  of  the  church. 

The  death  of  Wycliffe  showed  the  immortal  power 
of  his  principles.  His  followers,  if  not  strong  in 
numbers,  were  earnest  and  energetic  in  their  efibrts, 
and  having  set  themselves  to  the  work,  they  met 
with  such  amazing  success,  that  to  use  the  words  of 
D'Aubign^,  "  England  was  almost  won  over  to  the 
Reformer's  doctrines."  In  1396,  a  petition  was  pre- 
sented to  Parliament  praying  the  House  to  "abohsh 
celibacy,  transubstantiation,  prayers  for  the  dead, 
ofl'eruigs  to  images,  auricular  confession,  the  arts 
unnecessary  to  life,  the  practice  of  blessing  oil,  salt, 
wax,  incense,  stones,  mitres,  and  pilgrims'  stafls." 
"  All  these,"  the  petitioners  declared,  "  pertained  to 
necromancy  and  not  to  theology."  The  clergy  were 
alarmed  by  this  bold  step  on  the  part  of  the  Wick- 
liflites  or  Lollards,  and  urged  upon  the  king  to  inter- 
pose. Richard  took  up  tlie  matter  with  great  prompt- 
ness, forbade  parliament  to  entertain  the  petition, 
and  having  summoned  into  the  royal  presence  the 
most  distinguished  of  its  siqiporters,  he  threatened 
them  with  death  if  they  continued  to  defend  the 
reformed  doctrines.  At  this  critical  moment,  how- 
ever, when  the  hand  of  the  king  was  lifted  up  to 
smite  the  followers  of  WyclilVp,  a  sudden  rebellion 
anise  which  liiirlcd  him  from  his  tlirnne,  and  con- 
signed him  to  a  prison  where  he  ended  his  days. 


LONGINTIS'S  (St.)  DAY— LORD'S  DAY 


323 


Richard  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  liis  cou- 
sin, the  Hon  of  tlie  famous  Duke  of  I^jincaster,  who 
had  been  the  friend  and  jiatron  of  Wycliffc.  Tlie 
Ijollards,  thei-oforc,  naliirally  expected  to  find  in 
the  new  I<ing  a  warm  sniniorter  of  their  prineijiles. 
In  this,  however,  tliey  wore  bitterly  disappointed. 
'I'o  gratify  the  priests,  a  royal  edict  was  issued,  or- 
liering  every  incorrigible  heretic  to  be  l)uriit  alive, 
anil  accordingly,  a  i)ious  priest,  named  William  Saw- 
tree,  was  coininittod  to  the  ilatnes  at  Smithfiold  in 
March  1401.  Encouraged  by  the  royal  countenance, 
the  clergy  drew  up  the  well-known  Constitutions  of 
Arundel,  wliich  forbade  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  and 
asserted  the  Pope  to  be  "  not  of  pure  man,  but  of 
true  (jod,  here  on  earth."  Persecution  now  rageil  in 
England,  and  a  prison  in  the  archiepiscopal  j^alace 
at  Ijambetli,  which  received  the  name  of  the  Lol- 
lards' tower,  was  crowded  with  the  followers  of 
Wyclillb,  who  were  doomed  to  iini)risoninent  for  al- 
leged heresy ;  and  Lord  Cobham,  who  had  caused 
WyclilTe's  writings  to  be  copied  and  widely  circu- 
lated, having  been  formally  condemned  to  death,  was 
burnt  at  the  stake  in  December  1417.  The  prisons 
of  London  were  now  filled  with  Lollards,  and  multi- 
tudes who  escaped  the  vengeance  of  the  persecnting 
clergy  were  compelled  to  hold  their  religious  meet- 
ings in  secret,  and  to  bear  with  silent  um-epining  sub- 
mission the  obloquy  and  ontempt  to  which  they 
were  exposed.  From  this  time  until  the  Reforma- 
tion their  sufi'erings  were  severe.  Their  principles, 
however,  had  taken  deep  root  in  England,  and  during 
the  fifteenth  century  tlie  Pajial  iiifiuence  gradually 
decreased,  preparing  tlie  way  for  the  Reformation, 
which  in  the  succeeding  century  establi-shed  the 
Protestant  faitli  as  tlic  settled  religion  of  the  country. 

LOLLARDS  OF  KYLE,  an  opprobrious  name 
applied  to  the  supporters  of  Iveformed  principles  in 
the  western  districts  of  Scotland  diu-ing  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  Robert  Blacater,  the  first 
archbishop  of  Glasgow,  prevailed  on  Jaines  IV.  to 
summon  before  the  gi'eat  council,  about  thirty  per- 
sons, male  and  female,  belonging  to  the  districts  of 
Kyle,  Carrick  and  Cunningham,  who  were  accused  of 
holding  doctrines  opposed  to  the  Catholic  faith. 
This  memorable  trial  took  place  in  1494.  They 
were  charged  with  condemning  the  worship  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  the  worship  of  saints,  relics,  images, 
and  the  mass.  The  king  himself  presided  at  the 
trial,  and  the  result  was,  that  the  Lollards  were  dis- 
missed with  an  admonition  to  beware  of  new  doc- 
trines, and  to  adhere  steadfastly  to  the  faith  of  the 
church. 

LOMBARDISTS.    See  Skntentiarii. 

LONG  FRIDAY.    See  Goon  Friday. 

LONGINUS'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  of  the  Rom- 
ish church  observed  at  Rome  on  the  15th  of  March. 
According  to  the  legend,  Longinus  was  an  emanci- 
pated slave,  a  soldier  in  the  Roman  army,  and  almost 
blind.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  soldier  who 
pierced  the  side  of  our  Saviour  with  his  spear  as  he 


hung  upon  the  cross;  and  while  the  blood  flowed 
fioin  tiio  wound,  some  of  it  fell  upon  his  eyes  and 
inunediately  he  recovered  his  sight.  This  miracle  ii 
alleged  to  have  led  to  his  conversion  to  Christianity; 
when  forsaking  his  military  profession,  and  being 
instructed  by  the  apostles,  he  lived  a  monastic  life 
in  Cxsarea  of  Cappadocia,  and  was  the  means, 
both  by  his  conversion  and  examjile,  of  converting 
many  to  the  Christian  faith.  He  is  alleged  to  liave 
been  a  faithful,  devoted,  and  consistent  believer,  and 
to  have  closed  his  cjvreer  by  sullering  martyrdom  in 
the  cause  of  his  Divine  Ma.ster. 

LORD,  a  title  very  frecpiently  applied  in  the 
Sacred  Scripture  to  the  Supreme  Being.  Two  He- 
brew words  are  thus  translated  in  the  Ohl  Testa- 
ment. Adonai,  the  Lord,  is  exclusively  ajiiilicd  to 
God.  The  Hebrew  word  Jehovah  is  also  very  often 
translated  in  our  version  by  the  English  word  Lord, 
in  conformity  with  the  ordinary  custom  of  the  .lews 
in  reference  to  the  inefl'able  name,  which  they  never 
pronounce.  When  the  term  Lord  in  our  Bibles 
answers  to  the  Hebrew  word  Jehovah,  it  is  always 
printed  in  small  capitals  for  the  sake  of  distinction. 
See  AuoNAi,  JniiovAii. 

LORD'S  DAY,  a  name  given  to  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  which  has  been  observed  among  Chris- 
tians by  Divine  authority  as  a  day  set  apart  for  reli- 
gious services,  more  especially  in  commemoration  ol 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  dead.  At  a  very 
early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Cln'istian  cbm-ch, 
this  d.ay  was  appropriated  to  public  worship  instead 
of  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  Tlie  first  intimation  of  the 
change  occurs  in  Acts  xx.  7,  where  we  find  the 
cluirch  assembled  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  ;  and  in 
Rev.  i.  10,  this  sacred  festival  is  expressly  termed 
"  the  Lord's  Day."  The  early  Christian  writers  make 
frequent  mention  of  this  as  a  day  of  meeting  among 
Christians.  Thus  we  are  informed  by  Justin  Mar- 
tyr, that  "  on  Sunday  all  the  Christians  living  either 
in  the  city  or  country  met  together"  for  reading  the 
Scriptures,  prayer,  and  the  breaking  of  bread.  Tliat 
they  considered  it  as  possessing  a  holy  character,  is 
plain  from  the  circumstance  that  they  uniformly 
spoke  of  it  as  the  Lord's  Day,  and  regarded  it  as  a 
weekly  festival  on  which  fasting  and  every  appear- 
ance of  sorrow  was  to  be  laid  aside  as  inconsistent 
with  the  character  and  design  of  the  day.  It  was 
wholly  dedicated  to  the  exercises  of  religious  worship, 
which  are  tenned  accordingly,  by  TertuUian,  "  the 
solemnities  of  the  Lord's  Day."  And  not  only  was 
public  worship  perfoi-med  on  this  day,  but  it  was  kept 
holy  throughout,  and  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  be- 
lievers were  required  to  be  in  accordance  with  its 
sacredness.  Thus  Clement  of  Alexandria  says,  "  A 
true  Christian,  according  to  the  commands  of  the 
gospel,  observes  the  Lord's  Day  by  casting  out  all 
bad  thoughts,  and  cherisliing  all  goodness,  honouring 
the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  which  took  place  on 
that  day."  "  This  day,"  s.ays  Eusebius,  "  Christians 
throughout  the  world  celebrate  in  strict  obedieuce  to 
2p 


330 


LORD'S  DAY. 


the  spiritual  law.  Like  the  Jews,  they  offer  the 
morning  and  evening  sacrifice  with  incense  of 
sweeter  odour.  The  day,"  he  adds,  "  was  univer- 
Bally  observed  as  strictly  as  the  Jewish  Sabbath, 
whilst  all  feasting,  drunkenness,  and  recreation  was 
rebuked  as  a  profanation  of  the  sacred  day."  Igna- 
tius says,  that  all  who  loved  the  Lord  kept  the 
Lord's  day  as  tlie  queen  of  days — a  reviving,  life- 
giving  daj',  the  best  of  all  our  days.  Such  epithets 
abound  in  the  ancient  homilies  of  the  fathers. 

The  mode  in  which  the  early  Christians  spent  the 
Lord's  Day  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Jamieson  in  his 
'  Manners  and  Trials  of  the  Primitive  Christians  : 
"  Viewing  the  Lord's  Day  as  a  spiritual  festivity,  a 
season  on  which  their  souls  were  specially  to  magni- 
fy the  Lord,  and  their  spirits  to  rejoice  in  God  tlieir 
Saviour,  they  introduced  the  services  of  the  day  with 
psalmody,  wliich  was  followed  by  select  portions  of 
tlie  Propliets,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Epistles  ;  the  in- 
tervals between  which  were  occupied  by  the  faith- 
ful in  private  devotions.  The  plan  of  service,  in 
short,  resembled  what  was  followed  in  that  of  the 
vigils,  though  there  were  some  important  differences, 
which  we  shall  now  describe.  The  men  prayed  with 
their  heads  bare,  and  the  women  were  veiled,  as  be- 
came the  modesty  of  their  sex,  both  standing — a  pos- 
ture deemed  the  most  decent,  and  suited  to  their 
exalted  notions  of  the  weekly  solemnity, — with  their 
eyes  lifted  up  to  heaven,  and  their  hands  extended  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  the  better  to  keep  them  in  remem- 
brance of  Him,  whose  death  had  opened  up  the  way 
of  access  to  the  divine  presence.  The  reading  of  the 
sacred  volume  constituted  an  important  and  indispen- 
sable part  of  the  observance  ;  and  the  inore  effectually 
to  impress  it  on  the  memories  of  the  audience,  the 
lessons  were  always  short,  and  of  frequent  recur- 
rence. Besides  the  Scriptures,  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  read  aloud  several  other  books  for  the  edi- 
fication and  interest  of  the  people — such  as  treatises 
on  the  illustration  of  Christian  morals,  by  some  pas- 
tor of  eminent  reputation  and  piety,  or  letters  from 
foreign  churches,  containing  an  account  of  the  state 
and  progress  of  the  Gosjiel.  Tliis  part  of  the  ser- 
vice,— most  necessary  and  valuable  at  a  time  when 
a  large  proportion  of  every  congregation  were  imac- 
(piainted  with  letters,  was  performed  at  first  by  the 
presiding  minister,  but  was  afterwards  devolved  on 
an  officer  .ajipointed  for  that  object,  who,  when  pro- 
ceeding to  tlie  discharge  of  his  duty,  if  it  related  to 
any  part  of  the  history  of  Jesus,  exclaimed  aloud  to 
tlie  people,  '  Stand  up — the  Gospels  are  going  to  be 
read;'  and  then  always  commenced  with,  'Thus 
saitli  the  Lord.'  They  assumed  this  attitude,  not 
only  from  a  conviction  that  it  was  the  most  respect- 
ful posture  in  which  to  listen  to  the  counsels  of  the 
King  of  kings,  but  with  a  view  to  keep  alive  the  at- 
tention of  the  people — an  object  which,  in  some 
chm-clies,  was  sought  to  be  gained  by  the  minister 
stopping  in  the  middle  of  a  Scriptural  quotation,  and 
U*'.  ing  the  people  to  finish  it  aloud.     The  discour- 


ses, founded  for  the  most  part  on  the  last  portion  cl 
Scripture  that  was  read,  were  short,  plain,  and  ex- 
temporary exhortations, — designed  chiefly  to  stir  up 
the  minds  of  the  brethren  by  way  of  remembrance 
and  always  prefaced  by  the  salutation,  '  Peace  be 
unto  you.'  As  they  were  very  short — sometimes 
not  extending  to  more  than  eight  or  ten  minutes' 
duration, — several  of  them  were  delivered  at  a  diet, 
and  the  preacher  was  usually  the  pastor  of  the  place, 
though  he  sometimes,  at  his  discretion,  invited  a 
stranger,  or  one  of  his  brethren,  known  to  possess 
the  talent  of  public  speaking,  to  address  the  assem- 
bly. The  close  of  the  sermon  by  himself,  which  was 
always  the  last  of  the  series,  was  the  signal  for  the 
public  prayers  to  commence.  Previous  to  this  so- 
lemn part  of  the  service,  however,  a  crier  commanded 
infidels  of  any  description  that  might  be  present  to 
withdraw,  and  the  doors  being  closed  and  guarded, 
the  pastor  proceeded  to  pronounce  a  prayer,  the  bur- 
den of  wliich  was  made  to  bear  a  special  reference  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  various  classes  who,  in  the 
primitive  church,  were  not  admitted  to  a  full  parti- 
cipation in  the  privileges  of  the  faithful.  First  of 
all,  he  prayed,  in  name  of  the  whole  company  of  be- 
lievers, for  the  catechumens — young  persons,  or  re- 
cent converts  from  heathenism,  who  were  passing 
through  a  preparatory  course  of  instruction  in  the 
doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity, — that  their  un- 
derstandings miglit  be  enlightened — their  heaits  re- 
ceive the  trutli  in  the  love  of  it — and  tliat  tliey  might 
be  led  to  cultivate  those  holy  habits  of  heart  and 
life,  by  whicli  they  might  adorn  the  doctrine  of 
God  llieir  Saviour.  Next,  he  prayed  for  the  peni- 
tents, who  were  uiulergoiiig  the  discipline  of  the 
church,  tliat  they  niiglit  receive  deep  and  permanent 
impressions  of  the  exceeding  sinfuhiess  of  sin, — that 
they  might  be  filled  with  godly  sorrow,  and  miglit 
have  grace,  during  the  appointed  term  of  their  pro- 
bation, to  bring  fortli  fruits  meet  for  repentance.  In 
like  manner,  he  made  appropriate  supiihcations  fur 
other  descriptions  of  persons,  each  of  wliom  left  the 
church  when  the  class  to  which  he  belonged  had 
been  commended  to  the  God  of  all  grace;  and  then 
the  brethren,  reduced  by  these  successive  departures 
to  an  approved  company  of  tlie  faiihful,  proceeded  to 
the  lioly  service  of  comnuinion." 

From  the  time  that  Chiistianily  became  the  es- 
tablished religion  of  the  Ruiiian  Empire,  laws  were 
frequently  passed  by  the  state  in  reference  to  the 
careful  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day.  "  No  sooner 
was  Constantine  come  over  to  the  church,"  says 
Cave,  "  but  his  principal  care  was  about  the  Lord's 
day ;  he  commanded  it  to  be  solemnly  observed,  and 
that  by  all  persons  whatsoever.  And  for  those  in 
his  army  who  yet  remained  in  tlieir  paganism  and 
infidelity,  he  commanded  them  upon  Lord's  days  to 
go  out  into  the  fields,  and  there  pour  out  their  soids 
in  hearty  prayer  to  God.  He  moreover  ordained,  that 
there  should  be  no  courts  of  judicature  open  upon  tine 
day ;  no  suits  or  trials  in  law ;  but,  at  the  same  time. 


LORD'S  PRAYER. 


331 


any  works  of  mercy,  such  as  emancipating  slaves, 
wen^  (ioi,l.iii!il  lawful.  Tliaf  there  sliould  be  no  suit» 
nor  demanding  debts  upon  this  day,  was  conlirnie<l 
by  several  laws  of  succeeding  emperors.  Tlieodosius 
the  Great,  (a.  d.  380,)  by  a  second  law  ratified  one 
which  he  had  passed  long  before,  wherein  he  ex- 
pressly prohibited  all  i)nblic  shows  upon  the  Lord's 
day,  that  the  worship  of  God  might  not  be  con- 
founded with  those  profane  soloiimities.  This  law 
the  younger  Theodcjsius  some  few  years  after  con- 
firmed and  enlarged ;  enacting,  that  on  the  Lord's 
day  (and  some  other  festivals  then  mentioned)  not 
only  Christians,  but  even  Jews  and  heathens,  should 
be  restrained  from  the  pleasure  of  all  sights  and 
spectacles,  and  the  theatres  be  shut  up  in  every 
place.  And  whenever  it  might  so  happen  that  the 
birthday  or  inauguration  of  the  emperor  fell  upon 
that  day,  lie  eomuianded  that  then  the  imperial 
solemnity  should  be  put  otT  and  deferred  till  another 
day.  Subsequently  those  matters  were  arranged  by 
councils." 

Tliose  churclies  which  in  early  times  were  com- 
posed chiefly  of  Jewish  converts,  while  they  ob- 
served the  first  day  of  the  week  as  the  Lord's  Day, 
retained  also  their  own  Sabbath  on  the  seventh  day. 
It  was  tlie  practice  of  Christians  not  only  to  exclude 
fasting  I'rom  the  observances  of  the  Lord's  Day,  but 
also  to  maintain  the  standing  position  in  prayer.  To 
fast  in  token  of  sorrow  on  this  day  of  joy,  and  to 
kneel  while  commemorating  the  day  on  which  our 
Lord  arose,  was  accounted  a  breach  of  Christian  pro- 
priety, which  uniforndy  called  forth  the  disapproba- 
tion of  tlie  church  and  the  anathemas  of  her  coun- 
cils.   See  Sabbath  (Jewish). 

LORD'S  PRAYER,  the  prayer  which  Jesus 
Christ  taught  his  disciples  as  recorded  in  Mat.  vi. 
9 — 13,  Luke  xi.  2 — 4.  We  have  no  evidence  from 
the  writings  of  the  Apostles  that  this  prayer  was 
used  as  a  form  in  public  worship  in  their  times ; 
neither  does  any  reference  to  it  in  this  view  oceiu-  in 
the  earliest  Christian  writers  immediately  succeed- 
ing the  age  of  the  Apostles.  When  we  pass,  how- 
ever, from  the  Apostolic  Fathers  to  the  writers  of 
the  second  and  third  centuries,  we  find  the  public 
use  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  church  fully  estab- 
lished by  the  testimonies  of  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  and 
Origen,  who  devoted  each  an  entire  treatise  to  the 
exposition  of  this  prayer.  Terlullian,  in  express 
terms,  declares  it  to  have  been  prescribed  by  Clirist 
as  a  form  for  all  ages  of  the  church,  and  he  alleges 
that  it  contains  the  substance  of  all  prayer,  and  is 
an  epitome  of  the  whole  gospel.  Cyprian  follows  in 
nearly  the  same  strain,  acknowledging  TertuUian  as 
his  guide  and  instructor ;  and  describing  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  he  calls  it  "  our  public  and  common  prayer." 
Origen  also  affirms  this  to  have  been  a  prescribed 
form,  containing  all  that  the  true  Christian  ever  has 
occasion  to  pray  for.  Numberless  authorities  to  the 
same  effect  might  be  adduced  from  writers  of  the 
fourth  and   fifth    ;enturics.     By  Chrysostom,  it  is 


styled  "  the  prayer  of  the  faithful,"  its  use  being 
restricted  to  the  faithful  in  full  communion  with 
the  church,  and  denied  to  catechumens,  on  the 
ground  that  believers  oidy  were  able  iii  the  true 
spirit  of  adoption  to  say,  "Our  Father,  whicli  art  in 
heaven."  The  full  mystical  meaning  of  this  prayer 
was  not  ex[)laincd  to  any  until  after  their  baptism, 
each  of  its  petitions  being  considered  as  having  ref- 
erence to  the  Christian  mysteries  or  esoteric  doc- 
trines of  the  church,  which,  according  to  the  Arcani 
Discii'LiNA  (which  see),  were  carefully  concealed 
from  the  catechumens. 

The  doxology  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  which  is  now  found  in  the  Gospel  of  St. 
i\Iatthew,  is  generally  supposed  by  critics  not  to  have 
fonned  part  of  the  original  text  of  the  Evangelist, 
not  being  found  in  the  earliest  and  best  MSS.  of 
that  Gospel,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Mill, 
Wetstcin,  Bengel,  and  Griesbach.  It  is  found  in  the 
Apo4olical  Canstitulioruf,  and  may  probably  have 
been  thence  transferred  to  the  text  of  the  Gospel. 
The  ancient  liturgies  of  the  Greek  Church  contain 
a  doxology  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  recognizing  the 
doctrine  of  the  Triinty  as  implied  in  the  prayer, 
"  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  power,  and  glory,  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  both  now  and  for  ever,  world 
without  end."  This  doxology  has  been  ascribed  to 
Basil  and  to  Chrysostom. 

In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  believers  are 
enjoined  to  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  three  times 
every  day;  a  practice  which  was  afterwards  estab- 
lished by  the  laws  of  the  church  Newly  baptized 
persons  were  also  required  to  repeat  this  prayer 
along  with  the  Creed,  immeaiately  on  coming  out  of 
the  water.  In  the  case  of  infant  baptism,  the  .spon- 
sors at  first  repeated  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Creed 
on  behalf  of  the  child ;  but  afterwards  this  was  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  officiating  minister  alone  re- 
peated the  formularies.  The  first  writer  who  men- 
tions the  Lord's  Prayer  as  having  been  used  in  the 
dispensation  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Augustine  also  alludes  to  this  practice.  The 
Ordo  Romanus  prefixes  a  preface  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  date  of  which  is  micertain.  It  contains 
a  brief  exposition  of  the  prayer.  All  the  R'  man 
breviaries  enjoin  that  Divine  service  sliould  com- 
mence with  the  repetition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer;  but 
this  custom  can  be  traced  no  farther  back  than  tike 
thirteenth  century,  when  it  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
troduced by  the  Cistercian  monks.  The  practice  of 
using  the  Lord's  Prayer  before  commencing  sermon 
in  public  worship  receives  no  countenance  from  the 
writings  of  the  ancient  Christian  Fathers.  In  ref- 
erence to  the  use  of  this  prayer  as  a  foi-m,  Augus- 
tine says,  "  We  are  free  to  ask  the  same  things  that 
are  desired  in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  sometimes  in  one 
manner  of  expression,  and  sometimes  in  another." 
And  TertuUian,  speaking  expressly  of  prayer,  and  of 
the  Lord's  Praj'cr  particularly,  says,  "  There  are 
many  things  to  be  asked  according  to  the  varioxw 


332 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


circumstances  of  men;"  and  again  he  says,  "We 
pray  witliout  a  monitor  (or  set  form)  because  we 
pray  from  the  heai't." 

The  obvious  design  of  our  blessed  I^ord  in  pre- 
senting liis  followers  with  this  short,  beautiful,  and 
corapreliensive  model  of  prayer,  was  to  teach  tliera 
to  pray  in  the  Spirit.  Tliere  is  no  express  reference 
in  it  to  the  work  and  the  name  of  Cin-ist.  This  omis 
sion,  however,  is  easily  accounted  for.  Jesus  was  now 
exhibiting  for  the  tirst  time,  clearly  and  without  a 
figure,  the  trne  nature  and  design  of  the  kingdom  of 
God.  But  the  facts  in  the  providence  of  God  on 
whicli  the  kingdom  rested,  the  events  in  the  history 
of  the  Redeemer  which  were  yet  to  happen,  and 
which  were  to  be  evolved  by  the  free  agency  of  man, 
He  refrains  from  explaining.  Tlie  great  doctrines, 
however,  as  to  the  work  of  Christ,  and  tlie  efficacy 
of  His  atonement,  are  contained  in  this  prayer  by 
implication,  though  not  directly.  The  one  grand 
idea  to  which  the  wliole  prayer  tends  is,  the  ardent 
longing  of  the  believer  for  the  coming  of  the  king- 
dom of  God.  This  tliought  runs  through  the  whole 
prayer,  from  its  preface  to  its  conclusion,  just  as  tlie 
unfolding  of  the  nature  of  the  kingdom  runs  through 
the  whole  of  the  sublime  sermon  on  the  moinit. 
The  Lord's  Prayer  then,  viewed  in  this  aspect,  may 
be  divided  into  two  parts,  the  one  referring  to  the 
relation  of  God  to  man,  and  the  other  of  man  to 
God.  The  one  portion  of  the  prayer  breathes  a  wisli 
tliat  God  Himself  would  establish  His  kingdom  in 
the  hearts  of  men,  and  the  other  breathes  a  wish  that 
all  the  obstacles  to  the  establishment  of  this  king- 
dom in  tlie  hearts  of  men,  may  be  removed ;  while 
the  concUision  expresses  a  firm  hope  and  belief 
founded  on  the  nature  of  God,  that  the  prayer  will 
be  heard  and  answered. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  a  solemn  Christian  ordinance 
instituted  by  our  blessed  Lord  on  the  night  of  his 
betrayal,  and  designed  to  commemorate  his  Media- 
torial sufl'erings  and  death.  An  account  of  its  first 
institution  is  thus  given  by  the  Evangelist  Mattliew, 
"And  as  they  were  eathig,  Jesus  took  bread,  and 
blessed  it,  and  brake  it,  and  gave  it  to  the  disciples, 
and  said,  Take,  eat ;  this  is  my  body.  And  lie  took 
tlie  cup,  and  gave  thanks,  and  gave  it  to  tliem,  .say- 
ing, Drink  ye  all  of  it ;  for  this  is  my  blood  of  the 
new  testament,  which  is  shed  for  many  for  the  re- 
mission of  sins.  But  I  say  unto  you,  I  will  not  drink 
henceforth  of  this  fruit  of  the  vine,  until  that  day 
when  I  drink  it  new  with  you  in  my  Father's  king- 
dom." Jesus  had  just  celebrated  liis  last  I'assover 
on  eartli,  liis  conchiding  act  of  observance  of  tlio 
Jewish  ceremonial  law.  The  type  had  served  its 
purpose,  and  now  gave  way  to  the  antitype.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  Passover  having  been  in  past  ages  a 
standing  representation  of  that  death  which  he  was 
about  to  endure,  Jesus  proceeded  to  institute  a  cor- 
responding ordinance,  that  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  to 
be  a  standing  mcmurial  :r.  all  future  ages  of  tlie  same 
solemn  event.     Having  feasted  on  the  typical  Pass- 


over, Jesus  took  the  remains  of  the  Paschal  bread, 
and  of  the  Paschal  wine,  and  consecrated  them  anew 
as  the  elements  of  that  gi-eat  feast  which  his  people 
were  Iienceforth  to  observe  in  commemoration  oi 
himself  as  their  Passover  sacrificed  for  them. 

No  name  is  given  to  this  Christian  feast  by  the 
Evangelists  who  record  its  institution,  but  it  is 
styled  by  the  Apostle  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xi.  20,  "the 
Lord's  Supper,"  as  having  been  appointed  by  Christ 
on  the  night  in  which  he  was  betrayed  by  Judas 
into  the  hands  of  the  Jewish  chief  priests  and  elders. 
Tlie  name  by  which  this  sacrament  has  been  desig- 
nated in  all  ages  of  the  church,  and  among  all  its 
various  sections,  is  the  Comml'nion  (which  see). 
It  lias  also  been  termed  the  Eucharist,  as  being  a 
symbolical  expression  of  thanksgiving  for  redeeming 
mercy. 

The  strict  connection  between  the  Lord's  Supper 
and  tlie  Jewish  Passover  was  so  strongly  recognized 
by  the  early  converts  from  Judaism  to  Christianity, 
that,  as  Epiphanius  has  shown,  they  continued  for 
many  years  to  observe  both  festivals,  and  even  in 
the  Christian  church  generally,  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  celebrated  with  peculiar  solemnity  at  the  festi- 
val of  Easter,  which  corresponded  to  the  Passover. 
That  the  two  ordinances,  however,  were  in  reality 
separate  and  distinct  from  each  other,  is  plain  from 
the  fact,  tliat  the  Apostle  Paul,  in  1  Cor.  xi.,  makes 
no  mention  of  the  Passover,  while  he  minutely  de- 
scribes the  nature  and  institution  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, speaking  of  it  as  a  customary  rite  in  these 
words,  "  As  often  as  ye  eat  this  bread,  and  drink 
this  cup,  ye  do  show  the  Lord's  death  till  he  come." 

The  question  has  been  raised.  Whether  Christ 
himself  partook  of  this  holy  ordinance  at  its  first  in- 
stitution. No  light  is  thrown  upon  this  point  either 
by  the  narrative  in  the  Gospels,  or  by  that  in  First 
Corinthians.  Considerable  diversity  of  opinion,  ac- 
cordingly, has  existed  on  the  subject  even  from 
early  times.  Clirysostom  and  Augustine  maintain 
the  affirmative,  but  it  appears  very  unlikely  that 
Jesus,  though  he  partook  of  the  typical  feast  of  the 
Jewish  passover,  would  partake  of  a  feast  which  was 
not  designed  for  Him  but  for  His  people.  He 
speaks  of  the  bread  as  "  broken  for  you,"  meaning 
fur  his  disciples,  and  in  regard  to  tlie  wine,  he  says 
"  Drink  ye  all  of  it."  Both  the  sacramental  ele 
ments  and  the  sacramental  actions  liave  throughout 
a  reference  to  the  Supper  as  a  feast,  not /or  him,  but 
iqmn  him,  a  feast  of  which  He  was  the  object  to  bft 
partaken  of,  and  in  no  sense  a  partaker. 

Another  inquiry  has  been  started,  as  to  which 
theologians  have  been  in  all  ages  divided  in  opinion, 
namely.  Whether  Judas  the  traitor  partook  of  the 
l^ord's  Supper.  The  Apostolical  Con.stitutions  af 
firm  that  he  was  not  present  on  the  solemn  occasion. 
The  advocates  of  this  opinion  rely  chielly  on  John 
xiii.  30,  "  He  then  having  received  the  sop  went  im- 
mediately out :  and  it  was  night."  Those  who  hold 
the  contrary  opinion  appeal  to  Luke  xxii.  1],  "  And 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


33.<t 


ye  ohall  say  unto  the  k'^')''"'''"'  of  'lio  lioiisc,  The 
Master  saith  unto  tlieo,  Whore  is  tlie  giieslchamber, 
wliere  I  sliiill  eat  the  passover  witli  my  disciples?" 
and  also  to  the  saying  of  onr  Lord  wlien  he  delivered 
the  Clip  into  the  hands  of  his  disci|jle8,  "Drink  ye 
aH  of  it,"  implying,  as  is  snjjposed,  tliat  the  twelve 
disciples  all  partook  of  the  sacramental  elements. 
The  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  church  in  all  ages 
has  been  'hat  Judas  was  both  present  at  the  sacra- 
mental I'esist,  aiul  partook  of  the  elements  along  with 
the  other  disciples. 

It  is  somowhat  strange  that,  in  consulting  the 
writings  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers,  no  mention 
is  found  of  the  Lord's  Sujiper  by  Barnabas,  Poly- 
carp,  or  Clement  of  Rome,  but  only  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Ignatius  is  there  any  reference  to  the 
subject,  and  even  supposing  the  passages  to  be 
genuine,  which  has  been  dotdjted,  the  allusions  are 
slight  and  very  general.  Most  of  the  early  apolo- 
gists for  Christianity  also  are  silent  as  to  this  ordi- 
nance. Justin  Martyr,  however,  has  given  two 
descriptions  of  the  ordinance  in  nearly  the  same 
words,  "On  Sunday,"  he  says,  "we  all  assendjle  in 
one  place,  both  those  who  live  in  the  city  and  they 
who  dwell  in  the  country,  and  the  writings  of  apos- 
tles and  prophets  are  read  so  long  as  the  time  per- 
mits. When  tlie  reader  stops,  the  president  of  the 
assembly  makes  an  address,  in  which  he  recapitu- 
lates the  glorious  things  that  have  been  read,  and 
exhoi-ts  the  people  to  follow  them.  Then  we  all 
stand  up  together  and  pray.  After  prayer,  bread, 
wine,  and  water,  are  brought  in.  The  president  of 
the  meeting  again  prays  according  to  his  ability,  and 
gives  thanks,  to  which  the  people  respond.  Amen. 
After  this,  the  bread,  wine,  and  water,  are  distributed 
to  those  present,  and  the  deacons  carry  portions  to 
such  as  are  necessarily  detained  from  the  meeting. 
Those  who  are  able  and  willing  contribute  what  they 
please  in  money,  which  is  given  to  the  president  of 
the  meeting,  and  is  appropriated  to  the  support  of 
widows  and  orphans,  the  sick,  the  poor,  and  whom- 
soever is  necessitous."  In  the  dialogue  with  Try- 
pho  the  Jew,  which  is  usually  ascribed  to  Justin, 
we  find  such  expressions  as  these,  "  the  offering  of 
the  bread  of  thanksgiving,  and  of  the  cup  of  thanks- 
giving," "  the  eucliaristic  meal  of  bread  and  wine," 
but  no  account  is  given  of  the  mode  in  wliich  the 
ordinance  was  celebrated.  Irenseus,  in  his  contro- 
versial writings,  contends  that  the  eucharist  should 
be  regarded  as  a  sacritice,  in  opposition  to  tlie  Gnos- 
tics, who  alleged  that  all  sacrilices  had  ceased.  He 
takes  care,  however,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Jew- 
ish sacrifices,  alleging  it  to  be  of  a  higher  and  nobler 
character  than  these  mere  typical  ordinances.  Cle- 
ment of  Alexandria,  Origen,  TertuUian,  and  Cyprian, 
all  make  frequent  references  to  the  Lord's  Supper  as 
a  standing  ordinance  in  the  church.  The  Ajwstolicol 
Constitution-'',  however,  which  is  the  oldest  liturgical 
document  extant,  and  forms  the  foundation  of  all  the 
Uturgies  both  of  the  Eastern  and  Westcni  churches, 


atlords  the  most  important  informatior  in  reference  to 
the  liord's  Supjier,  as  observed  in  the  early  Christian 
church.  We  are  indebted  to  Ur.  Jamieson  for  the 
following  admirable  view  of  the  whole  service  among 
the  ])rimitive  Christians :  "The  peculiar  service  of 
the  faithfid  was  commonly  introduced  by  a  private 
and  silent  prayer,  which  was  followed  by  a  general 
sup])lication  for  the  church  and  the  whole  family  of 
mankind,  and  then  each  of  the  brethren  came  for- 
ward to  contribute  a  free-will  olTering,  according  to 
his  ability,  to  the  treasury  of  the  church,  the  wealthy 
always  being  careful  to  bring  ]iart  of  theirs  in  arti- 
cles of  bread  and  wine.  Out  of  this  collection  both 
the  sacramental  elements  were  furnished;  the  one 
consisting,  from  the  first,  of  the  common  bread  that 
was  in  use  in  the  country,  and  the  other  of  wine 
diluted  with  water,  according  to  the  tunversal  prac- 
tice of  the  ancients.  Preliminary  to  the  distribution 
of  these,  two  ceremonies  were  always  observed  with 
the  greatest  punctuality, — the  one  emblematical  of 
the  purity  that  became  the  ordinance,  the  other  ot 
the  love  that  should  reign  among  all  the  disciples  o 
Christ.  The  deacons  brought  a  basin  of  water,  in 
which  the  presiding  ministers  washed  their  hands  in 
presence,  and  on  behalf,  of  the  whole  congregation — 
a  practice  founded  on  the  words  of  the  Psalmist,— 
'  I  will  wa.sh  my  hands  in  innocence,  and  so  I  will 
compass  thine  altar;'  and  then,  on  a  given  signal,  the 
assembled  brethren,  in  token  of  their  mutual  amity 
and  good  will,  proceeded  to  give  each  other  a  holy  kiss, 
ministers  saluted  ministers,  the  men  their  fellow-men, 
and  the  women  the  female  discijjles  that  stood  beside 
them.  At  this  stage  of  the  service  another  prayer  ot 
a  general  nature  was  offered,  at  the  conclusion  of 
which  the  minister,  addressing  the  people,  said, '  Peace 
be  unto  you,'  to  which  they  responded  in  one  voice, 
'  and  with  thy  spirit.'  Pausing  a  little,  he  said, '  Lift 
up  your  hearts  to  God,'  to  which  they  replied, 
'  We  lift  them  up  unto  God;'  and  then,  after  an- 
other brief  interval  of  silence,  he  proceeded,  '  Let  us 
give  thanks  to  God,'  to  which  they  returned  the 
ready  answer,  '  It  is  meet  and  just  so  to  do.'  These 
preliminary  exhortations  being  completed,  the  min- 
ister oti'ered  up  what  was  called  the  great  thank.sgiv- 
ing  for  all  blessings,  both  temporal  and  spiritual, 
especially  for  the  unspeakable  love  of  God  as  mani- 
fested in  the  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of 
Christ,  and  for  that  holy  ordinance  in  which,  in  gra- 
cious adaptation  to  the  nature  of  man,  he  is  evi- 
dently set  forth  as  crucified  and  slain  ;  concluding 
with  an  eaniest  desire  that  intending  communicants 
might  particip.ite  in  all  the  benefits  it  was  designed 
to  impart,  to  which  all  the  people  said  aloud,  '  Amen.' 
As  the  communicants  were  about  to  advance  to  the 
place  appropriated  for  communion, — for  up  to  that 
time  it  was  unoccupied, — the  minister  exclaimed, 
'  Holy  things  to  holy  persons' — a  form  of  expression 
equivalent  to  a  practical  prohibition  of  all  who  were 
unholy;  and  the  invitation  to  communicants  wa." 
given   by  the  singing  of  some  appropriate  Psalms, 


334 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


sucli  as  the  passage  in  the  34t!i,  '  0  taste  and  see 
that  God  is  good;'  and  the  133d,  beginning  'Be- 
hold !  how  good  and  liow  pleasant  it  is  for  bretln-en 
to  dwell  together  in  nnityl'  The  elements  having 
been  consecrated  by  a  prayer,  which  consisted  chiefly 
of  the  words  of  the  institution,  the  minister  took  up 
the  bread,  and  breaking  it,  in  memorial  of  Christ's 
body  being  broken,  distributed  to  his  assisting  breth- 
ren beside  him,  and  in  like  manner  the  cup,  both  of 
which  were  carried  round  by  the  deacons  to  the  com- 
municants in  order ;  and  while  they  presented  them 
in  this  simple  form,  '  the  body  of  Christ,'  '  the  blood 
of  Christ,'  each  communicant,  on  receiving  them,  de- 
voutly said,  '  Amen.'  The  manner  in  which  they  re- 
ceived the  element  was,  by  taking  it  in  the  riglit  hand, 
and  placing  the  left  underneath  to  prevent  any  of  it 
from  falling.  The  act  of  communion  being  finished,  a 
thanksgiving  hymn  was  sung,  and  an  appropriate 
prayer  offered,  after  which  the  brethren  again  gave 
each  other  the  salutation  of  a  holy  kiss,  and  having 
received  the  blessing  of  their  pastor,  were  exhorted 
to  '  Go  in  peace.' " 

The  Lord's  Supper  was  originally  instituted  in  the 
evening,  or  at  niglit,  and  in  the  apostolic  age  it 
seems  to  have  been  sometimes  observed  during  the 
night,  and  at  other  times  during  the  day.  Justin  Mar- 
tyr makes  no  mention  of  the  precise  time  of  its  cele- 
bration. Tertullian  speaks  of  Easter  Eve  as  a  spe- 
cial period  for  the  administration  of  this  ordinance. 
This  practice  continued  througliout  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  and  even  as  far  onward  as  to  the 
ninth  century.  In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies it  was  transferred  to  the  evening,  and  then  to 
the  afternoon  of  the  day  before  Easter,  and  after- 
wards to  the  morning  of  the  same  day.  The  cele- 
bration of  the  communion  on  Christmas  eve  conti- 
nued to  a  late  period.  To  this  ancient  custom  of 
observing  this  ordinance  by  night  is  probably  to  be 
traced  the  modern  practice  of  burning  lighted  tapers 
on  such  occasions.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century 
nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  became  the  canonical 
hour,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  Lord's  Sujiper 
sliould  be  celebrated  on  Sundays  and  high  festivals 
at  this  hour,  and  at  twelve  o'clock  on  other  occa- 
sions. In  the  primitive  church  it  was  an  univer- 
sal custom  to  administer  this  ordinance  on  Thursday 
on  Easter  week,  that  being  the  day  of  its  original 
institution  ;  and  some  even  contended  tliat  the  ordi- 
nance ought  to  be  restricted  to  an  annual  celebration 
of  this  day,  though  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  tlie 
church  was  in  favour  of  frequent  communion.  Weekly 
and  even  daily  communion  appears  to  have  been 
practised  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  early  church. 
The  first  day  of  the  week,  indeed,  often  received  the 
name  of  dies  panls,  the  day  of  bread,  with  evident 
allusion  to  the  observance  of  the  sacrament  on  that 
day.  That  daily  communion  was  practised  by  the 
ap  /Sties  has  been  sometimes  inferred  from  Acts  ii. 
42,  4G,  "  .Viid  they  contiinied  stedfastly  in  the  apos- 
'les'    doctrine   and   fellowship,   and  in   breaking  of 


bread,  and  in  prayers.  And  they,  continuing  daily 
with  one  accoi'd  in  the  temple,  and  breaking  bread 
from  house  to  house,  did  eat  their  meat  with  glad- 
ness and  singleness  of  heart." 

The  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted  at  first  in  the 
upper  room  of  a  private  house,  and  from  a  passage 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  just  quoted,  it  would 
appear  that  the  communion  was  celebrated  by  the 
early  followers  of  Christ  in  the  houses  of  believers. 
But  from  1  Cor.  xi.  20,  it  is  plain  that  the  Corin- 
thians must  have  had  a  separate  place  devoted  to  tlie 
observance  of  this  rite,  and  to  the  exercises  of  pub- 
lic worship.  In  times  of  persecution,  the  early 
Christians  observed  the  Lord's  Supper  wherever  it 
could  be  done  with  safety,  in  secret  places,  in  the 
cemeteries,  in  dens  and  caves  of  the  earth.  But 
whenever  practicable,  they  celebrated  this  solemn 
ordinance  in  the  buildings  appropriated  to  public 
worship,  and  the  consecration  of  the  elements  in  pii- 
vate  houses  was  expressly  forbidden  by  the  council 
of  Laodicea. 

Nothing  is  said  in  the  New  Testament  as  to  the 
person  by  whom  the  Lord's  Supper  is  to  be  admin 
istered.  Our  Lord  himself  was  the  first  who  dis 
pensed  the  ordinance,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
same  office  was  afterwards  discharged  by  the  apos- 
tles. We  learn  from  the  writers  of  the  second  and 
third  centuries,  that  it  was  the  special  office  of  the 
bishop  or  president  of  the  assembly  to  administer 
the  eucharist.  According  to  Justin  Martyr's  ac- 
count of  the  rite  already  quoted,  the  president  of  the 
brethren  pronounced  the  form  of  prayer  and  praise 
over  the  elements,  and  the  deacons  distributed  them 
among  the  communicants  who  were  present,  and 
conveyed  them  to  those  who  were  absent.  Ignatius 
informs  us  that  the  ordinance  could  not  be  adminis- 
tered in  the  absence  of  the  bishop.  In  the  Aposto- 
lical Constitutions  the  dispensation  of  the  eucharist 
is  ascribed  at  one  time  to  the  chief  priest,  at  another 
to  the  bishop.  He  is  directed  to  stand  before  the 
altar  witli  the  presbyters  and  deacons,  and  to  jier- 
form  the  office  of  consecration.  For  a  long  period 
it  was  forbidden  to  a  presbyter  to  consecrate  the 
elements  if  the  bishop  was  present,  that  duty  he- 
longing  to  the  bishop  alone.  But  in  the  middle 
ages  the  bishops  seldom  officiated  at  the  table  of  the 
Lord.  The  general  rule  in  the  primitive  church  was, 
that  the  bishop  consecrated  the  elements,  assisted  by 
the  presbyter,  that  the  presbyter  distributed  tlie 
bread,  and  the  deacon  presented  the  cup.  In  the 
absence  of  the  bishop  the  duty  of  consecration  de- 
volved upon  tlie  presbyter,  and  in  such  a  case  both 
the  bread  and  the  cup  were  distributed  by  the  dea- 
cons. Sometimes  the  deacons  took  upon  tlicmselvea 
the  office  of  consecrating  the  elements,  but  this  prac- 
tice was  forbidden  by  repeated  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils. 

During  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
the  early  Christian  church,  none  but  believers  in 
full  connnunion  with  the  church  were  allowed  to  bn 


LOKU'S  SUPPER. 


335 


jjrusciit ;  and  all  who  were  present  partook  of  the 
ordiiianco.  Tlu:  consecrated  elements  were  also  sent 
by  the  hands  of  the  deacons  to  such  of  the  hrelhren 
Bs  from  sickness  or  imprisonment  were  nnable  to 
attend.  The  custom  at  Icngtli  arose  which,  for  a 
long  period,  prevailed  in  the  ancient  cluircli,  of  ad- 
ministerini;  the  sacrament  to  infants.  (See  Com- 
munion, Infant.)  Nay,  oven  the  ordinance  was 
frequently  administered  to  the  sick  when  in  the  de- 
lirium of  fever,  and  to  penitents  when  on  their  dealli- 
beds.  Some  were  accustomed  also  to  carry  home  a 
portion  of  the  consecrated  bread,  and  to  lay  it  up 
for  future  use  in  a  chest  appropriated  for  the  jiur- 
pose,  and  when  tliey  had  no  opportunity  of  attend- 
ing the  morning  service,  they  partook  of  a  portion  of 
the  bread,  and  if  a  Christian  stranger  came  to  sliaro 
in  thoir  hospitality,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  kindness 
was  to  produce  a  portion  of  tlie  sacramental  bread, 
and  break  it  between  them,  thereby  hallowing  their 
social  intercourse,  by  joining  together  in  a  solemn 
ordinance,  which  they  lield  in  the  most  profound  re- 
verence, and  the  observance  of  which  they  regarded 
as  necessary  to  tlioir  happiness  both  here  and  here- 
after. 

In  the  .ancient  Christian  church,  as  we  have  seen, 
all  the  faithfid  were  communicants,  and  the  rule  of 
St.  Ambrose  was  regarded  as  admitting  of  no  excep- 
tion :  "All  Christians  ought  on  every  Lord's  Day 
to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper."  It  was  not 
until  tlie  sixth  century  that  the  distinction  came  to 
be  recognized  between  communicants  and  non-com- 
municants. From  this  it  afterwards  became  cus- 
tomary to  keep  consecrated  bread,  called  Eulogia 
(which  see),  for  the  purpose  of  offering  it  to  such 
persons  as  chose  to  partake  of  it,  instead  of  uniting 
in  regular  communion  with  the  church.  These  per- 
sons were  called  Ilalf-waij  communicants.  After 
the  general  introduction  of  infant-baptism,  the  eu- 
charist  continued  to  be  administered  to  all  who  had 
been  baptized,  whether  infants  or  adults.  The  Afri- 
can church  were  accustomed  to  administer  tlie  ordi- 
nance to  the  dead,  and  even  to  bury  with  them  some 
portion  of  the  consecrated  elements.  Communicants 
in  the  early  cliurch  wore  a  peculiar  dress  when  par- 
taking of  the  sacrament,  probably  white  raiment; 
and  the  women  wore  white  veils,  called  dominicalia. 
All  the  faithful  were  required  to  bring  certain  obla- 
tions or  presents  of  bread  and  wine.  The  bread  was 
wrapped  in  a  white  linen  cloth,  and  the  wine  was 
contained  in  a  vessel  called  ama  or  amula.  These 
offerings  were  brought  to  the  altar  after  the  deacon 
had  said,  "  Let  us  pray,"  and  while  the  assembly 
were  engaged  in  singing  a  hymn  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion. This  custom  was  abolished  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. 

On  the  authority  of  Augustine  we  learn  that  dur- 
ing the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  com- 
municants stood  witli  their  faces  towards  the  east. 
The  clergy  first  received  the  elements,  then  the  men, 
and  last  of  all  the  women.     Tlie  communicants  ad- 


vanced to  the  table  two  at  a  time.  They  took  the 
bread  and  the  cup  in  their  hands,  and  repeated  after 
the  minister  the  sacramental  fommlary,  concludirig 
with  a  loud  Amen.  The  men  received  the  elcmcnt« 
with  uncovered  hands  previously  washed ;  the  wo- 
men made  use  of  the  dominical.  From  the  iiintli 
century  the  bread  began  to  be  [uit  into  the  mouths 
of  the  communicants  by  the  officiating  minister,  to 
prevent  them  from  carrying  it  home.  The  practice 
of  kneeling  during  the  consecration,  and  distribution 
of  the  elements,  was  first  introduced  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  did  not  become  general 
till  a  period  consideiahlj'  later. 

Ill  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  bread  which  ought 
to  be  used  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  a  keen  controversy 
was  long  carried  on  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  the  former  contending  for  the  use  of  lea- 
vened, and  the  latter  of  unleavened  bread.  From 
the  seventh  century  the  Church  of  Rome  began  to 
use  unleavened  bread,  a  practice  which  was  discon- 
tinued by  Protestants  at  the  Reformation,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Lutherans.  The  eucharistic  bread 
of  the  Romanists  is  styled  the  Host  (which  see). 

The  wine  wliich  our  Lord  used  in  the  Supper  was, 
of  course,  the  common  wine  of  Palestine,  but  the  an- 
cient churches  universally  mixed  water  with  the 
sacramental  wine.  The  Armenians  used  wine  alone, 
and  the  Aquarians  water  alone,  but  both  were  re- 
garded as  heretics.  The  proportion  of  water  mixed 
with  the  wine  varied  at  different  times,  being  some- 
times one-fourth,  at  other  times  one-third.  The 
Western  church  mixed  cold  water  only  ;  the  Greek 
church  did  the  same  at  first,  but  afterwards  added 
warm  water  just  before  the  distribution.  In  the 
third  or  fourth  centuiy  it  became  customary  in  the 
Eastern  church  to  hold  up  the  consecrated  elements 
before  the  people,  in  order  to  excite  their  veneration 
for  the  sacred  mysteries  of  the  sacrament.  In  the 
middle  ages  the  host  of  the  Latin  church  came  to  be 
worshipped  in  consequence  of  the  dogma  of  tran- 
substantiation  being  believed.  This  dogma  was  in- 
troduced into  Gaul  in  the  twelfth  centuiy,  and  into 
Germany  in  the  thirteenth. 

Botli  elements  were  univer.eally  administered  to 
both  clergy  and  laity  until  about  the  twelfth  century, 
when  in  the  Western  church  the  cup  began  to  be 
gradually  withdrawn  fi-om  the  laity.  (See  Chalice.) 
The  Greeks  retain  substantially  the  ancient  custom, 
and  Protestants  universally  give  the  sacrament  to 
both  clergy  and  laity  in  both  kinds.  A  certain 
form  of  words  was  used  from  early  times  in  deliver- 
ing the  elements  to  the  people,  to  which  the  people 
answered.  Amen.  The  words  spoken  by  the  offi- 
ciating minister  were  simply,  "  The  body  of  Christ," 
and  "  The  blood  of  Christ,"  to  each  of  which  expres- 
sions the  people  subjoined.  Amen.  The  author  of 
the  A])oslolical  Constitutions  speaks  of  the  form  in 
this  manner :  "  Let  the  bishop  give  the  oblation, 
saying,  '  The  body  of  Christ,'  and  let  the  receiver 
answer.  Amen.     Let  the  deacon  hold  the  cup,  and 


33G 


LORETTO  (Holt  House  at) 


when  he  gives  it,  say,  '  The  blood  of  Christ,  the  cup 
of  life,'  and  let  him  that  drinks  it,  say  Amen."  In 
the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  we  find  the  form 
somewhat  enlarged,  thus,  "  The  body  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  preserve  thy  soul ;"  and  before  the  time 
of  Alcuin  and  Charlemagne  it  was  augmented  into 
this  form,  "  The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  pre- 
serve thy  soul  unto  everlasting  life." 

Li  the  primitive  Christian  cliurch,  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per was  retained  in  the  simphcity  of  its  original  in- 
stitution, and  the  ordinance  was  regarded  as  a  me- 
morial of  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Cluist,  and  a 
means  of  strengthening  the  faith  and  increasing  the 
love  of  his  followers.  In  course  of  time  highly  figura- 
tive language  began  to  be  used,  which  implied,  if 
understood  literally,  tlie  bodily  presence  of  Christ. 
During  the  Eutychian  controversy,  the  notion  was 
broached  by  some,  that  there  was  a  union  between 
Christ  and  the  elements  similar  to  that  between  the 
divine  and  human  nature  in  the  person  of  Christ. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  ninth  century  that  the 
doctrine  was  promulgated  of  a  real  change  of  the 
substance  of  the  elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 
(See  Tr.vnsubstantiation.)  Tliis,  of  course,  na- 
turally led  to  the  worship  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament. 
(See  Host,  Adoration  op  the\  and  the  kindred 
dogma,  that  the  Eucharist  is  a  true  and  proper  sacri- 
fice for  the  sins  of  the  living  and  the  dead,  or  the 
Bouls  in  purgatory.  (See  :Mass.)  At  the  Reforma- 
tion, in  tlie  sixteenth  century,  these  dogmas  of  Rome 
were  renounced  by  the  Protestant  party ;  but  Lu- 
ther, still  cleaving  to  the  literal  interpretation  of  our 
Saviour's  words,  "  This  is  ray  body,"  introduced  the 
doctrine  of  Consubstantiation  (which  see),  sig- 
nifying that  although  the  elements  remain  unchanged, 
the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  received  by  the 
communicants  along  with  the  symbols.  Zwingli,  how- 
ever, disapproving  alike  of  the  Romish  doctrine  of 
Transuhstantialion  and  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  Con- 
snhatantiation,  maintained  that  the  bread  and  wine  were 
no  more  than  a  representation  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,  and  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  ordi- 
nance but  a  memorial  of  Christ.  The  Helvetic  Re- 
former, however,  in  thus  explaining  the  matter,  has 
perhaps  scarcely  described  the  true  nature  of  the 
Lonl's  Supper  as  it  is  understood  l)y  most  Protestant 
churches.  Tlie  elements  are,  doubtle.ss,  recognized 
as  symbols  or  signs,  but  to  the  true  believer  they 
are  something  more,  for  they  are  seals  of  the  cove- 
nant of  grace,  ratifying  and  confirming  all  its  bless- 
ings as  given  over  by  Christ  to  his  people,  and  re- 
ceived on  tlieir  part  by  the  exercise  of  a  living  faith. 

LORD'S  TABLE.    See  Com.munion  Table. 

LORETTO  (Holy  House  at),  a  house  at  Lo- 
retto,  a  small  town  in  the  States  of  the  Church  in 
Italy,  wliich  is  held  in  great  veneration  by  Roman- 
i.sts,  as  being  the  place  where  the  Virgin  Mary  was 
born,  and  also  the  infant  Jesus.  The  story  of  this 
wonderful  house  is  implicitly  believed  by  many  Ro- 
manists.    The   outlines  are  brielly  these :  Helena, 


the  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great,  found  it  at 
Nazareth  about  three  centuries  after  the  incarnation. 
It  was  carried  by  angels  through  the  air  in  May  1291, 
and  laid  down  by  them  on  a  little  eminence  in  Dalma- 
tia,  where  it  attracted  great  attention,  and  performed 
miracles  of  healing.  Doubts  having  arisen  as  to  its 
character,  the  blessed  Virgin,  surrounded  by  angelic 
spirits,  appeared  to  a  priest,  named  Alexander,  when 
OP-  a  sickbed,  and  informed  him  that  in  that  house  she 
was  born,  lived,  received  the  message  of  Gabriel, 
and  conceived  the  Son  of  God.  She  further  told 
the  priest,  that  the  apostles  had  converted  this  house 
into  a  church ;  that  Peter  had  consecrated  its  altar  ; 
that  because  insulted  in  Nazareth  by  infidels,  and 
neglected  by  Cliristians,  it  was  carried  over  by  angels 
to  Dalmatia  ;  and  tliat  as  a  miraculous  proof  of  all 
this,  his  health  should  be  immediately  restored.  On 
awakening,  Alexander  found  himself  restored  to 
health.  The  Dalmatians,  however,  were  not  long 
permitted  to  enjoy  the  gift  of  the  house.  On  the 
night  of  the  10th  December  1294,  some  shepherds, 
who  were  watching  their  flocks,  beheld  a  house  sur- 
rounded by  uncommon  splendour  flying  across  the 
Adriatic,  which  sejiarates  Dalmatia  from  Italy.  The 
holy  house  rested  in  a  district  called  Lauretum,  and 
hence  the  name,  "  The  House  of  Loretto,"  which  it 
retains'to  this  day.  Soon  it  became  very  famous  as 
a  place  of  pilgrimage,  to  which  thousands  resorted 
for  devotion  and  miraculous  cures.  Tlie  number  of 
pilgrims,  however,  greatly  diminished  in  consequence 
of  the  bands  of  robbers  which  infested  the  neighbour- 
hood ;  and  the  house  again  moved  to  a  small  hill  near 
the  road  where  the  faithful  might  liave  access  to  it 
without  being  exposed  to  robbers.  This  new  miracle 
greatly  increased  the  reverence  in  which  the  house 
was  held.  The  hill  on  which  it  now  stood  was  tho 
joint  property  of  two  brothers,  who  quarrelled  about 
the  rent  they  were  to  receive.  Accordingly  this 
miraculous  house  was  once  more  transferred,  and 
placed  in  its  present  site,  a  very  short  distance  be- 
yond the  property  of  the  unworthy  brothers.  And 
there  the  house  remains  till  the  present  day. 

The  House  of  Loretto  is  thus  described  by  one 
who  visited  the  spot:  "This  holy  house,  that  can 
thus  fly  or  walk  at  pleasure,  is  about  thirty-two  feet 
long,  tliirteen  feet  wide,  and  eighteen  feet  high,  with 
a  chimney  and  small  belfry.  The  walls  are  of  stone. 
There  is  in  it  a  small  altar,  the  one  dedicated  by 
Peter;  and  on  it  is  an  antique  wooden  cross.  On 
the  right  of  the  ahar  is  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
with  the  infant  on  her  arm,  with  the  hair  of  ejich 
divided  after  the  manner  of  the  people  of  Nazareth. 
This  image  is  surrounded  with  golden  lamps,  by 
whose  constant  glare  and  dazzle  it  is  somewhat  con- 
cealed. The  Virgin  and  Son  are  most  gorgeously 
decorated,  and  are  brilliant  with  precious  stones. 
This  holy  image  was  carried  to  I''rance  in  1796,  but 
it  was  brought  back  with  pious  jiomp  ;  and  welcomed 
by  the  discharge  of  cannon  and  the  ringing  of  bell.s, 
it  was  borne  to  the  holy  liouse  on  a  rich  frame,  car- 


LOTS  (Casting  op)— LOTUS- WORSHIP. 


337 


ried  by  eiglit  bishops,  on  the  5th  day  of  January, 

1803. 

"And  the  miracles  wrouglit  by  this  lioly  liouse 
are  numerous  and  wonderful.     It  is  hung  round  by 

the  votive  olferings  in  gold,  silver,  wax,  and  other 
materials,'  presented  by  those  on  whom  miracles 
were  performed.  I'ictro  IJarho  was  there  miracu- 
lously healed,  and  was  informed  by  the  Virgin  that 
he  would  he  elected  I'ope  !  He  was  .so  elected,  and 
assumed  the  name  of  Taul  II.  He  issued  a  bull, 
dated  November  1,  14C4,  in  which  he  speaks  of  '  the 
great  wom/frs  and  injiiiili;  miracles^  wrought  by 
means  of  tlie  Holy  Virgin  in  this  house.  This  house 
has  been  the  pet  of  many  a  I'ope,  who  have  ex- 
pended treasures  upon  it  I  And  there  it  stands  at 
the  present  hour,  '  the  most  celebrated  sanctuary  in 
Italy' — hung  round  by  votive  olVerings  of  great  value, 
visited  by  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
with  a  regular  establishment  of  priests,  sustained  at 
an  enormous  annual  expense,  mainly  collected  from 
the  beggar  pilgrims.  There  also  is  the  '  holy  por- 
ringer,' in  which  pap  was  made  for  the  infant  Sa- 
viour, and  wliich  imiiarts  wonderful  sanctity  to  every 
thing  that  is  put  into  it !"  The  Mtauy  to  the  "  Lady 
of  Loretto"  may  be  found  in  the  "Garden  of  the 
Soul,"  and  in  most  other  Komish  prayer-books. 

LOTS  (Casting  of),  a  mode  of  determining  an 
nncertain  event  by  an  appeal  to  the  providence  of 
God,  which  is  made  by  casting  or  throwing  some- 
thing. Among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  the  lot  was 
resorted  to  frctiuently  in  disputes  about  property. 
It  was  in  this  manner  that  the  land  of  Canaan  was 
divided  by  Joshua,  and  frequent  allusions  occur 
throughout  the  Old  Testament  to  this  mode  of  set- 
tling disputed  matters.  Thus  in  Prov.  xvi.  33,  it  is 
said,  "The  lot  is  cast  into  the  lap;  but  the  whole 
disposing  thereof  is  of  the  Lord  ;"  and  in  xviii.  18, 
"  The  lot  oauseth  contentions  to  cease,  and  parteth 
between  the  mighty."  From  these  passages  it  is  not 
iuiprobable,  that  the  lot  was  employed  in  courts  of 
justice  in  the  days  of  Solomon.  In  criminal  cases, 
as  in  Josh.  vii.  14 — 18,  we  tind  the  sacred  lot  called 
Urim  and  Thummim,  resorted  to  in  order  to  discover 
the  guilty  party.  In  many  matters  of  great  public 
interest,  as  in  the  election  of  Saul  to  the  kingdom, 
appeal  was  often  made  to  the  lot.  It  is  also  referred 
.0  in  Esther  iii.  7,  "In  the  first  month,  that  is,  the 
month  Nisan,  in  the  twelfth  year  of  king  Ahasuerus, 
they  cast  Pur,  that  is,  the  lot,  before  Haman  from 
day  to  day,  and  from  month  to  month,  to  the  twelfth 
month,  that  is,  the  month  Adar;"  and  Bishop  Fa- 
trick  remarks  on  the  passage,  "  It  was  customary  in 
the  Ea.'.t,  by  casting  lots  into  an  urn,  to  inquire  what 
days  would  be  fortunate,  and  what  not,  to  undertake 
any  business  in.  According  to  this  superstitious 
practice,  Haman  endeavoured  to  find  out  what  time 
in  the  year  was  most  favourable  to  the  Jews,  and 
what  most  unlucky.  First  he  inquired  what  month 
was  most  fortunate,  and  found  the  month  Adar, 
which  was  the  last  month  in  the  year,  answerable  to 


our  February.  There  was  no  festival  during  thin 
month,  nor  was  it  sanctilicd  by  any  peculiar  riteo 
Then  he  inquired  the  day,  and  found  the  thirteenth 
day  w;is  not  auspicious  to  them.  (v.  13.)  Some 
think  for  every  day  he  drew  a  lot ;  but  found  none 
to  his  mind  mitil  he  tame  to  the  last  month  of  all, 
and  to  the  middle  of  it.  Now  this  whole  business 
was  governed  by  Providence,  by  which  these  lots 
were  directed,  and  not  by  the  Persian  gods,  to  fall 
in  the  last  month  of  the  year;  whereby  almost  a 
whole  year  intervened  between  the  design  and  its 
execution,  and  gave  time  for  Mordecai  to  acquaint 
Esther  with  it,  and  for  her  to  intercede  with  the 
king  for  the  reversing  or  suspending  his  decree,  and 
disappointing  the  conspiracy." 

Not  only  in  Old,  but  also  in  New  Testament 
times,  the  practice  of  appealing  to  the  lot  is  men- 
tioned. Thus  in  the  election  of  an  apostle  to  fill  the 
place  of  Judiis,  it  is  said.  Acts  i.  26,  "And  they 
gave  forth  their  lots ;  and  the  lot  fell  upon  Mat- 
thias; and  he  was  numbered  with  the  eleven  aplas- 
tics." Even  at  this  d.ay,  as  travellers  inform  us,  the 
casting  of  lots  is  practised  in  the  East  in  doidjtfid 
matters  which  it  may  be  difiicult  otherwise  to  deci<le. 
Among  the  Moravians,  also,  in  questions  of  impor- 
tance recourse  is  had  to  the  lot.  This,  however,  is 
never  resorted  to  but  after  mature  deliberation  anrl 
fervent  prayer;  nor  is  anything  submitted  to  its  de- 
cision which  does  not,  after  being  thoroughly  weigh- 
ed, appear  to  the  assembly  eligible  in  itself. 

LOTS  (Divination  by).    See  Divination. 

LOTS  (Feast  of).    See  Puri.m. 

LOTUS-WORSHIP.  This  flower,  the  Nymphtjca 
Lotus  of  Linnseus,  and  the  Sacred  Lily  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, is  an  object  of  veneration  in  various  heathen 
countries.  The  gods  are  frequently  represented 
sitting  on  the  flower  of  a  lotus.  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkin- 
son informs  us,  that  Ehoon,  the  Egyptian  god  of 
day,  is  thus  represented  on  the  monuments.  "  He 
is  then,"  says  he,  "  supposed  to  signify  the  sun  in  the 
winter  solstice,  or  the  rising  sun  ;  and  the  crook  and 
flagelluni,  the  emblems  of  Osiris,  which  he  some- 
times carries,  may  be  intended  to  indicate  the  influ- 
ence he  is  about  to  exercise  upon  mankind.  The 
vase  from  which  the  plant  grows  is  a  lake  of  water, 
and  the  usual  initial  of  the  word  ma  or  moo,  water. 
'  They  do  indeed,'  says  Plutarch,  '  characterize  the 
rising  sun  as  though  it  sprang  every  day  afresh  out 
of  the  lotus  plant ;  but  this  implies,  that  to  moisture 
we  owe  the  first  kindling  of  this  luminary.'"  With 
respect  to  the  lotus  plant  on  which  the  deity  is  re- 
presented seated,  Sir  John  Gardner  Wilkinson, 
remarks,  that  "it  is  always  the  Kymphaa  Lotus,  and 
in  no  instance  the  Nchanbe.  And  though  this  last 
is  mentioned  by  several  ancient  authors  among  the 
plants  of  Egypt,  it  is  never  introduced  into  the 
sculptures  as  a  sacred  emblem,  nor  indeed  as  a  pro- 
duction of  the  country  ;  a  fact  which  goes  far  to  dis- 
prove one  of  the  supposed  analogies  of  the  Egyptian 
and  Indian  objects  of  veneration.     With  regard  to 


338 


LOVE-FEASTS— LOXO 


the  common  lotus,  so  frequently  represented  as  a 
favourite  flower  in  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians,  (as 
the  rose  or  others  might  be  in  the  hands  of  any 
modern  people,)  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  having 
been  sacred,  much  less  an  object  of  worship." 

Among  the  Hindus  the  lotus  has  been  generally 
recognized  as  the  symbol  of  Brahma,  the  creator  of 
the  world,  who,  poised  upon  a  lotus  leaf,  floated  upon 
the  waters,  and  all  that  he  was  able  to  discern  with 
his  eight  eyes,  for  he  had  four  heads,  was  water  and 
darkness.  The  lotus,  accordingly,  C(mtinues  to  be 
revered  in  the  temples  of  the  Hindus,  as  well  as 
among  the  Budhists  of  Thibet  and  Nepaul ;  and  a 
Nepaulese  bowed  reverently  before  this  plant  as  he 
noticed  it  in  entering  the  study  of  Sir  William  Jones. 
The  lotus  is  the  emblem  of  the  generative  power  of 
nature,  and  hence  it  is  found  accompanying  the 
images  of  all  the  Hindu  gods,  wlio  personify  the  idea 
ot  creation  or  generation.  Tlie  symbol  of  the  lotus 
has  been  can-ied  by  Budhism  from  India  into  China, 
and  even  into  Japan,  where  the  god  Canon  (which 
see)  is  represented  sitting  upon  a  lotus. 

LOVE  (Family  of).     See  Familists 

LOVE-FEASTS.  These  feasts,  as  they  were 
practised  among  the  primitive  Christians,  have  been 
fully  described  in  the  article  Agap.-e  (which  see). 
Imitations  of  the  custom  are  found  in  a  few  modem 
churches.  Thus  the  Moravians  have  from  time  to 
time  meetings  of  the  Brethi-en,  at  which  refresh- 
ments are  handed  roimd,  while  addresses  are  delivered 
upon  religious  subjects,  varied  with  singing  hymns, 
and  reading  the  Scriptures.  Love-feasts  are  held 
imong  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  quarterly,  to  which 
persons  are  admitted  by  ticket  or  a  note  from  tlie 
superintendent.  The  meeting  begins  with  singing 
and  prayer,  afterwards  small  pieces  of  bread  or  plain 
cake  with  water  are  distributed,  and  all  present  eat 
and  drink  together  in  token  of  brotherly  love.  After 
a  few  addresses,  a  collection  is  made  for  the  poor, 
and  the  meeting  is  closed  with  praver. 

LOW  CHURCHMEN,  a  nanie  often  given  to 
the  Evangelical  party  in  the  Church  of  England, 
who  are  generally  understood  to  hold  and  to  teach 
the  pure  doctrines  of  tlie  Protestant  Reformation. 
They  disavow  all  sympathy  with  tlie  Tractarian  or 
Romanizing  party.  (See  Anglo-Catholics.)  A 
party  existed  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  beaiing 
the  name  of  Low  Cliurchmen.  They  were  under- 
stood, however,  to  be  latitudinarian  in  their  senti- 
ments, and  their  doctrinal  teaching  had  a  tendency 
towards  Socinianism.  But  the  Low  Churchmen  of 
the  present  day  have  received  their  name  in  conse- 
(juence  of  the  low  views  which  they  are  believed  to 
entertain  on  the  subject  of  the  authority  of  the 
church,  and  tlie  apostolical  dignity  of  the  clergy. 
Their  theological  views  are  generally  considered  to 
he  more  strictly  Calvinistic  than  either  the  High  or 
the  Broad  Church  party.  The  Low  Churchmen  are 
at  present  a  minority  in  the  Church  of  England,  but 
occupy  a  high  iilacc  in  public  estimation.    Their  zeal 


and  activity  in  the  support  of  missions  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  are  sliown  in  the  warm  support  whicl 
they  lend  to  the  Cliurch  Missionary  and  Pastoral 
Aid  Societies,  as  well  as  to  religious  and  benevolent 
institutions  generally.  "The  Evangelical  party  in 
the  Church  of  England,"  says  Mr.  Marsden,  "  claims 
to  represent,  both  in  Church  polity  and  doctnnai 
theology,  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  as  the 
Reformation  was  understood  and  practised,  down  to 
nearly  the  close  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  Amongst 
them  are  to  be  found  some  who  hold  the  Divine  riglit 
of  episcopacy  and  the  necessity  of  an  apostolical 
succession  ;  but  these  are  the  exceptions.  In  general 
they  maintain,  rather,  that  episcopacy  is  a  wise  and 
ancient  form  of  government  than  that  it  is  essential 
to  the  constitution  of  a  church.  They  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  recognize  Presbyterian  Churches,  nor  do  they 
deny  the  claims  of  orthodox  dissenters.  Orders  may  be 
valid,  though  irregular,  and  churches  may  be  defec- 
tive in  many  points  and  yet  possess  all  that  is  essen- 
tial to  constitute  a  church.  The  unity  of  a  church 
consists  in  the  spiritual  dependence  and  vital  union 
which  each  member  of  it  possesses  with  Christ,  the 
church's  head.  In  doctrine,  the  Low  Church  party 
place  justification  by  faith  only,  in  the  foreground; 
tliey  preach  the  total  fall  of  man  in  Adam,  and  the 
necessity  of  the  new  birth  ;  and  they  differ  from  High 
Churclimen  in  asserting  that  this  new  birth,  or  re- 
generation, does  not  of  necessity  take  place  in  bap 
tism,  and  they  deny  that  it  is  insepai'able  from  it 
Of  both  the  sacraments,  indeed,  they  hold  that  they 
do  not  necessarily  convey  grace  ;  but  only  to  thosa 
who  partake  of  them  aright.  In  their  ministrations 
the  doctrines  of  redemption  are  made  prominent. 
They  have  occasionally  been  charged  with  neglect- 
ing to  inculcate  the  ordinary  duties  of  life ;  but  An 
tinomianism,  which  would  be  the  result  of  such 
neglect,  seldom  makes  its  appearance  in  their  flocks. 
The  party  is  often  termed  Calvinistic ;  but  the  word 
is  not  very  accurately  employed.  Many  are  Evan- 
gelical Arminians,  and  not  a  few,  who  are  content 
to  accept  the  name  of  Calvinists,  hold,  in  fact,  the 
disputed  points  nearly  as  Arminius  held  them.  It 
is  singular,  perliaps,  that  amongst  the  evangelical 
clergy  the  writings  of  Calvin  should  be  little  read, 
and,  indeed,  scarcely  known.  A  society  was  formed 
within  the  last  few  years  for  the  publication  of  Cal- 
vin's works;  it  met  with  little  encouragement,  and 
entailed,  we  have  understood,  a  heavy  loss  on  its 
projectors.  About  the  same  time  the  Parker  Society 
was  instituted,  for  republishing  the  divines  of  the 
English  Reformation,  and  met  with  complete  suc- 
cess." 

LOW  SUNDAY,  the  octave  of  the  first  Sunday 
after  Easter-day,  as  being  a  festival,  though  of  a 
lower  degi-ee.  It  is  called  in  the  Roman  church  the 
Dominica  in  Alhis. 

LOXIAS,  a  surname  of  Ajwlh  as  the  intei'preter 
of  Zeus. 

LOXO,  asumame  of  the  Grecian  goddess  Artemis 


LUA— LUCRINA. 


339 


LOYOLA.  (IfjNATius).    See  Jksuits. 

LUA,  one  of  tlie  ancient  Italian  goddesses,  to 
whom  the  arms  of  a  conqnered  enemy  were  dedicated 
and  l)iirnt  as  a  sacrifice  in  lier  liononr. 

LUCAR,  Cviur,,  (Conpkssion  or),  a  remarkable 
Cimfcssion  of  Faith  drawn  np  by  Cyril  Lncar,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  and  published  at  Geneva 
in  1G30,  in  the  Latin  langnage.  It  is  divided  into 
separate  articles,  with  Scriptnre  proofs  appended  to 
each.  Lnoar  had  hrmly  resisted  the  ])roiect  of  unit- 
ing the  Greek  with  the  Latin  cluirch,  and  his  de- 
sign in  publishing  the  Confession  appears  to  have 
been  to  bring  about,  if  possible,  a  union  of  the  Greek 
with  the  Reformed  church.  It  agrees  in  almost 
every  point  with  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  Cal- 
vin, and  shows  evidently,  on  the  part  of  the  author, 
a  strong  desire  to  bring  about  a  reformation  of  the 
Greek  church.  The  Greeks  to  this  day  strenuously 
deny  the  authenticity  of  Lucar's  Confession,  but 
there  is  a  mass  of  positive  testimony  in  its  favour, 
which  places  it  beyond  a  doubt.  A  second  edition 
was  published  by  the  author,  with  some  additions 
Rud  improvements,  during  the  year  163.'?.  Various 
editions  appeared  also  after  his  death,  particularly  in 
Holland,  where  it  attracted  much  notice. 

LUCKRIA,  a  surname  of  Jiino,  as  the  giver  of 
light,  the  name  being  derived  from  Lat.  lux,  light. 

LUCERIUS,  a  surname  o(  Jupiter  among  the  an- 
cient Romans. 

LUCERNARIUM  (from  Lat.  hiccrm,  a  lamp), 
a  name  given  to  the  evening  service,  in  the  early 
Christian  Church,  because  it  commonly  began  when 
darkness  came  on,  and  it  was  necessary  to  light  up 
the  apartment. 

LUCIA'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  observed  by  the 
Cluirch  of  Rome  on  the  13th  of  December. 

LUCIANISTS,  the  followers  of  Lucian,  a  presby- 
ter of  Antioch,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, who  held  opinions  in  regard  to  the  Person  of 
Christ  akin  to  those  which  were  afterwards  main- 
tained by  the  Semi-Arians.  The  school  which  be 
fiinnded  at  Antiocli  became  famous,  and  amongst  his 
.loholars  were  several  of  the  heads  of  the  Arian  party, 
particularly  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  Maris,  andTheog- 
nis.  It  is  doubtful  wliether  Lucian  himself  held 
Arian  opinions,  but  historically  speaking,  Dr.  New- 
man thinks  that  he  may  almost  be  considered  as  the 
author  of  Arianism.  Epiphanius  says,  that  he  con- 
sidered the  Word  in  the  Person  of  Christ  as  the  sub- 
stitute for  a  human  soul;  and  although  he  suffered 
martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  heatlieu  persecutors,  a.  d. 
311,  there  is  too  much  reason  for  believing,  that  his 
theological  views  were  far  from  being  ortliodox,  as 
there  is  clear  evidence  that  he  was  under  excommu- 
nication during  three  successive  patriarchs.  It  is 
pleasing,  however,  to  know  that  ten  or  fifteen  years 
before  liis  martyrdom  he  was  reconciled  to  the 
church,  and  in  all  probability  at  that  time  he  would 
renounce  the  heretical  sentiments  he  may  have  pre- 
viously entertained.     Chrysostom's  panegyric  on  the 


festival  of  his  martyrdom  18  still  extant,  and  both 
RufTinus  and  Jerome  speak  of  him  in  terms  of  high 
eulogium.  But  whatever  may  have  been  the  charac- 
ter of  the  man,  it  is  an  undoubted  fact,  tliat  the 
Semi-Arians  adopted  Ins  creed,  which  is  extant 
During  the  interval  which  elajised  between  the  Ni- 
cene  council  in  .32.0  and  the  death  of  Constantius  in 
3G1,  Antioch  was  the  metrojiolis  of  the  heretical,  as 
Alexandria  was  of  the  orthodox  party.  From  An- 
tioch originated  the  attack  u])on  the  churcli  after  the 
decision  of  tlie  council  of  Nice.  In  Antioch  the 
heresy  first  showed  itself  in  the  shape  of  Semi- 
Arianism  when  Lncian's  creed  was  produced.  There, 
too,  in  this  and  subsequent  councils,  negotiations 
on  Arianism  were  conducted  with  the  Western 
churcli.  At  Antioch  lastly,  and  at  Tyre,  a  suffra- 
gan see, the  sentenceof  condemnation  was  pronounced 
upon  Athanasius.  The  Lttcianists,  therefore,  may 
well  be  considered  as  having  exercised  an  influence 
which  long  survived  the  death  of  their  leader. 

LUCIFERIANS,  tlie  followers  of  the  famous 
Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari  in  Sardinia,  in  the  fourth 
century.  The  first  appearance  which  this  keen  and, 
indeed,  somewhat  intemperate  opponent  of  the  Ari- 
ans  makes  in  ecclesiastical  history,  is  as  legate  along 
with  Eusebius  of  Vercelli,  from  Pope  Liberius  to 
the  great  council  of  Milan,  which  was  held  in  355. 
Tlie  Emperor  Constantius  presided,  and  so  offensive 
to  the  Arian  emperor  was  the  violence  of  Lucifer, 
that  he  was  first  cast  into  prison,  and  then  driven 
from  place  to  place  as  an  exile.  The  many  hard- 
ships and  cruelties,  however,  to  which  he  was  ex- 
posed, had  little  or  no  effect  in  subduing  his  fieiy  and 
irascible  temper,  which  at  length  alienated  from  him 
both  the  eastern  andwestem  clergy,and  even  Athana- 
sius himself,  whose  cause  he  had  so  wamily  espoused. 
His  followers,  who  received  the  name  oi  Luciferians, 
were  few  in  number,  but  they  regarded  themselves 
as  constituting  the  only  pure  church  on  earth.  A 
rooted  aversion  to  Arianism  was  the  one  prevailing 
sentiment  which  bound  them  together  as  a  body. 
They  held  that  no  Arian  bishop,  and  no  bishop  who 
had  in  any  measure  yielded  to  the  Aj-ians,  even  al- 
though he  repented  and  confessed  his  errors,  coidd 
enter  the  bosom  of  the  chui-ch  without  forfeiting  his 
ecclesiastical  rank,  and  that  all  bishops  and  others 
who  admitted  the  claims  of  such  persons  to  a  full 
restoration  of  their  privileges,  ought  to  be  regarded 
as  outcasts  from  the  Christian  communion. 

LUCINA,  the  goddess  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans who  presided  over  childbearing,  and  in  this 
character,  also,  a  surname  of  Juno  and  Diana.  On 
the  occasion  of  the  birth  of  a  son  in  families  of  rank, 
it  was  not  unusual  to  have  a  Lectisternium,  in  hon- 
our of  Juno  Lucina. 

LUCRINA,  a  surname  of  Vemis  derived  from  the 
Lucrine  lake,  near  which  stood  a  temple  to  her  hon- 
our. 

LUDI    APOLLINARES.      See  Apollin4re3 

LUDI. 


340 


LUDI  FUNEBRES— LUSTRATION. 


LUDI  FUNEBRES  (Lat.  funeral  games),  cele- 
brated at  the  funeral  pyre  of  distinguished  persons 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  were 
private  entertainments  given  by  survivors  in  lionour 
of  their  deceased  friends,  and  were  sometimes  con- 
tinued for  two  or  three  days.     See  Funeral  Rites. 

LUDI  LIBERALES.     See  Dionysia. 

LUDI  MAGNI.    See  Circensian  Games. 

LUDI  MARTIALES  (Lat.  martial  games),  ce- 
lebrated every  year  among  the  ancient  Romans,  in 
the  circus,  on  the  1st  of  August,  in  honour  o{  Mars, 
the  god  of  war. 

LUKE'S  (St.),  DAY,  a  Romish  festival  held  on 
the  18th  of  October  in  honour  of  Luke  the  Evange- 
list. It  is  observed  in  the  Greek  church  on  the  same 
day. 

LUNA,  the  moon,  worshipped  both  among  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  latter  are  said  to 
have  received  this  mode  of  worship  from  the  Sa- 
bines,  in  the  time  of  Romulus.  Servius  Tullius 
built  a  temple  in  honour  of  this  goddess  on  the  Aven- 
tine  hill,  wliich  was  followed  afterwards  by  another 
on  the  Capitoline,  and  a  third  on  the  Palatine  hill. 
See  Moon-Worship. 

LUPERCA,  a  goddess  among  the  ancient  Ita- 
lians, who  was  said  to  have  nursed  Romulus  and  Re- 
mus in  the  form  of  a  she-wolf  She  was  the  wife 
of  Licpercus,  and  has  sometimes  been  identified  with 
AccA  Larentia  (which  see). 

LUPERCALIA,  one  of  the  most  ancient  festivals 
celebrated  by  the  Romans  on  the  15th  of  February 
every  year  in  honour  of  Luperous,  the  god  of  ferti- 
lity, or  as  various  writers,  both  Greek  and  Roman, 
allege,  in  honour  of  Pan.  Plutarch  calls  it  the  feast 
of  wolves,  and  declares  it  to  have  been  of  a  lustral 
or  ceremonially  purifying  character.  He  adds  that 
it  was  the  generally  received  opinion,  that  the  Ar- 
cadians, at  the  period  of  their  immigration  into  Italy 
under  the  conduct  of  Evander,  introduced  it  among 
the  natives.  But  in  whatever  way  it  may  have  first 
come  among  the  Romans,  it  was  in  some  way  or 
other  connected  with  the  well-known  legend  that 
Romulus  and  Remus,  the  first  founders  of  Rome, 
were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf,  and,  accordingly,  the 
rites  of  the  Ltqwcalia  were  observed  in  the  Luper- 
cal,  which  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  place 
where  tliis  strange  nursing  was  carried  on.  On  the 
appointed  day  of  the  festival,  the  Luperci  (which 
see),  assembled  and  offered  sacrifices  of  goats  and 
young  dogs.  The  ceremony  which  followed  was  of 
ii  peculiar  kind,  and  difficult  of  explanation.  Two 
youths  of  high  rank  were  led  forward  to  the  Luperci, 
who,  having  dipped  a  sword  in  the  blood  of  one  of 
the  victims  which  had  been  sacrificed,  touched  their 
foreheads  %v!th  it ;  after  which  some  of  the  other 
priests  advanced  forward  and  wiped  off"  the  l)lood 
with  a  piece  of  woollen  rag  which  had  been  dipped 
in  milk.  The  youths  now  burst  into  a  fit  of  laugh 
tcr,  and  forthwith  the  general  merriment  which  char- 
acterized tliis  festival  liegan.     The  priests   having 


feasted  themselves,  and  indulged  freely  in  wine, 
covered  their  bodies  over  witli  the  skins  of  the  goata 
which  they  had  sacrificed.  Thus  fantastically  dress- 
ed they  ran  up  and  down  the  streets  brandishing 
thongs  of  goat-skin  leather,  with  which  they  struck 
all  they  met,  particularly  women,  who  hailed  the 
infliction  of  the  sacred  lash  as  a  species  of  ceremo- 
nial lustration.  This  festival  was  long  observed  in 
commemoration  of  the  founding  of  Rome,  but  hav- 
ing been  neglected  in  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar,  it 
was  revived  by  Augustus,  and  continued  to  be  cele- 
brated until  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Anastasius. 

LUPERCI,  the  most  ancient  order  of  priests 
among  the  Romans.  They  were  sacred  to  Pan,  the 
god  of  the  country,  and  particularly  of  shepherds, 
whose  flocks  he  guarded.  Plutarch  derives  the 
name  from  htpn,  a  she-wolf,  and  traces  the  origin  of 
their  institution  to  the  fabulous  she-wolf  which  suck- 
led Romulus  and  Remus.  They  formed  originally  a 
college,  consisting  of  two  classes,  the  Fahn  or  Fa- 
hiani,  and  the  Quinctilii  or  Quinctiliani.  In  regard  to 
their  precise  number  originally,  we  have  no  cei'tain 
information.  It  is  most  probable  that  their  office 
was  not  for  life,  but  only  for  a  certain  time.  They 
were  held  in  great  honour  among  the  people.  Julius 
Caesar  instituted  a  third  class  of  Luperci  vmder  the 
name  of  JiiUi  or  Juliani,  endowing  them  with  cer- 
tain revenues,  of  which,  however,  they  were  after- 
wards deprived.  At  first  the  Lnperci  were  taken 
from  the  higher  classes  of  society,  but  in  course  of 
time  the  whole  order  fell  into  disrepute. 

LUPERCUS,  an  ancient  Italian  god,  worshipped 
by  shepherds,  under  the  idea  that  he  protected  thcif 
flocks  from  wolves,  and  also  rendered  the  sheep 
more  fruitful.  He  has  not  unfrequently  been  iden- 
tified with  the  god  Pan.  In  honour  of  Lvpercus, 
the  ancient  festival  Lupercalia  (which  see),  wae 
annually  celebrated. 

LUSTRATION,  purification  from  ceremonial  de- 
filement. Tliis  was  effected  from  very  earlv  times 
by  Ablution  (whicli  see)  in  water.  Among  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  sacrifices  were  generally 
accompanied  by  lustrations,  which  were  performed 
by  sprinkling  water  by  means  of  a  branch  of  laurel 
or  olive,  or  by  means  of  the  aspergillum,  as  it  was 
called  among  the  Romans,  or  chernips  among  the 
Greeks.  Individuals,  cities,  and  even  states  under- 
went solemn  lustration  when  defiled  by  crime,  or,  as 
was  often  done,  with  a  view  to  call  do\vn  the  blessing 
of  the  gods.  Fields  were  lustrated  at  the  Ambak- 
valia  (which  see),  and  sheep  at  the  Palilia 
(which  see).  The  armies  of  the  Romans  were  lus- 
trated before  taking  the  field,  and  their  fleets  before 
setting  sail.  On  all  these  occasions  .sacrifices  were 
offered,  and  the  victims  cut  into  pieces  wore  carried 
throe  times  round  the  objoct  to  be  lustrated  ;  prayers 
being  all  the  while  ofi'ered  to  the  gods.  When- 
ever Rome  itself,  or  any  other  city  in  the  empire, 
was  visited  with  any  calamity,  the  uniform  practice 
was  forthwith  to  subject  it  to  lustration.    The  wholn 


LUTEI— LUTHER  (MAurrN). 


341 


UuiiKiii  people,  indeud,  iiriderweiit  liistnition  every 
live  years,  when  sacrifices  cjdlcd  SuovcUmrilia  were 
olVered,  consisting  of  a  pig,  a  slieep,  and  an  ox.  The 
people  assembled  on  the  occasion  in  the  Campus 
Martins,  and  sacrifices  having  been  olVcrcd,  the  vic- 
linis  were  carried  thrice  round  the  niuUiludc.  This 
ceremony  was  cjiUed  a  luMrnin,  and  being  a  ipiin- 
ipieniiial  rite,  the  word  was  ofleii  used  to  denote  the 
sjiace  of  five  years. 

LUTKI  (Lat.  earthy),  a  term  of  reproach  applied 
by  the  Orifjenisls  to  the  orthodox  in  the  ancient 
CIn'istian  church. 

LIJTIIIOR  (M.aktin).  This  illustrious  lieformer 
was  born  at  Eisleben  in  Saxony,  on  the  10th  Novem- 
ber 1483,  and  on  the  following  day  he  was  baptized 
by  the  name  of  Martin,  in  honour  of  the  .saint  on 
whose  festival  he  was  born.  His  parents  were  at 
that  time  in  humble  circumstances,  but  of  industrious 
habits,  and  correct  moral  character.  Martin  was  sent 
to  school  at  a  very  early  age.  His  father  was 
a  man  of  warm  unatVected  piety,  and  might  often  be 
heard  praviug  beside  the  bedside  of  his  son,  that  the 
Lord  would  make  him  partaker  of  his  gi'ace,  and  fit 
him  for  usefulness  in  propagating  the  pure  doctrine  of 
Christ.  To  his  dying  hour  Luther  spoke  with  tlie 
greatest  respect  of  his  parents,  but  at  the  same  time 
he  was  wont  frequently  to  say  that  they  had  acted 
towards  him  with  too  much  severity  in  Ins  child- 
hood. "  My  parent.s,"  he  confesses,  "  treated  me 
with  so  much  strictness,  that  I  became  perfectly 
spirit-broken,  ran  away  to  a  monastery,  and  became 
a  monk ;  their  intentions  were  good,  but  they  knew 
not  how  to  apportion  the  punishment  to  the  oft'ence." 
He  remained  under  his  father's  roof  till  he  had  at- 
tained his  fourteenth  year,  when  he  was  sent  to 
^^agdeburg  to  prosecute  his  studies.  Here  he  re- 
mained only  a  year  when  he  removed  to  Eisenach, 
where  his  mother's  relatives  resided.  In  this  place  he 
became  connected  with  a  choral  school,  at  which  the 
sons  of  indigent  persons  were  received  and  instructed 
gratis,  while  in  return  they  were  expected  to  sing 
during  Divine  worsliip  in  the  churches,  and  also  from 
house  to  house  when  they  solicited  contributions, 
and  thus  aided  the  funds  of  the  institution.  Such  a 
mode  of  earning  his  bread  was  sufiiciently  humiliat- 
ing to  yomig  Luther,  and  it  gave  him  no  small  relief, 
therefore,  when  a  pious  woman  of  the  name  of  Cotta 
took  him  into  her  house,  where  he  was  enabled  to 
apply  to  his  studies  without  being  distracted  by 
anxiety  about  his  worldly  support.  In  his  eighteenth 
year,  in  1501,  Martin  Luther  went  to  study  at  the 
University  of  Erfurt,  where  liis  father,  whose  cir- 
cumstances had  before  this  time  undergone  consider- 
able improvement,  supported  him,  though  with  great 
personal  exertion  and  sacrifice.  Having  studied 
philosophy  with  diligence  and  success,  he  began  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  subject  of  jurisprudence. 
While  thus  engaged  in  the  acquisition  of  useful 
knowledge,  he  met  with  a  Latin  Bible  in  the  library 
at  ErI'urt,  which  on  careful  exan^anation  he  found  to 


bo  a  treasure  of  divine  knowledge.  His  attention 
waH  particularly  attracted  by  the  history  of  Hannah 
and  her  son  Samuel,  whicli  lie  read  with  peculiar 
delight.  This  perliaps  tended  to  give  him  a  reli8h 
for  the  Word  of  God,  and  an  earnest  desire  to  be 
more  fully  acquainted  with  its  precious  contents. 

Liilher  now  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  scho- 
lastic divinity,  in  which  every  educated  man  of  tliat 
time  was  expected  to  be  versed.  Nor  was  this  to 
him  an  inqjrolit.able  acquisition,  preparing  him  as  it 
did  for  fighting  all  the  more  successfully  the  battltB 
of  the  Keformation.  His  health,  however,  was  not 
a  little  injured  by  the  assiduity  with  which  he  pro- 
secuted his  researches  into  the  doctrines  of  the 
schoolmen.  In  conse(iuence  of  excessive  mental 
exertion,  a  deep  shade  of  melancholy  settled  upon 
his  spirits,  and  rendered  his  youthful  days  unhappy. 
Struggling  against  this  painful  dejiression,  he  perse- 
vered in  his  studies,  and  obtained  from  the  univer- 
sity the  degree,  first  of  Bachelor,  and  then  of  Doc- 
tor of  Philosophy.  He  now  began  to  give  public 
lectures  on  various  subjects,  particularly  on  the 
physics  and  morals  of  Aristotle.  While  thus  im- 
mersed in  secular  pursuits,  a  singular  and  awful 
event  occurred  which  suddenly  gave  a  new  direction 
to  his  whole  future  Hfe.  This  was  the  sudden  death 
of  his  intimate  friend  Alexius,  who,  while  standing 
by  his  side,  was  killed  in  a  moment  by  a  flash  of 
lightning.  An  event  of  this  kind  jiroduced  a  power- 
ful effect  upon  the  susceptible  mind  of  Luther.  He 
resolved  to  assume  the  monastic  profession,  and  ac- 
cordingly, he  was  enrolled  in  a  monastery  of  Augus- 
tine friars.  The  motives  by  which  he  was  actuated 
in  taking  this  apparently  precipitate  step,  he  thus 
explained  sixteen  years  later : — "  I  was  never  in 
heart  a  monk,  nor  was  it  to  mortify  the  lust  of 
fleshly  appetites,  but  tormented  with  horror  and  the 
fear  of  death,  I  took  a  forced  and  constrained  vow." 
The  order  which  Luther  joined  was  marked  for  its 
discipline  and  regidarity.  His  ardent  wish  in  be- 
coming a  monk  was  to  obtain  peace  with  God  by 
religious  exercises,  but  in  this  he  was  disappointed, 
and  he  sought  in  vain  amid  profound  darkness  to 
obtain  the  light  of  life.  His  fomial  enti-y  into  the 
convent  took  place  in  1506.  He  continued  a  few 
years  in  the  monastery,  where  all  his  time  whicli 
was  not  spent  in  exercises  of  devotion  or  penance 
was  employed  in  ardent  study.  At  tliis  period  Lu- 
ther perused  with  diligence  the  writings  of  Augus- 
tin.  The  strictness  and  abstemiousness  of  his  mo- 
nastic life  undemiiued  his  naturally  strong  constitu- 
tion. Fits  of  depression  frequently  came  over  him. 
Once  on  an  occasion  of  this  kind,  he  locked  himself 
into  his  cell  for  several  days,  refusing  to  admit  any 
one ;  and  at  last  his  door  being  broken  open,  he  was 
found  in  a  state  of  insensibility,  from  which  he  was 
recovered  by  means  of  music,  of  which  he  was  pas- 
sionately fond,  and  which  was  his  sole  recreation. 

In  1508,  Luther  was  invited  to  occupy  a  chair  o( 
philosophy  at  Wittenberg  ;  but  although  he  accepted 


342 


LUTHER  (Maktin). 


this  office,  he  still  retained  his  monastic  connection, 
and  accordingly,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  a  house 
of  the  same  order  in  Wittenberg.  His  lectures  both 
on  physics  and  moral  philosophy  were  much  admired 
aiul  well  attended.  In  a  short  time,  however,  after 
he  had  taken  up  his  residence  at  the  university,  he 
was  called  by  tlie  senate  to  fill  the  office  of  preacher, 
which,  though  he  shrunk  from  it  at  first  on  account 
of  its  heavy  responsibility,  he  was  at  length  pre- 
vailed upon  to  accept.  With  great  diffidence  he  first 
made  trial  of  his  powers  in  the  monastery,  then  in 
the  private  chapel  of  the  castle,  and  publicly  in  the 
parish  cluirch.  His  pulpit  addresses,  which  were 
characterized  by  much  unction,  and  very  frequent 
appeals  to  the  Word  of  God,  were  received  with  un- 
usual approbation.  Not  long  after  this  he  was  in- 
vested with  the  honoiu-able  title  of  Bachelor  of 
Theology,  and  at  the  same  time  he  acquired  the 
right  to  give  theological  lectures.  This  was  the 
position  best  suited  to  his  inclinations  and  peculiar 
gifts.  He  now  felt  himself  in  his  proper  sphere,  and 
therefore,  he  devoted  his  whole  energies  to  the  high 
duties  of  his  sacred  calling.  He  gave  lectures  on 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  which  displayed  so 
minute  an  acquaintance  with  the  Word  of  God,  as 
well  as  with  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  that  he 
speedily  earned  for  himself  a  high  reputation  as  a 
theological  lecturer. 

Tlie  estimation  in  which  Luther  was  held  among 
the  Augustinian  monks  led  Staupitz,  the  vicar-general 
of  the  order  in  Germany,  to  select  him  as  a  suitable 
person  to  imdertake  a  mission  to  Rome.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  mission,  according  to  some  writers,  was 
the  settlement  of  disputes  which  had  arisen  in  his 
order;  according  to  others,  to  obtain  permission  for 
invalid  brethren  to  eat  meat  in  cases  of  great  bodily 
weakness.  Whatever  may  have  been  his  errand,  he 
set  out  for  Rome  in  1610.  His  feelings  on  coming 
in  sight  of  the  great  city  he  thus  describes  :  "  When 
I  first  beheld  Rome,  I  fell  prostrate  to  the  earth, 
and  raising  my  hands,  exclaimed,  God  save  thee 
Rome,  thou  seat  of  the  Holy  One ;  yea,  thrice  holy 
from  the  blood  of  the  sainted  martyrs,  which  has 
been  shed  within  thy  walls."  The  veneration,  how- 
ever, with  whicli  he  first  looked  upon  the  city, 
speedily  gave  place  to  very  diflerent  feelings.  The 
frivolity  and  corruption  of  the  lower  grades  of  the 
clergy,  and  the  infamous  lives  of  the  superior  orders, 
awakened  in  his  mind  the  utmost  indignation,  and 
even  contempt.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  enormities, 
he  still  considered  Rome  a  place  of  extraordinary 
sanctity,  and  he  returned  home  to  Germany  a  firm 
believer  in  the  Holy  Father.  As  an  acknowledg 
ment  of  Luther's  merit  as  a  lecturer,  as  well  as  on 
accoimt  of  the  skilfid  execution  of  his  Roman  nns- 
sion,  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was  conferred 
on  him  at  the  instigation  of  Staupitz.  In  Witten- 
berg, his  popularity  and  inlluence  daily  increased. 
Such  was  the  confidence  reposed  in  him,  that  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  superintendence  and  visitation  of 


about  forty  monasteries,  which  were  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  vicar-general.  This  office  afforded 
him  ample  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  vices  and  defects  of  a  monastic  life,  and  thus 
tended  to  prepare  and  qualify  him  for  afterwards 
undertaking  the  responsible  duties  of  a  Reformer. 
The  different  offices,  both  secular  and  spiritual, 
which  he  was  now  called  upon  to  discharge,  formed 
also  an  admirable  training  for  his  future  sphere  oi 
action.  Meanwhile,  he  was  a  most  devoted  son  of 
the  Romish  church,  and  firm  believer  in  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Pope. 

Till  the  year  1517,  Luther  had  continued  quietly 
to  prosecute  his  work  as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel, 
and  a  lecturer  on  Theology,  to  the  edification  ot 
many,  who  eagerly  longed  for  a  clear  and  intimate 
acijuaintance  with  Divine  truth.  An  event,  how- 
ever, occurred  at  this  time,  which  opened  up  for  him 
an  entirely  new  career.  The  Papal  treasury  had 
become  well  nigh  exhausted,  and  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences was  resorted  to  with  the  view  of  opeinng  new 
resources.  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  friar,  was 
selected  as  an  active  agent  in  carrying  on  this  lucra- 
tive trade.  Travelling  through  Germany,  this  un- 
scrupulous monk  liad  reached  Jtiterbock,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Wittenberg,  when  Luther,  dis- 
gusted at  the  shameless  traffic  in  indulgences, 
preached  against  them  as  tending  openly  to  encour 
age  immorality,  and  he  even  published  a  sermon  on 
the  subject.  He  had  now  entered  the  field  against 
the  abuses  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  on  the  31si 
of  October  1517,  he  took  a  still  bolder  step  by  affix- 
ing  to  the  church  of  the  castle  of  Wittenberg,  ninety 
five  Theses  or  sentences  on  the  sale  of  indulgences, 
challenging  any  man  to  a  public  disputation  on  the 
point.  "  This,"  says  Pfizer,  "  was  the  first  electric 
flash  from  the  torch  that  was  kindled  at  the  martyred 
Huss's  funeral  pile,  and,  reaching  the  remotest 
corner  of  the  land,  gave  the  signal  of  mighty  future 
events."  "  In  less  than  fourteen  days,"  writes  a  con- 
temporary, "  these  Theses  were  read  through  every 
part  of  Germany ;  and  ere  four  weeks  had  elapsed, 
they  had  overspread  the  whole  of  Christendom,  as  if 
the  angels  of  heaven  had  been  the  messengers  to 
exhibit  them  to  universal  gaze."  The  wonderfid 
effect  produced  by  the  publication  of  Luther's  Theses 
moved  Tetzel  to  attempt  a  reply.  He  issued  accord- 
ingly, at  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  a  series  of  one  hun- 
dred and  six  propositions,  designed  to  establish  the 
authority  of  the  Pope,  as  well  as  of  all  the  clergy 
deputed  by  him,  to  forgive  sins.  In  this  production 
of  the  Dominican  monk,  the  Propositions  of  Luther 
were  one  and  all  condemned  as  an  accursed  heresy. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1518,  a  meeting  of 
Augustine  monks  took  place  at  Heidelberg,  at  which 
Luther,  according  to  invitation,  attended.  Here,  be 
fore  a  large  assembly,  he  disputed  against  five  doctors 
of  divinity  upon  twenty-eight  theological  and  twelve 
philosophical  Propositions,  and  the  argumentative 
power,   as   well   as    scriptural    research,    which    he 


LUTHEK  (Maktin). 


343 


brought  to  bear  upon  the  traditionary  dogmas  of  the 
church,  showed  liim  to  be  a  polemic  of  no  common 
order.  On  his  return  to  Wittenberg,  be  wrote,  in 
nnswer  to  Tetzel's  Counter-l'ropositions,  liis  Heso- 
lutions  or  exijlanations  of  his  Theses,  a  treatise  in 
wliich  lie  brought  prominently  forward  the  truth  that 
no  man  could  be  justilied  but  by  faith  ;  and  defend- 
ing himself  with  great  ability  against  the  charge  of 
heresy,  lu;  declared  his  intention  of  keeping  to  the 
Holy  .Scriptures,  the  resolutions  of  Councils  and  the 
Papal  decrees.  This  ])ublication  lie  sent  to  the 
I'ope,  Leo  X.,  accompanied  by  a  very  bumble  let- 
ter, dated  .'iOtli  May  1518.  The  enemies  of  Luther 
now  assailed  him  on  every  side,  but  he  stood  his 
gniiuid  with  intrepid  manfulncss.  At  the  conclusiun 
of  one  of  the  ]iamphlcts,  which  he  published  at  this 
time,  he  breaks  forth  in  these  impassioned  words: 
"  Now,  farewell,  thou  blasphemous,  corrupt,  unholy 
liome  I  At  length  the  wrath  of  God  is  coming  over 
thee,  as  thou  hast  deserved  ;  because,  notwithstand- 
ing the  many  prayers  that  have  been  so  continually 
olVered  for  thee,  it  has  been  thy  unceasing  endeavour 
to  become  more  abominable.  \Vc  would  have  healed 
Babylon,  but  she  is  not  healed;  forsake  her,  that 
she  may  become  the  habitation  of  devils,  aiul  the 
bold  of  every  foul  spirit,  and  a  cage  of  every  unclean 
and  hateful  bird;  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  be 
there ;  their  houses  shall  be  full  of  doleful  creatures, 
and  owls  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs  shall  dance 
there,  and  tlie  cormorant  and  bittern  shall  possess  it ; 
and  let  the  line  of  confusion  be  stretched  out  upon 
it,  that  it  may  remain  full  of  idolaters,  perjurers, 
a|}ostates,  and  nmrderers !  Beloved  reader,  fare  thee 
well !  forgive  that  warmth,  with  which  grief  and 
indignation  of  heart  have  tilled  my  speech." 

The  keenness  with  which  the  controversy  was 
maintained  on  both  sides,  awakened  so  wide  an  in- 
terest among  all  classes  of  the  people,  that  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian  wrote  a  lellrtr  to  the  Pope  claim- 
ing his  interference,  and  otVering  to  secure  the 
thorough  execution  of  his  decree  whatever  it  might 
be.  Leo,  however,  though  seated  in  the  Pontifical 
chair,  was  too  indifferent  to  all  tliat  regarded  reli- 
gion to  take  any  active  concern  in  what  he  consi- 
dered as  a  mere  monkish  quarrel.  At  the  instiga- 
tion of  others,  he  called  upon  the  Elector  of  Saxony 
to  withdraw  his  protection  from  Luther,  and  as  a 
proof  of  his  obedience  to  the  papal  chair,  to  deliver 
the  heretical  monk  to  the  Cardinal  legate  Thomas 
Cajetan,  to  whom  his  Holiness  had  given  the  fol- 
lowing explicit  instructions  : — "  The  Cardinal  shall 
immediately  summon  Lutlier,  who  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  contirmed  heretic,  and  compel  him  to  appear 
before  him,  and  in  case  of  need  to  call  in  the  assist- 
ance of  the  civil  power.  When  in  Rome,  he  shall 
be  kept  in  safe  custody,  till  further  orders  are  given 
to  bring  bim  before  the  Apostolic  chair.  But  if  he 
shall  humble  himself,  and  give  true  signs  of  repent- 
ance before  the  Cardinal,  and  freely  and  spontane- 
ously beg  forgiveness,  the  Cardinal  is  empowered  to 


receive  him  again  into  tlie  boaom  of  the  church. 
Should  he  liowevcr  persist  in  obstinacy,  and  the  le- 
gate not  succeed  in  seizing  his  person,  he  is  com- 
manded to  declare  Iiim,  and  all  who  adhere  to  and 
follow  him,  heretics,  excommunicated,  and  accursed 
All  the  members  of  the  emjiire  are  connnanded, 
under  [lain  of  anathema  and  interdict,  to  lend  a.'^sist- 
ance  to  the  legate,  in  tlie  execution  of  his  commis- 
sion." 

Luther  was  forthwith  summoned  to  Rome  to 
answer  to  a  charge  of  heresy,  but  he  refused  to  obey 
the  sunmions,  declaring  his  readiness,  however,  to 
appear  and  to  defend  his  cause  before  pious,  impar- 
tial, and  learned  judges  in  Germany.  The  univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg,  and  others  friendly  tohirn,  inter- 
ceded with  the  Pope,  and  accordingly  the  citation  to 
Rome  was  changed  into  a  summons  to  Augsburg, 
which  Luther  declared  his  intention  to  obey.  Some 
kind  friends,  concerned  for  the  safety  of  his  valuable 
life,  attempted  to  dissuade  him  from  his  purpose,  but 
regardless  of  danger,  and  confiding  in  the  protection 
of  heaven,  he  set  out  for  Augsburg,  which  he  reached 
unharmed,  and  took  up  his  lodgings  in  an  Augustine 
convent.  He  had  three  interviews  with  the  Cardi- 
nal Cajetan,  the  Pope's  legate,  at  each  of  which  he 
used  all  the  arguments  he  could  eonnnand  to  induce 
Luther  to  renounce  his  heresies ;  but  all  was  una 
vailing.  Th.at  nothing  might  be  left  undone  to 
eflect  a  settlement  of  the  dispute,  Luther  addres.'^ed 
two  letters  to  the  Cardinal,  ollering  to  remain  silent 
on  the  controverted  points,  provided  equal  silence 
were  imposed  upon  his  adversaries.  But  to  neither 
of  his  letters  did  he  obtain  a  reply  ;  and  accordingly, 
he  quitted  Augsburg.  The  legate  complained  bit- 
terly to  the  Elector  of  Luther's  sudden  departure, 
and  entreated  Frederic  either  to  send  Luther  to 
Rome,  or  to  expel  him  from  his  dominions.  Find- 
ing that  the  prince,  who  had  so  generously  thrown 
the  shield  of  his  protection  over  him,  might  now  on 
his  account  be  brought  into  collision  with  the  Pope, 
he  resolved  that  rather  than  bring  the  Elector  into 
trouble,  he  would  leave  his  territories,  and  commit 
his  way  unto  the  Lord.  This  determination,  how- 
ever, was  changed,  and  the  Elector  rejected  the  Car- 
dinal's proposal  to  expel  him  from  his  dominions. 

Notwithstanding  the  urgent  representations  of 
Cajetan,  the  Pope  took  no  active  steps  against  Lu- 
ther, but  contented  himself  with  issuing  a  general 
decree,  in  which  the  Papal  doctrine  respecting  indul- 
gences was  confirmed,  and  every  tenet  to  the  con- 
trary was  forbidden  under  pain  of  excommunication. 
Leo  finding  that  Cajetan  had  failed  in  accomplishing 
the  object  of  his  instructions,  dispatched  a  new  agent 
in  the  person  of  Charles  John  Miltitz,  Papal  Nuncio 
and  Privy  Councillor,  with  general  instructions  to 
adopt  whatever  steps  he  might  consider  best  fitted  to 
put  an  end  to  the  dispute.  This  papal  emissary 
arrived  in  Saxony  towards  the  close  of  1518,  bringing 
with  him  the  Golden  Rose,  as  a  present  from  the 
Pope  to  the  Elector  Frederic.    Miltitz  had  the  saga- 


341 


LUTHER  (MARTIN). 


city  to  perceive  that  matters  were  in  a  very  different 
state  ill  Germany  from  wliat  had  been  represented  at 
Rome.  He  soon  saw  the  general  popularity  of  Luther's 
cause,  and  the  necessity  therefore  of  adopting  con- 
ciliatory measures.  He  solicited  a  meeting  with  him 
tlierefore  at  Altenburg.  The  Elector  consented  to 
tliis  arrangement,  and  Luther  appeared  on  the  day 
appouited.  The  nuncio  was  favourably  impressed 
with  tlie  aspect  and  address  of  the  Reformer,  con- 
versed with  him  with  tlie  utmost  apparent  candour, 
and  was  seemingly  affected  even  to  tears.  Luther 
declared  his  readiness  to  listen  to  the  proposals  of 
tlie  nuncio,  and  at  his  suggestion  he  addressed  a  let- 
ter to  Pope  Leo,  promising  to  be  silent  on  the  sub- 
ject of  indulgences,  if  silence  were  Ukewise  imposed 
on  Ilia  adversaries,  and  declaring  that  he  would 
admonisli  the  people  zealously  to  honour  the  Roman 
cliurch. 

Thus  the  controversy  seemed  on  the  point  of 
being  amicably  terminated,  but  an  event  occurred 
almost  immediately  after,  wliicli  rendered  Luther's 
reconciliation  with  Rome  ahiiost  hopeless.  Dr.  Eck, 
the  author  of  the  Obelisken,  had  challenged  Carl- 
stadt  to  a  public  disputation  on  the  conJested  points 
of  theology,  and  in  thirteen  Theses  which  he  had 
written  in  preparation  for  the  discussion,  lie  attacked 
Luther's  declaration  on  indulgences.  Luther  op- 
posed these  by  thirteen  other  Theses,  in  which  he 
declared  that  the  assumption  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
to  be  the  head  of  all  other  churches  is  contradicted 
by  the  approved  liistories  of  eleven  hundred  years, 
by  the  text  of  tlie  Holy  Scriptures,  and  by  the  reso- 
lutions of  the  council  of  Nice.  A  public  discussion, 
accordingly,  was  held  in  Leipsic,  between  Eck  on 
tlie  one  side,  and  Carlstadt  and  Luther  on  the  other. 
The  first  week  the  dispute  was  between  Eck  and 
Carlstadt  on  the  subject  of  Free- Will;  and  on  the 
second  week  the  discussion  was  between  Eck  and 
Luther  on  the  primacy  of  the  Pope.  In  the  third 
week,  Eck  again  disputed  with  Luther  on  repen- 
tance, purgatory,  indulgences,  and  the  power  of  the 
priesthood  to  forgive  sins.  Tlie  last  three  days  were 
spent  in  discussions  between  Eck  and  Carlstadt. 
The  universities  of  Paris  and  Erfurt  were  projiosed 
and  accepted  as  arbiters  in  the  dispute,  but  Luther 
reserved  to  himself  the  power  of  appeal  from  the 
universities  to  a  council.  Li  the  course  of  the  de- 
bate, the  Reformer  made  a  concession  of  which  he 
afterwards  repented,  acknowledging  tlie  Pope  as 
Lord  of  the  church  by  human  consent.  He  had 
said  enough,  liowever,  to  rouse  the  anger  of  his  op- 
ponents, who  lost  no  time  in  laying  before  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  serious  complaints  respecting 
Luther's  heresies.  Tliis  led  to  a  counter  declaration 
on  the  part  of  Luther  and  Carlstadt ;  and  besides, 
Luther  was  called  to  ]nibHsli  a  reply  to  the  Francis- 
cans, who  charged  him  with  liaving  written  fifteen 
heretical  propositions.  Wliile  thus  engaged  in  sharp 
contention,  and  harassed  by  opposition  from  many 
quarters,  tlie  heart  of  the  Kefumcr  was  cheered  by 


learning  that  his  conduct  in  the  Leipsic  disputation 
was  warmly  approved,  and  that  his  writings  had 
been  very  favourably  received  both  in  Italy  and 
France.  The  Hussites  of  Bohemia  addressed  to  him 
letters  of  congi-atulation  on  the  noble  stand  which  he 
had  made  against  the  corruptions  of  the  church. 
Thus  encouraged  to  proceed  in  the  work  of  Refor- 
mation, Luther  published  several  treatises  on  points 
of  theology,  which  attracted  great  attention,  and  in- 
creased his  popularity.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned a  Sermon  on  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  our  Lord,  witli  a  frontispiece  representing 
the  sacramental  cup.  In  this  production  the  Romish 
doctrine  of  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments  ex  oprre 
ojierato  was  assailed  with  great  ability,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  communicant  was 
clearly  proved  from  Scripture.  In  regard  to  the  de 
nial  of  tlie  cup  to  the  laity,  Luther  maintained  that  the 
Bohemian  church  was  guilty  of  no  heresy  in  admin- 
istering the  sacrament  in  both  kinds,  and  that  it  was 
by  all  means  desirable  to  celebrate  the  sacrament 
exactly  as  Christ  had  instituted  it  when  on  earth. 
The  publication  of  this  sermon  caused  a  great  sensa- 
tion, not  only  in  Saxony,  but  in  various  otlier  parts 
of  Germany,  and  particularly  in  Bohemia,  where  il 
was  the  means  of  adding  no  fewer  than  six  thousand 
persons  to  the  body  of  the  reformed. 

Miltitz,  the  Papal  nuncio,  was  exceedingly  anxious 
to  bring  to  a  satisfactory  settlement  the  dispute  be- 
tween Luther  and  the  Pope.  To  effect  if  possible 
this  object,  he  had  frequent  interviews  with  the 
Reformer,  but  without  success.  Towards  the  end  o( 
August  1520,  the  Augustines  held  a  general  chapter 
in  Eisleben,  at  which  the  nuncio  attended,  and  pre- 
vailed upon  them  to  use  their  influence  with  Luther 
to  induce  him  to  make  formal  submission  to  tlie 
Pope.  A  bidl  of  excommunication  was  daily  ex- 
pected from  Rome,  and  more  especially  as  Eck,  the 
violent  enemy  of  Luther,  had  proceeded  thither  a 
few  months  before.  The  enemies  of  the  Reformei 
were  unwearied  in  their  attempts  to  injure  him,  by 
propagating  calumnies  and  misrejirespntations  in  re- 
gard both  to  his  motives  and  sentiments.  To  obviate 
the  evil  inthience  of  these  rumours  upon  the  minds 
of  rulers  and  men  of  power,  he  addressed  explanatory 
letters  to  several,  and  among  others  to  Charles  V., 
who  had  been  shortly  before  chosen  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

About  this  time,  Luther  publl.shod  a  Treatise  on 
Good  Works,  in  which  he  set  forth  Faith  in  contra- 
distinction to  Works,  as  the  sole  ground  of  man's 
justification  before  God.  This  of  course  struck  at  tlie 
root  of  the  Romish  doctrine  on  the  subject  of  justifi- 
cation, and  placed  Luther  in  an  attitude  of  complete 
antagonism  to  the  creed  of  the  church.  He  was  in 
duced  by  Miltitz,  however,  to  take  one  more  step  to 
bring  about  a  reconciliation,  by  addressing  a  lettoi 
to  the  Pope,  along  with  a  short  Essay  which  he  had 
written  on  Christian  T-iborly.  His  letter  to  Leo  X. 
breathed  so  strong  a  spirit  of  iiul('|ioiideiicc,  that  tli« 


LUTHER  (Martin). 


345 


riily  rcfliilt  wliicli  was  likely  to  flow  from  it  was, 
thai  iimtters  must  ore  long  come  to  a  crisis.  "  Al- 
tlioiigli  I  Iwive  been  compelled,"  says  the  bold  and 
intrepid  Rcrormer,  "by  some  of  your  uuchristiaii 
/latterers,  who  have  utterly  without  provocation  as- 
sailed me,  to  appeal  to  a  free  and  Christ ian  council ; 
I  have  still  never  suH'ered  my  mind  to  be  so  far 
estranged  from  you,  as  not  froiTi  my  inmost  heart  to 
have  wished  the  best  things  for  you  and  the  I'apal 
chair,  and  rnaile  them  the  subject  of  iny  earnest  daily 
prayer  to  God.  I  supplicates  you.  Holy  Father  I^eo, 
ro  acaipt  my  apology,  and  believe  mo  to  be  a  man, 
who  would  be  far  from  any  attempt  to  be  undutil'nl 
towards  your  person,  and  be  assured  that  I  am  rather 
filled  with  the  warmest  .sentiments  of  regard  and 
veneration.  To  every  man  I  am  prepared  to  give 
way  in  all  things,  but  the  word  of  God  I  dare  neither 
abandon  nor  deny.  Yet  it  is  true  I  have  handled 
the  liomisli  court  rather  roughly,  but  neither  you, 
nor  any  man  on  earth,  can  deny  it  to  be  viler  and 
more  abominable  than  ever  was  Sodom,  Gomorrali, 
or  Uabylon  ;  and  so  far  as  I  am  perceive,  its  wicked- 
ness is  neither  to  be  reformed  nor  rooted  out,  but  is 
practised  so  shamefully  in  the  face  of  day,  that  the 
Romish  church,  in  former  times  so  holy,  is  now  be- 
come a  den  filled  with  every  crime,  a  .«ink  of  all 
iniquity,  the  metropolis  and  empire  of  sin,  deatli,  and 
everlasting  destruction.  While  you,  most  Holy 
Father  Leo,  sit  like  a  lamb  among  wolves,  and  like 
Daniel  among  the  lions,  or  Ezekiel  among  the  scor- 
pions, what  can  you,  who  are  but  an  individual,  do 
against  such  a  host  of  monsters  ?  And  althougb  you 
might  chance  to  have  the  coimtenance  of  three  or 
four  learned  and  pious  Cardinals,  what  are  they 
amidst  so  great  a  host?  Sooner  would  you  fall  by 
poison,  than  succeed  in  checking  so  vile  a  pestilence. 
Tlie  glory  of  the  Pontificate  is  departed.  The  wrath 
of  God  is  come  upon  it  for  ever.  Hostile  to  a  gen- 
eral council,  unwilling  to  receive  correction,  or  sub- 
mit to  be  reformed ;  still  a  violent  unchristian  de- 
meanour will  not  prevent  the  fulfilment  of  what  has 
been  declared  respecting  the  mother  of  harlots  the 
ancient  Babylon.  'We  would  have  healed  Babylon, 
but  she  is  not  healed,  forsake  her.' — Jer.  li.  There- 
fore it  has  always  grieved  me.  Oh,  pious  Leo,  that 
you  have  become  Pope  in  such  a  time  as  this.  You 
were  worthy  to  have  been  Pope  in  better  days.  The 
Romish  chair  is  unworthy  of  you,  the  Evil  Spirit 
should  rather  be  chosen  to  fill  it,  for  he  assuredly 
has  more  influence  in  Babylon  than  you." 

Before  this  letter  was  written,  a  bull  of  excommu- 
nication against  Luther,  containing  a  formal  condem- 
nation of  his  writings,  had  been  despatched  from 
Rome  by  the  hands  of  Eck,  and  the  language  of  the 
letter  just  cited  was  not  likely  to  induce  its  recall. 
The  Papal  bull  met  with  little  encouragement  in 
Germany,  and  independently  of  the  nature  of  the 
document,  great  oflence  was  taken  that  the  personal 
enemy  of  Luther  was  chosen  as  its  bearer.  The 
Reformer  now  drew  up  an  appeal  from  the  Pope  to 


a  council ;  and  in  a  letter  to  Spalatin,  he  cayB,  "  I 
despise  it,  and  pull  it  in  pieces  as  a  wicked,  lying, 
and  infamous  bull."  The  people  in  some  places  now 
began  to  burn  the  writings  of  Luther,  and  in  retuni 
he  caused  the  papal  decretals  to  be  committed  to  the 
flames  in  the  presence  of  a  crowd  of  doctors,  masters 
of  arts,  and  students;  and  throwing  the  bull  of  ex- 
comnuinication  into  the  fire  with  his  own  hands,  he 
exclaimed,  "  Because  thou  hast  grieved  the  saints  of 
the  Lord,  so  niayest  thou  be  grieved  and  condemned 
bv  the  everlasting  fire."  After  this  decisive  step  by 
which  he  openly  threw  off  the  Papal  yoke,  lie  pub- 
lished a  decl.aration  vindicating  his  coiuluct. 

Luther  now  felt  as  if  entirely  set  at  liberty,  the 
tie  which  had  so  long  bound  him  to  Rome  being 
finally  and  for  ever  severed.  From  this  time  he  as- 
sumed the  attitude  of  an  open  and  uncompromising 
foe  of  the  Pope  and  all  his  emissaries.  Not  that  he 
was  insensible  of,  or  indilVerent  to,  the  danger  of  hie 
position,  but  he  was  so  firmly  impressed  with  the 
belief  that  the  truth  of  God  was  on  his  side,  that  he 
felt  no  inclination  to  .shrink  from  the  responsible 
work  which  he  had  undertaken.  He  acquired  fresh 
stimidus  by  the  issuing  of  a  bull  from  the  Pope. 
With  indefatigable  industry  he  wrote  pamphlet  after 
pamphlet,  exposing  the  errors  both  in  doctrine  and 
practice  of  the  Clun-ch  of  Rome.  His  enemies  were 
enraged,  and  such  was  the  madness  of  their  resent- 
ment, that  had  not  a  special  Providence  watched 
over  his  valuable  life,  it  would  have  been  sacrificed 
without  remorse. 

About  the  middle  of  the  year  1520,  Luther  pub- 
lished an  address  to  the  Christian  nobles  of  Ger- 
many, containing  proposals  for  a  comprehensive 
reform  of  the  church,  and  exhibiting  a  lively  por- 
traiture of  the  abuses  which  in  the  course  of  time 
had  crept  into  its  constitution  and  government. 
When  Luther  wrote  this  address,  he  did  not  regard 
a  total  breach  with  the  Pope  and  the  church  as 
necessary,  but  trusted,  or  at  least  hoped,  that  a  com- 
plete refoi-mation  of  abuses  might  yet  be  effected. 
But  on  the  3d  of  January  1521,  the  Papal  bull  of  ei- 
communication  against  him  was  repeated,  and  the  pre- 
vious conditional  sentence  was  converted  into  an  un- 
conditional decree.  The  young  Emperor  of  Germany, 
Charles  V.,  was  to  preside  at  the  Diet  of  Worms, 
which  was  at  hand,  and  he  requested  the  Elector  ot 
Saxony  to  send  Luther  thither,  promising  to  have 
him  examined  by  wise  and  learned  men,  and  to  per- 
mit no  injury  to  befall  him.  The  Elector,  however, 
in  his  anxiety  to  preserve  Luther  from  danger,  de- 
clined the  Emperor's  proposal,  but  at  the  same  time 
requested  to  have  the  opinion  of  Luther  on  the 
point.  The  reply  of  the  Reformer  was  firm  and  de- 
cided :  "  If  I  am  summoned,"  said  he,  "  I  will  go 
even  though  I  must  needs  be  can-ied  there  in  my 
bed,  for  I  cannot  doubt  that  the  Emperor's  call  is 
hkewise  God's  call."  He  received  a  formal  citation 
to  appear  at  the  Diet,  along  with  an  Imperial  safe 
conduct,  and  accordinglv,  he  travelled  to  Wormn  m 
'2r. 


34fi 


LUTHER  (Martin). 


the  beginning  of  April  1521.  Many  were  the  at- 
tempts made  by  his  friends  to  dissuade  him  from 
prosecuting  this  journey,  but  remaining  proof  alike 
against  the  anxiety  of  his  friends,  and  the  threats  of 
his  enemies,  he  replied,  "  If  they  were  to  make  a  fire 
between  Wittenberg  and  Worms,  which  would  reach 
to  the  heavens,  I  would  still  appear  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  and  enter  the  jaws  of  Behemoth,  and 
treading  between  his  great  teeth,  confess  Christ,  and 
leave  him  to  do  all  his  pleasure;"  and  when  his 
anxious  friend  Spalatin  sent  a  messenger  to  urge  him 
not  to  come  to  Worms,  he  answered,  "  If  there  were 
as  many  devils  in  Worms  as  there  are  tiles  on  the 
roofs  I  would  still  enter  it." 

Luther  reached  Worms  on  the  IGth  April  1521. 
Many  of  the  nobility  went  to  meet  him,  and  as  he 
entered  the  city,  more  than  two  thousand  people 
accompanied  him  to  his  lodgings.  There  he  was 
visited  by  many  persons  of  gi'eat  rank,  who  admired 
his  calmness  and  undaunted  courage.  The  day  after 
his  arrival  he  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
Diet,  and  having  committed  himself  and  his  cause  to 
God  in  secret  prayer,  he  proceeded  to  the  place  of 
meeting.  As  he  passed  into  the  hall,  many  of  the 
inembers  addressed  to  him  words  of  comfort  and  en- 
couragement. His  writings  having  been  produced, 
the  question  was  put  to  him  whether  he  acknow- 
ledged them  to  be  his,  whereupon  Luther  immedi- 
ately replied  in  the  affirmative.  He  was  next  asked 
if  he  would  recant  their  contents,  and  in  reply  to 
this  question  he  craved  time  for  reflection,  and  the 
Em])eror  having  granted  him  a  day  for  consideration, 
the  assembly  broke  up.  The  following  day  he  was 
again  entreated  to  recant,  but  he  plainly  and  firmly 
refused  to  do  so,  adding  that  he  could  not  retract  his 
opinions  unless  he  were  convinced  of  their  falsehood ; 
nor  could  he  consent  to  their  being  tried  by  any  other 
rule  than  the  Word  of  God.  Finding  the  Reformer 
inexorable,  liis  enemies  called  upon  the  Emperor  to 
violate  the  s<afe-conduct,  and  thus  imitate  the  con- 
duct of  the  council  of  Constance  in  the  case  of  John 
IIuss.  Charles,  however,  finiily  refused  to  act  so 
treacherous  a  part,  and  Luther  was  permitted  to 
depart  in  safety.  A  few  days  after  he  left  the  city, 
a  severe  edict  was  published  in  name  of  the  Emperor, 
and  by  authority  of  the  Diet,  depriving  him  of  all 
the  pi'ivileges  which  rightly  belonged  to  him  as  a 
subject  of  the  empire,  forbidding  any  prince  to  har- 
bour or  protect  liim,  and  requiring  all  to  concur  in 
seizing  his  person  as  soon  as  the  term  specified  in 
his  safe-conduct  was  expired. 

This  Edict  of  Worms,  rigorous  though  it  was,  led 
to  no  evil  consequences  in  so  far  as  Luther  was  con- 
cerned. It  proved  indeed  a  dead  letter.  I5ut  the 
sudden  disappearance  of  the  Uefonner  occasioned  no 
small  anxiety  to  his  friends,  and  triumi)b  to  his 
enemies.  The  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  ever 
proved  his  warm  and  steady  friend,  no  sooner  heard 
that  be  had  left  Worms,  and  was  in  danger  of  falling 
iiito  the  liands  of  his  enemies,  than  lio  bethought 


himself  of  adopting  a  prudent  precaution  to  secure 
his  safety.  The  plan  to  which  the  Elector  resorted 
is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Robertson  in  his  History 
of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.  :  "  As  Luther,  on  his 
return  from  Worms,  was  passing  near  Altenstein  in 
Thuringia,  a  number  of  horsemen  in  masks  rushed 
suddenly  out  of  a  wood,  where  the  Elector  had  ap- 
pointed them  to  lie  in  wait  for  him,  and  suiTounding 
his  company,  carried  him,  after  dismissing  all  his 
attendants,  to  Wartburg,  a  strong  castle  not  far  dis- 
tant. There  the  Elector  ordered  him  to  be  supplied 
with  every  tiling  necessary  or  agreeable,  but  the 
place  of  his  retreat  was  carefully  concealed,  until  the 
fury  of  the  present  storm  against  him  began  to 
abate,  upon  a  change  in  the  political  situation  of 
Europe.  In  this  solitude,  where  he  remained  nine 
months,  and  which  he  frequently  called  his  Patmos, 
after  the  name  of  that  island  to  which  the  Apostle 
John  was  banished,  he  exerted  his  usual  vigour  and 
industry  in  defence  of  his  doctrines,  or  in  confutation 
of  his  adversaries,  publishing  several  treatises,  which 
revived  tlie  spirit  of  his  followers,  astonished  to  a 
gi-eat  degree,  and  disheartened,  at  the  sudden  disap- 
pearance of  their  leader." 

During  his  residence  in  the  Wartburg,  Luther  was 
frequently  visited  with  severe  attacks  of  bodily  ill- 
ness and  mental  distress.  "Believe  me,"  he  says,  in 
a  letter  to  a  friend,  "  I  am  delivered  over  to  a  thou- 
sand imps  of  Satan  in  this  solitude ;  and  it  is  much 
easier  to  contend  with  incarnate  fiends,  that  is, 
men,  than  with  spiritual  wickedness  in  high  places." 
His  distresses,  however,  were  not  wholly  of  a  per- 
sonal nature ;  he  was  deeply  concerned  for  the  de- 
graded state  of  the  church  and  clergy.  "  I  sit  here 
the  whole  day,"  he  writes  to  Melancthon,  "  picturing 
to  myself  the  state  of  the  church,  and  repeating  from 
the  eighty-ninth  Psalm,  'Wherefore,  0  Lord,  hast 
thou  made  all  men  in  vain?'  O  Lord  God,  what  a 
frightful  glass  of  divine  wrath,  is  the  cursed  king- 
dom of  the  Roman  anticlu-ist,  and  I  curse  my  hard- 
ness of  heart,  that  I  am  not  melted  to  tears,  and  my 
eyes  become  fountains  of  tears,  to  weep  for  the  de- 
struction of  my  people ;  but  there  is  no  one  who  will 
arise,  and  stand  in  the  breach  against  God,  or  make 
himself  as  a  wall  for  the  house  of  Israel,  in  these  last 
days  of  divine  wrath.  Do  thou  therefore  hold  out 
to  the  end,  as  a  servant  of  the  Lord,  and  build  up  the 
walls  and  towers  of  Jerusalem,  until  they  attack 
thee.  Thou  knowest  thy  calling,  and  thy  gifts ;  1 
pray  for  tliee,  and  for  thee  alone ;  if  my  prayers, 
which  indeed  I  do  not  doubt,  avail  aught,  do  thou 
the  same  for  me,  and  so  we  will  jointly  bear  the 
Ijurden.  We  alone  stood  togetlier  on  the  arena,  and 
they  will  seek  for  thee  after  me." 

During  his  confinement  the  opinions  of  Luther 
continued  to  gain  ground  in  almost  every  city  of 
Saxony,  but  more  particularly  in  Wittenberg,  where 
his  doctrines  had  taken  deep  root  ;  and  there  accord 
ingly  the  first  stc]i  was  taken  towards  an  alteration 
in  the  established  forms  of  worship,  by  aboUshin^ 


LUTHER  (Mahtin). 


347 


the  celebration  of  private  masses,  and  by  doing  away 
witli  the  celebration  of  tlie  communion  in  only  one 
kind.  Hut  to  avail  ourselves  of  tlie  clear  and  accu- 
rate statements  of  Dr.  Robertson  :  "  Whatever  con- 
solation the  courafje  and  success  of  his  disciiiles,  or 
the  profjress  of  bis  doctrines  in  bis  own  country, 
afforded  Luther  in  bis  retreat,  be  there  received  in- 
formation of  two  events  which  considerably  damped 
bis  joy,  as  they  seemed  to  lay  insuperable  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  propagating  bis  principles  in  the  two 
most  powerful  kingdoms  of  Europe.  One  was,  a 
solemn  decree,  conilemning  his  opinions,  published 
by  the  university  of  Paris,  the  most  ancient,  and,  at 
that  time,  the  most  respectable  of  the  learned  socie- 
ties in  Europe.  The  other  was  the  answer  written 
to  his  book  concerning  tlie  Babylonish  captivity  by 
Henry  VHI.  of  England.  That  monarch,  having 
been  educated  under  the  eye  of  a  suspicious  father, 
who,  in  order  to  prevent  bis  attending  to  business, 
kept  him  occupied  in  the  study  of  literature,  still 
retained  a  greater  love  of  learning,  aiKl  stronger 
habits  of  application  to  it,  than  are  connnon  among 
princes  of  so  active  a  disposition,  and  such  violent 
passions.  Being  ambitious  of  acquiring  glory  of 
every  kind,  as  well  as  zealously  attached  to  the 
Romish  church,  and  highly  exasperated  against  Lu- 
ther, who  had  treated  Thomas  Aquinas,  his  favourite 
author,  with  great  contemjit,  Henry  did  not  think  it 
enough  to  exert  his  royal  authority  in  opposing  the 
opinions  of  the  Reformer,  but  resolved  likewise  to 
combat  them  with  scholastic  weapons.  With  this 
view  he  published  his  treatise  on  the  Seven  Sacra- 
ments, which,  though  forgotten  at  present,  as  books 
of  controversy  always  are,  when  the  occasion  that 
produced  them  is  past,  is  not  destitute  of  polemical 
ingenuity  and  acutoness,  and  was  represented  by  the 
flattery  of  bis  courtiers  to  be  a  work  of  such  wonder- 
ful science  and  learning,  as  exalted  him  no  less  above 
other  authors  in  merit,  than  he  was  distinguished 
among  them  by  his  rank.  The  Pope,  to  whom  it 
was  presented  with  the  greatest  formality  in  full  con- 
sistory, spoke  of  it  in  such  terms,  as  if  it  had  been 
dictated  by  immediate  inspiration ;  and,  as  a  testi- 
mony of  the  gratitude  of  the  church  for  his  extraor- 
dinary zeal,  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Defender  of 
the  Faith,  an  appellation  which  Henry  soon  forfeited 
in  the  opinion  of  those  from  whom  he  derived  it, 
and  which  is  still  retained  by  his  successors,  though 
the  avowed  enemies  of  those  opinions,  by  contend- 
ing for  which  he  merited  that  honourable  distinction. 
Luther,  who  was  not  overawed,  either  by  the  autho- 
rity of  the  university,  or  the  dignity  of  the  monarcli, 
soon  published  his  animadversions  on  both,  in  a 
stv'le  no  less  vehement  and  severe,  than  be  would 
have  used  in  confuting  his  meanest  antagonist.  This 
indecent  boldness,  instead  of  shocking  his  contem- 
poraries, was  considered  by  them  as  a  now  proof  of 
his  midaimted  spirit.  A  controversy  managed  by 
disputants  so  illustrious,  drew  universal  attention ; 
»iid  such  was  the  contagion  of  the  spirit  of  innova- 


tioti,  diffused  through  Europe  in  tliat  age,  and  so 
powerful  the  evid(rnce  whicli  accompanied  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformers  on  their  first  publication 
that,  in  spite  both  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
powers  combined  against  them,  they  daily  gained 
converts  both  in  France  and  in  England." 

The  residence  of  Luther  in  the  solitary  castle  of 
the  Wartburg  tended  more,  perha|is,  than  almost 
any  other  event  of  his  history,  to  mature  bis  viewn 
as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  reforms  which  the 
condition  of  the  Romish  church  required.  ]t  was  in 
this  retirement  also  that  he  commenced  the  greatest 
and  the  most  useful  of  all  his  works — the  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  the  German  language.  In  his  Rat- 
mos,  as  he  was  wont  to  call  it,  be  actually  finished 
the  New  Testament.  But  though  thus  usefully  em- 
ployed, the  bold  and  restless  spirit  of  the  Reformer 
longed  to  be  at  liberty,  and  to  return  to  active  duty. 
This  wish  became  all  the  stronger  when  he  learned 
the  unhappy  excesses  to  which  the  Anabaptists  or 
new  prophets,  as  they  called  themselves,  were  push- 
ing bis  doctrines  respecting  go.spel  liberty.  In  their 
extravagant  enthusiasm,  these  men  were  busily  pro- 
pagating the  notion  that  Luther's  attempt  at  refor- 
mation was  neither  suf!iciently  extensive  nor  radical. 
They  rejected  infant  baptism,  and  boasted  of  being 
favoured  with  immediate  revelations  from  heaven. 
Under  the  influence  of  fanatical  zeal,  they  were  ex 
citing  tumults,  and  had  succeeded  in  gabiing  over  to 
their  side  Luther's  old  friend  and  colleague  Carl- 
stadt. 

The  excesses  and  disorders  introduced  by  the 
Anabaptists  were  far  from  being  favourable  to  the 
progress  of  the  Reformed  cause,  and  Luther's  fears 
were  strongly  aroused  lest,  0)i  the  contrary,  the  work 
which  he  had  so  much  at  heart  might  be  thereby 
seriously  imperilled.  Unable,  therefore,  any  longer 
to  endure  the  solitariness  of  his  retreat,  he  left  Wart- 
burg on  the  3d  of  March  1522,  resolved  to  take  his 
place  onee  more  in  the  arena  of  active  warfare.  The 
return  of  the  intrepid  German  monk  excited  the 
greatest  rejoicings  in  Wittenberg,  and  produced  an 
immediate  restoration  of  tranquillity.  He  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Elector,  explaining  the  reasons  of  his 
return,  and  without  delay  set  himself  to  an  exposure 
of  the  Zwickau  prophets,  and  the  extravagancies  of 
Carlstadt.  Nor  were  his  attempts  to  allay  the  tu- 
mults of  the  public  mind  wholly  unsuccessful;  by 
his  means  peace  and  order  were  restored  at  Witten- 
berg. 

Leo  X.,  who  had  long  and  ably  filled  the  papal 
chair,  died  on  the  1st  of  December  1521,  and  bis 
successor  Adrian  VI.,  who  professed  a  strong  desire 
to  bring  about  a  reformation  of  the  church,  awakened 
such  bitter  feelings  of  enmity  against  himself  in 
Rome,  that  his  death,  which  occurred  in  September 
1523,  has  been  attributed  to  poison.  The  pontifical 
chair  was  next  occupied  by  Clement  VII.,  who  was 
devoted  to  the  French  party,  and  to  some  extent 
favourable  to  the  Reformation.     In  the  meantime. 


d48 


LUTHER  (Martin). 


Luther  and  his  fellow-hibourers,  especially  Melanc- 
tlioii,  were  scatteriiiL;  the  seed  of  the  new  doctrine  in 
all  directions,  and  in  a  short  time  reformed  principles 
pervaded  the  whole  Electorate  of  Saxony.  A  new 
Elector  succeeded  to  the  government  in  1525,  and 
under  his  autliority,  Luther  was  permitted  to  intro- 
duce the  new  and  simple  mode  of  worship  in  the 
chapel  of  the  castle  at  Wittenberg.  The  Reforma- 
tion now  began  to  exercise  its  due  practical  influ- 
ence. The  cloisters  in  various  places  were  abandoned 
by  the  monks  and  nuns.  In  1523,  Luther  mentions, 
hi  a  letter  to  Spalatin,  the  escape  of  nine  nuns  from 
their  convents,  among  whom  he  mentions  the  name 
of  Catharine  von  Bora,  who  afterwards  became  his 
wife. 

The  estates  of  Grermany  assembled  in  Diet  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1524,  and  declared  their  desire  to  com- 
ply with  the  edict  of  Worms,  as  far  as  possible,  at 
the  same  time  urging  the  necessity  for  a  general 
council.  Towards  the  end  of  the  following  year,  a 
new  Diet  was  held  at  Augsburg,  and  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Spires.  The  object  of  this  Diet  was  declar- 
ed by  the  emperor  to  be  the  extirpation  of  the  Lu- 
theran heresy,  and  the  execution  of  the  edict  of 
Worms.  Such  was  the  opposition,  however,  ofl'ered 
by  the  evangelical  princes,  that  the  Niii-emberg  de- 
cree alone  was  renewed  in  Augsburg,  and  the  estates 
were  recommended  to  take  steps  for  having  the  Word 
of  God,  according  to  the  true  meaning  and  doctrine 
of  the  Universal  Church,  taught  throughout  their 
lands  without  innovation  or  tumult. 

In  the  Diet  at  Spires,  which  was  a  prolongation  of 
that  at  Augsburg,  the  reform  party  so  tar  prevailed, 
that  the  emperor's  demand  for  the  enforcement  of 
the  edict  of  Worms  was  rejected ;  and  the  resolu- 
tion was  adopted  to  send  an  embassy  to  the  emperor, 
requesting  him  to  come  to  Germany  and  call  a  coun- 
cil, and  that,  in  the  meantime,  each  government 
was  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  religion  as  they  could 
answer  to  God  and  the  emperor.  In  1529,  a  Diet 
was  held  at  Spires,  when  it  was  decided  by  a  ma- 
jority that  he  should  once  more  be  requested  to  sum- 
mon witliin  a  year  either  a  general  council  or  a  na- 
tional synod,  and  himself  to  preside.  Those  states 
of  the  empire,  which  had  hitherto  obeyed  the  edict 
of  Worms,  were  enjoined  to  persevere  in  the  obser- 
vation of  it,  and  the  other  states  were  prohibited 
from  attempting  any  further  innovations  in  religion, 
particularly  from  abolishing  the  mass  before  the 
meeting  of  a  general  council.  The  favourers  of  the 
new  doctrine  entered  a  solemn  protest  against  this 
decree,  as  unjust  and  impious.  From  this  circum- 
stance they  received  the  name  of  Protectants.  "  Not 
.satisfied  with  this  declaration  of  their  dissent,"  says 
Robertson,  "  from  the  decree  of  the  Diet,  the  Pro- 
testants sent  ambassadors  into  Italy,  to  lay  their 
grievances  before  the  enqieror,  from  whom  they  met 
with  the  most  discoura'.'ing  reception.  Charles  was 
Ht  that  time  in  close  uniim  with  tlic  Pope,  and  soli- 
citoui  to  attach  him  inviolably  to  his  interest.     Dur- 


ing their  long  residence  at  Bologna,  they  held  manj 
constiltations  concerning  the  most  eti'ectual  means  oi 
extirpating  the  heresies  which  had  sprung  up  in  Ger- 
many. Clement,  whose  cautious  and  timid  mind  the 
proposal  of  a  general  council  filled  with  horror,  even 
beyond  what  Popes,  the  constant  enemies  of  such 
assemblies,  usually  feel,  employed  every  argument 
to  dissuade  the  emperor  from  consenting  to  that 
measure.  He  represented  general  councils  as  fac- 
tious, ungovernable,  presumptuous,  formidable  to 
civil  authority,  and  too  slow  in  their  operations  to 
remedy  disorders  wliich  required  an  immediate  cure. 
Experience,  he  said,  had  now  taught  both  the  em- 
peror and  himself,  that  forbearance  and  lenity,  in- 
stead of  soothing  the  spirit  of  innovation,  had  ren- 
dered it  more  enterprising  and  presumptuous ;  it 
was  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  recourse  to  the 
rigorous  methods  which  such  a  desperate  case  re- 
quired ;  Leo's  sentence  of  excommunication,  toge- 
ther with  the  decree  of  the  Diet  at  Worms,  was  to 
be  carried  into  execution,  and  it  was  incumbent  on 
the  emperor  to  employ  his  whole  power,  in  order  to 
overawe  those  on  whom  the  reverence  due  either  to 
ecclesiastical  or  civil  authority  had  no  longer  any 
influence.  Charles,  whose  views  were  veiy  dift'er- 
ent  from  the  Pope's,  and  who  became  daily  more 
sensible  how  obstinate  and  deep-rooted  the  evil  was, 
thought  of  reconciling  the  Protestants  by  means  less 
violent,  and  considered  the  convocation  of  a  council 
as  no  improper  expedient  for  that  purpose  ;  but  pro- 
mised, if  gentler  arts  failed  of  success,  that  then  he 
would  exert  himself  with  rigour  to  reduce  to  the  obe- 
dience of  the  Holy  See  those  stubborn  enemies  of 
the  Catholic  faith." 

The  emperor  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  by 
the  Pope  in  1529,  and  summoned  a  Diet  to  be  held 
the  following  year  at  Augsburg.  The  Reformation 
had  already  obtained  many  su]iporfers,  and  various 
petty  princes  of  the  German  states  had  declared 
themselves  its  decided  partizans.  It  had  found  its 
way  also  into  Denmark  and  Sweden.  In  Switzer- 
land (see  Helvetic  Reformed  Churches),  under 
the  guidance  of  Zwingli,  it  had,  before  this  time, 
made  very  extensive  progress.  The  Smss  and  Ger- 
man Reformers,  however,  differed  widely  from  each 
other  on  the  subject  of  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Several  attempts  were  made,  but  in 
vain,  by  private  individuals,  to  reconcile  the  two 
parties,  but  the  landgrave,  Philip  of  Hesse,  influenced 
by  political  motives,  proposed  a  religious  conference 
to  be  held  at  Jlarburg  between  Luther  and  Zwingli. 
The  discussion,  accordingly,  took  )ilace,  and  while 
both  parties,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  claimed  the 
victory,  articles  were  drawn  up  and  published,  in 
wliich  the  Swiss  conformed  generally  to  the  Lutheran 
views,  excepting  on  the  subject  of  the  sacrament. 

The  man  who,  more  than  any  otlier,  had  influenced 
the  mind  of  Zwingli,  was  Erasmus,  who  had  doiif 
enough  in  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  to  irritaiM 
and  oll'end  the  partizans  of  Rome,  but  was  too  timid 


LUTHER  (Mautin). 


34» 


to  appreciate  the  warm  and  impaHsioned  zeal  of  Lu- 
tlior.  Tlic«e  two  men,  each  ilistitif^uislicd  in  liis  own 
spliorc,  were,  nevertlielcHs,  widely  dilFcrciit  from  each 
other.  D'Aiihigii(5  justly  says,  "  Erasmus  and  Lu- 
ther are  tlie  representatives  of  two  great  ideas  rela- 
tive to  a  Kefonnation, — of  two  great  parties  in  their 
age  and  in  all  ages.  The  one  class  are  men  of  a 
timid  prndence;  the  other  those  of  active  courage 
and  re.'-olution.  These  two  great  bodies  of  men  ex- 
isted at  this  period,  and  they  were  personified  in 
those  two  illustrious  heads.  The  former  thought  that 
the  cultivation  of  theological  science  would  lead  gra- 
dually and  without  violence  to  the  Kcforrnation  of 
the  Church.  The  more  active  class  thought  that 
the  spread  of  more  correct  ideas  among  the  learned 
would  not  put  an  end  to  the  gross  superstitions  of 
the  people,  and  that  to  reform  such  or  such  an  abuse 
was  of  little  importance,  so  long  as  the  life  of  the 
Church  was  not  thoroughly  renovated."  The  same 
eloquent  writer  well  depicts  tlie  character  of  Eras- 
nnis :  "  Erasmus  was  dcHcient  in  courage.  But 
courage  is  as  necessary  to  ell'eet  a  reformation  as  to 
capture  a  city.  There  was  much  timidity  in  his 
character.  From  his  youth  he  trembled  at  the  men- 
tion of  death.  He  took  the  most  extraordinary  care 
of  his  health.  He  would  avoid,  at  any  .sacrilice,  a 
place  where  contagion  prevailed.  His  relish  for  the 
comforts  of  life  surpassed  even  his  vanity,  and  this 
was  his  reason  for  declining  more  than  one  brilliant 
offer.  Thus  it  was  that  he  did  not  preteiul  to  the  part 
of  a  Reformer.  '  If  the  corrui)ted  morals  of  the  court 
of  Rome  reipiire  a  great  and  speedy  remedy,'  said 
he,  '  it  is  not  for  me,  or  such  as  me,  to  effect  it.'  He 
had  none  of  that  strength  of  faith  which  animated 
Luther.  Whilst  the  latter  was  ever  ready  to  lay 
down  his  life  for  the  truth,  Erasmus,  with  great  in- 
genuousness, could  say, '  Let  others  affect  martyrdom  ; 
for  my  part,  I  think  myself  unworthy  of  that  hon- 
our. I  fear,  if  a  tumult  arose,  I  should  be  like  Peter 
in  his  fall.' 

"  Erasmus,  by  his  writings  and  his  discourses,  had, 
more  than  any  other  person,  hastened  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  and  yet  he  trembled  when  he  saw  tlie  tempest 
he  had  raised  approaching.  He  would  have  given 
every  thing  to  restore  the  former  calm,  even  with 
its  heavy  vapours.  But  it  was  too  late, — the  dam 
was  broken  down.  It  was  no  longer  possible  to  stay 
the  violence  of  the  torrent  that  was  at  once  to  cleanse 
and  fertilise  the  world.  Erasmus  was  powerful,  so 
long  as  he  was  an  instrument  in  God's  hands.  When 
he  ceased  to  be  that,  he  was  nothing."  No  wonder 
that  Luther  wrote  concerning  him  :  "  I  fear  he  fol- 
lows Christ  with  a  divided  heart,  and  is  ignorant  of 
the  grace  of  God.  Carnal  feelings  are  stronger  in 
him  than  siiiritual  influences.  Though  reluctant  to 
judge  him,  I  still  feel  it  my  duty  to  warn  you,  not  to 
read  and  receive  all  without  due  discrimination.  For 
these  are  dangerous  times  ;  and  I  clearly  see  that  a 
man  is  not  necessarily  a  good  Christian,  because  he 
is  a  good  Greek  or  Hebrew  scholar.     But  I  anxiously 


keep  this  opinion  secret,  lest  I  Hhould  encourage  hii 
enemies.  The  Lord  may,  pcradveiiture,  reveal  him- 
self to  him  in  bis  own  time."  Erasmus  continued 
to  halt  between  two  opirjions,  to  the  great  annoy- 
ance of  Luther,  and  at  length  showed  himself  the 
enemy  of  the  Reformation,  although  at  an  earlier 
period  of  his  life  he  had  powerfully  contributed  to 
its  triumph. 

Luther  had  quitted  the  monastery,  and  laid  aside 
the  monk's  cowl  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1524, 
and  in  June  of  the  following  year,  he  married  Ca- 
therine de  Bora,  one  of  the  nuns,  to  whom  we  have 
already  referred,  as  having  with  his  assistance  escaped 
from  the  convent  of  Nimptschen.  As  a  Imsband 
aiul  a  father  Luther  was  most  exemplary,  and  in  his 
domestic  relations  he  was  blessed  with  much  happi- 
ness. 

The  far-famed  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  held  in  1530, 
and  although  it  was  not  deemed  safe  or  expedient 
that  the  Reformer  sliould  be  present  in  person,  his 
protector,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  having  been  spe- 
cially urged  by  the  emperor  to  attend,  proceeded 
thither  with  a  numerous  retinue.  The  emperor  en- 
tered the  city  on  the  evening  of  the  15th  June,  be- 
ing the  day  preceding  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi. 
The  Protestants  received  an  imperial  command  to 
join  the  religious  procession  on  the  following  day, 
but  they  firndy  refused  to  comply.  The  Diet  was 
opened  on  the  20th  with  the  saying  of  mass,  in 
which  the  evangelical  princes  would  take  no  share. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  business,  four  electors 
and  forty  princes  were  present.  The  Romish  party 
declined  making  any  declaration  of  their  faith,  and 
avowed  their  intention  to  abide  by  the  edict  of 
Worms.  The  Protestants  were  ordered  by  the  em 
peror  to  produce  the  articles  of  their  creed  against  a 
certain  day.  These  had  been  drawn  up  by  Melanc- 
thon,  and  submitted  to  the  examination  of  Luther, 
who  had  declared  bis  unqualitied  approbation  of 
them  as  a  faithful  exhibition  of  Protestant  doctriive. 
On  the  appointed  day  this  Confession  of  Faith  was 
read,  and  produced  a  very  favourable  impression,  and 
after  some  discussion,  it  was  agreed  to  submit  the 
Confession,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  examination 
of  the  Romish  divines,  and  to  await  their  answer. 
In  the  course  of  a  few  days  they  handed  in  a  refuta- 
tion of  the  Protestant  Confession,  but  it  was  couched 
in  language  so  bitter  and  reproachfid,  that  the  em- 
peror refused  to  accept  it,  and  ordered  it  to  be  drawn 
up  anew.  The  second  document  penned  by  the 
Romish  divines  was  produced  and  read  in  less  than 
a  month  after  the  rejection  of  the  first ;  and  the  em- 
jieror  expressed  himself  so  pleased  with  this  revised 
refutation,  that  be  insisted  that  the  elector  and  his 
adherents  should  immediately  and  unceremoniously 
adopt  and  abide  by  it.  This  request,  however, 
though  accompanied  with  threats,  had  no  effect  in 
subduing  the  lirmness  of  the  Protestant  party.  Me- 
lanctbon  immediately  commenced  a  detailed  refuta 
tion  of  the  Reply  which  had  been  made  to  the  Pr«»- 


350 


LUTHER  (Martin). 


testant  Confession,  and  tliis  able  Apology  for  tlie 
Augsburg  Confession  (which  see),  is  inserted 
among  tlie  symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
Various  attempts  were  made  by  the  emperor  to 
bring  about  an  adjustment  of  the  diflerences  between 
the  two  parties,  but  these  attempts  were  wholly  un- 
successful, and  the  Protestants  demanded  a  general 
council.  The  Diet  had  sat  for  six  montlis,  and  the 
emperor  was  impatient  to  bring  its  proceedings  to  a 
close.  He  inveighed  against,  and  even  threatened 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  but  the  good  man  was  inflexi- 
ble, and  left  Augsburg  indignant  at  the  conduct  of 
his  imperial  majesty.  The  Diet  still  continued  its 
sittings,  after  several  of  the  Protestant  members  liad 
left,  and  at  length,  on  the  19th  of  November,  published 
a  resolution,  which  in  plain  teiTns  condemned  the 
doctrines  and  regulations  of  the  Protestants ;  com- 
manded whatever  had  been  altered  to  be  restored  to 
its  former  state ;  and  further  determined  that  the 
emperor  and  the  estates  should  risk  their  lives  and 
influence  in  protection  of  the  ancient  constitution  of 
the  church,  and  summon  the  refractory  before  the 
supreme  court  of  judicature.  At  the  same  time  a 
promise  was  given  that  a  council  should  be  sum- 
moned within  six  months.  Throughout  the  impor- 
tant proceedings  of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  Luther 
was  residing  at  Cobourg,  watching  the  course  of 
events,  and  carrying  on  an  active  correspondence 
with  the  elector  of  Saxony,  Melancthon,  and  others, 
who  were  present  at  the  Diet  as  guardians  of  tlie 
Protestant  interest.  In  his  letters  to  Melancthon, 
he  evinces  the  warmest  regard  for  the  man,  but  de- 
clares his  decided  disapproval  of  the  attempts  at 
compromise  with  the  Romanists,  perceiving,  as  he 
did,  that  the  opposition  both  in  principle  and  spirit 
between  the  two  parties  was  too  great  to  expect  any- 
thing like  a  solid  reconciliation.  We  learn  from 
Pfizer  that  "  Luther  had  drawn  up  during  the  Diet, 
a  regular  statement  respecting  the  disputed  points  ; 
marking  out  how  far  concession  could,  or  ought  to 
be  carried :  declaring  first,  that  if  the  opposite  party 
persisted,  as  hitherto,  in  refusing  all  compliance, 
there  was  no  possibility  of  treating  with  them  at  all ; 
but,  as  the  emperor  bad  desired  to  know  in  how  far 
the  Protestants  could  concede,  he  would  go  through 
the  individual  points  : — First,  as  regarded  their  doc- 
trine, which  their  opponents  had  in  no  ways  been 
able  to  invalidate,  they  could  yield  nothing ;  but 
were  ready  to  atl'ord  explanation  of  individual  ex- 
pressions respecting  faith  as  the  sole  ground  of  jus- 
tification, and  respecting  satisfaction,  and  merit.  In 
the  Article  respecting  abuses,  the  sentiment  that  the 
withholding  the  cup  from  the  laity  might  be  regarded 
M  indifferent,  could  not  be  agreed  to  ;  neither  could 
they  at  all  consent,  that  marriage  should  be  prohi- 
bited to  any  order  of  society  :  and  equally  inadmis- 
sible was  the  re-establishment  of  private  masses, 
und  the  canon  law.  With  regard  to  the  monaste- 
ries, it  might  be  conceded,  tliat  the  present  inmates 
»hould  continue  to  enjoy  the  bcnelit   they   alYord, 


but  without  adhering  to  the  celebration  of  the  miiss 
or  other  rules  of  their  order;  and  alluding  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  ]ie  declared  thus:  'As- 
suredly, if  they  will  sutler  our  doctrine,  and  cease  to 
persecute  it,  we  will  in  no  ways  interfere  with  their 
jurisdiction  or  dignity,  or  what  you  may  please  to 
term  it ;  for  we,  assuredly,  do  not  desire  to  be  either 
bishops  or  cardinals,  but  only  good  Christians,  who 
are,  and  should  be  poor.'" 

Though  absent  from  the  Augsburg  Diet,  Luther, 
by  his  letters  to  the  chief  members,  was  the  con- 
trolling spirit  of  the  Protestant  party  in  that  ce- 
lebrated assembly.  With  the  half  measures  of 
Melancthon  he  was  much  dissatisfied,  and  only 
on  one  point  did  he  agree  with  his  concessions — 
the  continuation  of  the  papal  power  as  a  human 
establishment.  On  this  point  alone  did  the  stern 
German  Reformer  appear  ready  to  enter  into  a  com- 
promise. In  all  other  matters  the  beneficial  in- 
fluence of  bis  masculine  mind  was  seen  in  the  deter- 
mined perseverance  which  the  elector  and  the  other 
Protestants  manifested  pending  the  negotiation,  as 
well  as  in  afterwards  opposing  the  demands  and 
threats  of  the  emperor. 

A  political  ari'angement  was  about  this  time  entered 
into  by  Charles  V.  which  it  was  feared  would  prove 
seriously  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  Protestant- 
ism. Tliis  was  the  nomination  of  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand to  be  chosen  as  his  successor ;  and  that  prince, 
who  had  been  previously  invested  with  the  govern- 
ment of  the  German  hereditary  states  and  duchy  of 
Wirtemberg,  being  well  known  to  be  decidedly  hos- 
tile to  the  new  opinions,  his  proposed  exaltation  to 
the  imperial  throne  was  viewed  by  the  Protestant 
princes  and  people  with  the  utmost  anxiety  and 
alarm.  Steps  were  immediately  taken  to  effect  a 
closer  union  among  them.selves,  and  for  this  purpose 
a  treaty  of  defensive  alliance  was  entered  into  at 
Smalcald  on  the  29th  March  1531,  the  provisions  of 
the  treaty  having  been  drawn  up  by  Luther.  (See 
Articles  op  Smalcald.)  When  the  treaty  was 
subscribed  by  the  Protestants,  Melancthon  still 
maintaiued  his  former  sentiments,  which  were  now 
renounced  by  Luther,  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  a  Pope, 
provided  he  rested  his  claims  solely  on  expediency 
and  the  consent  of  the  church.  An  article  embody- 
ing the  opinions  of  Melancthon  on  this  point  was 
appended  to  the  Articles. 

The  league  of  Smalcald,  though  at  first  limited  to 
Protestant  electors,  princes,  and  states,  was  after- 
wards extended  so  as  to  include  those  who,  what- 
ever might  be  their  religious  sentiments,  were  op- 
posed to  tlie  Emperor,  and  protested  against  the 
election  of  Ferdinand.  In  this  view  it  was  joined 
by  the  dukes  of  Bavaria,  and  also  by  the  kings  of 
France  and  England.  ]{y  this  accession  to  their 
political  .strength,  the  Protestants  were  enabled  to 
occupy  a  high  vantage  ground  in  their  negotiations 
with  tlie  Emperor  for  peace.  Tliese  negotiations  led 
at  length  to  the  treaty  of  Nuremberg,  wliicli  wnt 


MJTHICR  (Martin). 


361 


finally  ratifiod  at  the  Diet  of  Itati.sbon  in  I.'j.'i2.  The 
conditions  were,  that  none  should  commence  hostili- 
ties on  account  of  their  belief,  or  any  other  cause; 
but  in  case  of  violence  bein,i<  olTered,  they  should 
render  mutual  assistance,  and  all  should  conduct 
themselves  with  true  Christian  love  till  the  next 
council  should  meet.  A  diliiculty,  however,  aro.se 
as  to  the  interpretation  of  the  conditions,  whether 
they  applied  to  all  who  should  hereafter  subscribe 
the  Augsburi;  Confession,  or  nnist  be  limited  to  such 
as  now  professed  its  tenets.  The  Protestant  depu- 
ties at  first  insisted  on  the  extended  interjjretation  ; 
but  the  Elector,  persuaded  by  Ijuther,  insisted  on 
the  limited  view  of  the  treaty,  while,  contrary  to  the 
advice  of  Luther,  he  persevered  in  his  opposition  to 
the  election  of  Ferdinand. 

None  of  the  deputies  at  first  approved  of  the  con- 
ditions of  peace,  and  more  especially  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse  insisted  on  those  being  included  who  might 
subsequently  express  a  wish  to  join  their  league. 
He  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Elector  censuring  him  in 
strong  langu.age  for  separating  from  the  rest  of  the 
Protestant  party.  In  the  inc.'intimc  the  good  Elec- 
tor died,  anil  his  succes.sor  John  Frederic,  surnamed 
the  Generous,  replied  to  the  letter  of  the  Landgrave 
with  considerable  rudeness,  and  proposed  to  settle 
their  disputes  by  arbitration.  The  arbiters  advised 
a  mutual  reconciliation,  and  as  all  the  other  Protes- 
tants were  of  the  same  opinion,  the  Landgrave  had 
no  other  alternative  but  to  accejit  tlie  terms  of  peace. 

Pope  Clement  VH.  died  in  1.534,  but  his  succes- 
sor Paul  HL  continued  the  negotiations  about  the 
long-expected  council.  With  this  view  he  dispatched 
his  own  ambassador,  Paul  Vergerius,  to  hold  an  in- 
terview with  Luther.  The  interview  took  place,  and 
a  council  was  proposed  to  be  held  under  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Pope  at  Mantua.  The  Elector,  however, 
and  the  Smalcald  confederates  refused  to  assent  to 
the  proposed  council,  and  resolved  to  raise  a  formi- 
dable army.  But  the  Pope  summoned  the  council 
to  meet  at  Mantua  in  May  1537  ;  and  one  object  of 
its  being  assembled  was  stated  to  be,  the  entire  root- 
ing up  of  the  poisonous  and  pestilential  Lutheran 
heresy.  After  such  a  declaration,  the  Protestants 
could  expect  no  justice  in  such  a  council,  and  they, 
therefore,  refused  to  countenance  or  attend  it.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  Luther  drew  up  the  Articles  of  Smal- 
cald, which  were  afterwards  received  among  the 
symbolical  writings  of  the  Lutherans.  The  Protes- 
tant confederacy  was  every  day  receiving  fresh 
accessions  to  its  members,  and  the  Romanists  in 
1538  formed  a  defensive  league,  called  the  holy 
league  for  the  preservation  of  the  holy  religion. 
This  movement  on  the  part  of  their  opponents  led 
the  Protestants  to  renew  the  league  of  Smalcald  till 
the  year  1547. 

The  policy  of  the  Emperor  in  regard  to  the  Pro- 
testants seemed  to  have  now  assumed  a  peaceful 
tendencv,  and  with  the  view  of  bringing  about,  if 
possible,  a  common  understanding  on  religious  mat- 


ters, he  proposed  a  conference  to  be  held  at  Spires  in 
June  1540.  It  took  placehowevcratHagenau,  Spires 
being  at  that  time  visited  with  the  plague;  but 
neither  the  chiefs  of  the  Protestant  confederacy,  noi 
the  master  spirits  of  the  Kefornjation  were  present, 
Melaticthon  being  ill,  and  Luther  having  no  inclina 
tion  to  enter  into  negotiations  of  peace  with  Uonie 
'1  he  meeting  was  fruitless,  and  tlie  discussion  was 
adjourned  for  some  months.  It  was  renewed  in 
January  1541,  but  after  a  controversy  for  four  days 
on  Original  Sin,  an  order  arrived  from  the  Emperor 
to  terminate  the  proceedings,  and  defer  any  further 
steps  till  the  Diet  of  Katisbon,  which  was  near  at 
band.  At  this  Diet  rapid  a]]proaches  were  made 
towards  a  settlement,  and  in  thirteen  days  four  Arti- 
cles had  been  agreed  upon,  but  at  this  stage  the  con- 
ference was  abandoned. 

A  deputation,  with  the  knowledge  and  concurrence 
of  the  Emperor,  now  waited  upon  Luther,  and  urged 
upon  him  the  necessity  of  his  being  satisfied  with 
the  adoption  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
on  the  part  of  the  Diet  of  Katisbon,  at  the  same  time 
assiu'ing  him  of  their  earnest  hope  that  the  other 
abuses  would  of  themselves  disappear  when  this 
fundanient.al  article  was  once  established.  To  this 
representation,  Luther  replied,  that  while  he  was 
gratified  to  learn  that  the  four  articles  had  been 
finally  settled,  he  finuly  bebeved  that  unless  the 
Emperor  could  bring  their  o])ponents  to  a  serious  and 
honest  arrangement  on  all  the  other  points  inclu  ed 
in  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  whole  attempt  at  a 
reconciliation  between  the  Protestants  and  Roman- 
ists would  be  in  vain.  This  determination  to  adhere 
strictly  to  the  Confession,  was  declared  by  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  to  the  other  princes  of  the  Diet, 
and  he  declined  at  the  s.ime  time  to  .sanction  the 
Four  Articles.  Thus  the  whole  fruit  of  the  negotia- 
tions was  destroyed. 

At  the  next  Diet  at  Spires  in  1542,  the  Pro- 
testants took  a  more  decided  position.  The  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony  charged  his  ambassador  to  enter 
into  no  negotiations  for  a  settlement  in  religion,  and 
to  consent  to  no  council  summoned  by  the  Pope,  nor 
show  him  any  mark  of  honour.  Trent  was  proposed 
as  the  place  of  meeting,  and  meanwhile  peace  was 
guaranteed  for  five  years.  The  Romish  party  ac- 
cepted the  proposal  of  the  Pope  to  hold  a  council  at 
Trent,  but  the  Protestants  handed  in  a  written  pro- 
test against  it.  The  Emperor  held  a  new  Diet  at 
Ratisbon  in  regard  to  the  afl'airs  of  the  church,  but 
after  an  angiy  discussion  it  was  broken  off  without 
any  result.  The  council  met  at  Trent  in  1545,  with- 
out the  slightest  countenance  from  the  Protestants, 
and  drew  up  a  lengthened  series  of  canons  and  de- 
crees, which,  along  with  the  creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV. 
founded  on  them,  forms  a  very  imijortant  part  of  the 
symbolical  books  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

The  days  of  the  Great  Reformer  were  now  near  a 
close.  On  the  23d  January  1546,  he  left  Witten- 
berg for  Eisleben,  to  use  his  influence  in  procuring 


352 


LUTHERAN  CHURCHES. 


ail  amicable  ari'angemeiit  between  the  dukes  of  Mans- 
feld,  who  had  quarrelled  about  some  property.  He 
had  only  been  about  three  weeks  in  this  place,  where 
he  had  been  born  and  baptized,  when,  after  a  very 
brief  illness,  he  was  summoned  to  his  eternal  reward 
on  the  18th  February  1546.  At  the  special  request 
of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  body  of  Luther  was 
removed  to  Wittenberg,  and  buried  in  the  castle 
chapel;  and  the  Elector  took  under  his  care  the 
widow  and  family. 

Thus  terminated  the  useful  career  of  one  of  the 
greatest  and  noblest  heroes  this  world  has  ever  seen, 
one  who  manfully  defended  the  rights  of  conscience, 
asserted  the  grand  principles  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty,  contended  earnestly  for  the  faith  once  deli- 
vered to  the  saints,  and  one  of  whom  it  may  well  be 
said,  many  generations  have  arisen,  and  are  yet 
destined  to  arise,  who  shall  call  him  blessed. 

LUTHERAN  CHURCHES.  After  the  death 
of  Luther,  a  religious  war  broke  out  in  Germany. 
The  Emperor  Charles  V.  saw  that  all  his  attempts 
to  produce  a  reconciliation  of  the  Protestants  and 
Romanists  were  utterly  fruitless,  and  that  the  asso- 
ciates of  the  Smalcald  League  persevered  in  refusing 
to  acknowledge  the  council  of  Trent ;  he  resolved, 
therefore,  as  a  last  resource,  to  have  recourse  to 
arras.  In  a  short  time  he  was  so  successful  that  he 
issued  an  imperial  edict,  which  is  generally  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Augsburg  Interim,  granting  certain 
seeming  concessions  to  the  Protestants  until  a  coun- 
cil slioiUd  be  called  for  a  settlement  of  the  contro- 
versy. This  edict  led  to  the  preparation  of  an 
Interim,  which  though  it  proved  satisfactory  to  nei- 
ther party,  was  drawn  up  chiefly  by  Philip  Melanc- 
thon,  who  succeeded  Luther  as  the  head  and  leader 
of  the  Lutheran  party.  It  was  designed  to  point 
out  the  Adiaphora  or  things  indifi'erent,  which  might 
be  admitted  to  please  the  Emperor,  and  at  his  com- 
mand. As  soon  as  this  document  was  promulgated, 
Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  appointed  a  conference 
of  the  divines  of  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic  in  the  lat- 
ter city,  with  Melancthon  at  their  bead,  in  order  to 
ascertain  liow  far  in  their  opinion  the  Interim  ought 
to  be  enforced.  After  long  deliberation,  they  came 
to  the  conclusion,  that  in  things  inditVerent  obedience 
ought  to  be  rendered  to  the  imperial  edict.  This 
ambiguous  conclusion  was  arrived  at  chiefly  through 
the  influence  of  Melancthon.  Hence  arose  the 
Adiaphoristic  controversy,  which  raged  in  Germany 
for  many  years ;  and  which  gave  rise  to  other  and 
perhaps  more  imjjortant  controversies.  Among  the 
chief  of  these  was  a  contest,  which  lasted  for  some 
time,  respecting  the  necessity  of  good  works  to  sal- 
vation. Major,  a  divine  of  Wittenberg,  adopting 
the  views  of  Melancthon,  maintained  the  aflirmative, 
while  Nicholas  Ainsdorf,  defending  the  old  Lutheran 
theology,  maintained  the  negative.  The  discussion 
wag  carrieil  on  until  1.079,  when  it  was  terminated 
by  the  publication  of  the  Book  of  Torgau  or  Form  of 
Concord. 


Anotlier  controversy  which  arose  out  of  the  dif- 
ferences in  opinion  between  Melancthon  and  Luther, 
is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  Synergistic 
controversy,  which  discusses  the  question  whether  or 
not  man  co-operates  with  God  in  the  work  of  con- 
version. The  leading  parties  in  this  dispute  were 
Victorin  Strigel  on  the  one  side,  and  Matthias  Fla- 
cius  on  the  other.  The  latter,  who  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Theology  at  Jena  in  1557,  was  a  stern 
and  uncompromising  defender  of  the  opinions  of 
Luther,  more  especially  on  those  points  in  which  he 
was  opposed  to  Melancthon  and  his  followers,  the 
Philippists,  as  they  were  called.  But  in  the  excess 
of  his  zeal,  Flacius  argued  so  intemperately  against 
Strigel  in  the  Synergistic  controversy,  that  he 
broached  the  strange  opinion  bordering  on  Mani- 
cheism,  that  original  sin  is  of  the  very  subst.'ince  of 
a  man.  This  notion  was  keenly  opposed  by  the 
great  majority  of  the  divines  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
while  it  was  espoused  and  ably  defended  by  a  few. 

Another  class  of  controversies  which  agitated  the 
Lutheran  church,  soon  after  the  death  of  its  illus- 
trious founder,  rose  out  of  the  heretical  views  pro- 
pagated by  Andrew  Osiander.  This  man  held  the 
singular  notion  that  the  second  Person  of  the  Trinity 
was  that  image  of  God  after  which  man  was  fashion- 
ed ;  that  the  Son  of  God  would  have  become  incar- 
nate even  although  man  had  not  sinned  ;  and  that 
repentance  consisted  in  abhorrence  of  sin  and  forsak- 
ing it,  without  faith  in  the  gospel.  He  confounded 
justification  and  sanctification,  alleging  the  former  to 
be  not  a  forensic  act  on  the  part  of  God,  acquitting 
the  believer  from  a  charge  of  shi  and  liability  lo 
punishment,  but  a  gracious  Divine  operation  in  the 
soul,  which  conferred  personal  holiness.  Justifica- 
tion in  the  eye  of  law,  through  the  imputed  righ- 
teousness of  Christ,  he  denominated  redemption,  and 
this  he  supposed  always  preceded  what  he  called  jus- 
tification. The  mode  of  justification  was  in  his  view 
by  the  indwelling  of  Christ  in  the  soul,  producing 
there  a  moral  change.  These  confused  sentiments 
held  by  Osiander  were  strenuously  opposed  by  Me- 
lancthon and  the  principal  divines  of  the  Lutheran 
church ;  and  after  his  death,  which  happened  in 
1552,  the  controversy  came  to  an  end. 

One  of  the  keenest  opponents  of  Osiander  was 
Francis  Stancar,  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Konigsberg, 
who,  in  arguing  against  the  doctrines  held  by  his 
colleague,  fell  into  equally  fiagrant  errors  of  au  op- 
posite kind.  He  maintained  that  the  divine  nature 
of  Christ  took  no  jiart  in  the  work  of  man's  redemp- 
tion, and  that  it  was  his  human  nature  alone  which 
made  the  atonement.  So  violently  were  the  opinions 
of  Stancar  controverted  by  the  Lutheran  theologians, 
tliat  he  deemed  it  prudent  to  leave  Germany  and  re- 
tire to  Poland,  where  he  died  in  1574. 

It  was  cliiefly  during  the  life  of  Melancthon  that 
these  different  disjiutes  agitated  the  Lutheran  chuivli. 
On  the  death,  however,  of  this  timid  and  somewhat 
undecided  Reformer,  a  prospect  was  opened  up  ol 


LUTHERAN  CHURCHES 


363 


n  end  being  put  to  tliese  unseemly  eoiilest.s.  A 
L'onCei'enco  was  held  acconiiiif^ly  at  Altenljurg  in 
I5(;H,  but  unliap]>ily  it  was  attended  witli  no  good 
results.  Another  mode  was  now  a<loiited,  and  with 
better  success,  tor  healing  the  divisions  of  the  Lu- 
theran church,  namely,  the  preparation  of  a  liook  in 
which  all  the  various  controversies  which  had  arisen 
since  the  death  of  Luther  should  be  fully  and  satis- 
factorily liaTidled.  This  task  was  committed  to 
Andreas,  a  Professor  at  Tubingen,  who  produced  in 
1579  the  Book  of  Torgau  or  Form  of  Concord.  (See 
Concord,  Form  oi^)  Through  the  influence  of  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  this  new  Confession  was  adopted 
by  the  churches  in  all  parts  of  his  territories,  and 
the  example  was  followed  gradually  in  other  districts 
of  Germany.  Several  Lutheran  churches,  however, 
refused  to  acknowledge  this  docnment,  and  Frederic 
IL  of  Denmark,  on  receiving  a  copy  of  it.  Hung  it 
unceremoniously  into  tlie  lire.  Never  did  a  for- 
nuila,  which  was  designed  to  heal  dissensions,  tend 
more  etlectually  to  foment  them  ;  aiul  accordingly, 
It  has  never  been  universally  adopted  by  the  IjU- 
theran  churches,  though  some  regard  it  as  one  of  the 
Btaridards  of  their  faith.  This  Fornuila  put  an  end 
to  all  prospect  of  union  between  the  Lutheran  and 
Refonned  churches,  who  only  differed  from  each 
Dther  at  that  time  on  tlie  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  on  the  Person  of  Chri.st.  In  re- 
gard to  the  first  point,  the  Tjutheran  church  main- 
tained firndy  the  opinions  of  Luther,  who  rejected 
the  Romish  dogma  of  Transubstautiation,  but  held 
the  almost  equally  unintelligible  dogma  of  Consub- 
Btantiation.  The  doctrine  relating  to  the  Person  of 
Christ,  however,  was  not  viewed  in  the  same  way  by 
M  the  Lutheran  divines.  Luther  never  maintained 
(hat  the  man  Christ  Jesus  was  always  and  every- 
where present,  but  merely  that  he  could  be  present 
whenever  the  execution  of  his  mediatorial  office  and 
the  fullihuent  of  his  promise  required,  and  of  course 
at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  this 
view  he  was  followed  by  the  divines  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Saxony.  But  tlie  theologians  of  Swabia  and 
Alsace  maintained  the  absolute  omnipresence  of 
Christ's  human  nature  ;  and  this  view  of  the  subject 
was  embodied  in  the  Form  of  Concord,  though  not 
to  the  entire  exclusion  of  that  held  by  Luther.  Thus 
the  points  of  controversy  between  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches  were  increased,  and  their  hostil- 
ity to  each  other  was  rendered  more  bitter  by  the 
publication  of  the  very  document  which  professed  to 
promote  their  union. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Lutheran  chitfch  in  Ger- 
many was  not  a  little  affected  by  the  secession,  first 
of  Maurice,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  then,  of  John 
Sigismund,  elector  of  Brandenburg,  both  of  whom 
went  over  to  the  Reformed  communion.  The  con- 
tentions of  the  two  churches  excited  an  earnest  de- 
sire in  the  minds  of  many  excellent  men  on  both 
sides,  to  look  about  for  some  means  of  bringing  about 
a  union.      The  first   public  attempt  to  accomplish 


this  most  desirable  object  was  that  of  James  I., 
king  of  England,  who  for  this  purjiose  made  use  of 
I'eter  du  Moulin,  a  distinguished  divine  of  the 
Frencli  Reformed  Church.  The  next  was  the  decree 
of  the  synod  of  Charenlon  A.  D.  IC.'il.  In  the  same 
year  certain  Saxon  theologians  held  a  conference  at 
Leipsic  with  certain  Hessian  and  Brandenburg  di- 
vines. The  discussion  included  all  the  articles  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  to  which  the  Reformed 
were  ready  to  subscribe,  and  they  even  drew  up  a 
fonnula  of  union,  but  such  was  the  feeling  of  jca- 
lous\-  which  arose  in  the  minds  of  both  parties,  that 
the  disputants  separated  without  accomplishing  any- 
thing. And  another  conference  haviirg  the  same  ob 
ject  in  view,  was  held  at  Thorn  in  1G45,  umler  thi 
auspices  of  Uladislaus  IV.,  king  of  Poland,  which  wat 
likewise  unsuccessful,  more  especially  as  it  sought  to 
comprehend  in  the  proposed  imion,  not  only  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches,  but  the  Romish 
church  also.  With  more  success  a  conference  was 
held  at  Cassel  in  IGGl,  but  though  a  friendly  spirit 
was  manifested  by  the  disputants  themselve.s,  it 
failed  to  extend  itself  to  the  two  rival  Protestant 
churches.  Various  individuals  on  both  sides  made 
strenuous  and  persevering  efforts  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation,  but  in  vain.  The  polemical  spirit, 
and  dogmatic  exclusiveness  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, defeated  all  attempts  to  realize  the  unity  ol 
evangelical  Protestantism.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, particularly  tlie  latter  part  of  it,  the  controversy 
between  the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed  was  com- 
pletely lost  sight  of  in  the  fiood  of  indifferentism 
and  infidelity  which  overran  the  whole  Continent  of 
Europe.  The  elTorts  winch  have  been  made  to 
wards  a  union  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  have  been  already  noticed  in  the  article 
German  United  Evangei-icai,  Church. 

Lutheranism  is  the  prevailing  fonn  of  the  Pro- 
testant faith  in  Saxony,  Prussia,  Wirtemberg,  Han- 
over, and  great  part  of  Northern  Gennany,  as  well 
as  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  There  are 
also  Lutheran  churches  in  Holland,  Russia,  Po- 
land, Hungary,  and  the  United  States  of  America, 
but  of  all  the  Protestant  universities  in  Gennany 
and  Switzerland,  veiy  few  are  Lutheran.  The  sym- 
bolical books  of  the  Lutheran  church  are  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  with  Jlelancthon's  Apologj',  the 
articles  of  Smalcald  and  the  Larger  and  Smaller 
Catechisms.  These  standards,  however,  are  regard- 
ed as  strictly  subordinate  to  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
which  are  declared  by  Lutherans  to  be  the  only  rule 
of  faith  and  practice.  The  only  point  of  importance 
in  which  they  differ  from  tlie  Reformed  is  the  rejil 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist. 

The  constitution  of  the  Lutheran  church  IB  sim- 
ple, and  approaches  very  nearly  to  Preshyterianisni, 
there  being  no  hierarchy,  and  bishops  not  being  re- 
cognized, except  in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  as  an  or- 
der in  the  church.  The  archbishop  of  Upsal,  who 
is  primate  of  Sweden,  is  the  only  Lutheran  arch- 


354 


LUTHERANS  (Old). 


bishop.  Lutherans  acknowledge  the  head  of  the 
Btate  as  the  supreme  visilile  ruler  of  the  church. 
The  supreme  direction  of  ecclesiastical  affaii-s  is  vest- 
ed in  councils  or  boards  generally  appointed  by  the 
sovereign,  and  termed  consistories,  consisting  of  both 
clergymen  and  la^nnen.  The  Lutheran  established 
churches  are  usually  interwoven  with  the  state,  and 
entirely  dependent  on  it,  and  are  almost  destitute  of 
disciphne,  while  in  some  places,  as  in  Sweden,  they 
altogether  exclude  dissent.  "The  congregations," 
says  Dr.  Schaii',  "  remained  almost  as  passive  as  in 
the  Roman  church.  They  have  in  Europe  not  even 
the  right  of  electing  their  pastor.  They  are  exclu- 
sively ruled  by  their  ministers,  as  these  are  ruled  by 
their  provincial  consistories,  always  presided  over  by 
a  layman,  the  provincial  consistories  by  a  central 
consistoiy,  or  oherkirchenrath,  and  this  agam  by  the 
minister  of  worship  and  public  instruction,  who  is 
the  immediate  executive  organ  of  the  ecclesiastical 
supremacy  of  the  crown." 

Various  liturgies  are  in  use  among  the  Lutheran 
churches,  each  state  generally  having  one  of  its  own. 
Festivals  or  saints'  days  are  seldom  much  attended 
to.  The  festivals  which  commemorate  the  nativity, 
death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  our  Lord,  and 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  are  deemed  sacred  in  the  Lu- 
theran churches.  In  regard  to  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies, the  Lutherans,  in  opposition  to  the  Reformed, 
hold  the  lawfulness,  if  not  the  usefulness,  of  images 
in  churches,  the  distinguishing  vestments  of  the 
clergy,  the  private  confession  of  sins,  the  use  of 
wafers  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
the  form  of  exorcism  in  the  celebration  of  baptism, 
and  other  ceremonies  of  the  same  kind.  They  have 
removed,  however,  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and  the 
idolatrous  invocation  of  saints,  while  they  have  po- 
pularized the  services  of  public  worship,  by  cele- 
brating tliem  in  the  vernacular  language,  and  giving 
to  the  sermon  a  central  and  conspicuous  place. 

The  modern  Lutherans  have  widely  departed  in 
theological  doctrine  from  their  great  founder  ;  and  in- 
stead of  insisting,  as  he  did,  on  justification  by  faith 
alone,  as  the  grand  article  of  a  standing  or  a  falHng 
church,  they  have  degenerated,  in  too  many  cases,  in- 
to a  cold  Arminianism.  It  was  not  long,  indeed,  after 
the  death  of  Luther,  before  his  sim|)le  theology  gave 
place  to  a  system  of  obscure  metaphysical  theories. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  doctrines  of  the 
Syncuetists  or  Calixtins  (wliich  see).  In  oppo- 
sition to  these  mystical  philosophical  divines  arose 
the  school  of  the  Pietists,  headed  by  Sponer,  which, 
amid  much  extravagance  it  may  be,  were,  neverthe- 
less, instrumental  in  reviving  vital  religion  in  Ger- 
many towards  the  end  of  tlie  seventeenth  and  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  centuries.  The  Lutherans 
have  since  that  time  had  to  struggle  with  infidelity, 
rationalism,  and  utter  indifi'erence  to  all  religion. 
The  present  state  of  practical  ])iety  among  the  Ger- 
man Lutherans  is  thus  noticed  by  Dr.  SchalT:  "  Lu- 
theran  picly  has  its  peculiar  charm,   the  charm  of 


Maiy,  who  '  sat  at  Jesus'  feet  and  heard  his  word.'  Ii 
it  is  deficient  in  outward  activity  and  practical  zeal, 
and  may  leam  much  in  this  respect  from  the  Re- 
formed communion,  it  makes  up  for  it  by  a  rich  in- 
ward life.  It  excels  in  honesty,  kindness,  afiection, 
cheerfulness,  and  that  GemuthlidJceit,  for  which  other 
nations  have  not  even  a  name.  The  Lutheran 
church  meditated  over  the  deepest  mysteries  of  divine 
grace,  and  brought  to  light  many  treasures  of  know- 
ledge from  the  mines  of  revelation.  She  can  point 
to  an  unbroken  succession  of  learned  divines,  who 
devoted  their  whole  life  to  the  investigation  of  sav- 
ing truth.  She  numbers  her  mystics  who  bathed  in 
the  ocean  of  infinite  love.  She  has  sung  the  most 
fervent  hymns  to  the  Saviour,  and  holds  sweet,  child- 
like intercourse  with  the  heavenly  Father." 

Lutheranism  prevails  in  great  strength  in  Sweden 
and  Denmark.  In  the  latter  country  almost  the 
whole  population,  amounting  to  2,000,000,  with  the 
exception  of  less  than  20,000  Dissenters,  is  Luther- 
an. The  people  of  Sweden,  numbering  more  than 
3.000,000,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  also  Lutheran. 
In  France  there  are  about  250  Lutheran  congrega- 
tions. In  the  Protestant  states  of  Germany,  Luther- 
anism prevails,  though,  through  the  exertions  of  the 
present  king  of  Prussia,  a  union  has  been  efl'ected 
between  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  United  Evangelical  Church. 

LUTHERANS  (Old),  a  sect  of  Dissenters  from 
the  Evangelical  Church  of  Prussia,  which  took  its 
rise  in  opposition  to  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches  in  1817.  They  adhere  to  all 
the  tenets  of  the  Lutheran  symbolical  books  with 
the  most  scrupulous  tenacity,  and  they  look  upon 
the  Reformed  churches  as  essentially  heretical  and 
rationalistic,  while  they  have  a  still  more  intense 
hatred  at  the  United  Evangelical  Church.  The 
members  of  this  sect  are  found  in  greatest  numbers 
in  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  Pomerania.  They  were  at 
first  fined,  imprisoned,  and  persecuted  in  various 
ways  under  Frederick  William  III.  Several  of  theit 
leading  ministers  emigrated  with  their  people  to  the 
United  States.  All  persecution  against  these  sece- 
ders  ceased  on  the  accession  of  the  present  king  of 
Prussia ;  and  by  a  decree  of  23d  July  1845,  they 
were  formally  recognized  as  a  dissenting  sect,  with 
full  liberty  of  worship.  Their  number  amounts  to 
from  20,000  to  30,000  souls.  Their  largest  congre- 
gations are  in  Breslau  and  in  Berlin.  The  Old  Lu- 
therans in  America,  like  those  in  Germany,  hold 
strictly  by  the  whole  Lutheran  symbolical  books 
but  more  especially  the  Form  of  Concord,  to  which 
they  attach  peculiar  value.  They  are  divided  into 
two  parties,  the  synod  of  Missoin-i  and  the  synod  of 
ButValo,  which  are  bitterly  opposed  to  each  other  in 
their  views  of  the  clerical  office  ;  the  one  holding  the 
common  Protestant  view,  which  makes  the  clerical 
office  only  the  organ  of  the  general  priesthood;  the 
other  holding  the  Romanising  doctrine  of  a  separate 
clerical  office,  resting  on  ordination,  and   specilically 


LYjEUS— MACCATJEES  (Fea8T  op). 


356 


dillerent  from  the  general  priest liorjd  of  tlm  l)!i[)- 
tizeil.  The  I'eiinsylvatiia  synod  of  tlic  Old  l>iitlii;r- 
aiis  stands  by  tlic  Auj^'sburg  Confession,  and  tlio 
smaller  Catechism  of  Luther.  Within  tlio  territory 
of  the  Pennsylvania  synod  there  are  an  Kast  I'eim- 
sylvania  and  a  West  Pennsylvania  synod  (hvided  on 
the  subject  of  new  measures.  The  Old  Lutherans  In 
America  have  a  liturgical  altar-service,  even  with 
crucifixes  and  candles  burning  in  the  daytime.  In 
all  such  matters  they  cleave  to  historic;U  tradi- 
tion. 

fjYTEUS,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  tlie  god  of  wine. 
This  was  also  a  surname  of  Zeiui. 

LYCRA,  a  festival  among  the  Arcadians,  cele- 
brated in  honour  of  Zeiis  Lycjcua.  It  is  said  to  have 
oeen  instituted  by  Lycaon,  the  son  of  Pelasgus,  who 
sacriticed  a  child  on  the  occasion,  and  sprinkled  the 
altar  with  its  blood.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  human 
sacrifices  were  ofiered  by  the  Arcadians  to  Zens  Ly- 
KSus  down  to  a  late  period.     Plutarch  says,  that  the 


LycJea  were  celebrated  in  somewhat  tlic  same  man- 
ner as  the  Konjan  Liipercalia. 

LYCKGK.VKS,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  probably 
from  his  being  born  in  Lyeia. 

LYCLIA,  a  surname  of  Artemix. 

LYCKIU.S,  a  surname  of  yl;»to,  supposed  to  \m 
derived  from  Gr.  IuIcuh,  a  wolf,  because  his  inothir 
Lutona  came  to  Delos  in  the  form  of  a  she-wolf,  and 
was  conducted  by  wolves  to  the  river  Xanthus. 

LYCOATIS,  a  surname  of  Arlemw,  on  account  of 
her  having  been  worshiiiped  at  Lyeoa  in  Arcadia. 

LYtJOIJlCUS,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  because  he 
was  worshipped  at  Lycoreia,  on  Mount  Paniassus. 

LYSIUS,  a  surname  u(  Dionysus,  under  which  he 
was  worshipped  at  Corinth,  and  also  at  Sicyon. 

LYSIZONA,  a  surname  under  which  the  people 
of  Athens  worshipped  Artemis  and  Eileitliyia. 

LYTEKIUS,  a  surname  of  Pan,  under  which  he 
was  worshipped  at  Troezene,  because  he  had  re- 
vealed the  best  mode  of  curing  the  plague. 


M 


MA,  a  name  applied  to  Rhea  by  the  Lydians,  who 
sacrificed  bulls  to  her  as  the  fruitfid  motlier  of  all. 

MACARIANS,  the  followers  of  two  contempo- 
rary monks  of  the  fourth  century,  who  exercised  a 
great  influence  on  the  monastic  life  of  the  period, 
and  were  held  in  high  veneration.  The  one  was 
called  Macarius  the  Egyptian,  and  the  other  Maca- 
rius  of  Alexandria.  Both  dwelt  in  the  Libyan  de- 
sert, and  were  remarkable  for  the  extent  of  their  as- 
ceticism, in  which,  of  course,  they  regarded  Christian 
perfection  as  consisting.  The  Egyptian,  who  is  some- 
times termed  the  Great  or  the  Elder  Macarius,  lived  to 
a  very  advanced  age,  and  he  has  been  canonized  both 
by  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  the  former  hold- 
ing his  festival  on  the  19th,  the  latter  on  the  15th 
January.  The  Alexandrian  Macarius  is  said  to  have 
surpassed  the  other  in  austere  practices.  The  Ma- 
carians  were  remarkable  for  the  rigidity  and  strict- 
ness of  their  monastic  habits. 

MACARIANS,  the  followers  of  Macarius,  who 
was  patriarch  of  Antioch  in  the  seventh  century,  and 
who  held  the  opinions  of  the  Monotiielitks  (which 
see).  He  attended  the  sixth  general  council  held  at 
Constantinople  A.  D.  680,  where  he  boldly  avowed 
his  peculiar  opinions,  asserting  that  Christ's  will  was 
that  of  a  God-man  ;  and  persevering  in  the  mainten- 
ance of  this  heretical  sentiment,  he  was  deposed  and 
banished.  He  published  an  Ecthesis,  or  Confession 
of  Faith,  adherence  to  which  was  maintained  by  his 
followers  as  a  test  of  orthodoxy. 


MACCABEES.    See  Asmoneans. 

M.-VCCABEES  (Fea.st  of),  a  festival  celebratea 
annually  in  the  ancient  Christian  church,  in  honour 
of  the  seven  Maccabees,  who  signalized  themselves 
by  their  opposition  to  the  tyrant  Antiochus  Epiplia- 
nes,  and  who  died  in  defence  of  the  Jewish  Law. 
This  feast  is  mentioned  particularly  in  the  fourth 
century.  Chrysostom  has  three  homilies  prepared 
for  the  occasion,  in  which  he  speaks  of  the  festival 
of  the  Maccabees  being  celebrated  at  Antioch. 
Augustin  says  that  the  Christians  had  a  ciiurcb  in 
that  city  called  by  the  name  of  the  Alaccabees,  and 
he  himself  has  two  sermons  upon  their  festival,  in 
which  he  shows  they  were  regarded  as  Christian 
martyrs.  This  feast  appears  to  have  been  observed 
in  the  African  churches,  for  Augustin  begins  his 
first  homily  with  these  words  :  "This  day  is  made  a 
festival  to  us  by  the  glory  of  the  Maccabees." 
Gregory  Nazianzen  has  a  sermon  upon  the  same  oc- 
casion ;  and  others  are  found  in  the  writings  of  dif- 
ferent authors,  from  which  it  ap])ears  evident  that 
the  festival  in  question  was  celebrated  throughout 
the  whole  church.  The  reason  of  its  observance  is 
given  by  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  alleges  that  the 
Maccabees  were  really  admirable  in  their  actions; 
yea,  more  admirable  in  one  respect  than  the  martyrs 
that  came  after  Christ.  "  For,"  says  he,  "  if  they 
sutfered  martyrdom  so  bravely  before  Christ's  com 
ing,  what  would  they  not  have  done  had  they  lived 
after  him,  and  had  the  death  of  Christ  foi  their  ei- 


/ 


356 


MACEDONIANS— MADAGASCAR  (Religion  of). 


ample."  It  is  not  certain  on  what  day  tlie  festival  was 
held,  but  the  Roman  martyrology  places  it  on  the 
1st  of  August. 

MACEDONIANS,  a  heretical  sect  wliich  arose  in 
the  fourth  century,  deriving  its  origin  from  Macedo- 
nius,  partriarch  of  Constantinople.  During  the 
Arian  controversy,  a  vacancy  in  the  patriarchate  of 
Constantinople  usually  gave  rise  to  bitter  contention 
between  the  Orthodox  and  the  Arian  parties.  It 
was  amid  the  tumult  of  a  disputed  election  that  the 
Arians  chose  Macedonius  to  the  office  of  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  342.  He  retained  quiet  pos- 
session of  this  see  till  a.  d.  348,  when  Constans  pre- 
vailed upon  Constantius  to  deprive  him  of  his  eccle- 
siastical dignity.  In  the  course  of  two  years,  bow- 
ever,  he  was  restored  to  his  office,  and  commenced  a 
vigorous  persecution  of  his  opponents,  banishing  or 
torturing  them,  sometimes  even  to  death.  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  orthodox  obtained  the  ascendency, 
these  individuals  wlio  had  been  persecuted  by  the 
Arians  were  looked  upon  as  martyrs,  and  their  me- 
mory is  still  reverenced  both  by  tlie  Greek  and  Latin 
churches ;  by  the  Greeks  on  the  30th  of  March,  and 
by  the  Latins  on  the  25th  of  October.  The  harsh- 
ness and  severity  with  which  Macedonius  treated 
the  opposite  party,  brought  him  into  no  slight  odium 
with  men  of  both  parties,  and  this  feeling  of  hostility 
which  his  cruel  conduct  had  awakened,  was  mucli 
increased  by  an  event  which  occurred  about  the 
same  time.  He  had  removed  the  body  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great  from  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  in 
v/hich  it  had  been  buried,  and  such  was  the  supersti- 
tion of  the  people,  that  a  serious  tumult  arose,  in 
which  many  persons  were  killed.  Constantius  was 
deeply  offended  with  the  conduct  of  IMacedonius  in 
this  matter.  At  the  council  of  Seleucia  A.  D.  359,  a 
split  took  ])lace  between  the  Acacian  or  pure  Arian, 
and  the  semi-Arian  parties,  and  it  was  fully  expected 
that  some  accusations  would  have  been  publicly 
lodged  against  Macedonius.  No  steps,  however, 
were  taken  against  him  on  that  occasion,  but  in  the 
course  of  the  following  year  a  council  was  held  at 
Constantinople,  he  was  depo.sed  by  the  Acacians, 
and  from  that  time  he  united  himself  with  the  Semi- 
Arians. 

Tlie  term  Macedonians  was  at  first  used  to  denote 
the  Semi-Arians,  who  held  that  the  Son  was  liomoi- 
ousios,  or  of  like  substance  with  the  Fatlier.  Their 
opinions  on  this  mysterious  subject  gradually  under- 
went a  cliauge,  and  at  length  many  of  the  party  ap- 
proached nearer  to  the  Nicene  creed,  in  regard  to  the 
nature  and  dignity  of  the  Son,  until,  in  A.  D.  367, 
several  of  their  bishops  drew  up  a  confession  in 
wliich  they  admitted  that  the  Son  was  Iiomoowiios, 
of  the  same  substance  with  the  Father.  Tlie  opin- 
ions, however,  of  the  Macedonians  on  the  II0I3' 
Spirit  were  decidedly  heterodox.  They  denied  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  on  account  of  which  they 
received  from  the  Greeks  the  title  of  Pnannatomadd, 
Contenders  against  the  Holy  Simit.     This  heresy 


was  formally  condemned  by  the  second  general  01 
first  Constantinopolitan  council,  which  met  A.  D.  381. 
The  heresy  of  the  Macedonians  assumed  a  variety  oi 
ditferent  sliades.  Some  affirmed  that  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit was  not  a  person  in  the  Godhead,  that  he  was  not 
what  tlie  Father  and  the  Son  are,  and  therefore  no 
divine  honours,  were  due  to  him.  Some  held  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  be  a  creature,  and  therefore  did  not 
deny  his  personality.  Others  denied  his  personality, 
and  regarded  him  as  a  mere  attribute  of  God.  In 
condemning  tlie  Macedonian  heresy,  the  council  of 
Constantinople  found  it  necessary  to  make  an  addi- 
tion to  the  article  in  the  Nicene  Creed,  which  says, 
"  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,"  expanding  it  thus, 
"  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  tlie  Lord,  the  Author 
of  life,  who  proceeds  from  the  Father."  The  Nicene 
Creed  thus  modified,  which  is  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Nicene-Constantinopolitan  Creed, 
was  received  by  the  Catholic  church ;  and  the  coun- 
cil of  Ephesus  afterwai-ds  decreed  that  no  addition 
should  be  made  to  it. 

The  members  of  the  Macedonian  sect  were  gener- 
ally upright  and  honourable  in  their  lives,  and,  by 
the  favoiu-  which  they  showed  for  the  monastic  life, 
they  acquired  a  high  distinction  for  piety.  After 
tlieir  separation  from  the  Arians,  they  attempted  to 
effect  a  union  with  the  orthodox  party,  but  this  being 
found  impracticable,  they  spread  themselves  through- 
out various  parts,  especially  in  Thrace,  along  the 
Hellespont,  and  in  Phrygia.  None  of  them  were 
found  in  the  western  provinces.  At  Constantinople 
they  had  their  own  churches  and  bishops.  BuJ 
when  their  opinions  were  formally  condennied  by  the 
church,  they  were  visited  also  with  civil  penalties. 
In  the  statutes  of  the  elder  Tlieodosius  they  are 
mentioned  by  name,  and  in  those  of  the  younger 
Tlieodosius  tlieir  worship  is  only  tolerated  in  the 
principal  cities.  The  persecution  to  which  they 
were  thus  exposed  soon  succeeded  in  exterminating 
the  sect. 

MACHAZOR  (Ileb.  a  cycle),  a  collection  of 
prayers  used  among  the  Jews  in  their  great  solenmi- 
ties.  The  prayers  are  in  verse,  and  very  concise. 
There  are  many  copies  of  this  Book  printed  in  Italy, 
Germanv,  and  Poland. 

MACMILLANITES.    See  Reformed  Presbv- 

TERIAN  CHUUCH, 

MACTATIO  (Lat.  macto,  to  kill),  the  act  of  kill- 
ing the  victim  in  Roman  sacrifices.  This  in  most 
cases  was  done  not  by  the  priests,  but  by  an  officer 
called  ^m^ra,  who  struck  the  animal  with  a  hammer 
before  tlie  knife  was  used.     See  Sacrifice. 

MADAGASCAR  (Religion  of).  Madagascar, 
one  of  the  largest  islands  of  the  world,  is  situated  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Al'rica, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  tlie  Mozambique 
Channel.  Comparatively  little  was  known  until 
within  the  last  twenty  years  about  this  island.  Thi' 
Malagasy,  as  the  native  inhabitants  are  called,  seen: 
to  consist  of  different    tiibes    under   independent 


MADAGASCAR  (Rklioion  of). 


357 


eliiefiiiiiiH ;  but  both  in  language  and  in  general  man- 
ners there  is  an  obvious  resemblance  among  those 
tribes,  which  indicates  that  they  arc  to  a  certain 
extent  related  to  one  another.  Circumcision,  tor 
example,  is  universally  prevalent  in  the  island, 
though  the  ceremonies  attending  it  vary  considerably 
m  diti'erent  localities.  Divination  is  practised  too 
among  all  the  tribes  though  under  dill'erent  forms. 
The  religion  of  this  singular  i)eople  consists  in  a 
great  measure  of  the  use  of  charms  or  odij,  as  they 
call  them,  by  which  they  believe  that  the  will  of 
some  superior  power  is  ascertained.  It  is  thus  that 
the  art  of  the  diviner  is  exercised  on  all  occasions. 
To  begin  with  their  treatment  of  children,  on  this 
subject  Mr.  Ellis,  in  his  '  History  of  Madagascar,' 
relates  the  following  curious  facts,  chiefly  in  regard 
to  the  welcome  of  the  little  stranger :  "  After  the 
birth  of  an  infant,  the  relatives  and  friends  of  the 
mother  visit  her,  and  oft'er  their  congi-atulations. 
The  infant  also  receives  salutations,  in  form  resem- 
bling the  following:  'Saluted  be  the  otfspring  given 
of  God  ! — may  the  child  live  long  I — may  the  child 
be  favoured  so  as  to  possess  wealth!'  Presents  are 
also  made  to  the  attendants  in  the  household,  and 
sometimes  a  bullock  is  killed  on  the  occasion,  and 
distributed  among  the  members  of  the  family.  Pres- 
ents ot  poultry,  fuel,  money,  &c.,  are  at  times  also 
sent  by  friends  to  the  mother.  A  piece  of  meat  is 
usually  cut  into  thin  slices,  and  suspended  at  some 
distance  from  the  floor,  by  a  cord  attached  to  the 
ceiling  or  roof  of  the  house.  This  is  called  the 
Kitoza,  and  is  intended  for  the  mother.  A  fire  is 
kept  in  the  room,  day  and  night,  frequently  for  a 
week  after  the  birth  of  the  child.  At  the  expiration 
of  that  period,  the  infant,  arrayed  in  the  best  cloth- 
ing that  can  be  obtained,  is  carried  out  of  the  house 
by  some  person  whose  parents  are  both  still  living, 
and  then  taken  back  to  the  mother.  In  being  car- 
ried out  and  in,  the  child  must  be  twice  carefully 
lifted  over  the  fire,  which  is  placed  near  the  door. 
Should  the  intant  be  a  boy,  the  axe,  large  knife,  and 
spear,  generally  used  in  the  family,  must  be  taken 
out  at  the  .same  time,  with  any  implements  of  build- 
ing that  may  be  in  the  house :  silver  chains,  of  na- 
tive manufacture,  are  also  given  as  presents,  or  used 
in  these  ceremonies,  for  which  no  particular  re;ison 
is  assigned.  The  implements  are  perhaps  used  chiefly 
as  emblems  of  the  occupations  in  which  it  is  expected 
the  infant  will  engage  when  it  arrives  at  niaturer 
years ;  and  the  whole  may  be  regarded  as  expressing 
the  hopes  cherished  of  his  activity,  wealth,  and  en- 
joyments." 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  father,  or  a  near  rela- 
tion, is  to  report  the  birth  of  the  child  to  the  native 
astrologers,  who  pretend,  by  peculiar  ceremonies,  to 
ascertain  its  destiny ;  and  should  that  be  declared  to 
be  favourable,  the  child  is  reared  with  the  utmost 
care  and  attention.  When  the  child  has  reached  its 
second  or  third  month,  on  a  lucky  day,  a  cereinony 
takes  place,  which  Mr.  Elhs  thus  describes  under  the 


name  of  '  Scrambling : '  "  The  friends  and  relatives  ol 
the  child  assemble;  a  portion  of  the  fat  taken  from 
the  hump  on  the  Itack  of  an  ox  is  minced  in  a  rice- 
|ian,  cooked,  and  mixed  up  with  a  quantity  of  rice, 
milk,  honey,  and  a  sort  of  grass  called  voamjiainoa, 
a  lock  of  the  infant's  hair  is  also  cast  into  the  above 
mrf'lange;  and  the  whole  being  tlioroughly  well  mix 
cd  in  a  rice-pan,  which  is  held  by  the  youngest  female 
of  the  fan)ily,  a  general  rush  is  made  towards  the 
pan,  and  a  scramble  for  its  contents  takes  place, 
especially  by  the  women,  as  it  is  supposed  that  those 
wlio  are  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  a  portion  njay 
confidently  cherish  the  hope  of  becoming  mothers, 
liananas,  lemons,  and  sugar-cane  are  also  scrambled 
for,  under  the  belief  that  a  similar  result  may  be  aii- 
ticijiated.  The  ceremony  of  scrambling,  however, 
only  takes  place  with  a  first-bom  child.  The  head 
of  the  mother  is  decorated,  during  the  ceremonial, 
with  silver  chains,  while  the  father  carries  the  infant, 
if  a  boy,  and  some  ripe  bananas,  on  his  back.  The 
rice-pan  used  on  the  occasion  becomes,  in  their  esti- 
mation, sacred  by  the  service,  and  must  not  be  taken 
out  of  the  house  during  three  subsequent  days, 
othervnse  the  virtue  of  those  observances  is  supposed 
to  be  lost." 

Shoifld  the  destiny  of  the  child  be  declared  b)' 
the  sikidy,  or  astrologer,  to  be  evil,  the  poor  helpless 
babe  is  doomed  to  destruction.  The  practice  of  in- 
fanticide has  been  long  prevalent  in  Madagascar; 
and  although  during  the  reign  of  Kadama  it  was 
abolished,  since  the  death  of  that  king  the  inhuman 
custom  has  again  revived. 

The  Malagasy  believe  in  God,  without  howevet 
attaching  any  definite,  intelligible  meaning  to  the 
word.  The  terms  by  which  they  designate  the  Su- 
preme Being  are  Andi-ia-rnanitra  and  Zanahary,  the 
former  being  generally  regarded  as  the  male  god, 
and  the  latter  the  feinale.  Whatever  is  great,  wliat- 
ever  is  new,  useful,  and  extraordinarj',  is  called 
god.  Silk  is  regarded  as  god  in  the  highest  de- 
gree. Rice,  money,  thunder  and  lightning,  their  an- 
cestors both  when  alive  and  dead,  all  are  dignified 
with  this  exalted  title.  Some  believe  in  a  number 
of  spirits,  each  of  whom  is  intrusted  with  the  can 
of  a  suigle  individual,  or  an  entire  class  of  men. 
Equally  vague  and  indistinct  are  their  views  of  tho 
soul  of  man  and  its  future  destiny.  "  They  have  no 
knowledge,"  says  Mr.  Ellis,  "  of  the  doctrine  of  th( 
soul  as  a  separate,  immaterial,  immortal  principle  in 
man,  nor  has  their  language  any  word  to  exprest 
such  an  idea.  They  speak  of  the  saina,  but  mean 
by  this  the  intellectual  powers.  They  speak  also  ol 
the  fanahy,  the  nearest  term  found  to  express  spirit , 
but  it  seems,  in  their  use  of  it,  to  imply  principally 
the  moral  qualities  or  dispositions.  In  almost  the 
same  breath,  a  Malagasy  will  express  his  belief 
that  when  he  dies  he  ceases  altogether  to  exist, 
dying  like  the  brute,  and  being  conscious  no  more, 
and  yet  confess  the  fact,  that  lie  is  in  the  habit 
of  praying   to   his   ancestors !     If  asked,  were  hit 


358 


MADAGASCAR  (Religion  of). 


ancestors  not  human  beings  like  himself,  and  did 
they  not  cease  altogethei-  to  exist  when  they  died — 
how  then  can  it  be  consistent  to  pray  to  them  when 
tliey  have  no  longer  any  being  ?  he  will  answer,  True, 
but  tliere  is  their  matoatoa,  their  ghost ;  and  this  is 
supposed  to  be  hovering  about  the  tomb  when  the 
body  is  interred.  And  there  is  also  the  ambiroa,  or 
apparition,  supposed  to  announce  death,  to  visit  a 
person  when  about  dying,  and  to  intimate  to  him, 
and  sometimes  to  others,  liis  approaching  dissolu- 
tion, an  idea  by  no  means  peculiar  to  Madagascar,  as 
it  corresponds  with  the  popular  superstition  of  most 
European  coimtries,  tliat  the  funeral,  or  apparition 
of  a  person  still  living,  is  permitted  to  be  seen  as  a 
supernatural  intimation  of  his  approaching  death." 

Tlie  religion  of  Madagascar,  in  its  heathen  condi- 
tion, has  always  been  essentially  idolatrous.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tananarive,  there  are  twelve  or 
fifteen  idols  which  are  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  people.  Four  of  these  are  looked  upon  as  pub- 
lic and  national  objects  of  worship  ;  the  others  be- 
long to  particular  clans  or  tribes.  Mr.  Ellis  gives 
the  following  account  of  one  of  the  most  noted  idols 
worshipped  in  the  island,  and  renounced  on  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity :  "  Amongst  the  idols  thus 
renounced,  was  one  which  had  belonged  to  several 
clans  or  families  who  resided  about  sii  miles  from 
the  capital ;  it  was  considered  as  the  more  imme- 
diate property  of  the  head-man,  or  chief  of  the  dis- 
trict, in  wliose  family  it  had  been  kept  for  many 
generations ;  but  most  of  the  people  in  the  neigh- 
Dourhood  were  its  votaries  and  united  in  provid- 
ing the  bullocks  and  sheep  that  were  sacrificed  to 
it,  or  the  money  given  to  its  keepers.  "  The  idol 
is  a  most  unmeaning  object,  consisting  of  a  num- 
ber of  small  pieces  of  wood,  ornaments  of  ivory, 
of  silver,  and  brass,  and  beads,  fastened  togetlier 
with  silver  wire,  and  decorated  with  a  number  of 
silver  rings.  The  central  piece  of  wood  is  cir- 
cular, about  seven  inches  high,  and  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  central  piece  is  sur- 
rounded by  six  short  pieces  of  wood,  and  six  hol- 
low silver  ornaments,  called  crocodile's  teeth,  from 
their  resemblance  to  the  teeth  of  that  animal.  Three 
pieces  of  wood  are  placed  on  one  side  of  the  central 
piece  of  wood,  and  three  on  the  side  opposite,  the 
intervening  space  being  filled  up  by  the  three  silver 
and  brazen  ornaments.  These  ornaments  are  hol- 
low, and  those  of  brass  were  occasionally  anointed 
with  what  was  regarded  as  sacred  oil,  or  otlier  un- 
guents, which  were  much  used  in  tlie  consecration  of 
charms  and  other  emblems  of  native  superstition. 
Tlio  silver  ornaments  were  detached  from  the  idol, 
filled  with  r.mall  pieces  of  consecrated  wood,  and 
worn  upon  the  persons  of  tlie  keepers  when  going  to 
war,  or  passing  through  a  fever  district,  as  a  means 
of  preservation.  Besides  the  pieces  of  wood  in  the 
crocodile's  tooth,  small  pieces  of  a  dark,  clcse-grained 
wood  cut  nearly  square,  or  oblong,  and  about  half 
Ml  inch  long,  were  strung  like  beads  on  a  cord,  and 


attached  to  the  idol,  or  worn  on  the  person  of  those 
who  carried  the  silver  ornaments.  The  chief  of  the 
district,  who  had  the  custody  of  the  idol,  bad  two 
sons,  officers  in  the  army.  To  one  of  these,  with 
another  individual,  he  delegated  the  authority  to  sell 
these  small  pieces  of  consecrated  wood,  which  were 
supposed  to  be  pervaded  with  the  power  of  tlie  idol, 
and  to  preserve  its  possessors  from  peril  or  death,  in 
seasons  of  war,  or  regions  of  pestilence.  This  was 
a  source  of  great  emoltmient,  for  such  was  the  re- 
puted virtue  or  potency  of  the  charm,  that  a  couple 
of  bullocks,  the  same  number  of  sheep,  of  goats, 
fowls,  and  dollars,  besides  articles  of  smaller  value, 
were  frequently  given  for  one  or  two  of  the  small 
pieces  of  wood  attached  to  the  idol." 

Every  household  has  its  charm  or  fetish,  corres- 
ponding with  the  Teraphim  of  the  Old  Testament, 
or  the  Lares  and  Penates  of  the  ancient  heathens. 
Every  individual,  indeed,  has  his  ody  or  charm,  and 
sometimes  one  individual  lias  many,  and  wears  them 
about  his  person.  Crocodile's  teeth  are  frequently 
worn  as  charms.  A  few  villages  scattered  up  and 
down  throughout  the  island  are  esteemed  by  the 
people  Hasina,  or  sacred,  because  there  an  idol  is 
kept  in  some  ordinaiy  house,  without  any  priesthood 
or  worsliippers.  The  man  in  whose  house  the  idol 
is  kept  issues  its  pretended  orders,  and  answers  all 
questions  which  aye  put  to  it.  It  is  acknowledged 
as  a  principle  among  the  Malagasy  that  the  idols  are 
under  the  sovereign's  special  support.  To  the 
sovereign  the  keepers  apply  for  new  velvet  in  which 
to  fold  the  idol,  for  bullocks  to  sacrifice  to  it,  and 
for  whatever  is  required  for  it.  Snakes  or  serpents, 
which  abound  in  the  island,  are  supposed  to  be  the 
special  agents  of  the  idols,  and  are,  therefore,  viewed 
with  superstitious  fear  by  the  people.  The  sick 
apply  to  the  idols  for  a  cure,  the  healthy  for  charnn 
and  the  knowledge  of  future  e  ents.  To  sanctify 
the  idol,  in  order  to  prepare  it  for  the  prayers  of  the 
worshippers,  its  keeper  secretly  takes  it  from  the 
case  in  which  it  is  kept,  and  pours  castor  oil  upon 
it.  The  public  idols  are  usually  smjdl  images  wrap- 
ped in  a  red  cloth,  but  most  of  the  household  gods 
are  literally  blocks,  without  any  pretensions  to  a 
human  shape.  Instead  of  the  people  going  to  the 
idol  to  worship  it,  the  idol  is  brought  to  the  people. 
The  idols  are  also  carried  about  pubUcly  at  occa- 
sional, not  fixed  periods,  in  order  to  drive  away  dis- 
eases, to  protect  the  people  against  storms  and  light- 
nings, and  to  give  virtue  to  springs  and  fountains. 
They  are  also  carried  to  the  wars  in  order  to  inspire 
the  soldiers  with  courage. 

Tliere  are  many  occasions  on  which  the  idols  are 
publicly  exhibited,  and  on  some  of  these  the  cere- 
mony of  sprinkling  the  people  is  followed,  either  to 
avert  calamity,  or  to  obtain  some  public  blessing. 
"  On  one  of  tliese  occasions,"  Mr.  Ellis  infomis  us 
"  the  assembly  consisted  of  at  least  six  thousand 
people.  They  were  ordered  to  squat  on  the  giouud 
in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  those  bearing  the  idol  to 


MADIIAVIS— MADIIWAC1IAKI3. 


359 


pasH  to  and  fro  througlLoiit  the  as.scmbly,  and  all 
ivero  especially  coinmaiided  to  sit  with  their  shoul- 
ders uncovered.  The  idol  was  thou  carried  through 
the  multitude  in  dilVerent  directions,  followed  by  a 
man  hearing  a  horn  of  honey  and  water.  As  they 
proceeded,  tlie  man  sprinkled  the  people  on  each 
side  of  him  by  shaking  his  wisp  of  straw  towards 
them,  after  it  had  been  dipped  in  the  lirpior.  A 
blessing  was  at  the  same  time  pronounced  by  the 
bearer  of  the  idol,  in  words,  which,  given  by  a  na- 
tive writer,  may  be  thus  translated  : — '  Cheer  up  and 
fear  not,  for  it  is  I  who  am  the  defence  of  your  lives, 
and  I  will  not  let  disease  approach.  Cheer  up, 
therefore,  on  account  of  your  children  and  wives, 
your  property,  and  your  own  persons,  for  ye  j)OS- 
sess  me.' " 

The  utmost  importance  in  all  the  affairs  of  life  is 
attached  by  the  Malagasy  to  the  silddy,  or  divina- 
tion by  means  of  beans,  rice,  straw,  sand,  or  any 
other  object  that  can  be  easily  counted  or  divided. 
Ft  is  a  process  as  regular  as  a  game  of  chess,  and  is 
Bupposed  to  have  been  communicated  supernaturally 
to  their  ancestors.  The  object  for  which  the  sikubj 
Is  worked,  is  to  ascertain  what  must  be  done  in  cases 
of  real  or  imaginary,  present  or  apprehended  evils. 
The  occult  science  of  casting  nativities  prevails 
among  the  Malagasy.  Trial  by  ordeal  is  also  exten- 
sively in  use,  and  is  practised  in  various  ways,  such 
as  passing  a  red-hot  iron  over  the  tongue,  or  plung- 
ing the  naked  arm  into  a  large  earthen  or  iron  pot 
full  of  boiling  water,  and  picking  out  a  pebble  thrown 
in  for  the  special  purpose  of  the  trial ;  and,  in  either 
case,  to  sustain  no  injury  is  viewed  as  a  demonstra- 
tion of  innocence.  But  the  practice  which  has  ob- 
tained most  generally,  is  that  of  drinking  the  Tan- 
gena,  a  powerful  poison.  It  is  calculated  that  up- 
wards of  3,000  persons  annually  perish  by  this  bar- 
barous practice.  Mamosavy  or  witchcraft  is  looked 
upon  as  the  cause  of  all  crime,  from  the  idea  which 
universally  obtains  in  Madagascar,  that  no  one  could 
perpetrate  such  deeds,  unless  he  were  really  be- 
witched. Ancestor  worship  is  practised  also  among 
the  natives. 

Missionary  operations  were  commenced  in  this  is- 
land by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1818,  and, 
during  the  first  fifteen  years  of  the  mission,  the 
whole  Bible  was  translated,  corrected,  and  printed  in 
the  native  language.  About  one  hundred  schools 
were  established  with  4,000  scholars ;  and  during 
that  period  10,000  to  15,000  had  received  the  bene- 
fit of  instruction  in  these  schools.  Two  printing- 
presses  were  established,  and  a  Malagasy  and  Eng- 
lish Dictionary  was  published  in  two  volumes. 
Two  large  congregations  were  formed  at  the  ca- 
pital, and  nearly  200  jiersons  applied  for  admis- 
sion to  the  church.  Christianity  had  evidently  taken 
root  in  the  island,  and  a  most  beneiicial  change 
was  gradually  taking  place  in  the  b.ibits  and  cus- 
toms of  the  people.  The  government,  however, 
looked  upon   the  labours  of  the  missionaries  with 


jealousy  and  siisjiicion,  and  the  queen,  more  espe- 
cially, was  strongly  prejwssessed  in  favour  of  the 
idolatrous  party.  In  a  short  time,  accordingly,  g 
bitter  persecution  was  commenced  against  the  Chris- 
tians, and  for  seventeen  years  the  most  ojjiiressive 
policy  was  pursued.  Many  hundreds  were  degraded 
and  im[/overished  ;  hundreds  more  doomed  to  sla- 
very; not  less  thaTi  one  hundred  have  been  put  to 
death,  and  a  large  number  are  still  sufl'ering  exile, 
bonds,  and  degradation.  Yet,  in  a  most  em|)halic 
sense,  it  is  true  of  Madagascar,  that  the  blood  of  the 
martyrs  has  proved  the  seed  of  the  church.  Not- 
withstanding tlie  persecuting  measures  of  the  fjueen 
and  the  government,  the  numbers  of  the  Christian  con- 
verts are  amuially  on  the  increase,  and  among  them 
are  included  some  of  the  most  intelligent  and  respec- 
table men  in  the  community.  The  young  prince, 
who  is  heir  to  the  throne,  and  his  wife,  are  both 
inembers  of  the  Christian  church,  and  devoted  friends 
of  the  persecuted  flock,  whom  they  assist  with  their 
advice  and  their  money  on  all  occasions.  The  hos- 
tility of  the  queen  and  her  ministers  continues  una- 
bated, but  Christianity  is  secretly  making  extensive 
progress  in  many  parts  of  tl.\e  island. 

MADIIAVIS,  an  order  of  Hindu  mendicants, 
founded  by  Madho,  an  ascetic.  They  travel  up  and 
down  the  country  soliciting  alms,  and  playing  on 
stringed  instruments.  Their  peculiar  doctrines  are 
not  known. 

MADHWACHARIS,  a  division  of  the  Vaishnava 
sect  of  the  Hindus.  It  is  altogether  imknown  in 
Gangetic  Hindustan ;  but  in  the  peninsula  it  is  most 
extensively  to  be  found.  Its  foimder  was  Madhwjt- 
cbarya,  a  Brahman,  who  was  born  A.  D.  1199,  in 
Tuluva ;  he  is  believed  by  his  followers  to  have 
been  an  incarnation  of  Vdyu  or  the  god  of  air,  who 
took  upon  him  the  human  form  by  desire  of  Nd- 
rdi/ana,  and  who  had  been  previously  incarnate. 
He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Bhagawat  Gi't^, 
and  he  erected  and  consecrated  a  temple  at  Udipi, 
where  he  deposited  an  image  of  Krishna.  This 
place  has  continued  ever  since  to  be  the  head- 
quarters of  the  sect.  After  this  he  established 
eight  additional  temples,  in  which  he  placed  images 
of  different  fomis  of  Vislnm.  These  establishments 
still  exist,  and  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
laid  down  by  the  foiuider,  each  of  eight  Sanydsis  in 
turn  officiates  as  superior  of  the  chief  station  at 
Udipi  for  two  years  or  two  years  and  a  half.  The 
whole  expenses  of  the  establishment  devolve  on  the 
superior  for  the  time  being,  and  as  the  expenses 
generally  exceed  the  income,  the  Sanydsis  travel 
from  place  to  place  le\'ying  contributions  on  their 
votai-ies.  The  appearance  and  doctrines  of  the  mem 
hers  of  the  sect  are  thus  described  by  Professor  H. 
II.  Wilson  :  "  The  ascetic  professors  of  Madlnvdch^- 
rya's  school,  adopt  the  external  appearance  of  Dan- 
dis,  laying  aside  the  Brahmanical  cord,  carrying  a 
start'  and  a  water  pot,  going  bare-headed,  and  wear- 
ing a  single  wrapper  stained  of  an  orange  colour  with 


<60 


MADONNA— MADUWA. 


»u  oehry  clay:  they  are  usually  adopted  into  the 
order  from  their  boyhood,  and  acknowledge  no  social 
affinities  nor  interests.  The  marks  common  to  them, 
and  the  lay  votaries  of  the  order,  are  the  impress  of 
the  symbols  of  Vishnu,  upon  their  shoulders  and 
breasts,  stamped  with  a  hot  iron,  and  the  frontal 
mark,  which  consists  of  two  perpendicular  lines 
made  with  Gopichandana,  and  joined  at  the  root  of 
the  nose  like  that  of  the  Sri  Vaisknavas ;  but  instead 
of  a  red  line  down  the  centre,  the  Mddhwdclidris 
make  a  straight  black  line,  with  the  charcoal  from 
incense  offered  to  Narayana,  terminating  in  a  roimd 
mark  made  with  turmerick. 

■■  Tlie  essential  dogma  of  this  sect,  like  that  of  the 
Vaislmavas  in  general,  is  the  identitication  of  Vishnu 
with  the  Supreme  Spirit,  as  tlie  pre-existent  cause  of 
the  universe,  from  whose  substance  tlie  world  was 
made.  This  primeval  Vishnu,  they  also  affirm  to  be 
endowed  with  real  attributes,  most  excellent,  al- 
thougli  indefinable  and  independent.  As  there  is  one 
independent,  however,  there  is  also  one  dependent, 
and  this  doctrine  is  the  characteristic  dogma  of  the 
sect,  distinguishing  its  professors  from  the  followers 
of  Rcim^nuja  as  well  as  Sankara,  or  those  who 
maintain  the  qualified  or  absolute  unity  of  the  deity. 
The  creed  of  the  Madhwas,  is  Dwaita,  or  duality. 
It  is  not,  however,  tliat  they  discriminate  between 
the  principles  of  good  and  e\'il,  or  even  the  differ- 
ence between  spirit  and  matter,  which  is  the  duality 
known  to  other  sects  of  the  Hindus.  Their  distinc- 
tion is  of  a  more  subtle  character,  and  separates  the 
Jimitma  from  the  Paramatma,  or  the  principle  of 
life  from  the  Supreme  Being.  Life,  they  say,  is  one 
and  eternal,  dependent  upon  the  Supreme,  and  in- 
dissolubly  connected  with,  but  not  the  same  with 
him.  An  important  consequence  of  this  doctrine  is 
tlie  denial  of  Mokslia,  in  its  more  generally  received 
sense,  or  that  of  absorption  into  the  universal  spirit, 
and  loss  of  independent  existence  after  death." 

The  different  modes  in  which  this  sect  express 
devotion  to  Vishnu,  are  marking  the  body  with  his 
symbols,  especially  with  a  hot  iron,  giving  his  names 
to  children  and  other  objects  of  interest,  and  the 
practice  of  virtue,  in  word,  act,  and  thought.  Their 
sacred  writings  consist,  besides  the  works  of  their 
founder,  of  the  four  Vedas,  the  Mah^bh^rat,  the 
Pancharitra,  and  the  genuine  or  original  Rt-tmay- 
ana. 

MADONNA  (Ital.  My  Lady),  a  name  given  to 
representations  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in  Roman  Ca- 
thohc  countries.     See  Mariolatuy. 

MADUASSES,  colleges  in  Mohammedan  coun- 
tries where  priests  are  trained  who  are  to  officiate  in 
the  mosques. 

MADUWA,  the  place  in  which  the  Bana  or  sa- 
cred books  of  the  IJudhists  are  publicly  read.  It  is 
usually  a  temporary  erection,  the  roof  having  several 
breaks  or  compartments  gradually  decreasing  in  size 
i»  they  approach  the  top,  in  the  form  of  a  pagoda, 
or  of  a  pyramid,  composed  of  successive  platforms. 


There  is  one  of  these  erections  in  the  precincts  o) 
nearly  all  the  Wiharas  (which  see).  In  the  cen- 
tre of  the  interior  area  is  an  elevated  platform  for  the 
convenience  of  the  priests,  and  the  people  sit  around 
it  upon  mats  spread  on  the  ground.  The  platform 
is  sometimes  occupied  by  several  priests  at  the  same 
time,  one  of  whom  reads  a  portion  of  one  of  the 
sacred  books  in  a  tone  between  singing  and  reading. 
"  Upon  some  occasions,"  as  we  learn  from  Mr.  Spence 
Hardy,  "  one  priest  reads  the  original  Pali,  and  an- 
other interprets  what  is  read  in  the  veniacular  Sin- 
ghalese ;  but  this  method  is  not  veiy  frequently 
adopted.  It  is  the  more  usual  course  to  read  the 
Pali  alone,  so  that  the  people  understand  not  a  word 
that  is  said  ;  and  were  the  advices  of  even  the  most 
excellent  description  in  themselves,  they  would  be 
delivered  without  profit  to  the  people  assembled.  A 
great  proportion  of  the  attendants  fall  asleep,  as  they 
commonly  remain  during  the  whole  night ;  whilst 
otliers  are  seen  cliewing  their  favourite  betle.  As 
might  be  supposed,  there  are  evidences  of  unconcern 
in  that  which  ought  to  be  the  principal  object  of  the 
festival ;  but  there  is  none  of  that  rudeness  which 
would  be  exhibited  in  a  promiscuous  assemblage  o^ 
people  in  some  countries  that  are  much  higher  in  the 
scale  of  civilization.  Near  the  reading-hall  thera 
are  booths  and  stalls,  in  which  rice-cakes,  fruits,  and 
other  provisions,  and  occasionally  cloth  and  earthen- 
ware, are  sold ;  and  the  blind  and  the  lame  are  there, 
with  their  stringed  instruments,  sitting  by  the  way- 
side to  receive  alms  ;  so  that  the  festival  is  regarded 
as  an  opportunity  for  amusement,  as  well  as  for  ac- 
quiring merit,  and  answers  the  general  purpose  of  a 
wake  or  fair.  Whenever  the  name  of  Budha  is 
repeated  by  the  officiating  priest,  the  people  call  out 
simultaneously,  'sddhu!'  the  noise  of  which  may 
be  heai-d  at  a  great  distance ;  and  the  effect  is  no 
doubt  pleasing  to  those  who  have  not  been  taught 
that  it  is  in  vain  for  the  unlearned  to  say  Amen, 
when  they  know  not  the  meaning  of  that  which  is 
spoken.  The  readings  are  most  numerously  attended 
upon  the  night  of  the  full  moon,  when  a  light  is  thrown 
upon  the  landscape  in  Ceylon  that  seems  to  silver 
all  things  visible,  from  the  tiny  leaflet  to  the  tower- 
ing mountain,  and  a  stillness  sleeps  in  the  air  that 
seems  too  deep  to  be  earthly  ;  and  were  the  voices  ol 
the  multitude  that  now  come  forth  at  intervals  other 
than  from  athei.st  lips,  the  spirit  might  drink  in  a 
rich  profusion  of  the  thoughts  that  come  so  plea- 
santly, we  can  scarcely  tell  whether  the  waking 
dream  be  a  reality,  or  a  vision  of  some  brighter  land." 
The  Maduwa  is  used  for  otlier  purposes  besides 
reading  the  sacred  books.  In  it  there  is  a  labyrinth 
made  of  withs  ornamented  with  tlie  cocoa-nut  leaf ; 
and  the  people  amuse  themselves  by  finding  their 
way  through  its  intricate  mazes.  In  some  instances 
lines  are  drawn  upon  the  ground  in  an  open  space, 
and  these  lines  are  regarded  as  the  limits  of  the  re- 
gions assigned  to  particular  demons,  the  last  being 
appropriated  to  Budlia.     A  few  dancers  are  now  in 


MiEMACTEUIA— MAfilC. 


361 


trodimeil,  one  of  whom  advancing  towards  tlie  first 
limit,  calls  out,  in  a  defiant  tono.  the  name  of  the 
demon  to  whom  the  region  belongs,  and,  using  the 
most  insulting  language,  tlircatens  to  cross  llie  limit, 
and  invade  the  demon's  territory.  lie  then  ])asse8 
the  limit  with  the  utmost  Ijoldness,  and  goes  through 
the  same  process  with  the  other  demons,  until  he 
approaches  the  limit  of  ISudha's  region ;  but  the 
moment  he  attempts  to  cross  this  limit  he  falls  down 
as  if  dead,  it  being  8upi)0sed  that  he  is  suflering  the 
punishment  of  his  intrusion  on  the  realms  of  Kudlia, 
and  tlio  spectators  applaud  his  boldness. 

MyKMACTEUlA,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Athens 
in  honour  of  Zeus,  as  the  god  of  storms. 

MyK.MACTKS,  a  surname  of  Zims,  as  being  the 
stormy  god  from  whom  originate  all  the  convulsions 
of  nature. 

MiENADES.    See  Bacch^. 

MAGDALENS,  an  order  of  nuns  in  the  Romish 
church,  dedicated  to  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  penitent  courtezans.  The  Reli- 
gious of  St.  Magdalene  in  Rome  wp-e  established  by 
Pope  Leo  X.,  and  a  revenue  w.is  settled  on  tliem  by 
Clement  VI 11.,  who  ordered  that  the  elVects  of  all 
prostitutes  who  died  intestate  should  fall  to  this 
order,  and  that  the  testaments  of  all  others  should  be 
invalid  unless  a  fifth  part  of  their  effects  were  be- 
queathed to  them. 

MAGDEBURG  CENTURIES.  See  Centu- 
ries (Magdeburg). 

MAGI,  the  ancient  priests  of  the  Persians  and 
Medians.  The  word  is  rendered  in  Mat.  ii.  1,  "  wise 
men."  The  country  from  which  these  wise  men  or 
Magi  came  is  not  precisely  pointed  out  by  the  Evan- 
gelist, but  only  described  in  general  terms  as  east- 
ward of  Palestine,  and  in  all  probability  was  either 
Persia  or  Mesopotamia. 

MAGIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  philosophers  which 
arose  in  the  East  at  a  very  early  period,  devoting 
much  of  their  attention  to  the  study  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  They  were  the  learned  men  of  their  time, 
and  we  find  Daniel  the  prophet  promoted  to  be  head 
of  this  sect  in  Chaldea,  and  chief  governor  over  all 
the  wise  men  of  Babylon.  The  Magians  were  in 
complete  antagonism  to  the  Tsabians,  who  worship- 
ped the  heavenly  hosts ;  and  they  seem  to  have  wor- 
ihipped  the  Deity  imder  the  emblem  of  fire.  In  all 
their  temples,  as  well  as  in  their  private  houses, 
they  had  fire  continually  burning  upon  their  altars. 
Tliey  held  in  the  greatos'  abliorrence  the  worship  of 
images,  which  prevailed  among  other  nations,  and 
they  held  fire  in  the  highest  veneration  as  being  the 
purest  symbol  of  the  Divine  Being.  The  great  mass 
of  the  Persian  worsliippers,  however,  adored  the 
altar-fii'es  themselves  without  rising  to  the  Great 
Being  whom  they  symbolized.  The  Magian  sect 
was  in  danger  of  passing  into  utter  extinction  in  the 
reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  had  it  not  been  revived 
Rnd  reformed  by  Zoroaster  in  the  sixth  century,  the 
\bstract  principles  of  whose  system  have  been  al- 
ii. 


ready  noticed  in  the  article  AltlcSTA.  In  spite  of 
the  violent  opposition  of  the  Tnfibimig,  Zoroaster 
succeeded  in  bringing  over  Darius  to  a  finn  belief  in 
his  reformed  system,  and  from  that  time  Magiaiiihui 
became  the  national  religion  of  the  country,  until  it 
was  supjilanted  by  that  of  Mohammed.  Rcmtjants 
of  this  sect  are  still  found  in  Persia  under  the  name 
of  G/irhrr.s,  and  in  India  under  that  oi  Purseet. 

M.VGIC,  a  science  snjiposcd  to  depend  on  the  in- 
fluence of  evil  spirits,  or  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 
Balaam  seems  to  have  been  a  pretender  to  skill  in 
this  art;  and  in  Jer.  xxxix.  3,  we  read  of  the  rah 
mag  or  chief  of  the  magicians.  In  early  times  all 
who  engaged  in  the  study  of  natural  phenomena  were 
accounted  magicians,  the  term  being  thus  used  in  a 
good  sense,  nearly  equivalent  to  the  word  philoso- 
phers. Magic  has  been  divided  into  natural,  which 
consists  in  the  application  of  natural  causes  to  jiro- 
dnce  wonderful  phenomena  ;  planckay,  which  assigns 
either  to  the  planets  or  to  sjiirits  residing  in  them 
an  influence  over  the  affairs  of  men ;  and  dkiholicul, 
which  invoftes  the  aid  of  demons  to  accomi)lish 
supernatural  effects.  All  practices  of  this  kind  were 
forbidden  by  the  Law  of  Moses  as  being  connected 
with  idtlatry ;  yet  in  every  period  individuals  were 
found  among  the  Israelites  who  were  strongly  ad- 
dicted to  magical  arts.  Magicians  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  in  connection  with 
Egypt.  Thus  it  is  said  in  Exod.  vii.  11,  "Then 
Pharaoh  also  called  the  wise  men  and  the  sorcerers ; 
now  the  magicians  of  Egypt,  they  also  did  in  hke 
manner  with  their  enchantments."  "  Now  we  find 
in  Egyptian  antiquity,"  says  Hengstenberg,  "  an  or- 
der of  persons,  to  whom  tliis  is  entirely  appropriate, 
which  is  here  ascribed  to  the  magicians.  The  priests 
had  a  double  oftice,  the  practical  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  the  pursuit  of  that  which  in  Egypt  was 
accounted  as  wisdom.  The  first  belonged  to  the  so- 
called  prophets,  the  second  to  the  holy  scribes. 
These  last  were  the  learned  men  of  the  nation ;  as 
in  the  Pentateuch,  they  are  called  wise  men,  so  the 
classical  writers  named  them  sages.  These  men 
were  apphed  to  for  explanation  and  aid  in  all  thingi 
which  lay  beyond  the  circle  of  common  knowledge 
and  action.  Thus,  in  severe  cases  of  sickness  for 
example,  along  with  the  physician  a  holy  scribe  was 
called,  who,  from  a  book,  and  astrological  signs,  de- 
tenuined  whether  recovery  was  possible.  The  in- 
terpretation of  dreams,  and  also  divination,  belonged 
to  the  order  of  the  holy  scribes.  In  times  of  pesti- 
leiKe,  they  applied  themselves  to  magic  arts  to  avert 
the  disease.  A  passage  in  Lucian  furnishes  a  pecu- 
liarly interesting  parallel  to  the  accounts  of  the  Penta- 
teuch concerning  the  practice  of  magic  arts  :  '  There 
was  with  us  in  the  vessel,  a  man  of  Memphis,  one  of 
the  holy  scribes,  wonderful  in  wisdom  and  skilled  in 
all  sorts  of  Egyptian  knowledge.  It  was  said  of 
him,  that  he  had  hved  twenty-three  years  in  subter- 
ranean sanctuarie.s,  and  that  he  had  been  there  in- 
structed in  magic  by  Isis.'  " 

9  n   * 


362 


MAGISTER  DISCIPLINE— MAHABHAKAT A.. 


Both  in  Egypt  and  in  Babylon  the  office  of  magi- 
cian belonged  to  the  priestly  caste.  In  the  later 
periods  of  Jewish  history,  many  pretended  to  skill 
in  the  occult  science  of  magic,  using  incantations  of 
various  kinds,  and  professing  even  to  evoke  the 
spirits  of  the  dead,  with  the  view  of  drawing  forth 
from  them  secrets  otherwise  unattainable.  Sorcerers 
and  magicians  are  mentioned  by  Josephus  as 
abounding  in  his  time,  and  exercising  gi-eat  influence 
over  the  people.  The  Jews  called  magicians.  Mas- 
ters of  the  Name,  the  Sliemhamphorash,  or  ineffable 
name  of  God,  that  is,  Jehovah,  by  the  true  pronim- 
ciation  of  which  wonders  could  be  accomplished. 
They  allege  tliat  this  was  tlie  secret  by  which  our 
Saviour  performed  his  miracles  wliile  on  earth.  In 
the  Sepher  ToMath  Jeshu  a  strange  story  is  related 
of  the  manner  in  which  Jesus  became  possessed  of 
the  inefiable  name.  It  mentions  that  the  name 
was  found  by  Da\'id,  engi"aven  on  a  stone,  when 
digging  the  foundations  of  the  temple,  and  that  he 
deposited  it  in  the  sanctuary ;  and  lest  curious  young 
men  sliould  leam  this  name,  and  bring  devastation 
upon  the  world  by  the  miracles  it  woidd  enable  them 
to  perform,  the  wise  men  of  the  time  made,  by 
magical  arts,  two  brazen  lions,  which  they  stationed 
l)efore  the  entrance  of  the  Holy  of  Holies,  on  each 
side ;  so  that,  if  any  one  entered  the  sacred  place, 
•nd  learned  the  ineflable  Name,  the  lions  roared  at 
him  so  fiercely  when  he  came  forth,  that.  In  liis 
fright,  he  entirely  forgot  it.  But  they  say  that  om- 
Lord,  by  magical  arts  and  incantations,  entered  the 
sanctuaiy  undiscovered  by  the  priests,  saw  the  sacred 
Name,  copied  it  on  parclnnent,  which,  having  made 
an  incision  in  his  body,  lie  slipped  imder  his  skin. 
The  roai'ing  of  the  lions  when  he  came  out  caused 
him  to  forget  the  name,  but  tlie  parchment  mider  his 
skin  enabled  him  to  recover  it,  and  thenceforward  to 
refi-esh  his  memory  when  needful ;  and  by  the  power 
of  this  name  it  was  that  all  his  miracles  were  per- 
formed. 

Josephus  also  represents  the  Jews  as  eflecting 
wonderful  cm-es  by  invoking  the  name  of  Solomon. 
In  the  Talmud  a  curious  legend  is  related  concern- 
ing a  signet-ring,  by  which  he  ruled  the  spirits,  and 
which  came  down  from  heaven  to  liim  in  a  cloud, 
liaving  the  name  Jehovah  engraved  upon  it.  By  the 
magic  influence  of  this  signet-ring,  he  summoned 
both  good  and  evil  spirits  to  aid  him  in  building  the 
temple.  Various  different  modes  of  incantation  are 
mentioned  by  Josephus  as  having  been  used  by  So- 
lomon. The  magical  art  is  well  known  to  have  been 
extensively  practised  by  the  ancient  heathens;  and 
Pythagoras,  as  well  as  other  Greek  philosophers, 
made  it  a  subject  of  study.  Ephesus  was  particularly 
famed  for  tlie  number  and  the  skill  of  its  magicians, 
and  when  the  apostle  had  preached  in  that  city  the 
pure  doctrmes  of  the  gospel  of  Christ,  the  effect  is 
thus  stated  Acts  xix.  19,  "  Many  of  them  also  which 
used  cin-ious  arts  brought  their  books  togetlier,  and 
burned  them  before  all  men :  and  they  counted  the 


price  of  them,  and  found  it  fifty  thousand  pieces  of 
silver."  So  celebrated  was  Ephesus  for  the  magic  art, 
that  certain  amulets  witli  strange  chai-acters  Lnitcribed 
on  them,  which  were  woni  about  the  person,  received 
the  name  of  Ephesian  letters.  On  the  same  princi- 
ple were  formed  the  magical  letters  called  Abraca- 
DABKA  (which  see),  which  were  invented  by  the  Ba- 
silidians.  It  is  stated  by  Augustine,  as  having  been 
generally  believed  by  the  heathen,  tliat  our  blessed 
Lord  was  the  author  of  several  books  on  magic, 
which  he  wrote  for  the  use  of  his  disciples.  Celsus 
and  others  pretend  that  our  Saviour  studied  magic 
in  Egypt,  and  Suetonius  calls  the  Christians  the  men 
of  the  magical  superstition. 

The  practice  of  magical  arts  was  viewed  by  the  ear 
ly  Christians  as  sinful,  and  no  sooner  did  any  one, 
who  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  these  mysteries, 
embrace  Christianity,  than  without  hesitation  he 
burned  the  books  on  magic,  which  happened  to  be  in 
his  possession.  By  the  Theodosian  Code,  all  magi- 
cians are  branded  as  malefici,  or  evil-doers,  and  if  de- 
tected they  are  appointed  to  be  put  to  death.  The 
laws  of  the  church  were  veiy  severe  against  all  who 
were  guilty  of  indulging  in  magical  practices.  The 
comicil  of  Laodicea  condemns  them  to  be  cast  out  of 
the  church.  The  council  of  Ancyra  prescribes  five 
years'  penance  for  any  one  that  receives  a  magician 
into  his  house.  Tertullian  goes  the  length  of  say- 
ing, that  there  never  was  a  magician  or  enchanter 
allowed  to  escape  unpunished  in  the  church. 

MAGISTER  DICIPLINE  (Lat.  Master  of  Dis- 
cipline), an  officer  in  the  church  of  Spain  in  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century.  At  that  time  it  was  customary 
for  parents  to  dedicate  their  children,  while  yet  very 
young,  to  the  service  of  the  cliurch ;  in  which  case  they 
were  taken  into  the  bishop's  family,  and  educated 
under  him  by  a  presbyter  selected  for  the  purpose, 
called  Magister  DiscqMnm,  because  his  chief  business 
was  to  watch  over  their  moral  conduct,  and  to  in- 
struct them  in  the  rules  and  discipline  of  the  church. 

MAGLANTE,  a  god  worshipped  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  as  the  deity  who  hurls  the  thunder. 

MAGNA  MATER.     See  Rhea. 

MAGNIFICAT,  the  hymn  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
"  My  soul  doth  magnify  the  Lord,  my  spirit  dotli 
rejoice  in  God  my  Saviom-,"  &c.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned in  the  sixth  century  as  having  been  publicly 
used  in  the  Frencli  churclies.  In  the  rubric  of  the 
Church  of  England,  it  is  appointed  to  be  said  or  sung 
in  Engli.sh  after  the  first  lesson  at  evening  prayer, 
unless  the  ninetieth  Psalm,  called  Cantate  Domino, 
"  Sing  ye  to  the  Lord,"  i.s  used. 

M  AGUSIANS,  a  sect  of  the  ancient  Zoroastrians, 
which  con.sidered  absolute  Dualism  (which  see),  as 
the  staiting  point  of  the  system,  or  the  original 
mode  in  which  Deity  manifested  himself 

MAIIABIIARATA,  the  second  great  Sanskrit 
epic  of  the  Hindus.  It  celebrates  the  wars  of  the 
two  rival  families  known  as  the  Pandus  and  the 
Kurus,  a  tale  of  the  Lunar  dynasties  of  kings. 


MAHA  BKAIIMA— MAJORRS  (Dii). 


363 


MAIIA  lUiAIIMA,  the  rules  of  a  superior  celes- 
tial world,  aecorfliiig  to  tlie  system  of  ISiulliiKiii. 

MAIIADEVA,   one  of  the   names   of  Sliiixc,  a 
member  of  tlio  Hindu  Trimurtti. 

MAIIAN-ATMA,  the  Great  Soul,  a  name  applied 
.0  Bkaii.m  (which  see). 

MAIIANT,  the  superior  of  a  Hindu  monastery  or 
MaCh,  of  which  ho  has  the  entire  control.  He  is 
usujilly  elected  from  the  senior  and  more  proficient 
of  the  ascetics.  In  some  instances  wliere  the  Mu/iaid 
has  a  family,  the  oflice  descends  in  the  line  of  his 
posterity,  but  where  an  election  is  to  be  made,  it  is 
conducted  with  great  solemnity.  Professor  H.  Wil- 
son gives  an  account  of  the  mode  of  election : 
"The  Mdt'hx  of  viu-ious  districts  look  up  to  some 
one  of  their  own  order  as  chief,  and  they  all  refer  to 
that  connected  with  their  founder,  as  the  common 
head  :  under  the  presidence,  therefore,  of  the  Ma- 
hant  of  that  establishment,  wherever  practicable,  and 
in  his  absence,  of  some  other  of  acknowledged  pre- 
eminence, the  Mallards  of  the  different  MaClis  as- 
semble, upon  the  decease  of  one  of  their  brethren,  to 
elect  a  successor.  For  this  purpose  they  regularly 
examine  the  Chela.s,  or  disciples  of  the  deceased,  the 
ablest  of  whom  is  raised  to  the  vacant  situation  : 
should  none  of  them  be  qualitied,  they  choose  a  Ma- 
liant  from  the  pupils  of  some  other  teacher,  but  this 
is  rarely  necossaiy,  and  luiless  necessary,  is  never 
had  recourse  to.  The  new  Mahant  is  then  regularly 
installed,  and  is  formally  invested  with  the  cap,  the 
rosary,  the  frontal  mark,  or  Tiku,  or  any  other 
monastic  insignia,  by  the  president  of  the  assembly. 
Under  the  native  government,  whether  Mohamme- 
dan or  Hindu — the  election  of  the  superior  of  one  of 
these  establishments  was  considered  as  a  matter  of 
sufficient  moment,  to  demand  the  attention  of  the 
governor  of  the  province,  who,  accordingly,  in  per- 
son, or  by  his  deputy,  presided  at  the  election :  at 
present,  no  interference  is  exercised  by  the  ruling 
authorities,  and  rarely  by  any  lay  cliaracter,  although 
occasionally  a  Raja  or  a  Zcmimhir,  to  whose  liberal- 
ity the  Mat'h  is  indebted,  or  in  whose  lands  it  is 
situated,  assumes  the  riglit  of  assisting  and  presid- 
ing at  the  election.  The  Mahants  of  the  sect,  in 
which  the  election  takes  place,  are  generally  assisted 
by  those  of  the  sects  connected  with  them :  each  is 
attended  by  a  train  of  disciples,  and  individuals  of 
various  mendicant  tribes  repair  to  the  meeting ;  so 
that  an  assemblage  of  many  huiulreds,  and  some- 
times of  thousands,  occurs :  as  far  as  the  resources 
of  the  Mat'h,  where  they  are  assembled,  extend,  they 
are  maintained  at  its  expense;  when  those  fail,  they 
must  shift  for  themselves ;  the  election  is  usually  a 
business  of  ten,  or  twelve  days,  and  diuing  the  period 
of  its  continuance,  various  points  of  polity  or  doc- 
trine are  discussed  in  tlie  assembly." 

MAHASOOR,  the  chief  of  the  Asouras  or  HnJc- 
ehaans,  malignant  spnits  among  the  Hindus. 

MAHA   YUG,   an   age   of  the  gods   in  Hindu 
Mironology,  including  12,000  years  of  the  gods,  each 


of  which  comprehends  360  solar  years.  Thus  the 
entire  duration  of  a  maJia-ywf  is  equal  to  4,320,000 
years  of  mortals. 

MAHDI  (Arab,  the  director  or  guide),  a  title 
given  to  the  last  Im.'im  of  flie  race  of  All.  See 
Imams  (Twki.vl). 

MAIIESA,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Hindu  god 
Shiva  (which  see). 

MAHOMI-yr.    See  Mohammed. 

MAHOMETANS.    See  Mohammedans. 

MAHUZZIM,  the  god  of  forces,  as  the  word  is 
translated  in  Dan.  xi.  ,38,  "  But  in  his  estate  shall  he 
honour  the  God  of  forces  :  and  a  god  whom  his  fa- 
thers knew  not  shall  he  honoiu-  with  gold,  and  sil- 
ver, and  with  precious  stones,  and  ple;isant  things." 
Commentators  have  been  much  perplexed  to  explain 
who  this  deity  is.  The  Greek  text  of  Theodotion's 
version,  and  also  the  Vulgate,  give  the  word  Malmz- 
zim  without  interpreting  it.  Some  understand  it  as 
referring  to  the  Antichrist,  and  others  to  Antiochus, 
the  great  enemy  of  the  Jews.  Nicholas  de  Eyra, 
Bellarmine,  and  some  others,  regard  it  as  the  name 
of  the  idol  and  demon  which  they  think  is  to  be 
served  by  Antichrist.  Theodoret  believes  it  to  be 
the  name  which  Antichrist  will  assiune.  Grotius 
supposes  it  to  be  the  BaaUamin  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and  that  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ordered  this  idol  to 
be  worshipped.  Some  imderstaiid  the  word  Mahuz- 
zim  to  be  mediating  spirits  between  God  and  man. 
Jurieu  thinks  that  it  denotes  the  Roman  eagles,  or 
Roman  JjUip'  ,e,  to  which  Antiochus  woidd  do  hom- 
age, the  Roman  eagles  being  a  kind  of  deities,  before 
which  tlie  soldiers  bowed  down. 

MAIA,  an  ancient  Roman  goddess  often  associated 
with  Vulca7i,  and  sometimes  spoken  of  as  his  spouse. 
A  sacritice  was  offered  to  her  on  the  fii-st  of  May, 
which  has  been  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  this  divinity.  She  has  been  identified  also  with 
the  Bona  Dea  (which  see). 

MAJOLI,  St.,  (Regular  Clerks  of).  See 
Clerks  (Regular)  of  St.  Majoli. 

MAJORES,  a  title  by  which  the  Jewish  ministers 
are  frequently  designated  in  the  Theodosian  Code. 
The  same  title  is  also  applied  by  Augustin  to  the 
ministers  of  the  Ccelicol^  (which  see),  a  sect  which 
is  supposed  to  have  been  composed  of  apostates  from 
the  Jewish  religion. 

MAJORES  (Dii),  the  twelve  superior  gods  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  who  were  believed  to  have  a  princi- 
pal share  in  the  government  of  the  world.  They 
were  styled  the  Dii  Selecti,  the  select  gods,  of  whom 
twelve  were  admitted  into  the  councils  of  Jupiter, 
and  hence  denominated  Consentes  (which  see). 
These  twelve  deities,  who  presided  over  the  twelve 
months  of  the  j-ear  and  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zo- 
diac, were  Jupiter,  Juno,  Vesta,  Minerva.  Ceres, 
Diana,  Mars,  Mercury,  Neptune,  Apollo,  and  Vulcan. 
To  these  twelve,  wlio  were  consented,  must  be  added 
Janus,  Satm-n.  Genius,  Sol,  Pluto,  Bacchus,  Teira, 
and  Luna,  and  thus   we  tind  that  the  Dii  Majorei 


364 


MAKOS— MALAKANES. 


amount  to  twenty,  wlio  are  usually  classified  from 
their  place  of  residence,  as  Celestial,  Terrestrial,  Ma- 
rine, and  Infernal  gods. 

MAKOS,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Sclavonians,  who 
was  represented  partly  as  a  man,  partly  as  a  fisli 
At  a  later  period,  he  presided  over  rain,  and  was 
invoked  when  the  fields  were  in  want  of  water. 

MALACIIBEL,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Syrians,  the 
king  of  the  earth. 

MAL  AKANES,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  sects 
of  dissenters  from  the  Eusso- Greek  Church,  who  are 
thus  named  in  derision  from  the  Russian  word  ma- 
lako,  milk,  because  they  use  milk  as  an  article  of 
food  on  fast-days.  Tlie  name  which  they  themselves 
adopt  is  Istinneeye  Christiane,  true  Christians.  No- 
thing is  known  as  to  their  origin  ;  but  the  following 
circumstances  brought  them  into  notice  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.  A  non-commissioned 
Prussian  officer,  who  happened  to  be  a  prisoner  of 
war  in  Russia,  settled  in  a  village  of  the  government 
of  Kharkow.  Being  a  man  of  great  piety,  and  ani- 
mated by  an  earnest  desire  to  do  good  among  tlie 
peasantry,  he  went  from  house  to  house  reading  and 
expounding  the  Word  of  God,  and  continued  to  fol- 
low this  practice  till  his  death.  No  further  particu- 
lars have  been  ascertained  in  regard  to  the  history  ri 
this  excellent  and  devoted  man ;  and  the  only  thing 
which  is  known  is,  that  he  resided  in  a  village  in- 
habited by  the  Malakanes.  A  community  holding 
similar  principles  was  discovered  about  the  .same  time 
in  the  government  of  Tambof  This  sect  is  not  nu- 
merous. About  3,000  of  its  members,  however,  are 
settled  in  the  govermnent  of  the  Crimea,  where  they 
were  visited  in  1843  by  Baron  Haxthausen,  who 
gives  the  following  description  of  their  creed  :  "They 
acknowledge  the  Bible  as  the  AVord  of  God,  and  the 
unity  of  God  in  tln-ee  persons.  This  triune  God, 
uncreated,  self-existent,  tlie  cause  of  all  things,  is  an 
eternal,  immutable,  and  invisible  Spirit.  God  dwells 
in  a  pure  world ;  He  sees  all,  lie  knows  all,  He 
governs  all ;  all  is  filled  with  Him.  He  has  created 
all  things.  In  the  beginning,  all  that  was  created  by 
God  was  good  and  perfect.  Adam's  soul,  but  not 
his  body,  was  created  after  the  image  of  God.  This 
created  immortal  soul  of  Adam  was  endowed  with 
heavenly  reason  and  purity,  and  a  clear  knowledge  of 
God.  Evil  was  unknown  to  Adam,  who  possessed 
a  holy  freedom,  tending  towards  God  the  Creator. 
They  admit  the  dogma  of  the  fall  of  Adam,  the  birth, 
death,  and  resurrection  of  Clirist,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  other  Christians,  and  expound  the  ten  com- 
mandments in  the  following  maimer  : — '  The  first  and 
second  forbid  idolatry;  therefore  no  images  are  to 
he  worsliipped.  The  third  shows  that  it  is  sinfid 
to  take  an  oath.  The  fourth  is  to  be  observed  by 
spending  Sundays  and  other  festivals  in  prayer,  sing- 
ing praises  to  God,  and  reading  the  Bible.  Tlic 
fifth,  by  ordering  to  honour  parents,  enjoins  to  be 
obedient  to  every  authority.  The  sixth  prohibits 
two  kinds  of  murder, — first,  the  Ixiilily,  by  a  weli)0n. 


poison,  &c.,  which  is  a  sin,  except  in  case  of  war 
when  it  is  not  sinfid  to  kill  in  defence  of  the  Czar  and 
the  country ;  and,  second,  the  spiritual  murder 
which  is  committed  by  seducing  others  from  the 
truth  with  deceitful  words,  or  enticing  them  by  bad 
example  into  sin,  which  leads  them  to  everlasting 
perdition.  They  also  consider  it  murder  when  one 
injures,  persecutes,  or  hates  his  neighbour ;  accord- 
ing to  the  words  of  St.  John,  "  He  who  hates  his 
brother  is  a  murderer."  With  regard  to  the  seventh 
commandment,  they  consider  as  a  spiritual  adultery 
even  a  too  great  fondness  of  this  world  and  its  tran- 
sient pleasures  ;  and,  therefore,  not  only  unchastity, 
but  also  drunkenness,  gluttony,  and  bad  company, 
should  be  avoided.  By  the  eighth  they  consider 
every  violence  and  deceit  as  theft.  By  the  ninth 
commandment,  every  insidt,  mockery,  flattery,  and 
lie,  is  considered  as  false  witness.  By  the  tenth, 
they  understand  the  mortification  of  all  lusts  and 
passions.'  Tliey  conclude  their  confession  of  faith 
by  the  following  words  : — 'We  believe  that  whoever 
will  fulfil  the  whole  of  the  ten  commandments  of 
God  will  be  saved.  But  we  also  believe  that  since 
the  fall  of  Adam  no  man  is  capable  of  fulfilling  these 
ten  commandments  by  his  own  strength.  We  be- 
lieve that  man,  in  order  to  become  able  to  perform 
good  works,  and  to  keep  the  commandments  of  God, 
must  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  only-begotten  Son 
of  God.  This  true  faith,  necessary  for  our  salvation, 
we  cannot  find  any  where  else  but  in  tlie  Word  of 
God  alone.  We  believe  that  the  Word  of  God 
creates  in  us  that  faith  which  makes  us  capable  of 
receiving  the  grace  of  God.'  With  regard  to  the 
sacrament  of  baptism,  they  say, — '  Although  we 
know  that  Christ  was  baptized  by  John  in  the  river 
Jordan,  and  that  the  apostles  have  baptized  others, 
namely,  as  Philip  did  with  the  eunuch, — yet  we  un- 
der.stand  by  b.aptism,  not  the  earthly  water,  wliich 
only  cleanses  the  body  but  not  the  soul,  but  the 
spiritual  living  water,  whicli  is  faitli  in  the  triune 
God,  without  contradiction,  and  in  submission  to  his 
holy  AVord  ;  because  the  Saviour  says,  "  AVhosoever 
believeth  in  me,  from  his  body  streams  of  living  wa- 
ter will  flow  ;"  and  John  the  Baptist  says,  "A  man 
can  take  nothing  which  is  not  given  him  from  hea- 
ven;" and  Paul  says,  "  Christ  has  not  sent  me  to 
baptize,  but  to  preach."  We  therefore  understand 
by  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  the  spiritual  cleansing 
of  our  soul  from  sin  through  faith,  and  the  death  ot 
the  old  man  witli  his  works  in  us,  in  order  to  be 
newly  clad  by  a  pure  and  holy  life.  Although,  after 
the  birth  of  a  child,  we  cleanse  with  real  water  the 
impurities  of  his  body,  we  do  not  consider  it  as  bap- 
tism. With  regard  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  it  was  a 
commemoration  of  Christ ;  but  the  words  of  the  gos- 
pel are  the  spiritual  bread  of  life.  Man  lives  not  by 
bread  alone,  but  by  every  word  of  God.  The  Spirit 
gives  life  ;  flesh  is  of  no  use.  The  receiving  of  the 
earthly  bread  and  wine  is  therefore  unnecessary."' 
Tills  peculiar  sect,  wliich  roscnibles  somewhat  in 


MALEATES— MAMMILLAKIANS. 


365 


principle  the  Society  of  Frieiuls,  ia  composed  cliicfly 
of  Kiissiiiii  peasants,  most  of  tliiMn  quite  illitcriite, 
Ijiit  cliaractcr'zed  by  reiiiiultulily  devout,  pious  dispo- 
sitions and  cliaracter.  Tlieir  favourite  author  is  the 
German  Mystic,  Jung  Stilling,  whoso  writings  have 
been  translated  into  the  Russian  language.  The 
Malakanes,  who  dwell  with  great  delight  on  tlie 
prospect  of  the  Millennium,  were  roused  to  a  state 
of  great  excitement  in  1833,  by  an  attempt,  on  the 
part  of  one  of  their  ministers,  to  convince  them  that 
the  Millennium  was  near  at  hand.  Count  Krasinski 
thus  relates  the  details  of  this  singular  movement : 
"  Terentius  IJeliorelV  began  to  preach  repentance, 
announcing  that  the  millennium  should  begin  in 
thirty  months,  and  ordered  that  all  business,  and 
all  kinils  of  work,  except  the  most  indispensable, 
should  be  abandoned ;  but  that  people  should  spend 
tlieir  whole  time  in  prayer  and  singing.  He  declared 
himself  to  be  the  prophet  Klias,  sent  to  ainiounce 
the  coming  of  the  Lord,  whilst  his  companion  Enoch 
was  sent  with  the  same  mission  to  the  west.  He 
announced  the  day  when  he  was  to  ascend  to  heaven, 
in  the  presence  of  all.  Several  thoiisaiuls  of  Mala- 
kanes assembled  from  dilfercnt  parts  of  Russia.  On 
the  appointed  day,  he  appeared  on  a  cart,  ordered 
the  assembled  crowd  to  pray  on  their  knees,  and 
then,  spreading  his  arms,  he  jumped  from  the  cart, 
and  fell  on  the  ground.  The  disappointed  Mala- 
kanes delivered  the  poor  entluisiast  to  the  local  police 
as  an  impostor.  He  was  imprisoned,  but  having  for 
some  time  remained  in  confinement,  he  spoke  no 
more  of  his  being  the  prophet  Elias,  but  continued 
to  preach  the  millennium  in  prison,  and  after  liis 
release,  till  his  death.  He  left  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  followers,  who  often  assemble  to  spend  days 
and  nights  in  continual  prayer  and  singing.  They 
introduced  the  community  of  goods,  and  emigi'ated, 
with  the  permission  of  the  government,  to  Georgia, 
where  they  settled  in  sight  of  Mount  Ararat,  waiting 
for  the  millennium,  and  where  a  colony  of  Lutherans 
from  Wurtemberg  had  settled  before,  for  the  same 
purpose."  Tlie  strange  vagaries  of  this  fanatic, 
however,  ought  not  to  be  charged  upon  the  Mala- 
kanes, whose  spiritual  principles  and  regard  for  the 
truths  of  the  Bible  entitle  tliera  to  the  respect  of  all 
good  men.  The  principal  seat  of  this  sect  is  the 
Crimea,  though  they  are  found  scattered  through 
diti'erent  parts  of  Russia.  They  resemble  the  Du- 
CUOBOliTZl  (which  see)  in  maintaining  the  spiritual- 
ity of  God's  worship  and  ordinances,  but  they  differ 
from  them  in  admitting  the  atoning  work  of  Christ, 
holding  the  lawfulness  of  a  stated  ministry,  and  ob- 
serving the  Christian  Sabbath  as  a  day  set  apart  for 
the  worship  of  God.  The  better  to  prepare  for  the 
sacred  duties  of  the  Lord's  Day,  they  hold  meetings 
for  prayer  on  the  Saturday  evenings. 

MALEATES,  a  surname  of  vlyjoHo,  derived  from 
Malea,  a  cape  in  Laconia.  Under  this  name  he  was 
worshipped  at  Sparta. 

MALEC,  the  principal  angel  who,  according  to 


the  Mohammedans,  presides  over  hell.  In  the  Ko- 
ran, it  is  said,  "  And  they,"  meaning  the  tnibelicvcrg, 
"  shall  cry  aloud,  saying,  0  Malcc,  intercede  for  uh, 
that  the  Lord  would  end  us  by  annihilation.  And 
he  shall  answer,  Verily,  ye  sliall  remain  here  for 
ever.  We  brought  you  the  trutli  heretofore,  mid  ya 
abhorred  the  trutli."  Some  Mohammedan  doctors 
allege  that  the  answer  of  Malcc  sliall  not  be  given 
till  after  a  thousand  years  have  expired. 

MALEKITES,  the  third  of  tlie  orthodox  Moham- 
medan sects  in  importance,  but  the  second  in  the 
order  of  time.  It  was  originated  by  Malec-ebn-Aiis, 
a  native  of  Medina,  in  the  days  of  Hanin-al-Iiaschid. 
The  doctrines  of  this  sect,  which  prevail  chiefly  in 
ISarbary  and  some  other  parts  of  Africa,  proceed  on 
the  literal  acceptation  of  the  prohibitory  precepts. 

MALTA  (Knights  of).  See  Knighthood 
(Ecci,i-.si.\STicAL  Orders  of). 

M.VLUK  DASIS,  a  sid;division  of  the  Rama- 
nandi  Vaishnuvas  of  Hindustan,  and  a  sect  of  com- 
paratively imcertain  origin  and  limited  importance. 
The  founder  of  the  sect  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Akbar  the  Great  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. The  modifications  which  Maluk  D&  intro- 
duced into  the  Vaishnava  doctrines  were  trifling, 
amounting  to  little  more  than  the  adoption  of  hia 
name  by  the  sect,  and  a  shorter  streak  of  red  upon 
the  forehead,  while  their  teachers  are  of  the  secular 
order.  Vishnu,  in  his  character  as  Rama,  is  the  ob- 
ject of  their  practical  adoration,  and  their  principles 
partake  of  the  spirit  of  quietism  which  pervades  the 
sects  of  the  Ramanandi  school.  Their  chief  autho- 
rity is  the  Dliagavat  Gita.  The  adherents  of  the 
sect  are  said  to  be  numerous,  especially  among  the 
servile  and  trading  classes,  to  the  latter  of  which 
Malnk  Das  belonged.  The  principal  establishment 
of  this  VaMmava  sect  is  at  Kara  Manikjnir,  the 
birth-place  of  the  founder,  and  still  occupied  by  Ids 
descendants ;  and  besides  this  establishment  they 
have  six  other  Mafhs  at  Allahabad,  Benares,  Bin- 
draban,  Ayudhya,  Lucknow,  and  Jagunnath,  which 
last  is  of  great  repute  as  rendered  sacred  by  the 
death  of  Maluk  Das. 

M  ALUMIGISTS,  a  sect  of  Mohammedans,  accord- 
ing to  Ricault,  who  teach  that  God  may  be  known 
perfectly  in  this  world  by  the  knowledge  which  men 
have  of  themselves. 

MAMACOCHA,  a  deity  worshipped  by  the  an- 
cient Peruvians. 

MAMAKUKS,  a  kind  of  bracelets  worn  by  the 
natives  of  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  particularly 
Amboyna,  and  which  the  women  regard  as  preser- 
vatives against  all  enchantments. 

MAMERS,  the  Oscan  name  of  the  ancient  hea- 
then god  Mars.  By  Varro,  however,  it  is  regarded 
as  the  Sabine  name  of  the  same  deity.  Mamers 
again  was  a  rural  deity  among  the  Romans.  Among 
the  Greeks  also  Slamertus  was  sometimes  used  as  a 
surname  of  Ares. 

MAMAHLLARIANS,  a  sect  of  Anabaptists 


366 


MANA— MANT.E. 


(which  see),  whicli  arose  at  Haarlem  m  Holland  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

MANA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  supposed  to 
be  identical  with  Mania  (which  see) 

MANABOSHO,  a  deity  worshipped  by  the  Chip- 
pewa Indians  of  North  America.  Various  strange 
legendaiy  tales  are  related  concerning  this  god.  It 
is  said  that  his  mother  having  been  killed  by  her  own 
husband,  Manabosho,  to  avenge  his  mother's  death, 
made  war  upon  his  father,  and  so  assailed  liim  with 
black  stones,  that  he  was  glad  to  sue  for  peace, 
and  in  order  to  appease  the  anger  of  his  son,  lie  pro- 
mised him  a  place  in  heaven,  on  condition,  however, 
that  he  would  destroy  the  monsters  or  giants  called 
Windigos,  who  devoured  men.  His  &'st  battle  was 
with  the  king  of  the  fishes,  whom  he  slew.  His  next 
engagement  was  with  the  serpents  and  their  queen, 
who  made  him  pay  dear  for  his  victory  by  letting 
forth  the  waters  of  the  deluge  upon  him.  He  found 
refuge  on  a  tree,  commanded  the  waters  to  subside, 
and  created  the  world  anew,  assisted  by  certain  ani- 
mals, who  at  his  order  pliuiged  into  the  billows 
until  a  beaver  or  a  musk-rat  recovered  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  earth.  In  this  legend  Manabosho  is  the 
same  as  the  Litaolane  of  the  Bechuanas,  and  the 
whole  stoiy  may  be  considered  as  an  obscm'e  tradi- 
tion of  the  deluge. 

MANAGARM,  a  formidable  giant  mentioned  in 
the  Scandinavian  Prose  Edda,  as  destmed  to  be  tilled 
with  the  life-blood  of  men  who  draw  near  their  end, 
and  will  swallow  up  the  moon,  and  stain  the  heaven 
and  the  earth  with  blood.  Then  shall  the  sun  grow 
dim,  and  the  winds  howl  tumultuously. 

MANAH,  the  tutelary  god  of  the  Hodhail  and 
other  tribes  of  ancient  Arabia,  occupying  the  coun- 
try between  Mecca  and  i\Iedina.  The  idol  was  a 
large  stone,  the  worship  of  which  consisted  of  the 
slaughter  of  camels  and  other  animals.  Though  the 
idol  was  destroyed  by  order  of  Mohammed,  the  rite 
is  contmued  as  a  pait  of  Islam,  at  Manah,  on  the  way 
to  Mecca. 

MANDRjE,  a  name  often  applied  to  monasteries 
in  the  East,  whence  originated  the  term  Archiman- 
drite,  used  to  denote  the  abbot  or  superior  of  a 
Greek  convent. 

MANDYAS,  a  vestment  worn  by  a  Greek  archi- 
mandrite,  which  somewhat  resembles  the  cope  of  the 
Romanists,  but  is  fastened  in  front,  and  has  bells  at 
the  lower  edge  like  the  gai-ment  of  the  Jewish  high- 
priest. 

MANES,  a  term  used  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
to  denote  the  souls  of  the  departed.  Sacrifices  were 
offered  in  lionour  of  the  Mamies  at  certain  seasons, 
and  an  annual  festival  called  Fekalia  (which  see), 
dedicated  specially  to  the  Manes,  was  celebrated  on 
the  19th  of  February. 

MANGO-CAPAC,  the  foimder  of  the  ancient 
Peruvian  Empire,  who  was  after  his  death  woi-ship- 
ped  as  a  god,  altars  being  reared  to  his  honour.  15oth 
he  and  his  wife  were  regarded  as  childi'en  of  the 


Sun,  who  had  been  sent  from  heaven  to  earth  thai 
they  might  found  a  kingdom.  The  Peruvians  held 
Mango- C'ajjcu:  in  so  great  veneration,  that  they  paid 
a  kind  of  worship  to  the  city  of  Cuzco,  because  it 
was  erected  by  this  great  monarch,  who  had  taughl 
them  the  worship  of  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  othei 
heavenly  bodies 

MAN-HO-PA,  the  Great  Spirit  worshipped  by 
the  North  American  Indians,  whom  they  propi- 
tiate by  presents,  and  by  fastijig,  and  lamentation 
durmg  the  space  of  from  tlu-ee  to  five  days.  This 
Great  Being  they  acknowledge  as  the  disposer  of 
all  good,  their  supreme  guide  and  protector.  They 
believe  him  to  be  possessed,  like  themselves,  of  cor- 
poreal form,  though  endowed  with  a  nature  infinitely 
more  excellent  than  theirs,  and  which  will  endure  for 
ever  without  change.  Tliey  have  a  tradition,  that 
the  gi-eat  waters  divide  the  residence  of  the  Great 
Spirit  from  the  temporary  abodes  of  his  red  children  ; 
but  a  very  general  belief  prevails,  that  the  Great 
Spirit  resides  on  the  western  side  of  the  Rocky 
Moimtains. 

MANI,  the  name  given  to  the  moon  among  the 
ancient  Scandinavians.  The  following  account  is 
found  in  the  Prose  Edda  of  tins  mythological 
being :  "  There  was  formerly  a  man,  named  Mun- 
dilfari,  who  had  two  children  so  lovely  and  grace- 
ful, that  he  called  the  male,  Jlilni  (moon),  and  the 
female,  S(51  (sun),  who  espoused  the  man  named 
Glenm-.  But  the  gods  being  mcensed  at  Mundilfari's 
presumption  took  his  children  and  placed  them  in 
the  heavens,  and  let  S6l  drive  the  horses  that  draw 
the  car  of  the  sun,  which  the  gods  had  made  to  give 
light  to  the  world  out  of  the  spai-ks  that  flew  from 
Muspellheim.  These  horses  are  called  Ai'vak  and 
Alsvid,  and  under  their  withers  the  gods  placed  two 
skins  filled  with  air  to  cool  and  refresh  them,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  ancient  traditions,  a  refrigerant  sub- 
stance called  isariikid.  Mdni  was  set  to  guide  the 
moon  in  liis  course,  and  regulate  his  increasing  and 
waning  aspect.  One  day  he  carried  off  from  the 
earth  two  children,  named  Bil  and  Hjuki,  as  they 
were  returning  from  the  spring  called  Byrgir,  cariy- 
ing  between  them  the  bucket  called  Sasgr,  on  the 
pole  Simul.  Vidrinn  was  the  father  of  these  chil- 
dren, who  always  follow  M;ini  (the  moon),  as  we 
may  easily  observe  even  from  the  earth." 

MANTA,  a  goddess  among  the  ancient  Etruscans, 
who  belonged  to  the  infernal  divinities,  and  was  said 
to  be  the  mother  of  the  Manes.  We  leam  from 
Macrobius  that  images  of  Mania  were  Imng  up 
at  the  house  doors  to  ward  off  danger.  At  the  fes- 
tival of  the  Compitalia  (which  s«!),  boys  are  iiaid 
to  have  been  sacrificed  to  this  goddess.  The  bar- 
barous practice  of  ofiering  U])  human  sacrifices  on 
this  occasion  was  at  length  abolished,  and  ofl'enngs 
of  garlic  and  popjiy  heads  substituted  in  place  of 
them. 

MANIyE,  certain  ancient  divinities,  believed  to 
be  the  same  with  the  Eumenides  (which  see). 


MANICIIEANS. 


367 


MANICIIKANS,  a  heretical  sect  which  arose 
towards  tlie  close  of  tlic  third  century,  orif;iriatiii£;  in 
»n  attempt  on  tlie  part  of  tlie  Persian  Mtini  or 
Manes,  to  comhine  Christianity  vvitli  tlie  Oriental 
I'aj^an  religions.  The  system  of  doctrines  thus 
formed  was  strictly  dualistic.  It  supposed  two  ori- 
ginal and  ahsolutely  opposite  principles;  the  one 
being  God,  the  source  of  all  good  ;  the  other  evil,  the 
source  of  all  confusion,  disorder,  and  destruction. 
The  two  kingdoms  thus  at  antagonism  were  at  first 
wholly  separate  from  one  another.  In  connection 
with  the  Sujn-eme  God,  and  emanating  from  him, 
were  certain  yEnnn,  who,  in  strict  suhordination  to 
the  Great  Source  of  light  and  goodness,  diffused  these 
precious  blessings  among  all  other  beings.  The 
powers  of  darkness  are  engaged  in  a  struggle  among 
themselves,  until  approaching  the  kingdom  of  light 
they  are  subdued  by  intermingling  with  it,  and  at 
length  are  rendered  utterly  powerless.  From  the 
Supremo  Being,  who  rules  over  the  kingdom  of 
light,  issues  the  ^on,  mother  of  light,  who  generates 
the  primitive  man  with  a  view  to  oppose  to  him  the 
powers  of  darkness.  The  primitive  man,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  five  pure  elements  of  physical  nature, 
enters  into  the  conflict,  but  feeling  his  position  to  be 
critical  and  dangerous,  he  asks  for,  and  obtains,  the 
living  spirit  by  which  he  is  raised  once  more  to  the 
kingdom  of  light.  A  process  of  purification  is  now 
commenced  by  the  same  living  spirit,  which  goes  on 
in  the  physical  as  well  as  in  the  moral  world,  both  of 
them  indeed  being  confounded  in  the  Manicheaii 
system.  "  As  the  religious  system  of  the  Persians," 
to  use  the  language  of  Ncandcr,  "  assigned  an  impor- 
tant place  to  the  sun  and  moon,  in  the  conlhct  in  the 
physical  and  S]jiritual  world  between  Ormuzd  and 
Ahriman,  and  in  carrying  forward  the  universal  pro- 
cess of  development  and  pm-ification  ;  so  was  it  also 
in  the  system  of  Mani.  Very  nearly  the  same 
that  the  system  of  Zoroaster  taught  concerning 
Mithras,  as  the  Genius  (Ized)  of  the  Sun,  Mani 
transferred  to  his  Christ, — the  pure  soul  sending 
forth  its  influence  from  the  sun  and  from  the  moon. 
Representing  the  soul  as  having  sprung  from  the 
primitive  man,  he  interpreted  in  this  sense  the  bibli- 
cal name,  '  Son  of  Man,'  and  distinguishing  between 
the  pjtre  andyj'cc  soul  enthroned  in  the  sun,  and  its 
kindred  soul  diffused  throughout  nature,  and  cor- 
rupted by  its  mixture  with  matter.  So,  too,  he  dis- 
tinguished a  son  of  man  superior  to  all  contact  with 
matter,  and  incapable  of  suffering,  from  a  son  of  man 
crucified,  so  to  speak,  and  suffering,  in  matter. 
Wherever  the  scattered  seed  pushed  upward  out  of 
the  dark  bosom  of  the  earth  and  unfolded  itself  in  a 
plant,  in  its  blossom  and  its  fruit,  Mani  beheld  the 
triumpliant  evolution  of  the  principle  of  light,  gra- 
dually working  its  way  onward  to  freedom  from  the 
bondage  of  matter  ;  he  beheld  how  the  living  soul, 
which  had  been  imprisoned  in  the  members  of  the 
Prince  of  Darkness,  loosens  itself  from  the  contine- 
oient,  rises  in   freedom,  and  mingles  with  its  conge- 


nial element  the  pure  air,  where  the  souls  completely 
purified  ascend  to  those  ships  of  light  (the  sun  and 
moon)  which  are  ready  to  transport  them  to  their 
native  country.  Hut  whatever  still  bears  upon  it 
various  blemishes  and  stains,  is  attracted  to  them 
gradually,  and  in  portions,  by  the  force  of  heat,  and 
incorporates  itself  with  all  trees,  with  whatever  is 
planted  and  sown." 

Man  is  now  created,  the  image,  in  this  world  of 
darkness,  of  the  primitive  man,  and  destined  to  ex- 
ercise dominion  over  nature.  In  him  are  seen  united 
the  powers  of  the  kingdom  of  darkness  and  of  light, 
a  mirror  in  which  are  exhibited  the  powers  of  heaven 
and  of  earth.  His  soul  is  derived  from  the  kingdom 
of  light,  and  his  body  from  the  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness. The  two  maintain  a  constant  struggle  with 
each  other,  and  to  deliver  the  soul  from  the  power 
of  darkness,  giving  it  a  complete  victory  over  the 
evil  principle,  the  spirit  of  the  sun,  which  purifies 
all  nature,  must  become  incarnate,  not  uniting  him- 
self to  a  material  body,  with  which  he  could  have  no 
communion,  but  clothing  himself  in  a  shadowy,  sen- 
sible form,  and  thus  the  death  of  Christ  was  not  a 
real,  but  otdy  a  seeming  crucifixion. 

The  aim  of  the  whole  Divine  arrangements,  accord- 
ing to  the  theory  of  the  Manicheans,  was  to  effect  a 
total  separation  of  the  light  from  the  darkness,  and 
the  reduction  of  the  darkness  to  utter  powerless- 
ness.  They  held  that  the  highest,  most  authorita- 
tive, and  only  infallible  system  of  truth,  was  that 
which  was  taught  by  the  Paraclete  or  Mani,  and  by 
wliicli  all  doctrines,  wherever  found,  were  to  be  test- 
ed. To  these  the  Holy  Scrijitures  of  truth  were  sub- 
ordinated, and  they  held  that  it  was  by  the  teachings 
of  Mani,  the  true  was  distinguished  from  the  false, 
in  the  New  Testament.  They  refused  to  admit,  for 
example,  that  Jesus  was  born  of  a  woman ;  that  he 
was  circumcised  as  a  Jew,  that  he  was  meanly  bap- 
tized, led  into  the  wilderness,  and  miserably  tempt- 
ed of  the  devil.  Mani  claimed  to  be  a  divinely  au- 
thorized church-reformer.  He  held  that  the  Ma- 
nichean  was  the  only  true  Christian  church ;  and 
that  within  it  there  were  two  distinct  orders  of 
members, — the  exoterics,  called  Auditors,  who  were 
permitted  to  read  the  writings  of  Mani,  and  to 
hear  his  doctrines  stated  in  their  mythical  form, 
■without,  however,  receiving  any  explanation  of 
their  hidden  meaning ;  and  the  esoterics,  called  the 
Elect  or  Perfect,  who  were  the  priestly  order  of  the 
church,  and  formed  the  connecting  link  between  the 
earth  and  the  kingdom  of  light.  The  latter  class 
were  forbidden  to  hold  property,  and  required  to  lead 
a  life  of  contemplation,  to  abstain  from  marriage, 
from  all  intoxicating  drinks,  and  even  from  animal 
food.  They  must  not  kill,  nor  even  injure  an  ani- 
mal, nor  must  they  pull  up  an  herb,  or  pluck  a  fruit 
or  a  fiower.  The  Auditors  were  ordered  to  pay 
them  all  due  reverence  as  superior  beings,  and  to 
provide  them  with  suitable  means  of  support ;  thev 
were  to  look  upon  them  also  as  mediators  b«ween 


368 


MANICHEANS. 


tliem  and  the  kingdom  of  light.  From  tliis  body  of 
tlie  Elect  were  cliosen  the  presiding  officers  of  the 
chiirch,  wlio,  hlce  the  apostles,  were  twelve  in  num- 
ber, and  under  the  name  of  Magistri  were  the  rulers 
of  the  sect.  To  these  twelve  was  added  a  thirteenth, 
who,  representing  Mani,  presided  over  the  rest.  Sub- 
ordinate to  these  superior  officers  were  sixty-two 
bishops,  under  whom  were  presbyters,  deacons,  and 
finally  ti-avelling  preachers.  Tlie  Lord's  Supjier  was 
strictly  limited  to  the  Elect,  and  it  is  generally  ad- 
mitted, that  they  used  wine  in  tlie  ordinance. 

Tlie  Sun  being  the  Christ  of  the  Manicheans,  they 
observed  Sunday  as  a  festival  in  honour  of  him  ;  and 
on  a  particular  day  in  the  month  of  March,  they  cele- 
brated a  festival  in  commemoration  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  Mani,  when  a  splendidly  adorned  pulpit,  as- 
scended  by  five  steps,  was  erected,  and  before  it  all 
the  Manicheans  prostrated  themselves.  At  its  first 
origin  the  members  of  the  sect  were  persecuted  by 
the  Roman  government.  Tlie  Emperor  Dioclesian, 
A.  D.  296,  issued  a  decree,  that  the  leaders  of  the 
Manicheans  should  be  burned  at  the  stake,  and  their 
followers  subjected  to  decapitation,  and  the  confisca- 
tion of  their  property.  Notwithstanding  this  severe 
enactment,  the  sect  made  rapid  progress,  and  in  the 
fourth  century  it  ensnared  many,  including  even  Au- 
gustine for  a  time.  In  the  year  372,  Valentinian 
the  elder  forbade  their  holding  meetings,  and  laid 
tlieir  ministers  mider  heavy  penalties.  In  the  year 
381,  Theodosius  the  Great  pronounced  them  infa- 
mous, and  deprived  them  of  the  rights  of  citizens. 
To  escape  the  severity  of  these  laws,  the  Manicheans 
endeavoured  to  shelter  themselves  under  a  variety  of 
different  names.  From  the  affinity  of  the  doctrines 
of  Mani  to  those  of  Zoroaster,  in  no  country  did  the 
Manichean  heresy  find  a  firmer  footing  than  in  Per- 
sia ;  and  in  the  sixth  century  it  became  so  powerful 
in  that  coimtry  as  to  seduce  the  son  of  Cabadas  the 
monarch  ;  and  the  consequence  was,  that,  by  royal 
command,  many  of  them  were  slaughtered.  In  the 
East  generally,  from  the  Oriental  character  of  their 
system,  the  Manicheans  made  rapid  progress  for  sev- 
eral centuries,  though  often  subjected  to  penal  enact- 
ments of  the  most  oppressive  kind.  Towards  the 
ninth  century  the  sect  became  merged  in  the  Pauli- 
CIANS  (which  see). 

Ecclesiastical  historians  generally  have  recognized 
the  Oriental  character  of  the  Manichean  system ; 
but  the  work  of  Dr.  Baur,  published  at  Tubingen  in 
1831,  has  traced,  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner,  the 
close  relationship  which  exists  between  tlie  doctrines 
of  Mani  and  tliose  of  Budha.  Neander,  pursuing  the 
same  train  of  thought,  has  pointed  out  some  very 
striking  analogies  between  the  two  systems.  Thus 
he  remarks  :  "  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable, 
that  in  the  public  appearances  of  Mani  two  epochs 
are  to  be  distinguished, — and  this  view  of  the  matter 
is  also  confirmed  by  indications  in  tlie  historical 
notices, — the  first  when  his  aim  was  simply  to  re- 
concile and  blend  together  Parsisra  and  Ohristianity ; 


the  second,  after  he  had  become  acquainted  in  his 
travels  with  Buddhaism,  from  which  a  new  liglit 
arose  within  him,  and  he  supposed  that  he  first  at- 
tained, from  this  new  position,  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  truth  in  all  tlie  three  religions. 
Dualism,  with  him,  must  now  gi-adually  pass  over 
more  completely  into  pantheistic  Monoism.  For 
we  cannot  help  considering  Buddhaism,  although  the 
fact  has  been  denied  by  many  in  modem  times,  as 
one  phase  of  the  appearance  of  Pantheism  ;  since 
indeed  we  mu.st  consider  as  such  every  doctrine 
which  does  not  recognize  God  as  a  self-conscious, 
free  causality  of  existence,  acting  with  a  view  to  cer- 
tain purposes  or  ends.  The  Duahsra  of  the  Buddha 
system  is  of  altogether  another  kind  from  that  of  the 
Parsic.  It  is  rwt  a  positive  kingdom  of  evil  that 
stands  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  good,  and  with  a 
corrupting  influence  mixes  into  its  creation ;  but 
by  Dualism  here  nothing  else  is  expressed  than 
that  the  Divine  Being  is  under  the  necessity  ot 
passing  out  of  itself,  and  over  into  nranifestation ; 
— and  the  problem  then  is,  how  to  return  back 
from  this  manifestation  into  pure  being.  There 
are  two  factors,  the  Spirit-God,  ajid  nature,  or 
matter.  When  the  spirit  passes  out  from  itself  into 
nature,  then  springs  into  existence  the  phenomenal 
world,  the  world  of  appearance,  of  Sansara — the 
Maya.  The  Spirit  becomes  ever  more  coagulated  in 
nature,  more  completely  estranged  from  itself,  even 
to  entire  unconsciousness.  In  man,  it  returns  back 
through  various  stages  of  development  and  purifica- 
tion once  more  to  itself ;  till,  wholly  released  from 
the  bonds  of  natural  force,  after  being  stripped  of  all 
limited,  individual  existence,  it  becomes  conscious  of 
its  oneness  with  the  primal  Spirit,  from  which  all 
life  has  flowed,  and  passes  over  into  the  same.  This 
is  becoming  Nirwana.  The  antithesis  is  obvious — 
the  Spirit,  in  its  estrangement  from  itself,  the  world 
of  manifestation  or  of  appearance  (Sansara,  Maya) , 
and  the  pure  being  of  the  Spirit  (the  Nirwana).  It 
is  a  characteristic  mark  of  the  Buddhaist  mode  of 
contemplation,  and  an  evidence  of  the  Monoism  ly- 
ing at  the  root  of  this  Dualism,  when  we  find  it  de- 
scribed as  the  highest  stage  of  perfection,  that  the  San- 
sara and  the  Nirwana  become  one  for  consciousness  ; 
the  Spirit  is  no  longer  affected  at  all  by  the  appear- 
ance, can  energize  freely  in  connection  with  it,  and 
amidst  the  woi-ld  of  appearance,  recognizing  this  as 
appearance  and  in  its  necessity,  holds  fast  only  the 
pure  being — the  entire  oneness  of  the  world  on  tliis 
side,  and  the  world  bei/ond  time.  Thus  Buddlia  lets 
himself  down  to  the  world  of  Sansara  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  souls  therein  confined,  and  both  are  one 
to  him." 

'J'he  Manichean  heresy  appears  to  have  been  r 
combination  of  ditTerent  systems,  but  more  especially 
those  of  the  Chrixiiana,  the  Parsee-'!,  and  the  Biui 
ImU,  all  of  which  develop  thcmselve.s  more  strongly 
in  this  than  in  any  other  system  of  doctrines  which 
ecclesiastical  history  contains. 


MANIPA— MANWANTARA. 


3(;s 


MANIPA,  a  goddess  worsliipped  by  tlie  Monf;ol 
Tartars.  Slie  is  represpntcd  by  an  idol  with  nine 
heads,  whicl)  form  a  kind  of  pyramid.  Slie  is  lilic- 
wiso  r(>|)reflonted  under  a  liiiman  sliapc,  and  tlioiiglit 
to  dehglit  in  murder. 

MANIPLK,  a  portion  of  tlie  dress  of  a  Romisli 
priest  in  celebrating  mass,  worn  npon  the  left  arm. 
It  was  originally  a  narrow  strip  of  linen  suspended 
from  the  left  arm ;  in  course  of  time  it  was  embel- 
lished, bordered  with  a  fringe,  and  decorated  wiili 
needle-work.  The  Greek  priests  have  two  mani- 
|iles,  called  epimnnida,  one  for  the  right  band,  and 
another  for  the  left.  The  patriarch  alone  is  allowed 
to  wear  both.  No  maniple  is  worn  by  tlie  clergy  of 
the  Church  of  Kngland. 

MANITO,  a  name  used  among  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians  to  denote  a  spirit,  hence  the  Great  Spirit 
is  called  in  various  tribes  Kitchi-Manito,  and  the  Kvil 
Spirit,  Matchi-Manito.  When  used  simply  without 
any  e])ithet  prefixed,  the  title  lifanito  is  restricted  to 
a  minor  emanation  from  tlie  Great  Spirit,  which  the 
American  Indian  conceives  to  be  comnnmicated  to 
some  well-known  bird  or  beast  or  other  object, fit- 
ting it  to  be  his  guardian  deity,  liis  councillor,  pro- 
tector, and  friend.  But  wdiile  thus  reposing  with 
confidence  on  the  assistance  of  bis  own  Manito,  be  is 
constantly  visited  with  painful  apprehensions,  lest 
his  neiglibour's  Manito  may  prove  more  powerful 
than  bis  own,  and  may,  perlia])s,  assaidt  and  injure 
him.  The  world,  they  imagine,  is  governed  by 
J\(anUoes,  both  good  and  evil,  who  are  ever  conflict- 
ing together,  and  thus  give  rise  to  the  moral  confu- 
sion and  disorder  wdiich  eveiy  where  prevail.  The 
constant  dread  of  these  powerful  spirits  haunts  the 
North  Aiuerican  savage  of  the  woods,  until,  by  death 
or  transmigration,  be  passes  beyond  their  reach. 
When  they  go  to  battle  or  the  chase,  the  image  of 
their  tutelary  spirit  is  carried  with  them  as  an  indis- 
pensable part  of  their  equipment.  When  they  perform 
a  solemn  sacrifice,  they  put  upon  a  pole  the  head  of 
a  man  carved  in  wood,  which  they  place  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  house.  A  smaller  image  of  the  same  kind 
is  carried  about  with  them  suspended  round  their 
necks.  "  Every  savage,"  says  Chateaubriand,  "  has 
bis  Manito,  as  every  Negro  has  his  Fetish  :  it  is  either 
a  bird,  a  fish,  a  quadruped,  a  reptile,  a  stone,  a  piece 
of  wood,  a  bit  of  cloth,  any  coloured  object,  or  a 
European  or  American  ornament."  One  Indian,  as 
the  Moravian  missionaries  inform  us,  has,  in  a  dream, 
received  the  sun  as  bis  tutelary  spirit ;  anotlier  the 
moon  ;  a  third,  the  owl ;  a  fourth,  the  buffalo. 

MANNUS,  a  god  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans.    He  was  the  son  of  Tuisco. 

MANSIONARII.    See  Ostiarii. 

MANTEIS  (Gr.  prophets),  seers  connected  with 
the  ancient  oracles  of  Greece  and  Rome.  They 
were  believed  to  foretell  future  events  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  gods,  particularly  of  Apollo.  This 
privilege  was  in  some  cases  supposed  to  belong  to 
particular  famihes,  who  handed  it  down  from  lather 


to  son.  The  mantcis  made  their  revelations  on  any 
great  emergency,  when  considted  by  others,  or  when 
they  themselves  considered  it  to  be  for  the  public 
advantage,  to  make  known  the  will  of  the  pods. 
These  interpreters  of  the  will  of  heaven  were  publicly 
protected  and  honoured  by  the  Athenian  government, 
and  their  presence  was  deemed  important  in  all  as- 
semblies of  the  people.  See  Aruspices,  Augurs, 
Divination,  Okaclks. 

MANTELUiM  (Monasticum),  (I>at.  a  monk'k 
mantle).     See  Mandyas. 

MANTIS  (The  Praying),  an  insect  said  to  have 
been  formerly  worshipped  by  the  Hottentots.  It 
derives  the  peculiar  name  it  bears  from  the  erect 
position  and  motion  it  assumes  wlien  alarmed.  Con- 
siderable doubt  exists  whether  this  parlicidar  form 
of  idolatry  was  ever  practised  among  the  Hottentot 
tribes  at  any  time.  All  that  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty is,  that  the  insect  in  question  was  regarded  by 
the  more  superstitious  of  the  people  as  a  creature  of 
bad  omen,  and  to  kill,  or  even  to  injure  it,  was 
looked  upon  as  in  the  highest  degree  unlucky,  and 
sure  to  be  followed  by  some  great  misfortune. 

MANTRA,  a  secret,  the  communication  of  which 
forms  the  chief  ceremony  of  initiation  in  all  Hindu 
sects.  It  generally  consists  of  the  name  of  some 
deity,  or  a  short  address  to  him  ;  it  is  conveyed  by 
the  teacher  to  the  disciple  in  a  whisper,  and  when 
once  known,  it  is  carefully  concealed  from  all  the 
uninitiated.  Professor  H.  Wilson  says,  that  Hindus 
above  prejudices  in  other  respects,  find  it  so  difficult 
to  get  over  that  of  communicating  the  Mantra,  that 
even  wlien  they  profess  to  impart  it,  their  sincerity 
can  scarcely  be  admitted  without  a  doubt. — The 
word  Mantra  is  also  employed  generally  to  denote 
a  spell  or  enchantment,  and  also  a  hymn  or  a 
prayer. 

MANU  (Code  of),  the  authoritative  Law-Book 
of  the  Hindu  Brahmans.  This  production  is  of  later 
origin  than  the  Upanishads  (which  sec),  but 
teaches  the  same  religious  doctrine  and  precepts, 
with  various  important  additions,  the  whole  being 
divided  into  eighteen  books.  The  Code  was  com- 
piled by  Manu,  the  son  of  Brahma,  and  other  sacred 
personages — detailing  all  manner  of  duties  connected 
with  the  worship  of  God,  and  all  the  possible  rela- 
tions that  can  subsist  between  man  and  man. 

MANUS,  a  legendary  race  of  monarchs  in  the 
system  o(  Hinduism,  who  lived  about  2,000,000,000 
of  years  ago.  The  first  of  tliem  came  down  with  hia 
spouse  from  one  of  the  higher  heavens  to  rule  over 
the  earth.  The  entire  line  of  Manus  amounted  to 
fourteen,  each  of  them,  with  his  posterity  of  sons  and 
grandsons,  is  supposed  to  have  been  invested  with 
the  sovereignty  of  the  earth  during  a  Manwantara 
(which  see),  or  a  cycle  of  time. 

MANWANTAJRA,  a  grand   period   of  time  in 

Hindu  chronology,  including  seventy-one  maha-yugt 

or  divine  ages,  being  the  reign  of  one  ^fanu,  wit}' 

bis  posterity  of  sons  and  grandsons.     The  reigne  ol 

2i 


370 


MAPHRIDA— MARCIOOTTES. 


the  fourteen  Manus,  who  reigned  in  succession,  ex- 
tended to  1,000  maha-yugs  or  one  Kalpa. 

MAPHRIDA,  the  second  dignitary  of  the  JACOB- 
ITE Church  (which  see)  in  the  East. 

MARABOUTS,  insane  persons  in  Algiers,  Mo- 
rocco, and  other  countries  in  the  North  of  Africa, 
who  are  reputed  saints,  and  exercise  great  influence 
over  all  classes  of  the  people.  Gifts  of  every  kind 
are  heaped  upon  these  foolish  impostors.  A  Mara- 
bout performs  the  duties  of  a  priest,  pretends  to  ward 
off  evil  from  any  one,  and  to  cause  misfortune  to 
those  with  whom  he  may  happen  to  be  offended. 
He  employs  himself  in  manufacturing  amulets  and 
charms.  He  has  the  privilege  of  being  able  to  ac- 
cord sanctuary  to  any  criminal  whether  innocent  or 
guilty,  and  even  under  the  ban  of  sovereign  displea- 
sure, who  may  have  succeeded  in  crossing  the  thresh- 
old of  the  Marabout's  chiosk.  The  grand  Marabout 
is  one  of  the  principal  officers  at  the  court  of  the 
Dey  of  Algiers,  and  presides  in  matters  of  reli- 
gion. 

MARAE,  the  name  given  in  the  South  Sea  Islands 
to  a  heathen  temple.  All  were  uncovered  and  re- 
sembled oratories  rather  than  temples.  They  are  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Ellis  in  his  '  Pol3Tiesian  Researches : 
"  The  form  of  the  interior  or  area  of  their  temples 
was  frequently  that  of  a  square  or  a  parallelogram, 
the  sides  of  which  extended  forty  or  fifty  feet.  Two 
sides  of  this  space  were  enclosed  by  a  high  stone 
wall ;  the  front  was  protected  by  a  low  fence ;  and 
opposite,  a  solid  pyramidal  structure  was  raised,  in 
front  of  which  the  images  were  kept,  and  the  altars 
fixed.  These  piles  were  often  immense.  That 
which  formed  one  side  of  the  square  of  the  large 
temple  in  Atehuru,  according  to  Mr.  Wilson,  by 
whom  it  was  visited  when  in  a  state  of  preservation, 
was  two  hundred  and  seventy  feet  long,  ninety-four 
wide  at  the  base,  and  fifty  feet  high,  being  at  the 
summit  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  long,  and  six 
wide.  A  flight  of  steps  led  to  its  summit;  the  bot- 
tom step  was  six  feet  high.  The  outer  stones  of 
the  pyramid,  composed  of  coral  and  basalt,  were 
laid  with  great  care,  and  hewn  or  squared  with  im- 
mense labour,  especially  the  tiava,  or  corner  stones. 

"Within  the  enclosure,  the  houses  of  the  priests, 
and  keepers  of  the  idols,  were  erected.  Ruins  of 
temples  are  found  in  every  situation :  on  the  sum- 
mit of  ;i  hill,  as  at  Maeva,  where  Tane's  temple, 
nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  square,  enclosed 
with  high  walls,  is  still  standing,  almost  entire ;  on 
the  extremity  of  a  point  of  land  projecting  into  the 
sea ;  or  in  the  recesses  of  an  extensive  and  over- 
shadowing grove.  The  trees  growing  within  the 
walls,  and  around  the  temjilc,  were  sacred;  these 
were  the  tall  cypress-like  casuarina,  the  tamami,  or 
callophylluni,  miro  or  thespesia,  and  the  toti,  or 
cordia.  TlicHC  were,  excepting  the  casuarina-frecs, 
of  large  foliage  and  exuberant  growth,  their  inter- 
woven and  dark  umbrageous  branches  frequently 
excluding  the  rays  of  the  fun  ;  and  the  contrast  be- 


tween the  bright  glare  of  a  tropical  day,  and  the 
sombre  gloom  in  the  depths  of  these  groves,  was 
peculiarly  striking.  The  fantastic  contortions  in  the 
trunks  and  tortuous  branches  of  the  aged  trees,  the 
plaintive  and  moaning  sound  of  the  wind  passing 
through  the  leaves  of  the  casuarina,  often  resembling 
the  wild  notes  of  the  Eolian  harp — and  the  dark 
walls  of  the  temple,  with  the  grotesque  and  horrific 
appearance  of  the  idols — combined  to  inspire  extra- 
ordinary emotions  of  superstitious  terror,  and  to 
nurture  that  deep  feeling  of  dread  which  character- 
ized the  worshippers  of  Tahiti's  sanguinary  deities." 

MARANATHA.    See  Anathema. 

MARATONIANS.    See  Macedonians. 

MARCELLIANS,  the  followers  of  Marcellus, 
bishop  of  AncjTa  in  Galatia,  in  the  fourth  century. 
He  had  from  the  beginning  keenly  opposed  the 
Arlans,  and  warmly  supported  the  Honwousia  of  the 
Nicene  creed.  All  subordination  of  Persons  in  the 
Sacred  Trinity  he  believed  to  be  Ai-iani?m,  and  in 
the  course  of  a  work  in  refutation  of  the  Sophist 
Asterius,  the  founder  of  the  Semi-Arian  school,  he 
fell  into  an  error  approaching  to  the  Sabellian  or 
Samasotenian  heresy,  that  of  maintaining  the  unity 
of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  losing  sight  of  the  per- 
sonal distinction  between  them.  He  was  answered 
not  only  by  Asterius,  but  by  Eusebius  of  Cssarea, 
and  Acacius.  Eusebius  wrote  two  works  against 
him,  and  at  an  assembly  of  EuseKans  held  at  Constan- 
tinople A.  D.  336,  Marcellus  was  formally  deposed  from 
his  bisliopric,  to  make  way,  as  was  supposed,  for  the 
Semi-Arian  Basil.  Notwithstanding  the  suspicion 
of  heresy  which  now  attached  to  him,  the  orthodox 
party  defended  him  for  some  time,  and  the  council 
of  Sardica  acquitted  him,  and  restored  him  to  hig 
see.  In  course  of  time  his  heretical  views  assumed 
a  more  definite  shape,  so  that  bis  friends  were  com- 
pelled to  abandon  him  as  a  confirmed  heretic;  and 
this  view  of  his  character  was  rendered  all  the  more 
certain  by  the  unshrinking  boldness  with  which  Ins 
pupil  Photinus  developed  the  Marcellian  here.sy  in 
all  its  extent,  but  under  a  new  name  derived  from 
liimself.     (See  Photinians.) 

MARCIANISTS.    See  Euchites. 

MARCIONITES,  a  Gnostic  sect  which  arose  in 
the  second  century,  deriving  its  name  from  Mai-cion, 
a  native  of  Sinope  in  Pontus,  where  bis  fatlier  waa 
bishop.  From  early  life  he  seems  to  have  been 
animated  by  an  ardent  love  of  Divine  truth,  and 
a  strong  reluctance  to  submit  to  human  tradition. 
The  tendency  in  his  mind  towards  an  ascetic  spirit 
was  seen  in  the  fact,  that  in  the  first  ardour  of 
Christian  love  he  resolved  to  renounce  every  earth- 
ly possession,  and  to  give  himself  up  to  a  course 
of  rigid  abstinence,  presenting  to  the  church  at 
the  same  time  a  sum  of  two  hundred  tcstertia. 
He  grasped  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity, and  more  especially  the  fact  of  redemption, 
with  so  firm  a  bold,  and  took  so  absorbing  a  view 
of  the  God  of  the  gospel,  that  he  conceived  him 


MARCIONITES. 


371 


to  be  a  Heing  altogetlier  distinct  from  the  God  of 
nature.  From  sucli  a  train  of  tliinking,  lie  naturally 
paused  to  the  idea  that  tliore  was  a  com]ileto  con- 
trariety between  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New. 
The  God  of  the  one  was  jealous,  severe,  and  inexor- 
able, while  the  God  of  the  other  was  only  mercy  and 
love.  The  Messiah  of  the  one  had  a  kingdom,  but 
wholly  of  this  world ;  the  Christ  of  the  otiier  liad  a 
kingdom  also,  hut  essentially  Sfjiritual,  and  not  of 
this  world. 

From  the  character  of  his  niiiul,  Marcion  was  op- 
posed to  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
which  was  so  prevalent  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
church ;  on  the  contrary,  lie  adhered  to  the  lit- 
eral meaning,  and  entertained  an  earnest  desire  to 
restore  Christianity  otice  more  to  its  simple  and  pri- 
mitive form,  by  rescuing  it  from  the  Jewish  element 
with  which  it  had  been  confounded.  Excommuni- 
cated from  the  cluircli  at  Sinopc,  he  repaired  to 
Rome,  where  he  hoped  to  meet  with  more  sympathy 
in  consequence  of  !iis  strong  anti-Judaizing  tenden- 
cies. His  expectations,  however,  of  countenance 
from  the  Roman  church  were  disappointed,  and  he 
now  conceived  the  design  of  founding  an  indepen- 
dent church.  lie  attached  himself,  accordingly,  to  a 
teacher  from  Antioeh  in  Syria,  by  name  Cerdo,  who 
taught  a  system  of  pure  Dualism  (see  Cerdonians), 
and  to  whose  instructions  he  was  indebted  for  a  con- 
(idorable  number  of  his  opinions.  Though  every- 
where looked  upon  as  a  heretic,  he  devoted  himself 
throughout  his  whole  life  to  the  active  propagation 
of  his  peculiar  views,  not  communicating  tliem,  as 
many  of  the  other  Gnostic  teachers  did,  to  a  limited 
number  of  followers,  but  to  all  Christians  with  whom 
he  came  in  contact.  It  is  alleged  by  Tertullian,  that 
Marcion  towards  the  end  of  his  life  repented  of  the 
schism  to  which  he  had  given  rise,  and  ssught  to  be 
restored  to  the  fellowship  of  the  church — a  request 
which  was  granted  on  condition  that  he  should  bring 
back  those  whom  he  had  seduced  from  the  church ; 
but  his  premature  death  prevented  the  fulfilment  of 
the  condition,  and  thus  he  died  in  a  state  of  excom- 
munication. 

The  doctrines  inculcated  by  Marcion,  and  held  by 
his  followers  the  Marcionites,  were  fundamentally  the 
eame  with  the  other  Gnostics.  Three  primary  prin- 
ciples were  laid  down  as  the  basis  of  the  entire  sys- 
tem:  1.  The  Hyle,  or  matter  existing  from  all  eter- 
nity. 2.  God,  a  Being  of  infinite  perfection,  holi- 
ness, and  love.  3.  The  Demiurge,  the  Creator  of 
the  world,  the  God  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, who  holds  a  middle  place  between  good  and 
evil,  and  is  engaged  in  a  constant  conflict  with  mat- 
ter, seeking  to  Subject  it  to  his  will,  but  meeting 
with  steady  resistance.  From  the  ever -resisting 
matter  originated  evil,  which  became  concentrated 
in  Satan,  the  Evil  One.  The  moral  operations  of 
the  Demiurge  are  thus  developed  by  Neander : 
"  The  Demiurge  of  Marcion  does  not  work  after  the 
(wttem  of  higher  ideas,  of  ^vhich,  though  uncon- 


sciously, or  even  against  his  will,  he  i«  the  organ ; 
bul  he  is  the  absolutely  independent,  self-subsistenl 
creator  of  an  imperfect  world,  answering  to  liis  own 
limited  essence.  To  this  world  Marcion  reckoned 
also  the  nature  of  man,  in  which  he  did  not  ackiiow. 
ledge,  like  other  Gnostics,  the  existence  of  another 
element  besides.  The  Demiurge — so  he  taught — 
created  man,  his  highest  work,  after  his  own  image, 
to  represent  and  reveal  himself.  Man's  body  he 
formed  of  matter, — hence  evil  desires;  to  this  body 
he  gave  a  soul  in  affinity  with  himself  and  derived 
from  his  own  essence.  lie  gave  him  a  law,  to  try 
his  obedience,  with  a  view  cither  to  reward  or  to 
punish  him,  according  to  his  desert.  But  the  limited 
Demiurge  had  it  not  in  his  power  to  give  man  a  god- 
like principle  of  life,  capable  of  overcoming  evil. 
Man  yielded  to  the  seductions  of  sinfid  lust,  and  thui 
became  subject,  with  his  whole  race,  to  the  dominion 
of  matter,  and  of  the  evil  sjiirits  which  sprang  out  of 
it.  From  the  entire  race  of  fallen  humanity,  the 
Demiurge  selected  only  one  people,  for  his  special 
guidance ;  to  this  people,  the  Jews,  he  made  a  spe- 
cial revelation  of  himself,  and  gave  a  religious  polity, 
answering  to  his  men  essence  and  character, — con- 
sisting, on  the  one  hand,  of  a  ceremonial  confined  to 
externals ;  on  the  oOier,  of  an  imperative  deficient 
svstem  of  morals,  without  any  inner  godlike  life, 
without  power  to  sanctify  the  heart,  without  the  spi- 
rit of  love.  Those  who  faithfully  observed  this  re- 
ligious law,  he  rewarded  by  conveying  them  at  death 
to  a  state  of  happiness  suited  to  their  limited  na- 
tures, in  the  society  of  their  pious  forefathers.  But 
all  who  suffered  themselves  to  be  seduced  by  the 
enticements  of  the  Hijle  to  disobey  the  Demiurge, 
and  all  who  abandoned  themselves  to  idolatry — a 
system  to  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  this  Hyle,  he 
hurled  down  to  perdition." 

According  to  the  views  of  Marcion,  Christ  was 
the  self-manifestation  of  the  Father,  and  the  human 
body  in  which  he  appeared  on  earth  was  not  a  real 
but  a  seeming  body.  The  Christ  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  wholly  distinct  from,  and  even  in  many 
respects  opposed  to,  the  Messiah  of  the  Old.  The 
true  believer  in  Christ  became  a  partaker,  even  in 
this  world,  of  a  divine  life  above  the  power  of  the 
Demiurge  and  the  Hyk,  and  under  the  special  guid- 
ance of  the  God  of  love.  Such  a  man  Marcion  con- 
ceived must  be  an  ascetic,  seeking  to  be  delivered 
from  all  contaminating  influence  of  matter;  and  if 
any  one  was  not  capable  of  leading  this  kind  of  life, 
he  ought  to  be  kept  in  the  class  of  catechumens,  but 
in  his  present  state  could  not  be  admitted  to  bap- 
tism. He  is  said  to  have  held  the  doctrine  of  vica 
rious  baptism  of  the  living,  for  catechumens  who  had 
died. 

With  the  exception  of  the  epistles  of  Paul.  Mar- 
cion rejected  the  whole  New  Testament,  substituting 
for  the  writings  of  the  four  Evangehsts  a  pretended 
original  Gospel,  which  he  maintained  was  the  record 
of  the  gospel  history  used   by  Paul  himself,   buf 


172 


MARCOSIANS— MARIOLATRY. 


which  probably  was  nothing  more  tliau  the  Grospel 
according  to  Luke,  mutilated  to  suit  Marcion's  pecu- 
liar views.  The  great  aim  of  this  famous  Gnostic 
teacher  appears  to  have  been  to  restore  the  primitive 
church,  designed  by  Christ,  and  founded  by  the 
Apostle  Paul.  Hence  in  many  places  he  founded 
communities  of  his  own ;  to  the  members  of  which 
he  prescribed  numerous  fastings  and  other  austeri- 
ties, such  as  abstinence  from  marriage,  wine,  flesh, 
and  all  that  was  pleasing  to  the  natural  appetite. 
The  followers  of  iMarcion,  however,  introduced  vari- 
ous modifications  of  his  opinions,  mingling  them  up 
witli  the  doctrines  taught  by  the  other  Gnostics. 
Hence  arose  out  of  the  Marcionite  heresy  other  sects, 
such  as  the  Marcosians  (which  see),  and  Apel- 
LEANS  (wliich  see),  which  differed  widely  from  tlie 
original  sect. 

MARCOSIANS,  a  sect  of  Gnostics  which  sprung 
up  in  the  second  century,  having  been  originated  by 
Marcus,  a  disciple  of  Valentinus.  (See  Valenti- 
NIANS.)  Both  Irenaeus  and  Epiphanius  treat  of 
this  sect  at  great  length.  Their  opinions  seem  to 
have  been  founded  chiefly  on  the  Gnostic  doctrine  of 
^ons  ;  and  according  to  Irenseus,  the  knowledge  of 
these  ^ons,  and  of  the  formation  of  the  universe,  was 
derived  by  a  revelation  from  the  primal  four  in  the 
system  of  jEons,  who  appeared  to  Marcus  in  tlie 
form  of  a  female.  The  Marcosians  seem  to  have 
acknowledged  the  canonical  Scriptures,  and  to  have 
received  also  many  apocryphal  books.  Neander  in- 
forms us,  that  after  the  Jewish  cabalistic  method, 
Marcus  hunted  after  mysteries  in  the  number  and 
positions  of  the  letters.  He  maintained  two  kinds 
of  baptism,  a  psychical  baptism  in  the  name  of  Jesus, 
the  Messiah  of  the  psychical  natures,  by  which  be- 
lievers obtained  pardon  of  sin,  and  tlie  hope  of  eter- 
nal life  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Demiurge ;  and 
pneumatic  baptism,  in  the  name  of  the  Christ  from 
heaven  united  with  Jesus,  by  which  the  spiritual 
nature  attained  to  self-consciousness  and  to  perfec- 
tion, entering  into  fellowship  with  the  Pleroma. 
According  as  the  candidate  was  to  be  admitted 
among  the  psychical  or  the  pneumatical  Christians, 
both  the  ceremony  and  the  formula  of  baptism  dif- 
fered. The  latter,  which  was  tlie  higher  baptism, 
was  conducted  with  great  pomp  and  rejoicing,  the 
chamber  in  which  the  ceremony  was  performed 
being  adorned  as  for  a  marriage.  "  One  baptismal 
formula  for  the  Pneumatics,"  Neander  says,  "  ran 
thus:  'In  the  name  which  is  hidden  from  all  tlie 
divinities  and  powers  (of  the  Demiurge),  the  name  of 
truth,  which  Jesus  of  Nazareth  has  put  on  in  the 
liglit-zones  of  Christ,  the  living  Christ,  through 
the  Holy  Gliost,  for  the  redemption  of  the  angels, 
— the  name  by  which  all  things  attain  to  perfec- 
tion.' The  candidate  then  said,  '  1  am  established 
and  redeemed, — I  am  redeemed  in  my  soul  from  this 
world,  and  from  all  that  comes  from  if,  by  the  name 
of  Jehovah,  who  has  redt'crned  the  soul  of  Jesus  by 
the  iirii'.g  Christ.'     The  whole  assembly  then  said, 


'  Peace  (or  salvation)  to  all  on  whom  this  name  rests.' 
Next  they  bestowed  on  the  person  baptized  the  sign 
of  consecration  to  the  priestly  office,  by  anointing 
with  oil,  customary  also  in  the  church ;  but  the  oil 
in  this  case  was  a  costly  balsam ;  for  the  precious, 
far-spreading  fragrance  was  intended  to  be  a  symbol 
of  that  transcendant  bliss  of  the  Pleroma  which  had 
been  appointed  for  the  redeemed." 

The  Marcosians  seem  to  have  been  the  first  who 
practised  the  ceremony  of  extreme  unction.  The 
dead  were  anointed  with  balsam  mingled  with  water, 
and  a  form  of  prayer  was  pronounced  over  them,  to 
the  intent  that  the  souls  of  the  departed  might  rise 
free  from  Demiurge,  and  all  his  powers,  to  their  mo- 
ther, the  Sophia.  This  sect  used  also  a  mystical 
table  which  symbolically  represented  their  system. 

MARDAITES.     See  Maronites. 

MARGARET'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  of  the 
Romish  church,  celebrated  on  the  21st  of  February. 
A  festival  dedicated  to  another  saint  of  the  same 
name,  who  is  represented  as  a  virgin  and  martyr,  is 
celebrated  by  the  Romish  church  on  the  20th  of 
July. 

MAKGARITES,  a  word  used  by  the  Greek  church 
to  denote  the  small  particles  of  bread  which  adhere 
to  the  chalice  or  the  patin,  after  consecration,  in  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  receive  the 
name  of  Margarites  or  Pearls  from  the  transparent 
appearance  which  they  assume  when  exposed  to  the 
moisture. 

JIARICA,  an  ancient  Roman  goddess  worshipped 
at  Minturn*,  and  to  her  a  grove  was  consecrated  on 
the  river  Liris.  She  has  sometimes  been  considered 
as  identical  with  Aphrodite  (which  see).  Hesiod 
confounds  her  with  Circe.  Virgil  makes  her  the 
wife  of  Faunus,  and  the  mother  of  Latinus,  an  an- 
cient king  of  Latium. 

MARINE  DEITIES,  gods  worshipped  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Romans  as  presiding  over  the  sea. 
The  principal  of  these  was  \.\\&  Poseidon  of  the  Greeks, 
and  Neptune  of  the  Romans,  and  to  him  must  be 
added  Nereus,  Triton,  Proteus,  the  Sirens,  Sea- 
Nymphs,  and  Achelons. 

MARIOLATRY,  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
In  the  fourth  century,  in  consequence  of  the  pre- 
valence of  the  ascetic  spirit,  the  most  extravagant 
opinions  began  to  be  entertained  of  the  merit  of  vir- 
ginity, and  Mary,  the  mother  of  our  blessed  Lord, 
was  venerated  as  the  ideal  of  the  celibate  life.  About 
this  time  an  opinion  arose  that  there  were  in  the  tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem  virgins  consecrated  to  God,  among 
whom  Mary  grew  up  in  vows  of  jierpetual  virginity. 
In  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  it  became  custom- 
ary to  apply  to  Mary  the  appellation,  "  Mother  of 
God."  Until  this  time,  however,  there  is  no  trace 
of  the  worship  of  the  Virgin.  l$ut  the  first  appear- 
ance of  Mariolatry  was  among  a  small  sect  of  wo- 
men, who  came  from  Thrace  and  settled  in  Arabia, 
and  who,  from  cikes  or  wafers  which  they  conse- 
crated to  Mary,  were  called  Coi.i.YiiiniANs  (whirh 


iMARIOLATRY. 


373 


tae).  Tlieso  were  keenly  opposed  liy  tlie  IIelvi- 
DiANS  or  Antidica-Maiuanitks  (wliicli  sec).  But 
the  worsliippers  of  Mary  prevailed,  and  in  tlie  tiftli 
century  images  of  tlio  Virgin  were  placed  in  tlie 
churclies  liolding  the  infant  Jesus  in  lier  arms.  Once 
introduced,  this  species  of  worship  spread  rapidly, 
and  Mary  became  a  eonapiciions  object  of  veneration 
m  the  churches,  both  of  the  Kast  and  West.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  tenth  century  the  custom  be- 
came prevalent  among  the  Latins,  of  celebrating 
masses,  and  abstaining  from  flesh  on  Saturdays,  in 
honour  of  Mary.  Alxnit  the  same  time  the  daily 
ollice  of  St.  Mary,  which  the  Latins  call  the  lesser 
oftice,  was  introduced,  and  it  was  afterwards  con- 
iirmed  by  Pope  Urban  IL  in  the  council  of  Cler- 
mont. The  liosary  also  came  into  use,  consisting  of 
fifteen  reiictitions  of  the  Lord's  I'raypr,  and  one 
hundred  salutations  of  St.  Mary ;  and  tiie  Crown  of 
St.  Mary,  as  it  was  called  by  the  Latins,  consisted 
of  six  or  seven  repetitions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
sixty  or  seventy  salutations  according  to  the  age 
ascribed  by  ditferent  authors  to  the  Holy  Virgin. 

Mariolatry  now  became  an  established  doctrine 
and  practice  in  the  clun'oh  of  Rome,  and  down  to 
the  present  day  lias  continued  to  occupy  a  very  con- 
spicuous place  in  her  ritual ;  while  with  equal  in- 
tensity Mary  receives  the  worship  of  the  Oriental 
church,  under  the  name  of  Panagia,  or  all-holy. 
Adopting  the  distinction  drawn  by  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Romanists  allege  that  they  honour  the  Virgin,  not 
with  Latria,  or  the  worship  due  to  God  only,  but 
with  a  liigh  degree  of  veneration,  which  they  term 
Ifi/perdulla,  and  which  occupies  an  intermediate 
place  between  the  Latria  due  to  God,  and  the  Dtdia 
due  to  saints  and  angels.  But  even  with  this  quali- 
fication it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  Romish  books  of 
devotion,  prayers  to  the  Virgin  occupy  a  prominent 
place.  Thus,  wliat  prayer  is  in  more  constant  use 
than  the  "  Ave  Maria,"  or  "  PLail  Mary,"  which,  after 
quoting  a  passage  from  the  Salutation  of  the  An^'el 
Gabriel  to  the  Virgin,  adds  those  words,  "  Holy 
Mary,  Mother  of  God,  pray  for  ns  sinners  now,  and 
in  the  hour  of  our  death.  Amen?"  Again,  in  another 
prayer,  the  Virgin  is  tlius  addressed,  "  We  fly  to 
thy  patronage,  0  Holy  Mother  of  God ;  despise  not 
our  petitions  in  our  necessities,  but  deliver  us  from 
all  dangers,  0  ever  glorious  and  blessed  Virgin." 
The  "  Salve  Regina"  runs  thus,  "  Hail !  Holy  Queen, 
mother  of  mercy,  our  life,  our  sweetness,  and  our 
hope  !  to  thee  we  cry,  poor  banished  sons  of  Eve,  to 
thee  we  send  up  our  sighs,  mourning  and  weeping  in 
this  valley  of  tears  ;  turn,  then,  most  gracious  advo- 
cate, thy  eyes  of  mercy  towards  us,  and  after  this 
our  exile  is  ended,  show  unto  us  the  blessed  fruit  of 
thy  womb,  Jesus, — 0  clement  !  O  pious  !  0  sweet 
Virgin  Mary."  She  is  cjilled  "  Mirror  of  Justice," 
"  Seat  of  Wisdom,"  "  Cause  of  our  Joy,"  "  Tower  of 
David,"  "Ark  of  the  Covenant,"  "  Gate  of  Heaven," 
"  Morning  Star,"  "  Refuge  of  Sinners,"  and  many 
other  such  terms  which  plainly  shows  tlie  very  high 


place  which  Mary  occupies  in  the  devotions  of  the 
Romish  church.  The  Romish  Breviary,  also,  of 
which  every  priest  must  read  a  portion  each  day  in 
private  under  pain  of  mortal  sin,  uses  the  following 
strong  language  as  to  the  Virgin, — "  If  the  winds  of 
tcmjitation  arise,  if  thou  run  upon  the  rocks  of  tri- 
bulation, look  to  the  star,  call  upon  Mary.  If  thou  art 
tossed  upon  the  waves  of  pride,  of  ambition,  of  detrac- 
tion, of  envy,  look  to  the  star,  call  upon  Mary.  If 
anger  or  avarice,  or  the  temptations  of  the  flesh  toss 
the  bark  of  thy  mind,  look  to  Mary.  If  disturbed  with 
the  greatness  of  thy  sins,  troubled  at  the  defilement 
of  thy  con.science,  affrighted  at  the  horrors  of  the 
judgment,  thou  beginnest  to  be  swallowed  up  in  the 
gulf  of  sadness,  the  abyss  of  despair,  think  upon  Mary 
— in  dangers,  in  difficulties,  in  doubts,  think  upon 
Mary,  invoke  Mary."  The  Council  of  Trent  declares 
prayer  to  the  Virgin  to  be  "  good  and  wholesome." 
But  if  we  would  know  how  strong  is  the  hold  which 
devotion  to  the  Virgin  has  taken  of  the  true  Roman- 
ist, let  us  listen  to  the  following  undisguised  avowal 
of  an  Italian  Jesuit,  as  made  to  the  Rev.  Hobart 
Seymour,  and  recorded  in  his  deeply  interesting 
work,  '  Mornings  with  the  Jesuits.' 

"The  feeling  of  devotion  to  the  Virgin,"  said  this 
bigoted  Romanist,  "  has  a  mysterious  something  in 
it,  that  will  ever  linger  about  the  heart  of  the  man 
who  has  ever  felt  it.  It  is  one  of  those  feelings  that, 
once  admitted,  can  never  afterwards  be  totally  obli- 
terated. There  it  still  clings  around  the  heart,  and 
though  there  may  be  coldness  to  all  other  religious 
impressions, — though  there  may  be  infidelity  or  even 
scorn  upon  all  our  faith — though  there  may  be  tlie 
plunging  into  the  wild  vortex  of  every  sin,  yet  still 
there  will  not  unfrequently  be  found  even  among  the 
very  worst  of  our  people,  a  lingering  feeling  of  de- 
votion to  the  blessed  Virgin.  It  is  as  a  little  thread 
tliat  still  keeps  hold  of  the  soul,  and  it  will  yet  draw 
him  back.  All  else  may  be  broken  ;  but  this  thread, 
by  which  the  blessed  Virgin  holds  Iiim,  still  clings  to 
his  soul.  Even  in  the  most  wild,  wicked,  and  des- 
[lerate  men — even  among  the  bandits  in  their  worst 
state,  there  is  always  retained  this  devotion  to  Mary  ; 
and  when  we  cannot  get  at  their  hearts  in  any  othei 
way — when  every  other  argument  or  truth  or  prin 
ciple  or  feeling  of  religion  fails  to  make  any  impres- 
sion, we  frequently  find  access  opened  to  their  hearts, 
by  this  one  feeling  still  lingering  about  them  ;  and 
thus  we  find  by  experience  that  a  devotion  to  the 
blessed  Virgin  proves  often  the  means  by  which  we 
are  able  to  lay  hold  of  their  hearts,  and  win  them 
back  to  our  holy  religion." 

So  enthusiastic,  accordingly,  have  been  the  vo- 
taries of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  that  Buenaventura  hag 
blasphemously  applied  some  of  the  most  sublime, 
devotional  passages  in  the  Psalms,  to  the  Virgin 
Mary,  and  St.  Liguori  goes  so  far  as  to  say,  that  "  all 
is  subject  to  Mary,  even  God  himself."  In  "The 
Glories  of  Mary,"  by  St.  Alphonso  de  Liguori,  who 
was  canonized  bv  the  Church  of  Rome  onlv  a  few 


J74 


MAKIOLATRY. 


years  ago,  we  fiiid  tlie  vision  of  St.  Bernard  recorded 
with  approbation,  in  which  he  beheld  two  ladders 
extending  from  earth  to  Iieaven.  At  the  top  of  one 
ladder  appeared  Jesus  Christ.  At  the  top  of  the 
other  ladder  appeared  the  Virgin  Mary.  While  those 
who  endeavoured  to  enter  into  heaven  by  the  way 
of  Christ's  ladder,  fell  constantly  back  and  utterly 
failed  ;  those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  tried  to  enter 
by  the  ladder  of  Mary,  all  succeeded,  because  she 
put  forth  her  hands  to  assist  and  encourage  them. 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  so  far  back  as  Buona- 
ventura,  or  St.  Bernard,  or  St.  Liguori ;  we  may  re- 
fer to  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  who  thus  speaks  in  an  en- 
cyclical letter  issued  on  entering  on  his  office  : — "  Let 
us  raise  our  eyes  to  the  most  blessed  Virgin  Mary, 
who  alone  destroys  heresies,  who  is  our  gi'eatest 
hope,  yea,  the  entire  ground  of  our  hope."  Nay,  the 
enthusiasm  waxing  gi-eater  as  time  advances.  Dr. 
CuUen,  the  archbishop  of  Dublin,  in  a  pastoral  issued 
a  few  years  ago,  breaks  forth  into  the  following 
strains  of  laudation  : — 

"  Her  body,  which  had  been  the  temple  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  given  human  fiesh  to  the  Redeemer, 
exempted  from  the  lot  of  the  other  descendants  of 
Adam,  is  not  condemned  to  moulder  into  dust,  but 
uiited  again  with  her  pure  soul,  is,  by  the  Divine 
yower,  translated  into  heaven,  and  placed  at  the 
right  hand  of  her  eternal  Son.  Here,  to  use  the 
words  of  Scripture,  she  appears  '  bright  as  the  morn- 
ing rising,  elect  as  the  sun,  beautiful  as  the  moon, 
teiTible  as  the  array  of  battle.' — (Cant.  vi.  9.)  The 
angels  and  saints  of  heaven,  filled  with  astonishment 
at  the  splendour  of  her  majesty,  cry  out,  '  Who  is 
she  that  cometh  up  from  the  desert  flowing  with 
charms  and  delights,  leaning  upon  her  beloved?' — 
(Cant.  viii.  5.)  With  what  raptures  do  all  the  celes- 
tial spirits  receive  their  queen  !  With  what  exulta- 
tion do  the  patriarchs  and  prophets,  and  all  the 
saints,  rise  up  to  greet  her  through  whom  they  re- 
ceived their  Redeemer,  and  to  whom  they  were  thus 
indebted  for  their  glory  1  Oh,  how  on  this  happy 
occasion  the  earth  itself  rejoices  !  its  fruits  are  no 
longer  the  fruits  of  malediction.  '  The  land  that  was 
desolate  and  impassable  shall  be  glad,'  says  the 
Scripture,  'and  the  wilderness  shall  rejoice  and  shall 
flourish  like  the  lily.  It  shall  bud  forth  and  blossom, 
and  shall  rejoice  with  joy  and  praise.'" — (Isa.  xxx.) 

That  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  is  universally  prac- 
tised by  Romanists,  travellers  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries  universally  attest.  Churches  are  built  to 
her  honour,  while  her  shrines  are  crowded  with  en- 
thusiastic devotees.  Her  name  is  the  first  which  the 
infant  is  taught  to  lisp,  and  to  her  is  cast  the  last 
look  of  the  dying.  The  soldier  fights  under  her  ban- 
iier,and  the  brigand  plunders  under  her  protection.  In 
Italy  and  Spain  robbers  wear  a  picture  of  Mary  hung 
round  their  neck.  If  overtaken  suddenly  by  death, 
they  kiss  the  image  and  die  in  peace.  Sania  Maria, 
Holy  Mary,  is  the  Romish  devotee's  all  in  all.  One 
Uail  Mary  is  worth  ten  Paternosters,  and  Mr.  Sey- 


mour tells  us  that  a  Romish  priest  in  Italy  declared 
to  him  his  firm  belief,  that  God  hears  our  prayers 
more  quickly  when  they  are  offered  through  the 
Blessed  Virgin  than  when  oS'ered  through  any  one 
else.  It  has  also  been  maintained  by  some  Roman- 
ists, that  the  adoration  of  the  Virgin  is  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  human  nature.  Thus  Mr.  Sey- 
mour describes  an  interview  on  tliis  subject  with  a  Je- 
suit priest  at  Rome :  "He  stated,  that  there  was  a  great 
difference  in  the  bent  and  habit  of  mind,  between 
English  Protestants  on  the  one  hand,  and  Italian 
Romanists  on  the  other ;  that  Protestants  habitually 
let  their  minds  dwell  on  Christ's  teaching,  on  Christ 
working  miracles,  and  especially  on  Christ's  suffer- 
ing, bleeding,  dying  on  the  cross,  so  that  in  a  Pro- 
testant mind,  the  great  object  was  Christ  iu  the  ma- 
turity of  his  manhood ;  but  that  Romanists  habit- 
ually dwelt  on  the  childhood  of  Christ ;  not  on  the 
gi'eat  events  that  were  wrought  in  maturity  and  man- 
hood, but  on  those  hiteresting  scenes  which  were 
connected  with  his  childhood.  He  then  went  on  to 
say  that  this  habit  of  mind  led  to  the  great  differ- 
ence, that  as  Protestants  always  dwelt  on  the  suffer 
ing  and  dying  Christ,  so  Christ  in  a  Protestant  mind 
was  always  connected  with  the  cross ;  and  that  as 
Romanists  constantly  meditated  rather  on  the  child- 
hood of  Christ,  so  Christ  in  a  Romanist's  mind  was 
usually  associated  with  his  mother,  the  Virgin  Mary. 
He  then  continued  to  say  that  the  constant  dwelling 
of  the  mind  in  contemplation  of  the  child,  naturally 
led  to  more  thought,  more  contemplation,  more  affec- 
tion, and  finally,  more  devotion  for  the  mother  ;  that 
when  one  thinks  of  all  the  little  scenes  of  his  child- 
hood, dwells  on  the  little  incidents  of  interest  between 
the  child  Jesus  and  the  mother  Mary,  recollects  that 
she  had  him  enshrined  in  her  womb,  that  she  used 
to  lead  him  by  the  hand,  that  she  had  listened  to  all 
his  innocent  prattle,  that  she  had  observed  the  open- 
ing of  his  mind ;  and  that  during  all  those  days  of 
his  happy  childhood  she,  and  she  alone  of  all  the 
world,  knew  that  that  little  child  whom  she  bore  in 
her  womb,  and  nursed  at  her  breasts,  and  fondled  in 
her  arms,  was  her  God — that  when  a  man  thinks, 
and  habitually  thinks  of  all  this,  the  natural  re- 
sult is,  that  his  affections  will  be  more  drawn  out, 
and  his  feelings  of  devotion  more  elevated  towards 
Mary.  And  he  concluded  by  stating  tliat  this  habit 
of  mind  was  becoming  more  general,  and  that  it  was 
to  it  that  he  would  attribute  the  great  increase,  that 
late  years  had  witnessed  in  the  devotion  to  the  Vir- 
gin Mary." 

In  accordance,  therefore,  with  the  inqiortance  at- 
tached to  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Cimrch  of 
Rome,  we  find  in  its  prescribed  offices  and  ritual 
not  only  prayers  ofl'ered  to  the  Almighty  in  her 
name,  pleading  her  merits,  through  her  mediation, 
advocacy,  and  intercession,  but  prayers  ottered  di- 
rectly to  herself",  beseeching  her  to  employ  her  in- 
tercession with  the  Eternal  Eather  and  with  her  Son 
in  behalf  of  her  petitioners ;  and  proceeding  a  step 


MARK'S  (St.)  DAY— MARNAS. 


378 


farther,  we  find  prayers  to  her  for  lier  protection 
roin  iill  evil.f,  S|jii'itiial  and  bodily;  for  lier  guidance 
and  aid,  and  for  tlic  inlluoncos  of  her  grace.  In  adch- 
tioii  to  all  this,  divine  praises  are  ascribed  to  her  in 
()ions  acknowledgment  of  her  attributes  of  power, 
wi.sdoin,  goodness,  and  mercy,  and  of  her  exalted 
state  above  all  the  spiritg  of  life  and  glory  in  hea- 
ven ;  and  for  her  share  in  tho  redemption  of  the 
world,  and  the  benefits  conforreii  by  her  on  tho  indi- 
vidual worshipper. 

In  Komisli  coiintiies  the  whole  month  of  May  is 
annually  devoted  to  the  Virgin,  and  is  called  by  way 
of  eminence.  "  Mary's  Month."  In  Paris,  for  ex- 
ample, a  service  in  her  honour  is  perl'ormod  with 
great  ceremony  every  evening  throughout  the  entire 
month.  Temporary  altars  are  raised  to  lier  sur- 
rounded by  flowers  and  evergreens,  and  profusely 
adorned  with  garlands  and  drapery,  her  image  usually 
st.anding  in  a  conspicuous  place  before  the  altar. 
The  chief  part  in  these  religious  festivities  is  per- 
formed by  societies  or  guilds,  which  are  expressly 
instituted  chiefly  for  the  celebration  of  the  Virgin's 
praises.  A  collection  of  liymns  is  in  regular  use 
by  the  fraternities  in  Paris,  many  of  them  being 
addressed  directly  and  exclusively  to  the  Virgin. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  works  in  praise  of  Mary 
is  the  Psalter  of  Bonaventura,  a  Franciscan  monk 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  this  work  the  author 
so  changes  tlie  commencement  of  each  of  the  Psalms 
of  David  as  to  address  them  all  to  the  Virgin  Mary  ; 
interspersing  in  some  of  them  much  of  his  own  com- 
position, and  then  adding  the  Gloria  Patri  to  each. 
Appended  to  Uonaventura's  Psalter  are  various 
liymns  to  the  Virgin,  being  alterations  of  prayers 
addressed  to  God  in  Scripture.  The  Athanasian 
Creed  is  employed  in  the  same  manner  to  declare 
belief  in  the  divinity  of  Mary,  and  in  course  of  this 
modification  of  the  creed,  the  assumption  of  the  Vir- 
gin into  heaven  is  specified  as  one  of  the  points  to 
be  believed  on  pain  of  forfeiting  all  hopes  of  salva- 
tion. 

The  works  of  Bonaventura  gave  great  impulse  to 
the  worship  of  Mary  in  the  Romish  church.  Others 
followed  in  the  same  strain,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  Gabriel  Biel,  a  schoolman  of  great  cele- 
brity in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  Peter  Damiani, 
whose  works  were  published  under  the  authority  of 
the  Pope  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
At  length,  to  such  an  extent  had  the  veneration  for 
the  Virgin  Mary  been  carried,  that  able  and  learned 
Roman  Catholic  writers  came  forward  to  moderate 
the  extravagancies  of  their  brethren,  and  to  modify 
and  reduce  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  within  reason- 
able bounds.  To  effect  this  object,  Theophilus  Ray- 
naud, a  Jesuit  of  Lyons,  produced  a  work  entitled 
'Diptvcha  Mariana,'  in  which  he  strongly  disap- 
proved of  some  of  the  sentiments  which  had  been  put 
forth  by  preceding  writers  on  the  subject,  particu- 
larly those  which  ascribed  to  Mary  attributes  and 
ticts  which  properly  belong  to  God  the  Father,  or  to 


Christ  the  Son.  To  such  an  extent,  indeed,  had  the 
desire  been  carried  of  setting  aside  Jesns,  and  substi- 
tuting Mary  in  his  room,  that  in  the  sixteenth  cen 
tury  the  Christian  era  was  made,  by  some  Romish 
writers,  to  begin,  not  from  the  "  birth  of  Christ,"  but 
from  "  the  Virgin  Mother  of  God." 

At  the  present  day  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  ritual  of  the  Ro- 
mish church.  The  Ave  Maria,  or  Hail  Mary,  has, 
since  the  fifteenth  century,  been  the  favourite  prayer 
to  tho  Virgin,  and  always  accompanies  the  Pater- 
noster in  the  stated  devotions  of  a  Romanist.  In  the 
'  Litany  of  the  Blessed  Virgin'  there  are  more  than 
forty  invocations  of  the  Virgin,  designating  her  by  as 
many  varieties  of  title.  The  favourite  hymn  or 
prayer,  called  Salve  lier/ina,  is  addressed  exclusively 
to  the  Virgin,  as  is  also  the  hymn  Ave  Maria  Stella, 
Hail,  Mary,  star  of  the  sea.  St.  Alphonsns  Liguori, 
who  was  canonized  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  in  1839, 
published  a  work  entitled  the  '  Glories  of  Mary,'  in 
which  she  is  extolled  far  above  mortals,  and  invested 
with  attributes  and  authority  of  the  highest  order. 
The  Most  Holy  Father,  to  whom  we  have  just  refer- 
red, granted  in  1840  an  indulgence  of  100  years  to 
every  one  who  should  recite  a  prayer  to  the  Virgin 
to  this  effect,  "  O  immaculate  queen  of  heaven  and 
of  angels,  I  adore  you.  It  is  you  who  have  deli- 
vered me  from  hell ;  it  is  you  from  whom  I  look  for 
all  my  salvation."  Pius  IX.,  in  his  encyclical  let- 
ter of  date  1846,  says,  "  In  order  that  our  most  mer- 
ciful God  may  the  more  readily  incline  his  car  to  our 
])rayers,  and  may  grant  that  which  we  implore,  let  us 
ever  have  recourse  to  the  intercession  of  the  most 
holy  mother  of  God,  the  immaculate  Virgin  Mary, 
our  sweetest  mother,  our  mediatrix,  our  advocate,  our 
surest  hope,  and  firmest  reliance,  than  whose  patron- 
age nothing  is  more  potent,  nothing  more  eflectual 
with  God."  In  the  allocution  of  the  same  '  Most 
Holy  Father,'  pronounced  in  the  secret  consistory  at 
Gaeta,  1849,  he  says,  "  Let  us  have  recourse  to  the 
most  holy  and  immaculate  Virgin  Mary,  who,  being 
the  mother  of  God,  and  our  mother,  and  the  mother 
of  mercy,  finds  what  she  seeks,  and  cannot  be  frus- 
trated." In  1854  his  Holiness  issued  a  decree,  de- 
claring the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  to 
be  henceforth  an  article  of  faith  in  the  Romish 
Church,  and  thus  a  very  important  step  in  advance 
has  been  taken  towards  investingthemother  of  Jesus 
with  the  honours  of  divinity.  She  is  henceforth  to 
be  viewed  by  every  Romanist  as  taken  out  of  the 
category  of  sinful  mortals,  and  ranged  among  sinless 
beings. 

MARK'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  observed  both  by 
the  Romish  and  the  Greek  churches  on  the  25th  of 
April.  On  this  day  the  Great  or  Septiform  Litany 
is  read,  and  a  procession  takes  place.      See  Litah- 

lES. 

MARK  (St.),  Liturgy  of.    See  Liturgies. 
MARNAS,  a  deity  anciently  worshipped  at  Gaia, 
one  of  the  lordships  of  the  Philistines.     This  god  if 


37U 


MARONITE  CHURCH  (The). 


Raid  to  have  migrated  into  Crete,  and  become  the 
Cretan  Jupiter. 

MARONITE  CHURCH  (The),  one  of  the  Ori- 
ental churches,  which  fraternizes  with  Rome.  It  de- 
rives its  name  eitlier  from  a  Syrian  monk  named 
Maro,  wlio  Uved  on  the  banks  of  the  Orontes  about 
A.  D.  400,  or  from  one  Marun  or  Maro,  who  was 
their  patriarcli  of  Antioch,  and  flourished  about  A.  D. 
700.  Tlie  Maronites  appear  to  be  the  descendants 
of  tliose  Syrian  Cliristians  wlio,  on  the  Mohamme- 
dan invasion  in  the  seventh  century,  found  an  asy- 
lum in  tlie  mountains  of  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus, 
wlience  they  frequently  sallied  forth  on  predatory 
incursions  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  Saracens  or 
Ai-abs.  Great  numbers  of  them,  so  many  it  is  said 
as  12,000,  were  seized  and  carried  off  as  prisoners 
by  Justinian  III.,  the  Greek  emperor.  This  proved 
an  effectual  check  to  their  marauding  propensities. 
During  the  Crusades  the  extent  of  their  teixitory  was 
much  reduced,  and  by  frequent  wars  with  the  Otto- 
mans they  were  diminished  in  numbers,  and  at  length 
put  under  tribute. 

The  Maronites  at  an  early  period  of  their  his- 
tory seem  to  have  maintained  the  heresy  of  the 
MONOTHELITES  (whicli  See),  alleging  that  in  the 
Person  of  Christ  there  were  two  natures  and  one 
will.  For  five  centuries  the  Maronite  chmxh  held 
an  independent  position,  but  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  was  united  with  the  Romish  church  in  the 
reign  of  Baldwin  IV.,  and  their  patriai-ch  was  pre- 
sent at  the  Lateran  council  held  by  Pope  Innocent 
III.  Tliough  nominally  subject  to  Rome,  this  Ori- 
ental church  still  retains  so  much  of  its  original  in- 
dependence, that  its  patriarch  styles  himself  Peter 
the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  thus  claiming  to  be  the 
spiritual  descendant  and  representative  of  the  Apos- 
tle Peter  in  the  East.  The  fact  is,  that  Rome  has 
had  the  utmost  difficulty  in  maintaining  its  authority 
over  the  Maronites,  both  because  of  their  tendency 
10  fall  into  heresies  of  different  kinds,  and  also  be- 
cause of  their  unwillingness  to  part  witli  their  an- 
cient independence.  To  effect  their  more  complete 
subjugation  to  the  Papal  see,  Gregory  XUI.  founded 
a  college  at  Rome  for  the  education  and  training  of 
Maronite  missionaries,  who  might  be  instrumental  in 
diffusing  among  their  countrymen  an  ardent  attach- 
ment to  the  Romish  church.  All  the  schemes  de- 
vised, however,  to  bind  the  Maronite  church  to  the 
Roman  pontiff  have  been  hitherto  unsuccessful ;  for 
Borne  of  them  refuse,  at  this  day,  to  recognize  tlie 
alliance  with  the  Latin  church.  To  arrange  the  affairs 
of  the  Maronite  church.  Pope  Clement  XII.  summoned 
the  Great  Council  of  Lebanon,  which  was  held  on  the 
30th  of  September  1736.  It  was  attended  by  eigh- 
teen bishops,  of  whom  fourteen  were  Mai'onites,  two 
Syrian,  and  two  Armenian.  Tlie  abbots  of  several 
monasteries  were  also  present,  along  with  a  multi- 
tude of  tlie  priests  and  chief  pcojile  of  the  country. 
I)y  the  decrees  of  this  council  the  church  of  the 
Maronites  is  regulated  to  tliis  day. 


The  seat  of  the  Maronites  is  the  mowitainous  dis- 
trict of  Lebanon,  from  about  Tripoli  to  Tyre.  The 
main  body  of  the  range  called  Libanus  is  inhabited 
by  nearly  2-40,000  Maronites,  calculated,  however,  by 
Dr.  Wilson,  at  not  more  than  150,000.  The  patri- 
arch of  the  body  is  elected  by  the  bishops,  who 
must  all  be  monks,  but  he  receives  his  robe  of  in- 
vestiture from  Rome,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  sub- 
jection of  his  church  to  the  Papal  see.  He  is  held 
in  the  highest  veneration  by  the  people  among  whom 
he  lives.  His  income  amounts  to  about  £2,000  a- 
year.  His  jurisdiction  extends  over  nine  metropoli- 
tan sees,  the  occupants  of  which,  chosen  by  the 
people,  but  consecrated  by  the  patriarch,  are  called 
JSIetrdns  or  Metropolitans.  The  patriarch  has  two 
vicars  or  assistants,  one  of  them  connected  with  the 
temporal,  and  the  other  with  the  spiritual  affairs  of 
the  church.  He  has  also  an  agent  at  Rome,  and 
three  presidents  at  the  prmcipal  monasteries  or  col- 
leges. The  agent  of  the  patriarch  at  Rome  reported 
in  1844,  that,  exclusive  of  convents,  there  were  356 
Maronite  churches  in  Syria,  to  which  were  attached 
1,205  priests,  under  the  authority  of  their  bishops 
and  patriarch.  The  number  of  priests,  however, 
was  stated  by  the  American  missionaries  in  1845  at 
between  700  and  1,000. 

Dr.  Wilson,  in  his  '  Lands  of  the  Bible,'  quotes 
from  a  communication  of  Mr.  Graham  of  Damascus, 
the  following  description  of  the  Maronite  convents : 
"  In  Lebanon  the  conventual  system  is  in  tlie  most 
vigorous  operation.  In  most  other  countries  these 
institutions  have  been  on  the  decline  since  the  era 
of  the  Reformation ;  but  on  the  goodly  mountain, 
fanaticism  and  superstition,  hke  the  power  of  its 
vegetation,  have  been  increasing  and  multiplying 
jvith  startling  luxuriance.  .  .  .  Division  perverts 
their  councils,  and  fanaticism  stains  their  conduct, 
and  the  heathenish  Druze  and  the  superstitious  Ma- 
ronite are  hardly  distinguishable  from  each  other  in 
the  moralities  and  charities  of  life.  In  tlie  extensive 
district  of  Kasrawdn  a  Protestant  would  not  be  al- 
lowed to  settle ;  and,  if  he  could  be  permitted  to 
pass  tlirough  it  without  insult  or  injury,  he  might  be 
very  thankful.  This  is  the  result  o*'  the  Monastic 
Institutions,  for  the  peasants  are  a  quiet,  tranquil, 
and  industrious  race.  Tlie  whole  mountain  is  filled 
with  convents.  Their  numbers  I  do  not  know  ;  but 
it  must  be  prodigious.  Some  of  them,  like  that  of 
the  Deir  el-Kalla,  are  very  rich,  possess  the  choicest 
old  wines  of  the  country,  and  the  reputation  of  in- 
dulging in  the  unnatural  enormities  which  brought 
destruction  on  the  cities  of  the  |)lain.  Many  of  the 
monks  are  totally  ignorant,  and  can  neither  read  nor 
write.  In  such  circumstances,  it  may  easily  be  ima- 
gined how  incompetent  their  motives,  hopes,  and 
fears  must  be  to  control,  not  tlie  vices  of  our  nature 
only,  but  its  very  principles  also  !  Apostolic  moral- 
ity is  not  sufficient.  They  aim  at  the  supposed 
angelic  excellency  of  the  celibate,  and  they  fall  ir.to 
pollutions  below  the  level  of  the  brutes." 


MARRIAGE. 


377 


Tlio  Muioiiite  clergy,  tliough  connected  witli 
Rome,  disaent  from  her  regiiliitioiis  in  regard  to  the 
celibacy  of  tlie  priestliood,  most  of  tliem  being  mar- 
ried men.  On  tlii.s  point,  accordingly,  the  I'oiie  has 
been  obliged  to  make  a  compromise  with  tham,  and 
to  allow  them  to  retain  their  wives  when  they  liap- 
pen  to  have  married  before  taking  priest's  orders. 
They  are  not,  however,  allowed  to  marry  after  hav- 
ing entered  into  the  priesthood,  or  to  remarry  sliould 
they  be  deprived  of  their  wives  while  in  the  priest- 
hood. In  Divine  service,  the  Arabic  language  is 
used  in  reading  the  Gospels  and  Kpistlcs.  and  the 
Syriac  in  performing  their  masses  and  liturgicid  ser- 
vices. The  parish  priests  are  elected  by  the  people, 
and  ordained  by  the  diocesan  bishops  or  the  patri- 
arcli.  They  are  not  allowed  to  follow  any  secular 
profession.  It  is  no  part  of  their  duty  to  preach, 
but  simply  to  read  the  offices.  The  priests  have 
parsonage  houses,  but  the  produce  of  their  glebes  is 
applied  to  defray  the  ordinary  expenses  of  their 
churches.  Their  income  ranges  from  2,000  to  9,000 
piastres.  The  unmarried  priests  are  not  generally 
elected  to  the  ministerial  charge  of  parishes,  but  are 
usually  connected  with  convents,  either  as  superiors, 
or  in  subordinate  offices.  The  Maronites  consider 
preaching  to  have  been  one  of  the  peculiar  offices  of 
our  Saviour,  and  a  preacher  is  therefore  held  in  the 
highest  respect.  Before  a  priest  can  venture  to 
undertake  the  responsible  duty  of  preaching,  he  must 
have  a  written  permission  from  the  patriarch  or  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  Occasionally  permission  is 
given  to  laymen  to  officiate  as  preachers.  The 
Romish  church,  unwilling  to  lose  the  hold  she  has 
got  over  the  Maronites,  allows  them  to  retain  several 
customs  and  observances  at  variance  with  her  ritual 
arrangements.  A  few  of  these  are  thus  adverted  to 
by  Dr.  Wilson  :  "  They  have  been  allowed  to  main- 
tain most  of  their  own  customs  and  observances, 
however  much  at  variance  with  those  which  Rome 
is  usually  content  to  sanction.  They  are  allowed 
to  preserve  their  own  ecclesiastical  langui^e,  the 
Syriac,  while  Rome  has  shown  her  partiality  for 
the  Latin  rite,  by  bringing  it  into  use  wherever 
practicable.  They  dispense  the  communion  in  both 
kinds,  dipping  the  bread  in  wine  before  its  dis- 
tribution among  the  people.  Though  tliey  now 
observe  the  Roman  calendar,  as  far  as  the  time 
of  feasts  and  fasts  is  concerned,  they  recognise 
local  saints  which  have  no  place  in  its  commemora- 
tions. They  liave  retained  the  custom  of  the  mar- 
riage of  their  clergy  previous  to  their  ordination. 
Thougli  they  profess  to  be  zealous  partizans  of 
Rome,  it  dare  not  so  comit  upon  their  attachment  as 
to  force  upon  them  all  that  in  ordinary  circumstances 
it  thinks  desirable.  In  order  to  secure  its  present 
influence  over  them,  it  is  subjected  to  an  expense  of 
no  small  magnitude." 

The  Maronites  are  an  active  industrious  people, 
and  amid  their  rocky  dwellings  they  carry  forward 
their  agricultural  labours  with  such  zeal  aud  success. 


that  ere  long  the  prophecy  bids  fair  to  be  fulfiUtd, 

"  Lebanon  shall  be  turned  into  a  fruitful  lield." 

,\I.\KRL\GK.  The  origin  and  institution  of  the 
nuptial  contract  dates  from  the  creation  of  man,  for 
no  sooner  bad  Adam  sprung  from  the  hand  of  IjIh 
Creator,  than  God  was  pleased  to  declare,  "  It  is  not 
good  for  man  to  be  alone,"  and  accordingly  he  cre- 
ated Eve,  and  brought  lier  to  the  man,  wlio  gaid, 
"This  is  bone  of  my  bone,  and  flesh  of  my  flesh 
Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  father  and  mother,  and 
cleave  unto  his  wife:  and  they  twain  shall  be  one 
flesh."  Among  the  earliest  nations,  accordingly,  we 
find  the  marriage  relation  ninformly  held  in  respect. 
The  Jews,  indeed,  in  Old  Testament  times,  not  only 
regarded  the  married  state  as  honourable  and  right, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  a  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  com- 
mand, "  He  ye  fruitful  and  multijily,  and  replenish 
the  earlli,"  but  from  the  expectation  of  the  advent 
of  the  Messiah,  which  prevailed  among  them  from 
tlie  earliest  period  of  their  nation's  history,  there 
was  felt  to  be  as  it  were  a  sacred  obligation  resting 
upon  all  to  marry.  Hence  it  was  esteemed  the  duty 
of  every  male  who  had  reached  eighteen  or  twenty 
years  of  age  to  enter  into  the  marriage  union,  and  it 
was  esteemed  a  reproach  in  any  man  to  lead  a  life  of 
celibacy ;  nay,  even  it  was  viewed  as  a  sin,  since  lie 
might  by  remaining  unmarried  frustrate  the  great 
promise  of  the  Redeemer,  that  the  seed  of  the  wo- 
man should  bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent.  Hence 
among  the  Jews  marriages  were  usuallv  contracted 
at  an  early  age,  the  ordinary  period  fixed  by  tlie 
Rabbins  being  eighteen  in  the  case  of  males,  and 
twelve  in  the  case  of  females. 

Maiinonides  alleges  that  marriage  was  contracted 
ill  the  time  of  the  patriarchs  with  little  ceremony, 
but  it  is  plain  from  various  passages  of  the  Books  of 
Moses,  that  a  regular  contract  was  made  in  the 
house  of  the  bride's  father,  before  the  elders  and 
governors  of  the  place,  after  which  she  was  conveyed 
with  considerable  pomp  to  the  house  of  her  husband. 
The  Jews  allege  that  after  her  espousals  or  betroth- 
ment  she  was  allowed  to  remain  for  a  certain  period, 
at  least  ten  months,  in  lierparents'liouse,  that  she  might 
make  suitable  preparations  for  tlie  marriage  cere- 
mony. The  wedding  was  celebrated  wiih  a  feast  of 
seven  days.  The  bride  was  adorned  on  the  occasion 
with  as  much  care  and  elegance  as  her  station  in  hte 
permitted,  and  a  nuptial  crown  was  placed  upon  her 
head.  During  the  marriage-feast,  the  bridegi'oom 
and  his  party  entertained  themselves  in  one  apart- 
ment, while  the  bride  and  her  companions  were 
similarly  employed  in  another.  "  On  the  last  dav," 
to  quote  from  Dr.  Nevin  in  his 'Biblical  Antiqui- 
ties,' "  the  bride  was  conducted  to  the  house  of  the 
bridegroom's  father.  The  procession  generally  set 
off  in  the  evening,  with  much  ceremony  and  pomp. 
The  bridegroom  was  richly  clothed  with  a  marriage 
robe  and  crown,  and  the  bride  was  covered  with  a 
veil  from  head  to  foot.  The  companions  of  each  at- 
tended them   with  songs  and  the  music  01  instru- 


378 


MARRIAGE. 


ments ;  not  in  promiscuous  assemblage,  but  each 
company  by  itself;  while  the  virgins,  according  to 
tlie  custom  of  the  times,  were  all  provided  with 
veils,  not  indeed  so  large  and  thick  as  that  which 
hung  over  the  bride,  but  abundantly  sufficient  to 
conceal  their  faces  from  all  around.  The  way,  as 
they  went  along,  was  lighted  with  numerous  torches. 
In  the  meantime,  another  company  was  waiting  at 
the  bridegroom's  house,  ready,  at  the  first  notice  of 
their  approach,  to  go  forth  and  meet  them.  Tliese 
seem  generally  to  have  been  young  female  relations 
or  friends  of  the  bridegi'oom's  family,  called  in  at 
this  time,  by  a  particular  invitation,  to  grace  the 
occasion  witli  their  presence.  Adorned  witli  robes 
of  gladness  and  joy,  they  went  forth  with  lamps  or 
torches  in  their  hands,  and  welcomed  the  procession 
with  the  customary  salutations.  They  then  joined 
themselves  to  the  marriage  train,  and  the  whole 
company  moved  forward  to  the  house.  There  an 
entertainment  was  provided  for  their  reception,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  evening  was  spent  in  a  joyful 
participation  of  the  marriage  supper,  with  such  social 
merriment  as  suited  the  joyous  occasion.  None 
were  admitted  to  this  entertainment  beside  the  par- 
ticular number  who  were  selected  to  .attend  the  wed- 
ding; and  as  tlie  regular  and  proper  time  for  their 
entrance  into  the  house  was  when  the  bridegroom 
went  in  whh  his  bride,  the  doors  were  then  closed, 
and  no  otlier  guest  was  expected  to  come  in."  Such 
were  the  ceremonies  which  attended  the  celebration 
of  a  marriage  among  the  ancient  Jews.  In  the  time 
of  Ruth  no  other  ceremony  seems  to  have  attended 
a  marriage  than  the  pronouncing  of  a  solemn  bless- 
ing, by  the  nearest  relations,  on  tlie  parties,  who 
agreed  in  their  presence  to  become  husband  and 
wife.  Thus  Boaz  merely  declared  in  presence  of 
the  elders  assembled  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  that  he 
had  resolved  to  take  the  daughter  of  Naomi  to  be  his 
wife.  "  And  all  the  people  that  were  in  tlie  gate, 
and  the  elders,  said.  We  are  witnesses.  The  Lord 
make  the  woman  that  is  come  into  thine  house  like 
Rachel  and  like  Leah,  which  two  did  build  the  house 
of  Israel :  and  do  thou  worthily  in  Ephratah,  and  be 
famous  in  Bethlehem.  So  Boaz  took  Ruth,  and  slie 
was  Ilia  wife :  and  when  he  went  in  unto  her,  the 
Lord  gave  her  conception,  and  she  bare  a  son." 

The  marriage  ceremony  of  the  modern  Jews  dif- 
fers considerably  from  that  of  the  ancient.  It  is 
thus  described  by  Mr.  Allen  in  his  '  Modern  Juda- 
ism:' "On  the  day  fixed  for  the  solemnization  of 
the  nuptials,  the  bride  and  bridegroom  are  conducted 
to  the  place  appointed  for  the  celebration  of  the 
ceremony.  The  bride  is  escorted  by  women,  and 
the  bridegroom  by  men.  The  company  is  generally 
large,  inchuling  most  or  all  of  their  friends  and 
aci]naiiitances.  Ton  men,  at  least,  must  be  present; 
or  tlie  marriage  is  null  and  void.  The  chief-rabbi 
and  clia8.san  of  the  synagogue  form  part  of  the 
company. 

"A  velvet  canopy  is  brought  into  the  room,  and 


extended  on  four  long  poles.  The  bride  and  bride- 
groom are  led  to  their  station  under  this  canopy; 
the  bridegroom  by  two  men ;  and  the  bride  by  two 
women,  her  face  being  covered  with  a  veil.  These 
two  men  and  two  women  are  always  the  parents  oi 
the  bride  and  bridegroom,  if  they  happen  to  be  liv- 
ing :  otherwise  this  office  is  performed  by  their  near- 
est kindred ;  a  man  and  his  wife  for  the  bride,  and 
another  man  and  his  wife  for  the  bridegi'oom  ;  though 
the  bridegi'oom  is  led  by  the  men,  and  the  bride  by 
the  women.  The  parties  are  placed  opposite  to  each 
other,  and  then  tlie  person  who  performs  the  cere- 
mony, takes  a  glass  of  wine  in  his  hand,  and  says  : 
'  Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the 
universe !  who  createst  the  fruit  of  the  vine.  Blessed 
art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe  I 
who  hast  sanctified  us  with  thy  commandments  and 
hast  forbidden  us  fornication,  and  hast  restrained  us 
from  the  betrothed,  but  hast  permitted  us  those  who 
are  married  to  us,  by  means  of  the  canopy  and  wed- 
lock. Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord !  who  sanctifiest 
Israel.'  The  bridegroom  and  bride  then  drink  of  the 
wine ;  after  which  the  bridegroom  takes  the  ring, 
and  puts  it  on  the  bride's  finger;  saying,  'Behold 
thou  art  wedded  to  me  with  this  ring,  according  to 
the  law  of  Moses  and  Israel.' 

"  Then  the  marriage  contract  is  read,  which  speci- 
fies that  the  bridegroom  A.  B.  agrees  to  take  the 
bride  C.  D.  as  his  lawful  wife,  according  to  the  law 
of  Moses  and  Israel ;  and  that  he  will  keep,  main- 
tain, honour,  and  cherish  her,  according  to  the  man- 
ner of  all  the  Jews,  who  honour,  keep,  maintain, 
and  cherish  their  wives ;  and  that  he  will  keep  her 
in  clothing  decently,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
world.  This  instrument  also  specifies  what  sum  he 
settles  upon  her  in  case  of  his  death ;  and  he  obliges 
his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  to  pay  the 
same  to  her  out  of  the  first  produce  of  his  efl'ects. 

"  After  the  reading  of  this  instrument,  the  person 
performing  the  ceremony  takes  another  glass  ol 
wine,  and  repeats  seven  benedictions.  Then  the 
bridegroom  and  bride  drink  the  wine ;  after  wliich 
tlie  empty  glass  is  laid  on  the  floor,  and  the  bride 
groom,  stamping  on  it,  breaks  it  to  pieces.  This 
part  of  the  ceremony  is  said  to  be  intended  as  an 
indication  of  the  frailty  of  life.  Tlien  all  the  com- 
pany shout,  Good  luck  to  you.  The  ceremony  is 
followed  by  a  contribution  for  the  poor  of  the  laud 
of  Canaan. — The  nuptial  feast  is  as  sumptuous  as 
the  parties  can  afibrd,  and  continues  for  seven  days." 

In  tlie  early  ecclesiastical  writers,  no  account  is 
given  of  the  mode  in  which  marriage  was  solemnized 
among  the  members  of  the  primitive  Christian  church. 
It  was  not  until  the  ninth  century,  indeed,  that  the 
propriety  or  necessity  of  marriage  being  celebrated 
with  religious  exercises  was  recognized  by  the  civil 
law,  but  so  early  as  the  second  century,  such  reli- 
gious rites  were  required  by  the  church.  The  cere- 
mony appears  to  have  been  conducted  with  the  ut- 
most simplicity  in  these  days  of  primitive  Christian- 


MAimiAGR. 


379 


ity.  The  purple  fillet  witli  which  the  hair  of  urnnar- 
rieii  females  was  bound,  was  lirst  removed  from  tlie 
head  of  tlie  bride,  and  a  veil  thrown  over  her  jiersoii. 
The  pastor  then  addressed  suitable  admonilions  to  the 
parties,  at  the  close  of  which  they  both  partook  of  the 
communion.  This  solemn  service  having  been  gone 
through,  they  were  required  to  join  their  right  hands, 
when  the  minister  pronounced  them  to  bo  married  per- 
sons, and  prayed  for  a  blessing  upon  the  union  thus 
formed.  The  parties  were  now  adorned  with  garlands 
of  flowers,  and  walked  in  procession  to  their  homo. 
The  evening  was  closed  with  a  marria^je  feast,  at 
which  the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  brideL;room 
and  bride  were  present.  The  ceremony  of  crowning 
the  parties,  which  was  the  commencement  of  the 
whole  service,  has  been  already  described  under  the 
article  Ckown  (Nuptial). 

The  marriage  procession  which  conducted  the 
bridegroom  with  great  pomp  to  the  house  of  liis  fu- 
ture bride,  is  universal  in  the  East,  and  is  alluded  to 
in  the  Talmud  and  in  the  parable  of  tlie  Ten  Vir- 
gins, recorded  in  Matth.  xxv.  1 — 10.  We  find  a 
modern  illustration  of  the  custom  in  Messrs.  Bonar 
and  M'Cheyne's  Travels  in  Palestine  :  "  The  bride- 
gi-oom  was  on  his  way  to  the  house  of  the  bride. 
According  to  custom,  he  walked  in  procession  through 
several  streets  of  the  town,  attended  by  a  numerous 
body  of  friends,  all  in  their  showy  eastern  garb.  Per- 
sons bearing  torches  went  first,  the  torches  being 
kept  in  full  blaze  by  a  constant  supjily  of  ready  wood 
from  a  receiver,  made  of  wire,  fixed  on  the  end  of  a 
long  pole.  Two  of  the  torch-bearers  stood  close  to 
the  bridegroom,  so  that  we  had  a  view  of  his  person. 
Some  were  playing  upon  an  instruinent  not  unlike 
our  bagpipe,  others  were  beating  drums,  and  from 
time  to  time  muskets  were  fired  in  honour  of  the 
occasion.  There  was  much  mirth  expressed  by  the 
crowd,  especially  when  the  procession  stood  still, 
which  it  did  every  few  paces.  We  thought  of  the 
words  of  John,  '  The  friend  of  the  bridegroom,  which 
standeth  and  heareth  him,  rejoiceth  greatly  because 
of  the  bridegroom's  voice.'  At  length  the  company 
arrived  at  the  entrance  of  the  street  where  the  bride 
resided.  Immediately  we  heard  the  sound  of  many 
female  voices,  and  observed  by  the  light  of  the 
torches,  a  company  of  veiled  bridesmaids,  waiting  on 
the  balcony  to  give  notice  of  the  coming  of  the 
bridegroom.  When  they  caught  a  sight  of  the  ap- 
proaching procession,  they  ran  back  into  the  house, 
making  it  resound  with  the  cry, '  Halil,  halil,  halil,' 
and  music  both  vocal  and  instrumental  commenced 
within.  Thus  the  bridegroom  entered  in  '  and  the 
door  was  shut.'  We  were  left  standing  in  the  street 
without,  'in  the  outer  darkness.'  In  our  Lord's 
parable,  the  virgins  go  forth  to  meet  the  bridegroom 
with  lamps  in  their  hands,  but  here  they  only  waited 
for  his  coming.  Still  we  saw  the  traces  of  the  very 
scene  described  by  our  Lord,  and  a  vivid  representa- 
tion of  the  way  in  which  Christ  shall  come  and  the 
muriage  supper  of  the  Lamb  begin." 


Among  the  ancient  Greeks  marriage  was  looked 
upon  as  an  important  and  even  solemn  transaction. 
On  the  day  before  the  marriage  was  celebrated,  sacri- 
fices or  oflerings  were  made  to  the  deities  who  presided 
over  the  marriage  relation,  particularly  to  Ilera  and 
Artemis.  Botli  bride  and  bridegroom  cut  olf  a  por- 
tion of  their  hair,  and  dedicated  it  as  an  ofl'ering  to 
one  of  the  gods.  On  the  wedding-day  the  parties  were 
both  of  them  subjected  to  careful  ablution.  Towards 
evening  the  bride  was  conveyed  from  her  father's 
house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom  in  a  chariot,  accom- 
l)anicd  by  the  bridegroom  and  a  companion  chosen 
by  him  for  the  occasion,  and  usually  called  the  para- 
nipuph.  Crowds  of  attendants  marched  in  proces- 
sion carrying  lighted  torches,  while  music,  both  vocal 
and  instrumental,  saluted  the  bridal  train  as  it  moved 
along.  The  bride  was  veiled,  and  both  she  and  the 
bridegroom  wore  chaplets  on  their  heads.  As  the 
parties  entered  the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  sweet- 
meats were  sliowered  plentifully  over  their  heads, 
denoting  a  wish  that  abundance  of  good  things  might 
ever  attend  them.  The  marriage  was  not  celebrated 
with  any  special  rites,  either  civil  or  religious;  but 
when  the  parties  had  reached  the  house  of  the  bride 
grooin,  or  of  his  parents,  a  nuptial  feast  was  held,  at 
which  both  women  and  men  were  present,  seated, 
however,  at  separate  tables.  At  the  conclusion  of 
tlie  feast,  and  when  the  parties  had  retired  to  their 
own  apartments  the  epitltalamium  or  maiTiage  hymn 
was  sung  before  the  door.  On  the  day  following  the 
marriage,  it  was  customary  for  the  friends  to  send 
presents  to  the  newly  married  pair. 

An  ancient  Roman  marriage  differed  in  various 
particulars  from  a  marriage  among  the  ancient 
Greeks.  The  wedding-day  was  not  fixed  without 
first  consulting  the  auspices.  Certain  days  were 
avoided  as  milucky,  especially  the  Kalends,  Nones, 
and  Ides  of  each  month.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage,  the  bride  was  dressed  in  a  long  white  robe 
with  a  purple  fringe,  or  adorned  with  ribands,  and  a 
girdle  was  woni  round  the  waist,  while  a  veil  of  a 
bright  yellow  colour  was  thrown  over  the  head, 
and  shoes  of  the  same  colour  were  worn  upon  the 
feet.  Her  hair  was  divided  on  this  occasion  with 
the  point  of  a  spear.  Among  the  Komans  no  mar- 
riage was  celebrated  with  religious  rites  except  the 
CONFARREATio  (which  sce).  In  the  evening  of 
the  marriage  the  bride  was  conducted  to  the  house 
of  her  husband,  carrj-ing  in  her  hands  a  distafl 
and  a  spindle  with  wool.  Three  boys  accompanied 
her  dressed  in  the  praetexta,  one  bearing  a  torch 
before,  while  the  other  two  walked  by  her  side. 
The  procession  was  also  attended  by  a  large  com- 
pany of  the  friends  both  of  the  bridegroom  and  the 
bride.  On  reaching  the  house  of  the  bridegroom, 
the  entrance  of  which  was  ornamented  with  flow- 
ers, the  utmost  care  was  taken  that  the  bride  should 
not  strike  her  foot  against  the  threshold,  which 
would  have  been  an  unlucky  omen.  To  prevent 
this  she  was  carried  into  the  house.     Before  enteriog, 


•HSO 


MARRIAGE. 


however,  slie  wound  a  portion  of  wool  round  the 
door-posts,  and  anointed  them  witli  hird  ;  after  which 
her  future  husband  met  her  with  fire  and  water, 
which  she  was  required  to  toucli.  She  then  advanced 
forward  and  took  lier  seat  lipon  a  sheepskin  prepared 
for  tlie  purpose,  when  tlie  keys  of  the  house  were 
formallv  presented  to  Iter.  A  marriage  feast  closed 
ihe  wliole  proceedings.  On  the  day  following  the 
marriage,  or  at  least  on  an  early  day  thereafter,  sacri- 
fices were  olTered  to  the  Penates  or  household  gods. 

The  marriage  ceremonies  among  the  ancient  Scan- 
dinavians were  very  simple,  and  cliiefly  consisted  in 
feasting.  "  Tlie  bridegroom,"  says  Mr.  Mallet,  "  hav- 
ing obtained  the  maiden's  consent,  together  with 
that  of  her  parents  and  guardians,  appointed  the  day  ; 
and  having  assembled  his  own  relations  and  friends, 
sent  some  of  them  to  receive  in  his  name  the  bride 
and  her  portion  from  her  father.  The  friends  were 
answerable  for  the  charge  that  was  committed  to 
them,  and  if  they  abused  their  trust,  the  law  amerced 
them  in  a  sum  treble  to  what  was  paid  for  murder. 
The  fatlier  or  guardian  of  the  young  woman  attend- 
ed her  also  to  the  husband's  house,  and  there  gave 
her  into  his  liands.  After  this  the  new  married  pair 
sat  down  to  table  with  their  guests,  who  drank  to 
their  healths  along  with  those  of  the  gods  and  heroes. 
The  bride's  friends  then  took  her  up  and  bore  her 
on  their  shoulders,  which  was  a  mark  of  esteem 
among  the  Goths  ;  her  father  afterwards  led  her  to 
tlie  nuptial  bed,  a  great  number  of  lights  being  car- 
ried before  her  ;  a  custom  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  still  in  use  in  some  parts  of  the  North. 
The  marriage  being  consummated,  the  husband  made 
his  wife  several  presents,  such  as  a  pair  of  oxen  for 
the  plough,  a  harnessed  horse,  a  buckler,  together 
with  a  lance  and  a  sword.  '  This  was  to  signify,' 
says  Tacitus,  '  that  she  ought  not  to  lead  an  idle  and 
hixurious  life,  but  that  she  was  to  be  a  partaker  with 
him  in  his  labours,  and  a  companion  in  dangers, 
which  they  were  to  share  together  in  peace  and 
war.'  He  adds  that  'the  women,  on  their  parts  gave 
some  arms  ;  this  was  the  sacred  band  of  their  union, 
these  their  mystic  rites,  and  these  the  deities  who 
presided  over  tlieir  marriage.'  The  yoked  oxen,  the 
cajiarisoned  liorse,  and  the  arms,  all  served  to  in- 
struct the  women  how  they  were  to  lead  their  life, 
and  how  perhaps  it  might  be  terminated.  Tlie  arms 
were  to  be  carefully  preserved,  and  being  ennobled 
by  the  use  the  husband  made  of  them,  were  to  be 
consigned  as  portions  for  their  daughters,  and  to  be 
handed  down  to  posterity." 

In  the  Greek  church  the  marriage  ceremony  con- 
sists of  three  parts,  the  betrothal,  the  coronation, 
and  the  dissolving  of  the  crowns.  Hence  the  cere- 
mony is  complicated  and  protracted.  In  the  course 
of  the  service  many  prayers  are  olTered  not  only  for 
the  married  parties,  but  also  for  the  bridesmaids. 
Henedictions  of  great  beauty  and  solemnity  are  pro- 
nounced upon  the  newly  married  couple. 

The  modes    of  cclubrating  marriage  amon<r  mo- 


dern heathen  nations  are  very  different,  and  BOm« 
of  them  very  peculiar  and  deeply  interesting.  We 
select  a  few  taken  from  the  accounts  of  travellers. 
Among  the  Japanese  a  marriage  is  conducted  aftei 
this  manner:  "  On  the  day  fixed  for  the  marriage, 
an  intelligent  female  servant  of  the  second  class  is 
sent  to  the  house  of  the  bride  to  attend  her,  and  the 
bride's  father,  having  invited  all  his  kinsfolk,  enter- 
tains them  previous  to  the  bride's  departure.  The 
bridal  party  sets  out  in  norimons  or  litters,  the  me- 
diator's wife  first,  then  the  bride,  then  the  bride's 
mother,  and,  finally,  her  father.  The  mediator  has 
already  preceded  them  to  the  bridegroom's  house. 
The  bride  is  dressed  in  white  (white  being  the  colour 
for  mourning  among  the  Japanese),  being  considered 
as  thenceforward  dead  to  her  parents. 

"  If  all  the  ceremonies  are  to  be  observed,  there 
should  be  stationed,  at  the  right  of  the  entrance  to 
the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  an  old  woman,  and  on 
the  left  an  old  man,  each  with  a  mortar  containing 
some  rice-cakes.  As  the  bride's  norimon  reaches 
the  house,  they  begin  to  pound  their  respective  mor- 
tars, the  man  saying,  '  A  thousand  years  ! '  the  wo- 
man, 'Ten  thousand!' — allusions  to  the  reputed 
terms  of  life  of  the  crane  and  the  tortoise  thus  in- 
voked for  the  bride.  As  the  norimon  passes  be- 
tween them,  the  man  pours  his  cakes  into  the  woman's 
mortar,  and  both  pound  together.  What  is  tlius 
pounded  is  moulded  into  two  cakes,  which  are  put 
one  upon  another  and  receive  a  conspicuous  place  in 
the  toko  of  the  room  where  the  marriage  is  to  be 
celebrated. 

"  The  norimon  is  met  within  the  passage  by  the 
bridegroom,  who  stands  in  his  dress  of  ceremony 
ready  to  receive  it.  There  is  also  a  woman  seated 
there  with  a  lantern,  and  several  others  behind  her. 
It  was  by  the  light  of  this  lantern  that  formerly 
the  groom  first  saw  his  bride,  and,  if  dissatisfied 
with  her,  exercised  his  right  of  putting  a  stop  to 
the  ceremony.  The  bride,  on  seeing  the  bridegroom, 
reaches  to  him,  through  the  front  window  of  her 
norimon,  her  marmon,  which  is  a  small  square  or 
oblong  bag,  containing  a  small  image  of  metal, 
used  as  an  amulet,  and  he  hands  it  to  a  female  ser- 
vant, who  takes  it  into  the  apartment  prepared  for 
the  wedding,  and  hangs  it  up.  The  bride  is  also 
led  to  her  apartment,  the  woman  with  the  lantern 
preceding. 

"  The  marriage  being  now  about  to  take  place,  the 
bride  is  led,  by  one  of  her  waiting  women,  i*ito  the 
room  where  it  is  to  be  celebrated,  and  is  seated  there 
with  two  female  attendants  on  either  side.  The 
bridegroom  then  leaves  his  room  and  comes  into  this 
apartment.  No  other  persons  are  present  except 
the  mediator  and  his  wife.  The  formality  of  the 
marriage  consists  in  drinking  saki  alter  a  particular 
manner.  The  saki  is  poured  out  by  two  young  girls, 
one  of  whom  is  called  the  male  butlerlly,  and  the 
other  the  female  butterfly, — ap]iellations  derived 
from  their  tusu,  orsaki-jugs,  each  of  which  is  adorned 


MARRIAGE. 


SSI 


with  A  paper  butterfly.  As  these  insects  always  fly 
about  in  pairs,  it  is  iiitpnded  to  intimate  tliat  so  tlie 
husbanil  and  wife  ouglit  to  be  continually  togethpr. 
The  male  butterfly  always  pours  out  the  saki  to  bo 
dnmk,  but,  before  doing  so,  turns  a  little  to  the  left, 
when  the  female  butterfly  pours  from  her  jug  a  little 
saki  into  the  jug  of  the  other,  who  then  proceeds  to 
pour  out  for  the  ceremony.  For  drinking  it,  three 
bowls  are  used,  placed  on  a  tray  or  waiter,  one  within 
the  other.  The  bride  takes  the  uppermost,  holds  it 
in  both  bands,  while  some  saki  is  poured  into  it, 
sips  a  little,  three  several  times,  and  then  hands  it 
to  the  groom.  lie  drinks  throe  times  in  like  man- 
ner, puts  the  bowl  under  the  third,  takes  the  second, 
hanils  it  to  be  filled,  drinks  out  of  it  three  times,  and 
passes  it  to  the  bride.  She  drinks  three  times,  puts 
the  second  howl  under  the  first,  takes  the  third,  holds 
it  to  be  filled,  drinks  three  times,  and  then  hands  it 
to  the  groom,  who  does  the  same,  and  afterwards 
puts  this  bowl  under  the  first.  This  ceremony  con- 
stitutes the  marriage.  The  bride's  parents,  wlio 
meanwhile  were  in  auother  room,  being  infontied  that 
this  ceremony  is  over,  come  in,  as  do  the  bride- 
groom's parents  and  brothers,  and  seat  themselves  in 
a  certain  order.  The  saki,  with  other  refreshments 
interspersed,  is  then  served  by  the  two  butterflies,  to 
these  relations  of  the  married  parties  in  a  prescribed 
order,  indicated  by  the  mediator ;  the  two  families, 
by  this  ceremony,  extending,  as  it  were,  to  each 
other  the  alliance  already  contracted  between  the 
bride  and  bridegroom." 

Mr.  Ellis  gives  .an  interesting  account  of  the  mar- 
riage ceremony  in  Mad.igascar  :  "  When  tlie  prelimi- 
naries are  determined,  and  the  time  fi.xed,  viz.,  a  good 
or  lucky  day,  according  to  the  sikidy  or  diviner,  the 
relatives  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom  meet  at  the 
houses  of  the  parents  of  the  respective  parties.  All 
are  attired  in  their  best  apparel,  and  decorated  with 
their  gayest  ornaments.  At  the  appointed  hour,  the 
relatives  or  friends  of  the  bridegi-oom  accompany  him 
to  the  house  of  the  bride.  These  pay  or  receive  the 
dowr)',  which  being  settled,  he  is  welcomed  by  the 
bride  as  her  future  husband ;  they  eat  together,  are 
recognized  by  the  senior  members  of  the  family  as 
nusband  and  wife  ;  a  benediction  is  pronoimced  upon 
them,  and  a  prayer  offered  to  God,  th.at  they  may 
Iiave  a  numerous  oflspring,  abundance  of  cattle,  many 
slaves,  gi'eat  wealth,  and  increase  the  honour  of  their 
respective  families.  They  then  repair  to  the  house 
of  the  parents  or  friends  of  the  bridegroom,  and  again 
cat  together,  when  similar  benedictions  are  jiro- 
nounced  by  the  senior  members  of  the  family,  or  the 
bead  man  of  the  village,  who  is  usually  invited  to 
the  ceremony.  The  nuptial  bond  is,  in  some  in- 
stances, now  regarded  as  complete :  general  feasting 
ensues,  after  which  the  parties  return  to  their  re- 
spective homes,  and  the  newly  married  couple  to  the 
residence  prepared  for  them.  But  if,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  the  houses  in  which  the  parties  have  met 
U  belcw  the  bill  on  which  their  village  is  built,  the 


bride  is  placed  on  a  sort  of  cliair,  under  a  canopy, 
and  borne  on  men's  shoulders  up  the  sides  of  tli« 
hill  to  the  centre  of  the  village.  Occasionally  llio 
bridegroom  is  carried  in  the  same  manner.  The  re- 
latives .and  friends  of  the  parties  follow  the  proces- 
sion, cliijiping  their  hands,  and  singing,  as  the  bearers 
ascend.  On  reaching  the  village,  they  halt  at  what 
is  called  the  parent-bouse,  or  residence  of  the  oflicer 
of  the  government;  a  liasina,  or  piece  of  money,  is 
given  to  the  attending  officer,  for  the  sovereign,  the 
receiving  of  which  is  considered  a  legal  official  rati- 
fication of  the  engagement,  as  the  marriage  cannot 
afterwards  be  annulled,  except  by  a  legal  act  of 
divorce  in  tlie  presence  of  witnesses.  No  ring,  or 
other  emblem  of  the  married  state,  is  used  on  such 
occasions,  or  woni  afterwards ;  nor  is  there  any 
badge  by  which  the  married  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  unmarried  women  in  Madagascar,  when 
their  husbands  are  at  liome  ;  but  during  the  absence 
of  their  husbands,  especially  in  the  service  of  gov- 
ernment, a  necklace,  of  silver  rings,  or  beads,  or 
braided  hair,  is  worn,  to  denote  that  they  are  mar- 
ried, and  that  consequently  their  persons  are  sacred. 
Thus  the  wives  of  the  officers  composing  the  late 
embassy  to  England  were  distinguished  during  the 
absence  of  their  husbands." 

Turning  to  the  South  Sea  Islands,  we  find  the 
following  description  given  of  a  maiTJage  in  that 
quarter  of  the  world  by  Mr.  Williams  in  his  Mission- 
ary Researches :  "  A  group  of  women  seated  under 
the  shade  of  a  noble  tree  which  stood  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  house,  chaunted,  in  a  [ileasing  arid 
livelv  air,  tlie  heroic  deeds  of  the  old  chieftain  and 
his  ancestors;  and  opposite  to  them,  beneath  the 
spreading  branches  of  a  bread-fruit  tree,  sat  the 
newly  purchased  bride,  a  tall  and  beautiful  young 
woman,  about  eighteen  years  of  age.  Ilcr  dress  was 
a  fine  mat,  fastened  round  the  waist,  reaching  nearly 
to  her  ankles  ;  while  a  wreath  of  leaves  and  flowers, 
ingeniously  and  tastefully  entwined,  decorated  her 
brow.  The  upper  part  of  her  person  was  anointed 
with  sweet-scented  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  tinged  partially 
with  a  rouge  prepared  from  the  turmeric  root,  and 
round  her  neck  were  two  rows  of  large  blue  beads. 
Her  whole  deportment  was  pleasingly  modest. 
While  listening  to  the  chaunters,  and  looking  upon 
the  novel  scene  before  us,  our  attention  was  at- 
tracted by  another  company  of  women,  who  were 
following  each  other  in  single  file,  and  chaunting  as 
they  came  the  praises  of  their  chief  Sitting  down 
with  the  company  who  had  preceded  them,  they 
united  in  one  general  chorus,  which  appeared  to  be 
a  recital  of  the  valorous  deeds  of  Malietoa  and  his 
progenitors.  This  ended,  a  dance  in  honour  of  the 
marriage  was  commenced,  which  was  considered  one 
of  their  grandest  exhibitions,  and  held  in  high  esti- 
mation by  the  people.  The  performers  were  tour 
young  women,  all  daughters  of  chiefs  of  the  highest 
rank,  who  took  their  stations  at  right  angles  on  the 
fine  mats  with  which  the  dancing-liouse  was  eprekd 


382 


MARROW  CONTROVERSY. 


for  the  occasion,  and  then  interchanged  positions 
with  slow  and  graceful  movements  both  of  their 
hands  and  feet,  while  the  bride  recited  some  of  the 
mighty  doings  of  her  forefathers.  To  the  motions 
of  the  dancers,  and  to  the  recital  of  the  bride,  three 
or  four  elderly  women  were  beating  time  upon  the 
mat  with  short  sticks,  and  occasionally  joining  in 
chorus  with  the  recitative.  We  saw  nothing  in  the 
performance  worthy  of  admiration,  except  the  ab- 
sence of  every  thing  indelicate — a  rare  omission  in 
heathen  amusements.  We  were  informed  that  most 
of  tlie  wives  of  the  principal  chiefs  were  purchased ; 
and  that  if  a  sufficient  price  is  paid  to  the  relatives, 
the  young  woman  seldom  refuses  to  go,  though  the 
purchaser  be  ever  so  old,  and  unlovely." 

Hindu  maiTiages  are  conducted  with  great  pomp, 
and  often  at  an  enormous  expense.  "  It  often  hap- 
pens tliat  a  parent  will  expend  his  whole  fortune 
upon  a  marriage  entertainment,  and  pass  the  rest  of 
his  days  in  the  most  pitiable  destitution.  The  nup- 
tial ceremonies  continue  many  days.  On  the  third 
day  tlie  astrologer  consults  the  zodiac,  and  pointing 
out  to  the  married  party  a  small  star  in  the  constel- 
lation of  Ursa  Major,  near  the  tail,  directs  them  to 
offer  their  devotions  to  it,  declaring  it  to  be  Arund- 
hati,  wife  of  one  of  the  seven  rishis,  or  penitents. 
The  wedding- dinner  is  invariably  furnished  with  an 
immense  number  of  guests,  and  if  the  entertainers  be 
rich,  is  always  extremely  magnificent.  Upon  this 
occasion  only,  the  bride  sits  down  to  partake  with 
her  husband  of  the  luxuries  provided ;  indeed,  both 
eat  out  of  the  same  plates.  This,  however,  is  the 
only  time  in  her  life  that  the  wife  is  allowed  such  a 
privilege ;  henceforward  she  never  sits  down  to  a 
meal  with  her  husband.  Even  at  the  nuptial  feast, 
she  eats  what  he  leaves,  unless  she  be  too  much  of 
an  infant  to  be  sensible  of  the  honour  to  which  she 
has  been  exalted.  Upon  the  last  days  of  the  festi- 
val, the  bridegroom  offers  the  sacrifice  of  the  Homaii, 
the  bride  throwing  parched,  instead  of  boiled  rice 
into  the  fire.  This  is  the  only  instance  in  which  a 
woman  takes  part  in  that  sacrifice,  considered  by  the 
Hindoos  the  most  sacred  of  all  except  that  of  the 
Yajna.  These  ceremonies  being  concluded,  a  pro- 
cession is  made  through  the  streets  of  the  town  or 
village.  It  commonly  takes  place  at  night,  the 
Etreets  being  brilliantly  illuminated  with  innumer- 
able torches,  which  gleam  through  the  darkness  with 
a  dazzling  but  unnatural  glare.  The  new-married 
pair  are  seated  in  the  same  palanquin  facing  each 
other.  They  are  magnificently  arrayed  in  brocaded 
stuffs,  and  adorned  with  jewels  presented  to  them  by 
the  fathers  of  each,  and  if  their  fathers  are  unable  to 
do  this,  the  gems  are  borrowed  for  the  occasion. 
Before  the  palanquin  marches  a  band  of  musicians, 
who  drown  every  other  sound  in  the  braying  of 
horns,  the  clamour  of  drums,  pipes,  and  cymbals. 
As  the  procession  moves  onward,  the  friends  .and  re- 
latives of  the  bride  and  bridegroom  come  out  of  their 
houiea  to  express  their  congratulations  as  they  pass. 


offering  them  various  presents,  for  which,  however, 
they  expect  a  more  than  adequate  return." 

The  marriages  of  the  Chinese  are,  like  those  of  the 
Hindus,  celebrated  at  great  expense.  The  bride, 
locked  up  in  a  red  quilt  sedan,  borne  by  four  men, 
and  sometimes  followed  by  an  immense  train  gaily 
dressed,  with  music,  banners,  and  other  parapherna- 
lia, is  carried  by  night  to  the  house  of  the  bride- 
groom. Here  the  parties  pledge  each  other  in  a 
cup  of  wine,  and  together  worship  the  ancestral 
tablets,  besides  sometimes  prostrating  themselves  be 
fore  the  parents  of  the  bridegroom. 

MARROW  CONTROVERSY,  a  dispute  which 
arose  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  caused  by  the  re-publication  of  a 
book  called  the  '  Marrow  of  Modern  Divinity.'  The 
book  here  referred  to  had  been  originally  published 
in  1646,  with  the  view  of  explaining  and  estabhsh- 
ing  the  perfect  freeness  of  the  gospel  salvation ;  of 
leading  tlie  sinner  to  come  to  the  Saviour,  all  guilty, 
polluted,  and  undone  as  he  is,  and  to  embrace  witli- 
out  hesitation  the  offered  mercy.  The  author  of  the 
'Marrow'  was  an  Englishman,  named  Mr.  Edward 
Fisher,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  University  of 
Oxford.  To  prevent  the  first  part  of  the  book  from 
being  misunderstood  or  perverted,  a  second  part  was 
added  showing  the  Christian  uses  of  the  Law,  and 
steering  a  middle  course  between  the  Antinomiafis 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Neonomians  on  the  other. 
A  copy  of  this  production  having  been  accidentally 
carried  to  Scotland  in  the  knapsack  of  an  old  soldier, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Thomas  Boston,  then 
minister  of  Simprin,  who  acknowledged  himself 
deeply  indebted  to  it  for  clear  views  of  Divine  truth. 
The  prevailing  tone  of  theology  in  Scotland  at  that 
time  was  lamentably  lax,  and  even  semi-Arminian 
in  its  character.  Amid  the  darkness,  however, 
which  covered  almost  the  whole  church  and  country, 
there  were  a  few  pious  and  devoted  ministers  of 
Christ,  who  sighed  and  prayed  for  a  revival  of  the 
Lord's  work  in  the  land.  Among  these  men  of  God 
was  Mr.  James  Hog,  minister  at  Carnock,  who,  anx- 
ious to  diffuse  a  purer  theology,  issued  an  edition 
of  the  'Marrow'  in  1717,  with  a  recommendatory 
preface.  Immediately  on  its  publication  in  Scotland, 
the  book  was  assailed  from  various  quarters  as  being 
unsound  in  doctrine,  and  Mr.  Hog  found  it  necessary 
to  send  forth  two  difterent  pamphlets  on  the  subject , 
the  one,  a  'Vindication  of  the  Doctrine  of  Grace 
from  the  charge  of  Licentiousness;'  the  other,  an 
'  Explication  of  the  Passages  excepted  against  in  the 
Marrow;'  both  of  which  appeared  earlv  in  the  year 
1719. 

The  Scottish  puF  its  now  resounded  with  denun- 
ciations of  the  'Marrow'  and  its  doctrines.  Among 
others.  Principal  Hadow  of  St.  Andrews,  in  a  ser- 
mon preached  before  the  synod  of  Fife,  and  after- 
wards published  at  their  request,  attacked  the  '  Mar- 
row' as  a  book  fraught  with  the  most  odious  Antino- 
mianism.     In  addition  to  this  sermon,  Hadow  «00B 


MARROW  CONTROVERSY. 


»83 


after  piibliBliod  a  pamphJot,  wliicli  lie  fityled,  'The 
AiitinoMiianisin  of  tlie  Marrow  dofocted.'  A  host  of 
polemical  piccen  on  both  sidcn  of  the  question  now 
a|i|iparod  in  ra[iid  siiccessifni,  and  for  four  years  the 
Marrow  Controversy  ratted  in  Scotland  with  unabated 
violence  and  fury,  llie  numerous  misrepresenta- 
tions of  tlie  doctrines  of  the  '  Marrow'  which  were 
given  to  the  public  by  its  opponents,  led  to  the  pub- 
lication in  the  course  of  a  few  years  of  another 
edition  of  the  book  with  copious  and  very  valuable 
explanatory  notes  from  the  able  pen  of  Thomas 
Boston  of  Rttrick. 

The  controversy  was  not  long  limited  to  the  gen- 
eral public ;  it  soon  found  its  way  into  tlie  Gener.il 
Assembly.  That  Court  in  1719  issued  instructions 
to  its  Commission  to  inquire  into  the  puhlishin;;  and 
spreading  of  books  and  pamphlets  tending  to  the 
dill'iision  of  doctrines  contrary  to  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith.  The  Commission,  accordingly, 
at  its  first  meeting,  proceeded  to  take  action  in  the 
matter  by  appointing  a  Committee,  under  the  im- 
posing name  of  "  The  Committee  for  Purity  of  Doc- 
trine," and  to  ripen  the  affair  for  the  Assembly, 
several  avowed  supporters  of  the  Marrow  doctrines 
were  summoned  before  this  Committee  in  April 
1720,  and  subjected  to  a  series  of  searching  ques- 
tions in  regard  to  the  obnoxious  book.  An  overture 
was  now  prepared  with  great  care  and  introduced 
into  the  General  Assembly  in  May,  condemning  the 
'  Marrow'  under  five  difVerent  heads  :  (1.)  The  nature 
of  faith,  under  which  the  charge  is  that  assurance  is 
made  to  be  of  the  essence  of  faith.  (2.)  Universal 
atonement  and  jiardon.  (3.)  Holiness  not  necessary 
to  salvation.  (4.)  Fear  of  punishment  and  hope  of 
reward  not  allowed  to  be  motives  of  a  believer's  obe- 
dience. (5.)  That  the  believer  is  not  imder  the  Law 
as  a  rule  of  life.  These  alleged  charges  were  supported 
by  a  number  of  passages  selected  from  the  '  Marrow.' 
The  subject  was  discussed  at  some  length  by  the 
Assembly,  and  the  deliverance  of  the  Court  was,  that 
the  said  passages  and  quotations  are  contrary  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  our  Confession  of  Faith  and 
Catechisms.  "  And  therefore  the  General  Assem- 
bly do  hereby  prohibit  and  discbarge  all  the  minis- 
ters of  this  church,  either  by  preaching,  -writing,  or 
printing,  to  recommend  the  said  book,  or  in  discourse 
to  say  anythhig  in  favour  of  it."  "This  decision," 
says  Dr.  M'Crie,  "which  seems  to  have  been  hastily 
adopted,  without  any  due  examination  of  the  book, 
under  a  vague  alarm,  excited  by  certain  paradoxical 
expressions  taken  apart  from  their  connection  and 
exhibited  in  the  most  odious  light,  gave  great  oflence 
in  different  quarters  of  the  church.  A  representa- 
tion prepared  by  Ebenezer  Erskiue,  and  signed  by 
twelve  ministers,  remonstrating  ag.iinst  the  decision 
as  injurious  to  vanous  points  of  evangelical  truth, 
was  presented  at  next  meeting  of  Assembly.  The 
Purity  of  Doctrine' committee,  on  the  other  hand, 
tunied  the  cannon  against  them,'  by  preparing 
twelve  queries,'  which,  as  if  they  had  taken  aim  at 


each  of  them  separately,  they  directed  against  the 
'twelve  Itcprescnters.'  The  controversy  tliu»  an- 
Bumed  the  strange  aspect  of  two  parties  cnargin^' 
each  other  respectively  with  defection  from  ilia 
truth,  each  equally  confident  of  being  supported  by 
Scripture  and  the  standards  of  the  church.  So  far 
as  the  orthodoxy  of  the  '  Marrow'  was  concerned,  the 
Kepresenters  were  less  careful  to  vindicate  the  book 
than  to  uphold  those  precious  truths  which  had  been 
endangered  by  its  condemnation.  The  '  I'urity  of 
Doctrine'  men  seized  on  certain  phrases,  which  they 
insisted  should  be  'sensed'  according  to  other  parts 
of  the  book ;  while  the  Kepresenters,  condemning 
the  sentiment  as  thus  'sensed,' maintained  that  no 
such  propositions  were  to  be  really  found  in  the 
book.  Hut  on  the  doctrines  evolved  by  the  queries, 
the  Kepresenters  boldly  took  their  stand;  and  in 
their  answers,  which  are  drawn  up  with  great  ability 
and  precision,  they  unquestionably  succeeded  in  de- 
monstrating that  the  Assembly  had,  unwittingly  on 
the  part  of  many,  given  their  sanction  to  some  very 
grave  errors  in  Christian  doctrine." 

In  1722,  the  General  Assembly  brought  the  mat- 
ter judicially  to  a  conclusion,  by  condemning  the 
Representation,  and  ordering  the  Kepresenters  to  be 
rebuked  and  admonished  at  their  bar,  which  was 
done  by  the  Moderator;  whereupon  the  Kepresent- 
ers tendered  a  solemn  protest,  which,  though  refused 
by  the  Assembly,  was  afterwards  pubhshed.  In  this 
document  they  protested  against  the  Act  1720  con- 
demning the  '  Marrow,'  as  contrary  to  the  "Word  of 
God,  and  the  standards  of  the  cluircb,  and  our  cove- 
nants, and  declared  that  "  it  shall  be  lawful  to  us  to 
profess,  preach,  and  bear  testimony  unto  the  truths 
condemned  by  the  said  Acts  of  Assembly,  notwith- 
standing of  the  said  Acts,  or  whatsoever  shall  follow 
thereupon."  This  being  a  protest  against  a  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  might  have  subjected  all  the 
parties  signing  it  to  severe  ecclesiastical  censure,  if 
not  to  summary  deposition,  but  such  a  sentence  was 
averted  bv  the  earnest  solicitations  of  government, 
and  "  had  not  this  influence  been  exerted,"  says  the 
elder  M'Crie,  "  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  sen- 
tence would  have  been  more  severe,  and  in  that  case 
the  Secession  would  have  taken  place  ten  years 
earlier  than  it  actually  happened."  That  this  un- 
happy controversy  paved  the  way  for  the  Secession 
of  173.3,  there  cannot  be  the  shadow  of  a  doubt. 
The  attachment  of  multitudes  of  the  Christian  peo- 
ple to  the  Church  of  Scotland  was  seriously  shaken, 
and  the  fact  was  too  obvious  to  be  denied  that 
the  evangelical  purity  of  doctrine  which  charac- 
terized her  standards,  was  far  from  characterizing 
the  teaching  of  the  great  majority  of  her  ministers. 
All  whose  doctrines  savoured  of  the  'Marrow'  were 
looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and  the  Kepresenters 
in  particular  were  subjected  to  annoyance  in  various 
ways  by  their  respective  synods  and  presbyteries. 

The  Man-ow  Controversy  was  not  long  limited  to 
Scotland ;  in  a  short  time  it  was  transferred  to  Eng- 


A84 


MARS— MARTIXTSTS. 


land.  The  views  of  the  Marrowmen  were  embraced 
by  Mr.  Hervey,  particularly  on  the  subject  of  the  ap- 
propriating assurance  of  faith,  and  not  only  did  he 
p've  expression  to  his  sentiments  in  his  well-known 
'  Theron  and  Aspasio,'  but  he  spoke  of  the  '  Marrow' 
in  terms  of  the  highest  eulogium.  His  writings 
were  assailed  with  great  bitterness  and  severity  by 
Mr.  Robert  Sandeman,  who  gave  rise  to  the  sect 
known  by  the  name  of  Sandemanians  (which  see). 
Thus  commenced  a  controversy  which  lasted  for  a 
long  time,  and  extended  even  to  America.  The 
theology  of  the  Marrow- Jlen  in  its  characteristic  fea- 
tures is  thus  ably  delineated  by  the  younger  M'Crie  : 
"  Its  leading  principles  may  be  comprised  in  two 
words — full  atonement  and  free  salvation.  On  these 
two  pillars,  like  the  Jachin  and  Boaz  of  the  ancient 
temple,  was  the  whole  fabric  built  and  upheld.  In 
their  system,  the  atonement  of  the  Saviour  stood 
forth  in  all  its  plenitude,  as  a  complete  satisfaction 
given  by  tlie  Surety  of  sinners  in  tlieir  room,  securing 
pardon  and  life  for  all  whom  he  represented.  They 
did  not  consider  it  necessary  to  abridge  its  virtues 
and  merits,  in  order  to  extend  them  to  all  men,  or  to 
furnish  ministers  with  a  warrant  to  ofler  them  to  all. 
They  found  their  warrant  to  do  so  in  the  ofl'ers  of 
the  gospel;  nor  did  they  deem  it  essential  to  find 
out  a  warrant  for  God  to  justify  /am  in  making  these 
offers.  They  saw  no  inconsistency  in  preaching  a 
full  Clirist,  as  well  as  a  free  Christ  to  mankind  at 
large,  and  sinners  of  all  kinds ;  for  they  found  this 
already  done  to  their  hand  by  Christ  himself  and  his 
apostles.  Some  members  of  his  synod  having  de- 
nied that  there  was  any  gift  of  Cln-ist  as  a  Saviour  to 
sinners  of  mankind,  Ebenezer  Erskine  rose,  and 
with  a  tone  and  manner  which  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion, said,  '  Moderator,  our  Lord  Jesus  said  of  him- 
self, "  My  Father  giveth  you  the  true  bread  from  hea- 
ven : "  this  he  uttered  to  a  promiscuous  multitude,  and 
let  me  see  the  man  who  dare  say  he  was  wrong.' 
Much  did  they  delight  in  pointing  the  behever  to 
the  special  love  of  Clirist  in  dying  for  his  own;  but 
equally  careful  were  they  to  point  the  sinner  to  tlie 
death  itself,  as  the  proper  and  only  object  of  saving 
faith.  To  the  believer  they  said.  Think  on  the  love 
of  the  Saviour,  fixed  upon  you  from  all  eternity, 
shedding  his  blood  for  you,  drawing  you  to  himself, 
and  fitting  you  for  the  kingdom  he  hath  purchased 
for  you.  To  the  sinner  they  said.  Look  not  to  tlie 
secret  purposes  of  God,  or  to  the  intention  of  the 
priest  in  offering  himself,  but  look  to  the  sacrifice 
offered,  wliicli  is  sufficient  for  all.  We  do  not  say, 
Christ  died  for  thee;'  this  would  imply  a  know- 
ledge of  the  secret  purposes  of  the  Most  High,  and 
secret  things  belong  not  to  ns  ;  but  we  may  say, 
'  Christ  is  dead  for  thee,'  that  is,  he  is  exhibited  as 
crucified  and  slain  for  thee — for  thy  benefit,  for  thee 
to  look  to  for  salvation,  as  the  .'crpeiit  was  lifted  up 
for  the  wounded  Israelite  to  look  to  for  healing, — • 
for  thee  to  llee  to,  .as  the  city  of  refuge  wa.s  appointed 
(oj  ilie  raauslayer  to  (lee  to  for  safely." 


MARS,  a  deity  held  in  the  highest  estimation 
among  the  ancient  Romans.  He  was  identified  at 
an  early  period  as  the  god  of  war,  with  the  Greek 
Ares  (which  see).  He  was  one  of  the  three  tute- 
lary divinities  of  Rome,  and  had  a  temple  dedicated 
to  his  worship  on  the  Quirinal  Hill,  wlience  he  re- 
ceived the  surname  of  Quirinua.  As  the  deity  pre- 
siding over  war,  females  were  not  allowed  to  engage 
in  his  worship.  He  is  usually  represented  with  a 
fierce  aspect,  clothed  in  armour,  and  brandishing  a 
spear  in  his  right  hand.  He  sits  in  a  chariot,  drawn 
by  two  horses.  The  Romans  were  wont  to  boast 
that  they  were  descended  from  this  warlike  deity ; 
Romulus,  tlie  founder  of  their  kingdom,  being  the 
son  of  Mars  by  the  goddess  Rhea.  Besides  the 
temple  inside  the  city  dedicated  to  Mars  Quirimis, 
they  had  one  outside  the  city  to  Mars  Qradivus. 
That  portion  of  the  city  also  which  was  set  apart  for 
athletic  games  and  martial  exercises,  was  named 
from  this  god  Campus  Martius.  Not  only,  how 
ever,  was  Mars  considered  as  patronizing  war,  but 
also  the  peaceful  art  of  agriculture,  and  iu  this  char- 
acter he  received  the  name  of  Silvamis.  The  wolt 
and  the  horse  among  animals,  and  the  woodpecker 
among  birds,  were  accounted  sacred  to  Mars, 

MARTINA'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  observed  in 
the  Romish  church  on  the  30th  of  January. 

MARTINISTS,  a  sect  of  Russian  Dissenters, 
which  arose  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  Chevalier  St.  Martin,  a 
native  of  France,  who,  while  infidel  philosophy  was 
exercising  almost  imdisputed  sway  over  the  public 
mind  of  that  country,  set  himself  with  his  whole 
heart  and  soul  to  diffuse  the  doctrines  of  a  pure  prac- 
tical Cliristianity,  though  undoubtedly  tinged  with  a 
considerable  admixture  of  mysticism.  To  spread  hii 
principles  the  more  widely,  he  made  use  of  the  ma- 
sonic lodges,  but  met  with  comparatively  little  success 
in  France,  except  in  the  lodges  of  Lyons  and  Mont- 
pellier.  The  doctrines  of  St.  Martin  were  imported 
into  Russia  by  Count  Grabianka,  a  I'ole,  and  Ad- 
miral Pleshcheyeff,  a  Russian,  both  of  whom  were  suc- 
cessful in  introducing  them  into  the  masonic  lodges 
in  that  country,  where  they  soon  met  with  very 
wide  acceptance.  The  Martinists  at  length  became 
a  numerous  sect,  including  in  the  list  of  their  mem- 
bers some  names  of  rank  and  influence.  The  fa- 
vourite authors,  whose  writings  they  chiefly  con 
suited,  were,  besides  St.  Martin  himself,  tliose  o( 
the  German  Pietistic  school,  such  as  Arndt  and 
Spener.  But  the  object  of  the  sect  was  not  so  much 
to  cultivate  a  speculative  as  a  practical  Christianity, 
by  seeking  to  do  good  to  all  within  the  sphere  of 
their  influence,  not  only  performing  deeds  of  charity 
to  the  poor,  but  promoting,  as  far  as  jiossible,  the 
progress  of  education  and  literature.  The  jirincipal 
scat  of  the  Mnrtini--<U  was  the  city  of  Moscow,  where 
they  established  a  typographic  society  for  the  en- 
couragement of  learning;  and  to  accomplish  thit 
impoitjint   object,   they    purchased    all   the    manu 


MARTINMAS -MARTYRS  (Worship  of). 


385 


•cripts,  wlietlier  in  prose  or  poetry,  which  were  of- 
fered to  them,  publishing,  liowever,  only  such  as 
appeared  worthy  of  eceing  the  light.  Their  coun- 
tenance was  chiefly  given  to  those  writings  which 
liad  a  religious  or  moral  tendency.  Many  of  the 
works  i)ul)lishcd  by  this  society  were  translations 
from  foreign  laugu.iges,  but  some  very  valuable  ori- 
ginal works,  literary,  scientific,  and  religious,  were 
issued  with  their  sanction.  They  established  also  a 
large  library,  chiefly  consisting  of  religions  books,  to 
which  all  were  admitted  who  were  sincerely  desirous 
of  acquiring  information.  A  school  was  founded  at 
their  expense,  and  deserving  young  men  were  as- 
sisted in  carrying  forward  their  studies  either  in  the 
country  or  at  foreign  urn'versities.  To  the  seasona- 
ble aid  thus  afforded,  Karamsin,  the  talented  Rus- 
sian historian,  was  indebted  for  his  education  at 
the  university  of  Moscow.  Many  of  the  Martin- 
ists,  unable  to  contribute  money  in  order  to  carty 
out  the  plans  of  the  society,  devoted  their  time  and 
talents  to  works  of  benevolence,  and  more  espe- 
cially to  the  alleviation  of  human  suH'ering.  Some 
of  this  noble  cla^s  of  men  sacrificed  large  fortunes, 
and  even  submitted  to  great  privations,  in  order  to 
fulfil  the  designs  of  this  charitable  and  useful  insti- 
tution. 

The  Afarti'nixts  became  in  process  of  time  a  nu- 
merous and  highly  respected  body  of  men,  and  their 
influence  was  daily  diffusing  itself  more  and  more 
widely  among  the  Russian  people.  Men  of  all  ranks, 
both  in  church  and  state,  hastened  to  join  the  lodges 
of  this  noble  band  of  Free  Masons,  which  bade  fair, 
had  it  been  permitted  to  continue  its  ojierations,  to 
be  eminently  instrumental  in  promoting  the  cause  of 
Cln-istianity  and  true  civilization  throughout  the 
whole  Russian  Empire.  But  the  rapidly  increasing 
fame  and  influence  of  this  noble  sect,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  their  typograpliic  society  at  Moscow,  which 
was  working  wonders  by  means  of  the  press,  awaken- 
ed suspicions  and  jealousies  in  the  mind  of  the  Em- 
press Catharine  11.  She  resolved,  therefore,  to  put 
forth  her  utmost  efforts  to  crush  the  sect.  Novikofl", 
one  of  its  leading  and  most  active  members,  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  castle  of  Schlusselburg ;  several  of 
the  nobles  who  belonged  to  it  were  banished  to  their 
estates,  and  several  religious  books  which  it  had 
issued  were  seized  and  burnt,  as  being  subversive  of 
the  good  order  of  the  country.  At  the  death  of 
Catharine,  the  Emperor  Paul,  who  succeeded  her  on 
the  throne  of  Russia,  liberated  Novikoff,  whose  tra- 
gic story  is  thus  briefly  told  by  Count  Krasinski  : 
"  He  recovered  his  liberty,  but  found  a  desolate 
home  :  his  wife  was  dead,  and  bis  three  young  chil- 
dren were  a  prey  to  a  terrible  and  incurable  disease. 
The  Emperor  Paul,  whose  mad  outbursts  of  despo- 
tism were  the  result  of  a  mind  diseased  by  a  keen 
sense  of  wrongs  inflicted  upon  him  by  his  own  mo- 
ther, but  whose  natural  character  was  noble  and 
jhivalrous,  demanded  of  Novikoff,  when  he  was  pre- 
tented  to  him  on  his  liberation  from  the  fortress,  how 

n 


he  might  compensate  the  injustice  that  had  been  done 
to  him,  and  the  sufTerings  to  which  be  had  been  ex- 
posed. '  liy  rendering  liberty  to  all  those  who  were 
imprisoned  at  the  same  time  when  I  was,'  was  Novi- 
kofl's  answer." 

The  labours  of  the  Afartinidts  its  a  body  were  com- 
pletely checked  by  the  persecution  which  they  had 
suffered  under  Catharine,  and  they  contented  them- 
selves, dining  the  reign  of  I'aid,  with  quietly  propa- 
gating their  opinions  in  their  individual  capacity. 
Under  Alexander  I.,  however,  who  was  somewhat 
inclined  towards  religious  mysticism,  the  Martinists 
recovered  for  a  time  their  influence  in  Russia,  and 
Prince  Galitzin,  one  of  their  number,  was  intrusted 
by  the  emperor  with  the  ministry  of  religious  affairs 
and  public  education.  Tlie  imperial  councils  were 
now  guided  by  men  of  piety  and  of  patriotism. 
Bible  Societies  were  openly  promoted  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  religious  works  published  with  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  emperor.  But  matters  completely  changed 
on  the  death  of  Alexander.  His  brother,  Nicholas, 
who  succeeded  him,  adopted  a  different  line  of  act- 
ing. He  suppressed  Bible  Societies,  discouraged 
the  progress  of  liberal  and  religious  tendencies,  and 
by  his  whole  course  of  policy  he  put  an  effectual 
check  upon  all  the  operations  of  the  Martinists,  and 
led  to  the  total  disappearance,  from  the  face  of  Rus- 
sian society,  of  a  sect  or  body  of  men,  of  whom  any 
civilized  country  might  well  be  proud. 

M.\RTINMAS,  a  festival  formerly  observed  iii 
the  lltli  of  Novendjcr,  in  hoiirur  of  St.  Martin, 
liishop  of  Tours  in  France,  who  died  A.  D.  40f1. 

MAUTYRARII.     See  Osti.mui. 

M.VRTVRIA,  a  name  given  in  the  ancient  Chris- 
tian church  to  those  churches  which  were  built  over 
the  graves  of  martyrs,  or  built  in  memory  of  these 
witnesses  to  tlie  truth. 

M.\RTYRS  (Feast  of  all  tiieI.  See  All 
Saints'  Day. 

MARTYRS  (Festivals  of  the).  See  Anni- 
versaries, Birthday. 

MARTYRS  (Worship  of).  This  kind  of  wor- 
ship did  not  fully  develop  itself  until  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. At  an  early  period  these  confessors  of  tlie 
truth  were  held  in  great  respect  among  Christians, 
and  special  festivals  were  celebrated  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  their  martyrdom.  Each  successive  genera- 
tion, as  it  removed  from  the  times  in  which  these  holy 
men  lived  and  suffered,  cherished  their  memory  with 
ever-increasing  regard,  and  approached  their  tombs 
with  almost  idolatrous  vetieration.  Animated  bv 
such  feelings,  men  naturally  began  to  show  respect 
to  their  bones  or  mangled  remains,  as  the  dust  of 
heroes  who  bad  died  for  the  cause  of  Christ.  These 
natural  and  innocent  feelings,  however,  soon  passed 
into  superstitious  reverence  ;  and  in  course  of  time 
religious  homage  was  paid  to  the  martyrs  as  men, 
who,  by  their  holy  character  and  heroic  deeds,  had 
earned  a  title  to  the  homage  and  th;  adoration  of  the 
Christian  church.  "  The  more  remote,"  says  Gie.se- 
2k  * 


(580 


MARUTA  (St.)  Liturgy  op— MASORA. 


ler,  "  the  times  of  the  martjTS,  tlie  greater  the  ador- 
ation paid  to  tliem.  The  lieathen  converts,  naturally 
enough,  transferred  to  them  the  honours  they  had 
been  used  to  pay  their  demigods,  while  the  horror  of 
creature-worship,  which  had  hitherto  operated  as  a 
check  on  the  growing  superstition,  had  been  gra- 
dually dying  away  since  the  extinction  of  paganism. 
As  men  had  long  been  accustomed  to  assemble  for 
public  worsliip  at  the  graves  of  tlie  martyrs,  the 
idea  of  erecting  chmxhes  over  them  would  readily 
occur.  In  Egypt  the  Christians  began  to  em- 
balm the  bodies  of  reputed  saints,  and  keep  them 
in  their  houses.  The  commiuiion  with  the  martjTS 
being  thus  associated  with  the  presence  of  their 
material  remains,  these  were  dug  up  from  the  graves 
and  placed  in  the  churches,  especially  under  the 
altars ;  and  the  popular  feeling,  having  now  a  visi- 
ble object  to  excite  it,  became  more  extravagant 
and  superstitious  than  ever.  Tlie  old  opinion  of  the 
efficacy  of  their  intercession  who  had  died  a  martyr's 
death,  was  now  united  with  the  belief  that  it  was 
possible  to  communicate  with  them  directly — a  be- 
lief founded  partly  on  the  popular  notion  that  de- 
parted souls  always  lingered  around  the  bodies  they 
liad  once  inhabited,  and  partly  on  the  views  enter- 
tained of  the  glorified  state  of  the  martyrs,  a  sort  of 
omnipresence  being  ascribed  to  them.  These  no- 
tions may  be  traced  to  Origen,  and  his  followers  were 
the  first  who  apostrophized  the  martyrs  in  their  ser- 
mons, and  besought  their  intercession.  But  though 
the  orators  were  somewliat  extravagant  in  this  re- 
spect, they  were  far  outdone  by  the  poets,  who  soon 
took  up  this  theme,  and  could  find  no  expressions 
strong  enough  to  describe  the  power  and  the  glory  of 
tlie  martyrs.  Their  relics  soon  began  to  work  mira- 
cles, and  to  be  valuable  articles  of  trade.  In  proportion 
as  men  felt  the  need  of  sucli  intercession,  they  sought 
to  increase  the  number  of  their  intercessors.  Not 
only  those  who,  on  account  of  services  rendered  the 
church,  were  inscribed  in  the  Diptycha,  but  the  pious 
cliaracters  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  most 
distinguished  of  tlie  monks,  were  ranked  among  the 
saints.  Martyrs  before  unknown  announced  them- 
selves in  visions,  others  revealed  the  place  of  their 
burial.  From  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  the 
prayers  for  the  .saints  were  discontinued  as  nnbefit- 
fing  their  glorified  state.  Christians  were  now  but 
seldom  called  upon  to  address  tlieir  prayers  to  God, 
tlie  usual  mode  being  to  pray  only  to  some  saint  for 
his  intercession.  With  this  worship  of  the  saints 
were  joined  many  of  the  customs  of  the  heathen. 
Men  chose  their  patron  saints,  and  dedicated  churches 
to  their  worship.  Tlie  heathen,  wliiim  the  Chris- 
tians used  to  rcproacli  with  worshipping  dead  men, 
found  now  ample  opportunitv  of  retort." 

This  tendency  to  excessive  veneration  for  the 
mariyrs  begHii  to  dis|)lay  itself  at  an  early  period,  for 
we  liiid  Tertullian,  when  a  Montaiiist,  contending 
Against  the  superstitious  practice,  and  Cyprian  con- 
<)emniii(f  !t  as  a  hpathenisli  oiistoin. 


MARUTA  (St.),  Liturgy  of,  one  of  the  twelve 
Liturgies  contained  in  the  Missal  of  the  Maronites, 
published  at  Rome  in  1592. 

MARUTS,  ancient  Hindu  deities  mentioned  in  the 
Veclas.  They  were  personifications  of  the  winds, 
and  represented  as  attendants  upon  Jtuh-a.  Some- 
times the  "  soma  wine"  and  sacrificial  food  are  pre- 
sented to  Indra  alone,  but  at  other  times  to  Iiidra 
and  the  Martds  conjointly. 

MARY  (Virgin).    See  Mariolatry. 

MASBOTHEANS,  the  disciples  of  Masbotlieus, 
who  is  said  by  some  of  the  ancients  to  have  been  a 
follower  of  Simon  Magus.     See  Si.monians. 

MASORA.  Immediately  after  the  destruction 
of  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans, 
the  Great  Council  of  the  Israelitish  Rabbins  was 
established  at  Tiberias  in  Palestine.  This  celebrated 
school  of  learned  Jews  undertook  the  important 
task  of  revising  the  sacred  text,  and  issuing  an  ac- 
curate edition  of  it.  For  this  purpose  they  collected 
together  all  the  critical  remarks  which  had  been 
made  by  difi'erent  Rabbins  upon  the  Hebrew  Bible 
at  diflerent  times,  digesting,  arranging,  and  adding  to 
them  witli  a  view  to  fix  tlie  reading  and  interpreta- 
tion of  tlie  sacred  books.  Tliis  collection  is  called 
J\fasora,  which  signifies  Tradition,  while  the  Rab- 
bins themselves  give  it  the  name  of  Pirke  Avoth, 
which  means  Fence  or  Hedge  of  the  Law.  It  was 
probably  executed  gradually,  and  accordingly,  though 
it  was  commenced  sometime  before  the  Talmud, 
it  was  not  finished  till  a  long  time  after. 

The  Masora  consists  of  critical  remarks  upon  the 
verses,  words,  letters,  and  vowel-points  of  the  He- 
brew Text ;  and  tliough  the  preparation  of  such  a 
work  undoubtedly  involved  much  learned  and  labo- 
rious trifling,  it  was  a  contribution  of  some  value  to 
the  cause  of  sacred  literature.  The  Masorites  were 
the  first  who  distinguished  the  books  and  sections  of 
books  into  verses ;  and  to  prevent  interpolation  or 
omission  on  the  part  of  transcribers,  they  carefully 
numbered  the  verses  of  each  book  and  section,  plac- 
ing the  exact  amount  at  the  end  of  each  in  numeral 
letters,  or  in  some  symbolical  word  formed  out  of 
them.  Not  contented  with  these  labours,  which  did 
immense  service  to  tlie  cause  of  Biblical  criticism, 
and  more  especially  to  the  preservation  of  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  Hebrew  Text,  the  compilers  of  the 
Masora  went  still  further,  counting  the  number  of 
words  and  letters  in  each  verse,  and  marking  tlic 
middle  verse  in  each  hook,  noting  the  verses  where 
they  supposed  any  omission  was  made,  tlie  words 
which  they  believed  to  be  changed,  the  letters  whieli 
they  thought  superfiuous,  the  cases  in  which  the 
same  verses  were  repeated,  the  dillcrcnt  readings  of 
the  words  which  are  redundant  or  defective,  the  num- 
ber of  times  that  the  same  word  is  found  at  the  be- 
ginning, middle,  or  end  of  a  verse,  the  ditVcrcnt  sig- 
nifications of  the  same  word,  the  agrecnieiit  or  con- 
junction of  one  word  with  another,  what  letters  are 
pronounced,  wliat  are  inverted,  and  what  hang  per- 


MASS. 


M7 


pendicularly,  marking  the  exact  number  of  each, 
riiey  also  reckoned  whiuli  is  tlie  middle  letter  of  tlio 
E'eiitateiieh,  wliicli  is  tlie  iiiidille  claiiKc  of  each  Ijook, 
and  iiow  iiiaiiy  times  each  letter  of  tlie  alphabet  oc- 
curs tliroii;;hoiit  the  Hebrew  Uible. 

The  M<u<ora  is  written  in  Chaldee,  and  is  usually 
divided  into  Great  and  Small.  The  Great  is  partly 
on  the  top  .and  bottom  of  the  martjins  of  the  text ; 
and  sometimes  in  the  m.argin  underncalh  the  com- 
mentaries, while  anything  which  had  been  omitted 
was  added  at  the  end  of  the  text,  and  was  called  the 
final  Masora.  The  Small  Masora  is  written  upon 
the  inner  margin,  or  sometimes  on  the  outer  m^argin 
of  the  Bible.  It  is  an  abridgment  of  the  Great  Ma- 
sora written  in  small  characters.  In  some  copies  of 
the  Hebrew  Uible  with  the  Masoretic  notes,  the 
transcribers  liave  formed  the  marginal  lines  of  the 
Masora  into  various  fanciful  devices,  as  of  birds, 
beasts,  and  other  objects. 

The  precise  date  when  the  Ma.sora  was  composed 
cannot  now  be  ascertained,  but  the  most  generally 
received  opinion  is,  that  the  Masorites  lived  about 
the  fourth  or  iifth  century.  Bishop  Walton  .attri- 
butes the  prepariition  of  the  work  to  a  succession  of 
grammarians  extending  through  several  centuries. 
"  They  lived  at  ditl'erent  periods,"  he  s.ays,  "  from 
the  time  of  Ezra  to  about  the  year  of  Christ  1030, 
when  the  two  famous  Rabbins,  Ben  Aslier  and  Ben 
Naphtali  flourished ;  since  whose  time  little  more 
has  been  done  than  to  copy  after  thein,  without 
making  any  more  corrections  or  Masoretical  criti- 
cisms." Aben  Ezra  supposes  the  Masorites  to  have 
been  the  inventors  of  the  Hebrew  vowels  or  accents ; 
others  again  trace  the  invention  Imck  as  far  as  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

MASS,  the  service  observed  in  the  Romish  church 
in  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  Dr.  Chaloner, 
in  the  '  Catholic  Christian  Instructed,'  says,  that  it 
"  consists  in  the  consecration  of  tlie  bread  and  wine 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  the  otfering 
up  of  this  same  body  and  blood  to  God,  by  the  min- 
istry of  the  priest,  for  a  perpetual  memorial  of 
Christ's  sacrifice  upon  the  cross,  and  a  continuation  of 
the  same  until  the  end  of  the  world."  Considerable 
difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  origin  and  deri- 
vation of  the  word.  Some  consider  it  as  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  word  missach,  which  signifies  "  a 
voluntary  offering ;"  others  derive  it  from  miisio  or 
misia,  alluding  to  the  dismission  of  the  catechumens 
and  congregation  generally,  before  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per was  dispensed  in  the  early  Christian  Church. 
The  officiating  minister,  at  this  part  of  the  service, 
lironounced  the  words  "  Ite,  missa  est"  and  imme- 
diately the  catechumens  and  others  dispersed,  the 
faithful  or  members  of  the  church  alone  remaining. 
Hence  it  is  alleged  the  eucharistic  service  came  to  be 
denominated  Missa  or  the  Mass. 

To  under.stand  what  is  meant  by  the  Romish  doc- 
trine of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  the  canons  of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  ex- 


plicitly declare,  "If any  one  shall  nay,  that  a  tru« 
and  proper  sacrifice  is  not  offered  to  God  in  the 
mass ;  or  that  what  is  to  be  offered  is  nothing  tUe 
than  giving  Christ  to  us  to  eat;  let  him  be accur«ed. 
If  any  one  .shall  wiy  that  the  mass  is  only  a  service 
of  juaise  and  thanksgiving,  or  a  bare  commemoration 
of  the  sacrifice  made  on  the  cross,  and  not  a  propi- 
tiatory offering ;  or  that  it  only  benefits  him  who 
receives  it,  and  ought  not  to  bo  offered  for  the  living 
and  the  dead,  for  sins,  punishments,  satisfactions,  and 
other  necessities  ;  let  him  be  accursed."  The  Cate- 
chism of  the  Council  of  Trent,  published  by  com- 
mand of  Pope  Pius  v.,  is  equally  explicit  on  the 
same  subject :  "  We  confess  that  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass  is  one  and  the  same  sacrifice  with  that  upon 
tlie  cross :  the  victim  is  one  and  the  same,  Christ 
Jesus,  who  offered  himself,  once  only,  a  bloody  sacri- 
fice on  the  altar  of  the  cross.  Tlie  bloody  and  un- 
bloody victim  is  still  one  and  the  same,  and  the  obla- 
tion of  the  cross  is  daily  renewed  in  the  eucharistic 
sacrifice,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  our  Lord, 
'  This  do  for  a  commemoration  of  me.'  The  priest 
is  also  the  same  Chribt  our  Lord  :  the  ministers  who 
offer  this  sacrifice  consecrate  the  holy  mysteries  not 
in  their  own  but  in  the  person  of  Christ.  This  the 
words  of  consecration  declare :  the  priest  does  not 
say,  '  This  is  the  body  of  Christ,'  but,  '  This  is  my 
body;'  and  thus  invested  with  the  character  of  Christ, 
he  changes  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine,  into 
the  substance  of  his  real  body  and  blood.  That  the 
holy  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  therefore,  is  not  only  a 
sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  or  a  commemor- 
ation of  the  sacrifice  of  the  cross,  but  also  a  sacrifice 
of  propitiation,  by  which  God  is  ai)peased  and  ren- 
dered propitious,  the  pastor  will  teach  as  a  dogma 
defined  by  the  unerring  authority  of  a  General  Coun- 
cil of  the  Church.  As  often  as  the  commemoration 
of  this  victim  is  celebrated,  so  often  is  the  work  of 
our  salvation  promoted,  and  the  plenteous  fruits  of 
that  bloody  victim  flow  in  upon  us  abundantly  through 
this  unbloody  sacrifice." 

The  celebration  of  the  mass  in  the  Romish  church  is 
an  intricate  and  complicated  ceremonial.  On  this  pe- 
culiarly solemn  occasion  the  ofliciating  priest  is  cloth 
ed  with  certain  vestments  which  are  designed  to  be 
emblematical  of  the  diflerent  circumstances  connected 
with  the  closing  scene  of  our  blessed  Lord's  life  upon 
the  earth.  The  altar,  too,  is  so  fitted  up  as  to  repre- 
sent the  cross  on  which  our  Saviour  hung ;  and  on  the 
altar  stands  the  chiilice  or  cup  which  is  to  contain 
the  wine  mingled  with  a  little  water,  and  covering 
the  cup  is  the  patten  or  plate  intended  to  hold  the 
cake  or  wafer ;  while  there  are  also  seen  upon  the 
altar,  wax  tapers,  an  incense  pan,  a  vessel  for  holy 
water,  a  crucifix  and  a  bell.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  service,  the  priest  first  appears  standing  at  the 
foot  of  the  altar.  Making  the  sign  of  the  cross  he 
bows  to  the  altar,  and  then  again  at  the  foot  of  it  : 
rising,  he  ascends  and  kisses  it ;  moves  to  the  middlt; 
of  the  altar ;  where  he  repeats,  "  Have  mercy  on  u»," 


388 


MASS. 


uddressed  to  each  of  tlie  Persons  of  the  Trinity ;  three 
times  in  succession  a  hymn  follows,  and  then  a  bene- 
diction is  pronounced  upon  the  people.  "  Bowing 
down  before  the  middle  of  the  altar,  he  commences  the 
reading  of  the  Gospel,  when  both  priest  and  people 
make  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the  forehead,  mouth, 
and  breast,  to  signify  their  confession  of  Christ  cru- 
cified, and  their  allegiance  to  him.  After  certain 
recitations,  the  priest  offers  up  the  bread  and  the 
wine.  With  the  wine  there  is  mingled  water,  in 
emblem  of  the  water  and  blood  that  issued  from 
Jesus'  side  on  the  cross.  In  this  act  he  prays  that 
the  offering  may  be  accepted  as  a  sacrifice  for  the 
sins  of  all  the  faithful,  living  and  dead.  The  ele- 
ments are  then  blessed  with  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
Thereafter  the  priest  washes  the  tips  of  his  fingers, 
in  token  of  the  purity  with  which  the  eucharist 
should  be  celebrated.  Again,  bowing  at  the  middle 
of  the  altar,  he  craves  the  divine  acceptance  of  the 
oblation,  and  the  intercession  of  the  saints.  After  re- 
newed prayers  and  other  ceremonies,  the  priest  again 
spreads  his  hands  over  the  bread  and  wine,  prays  God 
to  accept  the  oblation  for  eternal  life,  blesses  them, 
signs  the  cross,  again  prays  that  the  oblation  may  be 
accepted.  Next  comes  the  awful  act  of  consecration. 
The  priest  pronouncing  the  words  hoc  est  corpus 
vieurn,  "  This  is  my  body,"  the  bread  is  converted 
into  the  body  of  Christ ;  in  like  manner,  by  a  separ- 
ate act,  the  wine  is  changed  into  his  blood.  The 
bell  rings  thrice  ;  the  bread,  under  the  name  of  the 
host  or  sacrifice,  is  lifted  up  in  view  of  the  congrega- 
tion; and  tlie  people,  kneeling,  adore.  Thrice  again 
the  bell  tinkles  as  tlie  host  is  set  down.  Repetitions 
follow  of  prayers  for  the  salvation  of  the  living  and 
the  dead,  through  the  sacrifice  now  presented.  The 
host  is  broken,  in  imitation  of  Christ's  breaking  the 
bread,  and  a  particle  of  it  is  mixed  with  the  wine,  to 
denote  the  reuniting  of  Christ's  body,  blood,  and 
soul,  at  his  resurrection.  Three  times  the  priest 
strikes  his  breast  in  token  of  repentance ;  then  fol- 
low three  prayers  ;  and  thrice  again  the  priest,  kneel- 
ing, strikes  his  breast ;  he  then,  with  prayers  be- 
tween, partakes  of  the  bread  in  the  form  of  a  wafer, 
and  next  of  the  cup.  After  this  the  people  receive 
tlie  communion  of  the  bread  ;  and  the  ceremony  closes 
with  the  priest  pouring  a  little  wine  into  the  cup, 
and  a  little  on  his  fingers  over  the  cup,  as  a  means 
to  prevent  any  particle  of  the  consecrated  wafer  from 
being  lost  or  profaned." 

The  wafer  of  the  Romish  church,  used  in  the  mass, 
^  composed  of  unleavened  bread.  It  is  made  thin 
and  circular,  and  bears  upon  it  either  the  figure  of 
Christ  or  the  initials  1. 11.  S.,  whicli  moan  Jesu  Homi- 
num  Salvator,  Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men,  or  as  some  ex- 
plain it,  the  three  first  letters  of  the  name  of  Jesus  in 
Greek.  The  mass  is  termed  by  Romanists  an  un- 
bloody sacrifice,  in  op])Ogition  to  the  bloody  sacrifice 
of  the  cross  ;  and  they  allege,  tliat  wliile  Christ's  sacri- 
fice upon  the  cross  was  sufncient  tool)tain  p.ardon  for 
Jlie  Bins  of  the  whole  world,  the  sacrifice  is  to  be  re- 


peated in  order  that  the  benefits  of  the  first  sacrifice 
might  be  applied.  The  sacrifice  of  the  mass  ia  ground- 
ed on  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation  and  the  real 
presence,  and  is  believed  to  possess  a  propitiatory 
merit  both  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  which  was  the 
doctrine  laid  down  in  plain  terms  by  the  Tridentine 
fethers.  Some  of  the  more  moderate  Romish  writers, 
as,  for  example,  Father  Bossuet,  attempt  to  modify 
and  explain  the  propitiatory  character  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass,  by  representing  it  as  commemora- 
tive and  intercessory.  But  it  must  appear  obvious 
to  every  thoughtful  mind,  that  a  sacrifice  cannot  be 
at  once  propitiatory  and  commemorative,  the  two 
qualities  being  necessarily  inconsistent,  and  even  con- 
tradictory. In  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  the  follow- 
ing account  occurs  of  the  mode  in  which  the  wafer  is 
given  to  the  communicant :  "  The  priest,  in  giving 
the  consecrated  wafer  to  the  conmiunicant,  says, 
'  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  !  Behold  Him  who  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world!'  Then  he  and  the  com- 
municant repeat  thrice,  '  Lord,  I  am  not  wortliy  thou 
shouldest  enter  my  roof;  speak,  therefore,  but  the 
word,  and  my  soul  shall  be  healed,'  the  communicant 
striking  his  breast  in  token  of  his  unworthiness. 
Then,  says  the  Directory,  having  the  towel  raised 
above  your  breast,  your  eyes  modestly  closed,  your 
head  likewise  raised  up,  and  your  mouth  convenient- 
ly open,  receive  the  holy  sacrament  on  your  tongue, 
resting  on  your  under  lip ;  then  close  your  mouth, 
and  say  in  your  heart,  '  Amen,  I  believe  it  to  be  the 
body  of  Christ,  and  I  pray  it  may  preserve  my  soitl 
to  eternal  life.' " 

Numerous,  in  the  estimation  (jf  the  Romanist,  are 
the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  sacrifice  of 
the  mass,  not  only  to  the  Hving,  but  to  the  dead.  It 
is  by  the  saying  of  masses  that  souls  are  delivered 
from  purgatory.  Mr.  Seymour,  in  his  '  Pilgrimage 
to  Rome,'  informs  us,  "  that  in  Italy  the  parish 
churches  are  much  neglected,  and  in  indifferent  state 
of  repair,  and  the  parochial  clergy,  whose  duty  is  the 
cure  of  souls,  are  too  often  found  in  poverty  and 
destitution,  while  the  establishments  of  the  conven- 
tual and  cathedral  clergy,  whose  main  duty  is  to  say 
masses  for  the  delivery  of  souls  from  purgatory,  are 
exceedingly  wealtliy,  being  enriched  by  large  dona- 
tions and  bequests."  Of  late  years,  what  are  called 
Purgatorian  Societies  have  been  established  in  London, 
Dublin,  and  other  places,  whose  members  regularly 
contribute  sums  of  money  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
"  procuring  masses  to  be  offered  up  for  the  repose  ol 
the  souls  of  deceased  parents,  relations,  and  friends, 
of  all  the  subscribers  to  the  institution  in  particular, 
and  the  faithful  departed  in  general."  It  is  not  un- 
usual to  find  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Directories  such 
notices  as  these : — Monthly  masses  will  be  said  for 
such  benefactors  as  will  aid  in  paying  oO'  the  debt  on 
such  and  such  chapels  and  schools;  and  masses  will 
be  sjviii  every  quarter  for  those  who  are  interred  ni 
such  and  such  a  burial-ground.  "  It  is  taught  and 
believed  in  Italy,"  says  Mr.  Seymour,  "  tliata  number 


MASSALIANS— MATERIALISTS. 


389 


of '  daily  masses,'  of  '  liif;''  itiaBSfls,'  of '  remembrance 
masses,'  of  '  voluntary  offerings,'  can  release  siirtcring 
souls,  or  diminish  the  intensity  of  their  sufferings  in 
the  friglitful  abode  of  purgatory,  and  thus  tend  to 
translate  them  to  a  state  of  rest  in  the  regions  of  the 
blessed.  The  monks  and  friars  of  the  inferior  and 
mendicant  orders  avail  themselves  of  this  belief,  and 
profess  a  readiness  to  offer,  in  the  church  of  the  con- 
vent, the  re(iuiRite  number  of  masses,  provided  a 
connnensnrate  donation  or  gratuity  be  given  to  the 
convent,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  poor  brethren. 
I  have  myself  witnessed  tlic  bargain  and  arrangement 
for  this,  and  have  seen  the  masses  purch.i.sud,  the 
money  paid  and  received,  at  tlie  modiTate  charge 
of  about  2s.,  to  secure  tlie  release  of  a  smd."  High 
mass  is  so  called  as  being  accompanied  by  all  the 
ceremonies  wliich  custom  and  authority  have  annex- 
ed to  the  celebration  of  mass. 

MASSALIANS,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
IIksyciiasts  (which  see). 

MASSILIAXS.    See  Semi-Pelagians. 

MATAIIITI  (Maoa  Kaa),  the  ripening  or  com- 
plctitig  of  the  year,  a  festival  regularly  observed  in 
Iluahine  in  Polynesia.  "In  general,"  says  Mr.  El- 
lis, "  the  men  only  engaged  in  pagan  festivals ;  but 
men,  women,  and  children,  attended  at  this :  the 
females,  however,  wore  not  allowed  to  enter  the  sa- 
cred enclosure.  A  sumptuous  banquet  was  held  an- 
imally  at  the  time  of  its  observance,  which  was 
regulated  by  the  blossoming  of  reeds.  Tlieir  rites 
and  worship  were  in  many  respects  singular,  but  in 
none  more  so  than  in  the  ripening  of  the  year,  which 
was  regarded  as  a  kind  of  annual  acknowledgment 
to  the  gods.  When  the  prayers  were  finished  at  the 
marae,  ami  the  banquet  ended,  a  usage  prevailed 
much  resembling  the  popish  custom  of  mass  for  souls 
in  purgatory.  Each  individual  returned  to  his 
home,  or  to  his  family  marae,  there  to  offer  special 
prayers  for  the  spirits  of  departed  relatives,  that  they 
might  be  hberated  from  the  po,  or  state  of  night,  and 
ascend  to  rohutunoanoa,  the  mount  Meru  of  Polyne- 
sia, or  return  to  this  world,  by  entering  into  the 
body  of  one  of  its  inhabitants.  They  did  not  sup- 
pose, according  to  the  generally  received  doctrine  of 
transmigi-ation,  that  the  spirits  who  entered  the  body 
of  some  dweller  upon  earth,  would  permanently  re- 
main there,  but  only  come  and  inspire  the  person  to 
declare  future  events,  or  execute  any  other  commis- 
sion from  the  supematural  beings  on  whom  they 
imagined  they  were  constantly  dependent." 

MATATIIS'I,  the  god  of  fishing-net  makers  among 
the  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  particularly 
the  Tahitians. 

MATERIALISTS,  a  name  usually  applied  to 
those  speculative  thinkers  who  attempt  to  explain 
the  whole  theory  of  the  imiverse,  and  even  the  phe- 
nomena of  life  and  thought,  by  the  laws  of  matter 
and  motion.  The  Materialist  denies  the  separate 
existence  of  matter  and  of  mind,  and  thus  obviates 
>Jie  necessity  of  propounding  any    question  as   to 


their  mutual  action  and  influence  upon  eadi  other, 
and  yet  the  liypothesis  of  the  Materialists  is  itscl) 
an  intrusion  upon  a  province  from  which  man  is  ex- 
cluded. We  know  nothing  of  mind  or  of  matter  but 
by  their  properties ;  the  essential  nature  of  either  it 
is  impossible  in  our  present  state  we  can  ever  dis- 
cover. On  a  prima  facie  view  of  the  subject,  the 
presumption  seems  to  be  against  tlie  Materialist. 
What  two  tilings  are  apjiarently  more  completely 
distinct  in  their  nature  than  thought  and  matter? 
All  that  we  know  of  matter  is,  that  it  is  inert,  sense- 
less, and  lifeless,  but  that  any  modilication  of  matter 
should  give  rise  to  thought,  seems  inconsistent  with 
all  that  we  can  learn  of  its  modifications  as  far  as 
they  are  ever  effected  by  human  power.  "  It  was 
never  supposed,"  to  use  the  language  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  "  that  cogitation  is  inherent  in  matter,  or 
that  every  particle  is  a  thinking  being.  Yet  if  any 
part  of  matter  be  devoid  of  thought,  what  part  can 
we  suppose  to  think?  Matter  can  differ  from  matter 
only  in  form,  density,  bulk,  motion,  and  direction  o( 
motion ;  to  wliich  of  these,  however  varied  or  com- 
bined, can  consciousness  be  annexed?  To  be  round 
or  square,  to  be  solid  or  fluid,  to  be  gi'cat  or  little,  to 
be  moved  slowly  or  swiftly,  one  way  or  another,  are 
modes  of  material  existence,  all  equally  alien  from 
the  nature  of  cogitation.  If  matter  be  once  without 
thought,  it  can  only  be  made  to  think  by  some  new 
modilication,  but  all  the  modifications  wliich  it  can 
admit  are  equally  unconnected  with  cogitative 
powers."  If  this  then  be  the  proper  conclusion  to 
which  our  knowledge  of  matter  necessarily  leads  us, 
there  is  the  strongest  presumption  against  the  opin- 
ion of  the  Materialists.  But  then  it  may  be  alleged, 
the  mere  existence  of  a  violent  presumption  against 
the  theory  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be  rejected. 
^Vere  the  theory  supported  by  actual  facts,  which 
went  far  to  establish  its  truth,  no  mere  presumption 
could  be  of  any  force.  But  the  subject  is  not  such 
as  to  admit  of  being  established  by  facts,  any  more 
than  it  admits  of  being  opposed  by  facts.  AVhetlier 
the  mind  be  material  or  immaterial  is  a  question 
which  no  collection  of  facts  can  ever  either  prove  or 
disprove ;  and  in  this  state  of  the  case  the  force  of 
the  theoiy  is  sufficiently  obviated  by  opposing  to  it 
a  powerful  analogical  argument,  which,  though  it 
does  not  show  that  the  theory  is  false,  shows  at  all 
events  that  it  is  extremely  improbable.  All  the 
modifications  of  matter  which  the  chemist  or  the 
mechanical  philosopher  have  ever  discovered  have 
been  devoid  of  cogitative  power,  and  is  it  not  in  the 
highest  degree  unlikely  that  the  modification  of  mat- 
ter, which  constitutes  the  body  of  man,  should  be 
the  single  solitaiy  exception  in  the  whole  univer.-e 
of  matter  and  its  infinite  modifications? 

Lord  Bacon  seems  to  have  entertained  very  liigh 
notions  of  the  extent  of  the  human  faculties,  when 
he  declared  his  opinion  that  in  process  of  time  man 
would  discover  the  essences  of  material  objects.  The 
fact  is,  that  though,  since  the  days  of  Bacon,  physical 


390 


MATERIALISTS. 


philosophy  in  all  its  Jopartments  has  made  astonish- 
ing progress,  the  essence  of  no  one  substance  in  na- 
ture has  been  liitherto  discovered.  And  without 
any  inordinate  depreciation  of  our  intellectual  consti- 
tution, we  may  jn'onounce  the  discovery  beyond  the 
reach  of  man.  Tlie  human  understanding  is  limited, 
and  to  solve  the  question  as  to  tlie  materiality  or 
immateriality  of  the  thinking  principle,  transcends 
these  limits.  "  "We  have  the  ideas  of  matter  and 
thinking,"  Locke  wisely  remarks,  "  but  possibly  shall 
never  be  able  to  know  whetlier  any  mere  material 
being  thinks  or  no."  "  By  the  mind  of  a  man,"  says 
Dr.  Reid,  "  we  understand  that  in  liim  which  thinks, 
remembers,  reasons,  wills ;  the  essence  both  of  body 
and  mind  is  unknown  to  us."  And  Mr.  Stewart, 
speaking  of  the  "occasional  causes"  of  Malebranche 
and  Leibnitz,  observes,  "  The  chief  objection  to  the 
doctrine  of  occasional  causes  is,  that  it  presumes  to 
decide  upon  a  question  of  which  human  reason  is 
altogether  incompetent  to  judge — our  ignorance  of 
the  mode  in  which  matter  acts  upon  mind,  or  mind 
upon  matter, — furnisliing  not  the  shadow  of  a  proof 
that  the  one  may  not  act  directly  and  immediately 
on  tlie  other,  in  some  way  incomprehensible  by  our 
faculties." 

On  reflection  it  must  appear  unreasonable  in  t!  e 
extreme  to  deny  the  existence  of  mind,  and  yet  re- 
tain our  belief  in  the  existence  of  matter.  Both 
rest  on  evidence  equally  powerful  and  undeniable. 
On  this  point  Lord  Brougham  justly  remarks  :  "  The 
evidence  for  the  existence  of  mind  is  to  the  full  as 
complete  as  that  upon  which  we  believe  in  the  ex- 
istence of  matter.  Indeed  it  is  more  certain  and 
more  irrefragable.  The  consciousness  of  existence, 
the  perpetual  sense  tliat  we  are  thinking,  and  that 
we  are  performing  the  operation  quite  independently 
of  all  material  objects,  proves  to  us  the  existence  of 
a  being  diflerent  from  our  bodies,  with  a  degree  of 
evidence  higlier  tlian  any  we  can  have  for  tlie  exist- 
ence of  those  bodies  themselves,  or  of  any  other 
part  of  the  material  world.  It  is  certain — proved, 
indeed,  to  demonstration — that  many  of  the  percep- 
tions of  matter  which  we  derive  througli  the  senses 
are  deceitful,  and  seem  to  indicate  tliat  wliich  has  no 
reality  at  all.  Some  inferences  which  we  draw  re- 
specting it  are  confounded  with  direct  sensation  or 
perception,  for  example,  the  idea  of  motion  ;  other 
ideas,  as  those  of  hardness  and  solidity,  are  equally 
the  result  of  reasoning,  and  often  mislead.  Thus  we 
never  doubt,  on  the  testimony  of  our  senses,  that  the 
parts  of  matter  touch — that  different  bodies  come  in 
contact  with  one  another,  and  with  our  organs  of 
sense ;  and  yet  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
there  still  is  some  small  distance  between  tlie  liodies 
wliich  we  think  we  perceive  to  touch.  Indeed  it  is 
barely  possible  tliat  all  the  sensations  and  percep- 
tions wliich  we  have  of  the  material  world  may  be 
only  ideas  in  our  own  minds  :  it  is  barely  possible, 
therefore,  that  matter  should  have  no  existence. 
But  that  mind — that  the  sentient  principle — that  the 


thing  or  the  being  which  we  call  '  /'  and  '  we'  ana 

which  thinks,  feels,  reasons — should  have  no  exist- 
ence, is  a  contradiction  in  terms.  Of  the  two  ui 
istences,  then,  that  of  mind  as  independent  of  matter 
is  more  certain  than  that  of  matter  apart  from  mind." 

Among  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers,  the  lead- 
ing Materialists  were  Democritus  and  Epicurus, 
both  of  whom  admitted  nothing  in  mind  but  sensa- 
tions, and  nothing  in  nature  but  bodies,  and  alleged 
the  primary  component  princijdes  of  all  tilings  to  be 
indivisible,  eternal,  and  indestructible  atoms.  But 
while  these  two  schools  of  ancient  Materialists  agreed 
together  as  to  tlie  materia  prima  or  original  mat- 
ter of  the  universe,  they  diflered  as  to  the  mode 
in  which  the  atoms  operated,  so  as  mechanically  to 
construct  the  universe.  Democritus  alleged,  that 
atoms  were  put  in  motion  in  a  right  line  in  the  in- 
finite void.  Epicurus,  however,  dissatisfied  with  this 
explanation,  endowed  the  particles  with  a  second 
motion  in  an  oblique  line,  by  which,  being  carried  in 
every  direction,  they  would  come  by  their  successive 
contacts  and  separations  to  produce  the  diti'ereni 
phenomena  which  present  themselves  in  the  uni. 
verse.  In  the  system  of  Democritus  mind  is  simply 
an  aggregate  of  images  conveyed  from  external  ob- 
jects, and  coming  into  contact  with  the  inner  organi- 
zation of  man.  Epicurus,  pushing  still  farther  his 
materialistic  views,  regarded  the  mind  as  composed 
of  a  more  refined  matter  than  the  body,  but  so  united 
to  it  that  the  dissolution  of  the  one  involves  the  dis- 
solution of  the  other.  The  school  of  Epicurus  con 
tinued  for  ages  to  propagate  its  materialist  opinions, 
without,  liowever,  giving  rise  to  a  single  individual 
who  could  be  said  to  emulate  the  fame  of  its  founder. 
AVith  the  single  exception,  indeed,  of  the  brilliant 
poem  of  Lucretius,  "  De  Natura  Eerum,"  on  the 
nature  of  thing.s,  this  mechanical  system  of  philoso  ■ 
pliy  has  left  no  trace  of  its  existence  among  the  spe- 
culative theories  of  antiquity. 

It  has  been  strangely  alleged  by  some  writers  that 
the  Christian  Fathers  of  the  first  centuries  held 
materialist  views.  To  understand,  however,  what 
were  their  true  sentiments  on  this  subject,  we  must 
bear  in  mind  the  circumstances  in  which  they  wrote. 
The  early  Christian  Church  had  to  contend  witli  va- 
rious systems  of  doctrine  which  sought  to  mingle 
themselves  up  with  the  Christian  scheme.  Hence 
arose  the  Neo-Platonism  of  the  Alexandrian  school, 
and  the  variety  of  Gnostic  sects,  some  of  them  per- 
vaded by  Judaism,  and  others  by  the  Oriental  sys- 
tems of  philosophy.  These  various  corruptions  of 
Christianity,  instead  of  claiming  the  slightest  affinity 
with  materialism,  partook  largely  of  the  characters 
of  the  opposite  system  of  spiritualism.  It  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at,  tlierefore,  that  in  combating  the  high 
Spiritualist  views  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Gnostic 
schools,  a  few  of  the  early  Christian  writers  should 
have  expressed  themselves  in  such  a  way  as  to  lay 
themselves  open  to  the  imputation  of  materialism. 
But  the  tendency  of  their  writings,  as  a  whole,  is  fa 


MAT'H. 


391 


from  favouring  any  views  wliich  attadied  Iiigh  im- 
portance to  matter,  so  as  to  excliule  minil  or  spirit. 
Oil  tlie  contrary,  they  viewed  matter  as  an  inert  and 
passive  substance  at  tlie  lowest  stage  of  exi.stence  ; 
and  St.  Augustine  even  goes  so  far  as  to  call  it  an 
rilinost  non-existence,  and  he  says  tliat  if  there  were 
a  word  which  at  once  siguilied  something  which  is, 
and  something  wliich  is  not,  he  would  give  that  name 
to  matter. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  materialist  opinions  were  ex- 
tensively dill'used  by  the  secret  societies  which  aro.sc 
in  Syria  and  Kgypt ;  one  of  the  initiatory  maxims 
inculcated  upon  their  members  being,  tliat  there  was 
no  other  God  than  material  nature.  But  the  lirst 
ilevelopinent  of  materialism,  as  a  philosophical  sys- 
tem in  modern  times,  is  due  to  Spinoza,  who  taught 
that  thought,  like  extension,  could  be  only  a  pro- 
perty of  a  material  substance,  and  that  intelligence 
and  will  are  simply  modifications  of  the  human  or- 
ganism. Materialism,  however,  in  its  grossest  and 
most  repulsive  form,  was  set  forth  by  the  author  of 
the  '  Systeme  de  la  Nature' — a  work  which  obtained 
a  wide  circulation,  not  only  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  but  in  Great  Britain,  and  also  in  America, 
undermining  the  religious  principles  of  multitudes, 
and  diffusing  among  all  classes  of  society  a  bold,  un- 
blushing infidelity.  "  The  universe,"  says  this  leader 
in  the  ranks  of  modern  Materialists,  "  that  vast  as- 
semblage of  all  that  exists,  exhibits  nowhere  any- 
thing else  than  matter  and  motion."  The  same  doc- 
trine has  been  more  recently  revived  by  M.  Comte, 
in  what  is  termed  the  Positive  Pliilosophy,  which 
explains  all  natiu'al  phenomena  whatever,  whether 
material,  mental,  or  moral,  as  merely  the  necessary 
results  of  the  laws  of  extension  or  of  motion.  The 
eperations  of  mind  or  spirit  are  thus  resolved  into 
the  laws  of  matter,  and  the  necessity  is  obviated  of 
having  recourse  to  a  Great  First  Cause,  personal, 
spiritual,  all-creating,  and  all- controlling.  This  form 
of  materialism,  accordingly,  in  its  very  nature  and 
results,  terminates  in  Atheism.  Yet  Dr.  Priestley, 
though  holding  substantially  the  same  opinions  with 
D'Holbach  and  Comte,  avows  in  his  writings  his 
firm  belief  in  a  personal  God,  a  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  and  a  future  state  of  final  retribution. 
The  same  inconsistency  marks  the  theories  of  not  a 
few  of  the  Positivists  and  other  Materialists  of  our 
own  day.  Some  of  the  recent  Spiritualists  in  America, 
to  uphold  their  views  of  clairvoyance  and  magnetic 
influence,  put  forth  a  modilled  form  of  materialism, 
alleging  the  soul  to  be  composed  not  of  gross  matter, 
but  of  a  subtle,  ethereal,  impalpable  substance  like 
light,  heat,  or  electricity.  The  same  theory  was 
broached  by  Hartley,  followed  up  by  Abraham 
Tucker,  the  ingenious  author  of  the  '  Light  of  Na- 
ture pursued,'  and  more  fully  developed  by  Dr.  Ma- 
son Good  in  his  '  Life  of  Lucretius,''  prefixed  to  his 
EnLjlish  poetical  translation  of  the  celebrated  poem  of 
that  ancient  writer,  who  was  himself  an  avowed  and 
gross  Materialist.     "This,"  as  Dr.  Jamss  Buchanan 


well  remarks,  "  is  a  new  and  very  singular  phase  ot 
materialism.  It  is  widely  difTcrent  from  the  doctrine 
which  was  taught  by  the  infidel  writers  of  the  l;i-t 
century.  They  had  recourse  to  the  theory  of  mate- 
rialism chiefly  with  the  view  of  excluding  a  world  of 
spirits,  and  of  undermining  the  doctrine  of  a  future 
state  :  here  it  is  applied  to  prove  the  constant  de- 
velopment and  indestructible  existence  of  minds 
generated  from  matter,  but  destined  to  survive  the 
dissolution  of  the  body  ;  nay,  every  particle  of  mat- 
ter in  the  universe  is  supposed  to  be  advancing,  in 
one  magnificent  progression,  towards  the  spiritual 
state.  The  danger  now  is,  not  that  religion  may  be 
undermined  by  materialism,  but  that  it  may  be  sup- 
planted by  a  fond  and  foolish  superstition,  in  which 
the  facts  of  mesmerism  and  the  fictions  of  clairvoy- 
ance are  blended  into  one  ghostly  system,  fitted  to 
exert  a  powerful  but  pernicious  influence  on  over- 
credulous  minds."  Though  there  may  be  some  foun- 
dation for  the  apprehension  here  expressed  by  Dr. 
Buchanan,  yet  the  tendency  which  has  so  strongly 
appeared  of  late  years  in  England  among  too  many 
cultivators  of  science  to  favour  such  works  as  those 
of  Oken  and  Comte,  and  the  '  Vestiges  of  Creation,' 
renders  it  not  improbable,  that  for  some  time  to 
come,  writers  on  Christian  apologetics  will  find  it 
necessary  to  contend  earnestly  against  a  rapidly 
increasing  school  of  materialist  philosophers.  See 
Atheists,  N.4turalists. 

MAT'H,  the  residence  of  a  monastic  community 
among  the  Hindus.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  build- 
ings, including  a  set  of  huts  or  chambers  for  the 
Mahaiit  or  superior,  and  his  resident  Chelas  or  disci- 
ples; a  temple  sacred  to  the  deity  whom  they  wor- 
ship, or  the  Samddh,  or  shrine  of  the  founder  of  the 
sect,  or  some  eminent  teacher ;  and  one  or  more 
sheds  or  buildings  for  the  accommodation  of  the  men- 
dicants or  travellers  who  are  constantly  visiting  the 
Mat'/i,  both  ingress  and  egress  being  free  to  all. 
The  number  of  permanent  pupils  in  a  ^fofh  varies 
from  three  or  four  to  thirty  or  forty  ;  besides  whom 
there  is  also  a  considerable  number  of  out-door  mem- 
bers. The  resident  Chelas  are  usually  the  elders  of 
the  body,  with  a  few  of  the  younger  as  their  atten- 
dants and  scholars.  The  superior  is  usually  elected 
from  the  senior  or  more  proficient  of  the  pupils. 
The  manner  in  which  the  Hindu  convents  are  sup- 
ported is  thus  pointed  out  by  Professor  H.  H.  Wil- 
son :  "  Most  of  the  MaChs  have  some  endowments 
of  land,  but  with  the  exception  of  a  few  established 
in  large  cities,  and  especially  at  Bcnare^  the  indivi- 
dual amount  of  these  endowments  is,  in  general,  of 
little  value.  There  are  few  Mat'hs  in  any  district 
that  possess  five  hundred  bigahs  of  land,  or  about  one 
hundred  and  seventy  acres,  and  the  most  usual  quan- 
tity is  about  thirty  or  forty  bigahs  only  :  this  is 
sometimes  let  out  for  a  fixed  rent ;  at  other  times,  it 
is  cultivated  by  the  Mat'h  on  its  own  account;  the 
highest  rental  met  with,  in  any  of  the  returns  pro- 
cured, is  six  hundred  and  thirty  rupees  per  ammiii 


892 


MATHEMA— MATSURI. 


Although,  however,  the  individual  portions  are  trlf- 
linc;,  the  great  number  of  these  petty  establishments 
renders  the  aggregate  amount  considerable,  and  as 
the  endowed  lands  have  been  granted  Mafi,  or  free 
of  land  tax,  they  form,  altogether,  a  serious  deduc- 
tion from  the  revenue  of  each  district. 

"  Besides  the  lands  they  may  hold,  the  Maths 
liave  other  sources  of  support :  the  attachment  of 
lay  votaries  frequently  contributes  very  liberally  to 
their  wants  :  the  community  is  also  sometimes  con- 
cerned, though,  in  general,  covertly,  in  traffic,  and 
besides  those  means  of  supply,  the  individual  mem- 
bers of  most  of  them  sally  forth  daily,  to  collect 
alms  from  the  vicinity,  the  aggregate  of  which,  gen- 
erally in  the  shape  of  rice  or  other  grains,  furnishes 
forth  the  common  table  :  it  only  remains  to  observe, 
that  the  tenants  of  these  MaChs,  particularly  the 
Vaishnavas,  are  most  commonly  of  a  qniet  inoffen- 
sive character,  and  the  Mahants  especially  are  men 
of  talents  and  respectability,  although  they  possess, 
occasionally,  a  little  of  that  self-importance,  which 
the  conceit  of  superior  sanctity  is  apt  to  inspire  : 
there  are,  it  is  true,  exceptions  to  this  innocuous 
character,  and  robberies  and  murders  have  been 
traced  to  these  religious  establishments." 

MATHEMA  (Gr.  a  Lesson),  a  name  usually  given 
in  the  ancient  Greek  writers  to  the  Creed,  probably 
because  the  catechumens  were  obliged  to  learn  it. 

MATIIEMATICI,  a  term  applied  to  astrologers 
both  in  the  Justinian  and  Theodosian  codes. 

MATHURINI,  a  name  given  to  the  Brethren 
OF  THE  Holy  Trinity  (which  see),  because  their 
church  in  Paris  has  St.  Mathurinus  for  its  tutelar 
saint. 

MATINS,  the  ancient  name  used  in  the  Christian 
church  to  denote  early  morning  prayers,  which 
usually  began  about  day-break.  The  office  of  ma- 
tins or  morning  prayer,  according  to  the  Church  of 
England,  is  an  abridgment  of  her  ancient  services, 
for  matins,  lauds,  and  prime. 

MATKAGYKT^,  an  appellation  given  to  the 
Agyrt^  (which  see),  or  priests  of  Cyhele,  because 
they  gathered  oblations  for  the  Great  Mother. 

MATRALIA,  an  annual  festival  celebrated  at 
Rome  on  the  11th  of  June,  in  honour  of  the  goddess 
Matuta.  Roman  matrons  alone  took  part  in  the 
ceremonies,  olVering  cakes  baked  in  pots  of  earth- 
enware. A  feiTiale  slave  was  next  introduced  into 
the  temple,  who  received  a  blow  on  the  cheek  from 
one  of  the  matrons,  and  was  driven  with  scorn  from 
the  sacred  building.  It  was  custoiriary  for  the  ma- 
trons at  this  festival  to  carry  the  children  of  their 
sisters  instead  of  their  own  into  the  temple,  and  to 
offer  up  prayers  to  the  goddess  in  their  behalf,  whose 
statue  was  then  crowned  with  a  garland  by  one  of 
the  matrons  whose  husband  was  still  alive. 

MATRKS  SACRORUM  (I.at.  mothers  of  the 
sacred  things),  priestesses  ot  Mitlirns,  the  Persian 
god  of  the  Sun,  after  his  worship  had  been  intro- 
duced ijito  the  Roman  I'.nipire. 


MATRICULA,  a  term  used  by  the  council  ol 

Agde,  to  denote  the  Canon  (which  see)  or  catalogue 
of  the  clergy  in  the  ancient  Christian  church. 

MATRICULARII,  subordinate  ecclesiastical  offi- 
cers among  the  ancient  Christians.  They  were  in- 
trusted with  the  care  of  the  church,  in  which  they 
were  accustomed  to  sleep.  They  had  also  a  specific 
office  to  perform  in  public  processions. 

MATRIMONY.     See  Marriage. 

MATRONALIA,  an  ancient  Roman  festival  cele- 
brated annually  on  the  Kalends  of  March,  in  honour 
of  Mars.  It  was  kept  by  the  matrons  alone ;  hence 
the  name.  It  was  instituted  either  on  account  of  the 
peace  which  was  concluded  between  the  Romans  and 
Sabines  by  the  mediation  of  women ;  or  because 
the  founder  of  Rome  was  the  son  of  Ilia  and  Mars. 

MATSURI,  a  public  spectacle  exhibited  at  Naga- 
saki in  Japan,  on  the  birthday  of  the  god  Suwa,  the 
patron  of  the  city.  It  consi?ts  of  processions,  plays, 
dances,  and  other  amusements,  which  are  celebrated 
at  the  expense  of  the  inhabitants  of  ten  or  eleven 
streets  uniting  each  year  for  that  purpose.  Proces- 
sions pass  through  the  principal  streets,  and  specta- 
cles are  exhibited  in  a  temporary  building  of  bamboo, 
with  a  thatched  roof,  open  towards  the  square  on 
which  it  is  erected.  The  festival  is  thus  described 
by  Kampfer,  who  himself  witnessed  it :  "  Everything 
being  ready,  the  Sinfo  clergy  of  the  city  appear  in 
a  bod\',  with  a  splendid  retinue,  bringing  over  in 
procession  the  Mikosi  of  their  great  Smva,  as,  also, 
to  keep  him  company,  that  of  Symios.  Murasaki 
is  left  at  home,  as  there  is  no  instance  in  the  his- 
toiy  of  his  life  and  actions  from  which  it  could  be 
inferred  that  he  delighted  in  walking  and  travelling. 

"  The  Sinto  clergy,  upon  this  occasion,  style  them- 
selves Ootomi — that  is,  the  high  great  retinue  —  their 
pompous  title,  notwithstanding  the  alms-chest  is  one 
of  the  principal  things  they  carry  in  the  procession, 
and,  indeed,  to  very  good  purpose,  for  there  is  such  a 
midtitude  of  things  thrown  among  them  by  the 
crowds  of  superstitious  spectators,  as  if  they  liad  a 
mind  out  of  mere  charity  to  stone  them. 

"  When  they  come  to  the  place  of  exhibition,  the 
ecclesiastics  seat  themselves,  according  to  their 
quality,  which  appears  in  good  measure  by  their 
dress,  upon  three  benches,  built  for  them  before  the 
front  of  the  temple.  The  two  superiors  take  the 
uppermost  bench,  clad  in  black,  with  a  particular 
head  ornament,  and  a  short  staff,  as  a  badge  of  their 
authority.  Four  others,  next  in  rank,  sit  upon  the 
second  bench,  dressed  in  white  ecclesiastical  gowns, 
with  a  black  lackered  cap,  something  different  from 
that  worn  by  their  superiors.  The  main  body  takes 
possession  of  the  third  and  lowermost  bench,  sitting 
promiscuously,  and  all  clad  in  white  gowns,  with  a 
black  lackered  cap,  somewhat  like  those  of  the  Je- 
suits. The  servants  and  jiortcrs  ajipointed  to  carry 
the  holy  utensils  of  the  temple,  and  other  jieopls 
who  have  anything  to  do  at  this  solemnity,  stand 
next  lo  the  ecclesiastics,  bareheaded. 


MATTHEW'S  (St.)  DAY— MAUI. 


39.3 


"  On  tlie  otlior  side  of  the  square,  opposite  to  the 
ecclesiastics,  sit  tlie  deputies  of  llic  governors,  under 
a  tent,  upon  a  fine  mat,  soniewliat  raised  from  the 
ground.  Kor  magnilieence  salie,  and  out  of  respect 
for  this  holy  act,  tlioy  liavc  twenty  pikes  of  state 
planted  before  them  in  the  ground. 

"The  public  spectacles  on  these  occasions  area 
sort  of  plays,  acted  by  eight,  twelve,  or  more  per- 
sons. The  subject  is  taken  out  of  the  liistory  of 
their  gods  and  heroes.  Tlieir  remark.able  adven- 
tures, heroic  actions,  and  sometimes  their  love  in- 
trigues, put  in  verse,  are  sung  by  dancing  actors, 
wliilst  others  play  upon  nuisical  instruments.  If  the 
subject  be  thouglit  too  grave  and  moving,  there  is 
now  and  then  a  comic  actor  jumps  out  unawares  upon 
the  st.age,  to  divert  the  audience  with  his  gestures 
and  merry  discourse  in  prose.  Some  of  their  other 
|)l!iys  are  composed  only  of  ballets  or  dances,  like  the 
performance  of  the  mimic  actors  on  the  Koman  stage. 
For  tlie  dancers  do  not  speak,  but  endeavour  to  ex- 
press the  contents  of  the  story  they  are  about  to 
represent,  as  naturally  as  possible,  both  by  their 
di'css  and  by  their  gestures  and  .actions,  regulated 
according  to  the  sound  of  musical  instruments.  The 
chief  subjects  of  the  play,  such  as  fountains,  bridges, 
gates,  houses,  gardens,  trees,  moiuit-olns,  animals,  and 
the  like,  are  also  i-epresented,  some  as  big  as  the  life, 
and  all  in  general  contrived  so  as  to  be  removed  at 
pleasure,  like  the  scenes  of  our  European  pl.ays." 

MATTER  (Eternity  of).  See  Eternity  of 
TUF,  World. 

MATTHEW'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  of  the  Rom- 
ish church,  kept  on  the  21st  of  September,  in  honour 
of  the  Evangelist  Matthew.  This  festival  is  observed 
in  the  Greek  church  on  the  Ifith  of  November. 

MATTHEW'S  (St.)  I-ITURGY,  one  of  the 
twelve  Liturgies  of  the  Maronites  cout.ained  in  their 
Missal. 

•  MATTHIAS'S  (St.)  DAY,  a  festival  observed  by 
the  Romish  church,  on  the  24th  of  February,  in 
honour  of  Matthias,  who  was  elected  to  the  apostle- 
ship  in  room  of  Judas. 

MATUTA,  a  surname  of  Juno,  under  which  the 
festival  Matrama  (which  see)  was  observed  in  her 
honour. 

MATUTINA,  the  new  morning  service  of  the 
ancient  Gallican  church,  so  called  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  tlie  old  morning  service  which  was  always 
early  before  day  ;  whereas  this  w,as  after  the  day  was 
begun.  When  this  was  admitted  among  the  canoni- 
cal hours  to  niiike  up  the  number  of  seven  times  a- 
day,  the  Psalms  appointed  for  the  service  were  the 
fifty-first,  the  sixty-tliird,  and  ninetieth. 

MAUI,  a  legendary  hero  of  the  Polynesian  my- 
thology. There  is  not  a  single  gi'oup  of  islands  in  the 
whole  range  of  Oceanica,  where  Maui  was  not  held 
in  constant  veneration  under  one  or  other  of  his  nu- 
merous appell.ations,  but  the  more  special  seat  of  his 
worship  was  New  Ze.iland,  which  was  supposed  to 
have  emerged  from  the  ocean  at  his  command ;  and 


in  the  Tonga  islands  he  is  said  to  have  fished  up 
these  islands  out  of  the  sea  with  a  hook  and  line. 
"The  stories  tell,"  says  Mr.  Hardwick  in  his  'Christ 
and  other  Masters,'  "that  Maui  was  the  last-born 
chilli  of  Tara-hunga  or  Taranga,  being  descended 
also,  after  many  generations,  from  Tu-mata-uenga, 
one  of  the  unnatural  sons  of  Heaven  and  Earth. 
Though  finally  admitted  to  the  number  of  the  gods, 
and  though  at  times  confounded  even  with  the 
highest  members  of  the  ancient  pantheon,  he  is  not 
unfrequently  declared  to  be  of  purely  human  origin. 
His  youthful  pranks,  betokening  always  an  cxu- 
borance  of  life  and  vigour,  and  occasionally  inter- 
mingled with  proceedings  of  more  than  dubious 
morality,  remind  us  of  the  early  feats  ascribed  to 
the  heroic  Krishna;  while  his  struggles  with  a  huge 
sea-monster  (Tunuriua)  furnish  some  additional  poijits 
of  contact  or  comparison  with  the  Hercules  alike  of 
India  and  of  Greece.  On  this  account  it  was  that 
he  acipiired  a  lasting  hold  on  the  affections  of  the 
ancient  Maori,  and  was  scrupulously  invoked  by 
them  as  their  own  tutelary  genius  on  many  grand 
occasions,  and  especially  when  they  were  setting  out 
upon  some  fishing  expedition. 

"  Very  many  of  the  strange  adventures  which  are 
told  of  Maui  indicate  his  vast  superiority  over  his 
five  elder  brothers  in  strength,  in  cunning,  in  good 
fortune.  To  astonish  or  to  overreach  them  he 
would  voluntarily  assume  the  form  and  other  quali- 
ties of  a  bird;  and  once,  in  this  disguise,  appears  to 
have  succeeded  in  gaining  admittance  to  the  subter- 
ranean world,  in  which  his  parents  were  detaineii. 
Ere  long,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  myste- 
rious visitor  was  a  man,  or  rather  was  'a  god,' and 
■when  his  mother  finally  beheld  in  him  her  own 
Maui  ('  Maui  possessed  of  the  topknot,  or  power,  ot 
Taranga'),  her  delight  at  the  discovery  was  rapturous 
and  uiil)ound>'d.  'This,'  she  exclaimed,  'is  hideed 
my  child.  By  the  winds  and  stomis  and  wave-up- 
lifting gales  he  was  fashioned  and  became  a  human 
being.  W'elcome,  O  my  child,  welcome  :  by  thee 
shall  hereafter  be  climbed  the  threshold  of  the  house 
of  thy  great  ancestor,  lline-nui-te-po  (the  goddess  of 
the  world  invisible),  and  death  itself  shall  thence- 
forth have  no  power  over  man.'  With  the  express 
intention  of  achieving  the  fulfilment  of  tliis  hopeful 
prophecy,  the  hero  of  New  Zealand  entered  on  the 
last  and  greatest  of  his  labours.  He  h.ad  noticed 
how  the  sun  and  moon,  which  he  was  instigated  to 
extinguish,  were  immortalised,  because  it  was  their 
wont  to  bathe  in  some  living  fountain  :  '  he  deter 
mined,  therefore,  to  do  the  same,  and  to  enter  the 
womb  of  Hine-nui-te-po,  that  is  Hades,  where  the 
living  water — the  life-giving  stream — was  situated. 
Hine-nui-te-po  draws  all  into  her  womb,  but  per- 
mits none  to  return.  Maui  detei"rained  to  try,  trust- 
ing to  his  great  powers ;  but  before  he  made  the 
attempt,  he  strictly  charged  the  birds,  his  friends, 
not  to  laugh.  He  then  allowed  Great  Mother  Night 
to  draw  him  into  her  womb.  His  head  and  sbuul- 
21, 


394 


MAUI  FATA— MAUR  (St.),  Conqregatiok  of. 


ders  had  already  entered,  when  that  forgetful  bird, 
the  Piwaka-waka,  began  to  laugh.  Night  closed 
her  portals  :  Maui  was  cut  in  two,  and  died.  Thus 
death  came  into  the  world,  [or  rather,  in  accordance 
with  a  second  and  more  congruous  version,  kept  its 
hold  upon  the  world].  Had  not  the  Piwaka-waka 
laughed,  Maui  would  have  drunk  of  the  living  stream, 
and  man  would  never  [more]  have  died.  Such  was 
the  end  of  Maui ! ' " 

MAUI  FATA,  altar- raising,  a  religious  ceremony 
in  Polynesia.  No  human  being  was  slain  on  this 
occasion,  but  numbers  of  pigs,  with  abundance  of 
plantains,  were  placed  upon  the  altars,  which  were 
newly  ornamented  with  branches  of  the  sacred  mii-o, 
and  yellow  leaves  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree.  These 
rites  extended  to  every  marae  in  the  island,  and  were 
designed  to  secure  rain  and  fertility,  for  the  country 
gained  by  conquest  or  recovered  from  invasion. 

MAULAVI,  the  name  usually  given  to  a  Mo- 
liammedan  priest  in  India. 

MAUNDY  THURSDAY,  the  Thursday  before 
Easter ;  supposed  by  some  to  allude  to  the  manda- 
tum  or  commandment  which  Clu-i.^t  gave  to  his  dis- 
ciples on  that  day,  to  love  one  another  as  he  had 
loved  thera ;  while  by  others  it  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  mandatum  or  command,  that  being  the 
first  word  of  the  anthem  sung  on  that  day,  "  A 
new  commandment  I  give  unto  you."  Others  again 
allege  that  the  name  arose  from  the  maunds  or  bas- 
kets of  gifts,  which  it  was  an  ancient  custom  for 
Christians  to  present  to  one  another  at  this  time,  in 
token  of  the  mutual  afl'ection  wliich  our  blessed 
Lord  urged  upon  his  people.  On  Maundy  Thursday, 
in  ancient  times,  in  some  of  the  Latin  churches,  the 
communion  was  administered  in  the  evening  after 
supper,  in  imitation  of  the  first  communion.  Au- 
gustine take?  notice  of  the  same  custom,  and  also 
observes  tliat  the  communion  in  some  places  was 
administered  twice  on  this  day;  in  the  morning  for 
the  sake  of  such  as  could  not  keep  a  day  of  fast,  and 
in  the  evening  for  those  that  fasted  till  evening, 
when  tliey  ended  their  fast  and  received  the  com- 
munion after  supper.  On  this  day  the  competcntes  or 
candidates  for  baptism  publicly  rehearsed  the  Creed 
before  the  bishops  or  presbyters  in  the  church.  It 
was  customary  also  for  servants  to  receive  the  com- 
munion on  this  great  and  holy  fifth  day  of  the  Pas- 
sion Week.  After  the  ancient  love-feasts  were  dis- 
continued, this  day  was  observed  as  a  feast  of  love. 

On  Maundy  Thursday  the  Romish  church  cele- 
brates the  burial  or  entombment  of  our  blessed  Lord. 
It  may  appear  strange  that  Good  Friday  being  consi- 
dered the  ainiiversary  of  our  Saviour's  death,  the  pre- 
ceding day  sliould  bo  cliosen  to  represent  his  funeral ; 
but  the  reason  assigned  by  Romanists  for  this  seem- 
ing inconsistency  is,  that  the  church  has  preferred  to 
represent  it  hy  anticipation  on  'I'Inn-sday,  rather  than 
on  tlie  following  day  in  wliich  the  clun-ch  is  in  profound 
mourning  on  account  of  bis  death.  On  this  occasion, 
we  Icnrn,  on  the  testirnnnv  of  an  eve-witness,  that 


two  hosts  are  consecrated,  one  of  which  is  consumed 
as  usual  by  the  officiating  cardinal,  and  the  other  is 
carefully  placed  in  a  clialice,  and  covered  with  a 
paten  and  napkin.  This  is  called  the  chalice  of  the 
Sepulchre,  and  is  very  handsome,  being  of  rock  crys- 
tal, set  in  silver  gilt,  and  adorned  by  figures  of  the 
twelve  apostles.  "  The  procession,"  it  is  added, 
"  set  out  in  the  usual  manner,  the  Pope  being  last  of 
all,  and  on  this  occasion  walking  bareheaded,  having 
the  canopy  borne  over  him  by  eight  bishops,  and 
carrying  in  his  hand  the  chalice,  containing  the  host. 
The  procession  passed  tlirough  the  vestibule  to  the 
Pauline  Chapel,  which  was  illuminated  by  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty-seven  wax  lights — producing  a  blaze 
of  light  almost  intolerable  to  the  eye.  The  altar 
was  prepared  as  a  sort  of  sepulchre,  and  there  the 
Pope  deposited  tlie  host,  in  a  small  wooden  box  as 
in  the  tomb,  and  the  sepulchre  was  locked  by  the 
sacristan,  and  the  key  delivered  to  the  cardinal  peni- 
tentiary, who  was  to  perform  the  service  of  next 
day." 

Another  ceremony  observed  at  Rome  on  Holy 
Thursday  is  the  washing  of  the  feet  of  thirteen 
pilgrims  by  the  Pope,  in  imitation  of  the  act  of 
humility  and  condescension  which  our  Lord  per- 
formed in  washing  the  feet  of  His  disciples.  An- 
other singular  ceremony  which  belongs  to  this  day 
is  the  washing  of  the  high  altar  with  wine ;  a  cere- 
mony which,  as  well  as  tliat  of  uncovering  the  altar, 
has  already  been  described  under  the  article  Altar. 
Tlie  Pope  also  pronounces  a  solemn  anathema  on 
Maundy  Thiu'sday  against  all  heretics  and  enemies 
of  the  church  (see  Anathe.ma),  being  the  Bull  in 
ccena  Domini.  On  this  day  alone  of  all  the  festival 
days  in  the  year,  the  ceremony  is  performed  of 
blessing  the  catechumenal  and  chrismal  oils,  and  the 
oil  of  the  sick. 

MAUR  (St.),  Congeeoatiox  of,  one  of  the 
reformed  congregations  of  Benedictine  monks,  which 
originated  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  form- 
ed under  the  authority  of  Gregory  XV.  in  1621, 
and  endowed  with  various  privileges  and  rights  by 
Urban  VIII.  in  1627.  The  object  of  this  Congrega- 
tion, which  is  widely  extended  throughout  France,  is 
to  revive  the  spirit  of  St.  Benedict  in  the  observance 
of  his  rule,  and  with  this  view  much  attention  is  paid 
to  tlie  training  of  young  religious.  To  effect  this  the 
more  completely,  there  are  houses  for  novices,  from 
which  tnose  who  are  to  be  admitted  to  profession 
are  removed  to  other  cloisters,  where  they  arc  trained 
for  two  years  to  acts  and  exercises  of  worship. 
Then  they  study  human  learning  and  theology 
for  five  years,  after  which  they  spend  one  year  in 
special  preparation  for  tlieir  sacred  duties.  The 
Benedictines  are  accustomed  to  speak  in  very  high 
terms  of  the  eminent  services  wliich  the  CongregR- 
tion  of  St.  Maur  have  done  to  the  cause  of  literature, 
most  of  their  time  and  attention  li.iving  been  directed 
to  the  pursuit  of  learning.  This  devotion  to  the 
study  of  sacred  and  secular  knowledge  was  strongly 


MAURI— MAYA. 


aiif- 


objected  to  by  some  who  admired  the  ancient  mo- 
nastic discipline.  Hence  a  cotitrovor.sy  aro.se  in 
France  on  tlio  question,  "  How  far  is  it  «iiilab!o  for  a 
monk  to  cultivate  literature?"  IJut  the  monies  of 
St.  Maur  refused  to  yield  to  the  prejudices  of  some 
of  tlie  French  bi8hoi)S,  and  to  the  petty  jealousies  of 
the  Jesuits ;  tlicy  have  continuc<I,  accordingly,  to 
issue  from  tlie  press  works  of  great  interest  and  im- 
portance. Their  celebrated  editions  of  the  Father.s, 
extending  to  ten  Greek  and  twelve  Latin  Fathers; 
their  '  Gallia  Christiana,'  in  thirteen  vohnnes  folio, 
not  yet  completed;  tlieir  'Ilistoire  Littcraire  de  la 
France,'  which  has  been  carried  on  from  1733  down 
to  the  present  day ;  and  an  ■^dmirable  compendious 
work,  also  continued  down  to  the  present  time,  under 
the  title,  'L'Art  de  verifier  les  Dates  des  Faits  Ilis- 
toriques,'  have  all  of  them  proved  valuable  acces- 
sions to  literature  both  sacred  and  profane.  Such 
names  as  Mabillon  and  Montfancon,  both  of  whom 
belonged  to  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  among  the  monks  of  this  order 
have  been  enrolled  some  men  of  distinguished  ta- 
lents and  profound  learning,  men  who  by  their  la- 
borious researches  have  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon 
tlie  history  and  antiquities  of  tlie  Christian  church. 

MAUUI,  an  inferior  order  of  supernatural  beings, 
according  to  tlio  belief  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders, 
riiey  were  considered  the  most  malignant  of  beings, 
exceedingly  irritable  and  implacable.  They  were 
not  coniined  to  the  skulls  of  departed  warriors,  or 
the  images  made  for  them,  but  were  occasionally 
supposed  to  resort  to  the  shells  from  the  sea-shore, 
especially  a  beautit'ul  kind  of  murex,  called  the 
murex  ramoces.  These  shells  were  kept  by  the  sor- 
cerers, and  the  peculiar  singing  noise  perceived  on 
applying  the  valve  to  the  ear,  was  imagined  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  demon  it  contained. 

MAURO  UIt.\,  the  red  sash,  a  very  sacred  relie 
held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  the  natives  of 
Tahiti  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  It  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  the  late  lamented  missionary,  John  AVil- 
liams :  "  This  was  a  piece  of  network,  about  seven 
inches  wide  and  six  feet  long,  upon  which  the  red 
feathers  of  the  paroquet  were  neatly  fastened.  It 
was  used  at  the  inauguration  of  their  greatest  kings, 
just  as  the  crown  is  with  us,  and  the  most  honour- 
able appellation  which  a  chief  could  receive  was. 
Aril  man  ura,  '  King  of  the  Red  Sash.'  A  new 
piece,  about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  was  attached 
at  the  inauguration  of  every  sovereign;  to  accom- 
plish which  several  human  victims  were  required. 
The  first  was  for  the  7nan  raa  tit!,  or  the  stretching 
it  upon  pegs  in  order  to  attach  to  it  the  new  piece. 
Another  was  necessary  t'or  tho/atu  raa,  or  attaching 
the  new  portion ;  and  a  third  for  the  pin  raa,  or 
twitching  the  sacred  relic  olV  the  pegs.  This  not 
only  invested  the  sash  itself  with  a  high  measure  of 
solemn  importance,  but  also  rendered  the  chiefs  who 
wore  it  most  noble  in  public  estimation." 

MAUSOLEUM,  a  name  originally  applied  to  the 


majnificcnt  sepulchre  erected  by  Artemisia  to  the 
memory  of  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria  ;  but  now  need 
to  denote  generally  any  splendid  tomli.      See  Cimk- 

TEIUKS,  TOMIIS. 

MAYORS.    See  Mails. 

MAYA,  a  term  used  in  Hinduism  to  denote  the 
personification  of  lirahm's  fruitless  longing  for  some 
being  other  than  his  own.  In  the  Vaidic  period 
Maya  meant  no  more  than  the  desire  of  evolution. 
In  its  full  development,  however,  the  word  always 
implies  illusion,  and  hence  all  forms  assumed  by 
matter  are  held  to  bo  not  only  transient,  but  illusive 
and  essentially  non-existent.  Dr.  Duff  explains 
Maya  as  the  actuating  principle  or  efficient  cause  of 
illusion  ; — the  illusory  energy.  "  It  is  Maya,"  says 
this  able  and  learned  missionary,  "  that  delusively 
exhibits  all  the  diversified  appearances  which  com- 
[lose  what  is  ordinarily  called  the  visible  external 
universe.  These  have  no  exterior  material  basis 
or  substantive  form,  neither  have  they  any  interior 
spiritual  basis  or  substratum,  either  in  the  Universal 
Soul,  or  in  the  human  soul  before  which  they  are 
displayed.  In  both  these  respects,  they  dill'er  essen- 
tially from  the  subtile  types  or  models  of  all  things 
wliich  Plato  supposed  to  exist  in  the  divine  mind 
from  all  eternity, — and  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  '  ideas,  or  intelligible  forms,'  because  apprehended 
solely  by  the  intellect.  These  Platonic  ideas  as- 
not  mere  conceptions.  They  are  real  immutable  be- 
ings, subsisting  in  the  divine  mind  as  their  proper 
seat.  They  are  unchangeable  patterns  or  exemplars, 
which,  by  the  power  of  God,  issue  forth  from  the 
fountain  of  his  own  essence, — and,  becoming  united 
with  matter  previously  without  any  form,  they  im- 
press their  own  form  upon  it,  and  so  render  visible 
and  perceptible  the  whole  range  of  individual  sensi- 
ble objects  presented  to  us  in  the  external  universe. 
These  forms,  thus  impressed  on  contingent  matter, 
are  exact  copies  of  tliose  that  are  invariable.  But 
sensible  things  are  perpetually  changing.  Their 
forms,  consequently,  cannot  be  the  proper  objects  of 
contemplation  and  science  to  the  enlightened  and 
purified  intellect.  Hence,  says  Plato,  they  are  the 
ideas,  or  intelligible  forms,  etern.ally  and  immutably 
subsisting  in  the  divine  mind,  which  alone  can  be 
the  real  objects  contemplated  by  the  expanded  rea- 
son of  man. 

"  Unlike,  too,  the  '  ideas'  of  Malebranclie ;  which, 
though  contained  only  in  the  one  great  Omnipresent 
Mind,  and  perceived  by  other  spirits  therein,  had  yet 
corresponding  external  objects  ; — unlike  the  '  sensi- 
ble species,'  or  ph.antasms,  or  shadowy  films  of  Aris- 
totle, which,  though  transformed  by  the  active  and 
passive  intellect  into  intelligible  species  fit  to  be  the 
objects  of  the  understanding,  were  yet  only  resem- 
blances or  pictures  of  outward  substances  ; — unlike 
the  '  ideas'  of  Berkeley,  which,  though  representing 
no  material  forms,  were  not  mere  states  of  the  indi- 
vidual mind,  but  separate  spiritual  entities,  wholly 
independent   of    it,   and  imperishable, — capable   of 


396 


MAYITRI— MEAT-OFFERING. 


existing  ill  iliute  minds,  but  reposing  cliiefly  on  tlie 
bosom  of  the  infinite ; — unlilce  any,  or  all  of  these, 
the  '  ideas'  or  images  of  the  Hindu  theology  float  in 
utter  vacancy, — challenging  no  separate  or  indepen- 
dent existence.  They  are  mere  illusive  appearances 
presented  by  Maya, — having  no  '  species'  in  the  hu- 
man intellect ;  no  '  substantial  exemplars'  in  an  exter- 
nal world  ;  no  'intelligent  forms'  in  the  divine  mind 
for  their  antitypes.  Neither  do  they  depend,  in  any 
degree,  for  their  origin  on  any  power  or  faculty  of 
the  soul  itself.  They  spring  from  no  anterior  act  of 
the  soul — no  more  than  the  shadow  in  water  is  pro- 
duced by  an  active  power  resident  in  the  water.  If 
you  could  suppose  the  water  percipient,  it  would 
perceive  the  shadow  in  its  own  bosom,  though  wholly 
passive  in  the  manifestation  thereof  ;  so,  of  the  per- 
cipient soul.  It  does  not  originate  any  of  the  illu- 
sive appearances  that  flit  before  it.  It  is  only  the 
passive  recipient  as  well  as  percipient  of  them.  In 
your  ignorance,  you  conclude  that  an  image  or  sha- 
dow necessarily  jiresupposes  some  counterpart  sub- 
stantial form.  But  know  that  it  is  the  prerogative 
of  Maya,  the  divine  energy,  to  produce  images  and 
shadows  without  any  corresponding  reaUty, — to  pro- 
duce and  exhibit,  for  example,  the  image  of  a  sun,  or 
the  shadow  of  a  tree,  in  tlie  bosom  of  a  limpid 
stream,  though  there  be  no  luminary  in  the  firma- 
ment, no  tree  on  the  verdant  bank.  And  tlius  it  is 
that  Maya  does  produce  images  and  forms,  and  ex- 
hibits them  to  tlie  soul  as  before  a  mirror,  though 
there  be  no  counterpart  realities.  It  is  from  the 
liabit  generated  by  ignorance  that  you  talk  of  sensa- 
tions and  perceptions  in  the  soul,  as  if  these  neces- 
sarily implied  the  existence  of  external  objects  as 
their  exciting  causes. 

"  It  is  true,  say  the  Hindu  theologians,  that  so  long 
as  the  power  of  Maya  is  exerted,  the  soul  is  deceived 
into  the  belief  of  its  own  distinct  individuality,  as 
well  as  of  the  real  existence  of  material  phenomena. 
In  other  words,  the  soul — in  consequence  of  the  two- 
fold operation  of  Maya,  first,  in  subjecting  it  to  ig- 
norance of  its  real  nature  and  origin,  and  secondly, 
in  exposing  it  to  illusive  sensations  and  perceptions 
— cannot  help  being  impressed  with  a  conviction  of 
its  own  separate  identity,  and  the  independent  exist- 
ence of  external  forms.  And  so  long  as  this  double 
belief,  the  compound  result  of  ignorance  and  delu- 
f-ion.  continues, — so  long  must  the  soul  act,  'not 
according  to  its  essential  proper  nature,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  unavoidable  influences  of  tlie  ignorance 
and  illusive  appearances  to  which  it  hath  been  ex- 
posed,'— or,  in  the  words  of  the  Shastra,  '  so  long 
must  it  be  liable  to  virtue  and  vice,  to  anger  and 
hate,  and  other  passions  and  sensations, — to  birth 
and  death,  and  all  the  varied  changes  and  miseries 
of  this  mortal  state.'" 

MAYITKl,  a  future  Budha,  who  is  destined  to 
appear  at  the  end  of  five  thousand  years  from  the 
death  01  Gotama  Biidha,  and  will  continue  forages 
to  be  tl:e  teacher  of  the  human  race. 


MEAT-OFFERING,  a  part  of  the  apjiointed  ol- 
ferings  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  There  were  fivt 
kinds  of  meat-offerings,  all  of  which  are  minutely 
described  in  Lev.  ii.  They  were  (1.)  of  fine  flour 
unbaked.  (2.)  Of  flour  baked  in  a  pan.  (3.)  Baked 
in  a  fryhig-pan.  (4.)  Baked  in  an  oven.  (5.)  Oi 
barley-meal  without  any  oil  or  frankincense.  The  in- 
gredients in  general  consisted  of  flour,  barlev-meal,  or 
gi-een  ears  of  com,  oil,  frankincense,  and  salt.  The 
most  ancient  meat-oft'erings  were  those  which  were 
composed  of  fine  flour  unbaked.  The  ofl'ering  of 
Cain  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  this  description. 
It  was  prepared  in  tliis  way.  A  quantity  of  oil  hav- 
ing been  put  into  a  vessel,  some  flour  was  mixed  with 
it,  and  an  additional  quantity  of  oil  was  poured  ovei 
it.  The  mixture  was  then  put  into  the  holy  vessel, 
in  which  it  was  to  be  carried  to  the  altar,  and  oil 
was  poured  upon  it  again,  and  a  quantity  of  frank- 
incense. The  ofl'ering  thus  prepared  was  carried  to 
the  altar,  where  it  was  waved  and  salted,  and  part  of 
it  laid  upon  the  fire.  The  rest  was  eaten  by  the 
priests.  When  the  Hebrews  had  entered  Canaan, 
where  this  meat-oftering  was  appointed  to  accom- 
pany all  the  voluntaiy  bumt-oflerings  of  beasts,  as 
well  as  the  daily  morning  and  evening  sacrifice,  a 
certain  quantity  of  wine  was  substituted  instead  ol 
frankincense.  All  the  priests  who  attended  on  this 
occasion,  received  an  equal  share  of  the  meat-ofi'er- 
ing ;  but  the  baked  meat-ofl'erhigs  belonged  to  the 
priest  alone  who  ministered  at  the  altar.  The  un- 
baked meat-oftering  was  called  an  offering  made  by 
fire,  although  by  some  writers  it  has  been  supposed 
to  have  been  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  because  wliat  re- 
mained was  to  be  eaten  by  the  priests. 

The  second  species  of  meat-oflferiug,  which  we  have 
characterized  as  baked  in  a  flat  pan,  consisted  of  fine 
flour  unleavened,  kneaded  with  oil,  thus  fonning  a 
cake  which  was  divided,  part  of  it  being  oflered  to 
God,  and  part  given  to  the  priests.  In  the  case  of 
the  third  species,  which  was  baked  in  a  frying-pan, 
the  oil  was  not  kneadi-d  with  the  flour,  but  simply 
mixed  with  it,  thus  forming  a  moist  cake,  a  part 
of  which  was  separated  from  the  rest  by  the  priest, 
who  burned  it  upon  the  altar  before  the  other  part 
was  eaten.  The  fourth  species,  which  was  baked  in 
an  oven,  consisted  of  two  kinds,  being  either  thick 
unleavened  cakes,  or  thin  like  wafers.  In  thick 
cakes  the  flour  and  the  oil  were  kneaded  ;  but  if  they 
were  thin,  the  oil  was  spread  upon  them  in  the  form 
of  the  Greek  Icappa,  before  they  were  baked,  or,  as 
some  suppose,  after  they  came  out  of  the  oven. 

No  meat-ottering  laid  upon  the  altar  was  allowed 
by  the  law  of  Moses  to  be  leavened  ;  nor  was  honey 
to  be  mingled  witli  it,  but  simply  a  small  portion  ol 
salt,  that  it  miglit  be  seasoned.  The  mcat-on'crings 
were  generally  combined  with  other  sacrifices,  such 
as  burnt-ollcrings  or  pcace-ofl'erings,  but  never  with 
sin-ofl'erings.  The  fifth  species  of  meat-ofl'ering, 
which  was  presented  alone,  was  either  used  in  a  e&fD 
of  extreme  jioverty,  when  the  offerer  \>  hs  iiuhI  W  Io 


MECCA— MECCA  (Pilguimaok  to). 


187 


procure  any  otiicr  victim,  or  in  tlie  case  of  a  wife 
siispeclcil  of  iirifaitlifiilness  to  licr  marriage  vows. 
'I'lii.i,  wliicli  was  a  lumiljler  kiiul  of  meatolVeriiig, 
consislod  of  the  tontli  ]iart  of  an  epliali  of  Irarlcy- 
mcal,  witlioiit  any  oil  or  frankincense.  It  was  sub- 
Btilutod  in  tlie  case  of  tlie  poor  for  a  sin-olVering. 

Meat-oiTerings  were  eillier  public  or  private.  The 
public  in  eat -offerings  were  tbroo  in  number:  (1.) 
The  twelve  loaves  of  s/iew-breml,  which  were  set  be- 
fore the  Lord  every  Sabbalh,  and  when  removed 
were  eaten  by  the  priests.  (2.)  Tlio  two  wave- 
li)aves  olfered  at  Pentecost.  (.3.)  The  first-fruiis  of 
the  harvest.  (See  Hakvkst,  Fr.sTiVAi,  ok.)  Tlie 
meat-oflerings  for  private  persons  included  the  daily 
meat-olforiug  of  the  high-priest  ;  the  nieat-otfering 
of  initiation,  which  every  priest  was  appointed  to 
bring  when  bo  entered  upon  his  ollice  ;  the  poor 
man's  meat-oiVeriug,  whicli  was  accepted  instead  of 
R  Bin-ort'ering  ;  and  the  meat-oflering  of  the  suspected 
wife. 

MEATS  (Difference  of).  See  Animals  (Clean 
AND  Unclean). 

MECCA,  the  cliief  city  of  Arabia,  and  from  time 
immemorial  the  sacred  city  of  the  Arabs.  It  has 
been  alleged  to  liave  been  built  in  the  time  of  the 
patriarchs  shortly  after  Ilagar  and  her  son  had  been 
dismissed  from  tlie  house  of  Abraham.  The  Ania- 
lekites  are  said  to  have  founded  tlie  city,  and  to  have 
taken  I.shmael  and  his  mother  under  their  protec- 
tion. In  a  sliort  time  the  Amalekifes  were  expelled 
by  the  proper  inhabitants  of  the  place,  and  Isliniael, 
having  married  tlie  daughter  of  the  ruling  prince, 
gave  origin  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Arabs.  Mecca 
is  specially  remarkable  as  containing  the  Beitullah 
(whicli  see),  or  celebrated  temple  in  which  stands  the 
Kaara  (which  see).  The  city  is  also  particularly 
famous  as  having  been  the  birth-place  of  Moliammed, 
the  founder  of  the  faith  of  Islam.  Among  the  an- 
cient Arabians  it  was  the  resort  of  pilgrims  from  all 
parts  of  the  peninsula,  and  such  was  the  importance 
attached  to  this  rite  of  pilgrimage,  that  four  months 
in  every  year  were  dedicated  to  the  observance. 
Business  w,as  suspended,  wars  ceased,  and  multitudes, 
clad  in  the  garb  of  pilgrims,  repaired  to  the  sacred 
city,  went  round  the  Kiinha  seven  times,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  angelic  host,  touched  and  kissed  the 
sacred  stone,  drank  and  made  ablutions  at  the  well 
of  Zemzem,  in  memory  of  Ishmaol,  and  having  per- 
formed these  hallowed  ceremonies,  the  pilgrims  re- 
turned liome  to  resume  their  wonted  occupations. 
Mohammed,  accustomed  from  his  childhood  to  re- 
vere the  pilgrimage,  and  to  attach  a  special  sacred- 
ness  to  any  one  who  had  performed  it,  adopted  the 
ceremony  as  a  part  of  his  own  system,  specially  com- 
manding his  followers  to  regard  Mecca  as  holy 
ground,  and  to  observe  the  pilgrimage  as  a  sacred 
duty,  if  in  tlieir  power  to  perform  it.  The  city  is 
thus  described  by  Burckliardt  :  "  Mecca  is  in  a  nar- 
row, sandy  valley,  within  hills  of  moderate  elevation, 
barren,   and    wholly  destitute   of  trees.     Still  it   is 


more  cheerfid  than  most  eastern  cities,  because  the 
streets  have  jiurjjosely  been  made  wide  for  the  pan- 
sage  of  the  pilgrims,  but  the  only  open  space  is  tho 
sacred  enclosure.  It  is  strange  that  a  city  that  ex- 
ists only  for  pilgrims  has  no  caravanserais  to  accom- 
modate tlieni.  The  far-famed  Kaaba,  so  called  as 
being  nearly  a  cube,  towers  above  all  the  low,  flal- 
roofed  dwellings,  though  no  more  than  forty  feet 
high.  From  time  immemorial  a  jiLice  of  pilgrimage, 
its  erection  is  traced  up  to  Adam.  'I'he  Deluge  of 
course  wa^hed  it  away,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been 
rebuilt  by  Abraham.  Still  the  actual  edifice  has  not 
the  prestige  of  antiquity,  for  it  has  been  renewed 
eight  times,  and  as  far  as  could  be  with  the  old  ni:i- 
terials,  a  reddish  sandstone.  Its  unique  appearance 
bears  out  the  tradition  that  it  has  been  scrupulously 
restored  after  the  original  design.  The  Last  was 
nearly  washed  away  by  a  torrent  wliicli  inundated 
the  town,  and  the  present  was  erected  as  late  as 
1624,  by  Amurath  IV.  ;  and  indeed  wliatever  dig- 
nity it  derives  from  the  enclosing  arcade  it  owes  to 
the  piety  of  the  Turkish  Sultans.  It  was  rebuilt 
while  Mohammed  was  a  private  individual,  and  it  is 
curious  tha't  he  should  liave  been  the  person  chosen 
to  lift  the  black  stone  into  its  place." 

MECCA  (I'lLGiu.MAGH  to),  a  sacred  ordinance  of 
the  Mohimmedun  religion,  required  to  be  observed 
at  least  once  in  a  in.an's  life,  but  only  provided  he  has 
sulBcient  means  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  jour- 
ney. It  is  expressly  commanded  in  the  Koran,  and 
such  was  the  importance  whicli  the  Arabian  prophet 
attached  to  the  performance  of  this  duty,  that  he 
declared  a  believer  neglecting  this  pilgrimage,  if  it 
was  in  his  power  to  undertake  it,  might  as  well  die  a 
Jew  or  a  Christian.  From  all  parts  of  the  East, 
accordingly,  thousands  of  Mobammedan  devotees, 
having  made  all  due  preparation  on  the  month 
Diilkaada,  set  out  on  their  journey  to  Mecca.  AVheu 
within  a  few  stages  of  the  sacred  city,  they  assume 
the  Ihrain  or  sacred  dress,  consisting  of  one  piece  of 
cloth  wrapped  round  the  loins,  and  another  thrown 
over  the  shoulders.  Some  are  clothed  in  this  fashion 
from  the  very  commencement  of  their  jouniey,  but 
it  is  not  imperatively  required  until  the  pilgrim  ap- 
proaches the  city.  He  commences  the  ceremony 
with  bathing  and  shaving  the  head.  He  then  makes 
a  prayer  of  two  inclinations,  asks  a  blessing  on  his 
undertaking,  and  ends  with  the  Lehik,  or  a  declara- 
tion of  readiness  to  obey,  which  ought  to  be  conti- 
nually in  his  mouth  during  the  perl'ormance  of  the 
pilgrimage.  He  must  kill  no  animals,  not  even  the 
smallest  insect,  otherwise  he  must  expiate  bis  sin 
by  the  sacrifice  of  a  sheep.  The  head  must  be  un- 
covered, unless  in  the  case  of  old  age  or  sickness.  Tin 
pilgrims  are  of  both  sexes,  the  only  ground  of  ei 
emption  from  the  Iladj  being  inability  to  undertake 
the  journey,  and  it  is  declared  by  Moslem  casuists, 
that  even  where  a  believer  is  incapable  he  must  per- 
form the  duty  by  deputy,  and  pay  all  his  expenses. 
To  have  accomplished  the  pilgrimage,  and  thus  earned 


J9ft 


MEDIATOR. 


-he  title  of  Hadji,  is  accounted  one  of  the  Iiighest 
honours  a  man  can  attain  in  tliis  world.  For  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  century  the  pilgrimage  was  rendered 
impossible  by  the  outrageous  conduct  of  a  heretical 
Mohammedan  sect,  called  the  Carmathians  (which 
Bee),  who  attacked  the  caravans,  plundered  the  holy 
city,  and  carried  off  the  blacli  stone.  It  was  again 
interrupted  at  a  more  recent  period  by  the  Waliaheea, 
who  destroyed  the  tomb  of  the  prophet,  and  commit- 
ted other  acts  of  violence.  Mohammed  Ali,  how- 
ever, tlie  energetic  pacha  of  Egypt,  reduced  this  re- 
bellious tribe  to  subjection,  and  restored  the  pilgrim- 
age, wliich  had  for  a  time  been  discontinued. 

The  numbers  of  pilgrims  who  annually  resort  to 
the  sacred  city  has  been  variously  estimated,  some 
rating  them  at  30,000,  and  others  as  high  as  100,000. 
Burckhardt  calculated  their  amount  when  he  was 
present  at  70,000,  and  Lieutenant  Burton  at  50,000, 
the  latter  adding,  that,  in  tlie  following  year,  the 
number  was  reduced  one  half.  The  first  act  of  the 
pilgrim  when  he  finds  himself  within  the  gates  of 
Mecca,  is  to  visit  tlie  mosque,  where  he  commences 
his  sacred  exercises.  On  entering,  he  prays  with 
four  rahaats  to  salute  the  mosque,  and  in  gratitude 
for  having  reached  the  holy  city.  He  then  goes  for- 
ward and  touches,  and  if  the  crowd  permits  his  com- 
ing near  enough,  he  kis.^es  the  black  stone.  He 
then  commences  the  circuit,  which  is  repeated  seven 
times,  the  first  three  rounds  at  a  quick,  and  the 
other  four  at  a  more  moderate  pace,  repeating  all  the 
while  certain  prayers,  and  at  each  circuit  kissing 
both  stones.  Having  completed  the  appointed  cir- 
cuits, he  stands  with  outstretched  arms  and  prays  for 
the  pardon  of  his  sins ;  he  then  performs  two  ralcaats 
at  Abraham's  station,  and  drinks  of  the  well  of  Zem- 
zem.  "  He  is  now  conducted,"  borrowing  the  ac- 
count of  Burckhardt  the  traveller,  "  to  a  small  ascent, 
called  the  hill  of  Safa,  to  take  the  sat,  that  is,  a  walk 
along  a  level  street,  six  hundred  paces  long,  to  Me- 
rona,  a  stone  platform.  He  has  to  walk  quick,  and 
for  a  short  space  to  run,  and  during  the  course, 
which  is  also  repeated  seven  times,  he  must  pray 
aloud.  He  may  now  shave  his  head;  but  as  tlie 
course  is  fatiguing,  that  ceremony  is  generally  post- 
poned. Tlie  course  is  in  imitation  of  Hagar's  run- 
ning backward  and  forward.  It  is  indispensable  to 
visit,  on  the  ninth  day.  Mount  Arafat,  or  knowledge, 
80  called  because  Adam  and  Eve  are  said  to  have 
met  here,  after  their  long  separation,  on  their  expid- 
sion  from  I'aradi.se.  It  is  meritorious  to  perform 
this  expedition  of  six  hours  on  foot ;  some  were  en- 
gaged in  reciting  tlie  Koran  or  prayers,  wliile  the 
worldly  and  impenitent  quarrelled  with  tlieir  camel 
drivers.  The  hill  was  entirely  covered,  for  in  addi- 
tion to  the  pilgrims,  the  irihal)itants  of  Mecca  and  of 
Jidda  consider  it  their  duty  to  attend.  At  three  in 
the  aftoniooii  tlie  Kadhi  took  his  stand,  and  read  a 
serrnon  till  sunset,  at  intervals  stretcliing  forth  liis 
hands  to  invoke  the  divine  blessing  on  the  immense 
multitude,  who  rent  the  air  with  shouting  in  return 


the  Lebtk,  '  Here  we  are  at  thy  disposal,  0  God ! 
Some  were  crying  and  beating  their  breasts,  and 
confessing  themselves  to  be  grievous  sinners,  in  tlie 
style  of  an  American  camp-meeting,  while  others 
mocked  them,  or  smoked  with  oriental  gravity,  and 
some  to  intoxication  with  forbidden  hemp.  Tlie 
Kadhi's  shutting  his  book  was  the  signal  for  a  gen- 
eral rush  down  the  hill,  as  it  is  thouglit  meritorious 
in  pilgrims  to  quicken  their  pace.  The  tents  had 
been  previously  packed  up,  and  the  caravan  was 
ready  to  return.  According  to  a  tiaditioii,  there  are 
600,000  beings  present,  angels  making  up  the  defi- 
ciency of  human  attendants.  The  night  was  passed 
at  an  intermediate  station,  Mazdahfa,  in  prayer  and 
reciting  the  Koran,  and  here  a  shorter  sermon  was 
read,  between  the  dawn  and  sunrise.  The  multitude 
then  returned  to  the  valley  of  Mina,  where  each 
pilgrim  throws,  in  three  places,  seven  small  pebbles, 
in  imitation  of  Abraham,  whom  God  is  said  to  have 
instructed  thus  to  drive  away  the  devil,  who  eniJea- 
voured  to  interrupt  his  prayer,  and  to  tempt  him  to 
disobey  the  command  to  sacrifice  his  son.  This 
ceremony  over,  they  slay  their  victims,  and  feast  on 
them  with  their  friends,  giving  what  remains  to  the 
poor,  but  using  no  sacrificial  rites,  only  saying,  '  In 
the  name  of  the  merciful  God ! '  and  '  God  is 
great ! '  "  Burckhardt  calculated  that  the  pilgrims,  on 
the  occasion  to  which  he  refers,  must  have  sacrificed 
8,000  sheep  and  goats. 

After  spending  two  days  more  on  the  sacred  spot, 
on  each  of  which  they  repeat  the  throwing  of  the 
pebbles,  they  now  prepare  for  closing  the  pilgrim- 
age by  shaving  their  heads,  cutting  their  nails,  and 
burying  the  hair  and  parings,  after  which  they  make 
a  circuit  of  the  Kaaha  for  the  last  time,  and  perforin 
once  more  the  hurried  walk  from  the  hill  of  Safa. 
The  devotional  spirit  which  the  pilgrims  display  is 
often  deeply  touching,  and  amidst  the  thousands  who 
are  assembled  every  year  in  Mecca,  there  are  num- 
bers who  have  come  in  the  full  expectation  of  being 
cured  of  their  diseases,  and  not  a  few  who,  feeling 
their  end  approaching,  wish  to  die  within  sight  of 
the  Beitullah,  or  house  of  God,  or  to  breathe  out 
their  last  sigh  on  holy  ground. 

MECCA  (Temple  ok).    See  Beitullah. 

MEDIATOR,  one  who  interposes  between  two 
parties  who  are  at  variance,  with  the  view  of  effecting 
a  reconciliation.  In  Sacred  Scripture  it  is  applied 
to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  came  in  as  a  daysman 
or  Mediator  between  sinful  man  and  his  offended 
Creator.  Thus  in  1  Tim.  ii.  5,  we  are  assured  that 
"  there  is  one  God,  and  one  mediator  between  God 
and  men,  the  man  Christ  Jesus."  No  trutli  is  more 
strikingly  developed  in  all  the  various  forms  of  Pagan- 
ism, both  ancient  and  modern,  than  this,  that  there 
is  a  settled  conviction  in  the  mind  of  man  of  the 
necessity  of  a  Divine  Mediator.  In  all  ages,  and  in 
all  nations,  such  an  impression  lias  invariably  pre- 
vailed. The  scrijitural  principle,  that  without  shed- 
ding of  blood  there  is  no  remission  of  sins,  is  a  re 


MEDAL  (MiuAcuLOUS)— MICDINA. 


39S 


eognizod  principle  of  the  religion  of  nature,  as  well 
as  of  revelation.  The  early  prevalence  of  sacrifice, 
not  only  among  the  llebrewn,  but  among  the  Canaan- 
ites,  and  otlier  heathen  nations,  showed  in  the  plain- 
est and  the  most  convincing  maimer,  that  the  uni- 
versal belief  of  man  has  ever  been,  that  it  is  only  by 
the  surrender  of  life  that  man  can  be  again  restored 
to  the  favour  and  friendship  and  fellowship  of  his 
God.  "  Whence  then,"  says  Mr.  Fabcr,  "  could 
originate  this  universal  practice  of  devoting  the  first- 
born either  of  man  or  beast,  and  of  ofl'ering  it  up  as 
a  burnt-oll'ering?  Whence  but  from  a  deep  and  an- 
cient consciousness  of  moral  depravation?  Whence 
but  from  some  i)ervertcd  tradition  respecting  the 
true  Sacrifice,  to  be  once  offered  for  the  sins  of  all 
mankind  ?  In  the  oblation  of  the  first-born  originally 
instituted  by  God  himsolf,  and  faithfully  adhered  to 
both  by  Jew  aiul  Gentile,  we  behold  the  death  of 
Ilim  who  was  the  first-born  of  his  virgin-mother,  ac- 
curately, though  obscurely  exhibited.  Ami  in  the 
constant  use  of  fire,  the  invariable  scriptural  emblem 
of  wrath  and  jealousy,  we  view  the  indignation  of 
that  God  who  is  a  consuming  fire,  averted  from  our 
guilty  race,  and  poured  upon  the  immaculate  head  of 
our  great  Intercessor  and  Mediator." 

We  find  the  idea  of  a  Mediator  pervading  the 
most  ancient  forms  of  heathenism.  Thus  in  the  an- 
cient religion  of  Persia,  if  Orimtzd  and  Ahriman  are 
essentially  at  variance  and  struggling  for  the  mas- 
teiy,  Mithras  acts  as  Mediator  between  the  two,  de- 
fending man  against  AJiriman  and  his  devs,  who  are 
ever  seeking  to  injure  .and  even  destroy  him.  In  the 
early  religion  of  India,  we  find  in  the  Ilig-Veda,  the 
myth  of  Afini,  the  mediator  of  the  Aryans  of  the 
Indus.  "  He  is  the  immortal  among  mortals,  their 
companion,  their  cherished  friend,  their  near  kins- 
man, who  seats  himself  beside  their  fires,  and  upon 
whom  they  found  their  hopes  as  upon  a  fire."  Here 
then  is  a  mediator  God,  who  becomes  man  for  the 
good  of  humanity,  the  friend  of  mankind,  their  king, 
their  prophet,  their  life,  their  sacrificer,  their  inter- 
cessor. There  was  no  period,  indeed,  in  the  history 
of  the  Indo-Aryan  people,  when  altars  were  not 
reared  and  sacrifices  oftered.  In  the  Brahmanic 
period,  the  notion  of  an  external  Medi.ator,  who 
should  manifest  himself  in  hum.an  form,  is  conveyed 
in  the  avatars  or  incarnations  of  Vishnu.  The  saint 
of  the  Chinese,  who  forms  the  principal  subject  of 
one  of  the  books  of  Confucius,  involves  the  same 
idea,  being  a  man  who,  by  his  humility,  his  charity, 
his  moral  perfection,  h.as  become  a  God.  He  was  a 
Divine  man,  the  mediator  between  heaven  and  earth, 
who  oflered  himself  in  sacrifice  to  conquer  evil  and 
take  away  sin  from  the  world.  Numberless  in- 
stances might  be  adduced  from  the  religions  both  of 
ancient  and  of  modem  times,  which  clearly  point  to 
the  notion  of  a  Mediator,  as  deeply  embedded  in  the 
human  mind. 

MEDAL  (Miraculous),  a  medal  which  is  exten- 
nlvely  circulated  among  Romanists,  both  in  Europe 


and  America,  as  accomplishing  wonderful  cures 
'i'lie  origin  of  this  medal  is  thus  described  by  the 
Abbe  I.,e  Guillon,  in  a  work  devoted  to  the  subject, 
which  was  published  at  Komc  in  1835 :  "  Toward 
the  end  of  the  year  18.30,  a  wcll-boni  young  female, 
a  noviciate  in  one  of  those  conservatories  which  are 
dedicated  in  Paris  to  the  use  of  the  poor  and  the 
sick,  whilst  in  the  midst  of  her  fervour  during  her 
prayers,  saw  a  picture  representing  the  most  Holy 
Virgin  (as  she  is  usually  represented  under  the  title 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception),  standing  with  open 
and  extended  arms  :  there  issued  from  her  hands  rays 
of  light  like  bundles,  of  a  brightness  which  dazzled 
her :  and  amidst  those  bundles,  or  clusters  of  rays, 
she  distinguished  that  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
fell  upon  a  point  of  the  globe  which  was  under  her 
eye.  In  an  instant  she  heard  a  voice,  which  said, 
'  These  rays  are  symbolical  of  the  graces  which  Mary 
obtains  for  men,  and  this  point  of  the  globe  on  wliich 
they  fall  most  copiously  is  France.'  Around  this 
picture  she  read  the  following  invocation,  written  in 
letters  of  gold : — '  0  Mary,  conceived  without  sin, 
pray  for  us  who  have  recourse  to  you.'  Some  mo- 
ments .after,  this  painting  tunied  round,  and  on  the 
reverse  she  (the  Estatica)  distinguished  the  letter  M, 
surmounted  by  a  little  cross,  and  below  it  the  most 
sacred  hearts  of  Mary  and  Jesus.  After  the  young 
girl  bad  well  considered  the  whole,  the  voice  said, 
'  A  medal  must  be  struck,  and  the  persons  who  wear 
it,  and  who  shall  say  with  devotion  the  inscribed 
short  prayer,  shall  enjoy  the  very  special  protection 
of  the  Mother  of  God.' " 

This  supernatural  intimation  accordingly  was 
obeyed,  and,  under  direction  of  the  archbishop  ot 
Paris,  a  medal  was  struck,  and  a  large  supply  was 
ready  against  the  invasion  of  the  cholera.  The 
Abb^  gives  a  full  account  of  the  cures  which  the 
medal  had  effected,  and  the  wonders  it  had  wrought, 
winding  up  the  whole  by  the  statement,  "  Finally, 
from  all  parts  we  hear  the  most  consoling  facts. 
Priests  full  of  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  tell  us,  that 
these  medals  are  reviving  religious  feeling  in  cities 
as  well  as  country  places.  Vicars-Gener,al,  who  en- 
joy a  well-merited  consideration,  as  well  for  their 
piety,  and  even  distinguished  bishops,  inform  us  that 
'  they  have  reposed  every  confidence  in  these  medals, 
■and  they  regard  them  as  a  means  of  Providence  foi 
awakening  the  faith  which  has  slept  so  long  in  this 
our  age.' " 

MEDINA,  a  town  in  Arabia,  held  in  considerable 
veneration  among  the  disciples  of  IsUm,  as  being  the 
burial-place  of  Mohammed.  It  occupies  a  far  infe- 
rior place  to  Mecca  in  the  estimation  of  the  faithful. 
There  is  no  obligation  upon  the  pilgrims  to  visit  Me- 
dina, and  accordingly,  few  do  so  except  the  Turks  in 
whose  route  it  lies.  The  great  mosque,  which  in- 
cludes the  prophet's  tomb,  is  described  as  very 
splendid,  being  surrounded  by  numerous  pillars  of 
marble,  jasper,  and  porphyry,  on  which  letters  ot 
gold  are  inscribed  in  many  places.     The  tomb  itseL' 


400 


MEDITRINA— MELCHISEDEK  (The  Order  df). 


Is  plain,  and  on  each  side  of  it  are  the  tombs  of  the 
two  early  Cahphs,  Abubekr  and  Omar.  Near  this 
«pot  also  repose  the  aslies  of  Moliammed's  beloved 
daughter,  Fatimah,  and  of  many  of  liis  companions 
who  are  revered  as  saints.  A  visit  to  Medina  is  no 
doubt  quite  voluntary,  but  such  a  visit  raises  the 
reputation  of  a  pilgrim. 

MEDITIUNA  "(Lat.  mederl,  to  heal),  a  goddess 
worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans,  as  presiding 
over  the  healing  art.  An  annual  festival  was  cele- 
brated in  her  honour.     See  next  article. 

MEDITRINALTA,  a  festival  observed  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  every  year  on  the  11th  of  October, 
when  for  the  first  time  the  new  wine  was  drunk, 
which  was  supposed  to  have  a  healing  power,  and 
therefore  to  be  connected  with  the  goddess  Medi- 
TRINA  (which  see). 

MEDU.SA,  one  of  the  Gougons  (which  see). 

MEGABYZI,  described  by  Strabo  as  eunuch 
priests  in  the  temple  o(  Artemis  at  Ephesus. 

MEG^RA.     See  Eumenides. 

MEGALESIA  (Gr.  MegaU  theos,  great  goddess), 
a  festival  celebrated  at  Rome  in  ancient  times,  in 
honour  of  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the  gods.  It  was 
observed  annually  in  the  month  of  April.  The 
statue  of  the  goddess  was  first  introduced  at  Rome 
in  B.  C.  20.3,  but  the  festival  did  not  begin  to  be  held 
until  B.C.  191,  at  the  comjiletion  and  dedication  of 
the  temple  in  honour  of  Cybele.  The  Megalesia, 
consisting  of  games,  feasting,  and  rejoicing,  com- 
menced on  tlie  4th  of  April,  and  continued  for  six 
days.  To  such  an  extent,  however,  did  some  Roman 
families  carry  their  luxury  and  extravagance  on  this 
occasion,  that  it  was  found  to  be  neces.sary  for  the 
government  to  issue  a  public  decree  limiting  the  ex- 
penditure to  a  certain  amount.  The  Megalesian 
differed  from  the  Circensian  games  in  being  chiefly 
tlieatrical.  The  third  day  of  the  festival,  indeed, 
was  wholly  devoted  to  scenic  representations.  At 
tlie  games,  which  were  presided  over  by  the  curule 
lediles,  slaves  were  not  allowed  to  be  present,  and 
the  magistrates  were  dressed  in  purple  robes. 

MEGALOCHE.\II,  the  highest  rank  of  monks, 
or  the  order  of  the  Perfect  in  the  Greek  church. 

MEGARA  (School  of),  a  school  of  philosophy 
in  ancient  Greece.  It  was  founded  about  B.  c.  400, 
by  Euclid,  who,  while  he  had  chiefly  cultivated  the 
logic  of  his  master  Socrates,  had  previou.sly  studied 
with  the  Eleatics,  and  imbibed  their  principal  doc- 
trines. He  is  said  to  have  limited  truth  to  identical 
propositions.  The  Megaric  school  held  all  existence 
to  be  included  in  the  primitive  unity,  but  consider- 
ing the  subject  rather  in  a  moral  than  in  a  metaphy- 
sical aspect,  they  maintained  the  absolute  being  to 
be  the  absolute  good.  But  their  speculations,  char- 
acterized rather  by  acuteness  and  subtlety  than  ac- 
curacy of  thinking,  appwr  to  have  produced  no  per- 
ceptible iufluence  on  the  mind  of  Greece. 

MEGILLOTII,  a  division  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures adopted  by  the  Jews,  and  including  the  Song 


of  Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  and 
Estlier,  which  they  term  the  five  rolls  or  volumes. 
There  is  a  Targum  on  the  Megilloth,  which,  how- 
ever, probably  belongs  to  a  late  period,  not  earlier 
indeed  tlian  the  sixtli  century.     See  T.'iKGUM. 

MEGMA,  an  assembly  or  council  of  Imitms  oi 
Doctors  of  the  Law,  among  the  Mohammedans. 

IMEHDIVIS,  a  Mohammedan  sect  in  India,  who 
take  their  name  from  believing  their  Wall  or  saint 
to  have  been  the  promised  Mehdi  or  Maiidi  (which 
see).  This  pretender,  wlio  claimed  to  be  descended 
from  Hossein,  the  son  of  Ali,  was  born  at  a  small 
town  near  Benares,  in  the  year  of  tlie  Hegira  847, 
and  declared  himself  at  the  black  stone  at  Mecca 
about  A.H.  900,  to  be  the  Mahdi  or  twelfth  Imdm, 
an  expi  ctation  of  whose  appearance  prevails  among 
the  Mohammedans  all  over  the  East.  After  his 
death,  which  took  place  in  Khorasan  A.  H.  910,  his 
followers  dispersed  without  however  surrendering 
their  belief  in  the  reappearance  of  their  deceased 
leader  as  the  long-expected  Mahdi.  This  sect  was 
subjected  to  a  severe  persecution  by  Aurungzebe. 
They  are  still  found  in  small  communities  in  various 
parts  of  India,  as  in  Gnjerat,  the  Deccan,  and 
Sindh. 

MEILICHIUS,  a  surname  of  Zens,  as  the  god 
that  can  be  propitiated,  under  which  name  altars 
were  reared  to  him  in  various  towns  of  Greece.  It 
was  also  a  surname  of  Dionysus,  uiuler  which  lie  was 
worshipped  in  the  island  of  Naxos.  The  term  was 
applied,  besides,  to  several  deities,  who  were  wont 
to  be  propitiated  by  sacrifices  ofl'ered  at  niglit. 

MEIRUN,  the  term  used  to  denote  the  oil  of 
Chrism  (which  see),  in  the  Greek  church. 

MELiENIS,  a  surname  of  Aphrodite,  under  which 
she  was  worshipped  at  Corinth. 

MELANjEGIS,  a  surname  of  Diouysiis,  under 
which  he  was  worshipped  at  Eleutlierae  and  at 
Athens. 

MELANCTHONIANS.    See  Adiapiiokists. 

MELCARTHUS,  a  god  anciently  worshipped  by 
the  Tvrians,  being,  as  the  word  signifies,  Lord  of  the 
citv.  From  Herodotus  we  learn,  that  his  temple  was 
built  at  the  same  time  with  the  city,  and  was  en- 
riched with  so  many  donations,  and  was  so  famous, 
that  he  went  thither  on  purpose  to  see  it. 

MELCHISEDEK  (The  Order  of),  an  order  of 
priesthood  mentioned  by  the  Apostle  Paul,  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  as  liigher  as  well  as  more 
ancient  than  the  order  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood 
under  the  Mosaic  economy.  Melchisedek  appear.' 
to  have  been  the  only  individual  who  held  the  office  of 
high-priest  by  Divine  appointment  before  the  giving 
of  the  law.  And  in  the  statement  of  the  apostle  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  "a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order 
of  Melchisedek,"  may  be  perceived  a  beautiful  pro- 
in-iety,  for,  unlike  the  Lcvitical  priesthood,  the  sacred 
office  was  comliined  with  regal  authority  in  the  case 
of  Melchisedek,  thus  clearly  pointing  him  out  .as  a 
striking  type  of  our  High  Priest,  of  whom  it  was  pro 


MELCinSKDEKIANS-MELCIHTK  CIIUUCII. 


40t 


pliesieil  by  Zocliariah,  "  He  sliall  bo  a  priest  upon 
his  throne;"  nut],  besiiies,  tlie  pricslliood  of  Mel- 
cliisoflek  was  more  lionourabie,  beiiij;  instituted  pre- 
viiiiis  to,  anil  iniJepeiiilent  of,  tlie  Mosaic  economy, 
*nd  one  to  wliicli,  as  we  learn  from  tlio  reason- 
ing' of  tlie  apostle  in  lleb.  vii.,  tlie  Lovitical  priest- 
hood was  distinctly  subordinate;  for  separated,  as 
Melchisedck  is  declared  to  have  been  in  point  of  de- 
Bcuntfrom  all  around  him,  lie  is  considered  as  receiv- 
ing tithes  from  those  who,  though  not  yet  born,  were 
represented  by  their  progenitor  Abraham.  "And," 
says  the  apostle,  "  as  I  may  so  say,  Levi  also  who  re- 
ceived tithes,  paid  tithes  in  Abraham;"  thus  ilisiinct- 
ly  admitting  the  superiority  of  the  priesthood  of  Mel- 
ihisedek  to  their  own  ;  and  the  reasonim;  in  the  sub- 
eeqiient  verses  displays  to  us  still  more  clearly  the 
striking  propriety  of  our  liOrd's  connection  with  this 
order  in  preference  to  that  of  Aaron.  "  For  if,"  he 
argues,  "  perfection,"  or,  in  other  words,  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  whole  Divine  economy  in  regard  to  our 
(vorld,  "bad  been  by  the  Levitical  priesthood,"  under 
whom  they  received  the  law,  in  which  they  seemed 
to  rest  as  the  consummation  of  the  whole  scheme; 
if  such  had  been  the  case,  "  what  further  need  was 
there  that  another  priest  should  rise  after  the  order 
of  Melchisedck  and  not  after  the  order  of  Aaron." 
If  the  Divine  purposes  are  fully  accomplished  in 
the  law,  why  change  the  order  of  the  priesthood, 
eince  such  a  cliange,  as  the  apostle  remarks,  must 
bring  along  with  it  a  "  change  also  of  the  law."  15y 
this  mode  of  reasoning  we  are  not  only  taiiglit  that 
the  whole  of  the  .Jewish  economy  has  been  abrogated 
by  the  gospel,  but  we  are  presented  with  a  most  in- 
teresting view  of  the  priesthood  of  Christ,  lie  was 
not  called  after  the  order  of  Aaron,  for  this  simple 
reason,  that  he  would  have  thereby  formed  a  part  of 
an  imperfect  and  symbolical  system,  and  thus  the 
antitype  would  have  been  confounded  with  the 
type.  And  by  his  connection  with  the  order  of  Mel- 
chisedek,  our  High  Priest  was  identilied  with  an 
economy  independent  of  the  temporary  institutions 
of  Moses,  and,  accordingly,  it  is  said,  "  He  was 
made  not  after  the  law  of  a  carnal  commandment, 
but  after  the  power  of  an  endless  life."  And  tluiugh 
the  law  having  accomplished  its  purposes  was  abro- 
gated, and,  of  course,  the  institution  of  the  priest- 
hood destroyed,  this  man,  beuig  independent,  not 
merely  of  death,  by  which  the  functions  of  individual 
priests  were  terminated,  but  being  independent  of 
the  whole  order  of  the  Levitical  priesthood,  notwith- 
standing of  its  dissolution,  "  this  man,"  it  may  well 
be  said,  "  because  he  continueth  ever  hatli  an  un- 
changeable priesthood."  And  in  the  very  nature  of 
his  consecration  was  involved  the  everlasting  dura- 
bility of  his  priestly  office,  for  the  decree  of  appoint- 
ment by  Jehovah  was  couched  in  these  words : 
Thou  art  a  Priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Mel- 
/hisedek;"  and  being  contiinied  in  this  everlasting 
appointment  by  the  oath  of  Him  with  whom  there 
is  no  variableness  neither  shadow  of  change,  we  are 


brought  to  the  comfortable  and  delightful  conclusion 
that  we  have  an  everlasting  and  unchangeable  High 
Priest,  appointed  of  (Jod  as  was  Aaron,  but  called 
afli/r  the  order  of  Midchiscdek. 

Mi;LCIIIrtKDI';KIANS,a  sect  of  Christians  which 
arose  in  the  second  century,  deriving  their  name 
from  the  fact  that  they  held  Melcbisedek  to  be  the 
power  of  God,  and  superior  to  Christ ;  and  that  he 
sustained  the  office  of  an  intercessor  for  the  angels 
in  heaven  as  Christ  for  men  on  earth.  This  sect 
was  afterwards  revived  in  Egypt  by  the  Hikhacitks 
(which  see),  who  maintained  still  further  that  .Mel- 
chisedck was  the  lldlv  (ihost. 

MKLCHITECIIUKCH,  a  n.une  a|/plied  to  the 
Greek-Catholic  church,  or  to  those  lionianists  in 
Asia  who  are  attached  to  the  riti.'S  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Greek  church.  The  American  missionaries 
estimate  the  total  number  of  the  Melcbitcs  at  be- 
tween .30,000  and  40,000  souls,  having  12  bishops 
and  180  priests.  The  term  Melchites,  which  is  du- 
ri\ed  from  the  Syriac  word  meldia,  a  king,  was 
applied  in  the  sixth  century  as  a  term  of  reproach 
by  the  Jacobites  to  the  orthodox  Greeks,  implying 
that  they  were  king-followers,  or  that  it  was  impe- 
rial influence  alone  which  led  them  to  subscribe 
to  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  con 
deiniiing  the  Eutychian  heresy.  The  n,ame  thus  com  - 
nienced  in  scorn  has  been  appropriated  to  those  con 
verts  to  Rome  who  still  observe  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Greek  ritual.  This  community  probably  origi- 
nated in  the  labours  of  the  Jesuits  at  Aleppo,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  who  perceiving  the  unwilling- 
ness of  their  converts  to  conform  to  the  Latin  church, 
with  their  usual  duplicity  and  cunning,  persuaded 
the  Pope  to  sanction  a  compromise,  whereby  the 
Melchile  church  should  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
Rome,  but  adhere  to  the  liturgical  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies of  the  Eastern  church,  renouncing,  however, 
the  characteristic  dogma  of  the  Greeks,  that  the  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  from  the  Father  only. 
In  all  other  points  they  conform  to  the  Eastern 
church.  They  keep  tinnly  by  the  "  old  style,"  and 
regulate  all  their  feasts  and  fasts  by  the  Oriental 
calendar.  In  all  their  churches  in  Syria  they  con- 
duct Divine  service  in  the  Arabic,  which  is  the  ver- 
nacular tongue.  They  receive  the  communion  in 
both  kinds,  and  use  unleavened  bre.ad  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Their  priests  are  permitted  to  marry  before 
ordination  ;  but  their  bishojis  must  remain  unmar- 
ried. No  restriction  is  put  upon  the  laity  in  the  use 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  Dr.  Wilson,  in  bis  '  Lands 
of  the  Bible,'  mentions  them  as  "  amongst  the  most 
liberal  and  intelligent  native  Christians  in  the  East." 

The  adherents  of  the  Melchite  church  are  chiefly 
found  at  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  particularly  at  the 
latter  town,  where  the  patriarch  resides.  Their  ca- 
thedral at  Damascus,  which  is  remarkably  splendid, 
is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Graham  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Wilson  :  "  The  building  inside  is  elegant,  and  on 
festival  days,  when  brilliantly  lighted  up,  the  scene 


4J2 


MELETE— MELETIANS  AT  ANTIOCH. 


is  grand  and  iiniiosing.  Tlie  floor  is  beautifully  varie- 
gated marble.  The  roof  is  ornate  and  lofty,  is  sup- 
ported by  a  row  of  stately  marble  columns  on  either 
hand  as  vou  go  in,  and  between  these  and  the  ex- 
terior walls  are  the  female  galleries.  Seats  there 
are  none,  save  a  few  chairs  around  the  walls  and  en- 
circling the  altar.  Hundreds,  I  might  almost  say  a 
thousand,  silver  lamps  till  the  house  with  insufferable 
brightness ;  while  priests,  clothed  in  rich  Oriental 
costume,  are  walking  in  solemn  procession,  and  fill- 
ing the  house  with  incense  almost  uisufterably  pleas- 
ing, and  accomplishing  the  service  before  the  altar 
and  in  the  neighbouring  recesses.  The  people,  mean- 
time, are  not  idle.  There  is  no  order.  They  go 
and  come  just  as  they  please.  Some  are  kneeling 
and  beating  their  brows  before  the  picture  of  a  fa- 
vourite saint  ;  otliers  are  gazing  on  the  Virgin  and 
her  infant,  and  muttering  inarticulate  prayers  ;  some 
are  squatting  on  the  marble,  crossing,  and  bowing, 
and  adoring  before  a  hirsute  monk  of  the  olden 
time ;  some  are  standing  upward  making  awkward 
genuflections,  and  at  intervals  prostrating  their  fore- 
heads on  the  stone  floor;  some  are  talking  with  one 
.another;  all  are  intent,  each  at  his  own  business 
whatever  it  is,  and  all  is  done  aloud  or  in  a  mumb- 
ling muttering  voice.  Quiet  silent  prayer  is  not 
known  or  practised  in  the  East.  The  bells  are  ring- 
ing, the  priests  are  reading  the  service  with  a  loud 
voice,  and  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  the  censers 
are  waving  to  and  fro,  filling  the  liouse  with  odours  ; 
the  people  are  kneeling,  standing,  sitting,  muttering 
prayers,  talking,  prostratmg,  weeping,  sighing,  beat- 
ing their  breasts,  making  the  common  prayer  (so 
called,) — a  scene  of  sound  and  confusion  without  par- 
allel, save  in  the  synagogues  of  Safed  and  Tiberias." 

There  are  two  orders  of  monks  among  the  Greek 
Catholics  in  Syria,  and  connected  with  the  monastic 
establi.shments  there  are  no  fewer  than  250  monks 
and  90  nuns,  while  the  number  of  regular  priests  be- 
longing to  the  body,  in  so  far  as  Syria  is  concerned, 
does  not  exceed  fifty-five.  The  people  are  more 
generally  able  to  read  than  the  other  Christians, 
though  the  Greek  Catholics  have  few  schools  of 
their  own.  Some  years  ago  a  college  was  founded 
for  the  sect,  but  the  building  having  been  destroy- 
ed during  the  Druze  war,  it  lias  never  been  re- 
built. Dr.  Wilson  mentions  having  found  a  section 
of  the  Melchite  church  in  Egypt  also  ;  and  at  Cairo, 
he  tells  us,  he  was  introduced  to  their  bishop,  who 
is  said  to  have  under  his  superintendence  about  4,000 
souls. 

In  other  parts  of  the  East  the  Greek  Catholics 
conform  to  the  Komish  church  more  completely  than 
their  brethren  in  Syria,  and  in  public  worship  they 
use  not  the  Greek,  but  tlio  Latin  ritual.  At  Con- 
Btantinople  tliere  are  500  families  belonging  to  this 
sect,  chiefly  the  remains  of  Italian  conquests  in  the 
East,  and  most  of  them  emigrants  from  foreign  coun- 
tries. Unwilling  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  Armenian  Catholic  patriarch,  wlio,  by  his  firman, 


is  head  of  all  the  Catholics,  they  made  application  to 
the  Porte  for  permission  to  choose  a  head  of  their 
own.  Tlie  petition  w-as  granted,  and  thus  the  Greek 
Catholics  became  an  independent  sect  in  Turkey, 
and  chose  a  Mussidman  as  their  deputy  to  commu- 
nicate in  their  behalf  with  the  Porte.  Thus  docu 
ments  are  issued  in  the  name  of  the  community 
called  Latins  ;  they  follow  the  Roman  rite  ;  and  Ko- 
inan  priests  baptize,  confess,  and  bury  them,  though 
they  are  recognized  subjects  of  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment. They  are  independent  both  in  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical afl'airs,  being  ruled  civilly  by  a  Mussul- 
man, and  ecclesiastically  by  an  Italian  bishop  and 
vicar-apostolic  sent  from  Rome  to  be  their  ruler  in 
spiritual  matters  under  the  Pope. 

MELETE,  the  name  of  one  of  the  JIusES  (which 
see). 

MELETIANS  AT  ANTIOCH.  Amid  the  vio- 
lent dissensions  caused  throughout  the  East  by  the 
Arian  controversy  in  the  fourth  century,  the  Church 
of  Antioch  was  subjected  for  a  long  period  to  the 
most  agitating  trials.  About  A.  D.  .^30,  Bustathius, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  had  been  deposed  from  his  oflice 
by  the  Eusehians,  a  branch  of  the  Aiiti-Nicene  party, 
but  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the  church  still  ad- 
hered to  him.  A  series  of  Arian  bisliops,  however, 
succeeded  the  deposed  prelate,  and  the  Christians  of 
Antioch  were  split  into  two  parties,  some  separating 
themselves  meanwhile  from  the  church,  and  worship- 
ping as  a  distinct  community,  under  the  name  o( 
EuSTATHlANS  (which  See),  while  others,  though 
mainly  agreeing  in  sentiment  with  the  seceders,  pre- 
ferred submitting  to  the  Arian  bishops  who  were 
thrust  upon  them  against  their  will.  Athanasiiis, 
when  passing  through  Antioch  on  his  return  from 
his  second  exile,  acknowledged  the  Eustathians  as, 
in  his  view,  more  consistent  in  their  actings  than  the 
Arianizing  party.  On  the  translation  of  Eudoxius, 
A.  D.  360,  from  the  bishopric  of  Antiocli  to  that  of 
Constantinople,  Meletius,  then  bishop  of  Sebaste  in 
AiTOenia,  was  chosen  as  his  successor.  Tliis  man, 
who  had  risen  to  considerable  fame,  had  been  brought 
up  in  the  communion  of  the  Aiians,  and  as  one  of 
their  party,  he  had  been  appointed  to  tlie  see  of  Se- 
baste, and  now  promoted  to  the  see  of  Antioch, 
chiefly  at  the  instigation  of  Acacius.  Being  natu- 
rally of  a  mild,  amiable,  and  benevolent  disposition, 
taking  no  part  in  the  angry  controversies  which  wore 
carried  on  around  him,  but  calmly  and  faithfully 
labouring  in  his  ministerial  woi-k,  the  Arians  and 
Arianizers  of  his  day  mistook  his  silent  and  gentle 
demeanour  for  an  acquiescence  in  their  heretical 
views.  But  Meletius  was  not  long  in  undeceiving 
them.  The  circumstances  in  which  he  unexpectedly 
showed  bis  entire  sympathy  with  the  orthodox  party, 
are  thus  detailed  by  Dr.  Newman  in  his  'Arians  of 
the  Fourth  Century:'  "On  the  new  patriarch's  arri- 
val at  Antioch,  he  was  escorted  by  the  court  bishop^ 
and  his  own  clergy  and  laity,  to  tlio  cathedral.  iJe- 
sirous  of  solemnising  the  occasion,  the  Emperor  liim- 


MELKTIAXS  IN  EGYPT. 


403 


lelf  had  coinJescended  to  give  tlio  text,  on  which  tliu 
KsHc'inhled  prelates  were  to  comment.  It  was  tlio 
celebrated  passage  from  the  Proverbs,  in  which  Oii- 
gpii  has  piously  detected,  and  the  Ariaiis  perversely 
stilled,  the  groat  article  of  our  faith;  'the  Lord  halli 
created  [possessed]  Me  in  the  beginning  of  His  ways, 
uefore  His  works  of  old.'  George  of  Laodicea,  who, 
on  the  departure  of  Euxodius,  had  rejoined  the  Eu- 
sebians,  opened  the  discussion  with  a  dogmatic  ex- 
planation of  the  words.  Acacius  followed  with  that 
ambiguity  of  language,  which  was  the  characteristic 
of  his  school.  At  length  the  patriarch  arose,  and  lo 
the  surprise  of  the  assembly,  with  a  subdued  manner, 
Knd  in  measiu'ed  words,  avoiding  indeed  the  Nicene 
Homoousion,  but  accurately  fixing  the  meaning  of 
his  expressions,  confessed  the  true  Catholic  tenet,  so 
long  exiled  from  the  throne  and  altars  of  Antioch.  A 
icene  followed,  such  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
excitable  tem])or  of  the  Orientals.  The  congregation 
received  his  discourse  with  shouts  of  joy ;  when  the 
Arian  archdeacon  of  the  church  nnniing  up,  placed 
Ids  hand  before  his  mouth  to  prevent  his  speaking ; 
on  which  Meletius  thrust  out  his  hand  in  sight  of 
the  people,  and  raising  first  three  fingers,  and  then 
one,  symbolized  the  great  truth  which  he  was  unable 
to  utter.  The  consequences  of  this  bold  confession 
might  be  expected.  Meletius  was  banished,  and  a 
fresh  prelate  appointed,  Euzoius,  the  friend  of  Arius. 
But  an  important  advantage  resulted  to  the  orthodox 
cause  by  this  occurrence ;  the  Catholics  and  heretics 
were  no  longer  united  in  one  communion,  and  the 
latter  were  thrown  more  into  the  position  of  schisma- 
tics, who  had  rejected  their  own  bishop.  Such  was 
the  state  of  things,  when  the  death  of  Constantius 
occasioned  the  return  of  Meletius,  and  the  convoca- 
tion of  the  council  of  Alexandria,  in  which  his  case 
was  considered." 

Thus  scarcely  a  month  had  elapsed  after  liis  en- 
trance on  the  see  of  Antioch,  when  Meletius  found 
himself  deposed  and  in  exile.  Eusfathius  in  the 
meantime  had  died,  but  his  party  suspecting  Mele- 
tius of  Arianism,  from  the  character  of  the  persons 
who  had  prociu-ed  him  his  bishopric,  remained  aloof 
•  from  him,  and  continued  as  a  separate  body  under 
the  presbyter  Paulinus,  who  had  officiated  for  some 
time  as  their  pastor.  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  who  was  sent 
to  Antioch  to  heal  the  disputes,  widened  the  breach 
among  the  orthodox  by  ordaining  Paulinus  as  bisliop 
of  the  Eustathians.  Tluis  was  laid  the  foundation  of 
a  schism  of  the  most  important  kind,  the  Western 
and  the  Alexandrian  churches  declaring  in  favour  of 
Paulinus,  and  the  Oriental  church  chiefly  in  favour 
of  Meletius.  It  had  been  the  earnest  desire  of  the 
Alexandrian  council  to  combine  the  two  sections  of 
the  orthodox  party  by  uniting  the  Eustathians  and 
the  Meletians,  but  their  wishes  and  their  exertions 
were  frustrated  by  the  rash  conduct  of  Lucifer,  who 
afterwards  gave  rise  to  another  schism,  founding  a 
separate  party  in  the  church,  called  the  Ldciferians 
(wliicli  see),  which  lasted  about  fifty  years. 


The  Meletian  schism  continued  for  a  long  pe- 
riod. Athanasius  and  the  Egyptian  churches  fra- 
ternizi^d  with  the  Eustathians,  and  all  the  more 
as  Meletius  refused  to  communicate  with  Atliana- 
sius.  In  this  opposition  to  the  Meletians,  the 
Egyptian  were  joined  by  the  Western  churches 
and  those  of  Cyprus.  The  Eastern  Christians,  on 
the  contrary,  adhered  firmly  to  the  Meletian  party. 
Meletius  presided  at  the  second  general  council  at 
Constantinople  A.  D.  381,  and  from  his  venerable 
age,  as  well  as  his  consistent  opposition  for  many 
years  to  the  Arian  heresy,  he  was  selected  by  the 
Emperor  Theodosins  to  consecrate  Gregory  of  Na- 
zianzen  bishop  of  Constantinople.  iJuring  the  sit- 
tings of  the  council,  Meletius  died,  and  Chrysostom 
deeming  this  a  favourable  time  for  putting  an  end  to 
the  unseemly  schism  which  had  for  many  years  rent 
in  twain  the  orthodox  party,  successfully  exerted  his 
influence  with  the  Egyptian  and  Western  churches 
in  favour  of  Flavian,  the  successor  of  Meletius,  and 
thus  terminated  the  Meletian  schism. 

MELETIANS  IN  EGYPT,  the  name  of  a  party 
which  existed  in  the  Christian  church  in  Egypt  in 
the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  and  which  was  headed 
by  Meletius,  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  the  Thebaid. 
The  dispute  which  led  to  the  formation  of  this 
schism  had  regard  to  the  best  mode  of  proceeding 
ecclesiastically  in  the  case  of  those  Christians  who 
had  fallen  away  during  the  Diocletian  persecution. 
The  subject  had  been  already  discussed  under  the 
Decian  persecution,  and  Cyprian  had  laid  down  the 
principle  (see  Lapsed  Christians),  that  all  who 
had  in  any  way  departed  from  the  faith  should  be 
excluded  from  the  fellowship  of  the  churcli  until 
peace  was  completely  restored,  and  if  up  till  that 
time  they  had  manifested  a  spirit  of  sincere  contri- 
tion, they  should  then,  but  not  before,  be  delivered 
from  church  censure.  Meletius,  who  had  been 
thrown  into  prison  for  the  cause  of  Christ,  main- 
tained among  his  fellow-prisoners  the  principles 
which  had  been  previously  taught  bj'  Cyprian  ;  while 
Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  pleaded  for  a  more 
lenient  course,  particularly  towards  Christian  slaves, 
who  had  been  compelled  by  their  masters  to  offer 
sacrifice  instead  of  them.  This  latter  prelate  had 
for  some  special  reasons  abandoned  his  flock  for 
a  time,  and  Meletius  having  obtained  his  freedom 
from  prison,  exercised  his  authority  in  Egypt  as  the 
second  metropolitan,  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop 
Peter,  and  travelling  through  the  whole  diocese  of 
the  Alexandrian  patriarch,  he  ordained  and  excom- 
municated at  pleasure.  "  lie  did  not  recognize," 
says  Neander,  "  the  official  power  of  those  to  whose 
charge,  as  Periodeutce,  or  visitors,  the  bishop  Peter 
of  Alexandria  had  committed  the  destituie  commu- 
nities. Their  different  views  respecting  the  proper 
mode  of  treating  those  who  had  fallen,  or  who  had 
become  suspected  of  denying  God  in  some  way  or 
other,  was  here,  too,  probably  made  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion, or  at  least  used  as  a  pretext ;  since  th« 


404 


MELIBCEA— MEXANDRIANS. 


Meletians  boasted  of  representing  the  pure  church 
of  tlie  martyrs.  Four  Egyptian  bisliops,  among  the 
imprisoned  confessors,  declared  tliemselves  firmly 
against  tlie  arbitrary  proceedings  of  Meletius,  wlio, 
however,  took  no  notice  of  this  protestation.  The 
bishop  Peter  of  Alexandria  issued  a  writing  to  the 
.Alexandrian  churcli,  wherein  he  bade  all  avoid  fel- 
lowship with  him,  until  the  matter  could  be  more 
closely  investigated  in  connection  with  other  bishops  ; 
and  at  length  lie  excluded  him — probably  after  his 
own  return — from  the  functions  of  the  episcopal 
office,  and  from  the  fellowship  of  his  church,  as  a 
disturber  of  the  peace  of  tlie  communities.  Also, 
subsequently  to  the  martyrdom  of  the  bishop  Peter, 
A.  D.  311,  and  in  the  time  of  the  bishop  Alexander, 
luider  whom  the  Ai-ian  controversies  broke  out,  this 
echism  still  continued  to  exist." 

Epiphiinius  says,  that  when  Meletius  was  deliver- 
ed from  prison,  he  was  banished  to  the  mines  of 
Phsenon  in  Arabia  Petrsa  ;  and  it  would  appear  that 
even  while  tluis  labouring  as  a  slave,  he  diffused  his 
principles  among  his  fellow-bondmen.  He  ordained 
bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons,  and  kept  his  fol- 
lowers a  distinct  body  under  the  title  of  '  the  Church 
of  the  Martyrs.'  At  length  the  council  of  Nice, 
A.  D.  325,  found  itself  necessitated  to  take  into  con- 
eideration  the  best  mode  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
Meletian  schism.  The  subject  was  fully  discussed, 
and  after  careful  deliberation,  the  council  decided 
that  Meletius  should  still  be  permitted  to  hold  the 
title  of  bisliop  of  Lycopolis,  without,  however,  hav- 
ing power  to  ordain  either  in  the  city  or  the  country. 
It  was  arranged,  however,  that  the  clergy  who  had 
been  already  ordained  by  Meletius  should  retain 
their  offices,  but  should  be  regarded  as  inferior  in 
rank  to  those  who  had  received  ordination  at  the 
hands  of  the  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Meletius  died 
soon  after  the  council  of  Nice,  and  his  followers  hav- 
ing after  their  leader's  death  refused  to  submit  to  the 
decrees  of  the  council,  were  persecuted  by  the  bishop 
of  Alexandria.  John  Arcaph  was  chosen  to  succeed 
as  leader  of  tlie  sect,  and  under  him  the  schism  con- 
tinued. But  it  was  not  very  creditable  to  the  Mele- 
tians,  nor  favourable  to  their  reputation  for  ortho- 
doxy, that  they  co-operated  with  the  Ai-ians  in 
opposing  Athanasius.  This  schism  did  not  termi- 
nate before  the  fiftli  century.  In  the  account  we 
have  given  of  the  Meletian  schism,  we  have  chiefly 
followed  the  statements  of  Epii>lianius,  in  preference 
to  those  of  Athanasius,  who  was  the  avowed  enemy 
botli  of  Meletius  and  his  party. 

MELIBffiA,  a  surname  of  Plr.skpiione  (which 
see). 

MELTCERTES.    See  Pal^.mon. 

MELINiEA,  a  surname  of  Apiiuoditk  (which 
see). 

MELISSA,  a  priestess  of  tlie  Delphian  Apollo. 
It  was  also  a  surname  of  Artemis  as  the  goddess  of 
the  moon. 

MELISS.iE,  the  nymphs  wlio  nursed  the  infant 


Zevs.  The  word  came  afterwards  to  be  applied  to 
priestesses  in  general,  and  more  especially  to  those 
of  Demeter. 

MELITENIAN  LEGION.  See  Legion  (Tiik 
Thundering). 

MELITOXIANS,  a  heretical  Christian  sect  which 
arose  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century,  founded 
by  a  person  named  MeHto,  of  whom  all  that  has  been 
ascertained  is,  that  he  taught  the  strange  doctrine 
that  God  is  corporeal,  having  a  body  hke  man,  and 
this  he  founded  on  the  statement  of  Sacred  Scripture, 
that  man  was  originally  created  in  the  image  ot 
God.    See  Anthropomorphites. 

MELLONA,  a  divinity  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, who  was  believed  to  be  the  protector  of 
honey. 

MELPOMENE,  one  of  the  nine  Muses  (whicli 
see). 

MELPOMENUS,  a  surname  of  Dioii>/siis  at 
Athens. 

MEMORIA,  a  name  given  among  the  ancient 
Christians  to  a  churcIi  built  over  the  grave  of  a  mar- 
tyr, and  intended  to  be  a  memorial  of  him. 

MEAIRA,  a  word  often  used  by  the  Chaldee  Para- 
phrasts  on  the  Books  of  Moses.  It  denotes  literally 
the  Word,  and  is  substituted  instead  of  the  sacred 
name  of  Jehovah,  while  they  attribute  to  it  all  tha 
attributes  of  the  Deity.  Some  suppose  tliat  by  the 
Meinra  they  meant  the  Second  Person  of  the  Tri- 
nity, more  especially  as  it  was  Memra,  they  tell  us, 
who  appeared  to  Abraham  at  Mamre,  to  Jacob  at 
Bethel,  and  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai. 

MEN,  a  god  among  tlie  ancient  Phrygians,  who 
presided  over  the  months. 

MENiEON,  a  Service-Book  in  the  Greek  church, 
which  contains  the  hymns  and  particular  services  for 
the  saints,  and  for  the  festivals  as  they  occur  in  the 
year  according  to  the  calendar.  It  includes  also  an 
account  of  the  life  and  actions  of  eacli  saint  added  to 
his  particular  office.  The  whole  work  consists  of 
twelve  volumes  folio,  being  one  volume  for  each 
month. 

MENAGYRT.1E,  a  name  applied  to  the  Agykt^. 
(which  see),  or  priests  of  the  goddess  Cijhele,  because 
every  month  (Gr.  men,)  tliey  made  their  collections 
from  the  people. 

MENANDRIANS,  the  followers  in  the  first  cen- 
tury of  Menander,  the  disciple  and  successor,  as  wa« 
alleged,  of  Simon  Magus.  From  the  testimony  of 
Irenaeus,  Justin  Martyr,  and  Tertullian,  we  learn  that 
Menander  claimed  to  be  one  of  the  yEuns  sent  from 
the  upper  world,  or  the  Pleroma,  to  succour  the  souls 
which  were  enduring  here  in  material  bodies,  and  to 
enable  them  to  bear  up  against  the  machinations  and 
the  violence  of  those  demons  by  whom  the  world  is 
governed.  He  promised  to  his  follovrers  that  if 
bajitized  in  liis  name,  thoy  would  be  incorru|itible 
and  immortal,  and  liave  the  benefit  of  an  immediale 
resurrection.  Epiphanius  says,  that  this  heresy  vim 
so  absurd  that  it  never  prevaikxl  to  any  great  exteul 


MENDiEANS. 


405 


lis  founder  died  A.  i).  80,  and  tiotliiiig  more  was 
heard  of  liis  Ktraiigc  doctrines.     See  Simonians. 

MENDil'^AN'S,  or  Mkndai  Ijaiii,  disciples  of 
John  the  Baptist,  soineliines  called  also  Christians 
of  St.  John,  but  l)L'tlo.r  known  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory as  Jlemero-Iiiijitial.i,  or  daily  H;ipti»ls,  from  their 
frequent  washings.  In  1780,  M.  Norbcrg,  a  Swede, 
read  to  the  Koyal  Society  of  Gottingon  a  memoir  in 
reference  to  tliis  sect,  which  was  supplemented  in 
the  following  year  by  some  observations  from  M. 
Walcli,  tending  to  prove  their  identity  with  the  dis- 
ciples of  John  the  Baptist.  Their  language  ap- 
proaclics  that  of  the  Tahnndical  Jews,  being  evi- 
dently a  dialect  of  the  Chaldcc  or  Syriac.  There 
are  found  near  Buasora,  a  city  between  Arabia  and 
Persia,  from  20,000  to  25,000  families  belonging  to 
this  sect.  On  inquiry  M.  Norbcrg  ascertained  that 
there  was  a  branch  of  the  Mendaeans  still  existing  in 
Syria  at  VA  Merkali,  about  a  day's  journey  east  of 
Mount  Libanus.  They  call  themselves  Galileans, 
and  their  number  is  said  to  amount  to  about  14,000. 
M.  Norberg  received  an  interesting  account  of  this 
people  from  Germanus  Conti,  a  Maronite  of  Mount 
Lebanon,  who  was  deputy  of  his  patriarch  in  Syria. 
We  quote  the  words  of  Conti  as  taken  from  his  own 
mouth  by  M.  Norberg:  "These  Galileans  formerly 
dwelt,  in  sufficient  wealth  and  plenty,  in  that  which 
is  called  tlie  Holy  Land ;  but  about  a  century  and  a 
half  ago,  they  quitted  that  country  to  settle  in  a 
tract  of  Libanus  called  Mercab.  They  claim  John 
the  Baptist  as  their  founder,  and  seem  to  hold  a  mid- 
dle station  between  Jews  and  Christians.  The  fol- 
lowing are  their  rites.  He  who  presides  in  sacred 
things,  wears  a  vest  and  tiara  both  of  camel's  skin. 
They  also  take  honey  and  locusts,  alternately,  sacra- 
mentally :  which  are  distributed  as  consecrated  ele- 
ments to  tlie  worsliippers  present,  and  are  sent  to  the 
absent,  equally,  as  a  religious  rite  :  botli  these  kinds 
of  food  being  taken  with  the  greatest  reverence. 
The  day  on  which  this  is  done  is  held  sacred.  It  is 
proper  to  abstain  from  worldly  occupations,  whether 
bf  business  or  of  pleasure.  A  few  words  are  allow- 
ed, but  those  pious :  and  if  more,  they  relate  to  the 
same  subject.  So  also,  once  a-month,  they  have  an 
exhortation  in  their  place  of  worship ;  and  to  this 
they  flock  with  eagerness.  The  chief  topic  of  tliis 
discourse  is  the  '  Light  of  the  World,'  always  intro- 
duced with  sentences  like  those  of  the  Evangelist, 
'  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was 
with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God.'  This  they  apply 
to  John,  and  deny  to  Jesus,  Messiah ;  whom  they  do 
not  allow  to  be  Son  of  God,  but  a  prophet,  and  a  fol- 
lower of  John.  Their  places  of  worship  are  void  of 
all  ornament.  They  contain  neither  pictures  nor 
statues. 

"  Baptism,  the  rite  of  initiation,  is  performed  in 
the  open  air,  in  a  large  vessel,  a  mat  serving  as  a 
Rcreen  to  the  place,  at  the  earliest  dawn  of  day :  the 
middle  part  of  the  day  is  proper  to  honey  and  locusts: 
*iiJ,  at  the  close,  at  the  time  of  divine  worship,  they 


light  lamps  and  candles,  and  solemnly  repeat  tlie»e 
words  :  '  John,  whom  we  here  worship  as  our  father, 
(institutor)  we  beseech  thee  to  be  propitious  to  us; 
to  protect  MS  from  every  hostile  power,  and  to  en- 
lighten our  minds  with  the  light  of  the  true  religion, 
as  thou  hast  commanded  us  to  light  these  lumina- 
ries.' After  discharging  this  duty,  whoever  can 
proceeds  fo  partake  of  the  sacrament  already  de- 
scribed. 'I  hose  also  who  are  detained  at  home  do 
the  same;  although  the  duty  bo  done  in  private. 
Twice  a-week,  i.  e.  on  Simday  and  Thursday,  this  k 
never  omitted.  And  the  priest,  whether  standing  at 
the  altar,  or  going  up  into  the  pulpit,  puts  on  his 
official  clothing  for  the  .shoulders  and  the  head. 
He  also  holds  in  his  hand  a  staff;  and  delivers  an 
exhortation  beginning  in  the  Galilean  language,  but 
jirocecding  in  Arabic.  Of  their  ancient  language 
all,  except  the  priests,  and  a  few  who  have  learned 
it,  are  extremely  ignorant.  But  they  can  say  prayers 
by  memory,  and  can  repeat  certain  jjassages  from 
the  sacred  volume;  during  which  time  the  doors  are 
closed,  and  pro|ier  persons  are  placed  at  the  entrance. 
During  the  whole  time  the  utmost  respect  and  silence 
is  preserved:  the  head  of  the  devout  is  inclined  for- 
wards, and  the  hands  are  folded  together. 

"  Besides  this,  they  also  dedicate  to  John  four  fes- 
tival days  in  a-year.  On  the  first,  which  is  his 
birth-day,  they  dress  wlieat,  they  eat  grapes,  nuts, 
honey,  and  locusts,  with  other  things  intermingled. 
And  this,  in  large  dislies  tilled  to  the  brim,  it  is  cus- 
tomary freely  to  offer,  or  to  [dace  before  one  another. 
Nor  do  they  take  any  other  food  than  this  during 
this  day.  After  this,  the  whole  having  been  well 
[irepared,  having  been  sanctified  by  |)i'ayer,  and 
liaving  gone  round  the  whole  congregation  (of  which 
every  person  present  takes  part  of  this  vegetable 
fare  into  his  own  dish,  raising  his  head  and  singing) 
they  all  make  a  liberal  donation  to  the  priest. 

"  On  that  day,  when  John  instituted  his  Baptism, 
they  repeat  this  sacred  ordinance.  They  proceed  in 
a  body  to  tlie  water,  and  among  them  one  who  bears 
a  standard ;  also,  tlie  priest,  dressed  in  his  camel's 
hair  ornaments,  holding  a  vessel  of  water  in  his  hand 
{hydria  in  manu  exl)  he  sprinkles  each  person  singly 
as  he  comes  out  of  the  river,  saying,  '  I  renew  your 
baptism  in  the  name  of  our  father  and  saviour  John: 
who  in  this  manner  baptized  the  Jews  in  the  Jordan, 
and  saved  them  ;  he  shall  save  you  also.  Last  of  all, 
he  immerges  himself  in  the  water,  for  his  own  salva- 
tion. After  this,  the  whole  assembly  resort  to  the 
place  of  worship,  singing  hvmns,  where  they  partake 
of  honev  and  locusts,  administered  by  the  priest. 

"  And  further,  on  the  day  on  which  John  was  de- 
capitated, every  one  laments  at  the  place  of  worship 
in  these  mournful  terms  :  '  Our  most  excellent  leader 
was  on  this  day  slain  by  command  of  Herod,  and  liia 
cruelty  !— well  he  deserves  to  be  consumed  (by  fire), 
0  God,  hear  ns  !' 

"  Finally,  On  that  day  when,  as  it  is  believed,  John 
slew  a  dragon  of  wonderful  size,  which  issued   fnim 


406 


MENDES— MENDICAJfT  ORDERS. 


the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  and  did  much  mischief,  they 
practise  a  ceremony  of  leading  their  cattle  and  sheep 
in  troops  round  the  place  of  worship,  with  great  joy. 
But  the  memory  of  this  miracle  is  celebrated  in  Ga- 
lilee by  those  who  have  ability  and  wealth  sufBoient  ; 
they  resort  to  the  spot  barefooted ;  taking  their  siek 
witii  them,  who  hope  to  recover  health  by  favour  of 
their  patron  ;  and  when  arrived  there,  they  lay  them 
In  the  place  of  worship.  This  they  do  in  their  old 
residence,  which  is  distant  a  day's  jouniey  from 
Jlount  Tabor." 

De  la  Valla  supposes  that  these  Christians  may 
possibly  be  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Jews  who  re- 
ceived the  baptism  of  John  the  Baptist.  They 
allege,  indeed,  that  from  him  they  received  their 
faith,  their  religious  books,  and  their  customs.  But 
their  religion  seems  to  bear  a  later  date,  being  evi- 
dently a  compoimd  of  the  Jewish,  Clu-istian,  and 
Mohammedan  systems,  and  the  Arabian  prophet  is 
actually  mentioned  by  name  in  some  of  tlieir  books. 
The  chief  of  their  sacred  writings  is  called  Divan, 
which,  however,  contains  no  history  of  the  sect,  but 
chietiy  moral  and  spiritual  treatises.  M.  Norberg, 
after  an  investigation  of  the  subject  for  forty  years, 
published  five  volumes  quarto  of  their  writings, — 
1815—1818. 

MENDELSOHNIANS.  See  Anti-T.\lmudists, 
Jews  (Modern). 

MENDES,  a  deity  worshipped  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians  in  the  town  of  Mendes,  which  was  si- 
tuated at  the  Mendesian  mouth  of  the  Nile.  .  This 
god  was  worshipped  under  the  emblem  of  a  goat, 
which,  according  to  Jablonski,  denotes  the  genera- 
tive power  of  nature,  especially  of  the  sun.  There 
is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  term  Mendes  was 
used  to  describe  both  the  hieroglyphical  goat  and  the 
holy  city  of  Pan.  The  worship  of  Mendes  was 
afterwards  transferred  from  Northern  to  Southem 
Egypt,  and  the  name  of  the  deity  was  changed  to 
Mont. 

MENDICANT  ORDERS.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  two  men,  in  different  places 
about  the  same  time,  conceived  the  idea  of  founding 
a  new  religious  society  on  an  entirely  novel  princi- 
ple, wliich  was,  that  all  the  members  should  subsi.^t 
wholly  upon  alms.  To  establi.'^h  this  kind  of  con\- 
muiiism,  Francis  of  As.sisi  organized  an  institution  of 
Mendicant  friars  in  Italy  under  the  name  of  Fran- 
CISCAN.S  (whicli  see)  ;  and  a  short  time  afterwards 
Dominic,  a  native  of  Castile  in  Spain,  formed  an- 
other fraternity  of  th.e  same  kind  in  the  south  of 
France,  which  received  the  name  of  Dominicans 
(which  sec).  Both  these  communities  bound  them- 
selves to  possess  no  property,  cither  indiviiiu.ally  or 
in  common,  but  to  depend  for  their  livelihood  en- 
tirely upon  begging,  and  never  to  acquire  even  in 
this  way  more  than  was  suflicient  for  the  supjily  of  a 
single  day.  The  see  of  Rome,  at  first,  declined  to 
countenance  the  movement,  but  it  was  so  generally 
Kfriu-ded  with  favour  by  the  people,  that  in  a.  d.  120.3, 


Innocent  III.,  foimd  himself  obliged  to  sanction  th( 
society  and  rule  of  the  Franciscans ;  and  in  A.  D. 
121G,  his  successor,  Honorius  III.,  confinned  the 
order  of  the  Dominicans.  These  societies  rapidly 
obtained  extensive  popularity.  The  Jlendicant 
monks  found  ready  access  to  all  classes  of  society, 
even  the  humblest.  They  knocked  at  every  door, 
entered  every  cottage,  accommodated  themselves  to 
the  manners  and  even  the  prejudices  of  the  working 
classes.  To  extend  their  influence  still  more  widely 
they  adopted  the  plan  of  admitting  the  laity  to  a 
connection  with  their  society  under  the  name  of  Ter- 
tiaries,  such  persons  being  bound  by  no  monastic 
vow,  but  simply  pledged  to  promote,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, the  interests  of  the  order  to  which  they  had  be- 
come attached,  while  they  themselves  were  living  in 
the  world  and  engaged  in  their  ordinary  occupations. 
In  the  middle  ..f  the  thirteenth  century  there  was 
almost  no  place,  certainly  no  province,  in  which  the 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans  had  not  their  Tertiaries, 
and  thus  the  Mendicants  exceeded  in  influence  all 
other  monks. 

The  high  estimation  in  which  the  new  orders  were 
held  led  to  the  increase  of  their  numbers  to  such  an  en- 
ormous extent  that  all  Europe  swarmed  with  begging 
monks,  and  they  became  a  burden,  not  only  to  the 
people,  but  to  the  church  itself.  It  soon  appeared 
to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  check  the  enormous 
growth  of  these  monastic  establishments.  Pope 
Gregory  X.,  accordingly,  in  a  council  which  he  as- 
sembled at  Lyons  in  1272,  decreed  the  suppression 
of  all  the  religious  orders  which  had  sprimg  up  since 
the  days  of  Innocent  III., and  thus  the  "extravagant 
multitude  of  Mendicants,"  as  Gregory  described 
them,  was  reduced  within  narrow  limits,  including 
only  the  Dontinkans,  the  Franciscans,  the  Carmel- 
ites, and  the  hermits  of  St.  Augustine  ov  Aiiguxtinian 
Monies.  And  the  reason  for  this  papal  interference 
had  become  .so  strong  as  to  force  itself  upon  the  at- 
tention even  of  the  most  careless  observer.  Their 
progress,  both  in  numbers  and  influence,  was  not  only 
rapid,  but  for  a  time  wholly  unimpeded.  Young 
men,  even  of  the  higher  classes  of  society,  eagerly 
connected  themselves  with  one  or  other  of  the  Men- 
dicant orders.  They  threatened,  in  fact,  to  overthrow 
the  established  constitution  of  the  church  and  the  fun- 
damental rules  of  the  universities.  One  seat  of  learn- 
ing, however,  that  of  Paris,  at  length  .set  itself  to  resist 
the  unreasonable  encroachments  of  the  Mendicants 
Pope  Alexander  IV,  issued  several  bulls  deciding  ni 
their  favour  against  the  Parisian  university,  which, 
in  its  turn,  was  ably  defended  by  William  of  St, 
Amour,  who  denounced  the  monks  as  precursors  of 
Antichrist,  as  mock-saints  and  liy)iocrites,  having  no 
other  aim  th.an  to  bring  the  whole  influence  of  the 
church  under  their  control.  A  controversy  now 
ensued,  the  cause  of  the  Mendicants  being  supported 
by  some  of  their  most  distinguished  men,  such  «> 
Bonaventura,  Albertus  Magnus,  and  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas.    The   monks  prevailed,  ami  the  work  which 


MENDICANT  ORDERS. 


4M 


William  of  St.  Amour  wrote  against  tlifim  wan  con- 
(icmiiod  by  Alexaniler  IV.  in  r2f)5,  while  lie  liim- 
solf  was  baiiisliod  from  France,  but  was  afterwiiids 
Drought  back  from  exile  under  Clement  IV.  The 
contest  on  the  subject  of  the  Mendicant  friars  now 
passed  away,  but  the  university  of  Paris  still  main- 
tained the  same  spirit  of  freedom  whiuli  had  long 
characterized  its  learned  men. 

Abuses  of  the  most  flagrant  kind  .sprung  up  among 
the  Mendicants,  which  attracted  the  notice  even  of 
their  warmest  admirers  and  friends.  Thus  Honaven- 
tur.a,  when  appointed  in  12.")6  general  of  his  order, 
pulilished  a  circular  letter  addressed  to  the  jiresiding 
ollicers  in  the  several  provinces,  calling  upon  them 
to  do  their  utmost  to  remove  the  abuses  which  had 
crept  in.  Amid  all  the  corruptions,  however,  which 
were  gradu.-vlly  introduced  into  the  Mendicant  orders, 
the  main  idea  on  which  they  were  founded,  that  of 
evangelical  poverty,  became  so  predominant  in  its  in- 
fluence, that  multitudes  of  people  refused  to  receive 
the  sacrament  at  any  other  hands  than  those  of  tlie 
Mendicants.  Thus  the  ordinary  priests  were  complete- 
ly superseded,  and  for  three  centuries  the  two  chief 
orders  professing  tlie  vow  of  poverty,  the  Domini- 
cans aiul  Franciscans,  exercised  absolute  control 
both  in  church  and  state,  tilled  the  most  distinguished 
offices  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  taught  in  the  universi- 
ties and  churches  with  undisputed  authority,  and 
advanced  the  interests  of  the  Papal  government 
with  the  utmost  zeal  and  success. 

Notwithstanding  the  prestige  which  thus  attached 
to  the  Mendicant  monks,  we  find  Nicholas  of  ( .'le 
mangis,  in  his  book  on  the  Corruptions  of  the 
Church,  composed  in  1401,  representing  these  very 
monks  as  the  genuine  successors  of  the  Pharisees 
described  in  the  gospels,  who,  under  a  show  of  holi- 
ness, concealed  all  manner  of  wickedness  They 
were  ravening  wolves,  he  says,  in  sheep's  clothing, 
who  put  on,  for  outside  show,  severity  of  life,  chas- 
tity, humility,  holy  simpHcity,  but  in  secret  aban- 
doned themselves  to  the  choicest  pleasures,  to  a 
dainty  variety  of  luxurious  enjoyments.  Such  was 
the  character  of  the  beggarly  friars,  who  were  over- 
runnin;j;  every  country  of  Europe  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  found  their  way  even  into  England, 
where  they  spread  with  alarming  rapidity.  Their 
progress  was  resisted,  though  with  little  success,  by 
the  university  of  Oxford  and  the  parish  priests,  who 
6aw  their  rights  encroached  upon  by  the  spiritual 
labours  of  these  monks.  In  this  contest  Archbishop 
Richard  of  Armagh  distinguished  himself  by  his 
freedom  of  thought.  One  of  the  first  symptoms  of 
the  reforming  spirit  which  displayed  itself  in  Eng- 
land was  hostility  to  the  begging-monks.  From  the 
first,  WyclilVe  was  their  avowed  enemy,  and  they,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  the  most  zealous  and  the  most 
influential  organs  of  the  Romish  hierarchy.  They 
were,  beyond  all  question,  the  fiercest  enemies  of  the 
intrepid  English  reformer.  In  the  year  137C  they 
extracted  from  his  lectures,  writings,  and  sermons 


nineteen  propositions,  which  they  marked  as  hereti- 
cal, and  sent  them  to  Rome  that  they  might  there 
be  condemned.  In  the  course  of  the  following  year, 
accordingly,  Gregory  XI.  issued  three  bulls,  declar- 
ing the  nineteen  proposition*  to  be  heretical,  and 
some  of  them  to  be  not  only  inconsistent  with  the 
Catholic  faith,  but  subversive  of  public  order.  Thus, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  Mendicant  friars,  the  Pope 
called  upon  the  king,  the  bishops,  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford  to  proceed  against  WyclilTe,  and  had 
not  the  duke  of  Lancaster  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  his  protectors  the  reformer's  career  would  have 
been  brought  to  an  immediate  and  violent  termina- 
tion. To  the  U^  be  loudly  protested  against  the 
Mendicant  orders.  As  he  lay  on  a  sick-bed  in  1.379, 
they  dispatched  a  deputation  to  admonish  him  in 
view  of  death  to  retract  what  he  had  said  against 
them.  Too  weak  to  rise  from  his  bed,  WyclilTe  caused 
his  attendants  to  raise  him  up,  and  collecting  his  last 
energies,  he  addressed  the  monks  in  these  words . 
"  I  shall  not  die,  but  live,  and  ever  continue  to  ex- 
pose the  bad  practices  of  the  begging-monks."  Hi> 
valuable  life  was  prolonged  contrary  to  the  expecta 
tions  of  his  friends ;  and  as  time  rolled  onward  h. 
became  more  vehement  every  day  in  his  oppositioi 
to  the  Mendicants.  In  a  paper  put  forth  in  138*^ 
he  declared  that  be  could  point  out  fifty  heresies  al 
more  in  their  orders.  He  charged  them  with  set 
ting  up  ordinances  of  men  above  the  commandments 
of  the  living  God,  following  a  mode  of  life  which 
was  wholly  at  variance  with  the  example  of  Christ, 
abridging  the  liberty  wherewith  Christ  had  made  his 
people  free,  and  disturbing  the  regular  parish  priests 
in  the  exercise  of  their  sacred  calling. 

Both  the  Lollards  in  England,  and  the  Hu.fsiles  in 
Bohemia,  found  the  Mendicants  to  be  their  bitteres' 
and  most  violent  opponents.  The  monks  themselves, 
however,  in  turn  were  viewed  with  the  utmost  suspicion 
and  dislike,  not  only  by  the  bishops  and  priests,  but 
even  by  the  pontiffs.  This  was  more  particularly 
the  case  with  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans.  The 
more  rigid  of  the  latter  order,  who  were  commonly 
called  Frntricdli,  revolted  from  the  Pope  and  the 
Romish  church,  bringing  down  upon  themselves  the 
thunders  of  the  Vatican.  About  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  Nicolaus  V.  violently  persecuted 
them,  and  even  committed  many  of  them  to  the 
flames.  Succeeding  pontifls  followed  the  same  course, 
but  none  of  them  more  resolutely  than  Paul  II.,  who 
punished  numbers  of  the  rebellious  Fratricelli  with 
imprisonment  and  exile.  The  two  leading  sects  of 
the  Mendicants  abounded  in  every  part  of  Europe, 
and  by  their  arrogance  and  impudence,  their  super- 
stition and  cruelty,  they  alienated  the  minds  of  the 
people  generally  from  them.  They  held  the  highest 
offices  in  the  church,  were  ghostly  confessors  in 
the  courts  of  all  the  kings  and  princes  of  Europe, 
filled  the  principal  chairs  in  the  universities  and 
schools ;  and  yet  by  their  persecution  of  the  learnet" 
and  the  good,  for  example,  Erasmus,  Reuchlio,  anc 


406 


MENE— MEXNONITES. 


nthers,  by  the  promotion  of  their  own  interests  at 
llie  expense  of  otliers,  by  their  pride,  insolence,  and 
disgraceful  conduct,  these  very  Mendicant  Orders, 
wliicli  had  once  occupied  a  high  place  in  the  estima- 
tion both  of  the  church  and  the  world,  were  mainly 
instrumental  in  driving  multitudes  to  seek  deliver- 
ance from  the  tyranny  of  Rome,  and  to  demand  the 
reformation  of  a  corrupt  and  degraded  hierarchy. 

From  the  very  first  institution  of  their  societies, 
the  Mendicant  Orders  had  carried  on  an  unceasing 
warfare  among  themselves,  and  with  other  monastic 
institutions,  particularly  the  Jesuits.  No  sooner  liad 
the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  been  deprived  of 
their  respective  founders  by  death,  than  that  most  un- 
seemly rivalry  and  contention  commenced  between 
them  for  precedence,  which  continued  for  centuries. 
Tliis  protracted  warfare  had  been  preceded  by  a 
tliirty  years'  controversy  between  the  Sorbonne  and 
the  Mendicants,  which  was  only  terminated  by  the 
interference  of  the  Pope,  ordering  the  university  to 
concede  all  the  demands  of  the  monks.  The  Moli- 
nist  controversy  also  between  tlie  Dominicans  and 
the  Jesuits,  the  keen  dispute  among  the  Franciscans 
about  the  original  rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  afterwards 
about  the  prophecies  of  Joachim,  and  last  of  all  the 
tierce  opposition  of  the  Fratricelli  to  the  power  and 
autliority  of  tlie  Papal  See,  all  show  that  Rome  has 
had  no  worse  enemies  than  the  Mendicant  Orders, 
which  for  a  time  she  fondly  nursed,  until  warmed 
into  life  and  vigour,  they  have  souglit  the  ruin  of 
their  benefactor  and  friend.  But  amid  all  the  wrongs 
which  they  have  inflicted  upon  the  Romish  church, 
multitudes  of  these  lazy  mendicant  friars  are  found  beg- 
ging in  every  Roman  Catholic  country,  and  claim- 
ing a  character  for  sanctity  founded  on  their  rags  and 
wretchedness.  St.  Francis  was  wont  to  call  the 
begging  of  alms  "  the  table  of  the  Lord."  At  one 
time  maivy  of  the  cities  of  Europe  were  portioned 
out  into  four  parts,  the  first  being  assigned  to  the 
Dominicans,  the  second  to  tlie  Franciscans,  the  third 
to  the  Carmelites,  and  tlie  fourth  to  the  Augusti- 
nian  monks.  Luther  himself,  when  he  belonged  to 
the  last-mentioned  order,  was  obliged  to  beg  alms 
daily  in  the  town  of  Erfiirtli.  Though  professing  to 
adhere  to  their  vow  of  poverty,  the  rapacity  of  the 
mendicant  monks  in  many  places  excited  general  dis- 
gust. In  the  famous  petition,  called  '  the  Supplica- 
tion of  Beggars,'  presented  to  Henry  VIIL,  com- 
plaining of  the  encroachments  of  the  mendicant  friars, 
their  revenues  are  stated  at  £43,3.33  per  annum, 
besides  their  temporal  goods ;  and  the  supplicants 
add,  that  "  four  hundred  years  past  these  friars  liad 
not  one  penny  of  this  nione)'."  Tlie  same  grasping 
avaricious  spirit  has  characterized  the  Mendicant 
Orders  down  to  the  present  day.  Travellers  in 
Jldinish  countries  generally,  but  more  esjiecially  in 
Italy,  are  eloquent  in  their  denunciations  of  these 
indolent,  useless  monks,  who  devote  themselves  to  a 
'ife  of  mean  and  sordid  dependence  upon  the  indus- 
trious portion  of  the  cominuiiily. 


MENE,  a  goddess  in  ancient  Greece,  who  presided 
over  the  months. 

]\IENELiEIA,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Therapna 
in  Laconia,  in  honour  of  Menelaus  and  Helena,  both 
of  whom  were  ranked  among  tlie  gods  by  the  Lace- 
demonians. 

MENI,  a  word  which  occurs  in  Is.  Ixv.  11,  "But  ye 
are  they  that  forsake  the  Lord,  that  forget  my  holy 
mountain,  that  prepare  a  table  for  that  troop,  and 
tliat  furnisli  tlie  drink  offering  unto  that  number" 
(Meni).  It  has  been  regarded  by  many  commentators 
as  referring  to  a  heathen  god.  Professor  Jahn  thinks 
it  may  mean  fate  or  destiny,  or  perhaps  may  be  iden- 
tical with  the  god  Manah  (which  see),  worshipped 
by  the  ancient  Arabians.  The  term  liowever  means 
"  number,"  as  in  the  liandwriting  on  the  wall  in  Bel- 
sliazzar's  palace,  and  in  this  view  some  Jewish  writ- 
ers interpret  tlie  passage  in  Isaiah  as  implying,  "you 
till  your  mixed  liquors  for  Mcni"  that  is,  you  oH'er 
many  cups  of  this  delicious  wine  according  to  your 
number  of  guests. 

MENNONITES,  a  sect  of  Anaraptists  (which 
see),  originated  in  Holland  in  the  sixteenth  century 
by  Meiino  Simonis.  This  individual,  who  beciime 
famous  in  his  day,  was  born  in  1505  at  Witmarsum 
in  Friesland.  Having  been  educated  for  the  churcli, 
lie  was  ordained  in  his  twenty-fourth  year  as  a  Rom- 
ish priest.  On  one  occasion  while  performing  mass, 
he  was  seized  witli  doubt  whether  the  bread  and 
wine  even  after  consecration  could  be  the  real  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  At  first  he  tried  to  dismiss  tin 
thought  as  a  temptation  of  the  devil,  but  it  often  re- 
curred with  increasing  strength.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  perusal  of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  course 
of  time  his  views  coin|ileteIy  changed,  and  he  began 
to  preach  evangelical  doctrines  to  the  great  edifica- 
tion of  his  hearers.  His  attention  having  been  di 
rected  to  the  subject  of  infant  baptism,  he  came  t' 
the  conclusion,  after  much  study  and  earnest  prayer, 
that  there  is  no  direct  warrant  for  such  a  practice  in 
the  Word  of  God.  In  1536  he  resigned  his  priestly 
office,  and  renounced  all  connection  with  the  Church 
of  Rome.  Tliough  Meiiiio  thus  felt  himself  neces- 
sitated to  abandon  Romanism,  lie  was  not  jirejiared 
to  sympathize  cordially  with  all  those  who  like  him- 
self had  lifted  their  protest  against  corruption  and 
error.  To  his  peaceful  and  conciliatory  disposition 
it  was  deeply  painful  to  witness  the  extravagancies 
into  which  too  many  of  the  Anabaptists  had  run. 
The  disturbances  of  Munster  particularly  distressed 
him.  Upon  inquiry,  however,  he  learned  that  mul- 
titudes of  the  Anabaptists  themselves,  while  agree- 
ing with  their  brethren  in  regard  to  their  views  of 
the  doctrine  of  Scripture,  refused  to  co-operate  with 
tliem  in  those  turbulent  and  insurrectionary  prac- 
tices which  had  no  other  effect  than  to  bring  disgrace 
upon  the  cause  they  espoused.  A  considerable  num 
ber  of  godly  and  peaceable  per.>;()iis,  accordingly,  huld- 
ing  lirnily  the  religious  iirincijik's  of  tlie  Anabajilists, 
urged  eanicslly  upon  Menno  to  become  their  ttJicher 


MENNONITES. 


iU-j 


\t  Ioiif;tli  lie  consented,  siiiil  for  many  years  lie  con- 
tinueil,  amid  many  dangers  ami  (llscoiiragemcnts, 
miicli  jioverty  and  jirivation,  I'aillifully  to  discharge 
llii^  duties  of  this  ollice.  Animated  by  fervent  zeal 
he  lalionred  with  unwearied  activity  in  Frie.sland, 
(jriieldorland,  Ilollaml,  and  (Jcrniany,  as  far  as  Li- 
vonia, either  plantinij;  and  strenj;tliening  Anal)ap- 
tist  cimrchos,  or  rediicini^  them  to  order,  imtil  in 
15fil  he  died  at  Oldesloe,  in  the  duchy  of  llolstein. 

The  Mennonites  had  now  become  a  large  and 
flourishing  sect.  The  warm  piety,  the  indomitable 
energy,  and  the  uidjending  integrity  of  their  fotmder, 
coinmanded  everywhere  the  highest  respect,  and  by 
the  combination  in  his  own  person  of  so  many  esti- 
mable qualities,  he  succeeded  in  gathering  round 
liim  a  numerous  body  of  devout  and  consistent  Cliris- 
tians  drawn  chiefly  from  among  the  more  moderate 
Anabaptists.  Those  who  still  bear  the  name  of 
Mennonites  claim  to  be  descended  from  a  party  of 
the  Waldenses,  who,  driven  by  persecution,  left 
Piedmont  in  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  fled 
into  Flanders,  Holland,  and  Zealand.  But  the  Men- 
nonites, properly  so  called,  can  be  traced  no  farther 
back  than  Menno  Simonis  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  while  they  undoubtedly  sprung  from  the  Ana- 
baptists, they  dissented  in  several  important  particu- 
lars from  the  general  body  bearing  that  name.  They 
disowned  all  expectation  of  a  kingdom  of  Jesus 
Christ  to  be  set  up  in  the  world  by  violence  and  tlie 
destruction  of  civil  authority.  They  disclaimed  the 
expectation  of  another  Pentecostal  efl'usion  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  by  which  the  church  would  be  restored 
to  its  original  purity.  They  condemned  the  licen- 
tiousness of  polygamy  and  divorce.  They  renounced 
all  belief  that  the  Holy  Spirit  would  impart  to  be- 
lievers in  these  latter  days  the  extraordinary  gifts 
which  belonged  to  apostolic  times.  The  common 
doctrines  held  by  the  Anabaptists  were  retained  by 
the  Mennonites,  such  as  the  unscriptural  and  in- 
valid cliaracter  of  infant  baptism,  the  doctrine  of  the 
Millennium  or  thousand  years'  reign  of  Christ  before 
the  end  of  the  world,  the  inadmissibiUty  of  magis- 
trates in  the  Christian  church,  and  the  unlawfulness 
of  wars  and  oaths. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  a 
controversy  arose  among  the  Mennonites  on  the  sub- 
ject of  excomnmiiication,  a  party  having  arisen  among 
them,  who  maintained  that  all  transgressors,  even 
though  penitent,  should  be  at  once  expelled  from  the 
clmrch  without  previous  admonition,  and  in  addition 
to  this  they  held  that  the  excommunicated  ought  to 
be  deprived  of  all  social  intercourse  with  even  their 
nearest  and  dearest  relatives.  The  consequence  of 
this  dispute  was,  that  the  Mennonites  were  split  into 
two  sections,  called  respectively  by  the  names  of 
die  Feinen,  the  Fine,  and  die  Gi-ohen,  the  Coarse. 
The  latter  section  inhabited  chiefly  a  district  in 
North  Holland,  called  Waterland,  and  hence  they 
were  often  called  Waterlanders.  They  were  also 
termed  Jolumnites,  from  John  de  Ries,  who,  in  1580, 

II 


was  mainly  instrumental  in  [jreparin'.'  a  Confession 
of  Failh,  declaring  the  opinions  of  the  body,  though 
it  was  never  admitted  as  an  authoritative  document. 
The  severer  i^ect,  again,  called  the  Fine,  chiefly  in- 
h.iliilcd  Flanders,  and  hence  they  received  the  name 
of  FkndiKjs  or  Ftitiidrinnn.  A  dispute  soon  after 
arose  among  the  Flandrians  themselves,  as  to  the 
ofl'ences  which  properly  incurred  excommunication, 
and  in  consequence  two  sects  arose  out  of  the  Fine 
Mennonites,  who  were  called  respectively  Flaudriant 
and  Frieslandas.  A  third  sect,  who  had  chiefly 
come  from  Germany  and  settled  in  Holland  and  the 
Netherlands,  received  the  name  of  Gennaiis.  In 
course  of  time,  however,  the  greater  number  of  the 
Frienlandf.rs,  the  Flandriwis,  and  the  Germans  bc- 
cjime  merged  in  the  Waterla/ulers,  while  only  a  very 
few  remained  as  a  separate  body  mider  the  name  ol 
Old  Fleming  Daptints.  Of  these  there  are  only  thref 
congregations  still  existing  in  Holland. 

From  their  connnencement,  the  sect  properly  call 
ed  j\fennoiiites  were  exposed  to  frequent  persecution, 
and  conqjelled  to  flee  from  one  country  to  another. 
They  were  dispersed  accordingly  over  dill'erent  parts 
of  ]Mwope,  particularly  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Poland, 
though  their  principal  seat  has  always  continued  to 
be  Holland.  Many  were  obliged  also,  at  an  early 
period,  to  emigrate  to  America,  where  a  considerable 
number  of  the  body  are  still  found. 

The  Mennonite  Confessions  of  Faith  which  have 
appeared  are  far  from  exhibiting  a  unity  of  doctrine. 
Thus  on  the  important  article  which  regards  tha 
Person  of  Christ,  the  Confession  of  the  United  Flem- 
isli,  Friesland,  and  other  Mennonites,  adopted  A.  D. 
1032,  exhibits  no  deviation  from  the  sentiments  of  the 
orthodox  churches;  but  in  a  'Summary  of  Christian 
Doctrine,'  published  by  the  Rev.  J.  Gan,  the  Men- 
nonite minister  at  Ryswick,  we  find  an  exhibition  o 
undisguised  Arianism  in  these  words  :  "  The  incar- 
nate Son  of  God  is  set  forth  to  us  as  inferior  to  tht 
Father,  not  only  in  his  state  of  humiliation,  but  in 
that  of  his  exaltation,  and  as  subject  to  the  Father. 
It  must,  however,  be  kept  in  view,  that  notwithstand- 
ing the  incarnate  Son  of  God  is  inferior  to  the  Fa- 
ther, he  is,  nevertheless,  according  to  the  purposes  ol 
the  Most  High,  partaker  of  glory  with  the  Father,  and 
an  object  of  religious  trust  and  conlidence  in  like  man- 
ner as  the  Father."  Such  a  statement  all  too  plainly 
shows,  that  a  party,  at  least,  of  the  Mennonites  had 
sadly  fallen  away  from  the  purity  of  their  more  ancient 
Confession  of  1G32.  And  not  only  do  some  a])])ear  to 
have  held  Arian  views,  but  the  '  Summary'  contains 
also  low  Arminian  views  on  the  doctrine  of  juetilica- 
tion.  Thus  "  God  is  so  well  pleased  with  the  perfect 
obedience  of  the  sinless  Saviour,  that  he  will  consider 
the  anguish  and  pain  to  which  the  Saviour  freely 
submitted,  and  particularly  the  death  of  the  cross,  as 
equivalent  to  the  punishment  the  guilty  had  de- 
served ;  and,  as  the  reward  of  the  Saviour's  merits, 
he  will  bestow  upon  those  whom  the  Saviour  acknow- 
ledges as  his  own,  an  abundant  share  of  bliss  here 

On* 


4lO 


MENNONITES. 


ifter.  This  is  the  effect  of  God's  previous  mercy 
and  love.  The  sufferings  of  the  Saviour  in  no  re- 
spect tended  to  move  God  to  a  favourable  disposi- 
tion towards  mankind;  but  these  suffermgs  were 
endured  to  show  his  holy  aversion  to  sin,  and  to  give 
to  the  world  the  strongest  proofs  of  his  mercy ;  and 
thus  to  inspire  the  penitent  with  a  perfect  confidence 
in  hira  their  heavenly  Father.  Christ  died  for  all 
men  in  this  sense ;  and  that  all  men  without  excep- 
tion might  partake,  upon  conversion  and  faith,  the 
salvation  obtained  by  him.  Tliis  salvation  is  uni- 
versally and  unrestrictedly  offered  in  the  preaching 
of  the  gospel :  none  are  excluded  but  by  their  own 
fault.  That  which  makes  us  partakers  of  the  benefits 
of  his  death  and  sufferings  is  the  union  we  have  in 
his  sufferings,  his  merits,  and  in  his  glory." 

One  of  the  distinguishing  tenets  of  the  Mennon- 
ites,  as  indeed  of  all  the  Anabaptists,  has  always 
been  the  denial  of  the  validity  of  infant  baptism. 
They  delay  the  administration  of  the  ordinance  until 
children  reach  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve,  wlien 
they  usually  perform  it  by  pouring  water  upon  the 
head  of  the  person  baptized.  In  some  respects  this 
sect  resembled  the  Society  of  Friends.  Thus  they 
reckoned  it  unlawful  to  take  oaths  in  any  circum- 
stances, or  to  bear  arms.  They  held  the  doctrine  of 
non-resistance  to  injury,  and  maintained  that  it  is 
improper  to  engage  in  lawsuits,  even  to  obtain  de- 
liverance from  wrong.  They  considered  it  to  be 
Inconsistent  with  the  Christian  character  to  aspire 
after  worldly  dignity,  or  to  accept  of  the  office  of  a 
civil  magistrate.  Their  views  on  these  matters  have 
undergone  considerable  modification. 

The  churches  of  the  Dutch  Mennonites  are  con- 
stituted on  the  Congregationalist  model,  acknow- 
ledging no  other  ecclesiastical  authority  than  that  of 
the  ministers  and  deacons  of  each  churcli.  Most  of 
their  places  of  worship  are  endowed,  but  they  ac- 
cept no  support  from  the  State.  The  number  of 
deacons  in  each  church  varies  from  six  to  twenty, 
according  to  the  number  of  the  members,  and  they 
are  appointed  sometimes  for  life,  and  sometimes  for 
five  or  six  years.  There  are  also  deaconesses  in 
each  church,  whose  duty  it  is  to  attend  to  the  female 
poor.  Divine  service  is  conducted  in  the  same  way 
as  in  the  Reformed  churches,  and  in  some  cases  a 
collection  is  made  in  the  middle  of  the  sermon,  two 
bags  being  carried  from  pew  to  pew  by  the  deacons, 
the  one  bag  being  for  the  poor,  and  the  other  for  the 
expenses  of  public  worship. 

The  Mennonites  in  Holland  form  one  undivided 
Christian  body,  and  associations  of  churches  are  held 
chiefly  about  the  time  of  Easter  at  different  places. 
In  North  Holland  they  were  formerly  convened 
every  year,  but  their  meetings  are  now  held  less  fre- 
quently, and  some  of  the  churches  decline  all  con- 
rection  with  the  Associations.  There  is  a  Mennon- 
ite  college  at  Amsterdam,  in  which  some  of  their 
ministers  are  educated,  while  others  have  not  en- 
joyed  the   privilege   of  a  liberal   education.     The 


pastors  are  elected  in  some  places  by  the  members  of 
the  church,  and  in  others  by  the  elders  and  deacons. 
Many  of  the  churches  have  no  pastors,  but  are  sup- 
plied either  by  their  own  elders,  or  by  the  neigh- 
boaring  ministers.  Occasionally  one  minister  sup 
plies  several  churches. 

The  difference  which  exists  both  in  doctrines  and 
practices  among  the  Mennonites  are  thus  noticed  by 
Mosheim  :  "  The  opinions  and  practices  which  divide 
the  principal  associations  of  Mennonites,  if  we  admit 
those  of  less  importance,  are  chiefly  the  following: — 
I.  Menno  denied  that  Christ  received  from  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  that  human  body  which  he  assumed ;  on 
the  contraiy,  he  supposed  it  was  produced  out  of 
nothing  in  the  womb  of  the  immaculate  Virgin,  by 
the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  opinion  the 
Fine  Anabaptists  or  the  old  Flemings  still  hold  tena- 
ciously, but  all  the  other  associations  have  long  since 
given  it  up.  II.  The  more  rigid  Mennonites,  after 
the  example  of  their  ancestors,  regard  as  disciplinable 
offences,  not  only  those  wicked  actions,  which  are 
manifest  violations  of  the  law  of  God,  but  likewise 
the  slightest  indications  either  of  a  latent  inclination 
to  sensuality,  or  of  a  mind  disposed  to  levity  and 
inclined  to  follow  the  customs  of  the  world ;  as,  for 
example,  ornaments  for  the  head,  elegant  clothing, 
rich  and  unnecessaiy  furniture,  and  the  like ;  and 
they  think  that  all  transgi'essors  should  be  excom- 
municated forthwith  and  without  a  previous  admoni- 
tion, and  that  no  allowance  should  be  made  for  the 
weakness  of  human  nature.  But  the  other  Mennon- 
ites hold  tliat  none  but  contemners  of  the  divine  law 
deserve  excommunication,  and  they  only  when  they 
pertinaciously  disregard  the  admonitions  of  the 
church.  III.  Tlie  more  rigid  Mennonites  hold  that 
excommunicated  persons  are  to  be  shunned  as  if 
they  were  pests,  and  ai-e  to'  be  deprived  of  all  social 
intercourse.  Hence  the  ties  of  kindred  must  be 
severed,  and  the  voice  of  natm-e  must  be  unheeded. 
Between  parents  and  their  children,  husbands  and 
their  wives,  there  must  be  no  kind  looks,  no  conver- 
sation, no  manifestation  of  affection,  and  no  kind 
offices,  when  the  church  has  once  pronounced  them 
imworthy  of  her  communion.  But  the  more  moder- 
ate think  that  the  sanctity  and  the  honour  of  the 
church  are  sufficiently  consulted,  if  all  particular  in- 
timacy >7.Ji  the  excoiimiunicated  is  avoided.  IV 
The  old  Flemings  maintain  that  the  example  of 
Christ,  which  has  in  this  instance  the  force  of  a 
law,  requires  his  disciples  to  wash  the  feet  of  their 
guests  in  token  of  their  love ;  and  for  this  rea- 
son, they  have  been  called  Podoniptse  [Feet-wash- 
ers]. But  others  deny  that  this  rite  was  enjoiued  by 
Christ." 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
a  party  of  Mennonites  in  Fi-iesland  obtained  some 
celebrity  under  the  name  of  CEckewallists,  being  so 
called  from  their  leader,  who  taught  not  only  that  the 
strict  discipline  of  Menno  ought  to  be  retained,  but 
that  there  is  some  reason  to  hope  for  the  salvation  ot 


MENNONITES  IN  AMERICA— MENS. 


411 


Judas  and  the  othera  who  laid  violent  hands  on  our 
Saviour.  The  errors  here  referred  to  are  no  longer 
held  by  any  church  or  congregation  among  the  Men- 
nonites.  The  Waterlanders  have  in  great  measure 
renounced  the  rigid  opinions  of  the  early  followers 
of  Menno,  and  indeed  scarcely  difl'er  cither  in  opin- 
ion or  practice  from  oilier  Christians.  Tliey  exist 
in  two  communities  in  Holland,  called  iho  Prksland- 
ers  and  the  Wnlerhindcrs.  The  Fleming  Clun'ch  in 
Amsterdam  was  split  in  1604  into  two  parties,  called 
from  their  respective  leaders,  Galenists  and  Apos- 
toolians.  Some  years  after,  the  Watcrlander  Church 
in  Amsterd:im  united  with  the  Galenists — a  i)arty 
wliich  still  exists,  but  refuses  to  take  the  name  of 
Mennonites. 

The  whole  body  of  Mennonites  in  Holland  does 
not  exceed  150  congregations.  In  Prussia  they 
number  about  14,000  persons,  and  live  principally 
in  the  regions  of  the  Lower  Rhine.  The  Dutch 
Mennonites  are  chiefly  Arminian  in  their  theo- 
logy, and  some  have  degenerated  into  Socinian- 
ism,  and  even  scepticism.  A  branch  of  the  body 
exists  in  Alsace,  mostly  in  the  department  of  Lcs 
Vosgcs.  A  liamlet  called  Salin  is  exclusively  in- 
habited by  them.  They  are  almost  all  employed  in 
agricultiu'e.  They  wear  a  peculiar  dress,  use  neither 
buckles  nor  buttons,  and  let  tlie  beard  grow.  Un- 
married women  wear  the  hair  loose,  but  married  wo- 
men gather  up  the  hair  and  bind  it  round  the  head. 
They  baptize  youth  at  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve, 
not  by  pouring  as  the  other  Mennonites  do,  but  by 
sprinkling.  In  Russia,  there  are  a  few  Mennonite 
churches,  lumibering  not  more  than  6,000  or  6,000 
members  in  all. 

MENNONITES  IN  AMERICA.  Mennonite 
churches  exist  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  United 
^  States.  Many  followers  of  Mcimo,  on  the  invitation 
of  William  Ponn,  transported  themselves  and  their 
families  into  the  province  of  Pennsylvania  as  early 
as  A.  D.  1683.  The  emigrants  of  that  year,  and  those 
who  followed  in  1G93,  belonging  to  the  same  body, 
settled  in  and  about  Germantown,  where  they  erected 
a  school  and  meeting-house  in  1708.  For  some 
years  after,  a  yearly  supjily  of  Mennonite  emigi-ants 
landed  on  the  shores  of  America,  and  before  1735 
there  were  nearly  500  families  settled  in  Lancaster 
county.  The  views  of  the  sect  were  much  misrepre- 
sented for  a  time  by  their  Transatlantic  brethren, 
but  the  prejudices  which  had  been  entertained 
against  them  were  to  a  great  extent  allayed  by  the 
translation  into  English,  and  publication  of  the 
Mennonite  Confession,  which  had  been  originally 
prepared  in  1632  at  Dort.  Tliis  Confession  is  en- 
tirely free  from  the  heretical  views  which  have  been 
generally  attributed  to  their  founder,  as  well  as  from 
those  errors  which  were  avowed  at  a  later  period  in 
the  Confession  issued  by  Mr.  Gan  of  Kyswick. 

The  Mennonites  in  America  have  three  orders  of 
church-officers — bishops,  elders  or  ministers,  and 
''eacons.     All  of  these  are   chosen  bv  lot.     Their 


pastors  receive  no  salaries,  nor  remuneration  of  anj 
kind  for  preacliing  the  gospel. 

The  Mennonites  liave  spread  over  a  great  portion 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  throughout  the  United  .States 
generally,  its  well  as  in  Canada.  The  congregations  in 
Pennsylvania  are  divided  into  three  general  circuits, 
within  each  of  which  half-yearly  conferences  are  held 
for  the  purpose  of  consulting  together,  and  devising 
means  to  advance  the  prosperity  of  the  entire  body. 
A  similar  conference  is  held  in  Ohio,  where  the 
Mennonites  are  very  numerous,  being  chielly  com- 
posed of  foreign  immigrants.  The  members  of  the 
congregations  in  Indiana  are  chiolly  from  Switzer- 
land. The  whole  Mennonite  population  in  the  United 
States  may  probably  amount  to  120,000,  but  as  they 
keep  no  records  of  membership,  it  is  difficult  to 
state  tlie  number  of  persons  actually  in  communion 
with  the  body.  It  has  heen  calculated,  that  in  all 
America,  they  have  about  240  ministers,  400 
churches,  and  from  50,000  to  60,000  members. 

MENNONITES  (Reiok.med)  in  AlunitiCA,  anew 
Society  of  Mennom'lex  which  arose  in  Lancaster  coun- 
ty, Pennsylvania,  in  1811.  It  arose  in  consequence 
of  various  individuals  belonging  to  the  body  having 
become  deeply  impressed  with  the  thought,  that 
their  brethren  had  fallen  away  from  tlieir  original 
purity,  and  did  not  carry  into  effect  the  doctrines 
they  had  formerly  taught  and  profe.<:sed.  At  first 
the  number  who  formed  a  plan  of  reforming  the 
body  was  small,  but  it  gradually  increased,  and  aftef 
much  deliberation  and  prayer,  they  chose  John  Herr 
as  their  fu-st  pastor.  They  published  a  Confession 
of  their  Faith,  which,  though  more  condensed  than 
the  Mennonite  Confession  of  1632,  does  not  mate- 
rially difter  from  it  in  doctrine,  and  maintains  the 
same  views  as  to  baptism,  the  Lord's  Supper,  foot- 
washing,  excommunication,  and  other  practical  points. 
The  chief  difference  between  the  Reformed  and  the 
other  Jlennonites,  seems  to  be,  that  the  former  are 
more  strict  and  rigid  in  resisting  no  evil  whatever, 
in  abstaining  from  oaths  of  any  kind,  in  separating 
themselves  from  all  excommunicated  persons,  and 
other  practices  on  which  Menno  Simonis  particu- 
larly insisted.  Like  the  other  Mennonites  they  do 
not  deem  themselves  at  liberty  to  keep  an  account 
of  their  members,  both  from  a  wish  to  avoid  display 
or  boasting,  and  also  in  order  to  avoid  the  sin  and 
punishment  of  David  in  the  matter  of  numbering  the 
people.  The  Reformed  Meimonites,  however,  are 
known  to  have  congregations  scattered  over  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

iMEN  OP  UNDERSTANDING.  See  Hommes 
dTntelligence. 

MENOLOGION,  the  c^dendar  of  the  Greek 
churcli. 

MENS  (Lat.  mind),  a  deity  worshipped  by  the 
ancient  Romans  as  a  personilic-ation  of  mind.  She 
had  a  teni])Ie  built  to  her  honour  on  the  capitol, 
and  a  festival  which  was  celebrated  on  tlie  8th  of 
June. 


412 


MEPHITIS— MERIA-PUJAH. 


MEPHITIS,  a  goddess  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, who  had  a  temple  in  the  Esquihse,  on  a  spot 
wliich  it  was  considered  dangerous  to  approacli. 
Little  is  known  concerning  this  divinity,  though  she 
may  possibly  have  had  some  connexion  with  the 
mephitio  exhalations  which  aboimd  in  some  parts  of 
the  Roman  States. 

MERAGE,  LEILAT  AL  (Arab,  the  night  of  the 
ascension),  a  night  accounted  sacred  by  the  Moham- 
medans as  being  that  on  which  the  prophet  made  his 
journey  to  heaven.  They  commemorate  this  ascen- 
sion on  the  28th  of  the  month  Regeh. 

MERARITES,  a  family  of  the  Levites  on  whom 
devolved  the  duty  of  carrying  the  boards  of  the  Ta- 
bernacle, and  the  bars,  and  pillars,  and  sockets  be- 
longing to  it,  as  well  as  the  pillars  of  the  court,  tlie 
sockets,  pins,  cords,  and  other  utensils.  This  family, 
as  well  as  the  Gershonites,  was  under  the  care  of 
Ithamar ;  and  for  their  convenience  they  were  al- 
lowed to  have  four  waggons  and  eight  oxen. 

MERCAVA,  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Jewish 
Cabbala  (which  see).  It  treats  of  the  knowledge 
of  the  Divine  perfections,  and  of  the  celestial  intelli- 
gences. Masters  were  not  permitted  to  explain  the 
Mercava  to  their  scholars. 

MERCURY,  a  god  who  presided  over  merchandise 
among  the  ancient  Romans.  A  temple  was  erected 
to  him  near  the  Circus  Maximus,  and  a  festival  was 
celel)rated  in  his  honour  on  the  25th  of  May,  chiefly 
by  mercliants.  In  later  times  Mercury  was  identi- 
fied with  the  Greek  Hermes  (which  see).  He  was 
also  the  god  of  eloquence  ;  hence  the  people  of  Lys- 
tra,  as  we  read  in  Acts  xiv.  12,  supposed  Paul  to  be 
Mercury  in  disguise. 

MERCY  (Fraternity  of),  a  Romish  Society  at 
Lisbon  in  Portugal,  instituted  for  the  purpose  of 
saying  masses  for  the  faithful  generally,  but  cliietly 
for  its  own  members. 

MERCY-SEAT,  the  covering  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  hi  the  ritual  ceremony  of  the  Jews.  It 
was  made  of  pure  gold,  and  was  of  the  same  length 
and  breadth  as  the  ark  itself  At  its  two  extremi- 
ties were  placed  two  cherubim,  with  their  faces 
turned  towards  each  other,  and  somewhat  inclined 
towards  the  mercy-seat.  It  appears  plain  from  sev- 
eral passages  in  the  epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul, 
that  the  mercy-seat  was  designed  to  be  a  typical  re- 
prosentation  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the  grand  medium 
of  expiation  for  the  sins  of  men,  as  well  as  the  chan- 
nel through  whicli  God  holds  communion  and  fel- 
lowsliip  with  all  his  believing  people. 

MERIA-PU.IAH,  an  animal  festival  among  the 
Khnmls  in  Orissa,  in  wliich  Inunan  sacrifices  were 
offered  until  lately,  when  the  barbarous  practice  was 
forliidden  by  tlie  I'.rilish  government.  The  victims, 
which  are  called  meriiis,  consist  of  Ilindns  jirocnred  by 
purchase  in  the  jilains  by  the  Panwas,  a  class  of  Hin- 
du servitors,  who  were  chielly  emiiloyed  in  su[iplying 
victims  for  their  masters,  the  Khotids.  Tlie  design 
tt  this  cruel  ceremony  is  to  propitiate  Buka-Pen- 


NOU  (which  see),  their  earth-god,  and  thus  to  secure 
a  favourable  harvest.  The  festival  was  celebrated 
at  Goomsoor,  and  is  thus  described  in  a  Madras 
paper  in  1838  :  "  When  the  appointed  day  arrives, 
the  Khonds  (inhabitants  of  the  hill  country)  assem- 
ble from  all  parts  of  the  country,  dressed  in  their 
finery,  some  with  bear-skins  thrown  over  their  shoul- 
ders, otliers  with  the  tails  of  peacocks  flowing  be- 
hind them,  and  the  long  winding  feather  of  the 
jungle-cock  waving  on  their  heads.  Thus  decked 
out,  they  dance,  leap,  and  revel,  beating  drums,  and 
playing  on  an  instrument  not  unlike  in  sound  to  the 
Highland  pipe.  Soon  after  noon  the  Jani,  or  pre- 
siding priest,  with  the  aid  of  his  assistants,  fastens 
the  unfortunate  victim  to  a  strong  post,  firmly  fixed 
into  the  ground,  and  then  standing  erect,  the  living 
sacrifice  suffers  the  unutterable  torture  of  having  the 
flesh  cut  off  from  his  bones  in  small  pieces  by  the 
knives  of  the  savage  crowd  who  rush  on  hiin  and 
contend  with  each  other  for  a  portion  of  the  gory 
and  quivering  substance.  Great  value  is  attached  to 
the  first  morsel  thus  severed  from  the  victim's  body, 
for  it  is  supposed  to  possess  superior  virtues,  and  a 
proportionate  eagerness  is  evinced  to  acquire  it. 

"  Women  are  sacrificed  as  well  as  men.  A  female 
found  her  way  into  the  collector's  camp,  at  Patrin- 
gia,  with  fetters  on  her  limbs,  who  related  that  she 
had  been  sold  by  her  brother  ! 

"  The  Khonds  are  in  the  habit  of  sacrificing  chil- 
dren annually  at  sowing  time,  in  a  most  cruel  man- 
ner, for  the  purpose  of  propitiating  the  demon  of 
their  worship,  and  of  securing,  as  they  suppose,  a 
good  harvest  by  the  blood  of  their  victims. 

"  In  January,  just  before  the  turmeric  shrub  is 
planted,  the  Khonds  make  the  sacrifice  alluded  to. 
They  select  as  their  victims,  male  children  who  are 
devoted  from  infancy  to  this  purpose,  and  are  sold  to 
the  chiefs  of  the  diPi'erent  villages.  When  the  ground 
is  ready,  the  victim  is  led  forth,  bound  to  bamboos 
for  the  better  security,  and  taken  into  the  open  plain. 
The  cultivators  assemble,  and  at  the  supposed  auspi- 
cious moment,  commence  the  dreadful  carnage  by 
hacking  with  knives  the  body  of  the  truly  pitiable 
creature  ;  each  cutting  off  a  part  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible, and  hastening  with  it  to  the  field  whose  ferti- 
lity is  the  object  to  be  secured.  The  blood,  in  wliich 
the  Khonds  imagine  the  virtue  of  the  spell  to  subsist, 
is  then  made,  by  pressure  of  the  hand,  to  (all  in  drops 
upon  the  soil ;  and  the  flesh,  not  yet  cold,  is  cast  into 
the  same  ground.  In  hewing  the  body  great  care  is 
taken  not  to  touch  a  vital  part,  for  should  death  oc- 
cur before  the  blood  is  dropped  on  the  field,  the 
charm,  according  to  the  notions  of  the  people,  would 
be  lost. 

"  Some  of  the  Khonds,  on  being  expostulated  with, 
asked  what  else  they  could  do,  as  they  should  have 
no  crops  if  they  neglected  to  perform  this  ceremony." 

Through  the  combined  efforts  of  the  government 
agent,  J.  P.  Fryo,  Esq.,  and  the  missionaries,  great 
nnmbers  of  the  meria  victims  have  been  rescued  from 


MERODACH— MERU. 


413 


the  saoriticial  knife.     In  the  Report  of  the  General 

Baptist  Missionary  Society  for  1849,  it  is  staleii  lliat 
Mr.  Frye  hail  been  instnnnonlal  in  rescuing  lOG 
victims  from  the  horrid  death  to  whicli  tliey  were 
doomed.  In  the  same  report  the  fullowin;^  interest- 
ing details  are  given  :  "Tlie  last  full  moon  had  been 
fixed  upon  for  a  very  great  sacrifice,  in  anticipation 
of  the  agent's  arrival,  (it  is  the  time  for  sacrificing 
through  the  whole  sacriHcing  country,)  but  he  was 
happily  in  the  midst  of  them  twelve  days  before  the 
appointed  time,  and  the  fearful  waste  of  human  life 
was  mercifully  prevented.  The  torture  with  which 
the  revolting  rite  is  performed  in  this  part  of  the 
Khond  country  exceeds,  if  it  be  possiljle,  the  worst 
that  has  been  heard  of  anywhere.  The  victim  is 
(urroundod  by  a  crowd  of  half-intoxicated  Khonds, 
and  is  dragged  round  some  open  space,  when  the 
savages,  with  loud  shouts,  ru.sh  on  the  victim,  cut- 
ting the  living  flesh  piece-meal  from  tlie  bones,  till 
nothing  remains  but  the  head  and  bowels,  which  are 
left  untouched.  Death  has,  by  this  time,  released 
the  unhappy  victim  from  his  torture;  the  head  and 
bowels  are  then  burnt,  and  the  ashes  mixed  with 
gi-ain.  Tlie  efforts  of  the  government  to  suppress 
the  abhoiTed  rites  of  human  sacrifice  and  female  in- 
fanticide among  these  barbarous  people,  and  in  these 
hills  and  jungles,  are  in  a  high  degree  creditable  to 
its  character.  The  revolting  rites  of  sacrifice  and 
female  infanticide  have  prevailed  from  time  imme- 
morial in  the  impenetrable  jungles  and  inaccessible 
hills  of  tlie  Khond  country.  No  one  can  tell  where 
they  originated,  or  compute  the  frightful  waste  tliey 
have  occasioned,  but  it  is  estimated  that,  allowing 
lliese  bloody  rites  to  have  prevailed  from  the  com- 
fnencement  of  the  Christian  era,  as  they  were  found 
to  prevail  when  the  district  was  discovered  a  few 
years  since,  on  a  moderate  computation  the  awful 
aggregate  would  exceed  three  millions.  We  have 
thought,  and  talked,  and  prayed  about  the  Khonds, 
and  God  has  answered  our  supplications,  though  in  a 
way  we  did  not  expect.  Who  can  calculate  the  re- 
sults of  so  many  being  brought  under  Christian  in- 
fluence?" The  report  of  the  same  Society  for  1853, 
mentions  the  baptism  of  fourteen  of  these  rescued 
children,  after  giving  evidence  of  sincere  conversion 
to  Christ ;  and  it  states  also  that  during  the  year 
Col.  Campbell,  tlie  government  agent  for  the  sup- 
pression of  human  sacrifices,  had  rescued  120  vic- 
tims, and  that  the  chiefs  and  headmen  of  the  villages 
had  signed  an  agreement  to  abandon  the  inhuman 
practice. 

MERODACH,  the  name  of  a  divinity  worsliip- 
ped  by  the  ancient  Babylonians.  The  prophet  Jere- 
miah, when  speaking  of  the  destruction  of  Babylon, 
thus  refers  to  this  deity,  "  Declare  ye  among  the 
nations,  and  publish,  and  set  up  a  standard ;  pub- 
lish, and  conceal  not :  say,  Babylon  is  taken,  Bel  is 
confounded,  Merodach  is  broken  in  pieces  ;  her  idols 
are  confounded,  her  images  are  broken  in  pieces." 
Nothing  is  known  concerning  the  god  Merodach; 


but  wo  find  his  name  mentioned  in  Scripture  com- 
pounded with  otlier  words  to  form  pro|)cr  nameii, 
as  Evil-Merodach  and  .Merodach-Iialadan. 

MEUU,  the  oM  or  mythic  name  among  the  Hin- 
dus of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  especially  the  most 
elevated  parts  of  them,  called  the  Dwalgiri.  This  wa« 
the  world-mountain  of  the  Hindu  system  of  cosmo- 
gony, and  the  most  sacred  habitation  of  the  gods. 
The  physical  universe,  as  it  sprung  from  the  Mun- 
dane Egg,  was  said  to  consist  of  three  worlds — hea- 
ven above,  the  earth  below,  and  the  interambicnt 
ether.  According  to  a  minute  division,  the  universe 
consists  of  fourteen  worlds,  seven  inferior  or  descend- 
ing below  the  world  which  we  inhabit,  and  seven 
superior  or  ascending  above  it,  our  world  being  the 
first  of  the  ascending  series,  and  its  habitable  portion 
consisting  of  seven  circular  islands  or  continents, 
each  surrounded  by  a  difi'erent  ocean.  The  central 
island,  destined  to  be  the  abode  of  man,  is  called 
Jwnha-Dwip,  and  from  its  centre  shoots  up  the  holy 
mountain  j\feru,  rising  to  the  height  of  several  hun- 
di'od  thousand  miles.  This  mountain,  says  Dr.  DufT, 
is  "in  the  form  of  an  inverted  pyramid, — having  its 
summit,  which  is  two  hundred  times  broader  than 
the  base,  sui-mouiited  by  three  swelling  cones, — the 
higliest  of  these  cones  transpiercing  upper  vacant}' 
witli  three  golden  peaks,  on  which  are  situate  the 
favourite  residences  of  the  sacred  Triad.  At  its 
base,  like  so  many  giant  sentinels,  stand  four  lofty 
hills,  on  each  of  which  grows  a  mango  tree  several 
thousand  miles  in  height, — bearing  fruit  delicious  as 
nectar,  and  of  the  enormous  size  of  many  hundred 
cubits.  From  those  mangoes,  as  they  fall,  flows  a 
miglity  river  of  perfumed  juice  ;  so  communicative 
of  its  sweetness,  that  those  who  partake  of  it,  exhale 
the  odour  from  their  persons  all  around  to  the  dis- 
tance of  many  leagues.  There  also  gi'ow  rose  apple 
trees,  whose  fruit  is  '  large  as  elephants,'  and  whose 
juice  is  so  plentiful,  as  to  form  another  mighty  river, 
that  converts  the  earth,  over  which  it  passes,  into 
purest  gold ! " 

The  base  of  Meru  was  supposed  to  rest  upon  the 
abyssof  the  world-fountain;  and  regarding  the  moun- 
tain as  the  cradle  of  the  world,  the  Hindus  not  only 
attached  to  it  peculiar  sanctity,  but  on  the  sides  they 
excavated  little  Merus,  and  inscribed  the  inside  with 
the  hieroglyphical  symbols  of  their  faith  and  Iiojiks. 
"  It  was  their  firm  conviction,"  says  Jlr.  Gross,  "  that 
a  portion  of  the  essential  attributes  of  the  true  God- 
head lay  concealed  in  the  bowels  of  this  Oriental 
Alp,  and  that  its  profound  chasms  attested  his  pre- 
sence and  proclaimed  his  energy.  This  idea,  appa- 
rently so  extravagant,  will  cease  to  excite  our  sur- 
prise, if  we  steadily  bear  in  mind  that  this  mountain 
is  the  Hindu  world-mountain  ;  ay,  the  infinite  niim- 
dane  pillai-,  or  Siva-pillar,  in  which  the  divinity  o( 
Siva  was  cosraogonically  embodied,  and  from  which 
the  god  went  forth  in  the  disiday  of  his  omnipre- 
sence and  power :  as  the  sun,  he  rose  and  set  on 
Meitt,  and  during  his  reign  above  the  horizon,  he 


414 


MESATEUS— MESSIAH. 


was  the  south  pole ;  while  in  his  subterranean  orbit, 
he  represented  or  expressed  the  north  pole  of  the 
Meru-world.  Within  the  profound  recesses  of  tliis 
mysterious  and  wonderful  mountain,  the  gods  pre- 
pared the  hfe-drink,  the  prima  materia  or  atomic 
germs  of  organic  life.  Pervaded  and  animated  by 
au  invisible,  divine  power,  it  was  here  that  the  em- 
bryo-world originated,  which,  when  it  was  fully  de- 
veloped, revealed  God  in  space  as  the  nature  of 
things." 

When  Shiva  first  appeared  in  the  beginning  of 
the  Kali  age,  he  had  come  down  in  a  pillar  of  fire 
to  settle  a  dispute  among  the  gods  upon  the  subject 
of  precedence.  To  commemorate  this  event,  the 
god  converted  his  pillar  of  fire  into  the  mountain  of 
Merti,  that  it  might  be  a  symbol  of  his  divine  pre- 
sence and  protection.  The  Budhists,  also,  have 
transferred  to  their  system  the  myth  of  Meru,  which 
they  hold,  according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Pura-aas, 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  under  it  they  believe 
the  Amrs,  or  giants  of  Budhism,  reside,  while  the 
Yalcds  or  demons  dwell  upon  it.  The  Tamul  na- 
tions of  Ceylon  believe,  that,  in  the  earliest  wars  of 
the  gods,  three  of  the  peaks  of  Meru  were  thrown 
down,  and  driven  to  different  parts  of  the  world  ;  one 
of  them  is  Trincomalee,  which  became  equally  with 
Kailasa  the  abode  of  Shiva.  The  Hindu  tradition  is 
somewhat  diiierent.  It  alleges  that  at  the  mai-riage 
of  Shiva  and  Parvati,  all  the  gods  were  present,  and 
the  heavens  were  left  empty.  Seizing  tliis  opportu- 
nity, the  god  of  the  winds  flew  to  Meru,  broke  the 
summit  of  the  mountain,  and  hurled  it  into  the  sea, 
when  it  became  the  island  of  Lankd  or  Ceylon.  The 
Budhists  allege,  that  around  and  above  the  summit 
of  Meru  are  the  dewa  and  hrahma  lokas,  the  abode 
of  those  beings  who,  in  their  different  states  of  ex- 
istence, have  attained  a  superior  degree  of  merit. 

MESATEUS,  a  surname  of  Dionysus,  derived 
from  the  town  Mesatis,  where  he  was  said  to  have 
been  educated. 

MESAULION.    See  Atkium. 

MESCHIA  AND  MESCHIANEE,  ancestors  of 
the  human  race,  according  to  the  system  of  the  an- 
cient Persians.  Ahriman  and  Ormuzd  were  the 
primary  principles  of  creation,  and  from  the  antago- 
nism which  the  universe  thus  presented  man  was  tlie 
only  exception.  Ahriman,  the  evil  principle,  liad 
no  other  resource  but  to  slay  Kaiomorts,  the  primi- 
tive humiin  being,  who  was  at  once  man  and  woman. 
From  the  blood  of  Kaiomorts,  when  put  to  death, 
sprang,  by  means  of  transformations,  Meschia  and 
Meschianee,  who  were  soon  seduced  by  Ahriman, 
and  became  worshippers  of  the  Dcivs,  to  whom  they 
olTered  sacrifices.  Thus  was  evil  introduced  into  the 
world,  and  the  conflict  between  the  good  and  evil 
principles  exteiuied  also  to  man. 

MESONYCTION  (Gr.  mesos,  middle,  nyx,  the 
night),  the  midnight  service  of  the  Caloycrs  or  Greek 
monks,  which  occupies  two  hours. 

MESSALIANS.    See  Euchites. 


MESSAPEUS,  a  surname  of  Zeus,  under  which 
he  was  worshipped  between  Amyclse  and  Mount 
Taygetus. 

MESSIAH  (Heb.  the  Anomted),  an  appellation 
given  to  our  blessed  Lord  in  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures,  answering  to  the  Greek  word  Christ 
(which  see)  in  the  New.  The  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah was  the  frequent  and  almost  favoui-ite  subject 
of  ancient  prophecy,  and  at  the  time  of  his  appear- 
ance, a  very  general  expectation  prevailed  through- 
out the  world,  that  a  remarkable  Personage  would 
soon  appear  in  the  East,  whose  coming  would  be  a 
blessing  to  mankind  generally.  In  several  Pagan 
writers,  accordingly,  we  find  reference  to  such  an  in- 
dividual. Thus  Virgil,  who  lived  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era,  addresses  a  poem  to 
his  patron,  PolUo,  who  at  that  time  held  the  office 
of  consid,  and  in  that  poem  he  describes  with  some 
minuteness  a  child  who  was  expected  to  be  born 
during  his  consulate,  and  whose  nativity  would  be 
an  important  era  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Tha 
child  was  to  be  of  heavenly  descent,  to  bestow  uni- 
versal peace,  and  to  command  the  whole  world ;  he 
was  to  destroy  the  serpent,  and  to  confer  blessings 
even  upon  the  brute  creation.  The  general  expec- 
tation to  which  we  have  referred,  is  very  strikingly 
noticed  by  Suetonius  and  Tacitus.  "  An  ancient  and 
settled  persuasion,"  says  the  former  writer,  "  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  East,  that  the  Fates  had  de- 
creed that  Judea  about  this  period  was  to  give  birth 
to  such  as  should  attain  universal  empire;"  and  al- 
most to  the  same  effect  Tacitus  says  : — "  Many 
were  persuaded  that  it  was  contained  in  the  ancient 
books  of  the  priests,  that  at  this  very  time  the  East 
should  prevail,  and  that  some  power  should  proceed 
from  Judea  and  possess  the  dominion  of  the  world." 

While  a  vague  expectation  of  an  important  Per- 
sonage likely  to  appear,  was  thus  entertained  by 
the  heathen,  the  Jews  also  fondly  cherished  the 
idea  of  a  coming  Deliverer,  to  I'escue  them  from  the 
oppression  of  the  Idumean  Herod  and  his  Roman 
allies.  Their  views  of  the  approaching  Messiah  were 
not  a  little  coloured  by  the  peculiar  circumstances 
in  which  they  were  placed.  This  is  ably  pointed 
out  by  Neander  in  these  words  :  "  By  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  declining  condition  of  the  Theocracy,  it 
is  true,  that  the  yearning  after  the  promised  epoch 
of  its  glorious  restoration,  and  by  the  feeling  of  dis- 
tress under  the  yoke  of  foreign  and  domestic  tyrants, 
the  longing  after  the  Deliverer,  after  the  appearance 
of  Ilim  from  whom  that  glorious  restoration  was  to 
come,  the  Messiah,  had  been  iu'ouscd  to  greater  ac- 
tivity. But  the  same  grovelling  sense  which  led  to  a 
misaiiprehension  of  the  nature  of  the  Theocracy  gen- 
erally, could  not  fail  to  lead  also  to  a  misapprehension 
of  this  idea,  which  foiTns  the  central  point  and  mai'k  to- 
wards which  the  whole  Theocracy  was  aiming.  From 
that  worldly  sense  which  was  attached  to  the  idea  of 
the  Theocracy,  and  that  worldly  turn  of  the  religious 
spirit  generally,  could  only  result  a  secidarizing  alsa 


MESSIAH. 


416 


i)f  the  idea  of  tlio  Messiah.  As  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  were  howeil  down  by  the  sense  of  out- 
ward much  more  than  of  inward  wretchedness,  dis- 
Rnice,  and  bondage,  it  was  chiefly  a  deliverer  from 
the  fonnnr  whom  they  expected  and  yeanicd  after, 
in  the  Messiah.  The  inclination  to  the  supernatural 
took  here  an  altogether  worldly  shajie;  the  super- 
natural, as  it  pictured  itself  to  the  imaginatinii  of 
the  worldly  heai-t,  was  but  a  fantastic  imitation  of 
the  natiu'al  niagniliod  to  the  monstrous.  Thus  the 
deluded  Jews,  destitute  of  a  sense  for  the  spiritual 
apprehension  of  divine  things,  expected  a  Messiah 
who  would  employ  the  miraculous  power,  with  which 
lir  was  divinely  armed,  in  the  service  of  theii'  earthly 
lusts ;  who  would  free  tlipm  from  civLl  bondage, 
execute  a  severe  retribution  on  the  enemies  of  the 
Theocratic  people,  and  make  them  masters  of  the 
world  in  a  universal  empire,  whose  glory  it  was  their 
special  delight  to  set  forth  in  the  fantastic  images 
suggested  by  their  sensuous  desires." 

When  the  Messiah  actually  appeared  in  the  com- 
niencomcnt  of  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Herod 
the  Great,  the  circumstances  connected  with  his 
birth  corresponded  in  a  remarkable  degree  with  tlie 
predictions  of  the  .Jewish  prophets.  Thus  lie  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  .Judah,  ,and  was  of  the  house 
of  David.  The  prophet  Micah  liad  fixed  upon  Beth- 
lehem as  the  place  of  the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  and 
events  over  which  his  earthly  parents  had  no  con- 
trol, led  to  the  litcr.il  fulfilment  of  this  specific  pro- 
phecy. Daniel  had  pointed  out  the  precise  time 
when  the  Messiah  should  come,  and  when  Jesus 
Christ  appeared,  the  seventy  prophetic  weeks  were 
appro.aching  to  their  termination.  The  prophet 
Isaiah  had  foretold  that  Messiah  should  be  born  of 
a  virgin,  that  he  should  be  "  despised  and  rejected  of 
men,  a  man  of  sorrows,  and  acquainted  with  grief;" 
and  to  whom  did  these  predictions  apply,  but  to 
.lesus  of  Nazareth?  "The  correspondence,"  says 
Bishop  M'llvaine,  "  between  the  several  particulars 
related  of  the  death  of  Christ,  and  the  predictions 
scattered  through  the  Bible,  is  extremely  striking. 
The  evangelists,  in  this  respect,  are  but  echoes  of 
the  prophets.  I  can  give  but  a  riipid  sketch.  These 
predictions  include  the  treachery  and  awful  end  of 
Judas  ;  the  precise  sum  of  money  for  which  he  be- 
trayed his  Master ;  and  the  use  to  which  it  was  put. 
They  specify  not  only  the  sufieriiigs  of  Christ,  but 
of  what  they  should  consist.  That  his  back  should 
be  given  to  the  smiters,  liis  face  to  shame  and  spit- 
ting; that  he  should  be  put  to  death  by  a  mode 
which  would  cause  his  hands  and  his  feet  to  be 
pierced ;  that  he  should  be  wounded,  bruised,  and 
scourged;  that,  in  his  death,  he  should  be  numbered 
with  transgressors,  and  in  his  suflerings,  have  gall 
and  vinegar  given  him  to  drink ;  that  his  persecu- 
tors should  laugh  him  to  scorn,  and  shake  their 
heads,  reviling  him,  and  saying  :  '  He  trusted  in  the 
Lord  that  he  would  deliver  him ;  let  him  deliver 
him.'     Although  it  was  the  custom  to  break  the 


bones  of  those  who  were  crucified,  and  although  the 
bones  of  the  thieves  crucified  with  him  were  broken, 
yet  it  was  predicted  that  '  not  a  bone  of  him  should 
be  broken  ;'  and  moreover,  that  liis  garments  should 
be  divided,  and  lots  cast  for  his  vesture ;  that  while 
he  shoidd  'make  his  grave  with  the  wicked,'  as  he 
did  in  being  buried  like  the  wicked  companions  of 
his  death,  under  the  general  leave  for  taking  down 
their  bodies  from  the  cross — he  should  at  the  same 
time  make  his  grave  '  with  the  rich,'  as  was  done 
when  they  buried  him  in  the  sepulchre  of  Joseph  of 
Arimathca." 

In  .Ipsus  Christ,  and  in  Him  alone,  have  all  the 
Old  Testament  predictions  conceniing  the  Messiah 
been  fulfilled  to  the  very  letter;  so  that  all  pretended 
Messiahs  are  convicted  of  imposture.  Only  one 
Messiah  is  spoken  of  throughout  the  whole  Jewish 
Scriptures,  from  the  first  promise  in  Genesis  to  the 
closing  predictions  of  Malachi.  Nor  have  the  pro- 
phets limited  themselves  to  general  statements,  but 
they  have  descended  to  minute  particulars,  detailing 
with  precision  what  the  Messiah  was  to  do  and  to 
suffer.  In  addition  to  the  character  of  the  incidents 
and  events  which  compose  the  history  of  the  life 
and  death  of  the  promised  Messiah,  they  have  also 
connected  them  with  certain  times  and  places,  thus 
making  it  next  to  impossible  that  they  could  be  imi- 
tated by  a  false  Messiah.  "It  was  requisite,  for 
instance,"  as  has  been  well  remarked,  "  that  the 
true  Messiah  should  come  into  the  world  before  the 
destruction  of  the  second  Temple,  because  he  was  to 
teach  there.  It  was  necessary  that  he  should  lay 
the  foundations  of  the  church  in  Jerusalem,  because 
from  Mount  Sion  it  was  to  be  diffused  over  the 
whole  world.  It  was  necessary  that  the  Jews  should 
reject  him  before  their  dispersion,  because  such  dis- 
persion was  to  be  the  punishment  of  their  wilful 
blindness.  Finally,  it  was  necessary  that  the  con- 
version of  the  Gentiles  should  be  his  work  or  that  of 
his  disciples,  since  it  is  by  this  visible  mark  that  the 
prophets  point  him  out.  Now  that  the  Temple  is 
no  more,  Jerusalem  is  possessed  by  strangers,  the 
Jews  are  dispersed,  and  the  Gentiles  are  converted, 
it  is  clear  that  the  Messiah  is  come ;  but  it  is  not 
less  manifest  that  no  one  else  can  repeat  the  proofs 
which  he  has  given  of  his  coming ;  and  consequently, 
no  one  else  can  accomplish  what  the  prophets  foretold 
would  be  fulfilled  by  the  Messiah." 

Besides,  it  is  plainly  intimated  in  the  Old  Testa 
ment  Scriptures,  that  when  the  Messiah  shoidd  ap- 
pear, the  sacrifices  and  rites  of  the  law  of  Moses 
would  come  to  an  end.  Now,  it  is  a  well-known  fact, 
that  since  the  death  of  Christ,  both  sacrifice  and  obla- 
tion have  ceased.  That  this  is  an  actual  reality  no 
Jew  can  possibly  deny,  and  he  finds  it  impossible  to 
give  a  satisfactoiy  explanation,  except  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  Messiah  has  already  appeared.  Many 
moderate  Rabbis,  accordingly,  admit  that  the  Mes- 
siah is  come,  but  that  on  account  of  the  sins  of  the 
Jews  he  lies  concealed.     Others  issue  an  anathema 


416 


MESSIAHS  (False). 


against  every  man  who  shall  venture  to  calculate  the 
date  of  his  coming.  Some  Jewish  writers  allege, 
that  a  twofold  Messiah  is  to  be  expected  ;  one  wlio 
shall  appear  in  a  state  of  poverty  and  suflfering,  and 
another  who  shall  appear  in  grandeur  and  glory. 
The  first,  it  is  alleged,  will  proceed  from  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  fight  against  Gog,  and  be  slain  by  Armil- 
lus  ;  the  second  will  arise  from  the  tribe  of  .Tudah 
and  family  of  David,  will  conquer  and  kill  Ar- 
milhis,  bring  the  first  Messiah  to  life  again,  gather 
together  all  Israel,  and  rule  over  the  whole  world. 

MESSIAHS  (False).  The  prominence  which 
the  Jews  Iiave  always  given  to  the  notion  of  a  Mes- 
siah, and  the  constant  state  of  expectation  in  which 
they  have  professed  to  live,  have  given  rise  to  many 
.attempts  at  fraud  and  imposture,  by  individuals,  who, 
from  time  to  time,  have  assumed  the  title  of  Messiah, 
and  have,  in  consequence,  found  numerous  followers 
among  the  Jews.  That  such  impostors  would  appear, 
our  blessed  Lord  expressly  predicted  in  these  words, 
Matth.  xxiv.  11,  "Many  false  prophets  shall  arise,  and 
shall  deceive  many."  The  first  in  time,  as  well  as  the 
most  distinguished  in  power  and  influence,  was  Bak- 
CHOCHAE  (which  see),  who,  assisted  by  Rabbi  Akiha, 
revolted  against  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  In  the  fifth 
century,  another  false  Messiah  appeared  in  the  island 
of  Crete,  who  received  the  name  of  Moses  Cretensis. 
Tliis  audacious  impostor  gave  himself  out  as  another 
Moses,  who  had  come  down  from  heaven  to  deliver  the 
Jews,  by  leading  them  through  the  sea  to  the  Pro- 
mised Land.  It  is  scarcely  credible  that  such  preten- 
sions should  have  met  with  the  slightest  encourage- 
ment. Yet  we  are  informed  by  the  historian  Socrates, 
that  so  great  was  the  infatuation  throughout  the 
towns  and  villages  of  Crete,  that  multitudes  followed 
in  the  train  of  this  would-be  deliverer.  On  an  ap- 
pointed time,  Moses  having  collected  his  followers  on 
tlie  top  of  a  rock,  multitudes  of  the  men,  women,  and 
children  plunged  headlong  into  the  sea,  expecting  to 
be  miraculously  preserved.  But  as,  of  course,  many 
perished  in  the  waters,  those  who  were  still  safe  be- 
came awai-e  that  they  had  been  the  dupes  of  a  fla- 
grant imposture.  Meanwhile,  Moses  found  it  con- 
venient to  secure  his  own  safety  by  a  hasty  retreat, 
leaving  liis  followers  to  wonder  at  their  own  cre- 
dulity. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  in 
A.  D.  530,  a  false  Messiah  arose  in  the  person  of  Ju- 
lianus,  whom  the  Jews  and  Samaritans  set  up  as 
their  king.  Justinian,  however,  having  attacked  the 
rebels,  killed  many  of  them,  and  taking  their  pre- 
tended Messiah  prisoner,  beheaded  him.  In  the 
commencement  of  tlie  seventh  century,  Mohammed 
appeared  in  Arabia,  and  finding  the  Jews  a  very 
powerful  people  in  that  country,  he  endeavoured  to 
win  ihem  over  to  his  side  by  professing  to  be  their 
long-expected  Messiah.  As  long  as  he  had  any  hope 
of  enlisting  the  Jews  among  his  followers,  he  made 
the  site  of  Jerusalem  the  spot  to  which  they 
ihould  turn   in   prayer;  but  when  he   despaired  of 


receiving  countenance  or  support  from  the  Jews,  he 
appointed  tlie  Kaaba  to  be  the  sacred  place  towards 
which  the  worshippers  should  ever  look.  When  the 
Jews  rejected  him,  he  fell  from  his  claims  to  be  the 
Messiah,  and  declared  himself  to  be  the  prophet  of 
God  sent  to  restore  the  only  pure  faith,  that  of  Abra- 
ham, the  father  at  once  of  their  nation  and  of  his 
own. 

Another  false  Jlessiah  appeared  in  Spain  in  the 
eighth  century,  mider  the  name  of  Sereniis,  who  at- 
tracted numerous  followers,  promising  to  conduct 
thera  to  Palestine.  The  career  of  this  impostor 
however,  was  speedily  cut  short,  he  and  many  of  his 
followers  having  been  put  to  death  by  the  Saracens. 
After  this  no  similar  pretender  appeared  for  a  long 
period.  At  length,  in  the  twelfth  century,  several 
false  Messiahs  successively  arose  in  different  coun- 
tries. In  A.  D.  1137,  one  appeared  in  France,  and 
at  about  the  same  time  another  in  Persia.  Both  of 
them  were  successful  in  attracting  crowds  of  ardent 
admirers,  who,  however,  were  speedily  dispersed,  and 
the  impostors  themselves  slain.  At  Cordova  in 
Spain,  a  Jewish  enthusiast  occasioned  no  small  com- 
motion in  A.  D.  1157,  by  claiming  to  be  the  Messiah; 
and  in  A.  D.  1167,  the  Jews,  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez, 
were  visited  with  severe  persecution,  in  consequence 
of  the  appearance  of  another  individual  who  made 
similar  pretensions,  while,  in  the  same  year,  an  Ara 
bian  impostor  attempted  to  support  his  claims  to  thg 
Messiahship,  by  pretending  to  work  miracles.  Many 
were  caught  in  the  delusion  and  subjected  to  severe 
punishment.  Soon  after  a  false  Messiah  arose  be- 
yond the  Euphrates,  who  founded  bis  pretensions  on 
the  circumstance,  that  he  was  cured  of  a  leprosy  in  a 
single  night.  In  A.  D.  1174,  a  magician  and  impos- 
tor, called  David  Almasser,  arose  in  Persia,  who 
alleged  that  he  was  the  Messiah,  and  as  a  proof  of  it, 
he  pretended  that  he  could  render  himself  invisible. 
Notwithstanding  this  power  of  escaping  from  the 
hands  of  his  enemies,  however,  be  was  soon  taken  and 
put  to  death,  and  a  heavy  fine  was  laid  upon  the 
Persian  Jews.  Another  of  these  false  Christs  made 
his  appearance  in  Moravia  in  1176,  and  his  impos- 
ture being  readily  detected,  he  was  slain.  In  1199, 
a  learned  Jew  came  forward  in  Persia  calling  himself 
the  Messiah.  This  impostor,  who  was  called  David 
el  David,  headed  an  army,  but  was  taken  and  im- 
prisoned, and  having  escaped  he  was  afterwards 
arrested  and  beheaded.  Maimonides  mentions  an- 
other Jew  who  made  similar  claims ;  but  he  enters  in- 
to no  detivils  as  to  the  history  and  doings  of  tliis  pre- 
tender. It  would  appear  that,  in  the  course  of  the 
twelfth  century,  no  fewer  than  ten  false  Messiahs 
arose  and  brought  severe  trials  and  persecutions  up- 
on the  Jews  in  dilTcrcnt  parts  of  the  world. 

After  this  period  several  impostors  from  time  to 
time  appeared,  who  claimed  to  be  the  Messiah  pro- 
mised to  the  fathers,  but  they  made  little  imjiression 
on  the  minds  of  tbeir  brethren  the  Jews.  Thus  a 
Jew,  named  Ismael  Sophus,  deceived  a  few  personi 


MICSS-JOIINS— MliTIIUDISTS. 


417 


in  Spain  in  1497,  but  he  soon  ijcrished,  and  IiIb  ftw 
followers  wore  disporscil.  Three  yeinn  iiftcrwards  a 
(icnnan  Jew,  called  Kahlii  Jjeinlcni,  declared  him- 
self to  1)0  the  foicrinmer  of  tho  Messiah,  and  pro- 
mised his  brethren  that  in  the  conrso  of  a  year  they 
should  jje  transferred  in  a  body  to  Palestine.  The 
disappointment  of  his  expectations  in  this  matter 
ellectually  cured  him  of  his  delusion.  In  ISOit,  a 
Jew  of  Cologne  alleged  himself  to  bo  the  Messiah ; 
and  tho  same  claim  was  put  forth  by  Kabbi  Solomon 
Malcho,  but  his  fraudulent  pretensions  were  visited 
with  capital  punishment  by  Charles  V.,  the  king  of 
Spain.  In  1G15,  a  false  Alessiah  arose  among  tho 
Portuguese  Jews  in  Hindustan;  and  another  ap- 
peared in  tho  Low  Countries  in  1624,  who  ni.ido 
groat  pretensions,  promising  to  destroy  Rome,  and 
to  overthrow  tho  kingdom  of  antichrist  and  tho 
Turkish  empire. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  in  the  history  of  the  mo- 
dern Jews,  that  there  are  calculated  to  have  arisen 
since  the  dispersion  no  fewer  than  sixty-four  false 
Messiahs.  Tlio  most  remarkable  perhaps  of  the  whole 
number  was  Sabbathai  Sevi  of  Smyrna,  who  declared 
himself  publicly  A.  D.  1(348,  to  be  Messiah  of  the 
house  of  David,  who  sliould  soon  deliver  Israel  from 
the  dominion  of  Christians  and  Mussulmans.  "  The 
Messiah,"  he  declared,  "  is  at  band,  and  ere  long 
will  assume  the  turban  and  crown  of  the  Sultan  as 
the  Cabbala  has  declared.  Then,  for  some  time  be 
will  disappear,  to  seek,  in  com]iany  with  Moses,  the 
ten  tribes  hidden  beyond  the  river  Sabbation,  and  to 
bring  them  back.  Then,  riding  on  a  lion,  descended 
_from  heaven,  whose  tongue  is  like  a  seven-headed 
serpent,  he  will  enter  Jerusalem  in  triumph,  after 
having  destroyed  a  multitude  of  his  enemies  by  the 
breath  of  his  mouth.  Then  will  take  place  the 
descent  of  the  Jerusalem  from  on  high,  adorned  with 
gold  and  precious  stones,  in  which  Messiah  himself 
will  otter  sacrifices ;  then  shall  happen  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  with  many  other  events  wliich  can- 
not now  be  revealed."  The  fame  of  the  false  Mes- 
siah of  Smyrna  spread  rapidly  throughout  both 
Europe  and  Asia,  so  that  the  Jews  unwittingly  ful- 
tilled  the  declaration  of  the  true  Messiah,  John  v. 
43,  "I  am  come  in  my  Father's  name,  and  ye  receive 
me  not :  if  another  shall  come  in  his  own  name,  him 
ye  will  receive."  Sabbathai  Sevi  ended  with  em- 
bracing the  faith  of  Islam,  which  lie  openly  pro- 
fessed for  ten  years  before  his  death.  From  this 
man  arose  a  sect  combining  Cabbalistic  Judaism  with 
Mohammedanism,  under  the  name  of  Sabbatuaists 
(wliich  see),  who  survived  their  founder  more  than 
a  centmy ;  and  from  them  sprung  the  Chasidim 
(which  see)  or  saints. 

The  last  false  Messiah  who  attracted  any  consi- 
derable number  of  followers  was  Kabbi  Mordecai, 
a  German  Jew,  who  fii'st  set  forth  liis  claims  in  1682. 
For  a  time  he  succeeded  ui  deluding  many,  but  the 
fraud  was  soon  detected,  and  he  was  under  the  ne 
eessity  of  escaping  from  Italy  to  Poland,  where  he 

II. 


was  lost  sight  of,  and  his  history  from  that  period  if 
unknown. 

MICSS-JOIINS,  a  name  given  formerly  in  Eng. 
laud  to  cha|jlains  who  resided  in  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy. 

MICTAOKITNIA,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Melite 
by  olVcruig  sacrifices  to  ApoUo,  and  supposed  to  be 
kept  in  memorial  of  the  emigration  from  Melite  to 
Diomis. 

MICTANGISMONITES.    See  IIikracitks. 

MlCTATllON,  an  angel  frequently  mentioned  by 
the  llabbinical  writers,  and  to  whom  they  ascribe 
more  illustrious  prerogatives  than  to  any  others  of 
the  heavenly  liost.  One  Itabbi  says,  "  The  angel 
McUdron  is  the  king  of  angels."  Another  alleges 
that  this  angel  "ascends  up  to  the  throne  of  glory 
above  nine  hundred  lirmaments  to  carry  up  the 
prayers  of  the  Israelites."  lie  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  angel  who  conducted  the  Israelites  through 
the  wilderness.  It  has  been  alleged  by  some  writers 
that  the  lliibbies  must  have  regarded  the  Metatron 
as  a  divine  and  eternal  subsistence,  in  essence  and 
quality  corresponding  with  what  Christians  under- 
stand by  the  second  personality  of  the  Godhead. 
Various  Kabbies  consider  Enoch  to  have  been  Meta- 
tron, and  one  tells  us,  that  when  this  ancient  prophet 
was  in  the  course  of  ascending  to  heaven,  the  vari- 
ous orders  of  angels  "  smelled  the  scent  of  him  5,380 
miles  otT,  and  were  somewhat  displeased  at  the  in- 
troduction or  intrusion  of  a  human  being  into  their 
superior  world,  till  God  pacified  them  by  explaining 
the  cause  of  his  translation." 

METAWILAH,  a  heretical  sect  of  Mohamme- 
dans, who  maintain  that  the  allegorical  and  not  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  Koran  is  to  regulate  the  opi- 
nions of  the  faithful.  These  Mohammedan  allego- 
rists  are  principally  to  be  foimd  in  the  district  lying 
to  the  south  and  east  of  Tyre.  Some  of  them  are 
found  also  in  the  regions  contiguous  to  the  sources 
of  the  Jordan,  and  in  Coelo-Syria  proper.  Like  the 
Persians  they  are  Sclnttes,  and  recognize  the  supreme 
h\\&msX6  oi  AIL  Dr.  Wilson  tells  us  that  they  are 
nearly  as  scrupulously  observant  of  the  rites  of  caste 
in  regard  to  cleanness  and  uncleaniiess  as  the  Hin- 
dus. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS.    See  Transmigration. 

METHODISTS,  a  name  of  considerable  anti- 
quity. It  was  applied  in  the  first  mstance  to  a  class 
of  physicians  who  arose  about  a  century  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  were  so-called  because  they  in- 
troduced greater  precision  and  order  into  the  science 
of  medicine.  The  word  was  not  introduced,  how- 
ever, into  ecclesiastical  use  until  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  it  came  to  be  apphed  to  a  class  of 
Komanists,  who  sought  to  be  more  precise  in  their 
controversies  with  Protsstants.  In  the  same  cen- 
tury, we  find  the  terra  used  to  denote  also  certain 
Protestants  who  were  more  strict  and  regular  in 
their  general  bearing.  Dr.  Calamy  says,  "  TheJ 
called  them  who  stood  up  for  Gud,  Methodist*. " 
2  N 


il8 


METHODIST  (African)  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IX  AMERICA. 


For  more  than  a  century  past  the  word  Methodists 
is  used  to  denote  certain  specific  societies  or  deno- 
minations of  Christians  in  Great  Britain  and  America. 

METHODIST  (African)  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH,  IN  AMERICA.  This  church  is  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  the  Zion  Wesley 
Methodist  connection.  The  mother  church  of  this 
denomination  was  founded  in  the  city  of  New  York 
in  1796.  It  arose  in  consequence  of  the  coloured 
members  coimected  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  New  York  feeUng  their  privileges  and 
usefulness  diminished  by  the  prejudices  entertained 
against  coloured  people  by  the  whites.  After  bear- 
ing for  a  time  their  degraded  situation  among  their 
fellow-Christians,  they  resolved  to  have  a  separate 
meeting  on  an  independent  footing.  Bishop  Asbury 
gave  his  consent  to  the  movement,  and  a  temporary 
place  of  worship  for  the  coloiu-ed  people  connected 
with  the  Methodists  was  speedily  obtained,  where  the 
services  were  conducted  statedly  by  three  licensed 
preachers  in  the  interval  between  the  Sabbath  ser- 
vices in  the  white  Methodist  Chiu-ch.  In  this  way 
they  avoided  all  interference  with  the  regular  hours 
of  worship  among  their  brethren,  wliile  they  en- 
joyed the  privilege  of  a  separate  service  of  their  own. 
At  length  in  1799,  the  number  of  coloured  members 
had  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  resolved 
after  mature  deliberation  to  form  themselves  into  a 
separate  and  distinct  religious  body,  under  the  name 
of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  though 
still  under  the  governiuent  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church.  A  place  of  worship  was  erected  by 
them  accordingly  in  New  York  by  the  name  of  the 
Zion  Church. 

The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  having 
been  now  estabhshed  as  a  separate  religious  body, 
an  agreement  was  formally  entered  into,  whereby 
they  were  rendered  distinct  from  the  whites  in  their 
temporalities,  but  under  the  spiritual  control  of  the 
wliite  General  Conference.  Matters  continued  in 
this  state  for  a  number  of  years,  and  the  coloured 
Methodists  rapidly  increased  botli  in  numbers  and  in- 
fluence. At  length,  in  1820,  the  General  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  passed  a  resolu- 
tion, the  effect  of  which  would  be,  were  it  carried 
into  effect,  to  give  the  preachers  more  power  over 
the  temporalities  of  the  church.  This  resolution  was 
received  with  great  dissatisfaction  by  a  large  body  of 
the  white  Methodists,  and  it  was  viewed  with  still 
greater  alarm  by  the  coloured  Methodists,  who  felt 
convinced  that  it  would  prove  a  serious  hindrance  to 
their  prosperity  and  success,  by  transferring  their 
I)roperty  into  the  hands  of  Methodist  preachers  in 
Conference.  To  protect  themselves,  accordingly, 
against  this  dreaded  result,  the  coloured  Methodists 
lost  no  time  in  withdrawing  Zion  church  from  the 
control  of  the  white  bishops  and  Conference. 

Thus  rendered  entirely  independent  of  their  white 
brethren,  the  African  Methodist  Episcop.al  Church 
proceeded  to  make  their  own  ecclesiastical  arrange- 


ments. Not  having  ordained  ministers  among  them 
to  take  pastoral  charges,  they  elected  elders  to  act 
in  place  of  ministers.  At  the  same  time  they  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  form  rules  of  discipline  drawn 
from  those  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The 
body  was  now  joined  by  several  other  churches,  and 
on  the  21st  June  1821,  the  fu-st  Annual  Conference  of 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  held  in 
Zion  church  in  New  York.  The  number  of  ministers 
in  attendance  was  twenty-two,  and  the  number  of 
members  reported  at  the  Conference  was  1,426.  At 
the  next  Conference  elders  were  ordained  by  the  lay- 
ing on  of  hands.  In  1838,  the  Conference  elected 
the  Rev.  Christopher  Rush  totheofBce  ofpennanent 
superintendent  for  four  years ;  and  the  office  has 
been  continued  ever  since,  the  superintendent  being 
elected  every  four  years  by  the  suffrage  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  General  Conference. 

The  doctrines  of  this  body  of  American  Methodists 
are  of  a  low  Arminian  character.  Tluis,  in  their  au- 
tlioritative  statement  of  principles,  they  mention 
Christ  as  "  having  made  fiJl  redemption  for  all  men, 
on  the  condition  of  obedience  to  God."  They  say 
also,  that  "  we  produce  good  works  as  our  duty  to 
God  ;  and  then  the  merits  of  Christ  are  bestowed  up- 
on us."  Among  the  sacraments  they  enumerate 
holy  matrimony,  placing  it  on  the  same  footing  with 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  practise  en- 
tire temperance,  all  use  of  spirituous  liquors  being 
prohibited,  except  in  case  of  necessity.  They  bind 
themselves  to  avoid  all  traffic  in  slavery  in  any  way. 

The  General  Conference  of  the  body,  which  meets 
every  four  years,  is  composed  of  all  the  travelling 
ministers  of  the  connection.  The  Annual  Confer- 
ence consists  of  the  travelling  ministers  of  a  dis- 
trict. There  is  an  Annual  Conference  held  in  New 
York  ;  another  in  Pliiladelphia ;  a  third  in  Boston  ; 
and  a  fourth  in  Baltimore.  There  is  also  a  Quar- 
terly Conference,  a  Monthly  Meeting  of  the  trustees 
of  each  church,  and  a  Leaders'  Meeting,  which  meets 
monthly,  and  is  composed  of  all  the  class  leaders 
and  class  stewards. 

The  ecclesiastical  functionaries  of  this  church  are, 
1.  The  superintendent.  2.  The  elder.  3.  Deacon. 
4.  The  licensed  preacher.  5.  The  exhorter.  6.  The 
class  leader.  Besides  these  there  are  trustees  and 
stewards,  who  are  strictly  temporal  functionaries. 

METHODIST  (African)  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH  IN  AMERICA.  This  church  was  found- 
ed in  Pliiladelphia  in  1816.  Its  organization  was 
effected  in  a  convention  held  for  ecclesiastical  pur- 
poses by  a  large  number  of  coloured  persons  who 
had  seceded  from  the  Slethodist  Episcopal  church, 
both  in  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  Like  the  church 
described  in  the  last  article,  tin's  cluu-ch  had  its  ori 
gin  in  the  oppression  and  ill-treatment  which  thi 
coloured  Methodists  endured  at  the  hands  of  theii 
white  brethren.  For  maTiy  years,  indeed,  they  wers 
stil)ji:cted  to  a  .systematic  persecution  on  the  part  o( 
those  who  professed  to  be  their  fellow-Christians 


METHODISTS  (Calvinibtic) 


41S 


At  last  a  General  Convention  was  lield  in  Pliiladel- 
pliia,  wliicli  was  largely  attended  by  coloured  peojile 
from  Ilaltlmorc  and  other  places,  and  taking  into 
consid(;ration  tlieir  gi-icvances,  they  jiassed  a  resolu- 
tion that  the  people  of  Philadelphia,  lialliniore,  and 
all  other  places,  who  should  miile  with  them,  should 
become  one  body  under  the  name  and  style  of  the 
"  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church." 

As  the  separation  of  this  church  from  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  involved  no  dill'erence  in  doc- 
trine or  practice,  the  Convention  held  in  Philadel- 
phia in  18IG,  adopted  the  same  doctrines,  discipline, 
and  general  government  as  the  church  they  had  left. 
They  differ  only  in  a  few  not  very  important  parti- 
culars. Thus  they  have  no  presiding  elders,  siinply 
because  they  are  not  able  to  maintain  them.  Their 
local  preachers,  also,  are  eligible  to  membership  in 
the  Annual  Conference,  and  as  such  are  entitled  to 
all  the  privileges  of  the  itinerant  members.  The 
most  important  point  of  distinction,  however,  between 
tlie  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  the 
church  from  which  it  seceded,  is,  that  their  local 
preachers  have  a  seat,  voice,  and  vote  in  the  General 
Conference,  when  sent  there  as  delegates  from  the 
Annual  Conferences  to  represent  the  lay  members  of 
the  church.  For  every  four  hundred  lay  members 
there  is  one  local  preacher  in  the  General  Confer- 
ence. 

The  first  Annual  Conference  of  the  body  was  held 
lit  Baltimore  in  1818,  when  the  whole  number  of 
preachers  in  the  connection  was  twenty-three,  and 
the  whole  number  of  members  was  6,778.  In  1847 
there  were  upwards  of  300  preachers,  seven  Annual 
Conferences,  and  upwards  of  20,000  members,  ex- 
tending over  thirteen  States. 

METHODISTS  (Calvinistic),  a  class  of  Method- 
ists in  England  which  derive  their  name  from  their 
profession  of  adherence  to  the  Calvinistic  views  of 
Whitefield,  as  opposed  to  the  Arminian  views  of 
Wesley.  Both  these  eminent  servants  of  Clirist, 
animated  with  an  earnest  desire  to  revive  the  cause 
of  true  vital  godliness  in  the  laud,  laboured  with  un- 
broken harmony  for  several  years  in  preaching  the 
gospel,  and  labouring  for  the  conversion  of  souls, 
both  in  Britain  and  America.  It  was  not,  indeed, 
until  1748,  that  the  two  great  founders  of  Methodism 
separated  from  one  another,  thus  dividing  the  So- 
ciety of  Methodists  into  two  distinct  communities. 
Mr.  Wliiteiield  had  all  along  been  known  to  entertain 
those  opinions  on  the  great  doctrines  of  Christiiinity, 
which  are  usually  termed,  in  their  aggregate  form, 
CdMnisjn ;  but  Mr.  John  Wesley,  in  the  course  of 
his  preaching  tours,  often  avowed  Arminian  senti- 
ments, and  even  boldly  attacked  the  doctrine  of  elec- 
tion. For  a  time  various  attempts  were  made  to  re- 
concile their  conflicting  opinions,  and  bring  about  a 
complete  agreement  between  the  parties,  but  this 
was  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  an  open  rupture 
took  place,  AVesley  steadily  and  skilfidly  constructing 
the  elaborate  system  of  Wesleyan  Methodism,  and 


Whitclield  prosecuting  his  great  work  as  an  itinerant 
missionary  of  the  cross,  without  the  slightest  desire 
to  be  the  founder  of  a  sect.  Though  separated  from 
his  former  coadjutor  in  the  evangelistic  work,  he  con- 
tinued to  labour  with  the  utmost  ardour  and  assi- 
duity, while  thou.sands  flocked  to  listen  to  his  power- 
ful ministrations,  and  he  was  thus  the  means  ol 
eidarging  the  congregations  of  maiiy  dissenting  min- 
isters, as  well  as  evangelical  clergymen  in  the  Estab- 
lished Chinch.  On  one  occasion  he  preached  at 
Moorfields  in  the  midst  of  the  multitudes  who  weie 
assembled  there  at  the  fair  on  Whit- Monday,  and  so 
manifestly  did  the  Eord  bless  his  labours,  that  he 
says  in  speaking  of  it,  "  We  retired  to  the  Taberna- 
cle with  my  pockets  full  of  notes  from  persons 
brought  under  concern,  and  read  them  amidst  the 
praises  and  spiritual  acclamations  of  thousands,  who 
joined  with  the  holy  angels  in  rejoicing  that  bo  many 
sinners  were  snatched  in  such  an  unexpected,  un- 
likely place  and  manner,  out  of  the  very  jaws  of  the 
devil.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Tabernacle 
Society." 

In  the  winter  of  1755,  Mr.  Wliitefield  v/as  asked 
by  some  friends  to  preach  regularly  at  a  licensed 
chapel  in  Long  Acre.  He  consented  to  preach 
twice  a-wcek  and  to  read  prayers.  Crowds  attended, 
and  the  enemies  of  the  truth  were  so  enraged  that 
they  made  systematic  efforts  to  annoy  and  insult  the 
preacher.  In  consequence  of  the  difficulties  thus 
thrown  in  his  way,  it  was  resolved  by  some  of  liie 
friends  and  followers  to  build  a  place  of  worship 
sufficient  to  accommodate  a  large  number  of  people, 
and  where  he  might  ofiiciafe  without  any  likelihood 
of  being  disturbed  in  the  proclamation  of  his  Mas- 
ter's message.  Tottenham  Court  Chapel,  accord- 
ingly, was  erected,  and  formally  opened  for  public 
worship  in  November  1756.  In  addition  to  the  two 
gi-eat  chapels  thus  built  in  the  metropolis  by  the 
followers  of  Whitefield,  additional  places  of  worship 
in  the  same  connection  have  since  been  built  in  dif- 
ferent towns  throughout  England,  in  many  of  which 
the  Enghsh  Church  Service  continues  to  be  read. 

After  the  apostolic  labours  of  Mr.  Whitefield  had 
been  brought  to  a  close  by  his  death  in  New  Eng- 
land in  1769,  the  Calvinistic  Methodi.sts  not  being 
united  into  a  sect,  continued  individually,  or  in  se- 
parate congregations,  to  hold  the  opinions  of  their 
founder.  It  has  been  alleged  by  Dr.  Haweis,  that 
their  numbers  in  1800  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to 
as  many  as  the  Arminian  Methodists.  The  congre- 
gations are  formed  on  the  Independent  principle, 
each  defraying  its  own  expenses  and  managing  its 
own  concerns.  The  Tabernacle  in  Moorfields,  and 
the  Tottenham-court  chapel,  are  managed  by  trus- 
tees ;  but  their  affairs  are  arranged  on  the  Congre- 
gationalist  plan.  It  is  difficult  indeed  to  distinguish 
the  body  generally  from  the  Cungregationalist  Dis- 
senters. 

With  the  exception  of  the  few  separate  congrega- 
tions scattered  throughout  difterent  towns  in  Eng- 


i'ZU 


METHOUISTS  (Camp)— MKTHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHIIUCH. 


land  who  hold  the  Calvinistic  principles  of  Wliite- 
field,  his  followers  are  fomid  under  two  distinct 
denominations  ;  the  one  called  IIUNTrNGDON's 
(Countess  of)  Connexjon  (which  see),  and  the 
other  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists.      See 

ETHODisTS  (Welsh  Calvinistic). 

METHODISTS  (Camp),  a  name  given  to  those 
members  of  the  Methodist  body  in  the  Western 
States  of  North  America,  particularly  Kentucky, 
who  towards  the  beginning  of  the  present  centiu'y 
adopted  Camp-Meethigs  as  a  means  of  promoting 
revivals  of  religion.  Dr.  Miller  of  Piinceton  Col- 
lege states  it  as  his  opinion  that  these  meetings 
began  in  the  Presbyterian  church ;  that  they  were 
first  adopted  from  a  kind  of  necessity  in  a  country 
where  houses  for  public  worship  were  few  and  of 
small  size,  and  of  com'se  altogether  insufficient  for 
receiving  the  gi'eat  crowds  which  collected  on  par- 
ticular occasions,  and  who  were  in  a  state  of  mind 
which  prompted  them  to  remain  a  number  of 
days  at  the  place  of  meeting.  In  such  circum- 
stances encampment  in  the  open  air  seemed  to  be 
unavoidable.  But  what  was  begun  from  neces- 
sity was  afterwards  continued  from  choice ;  Camp- 
Meetings  being  foimd  to  furnish  admirable  means 
for  the  propagation  of  strong  excitement.  The  Me- 
thodists in  Kentucky  adopted  the  practice  from  their 
Presbyterian  brethren,  and  retained  it  for  many 
years,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  name  of  Camp-Metho- 
dists. The  meetings  which  gave  origin  to  the  name 
were  often  scenes  of  the  most  painful  excitement. 
Persons  were  occasionally  seen  to  fall  to  the  ground 
as  suddenly  as  if  they  had  been  pierced  through  the 
heart  with  a  bullet  or  a  sword ;  others  when  falling 
would  utter  a  shriek  and  lie  diu-mg  hours  still  and 
silent ;  others  would  weep  and  moan  moimifully. 
Tlu-ougbout  the  United  States,  Camp-Meetings  are 
far  more  rarely  resorted  to  even  in  seasons  of  revi- 
val than  tliey  were  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN 
AMERICA.  Methodism  may  be  considered  as  hav- 
ing arisen  in  America  at  as  early  a  period  as  in 
England.  Both  the  foimders  of  IVIethodism,  John 
Wesley  and  George  Whitefield,  laboured  for  a  long 
time  as  clergymen  of  the  Episcopal  Chiu'ch  in  Geor- 
gia. The  first  Methodist  Society  in  America  was 
established  in  New  York  in  176G.  Tlie  circum- 
stances which  led  to  its  original  fonnation  are  deeply 
interestmg.  Tliey  are  thus  described  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Bangs :  "  A  few  pious  emigi-ants  from  Ireland, 
wlio,  previously  to  their  removal,  had  been  members 
of  the  Methodist  society  in  their  own  country, 
landed  in  this  city.  Among  their  number  was  Mr. 
Philip  Embury,  a  local  ])rcacber.  Coming  among 
strangers  and  finding  no  pious  associates  with  whom 
they  could  confer,  they  came  very  near  making 
shipwreck  of  faith  and  a  good  conscience.'  In 
this  state  of  religious  declension  they  were  found  the 
next  year  on  the  arrival  of  another  family  from  Ire- 


land, among  whom  was  a  pious  '  mother  in  Israel,'  to 
whose  zeal  in  the  cause  of  God  they  were  all  in- 
debted for  the  revival  of  the  spirit  of  piety  among 
tliem.  Soon  after  her  arrival  she  ascertained  tliat 
those,  who  had  preceded  her,  had  so  far  departed 
from  their  '  first  love,'  as  to  be  mingling  in  the  frivo- 
lities and  amusements  of  the  world.  The  knowledge 
of  this  painful  fact  excited  her  indignation ;  and, 
with  a  zeal  which  deserves  commemoration,  she  sud- 
denly entered  the  room  in  wliich  they  were  assem- 
bled, seized  the  pack  of  cards  with  wliich  they  were 
playing,  and  threw  them  into  the  fire.  She  then 
addressed  herself  to  them  in  terms  of  expostulation, 
and  turning  to  Mr.  Embury,  she  said:  'You  must 
preach  to  us,  or  we  shall  all  go  to  hell  together,  and 
God  will  require  our  blood  at  your  hands!'  This 
pointed  appeal  had  its  intended  effect,  in  awakening 
his  attention  to  the  peril  of  their  condition.  Yet,  as 
if  to  excuse  himself  from  the  performance  of  an  ob- 
vious duty,  he  tremblingly  replied  :  '  I  cannot  preach, 
for  I  have  neither  a  house  nor  congregation.' 
'  Preach  in  your  own  house  fh-st,  and  to  our  own 
company,'  was  the  reply.  Feeling  the  responsibility 
of  his  situation,  and  not  being  able  any  longer  to 
resist  the  importunities  of  his  reprover,  he  consented 
to  comply  with  her  request,  and  accordingly  he 
preached  his  first  sermon  '  in  his  own  hu-ed  house,' 
to  five  persons  only.  This,  it  is  believed,  was  the 
first  Methodist  sermon  ever  preached  in  America. 

"  As  they  continued  to  assemble  together  fot 
mutual  edification,  so  then-  numbers  were  gradually 
increased,  and  they  were  comforted  and  strengthened 
by  '  exhorting  one  another  daily.'  Notwithstanding 
the  fewness  of  their  number,  and  the  secluded  man- 
ner m  which  they  held  their  meetings :  they  veiy 
soon  began  to  attract  attention,  and  they  accordingly 
found  that  they  must  either  procm-e  a  larger  place, 
or  preclude  many  from  their  meetings  who  were  de- 
sirous to  attend. 

"  This  led  them  to  rent  a  room  of  larger  dimen 
sions  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  expense  of  which 
was  paid  by  volimtary  contributions.  An  event 
happened  soon  after  they  began  to  assemble  in  this 
place,  wliich  brought  them  into  more  pubhc  notice, 
and  attracted  a  greater  number  of  heaixrs.  This 
was  the  arrival  of  Captain  Webb,  an  officer  of  the 
British  ai-my,  at  that  time  stationed  in  Albany,  in 
the  State  of  New  York.  He  had  been  brought  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  under  the  seai'cliing 
ministry  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  in  the  city  of 
Bristol,  England,  about  the  year  1765;  and,  though 
a  militai-y  character,  such  was  his  tliii'st  for  the  sal- 
vation of  immortal  souls,  that  he  was  constrained  to 
declare  imto  them  the  lovuig  kuidness  of  God. 

"His  first  appearance  as  a  stranger  among  the 
'  fittle  flock'  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in  his  military 
costume,  gave  them  some  uneasiness,  as  they  feared 
that  he  had  come  to  'spy  out  their  liberties,'  or  to 
interrupt  them  in  their  solemn  assemblies ;  but  when 
♦Jiey  »aw  him  kneel  in  prayer,  and  otherwise  parti- 


I 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 


421 


cipate  with  tliem  in  tlie  worship  of  God,  tlieir  fears 
were  exchanged  for  joy,  and  on  a  farther  acquaint- 
ance tliey  found  Captain  Wclib  liad  '  partaken  of 
like  precious  faitli'  with  theniKclvos.  He  was  ae- 
crirdingly  invited  to  preach.  Tlie  novelty  of  liiH 
Bpjiearance  in  the  badges  of  a  military  oihcer,  excited 
no  httle  siu'piise.  This,  together  with  tlie  energy 
with  which  he  spoke  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
drew  many  to  the  place  of  worship,  and  hence  the 
room  in  which  they  now  assembled,  soon  became  too 
small  to  acconunodato  all  who  wished  to  assemble. 
But  what  greatly  encouraged  them  was,  that  sinners 
were  awakened  and  converted  to  God,  and  added  to 
the  little  Society. 

"To  accommodate  all  who  wished  to  hear,  they 
next  hired  a  rigging-loft  in  William  Street,  and  fitted 
it  up  for  a  place  of  worship.  Here  they  assembled 
for  a  considerable  time,  and  were  edified  in  fivith  and 
love,  under  the  labours  of  Mr.  Embury,  who  was 
occasionally  assisted  by  Captain  Webb. 

"  While  the  Society  was  thus  going  forward  in 
their  '  work  of  faith  and  labour  of  love'  in  New  York, 
Captain  Wcbl)  made  excm-sions  upon  Long  Island, 
and  even  went  as  far  as  Philadelphia,  preaching 
wherever  he  could  find  an  opening,  the  gospel  of  the 
Son  of  God;  and  success  attended  bis  labours,  many 
being  awakened  to  a  sense  of  their  sinfulness  through 
his  pointed  ministry,  and  were  brought  to  the  '  know- 
ledge of  salvation  by  the  remission  of  sins.'  In  con- 
■  sequence  of  the  accession  of  numbers  to  the  Society, 
and  the  continual  increase  of  those  who  wished  to 
hear  the  word,  the  rigging-loft  became  also  too 
small,  and  they  began  to  consult  together  on  the 
propriety  of  building  a  house  of  worship. 

"  But  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  pious  under- 
taking many  diflicullies  were  to  be  encoimtered. 
The  members  in  the  Society  were  yet  but  few  in 
number,  most  of  them  of  the  poorer  class,  and,  of 
course,  had  but  a  limited  acquamtance  and  influence 
in  the  community.  For  some  time  they  were  in 
painful  suspense.  But  while  all  were  deliberating  on 
the  most  suitable  means  to  be  adopted  to  accomplish 
an  object  so  desirable,  the  elderly  lady,  whose  pious 
zeal  has  been  already  mentioned,  while  earnestly  en- 
gaged in  prayer  for  direction  in  this  important  enter- 
prise, received,  with  inexpressible  sweetness  and 
power,  this  answer,  I,  the  Lord,  will  do  it.  At  the 
same  time  a  plan  was  suggested  to  her  mind,  which, 
on  being  submitted  to  the  Society,  was  generally  ap- 
proved of,  and  finally  adopted.  They  proceeded  to 
issue  a  subscription  paper,  waited  on  the  mayor  of 
the  city  and  other  opulent  citizens,  to  whom  they 
explained  their  object,  and  received  fi'om  them  such 
liberal  donations,  that  they  succeeded  iii  purchasing 
several  lots  in  Jolm  Street,  on  which  they  erected  a 
house  of  worship  sixty  feet  in  length,  by  forty-two 
in  breadth,  calling  it,  from  respect  to  the  venerable 
(bunder  of  Methodism,  Wesley  Chapel.  This  was 
the  first  meeting-bouse  ever  erected  for  a  Methodist 
congregation  in  America ;  this  was  in  the  year  1768 ; 


and  the  first  sermon  was  [ireached  in  it  October  30, 
1708,  by  Mr.  Embury.  This,  therefore,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  bogmning  of  Methodism  in  this  coun- 
try." 

While  this  church  was  in  course  of  being  built, 
the  members  of  the  Methodist  body  in  New  York 
addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Wesley,  urging  upon  him 
to  send  from  Europe  a  sujqjly  of  preachers.  Twr 
were  accordingly  despatched  to  America,  namely, 
Richard  Boardman  and  Josejih  I'ilmore.  These 
wore  the  first  regular  itinerant  preachers  who  crossed 
the  Atlantic.  On  their  arrival,  Mr.  Boardman  was 
stationed  in  New  York,  and  Mr.  Pihnore  in  Phila- 
delphia, from  which  cities  they  made  occasional  ex- 
cursions into  the  suiTounding  country.  About  tho 
same  time,  Mr.  Robert  Strawbridge,  another  local 
preacher  from  Ireland,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  settled  \n  Frederick  county,  Maryland 
The  Methodist  cause  now  made  rapid  progress,  and 
in  1771  Mr.  Wesley  sent  over  from  England  Mr. 
Francis  Asbury  and  Mr.  Richard  Wright  to  tha 
help  of  their  brethren  in  America.  The  arrival  of 
these  energetic  and  efficient  labourers  lent  great  ad- 
ditional impulse  to  the  work.  Mr.  Asbuiy  in  par- 
ticular, by  itinerating  through  the  country,  and 
preaching  in  the  cities,  roused  his  fellow-labourers 
to  greater  earnestness  and  activity ;  and  hence  many 
new  Methodist  Societies  were  established  in  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

Thus  the  good  work  went  on  until  the  anival  of 
Mr.  liankin,  who  having  been  appointed  to  supersede 
Mr.  Asbury  as  general  superintendent,  held  the  first 
Conference  in  Philadelphia  on  the  4th  of  July  177.3, 
at  which  time  there  were  ten  travelling  preachers, 
and  1,160  members  m  the  various  societies.  At  this 
Conference  they  adopted  the  Wesleyan  plan  of  sta- 
tioning the  preachers,  and  taking  minutes  of  their 
proceedings.  Matters  now  went  steadily  forward, 
and  a  Methodist  meeting-house  was  built  in  the  city 
of  Baltimore  early  in  the  year  1774.  Year  after 
year  the  Conference  reported  an  increase  to  the 
number  both  of  preachers  and  of  members.  Towards 
the  commencement  of  the  American  war  of  inde- 
pendence, persecution  arose  against  the  Methodists 
throughout  the  States  generally.  The  ostensible 
pretext  for  annoying  them  was  that  most  of  the 
preachers  were  from  England,  and  that  some  ol 
them  had  openly  avowed  their  want  of  sympathy 
with  the  American  movement,  while  Mr.  Wesley 
the  foimder  of  Methodism  had  himself  written 
against  the  American  principles  and  measures.  So 
violent  in  fact  did  the  persecution  become,  that  all 
the  English  preachens,  except  Mr.  Asbury,  returned 
to  England  before  the  end  of  the  year  1777,  and  Jlr. 
Asbury  also  was  obliged  to  retire  from  public  notice 
for  nearly  a  whole  year.  Nor  was  the  persecution 
confined  to  the  native  Englishmen ;  the  native 
Americans  also  who  had  laboured  as  itiner.ant  preach- 
ers among  the  Methodists  were  exposed  to  the 
most  cruel  treatment,  and  even  imprisonment.     But 


422 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 


amid  all  opposition  the  cause  flourished,  and  at  the 
Conference  of  1783,  when  the  war  of  the  revolution 
had  come  to  a  close,  the  body  consisted  of  43 
preachers,  and  13,740  members. 

The  year  1784  was  the  commencement  of  a  new 
era  in  the  history  of  Jlethodism  in  America.  The 
American  colonies  had  declared  themselves  indepen- 
dent ;  and  the  Episcopal  Church  in  America  being 
thus  entirely  dissevered  from  that  of  England,  Mr. 
Wesley  felt  that  the  difficulties  of  the  case  could 
only  be  met  by  a  departure  from  the  usual  church 
order.  He,  therefore,  though  only  a  Presbyter  of 
the  Anglican  Church,  on  his  own  responsibility  in 
1784  ordained  Dr.  Coke  bishop  or  superintendent  of 
his  American  Methodist  Societies,  and  by  this  act 
gave  them  the  character  of  an  independent  religious 
body,  which  has  since  borne  the  name  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church.  At  the  same  time,  Mr. 
Wesle)-,  who  had  already  reached  the  advanced  age 
of  eighty,  made  an  abridgment  of  the  Common 
Prayer  Book  and  tlie  Thirty-Nine  Articles,  as  a 
directory  for  the  worship  and  doctrine  of  this  new 
ecclesiastical  Society. 

Thus  furnished  with  proper  credentials,  Dr.  Coke, 
in  company  with  Messrs.  Whatcoat  and  Vasey, 
sailed  for  America ;  and  on  their  arrival  a  Conference 
was  held  at  Baltimore,  in  which  the  measures  de- 
vised by  Mr.  Wesley  were  unanimously  approved 
of;  Dr.  Coke  acknowledged  as  superintendent;  Mr. 
Asbury  consecrated  as  joint  superintendent ;  twelve 
of  the  preachers  were  consecrated  as  deacons  and 
elders,  and  three  others  as  deacons.  At  the  same 
Conference  Mr.  Wesley's  Abridgment  of  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  was  adopted,  and  also  twenty-five 
articles  of  religion  which  he  had  sent  along  with 
various  other  rules  for  the  regulation  of  the  ministers 
and  members  of  the  newly-formed  church.  Thus  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  America  was  fully 
organized. 

The  first  General  Conference  of  the  body  was  held 
In  the  year  1792.  It  was  composed  of  all  the  tra- 
velling elders  in  full  connection,  who  were  appointed 
to  meet  in  Conference  every  four  years,  with  power 
to  devise  rules  for  tlie  regulation  of  the  church.  At 
this  General  Conference  a  secession  took  place, 
neaded  by  James  O'Kelly,  a  presiding  elder  in  Vir- 
ginia, because  he  was  dissatisfied  with  the  power 
which  the  bishop  claimed  of  stationing  the  preach- 
ers, and  pleaded  for  an  appeal  to  the  Conference. 
O'Kelly  had  influence  enough  to  cause  consider- 
able disturbance  in  some  parts  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina ;  but  the  excitement  was  only  for  a 
time,  and  his  influence  having  gradually  diminished, 
his  party  became  scattered,  and  finally  disajipeared, 
while  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  rapidly  in- 
creased both  in  numbers  and  influence,  having  on  its  • 
roll,  soon  after,  2G6  travelling  preachers,  and  65,980 
church  members.  Circuits  were  now  formed,  and 
societies  established  throughout  nearly  every  State 
»ud  Territory  in  the  Union,  and  also  in  Upper  Canada. 


The  number  of  travelling  elders  was  every  year  on 
the  increase,  and  in  tlie  coittse  of  a  short  time  the 
General  Conference  became  so  large  that  it  was 
judged  expedient  to  reduce  the  number.  This  was 
done  by  adopting  the  representative  system.  The 
first  delegated  Conference  assembled  in  the  city  of 
New  York  in  1812,  in  which  year  an  increase  of 
members  was  reported  to  the  amount  of  10,700. 
This  Conference  was  composed  of  one  member  for 
every  five  members  of  each  annual  conference.  In 
1819  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Epis 
copal  Church  was  formed,  its  declared  object  being 
"  to  assist  the  several  aimual  conferences  to  extend 
their  missionary  labours  throughout  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere."  This  department  of  their 
work  has  been  prosecuted  with  remarkable  energy 
and  success.  It  comprises  missions  to  those  who 
speak  the  English  language  in  the  destitute  or  new 
portions  of  the  country;  and  also  missions  to  foreign- 
ers who  have  settled  together  in  various  portions  of 
the  country,  and  in  particular  quarters  of  cities.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  is  an  interesting  mission  to 
New  Mexico.  Of  the  various  Domestic  Missions  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  those  to  the  Germans 
are  the  most  numerous  and  successful ;  but  they 
have  also  missions  to  the  Swedes,  Danes,  Norwe- 
gians, Welsh,  and  French,  who  have  settled  in  the 
United  States.  Missions  have  also  been  established 
in  Oregon  and  Califoniia,  and  with  such  success, 
that  they  have  each  of  them  been  organized  into  a 
regular  independent  annual  Conference. 

The  prosperity  of  this  energetic  Christian  deno- 
mination in  America  has  not  however  been  un- 
clouded. From  time  to  time  within  her  pale,  indi- 
viduals have  arisen  who  have  ofl'ered  strong  objec- 
tions to  the  government,  and  some  of  the  usages  ol 
the  church,  and  finding  that  theii"  views  met  with  no 
general  response,  they  have  seceded  and  attempttd 
to  form  separate  communities.  Besides  the  seces- 
sion already  referred  to  under  O'Kelly,  the  most 
considerable  of  these  secessions  has  been  that  which 
took  place  in  1830,  and  which  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  '  Methodist  Protestant  Church.' 

Since  1847  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chinch  in  the 
United  States  has  been  divided  uito  two  almost 
eipial  parts,  a  Northern  and  a  Southern.  These  have 
broken  off  all  communion  with  one  another,  and 
have  recently  had  a  vexatious  lawsuit  about  the 
division  of  the  common  property.  The  sole  cause 
of  the  separation  was  slavery.  The  Methodists  ol 
the  Northern  and  Western  States  are  mostly  aboli- 
tionists, and  they  refused  to  permit  their  brethren  in 
the  South  to  hold,  buy,  and  sell  slaves.  A  separa- 
tion accordingly  took  place,  and  an  independent 
Society  was  set  up  called  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churcli,  South. 

The  government  of  this  Methodist  body,  as  may 
be  learned  from  its  name,  is  strictly  Episcopal ;  and 
in  its  general  arrangements  it  almost  entirely  conform! 
to  the  rules  laid  down  by  Mr.  Wesley  for  the  Metho 


METHODIST  (PjiiMiTivE)  CONNEXION. 


423 


dist  Societies  in  England.  "  All  the  members  arc  re- 
ceived into  the  cluireli  on  a  probation  of  six  months; 
during  whicli  time  they  have  amjile  opportunity  to 
make  themselves  acquainted  with  all  the  doctrines 
and  usages  of  the  church ;  and  the  cliurch  has  also  an 
opportunity  of  becoming  acipiainted  with  the  Chris- 
tian experience  and  the  general  character  of  tiie  pro- 
bationers: at  tlie  end  of  the  probation,  if  there  is  a 
mutual  agreement  between  the  probationers  and  the 
ehurch,  they  are  received  into  full  connexion;  but  in 
case  there  is  a  disagreement,  probationers  can  with- 
draw, or  the  church  can  drop  them  without  the  for- 
mality of  a  church  trial. 

"  Whenever  tliero  is  a  sufTicient  lunnber  of  per- 
sons in  a  place,  who  wish  to  unite  with  the  Metho- 
dist Episcojial  Church,  it  is  customary  for  the 
preacher  to  form  them  into  a  class,  and  to  appoint 
one  of  their  number  a  leader,  whose  duty  it  is  to  take 
a  special  oversight  of  them,  and  to  meet  them  once 
a-week  for  the  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and 
improvement.  Classes  thus  formed  are  united  into  a 
church,  and  the  church  is  placed  uiulerthe  charge  of 
a  travelling  preacher.  The  churches  are  situated  on 
circuits  or  stations,  and  thoy  are  annually  supplied 
by  a  [ireacher  from  the  conference. 

"  On  eacli  circuit  or  station  there  is  a  quarterly 
conference,  consisting  of  the  presiding  elder  of  the 
district,  all  the  travelling  and  local  preachers,  ex- 
horters,  stewards,  and  leaders  of  the  circuit  or  sta- 
tion, and  none  else.  This  conference  possesses  an 
appellate  jurisdiction  over  the  members  of  the 
church  ou  the  circuit  or  station,  who  may  have  ap- 
pealed from  the  decisions  of  the  church,  and  its  de- 
cisions in  all  cases  are  final.  It  also  attends  to  the 
general  business  of  the  church,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  which  cannot  so  well  be  attended  to  by  the 
members  of  the  church  in  their  more  private  avpa- 
city.  It  is  properly  a  connecting  link  between  the 
church  and  the  annual  conference,  and  all  the  busi- 
ness of  the  clau'ch  with  the  annual  conference  is  pre- 
pared and  forwarded  by  this  body. 

"  A  number  of  circuits  and  stations  form  districts, 
over  which  an  elder  is  appointed  to  preside.  And  a 
number  of  the  districts  form  a  conference,  which 
meets  annually  for  the  transaction  of  its  appropriate 
business.  And  then,  again,  delegates  from  these 
several  annual  conferences  form  a  general  conference, 
which  meets  once  in  four  years. 

"  Tliere  are  three  orders  of  ministers  recognised 
in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church ;  bishops,  elders, 
and  deacons ;  and  the  duties  pertaining  to  each  are 
plainly  defined  in  the  DiscipUne."  (See  Metho- 
dists, Wesleyan.) 

According  to  the  last  census,  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal denomination  in  the  United  States  has  12,404 
church  edifices,  with  accommodation  for  4,209,333 
persons.  Up  to  1831  this  church  had  no  foreign 
missions  except  that  to  the  North  American  Indians. 
That  year,  however,  they  commenced  a  mission  to 
Liberia  in  Africa,  and  since  that  time  they  have 


establiBlied  miesionsin  Africa,  China,  and  South  Amer- 
ica, besides  recently  making  arrangements  for  new 
mission  stations  in  Turkey  and  Hindustan.  In  tha 
year  1843 — the  year  before  the  division  of  the  church 
— the  number  of  foreign  missionaries  in  connection 
with  the  body  was  about  CO.  After  the  division  th« 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  was  formed,  its  operations  being  con- 
ducted independently  a\ton  the  same  general  princi- 
ples as  the  original  Society.  In  18.04  the  Methodist 
iCpiscopal  Church,  in  both  its  northern  and  southern 
divisions,  had  seventy-eight  missionaries  labouring 
in  foreign  parts. 

It  is  remarkable  to  what  an  extent  Methodism 
flourishes  in  the  United  States.  In  seventy  years 
the  whole  body  of  .Methodists  in  that  country  luis 
grown  from  13,000  to  1,200,000  members,  besides 
the  many  hundreds  that  have  died  during  that  time. 
"  The  Methodist,"  says  Dr.  Schaff,  •'  is  one  of  the 
most  numerous  denominations  in  America,  perhaps 
the  most  numerous,  and  in  the  state  of  Indiana  if 
even  controls  the  political  elections.  It  has  uncom- 
mon energy  and  activity,  and  enjoys  an  organization 
eminently  fitted  for  great  general  enterprises,  and  sys- 
tematic, successful  co-operation.  Its  preachers  have, 
in  general,  little  or  no  scientific  culture,  but,  on  an 
average,  a  decided  aptness  for  popular  discourse  and 
exhortation,  and  they  often  compensate  by  fidehty  and 
self-denial  for  their  want  of  deeper  knowledge.  They 
are  particularly  fitted  for  breaking  the  way  in  new 
regions,  for  aggressive  missionary  pioneer  service,  and 
for  labouring  among  the  lower  classes  of  the  people. 
Theii'  zeal,  however,  is  very  frequently  vitiated  by  im- 
pure motives  of  prosely  tism,  and  indulges  in  the  boldest 
aggressions  on  other  churches,  thinking  that  it  alone 
can  really  convert.  Amongst  the  negroes,  too,  both 
free  and  slave,  Methodism  has  most  influence,  and 
seems,  with  its  emotional  excitements,  well  adapteii 
to  their  sanguine,  excitable  temperament.  Fonnerly, 
appealing  to  the  apostles  and  evangelists  of  the  primi- 
tive church,  it  used  to  condemn  learning  and  theo- 
logy from  principle,  as  dangerous  to  practiciil  piety ; 
and  to  boast,  that  its  preachers  had  '  never  rubbed 
their  backs  against  the  walls  of  a  college,'  and  yet 
knew  the  better  how  to  catch  fish  in  the  net  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.  But  in  this  respect  a  considerable 
change  has  been,  for  some  years,  going  on.  The 
Methodists  are  now  beginnmg  to  establish  colleges 
and  seminai-ies,  to  publish  scientific  periodicals,  and 
to  follow  the  steps  of  the  culture  of  the  age.  But  it 
is  a  question  whether  they  will  not  thus  lose  more 
in  their  peculiar  character  and  influence  with  the 
masses  than  they  will  gain  in  the  more  cultivated 
circles."  In  1853  there  were  enrolled  in  the  Me- 
thodist Episcopal  Chiu-ch,  South,  1,G59  travelling 
preachers,  4,036  local  preachers,  and  529,394  mem- 
bers ;  while  the  same  church,  North,  enrols  5,100 
travelling  preachers,  6,061  local  preachers,  and 
732,637  members  under  seven  bishops. 

METHODIST  (Primitive)    CONNEXION,  a 


424 


METHODIST  (Peimitive)  CONNEXION. 


Society  of  Methodists  which  arose  in  England  out  of 
the  revivals  of  religion  which  took  place  about  the' 
commencement  of  the  present  century  among  the 
workmen  at  the  potteries  in  Staffordshire.  One  of 
the  pious  and  worthy  men  with  whom  this  denomi- 
nation of  Christians  originated  was  William  Clowes, 
who  was  himself  engaged  in  the  potter\'  business. 
Throughout  his  apprenticeship  he  seems  to  have 
pursued  an  unbroken  career  of  sin  and  folly,  not, 
however,  without  occasional  misgivings,  and  inward 
strivings  of  the  Spirit.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he 
was  brought  under  the  saving  influence  of  the  truth 
as  it  is  in  Jesus  ;  and  this  joyful  event  in  his  histoiy 
was  speedily  followed  by  the  conversion  of  his  wife. 
The  house  of  this  humble  pair  now  became  the  re- 
sort of  the  godly  and  devout  among  their  neighbours. 
William  became  emphatically  a  man  of  prayer,  and 
the  peace  of  God  flowed  through  his  soul  like  a 
mighty  river.  "  My  soul  feasted,"  he  says,  when 
speaking  in  his  Journals  of  this  period  of  his  spirit- 
ual history,  "  on  the  hidden  manna,  and  drank  the 
wine  of  the  kingdom.  My  soul  rose  in  spiritual 
greatness,  and  I  felt  withal  sucli  a  burning  sj-mpathy 
for  souls,  and  saw  their  lost  and  perishing  condition 
with  such  vividness,  that  I  went  into  the  streets 
among  the  licentious  and  profane,  and  addressed 
them  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  The  rebels  against 
God  were  struck  with  surprise  and  astonishment 
whilst  I  bore  witness  against  them,  and  cleared  my 
soul  of  their  blood.  Indeed,  the  tire  of  God's  love 
became  so  hot  in  my  soul,  as  frequently  to  constrain 
me  to  shout  and  praise  aloud,  as  I  went  along  the 
road.  On  one  occasion  I  was  praising  my  God 
aloud,  as  a  happy  inhabitant  of  the  rock,  (it  was  near 
midnight,)  and  a  woman,  who  had  formed  the  dread- 
ful resolution  to  drown  lierself,  was  actually  approach- 
ing the  water-side  for  tlie  purpose,  when  hearing  me 
shouting  glory  to  God,  she  was  instantly  arrested  in 
her  purpose.  She  reflected  upon  the  rash  and  awful 
deed  she  was  about  to  perpetrate  ;  'and  said  to  her- 
self, '  Oh  what  a  wicked  wretch  am  I,  and  what  a 
happy  man  is  he  that  shouts  and  praises  God  yonder  ! ' 
This  poor  creature  was,  therefore,  mercifully  diverted 
from  her  intention,  and  returned  home.  My  soul 
enjoyed  sucli  ecstasy,  both  niglit  and  day,  that  the 
time  I  spent  in  sleep  was  comparatively  trifling,  not- 
withstanding my  daily  labours  and  religious  exer- 
cises were  very  great ;  for,  after  the  toil  of  the  day, 
I  attended  a  meeting  every  evening,  and  usually  la- 
boured till  my  strength  failed.  My  Sabbatli  labours 
were  also  unremitting.  In  the  first  place,  tliere  was 
the  prayer-meeting  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning; 
another  followed  at  nine  ;  preaching  at  eleven  ;  band- 
meeting  at  one  ;  preaching  at  two  ;  visiting  the  sick 
at  four  ;  preaching  again  at  six  ;  afterwards  a  prayer- 
meeting  at  my  own  house, — besides  reading  the 
Scriptures,  family  and  private  prayer,  and  other  oc- 
casional duties.  In  the  midst  of  .all  this  ponderous 
labour,  I  felt  strong,  active,  and  unspeakably  happy 
in  God." 


The  prayer-meetings  which  were  held  about  thii 
time  at  William  Clowes'  house  were  attended  by 
great  inimbers  of  people,  many  of  them  under  deep 
spiritual  concern.  The  work  of  God  now  made  ra- 
pid progress  among  the  workpeople  at  Tunstall, 
Han'iseahead,  and  the  neighbourhood.  At  this  period 
two  other  kindred  spirits,  Daniel  Shubotham  and 
Hugh  BouiTie,  became  frequent  visitors  at  the  house 
of  William  Clowes,  for  the  purpose  of  conversing 
upon  spiritual  and  divine  things.  Finding  that  the 
prayer-meetings  were  blessed  to  not  a  few,  William 
and  some  of  bis  praying  friends  resolved  to  make 
still  further  efforts  to  accomplish  the  conversion  of 
sinners.  With  this  view  they  "  agreed  that  the 
person  who  should  first  address  the  throne  of  grace 
should  believe  for  the  particular  blessing  prayed  for, 
and  all  the  other  praying  labourers  should  respond 
Amen,  and  believe  also  ;  and  if  the  blessing  prayed 
for  was  not  granted,  still  to  persevere  pleading  for 
it,  until  it  was  bestowed.  We  conceived  we  were 
authorized  and  justified  by  the  Scriptures  in  praying 
and  believing  for  certain  blessings,  and  receiving 
them  in  the  act  of  believing ;  but  that  it  could  not 
answer  any  useful  purpose  in  the  exercise  of  praying 
to  God,  to  ask  perhaps  for  hundreds  of  blessings,  and 
finally  to  go  away  without  receiving  any."  As  the 
result  of  this  plan,  "  we  began,"  says  Clowes,  "  to 
see  immediate  good  done  m  the  name  of  the  Lord, 
acting  in  accordance  with  those  views  of  the  word 
of  God  which  it  is  calculated  to  inspire  ;  for  seldom 
a  meeting  took  place  but  souls  were  saved  and  be- 
lievers sanctified  to  God." 

In  addition  to  the  prayer-meetings,  a  local  preach- 
ers' meeting  was  also  estabhshed  for  mutual  improve- 
ment, and  the  discussion  of  theological  subjects. 
Tliis  meeting  was  very  profitable,  serving  as  a  school 
in  which  many  preachers  were  trained  for  more  en- 
larged splieres  of  usefulness  than  they  occupied  be- 
fore. Clowes  now  became  a  class-leader  at  a  place 
called  Kidsgi'ove,  where,  through  his  instrimienfality, 
many  of  the  roughest  colliers  were  brought  to  God. 
Hugh  Bourne  was  also  much  prospered  in  his  la- 
bours at  Ilarriseahead,  and  one  of  his  earliest  con- 
verts, Daniel  Shubotham,  was  eminently  useful  as 
a  class-leader  in  the  district.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant moral  results  which  followed,  on  the  earnest 
exertions  of  these  humble  but  devoted  men,  was  the 
suppression,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of  Sabbath- 
breaking,  which  was  a  very  prevalent  vice  in  the 
Staflbrdshire  potteries.  An  association  was  formed 
for  this  important  object,  and  speedily  a  powerful 
check  was  put  upon  Sunday  trading,  and  otlicr  vio- 
lations of  the  Christian  Sabbath.  A  tract-distribut- 
ing Society  was  organized  in  the  town  of  Burslem, 
which  sent  pious  men,  two  and  two,  round  both 
town  and  country,  to  deliver  Bibles,  Testaments,  and 
Tracts,  to  all  who  would  receive  them,  iind  a'fter 
wards  to  call  again  and  exchange  the  tracts  for  fresh 
ones.  On  these  occasions  the  tract  distributors  em- 
braced the  opportunity  of  conversing  with  the  pec- 


I 


METHODIST  (Primitive)  CONNEXION. 


425 


pie  on  the  necessity  of  directing  their  thoughts  to 
their  spiritual  concerns,  generally  concluding  their 
visit  with  eiirnest  prayer  for  the  conversion  of  every 
inmate  of  the  house.  By  such  means  a  spirit  of 
inquiry  was  excited,  first  prayer-meetings  were  estah- 
lished,  then  class-meetings,  and  sul)sequently  preach- 
ing stations  set  up.  Much  opposition  was  offered, 
but  the  work  of  conversion  went  forward,  promoted 
not  a  little  by  the  arrival  in  the  district  of  a  remark- 
able individual  named  Lorenzo  Dow,  who  preaclied 
with  power  and  great  success. 

At  this  point  in  the  history  of  the  work  of  revival, 
it  was  resolved  to  hold  a  camp-meeting  after  the  ex- 
ample of  the  American  Methodists  in  Kentucky. 
Such  a  meeting,  accordingly,  was  announced  to  take 
place  on  Salibath,  May  .31,  1807,  on  Mow-hill,  near 
the  boundary-line  which  divides  Cheshire  from  Staf- 
fordshire. This  was  the  first  camp-meeting  ever 
held  in  England,  and  from  its  close  bearing  on  the 
rise  of  Primitive  Methodism,  we  quote  an  account  of 
it  as  given  by  William  Clowes,  who  was  himself  pre- 
sent :  "  The  morning,  a  rainy  one,  was  unfavourable. 
On  my  arrival  about  six  o'clock,  I  found  a  small 
gi'oup  of  people  assembled  under  a  wall,  singing.  I 
immediately  joined  them,  and  several  of  us  engaged 
in  prayer.  When  we  had  concluded  the  singing  and 
praying  services,  a  Peter  Bradburn  preached,  and  an 
individual  from  Macclesfield  followed.  The  people 
now  began  to  be  strongly  affected,  and  we  began  an- 
other praying-service.  During  the  progress  of  these 
labours  the  people  continued  increasing  in  large 
numbers,  but  as  they  came  from  various  places  to 
the  hill,  many  did  not  know  to  wliat  point  they 
should  make.  At  last  a  person  named  Taylor,  from 
Tunstall,  suggested  that  a  flag,  or  something  of  the 
kind,  should  be  hoisted  as  a  guide  and  rallying  point. 
Accordingly,  E.  Anderson,  from  Kilham,  in  York- 
shire, unfurled  something  like  a  flag,  on  a  long  pole, 
in  a  conspicuous  and  elevated  position,  which  be- 
came the  centre  of  attraction.  It  was  about  this 
time  that  I  stood  upon  the  stand  to  address  the  peo- 
ple. I  began  my  address  by  giving  the  people  a 
statement  of  my  Christian  experience,  and  an  expla- 
nation of  the  motives  whicli  had  influenced  me  to 
attend  the  meeting  ;  then  I  followed  with  an  exhor- 
tation for  all  immediately  to  look  to  the  Lord  by 
faith  for  a  present  salvation  ;  and  whilst  I  was  warn- 
ing sinners  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come,  Jones, 
from  Burslem,  a  man  in  the  crowd,  cried  out, '  That's 
right,  Clowes,  clear  thy  blood  of  them ! '  During 
this  period  of  the  meeting,  the  unction  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  rose  with  great  po%ver.  Several  appeared  in 
distress ;  and  the  praying  labourers  engaged  most 
zealously  in  pleading  with  the  mourners.  But  this 
movement  in  the  meeting  did  not  stay  the  word  of 
exhortation  ;  it  rather  gave  greater  energy  and  effect. 
Accordingly,  a  second  stand  was  fixed,  and  a  person 
from  Ireland  gave  an  exhortation.  When  this  indi- 
vidual had  concluded,  Edward  Anderson,  already 
referred  to,  followed ;  reading  a  part  of  his  life  and 


experience  in  verse,  interspersed  with  sentences  o( 
exhortation.  As  the  jieojile  still  increased,  a  third 
stand  was  fixed,  and  in  the  afternoon,  a  fourth  was 
erected ;  and  all  were  occupied  with  preachers, 
preaching  at  the  same  time  ;  at  this  period  the  wea- 
ther was  very  fine,  and  the  crowds  of  people  im- 
mensely large.  The  first  day's  praying  on  Mow-hill 
then  presented  a  most  magnificent  and  sublime  spec- 
tacle. Four  preachers,  sinudtancously  crying  to  sin- 
ners to  flee  from  the  wratli  to  come ;  thousands  lis- 
tening, alTected  with  '  thoughts  that  breathed,  and 
words  that  buni'd;'  many  in  deep  distress,  and 
others  pleading  with  Heaven  in  their  behalf;  some 
praising  God  aloud  for  the  great  things  which  were 
brought  to  pass,  whilst  others  were  rejoicing  in  the 
testimony  they  had  received,  that  their  sins,  which 
were  many,  had  been  all  forgiven.  The  camp-meet- 
ing continued  full  of  glory  and  converting  power. 
About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  numbers  of 
people  were  prodigiously  large  !  but  after  this  time 
many  began  to  move  oli',  and  homewards ;  yet  the 
power  of  the  Highest  continued  with  undiminished 
force  and  effect  to  the  very  last.  Towards  the  con 
elusion,  the  services  were  principally  carried  on  by 
praying  companies,  and  at  the  close,  which  took 
place  about  half-past  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
several  (six)  souls  were  set  at  liberty.  The  glory 
that  filled  my  soul  on  that  day  far  exceeds  my  power 
to  explain.  Much  of  the  good  wrought  at  this  great 
meeting  remains ;  but  the  full  amount  of  that  good, 
eternity  alone  will  develop  to  the  myriads  of  the 
angelic  and  sainted  inhabitants,  who  will  everiast- 
ingly  laud  the  eternal  Majesty  on  account  of  the 
day's  praying  on  Mow-hill  1 " 

A  second  camp-meeting  was  held  at  the  same 
place  on  the  19th  of  July  ;  and  a  third  at  Norton  on 
the  2.3d  of  August.  The  design  of  these  two  latter 
is  described  as  having  been  to  "  coimteract  the  effects 
resulting  from  the 'wakes' or  annual  parish  feasts, 
at  which  much  riot  and  sensuality  usually  took  place  ; 
and  at  such  seasons,  not  unfrcquently,  professors  of 
religion  were  drawn  from  their  steadfastness.  To 
stay  the  torrent  of  evil,  to  preserve  God's  people, 
and  to  effect  the  conversion  of  sinners  to  God,  were 
the  ruUng  motives  which  influenced  us  in  arranging 
these  meetings." 

All  the  persons  who  were  mainly  concerned  in 
planning  and  conducting  these  camp-meetings  were 
thus  far  connected  with  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  So- 
ciety, but  their  proceedings  met  with  decided  disap- 
probation from  the  Wesleyan  preachers  in  the  Buis- 
lem  circuit,  who  after  a  time  expelled  them  from 
their  body,  simply  on  the  ground  that  they  attended 
camp-meetings,  which  were  alleged  to  be  contrary 
to  the  Methodist  discipline.  This  act  was  regarded 
as  being  in  accordance  with  a  minute  passed  by 
the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  1807,  which  declared, 
"  It  is  our  judgment,  that  even  supposing  such 
meetings  to  be  allowed  in  America,  they  are  highly 
improper  in  England,  and  likely  to  be  productive  of 


426 


METHODIST  (Primitive)  CONNEXION. 


considerable  niiscliief ;  we  disclaim  all  connexion  with 
them."  William  Clowes,  thus  driven  out  from  the 
Wesleyan  body,  still  continued  along  witli  his  friends, 
to  labour  with  unwearied  energy  in  preacliing,  hold- 
ing prayer-meetings,  and  other  operations  of  a  na- 
ture fitted  to  advance  the  spiritual  good  of  men. 
Tlie  burden,  however,  of  the  camp-meetings  which 
were  held  from  time  to  time,  chiefly  rested  upon  H. 
and  J.  Bourne,  and  exposed  them  to  much  obloquy, 
besides  involving  them  in  various  difficulties,  and 
almost  ruining  them  in  their  worldly  circumstances. 

The  brethren  carried  on  their  classes  and  mission- 
ary labours  with  great  zeal  and  success,  but  in  se- 
parate and  detached  parties,  without  any  particular 
bond  of  union  or  organization.  On  the  30th  of  May 
1811,  however,  the  work  assumed,  for  the  first  time, 
a  regular  connexional  aspect,  for  at  that  date  quar- 
terly society  tickets  were  ordered  to  be  printed,  and 
given  to  the  members  of  all  the  classes,  and  regular 
visitations  of  all  the  societies  to  take  place.  The 
introduction  of  tickets  was  followed  by  a  regulation 
tending  still  more  to  unite  the  various  Societies  which 
liad  now  become  both  numerous  and  wide-spread. 
Hitlierto  the  whole  expenses  of  the  missionary  and 
other  operations  bad  been  borne  by  four  individuals, 
tut  as  these  men  were  wholly  dependent  for  their 
siqiport  upon  the  labour  of  their  bands,  it  had  now 
become  necessary  to  devise  some  other  means  of 
raising  money  to  meet  the  increasing  expenses  of 
the  movement.  The  people  generally  were  quite 
willing  to  assist,  but  had  never  been  called  upon  to 
subscribe.  A  general  meeting,  accordingly,  was  held 
at  Tunstall  on  the  26th  of  July  1811,  when  it  was 
resolved  tliat  money  should  in  future  be  regularly 
raised  in  the  Societies  to  meet  the  expenditure  of 
the  Connexion.  A  preachers'  plan  about  this  time 
was  foi-med,  and  preaching  appointments  regularly 
arranged.  There  were  now  on  the  list  2  travelling 
preachers;  15  local  preachers;  200  members,  and 
17  preaching  places. 

Early  in  the  following  year  a  meeting  was  held  at 
Tunstall,  which  is  thus  noticed  in  Hugh  Bourne's 
Journal,  "Thursday,  Februaiy  13,  1812,  we  called 
a  meeting,  made  plans  for  the  next  quarter,  and 
made  some  other  regulations;  in  particular,  we  took 
the  name  of  the  Primitive  Methodist  Connex- 
ion." The  reason  assigned  for  taking  this  name  is 
stated  to  have  been,  "  because  we  wish  to  walk  as 
closely  as  we  can  in  the  steps  of  John  Wesley."  An 
attempt  was  now  made  by  the  Wesleyan  body  in  the 
Burslem  circuit,  to  persuade  the  newly-formed  Society 
to  return  to  the  Old  Connexion,  assigning  as  an  in- 
ducement that  it  would  be  for  the  glory  of  God,  and 
would  spread  more  tlw  kingdom  of  Christ  in  the 
world.  The  letter  containing  this  invitation  was 
taken  into  serious  consideration,  and  the  proposal 
was  respectfully  but  firmly  declined. 

The  Primitive  Methodic  Conncrion  was  now  or- 
ganized as  a  separate  and  independent  body  of 
Christiang.     Arrangements  were  made  for  holding 


regular  quarterly  meetings  for  the  management  of 
their  affairs.  A  code  of  rules  was  drawn  up  for  tli« 
u!ie  of  the  Connexion  at  large,  and  having  been  sub 
mitted  for  approval  to  the  Societies  by  the  preachers, 
they  were  carefully  revised  according  to  the  sugges- 
tions made  and  printed  in  their  authorized  form  early 
in  1814.  In  this  same  year  an  important  step  in 
advance  was  made  by  the  establishment  of  the  office 
of  Superintendent  Preacher.  The  Connexion  was 
now  extending  its  labours  over  a  wide  extent  ol 
country,  but  particularly  in  Derbysliire,  where  it 
was  joined  by  large  numbers  of  the  labouring  popu- 
lation. At  Belper,  in  that  county,  several  prayer 
meetings  were  conducted  with  gi-eat  success.  Hugh 
Bourne  tells  us,  that  "  when  these  veiy  powerful 
meetings  were  closed,  the  praying  people  in  return- 
ing home  were  accustomed  to  sing  through  the 
streets  of  Belper.  "This  circumstance,"  he  says, 
"  procured  them  the  name  of  Ranters ;  and  the  name 
of  Ranter,  which  tirst  arose  on  this  occasion,  after- 
wards spread  very  extensively."  It  is  very  impro- 
per and  utterly  unchristian  to  apply  opprobrious 
terms  to  any  class  of  men  who  are  seeking  according 
to  the  light  given  them  to  advance  the  cause  o( 
Christ.  The  Primitive  Methodists  as  a  body,  have 
ever  shown  themselves  to  be  an  earnest,  laborious, 
self-denying  class  of  men,  whose  effisrts  have  doubt- 
less been  blessed  in  many  cases  to  the  conversion  of 
souls. 

The  missionary  labours  of  William  Clowes  now 
extended  into  Nottinghamshire,  and  thence  into 
Leicestershire.  The  camp  meetings,  however,  which 
in  their  commencement  had  been  so  successful,  be- 
gan about  this  time  to  decline  in  their  influence  and 
usefubiess.  Hugh  Bourne,  who  had  hitherto  taken 
a  special  interest  in  this  department  of  the  work, 
carefully  examined  the  matter  to  discover  if  poBsible 
the  causes  of  this  decline,  and  coming  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  too  much  importance  was  attached  to 
preacliing,  and  too  little  to  praying,  he  resolved  to 
take  a  hint  on  this  point  from  the  American  Camp 
Meetings,  and,  accordingly,  he  arranged  that  each 
hour  devoted  to  preaching,  should  be  followed  by  an 
hour  devoted  to  prayer,  and  that  this  practice  should 
be  continued  throughout  the  whole  day.  This  change 
restored  in  a  gi'eat  measure  the  former  efficiency  of 
the  meetings,  which  were  attended  by  thousands  oi 
people. 

In  1819,  the  work  extended  into  Yorkshire,  and 
to  carry  forward  operations  ui  this  quarter,  William 
Clowes  was  stationed  at  Hull.  At  this  time  was  in- 
troduced the  system  of  dividuig  circuits  inio  branches, 
which  could  easily,  when  judged  proper,  be  formed 
into  new  circuits.  And  as  the  entire  connexion  was 
increasing  rapidly,  another  important  step  was  taken 
in  advance  by  the  institution  of  regular  Annual 
Meetings,  the  first  of  which  was  held  at  Hull  on  the 
2d  of  May  1820.  These  were  appointed  to  consist 
of  three  delegates  from  each  circuit,  one  of  whom 
was  to  be  a  travelling  preacher.    The  report  of  the 


METHODIST  (PiiiMiTivi;)  CONNICXION. 


427 


connexion  now  stood  as  follows : — 8  circuits ;  48  tra- 
velling iii'eachors,  277  lociil  preachers,  and  7,842 
members.  At  the  Conference  in  1821  several  im- 
portant resolutions  were  adopted.  It  was  decided 
tliat  a  printing-press  should  be  established  for  the 
connexion,  and  also  a  ISook-room.  The  cause  was 
now  making  such  encouraging  progress,  that  at  the 
Conference  in  1822  the  number  of  members  was  re- 
ported to  have  risen  to  2.5,218. 

Mr.  Clowes,  by  his  ardent  missionary  zeal,  had 
rendered  the  Ilnll  circuit  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
in  the  whole  body,  and  having  been  so  successful  in 
Vorkshire,  he  extended  his  o|ierations  into  Northum- 
berland, and  afterwards  into  Cumberland.  In  1824, 
he  proceeded  to  London,  but  the  work  went  heavily 
and  slowly  on  in  the  metropolis.  He  next  proceeded 
by  invitation  into  Cornwall,  and  after  labouring 
there  for  a  time,  returned  to  the  northern  counties 
of  England,  where  he  was  so  prospered  in  liis  mis- 
sionary etibrts,  that  great  numbers  were  enrolled  as 
members  of  the  Society,  and  not  a  few  seemed  to 
give  evidence  of  having  been  savingly  converted. 

The  doctrines  of  the  rrimitivo  Methodists  are 
declared  in  their  Deed  Poll  to  be  "  those  contained 
in  the  first  four  volumes  of  AVesley's  Sermons,  and 
certain  Notes  by  him  on  the  New  Testament." 
In  the  leading  articles  of  Christianity,  therefore, 
they  agi'ee  with  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  as  set 
forth  in  their  published  standards.  The  charac- 
teristic doctrine,  however,  of  Primitive  Methodism, 
is,  as  one  of  the  body  alleges,  "  that  of  a  full,  free, 
and  present  salvation,"  and  they  believe  in  the 
doctrine  of  instantaneous  conversions.  In  defending 
this  doctrine,  they  argue  that  "  sudden  conversions 
are  in  accordance  with  Scripture.  In  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  we  find  that  ordinarily  conversions 
were  sudden  under  their  ministry.  The  3,000  con- 
versions on  the  day  of  Pentecost  all  appear  to  have 
taken  place  during  the  sittings  of  one  assembly ;  and 
all  the  subsequent  outpourings  of  the  Spirit  with 
which  the  first  f.ge  of  Christianity  was  blessed  .seem- 
ed to  have  been  characterized  by  conversions  of  this 
sort.  Though  Saul  was  three  days  seeking  the 
Lord,  yet  the  jailer  of  Philippi  and  all  his  house 
were  converted  in  one  hovr!  And  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  such  conversions  were  every  day  tak- 
ing place  under  the  ministry  of  the  apostles.  Not 
only  the  example  of  Scripture,  but  the  general  spirit 
and  genius  of  the  Bible  are  favourable  to  sudden 
conversion.  The  Bible  calls  upon  men  to  repent 
now!  It  does  not  instruct  them  to  adopt  a  course 
of  action  preparatory  to  their  doing  so,  but  allows  of 
no  delay.  Its  language  is,  '  Behold,  now  is  the  ac- 
cepted time;  behold,  nmo  is  the  day  of  salvation.' 
udden  conversions  are  neither  unpliilosophical,  un- 
Bcriptm'al,  nor  unusu.al." 

This  body  of  Christians,  at  least  the  great  majo- 
rity of  its  preachers  and  members,  is  unfavourable  to 
all  national  establishments  of  religion.  They  main- 
tain the  doctrine  and  follow  the  practice  of  infant 


baptism,  but  they  reject  the  dogma  of  baptismal  re- 
generation. One  of  the  comiexional  rules  is,  "  that 
the  preachers  and  members  use  every  prudential 
means  to  encourage  Temperance  Societies;"  and 
another  that  "  none  of  the  preachers  shall  be  allowed 
to  make  speeches  at  parliamentary  elections,  or  at 
political  meetings." 

Tlie  condition  on  which  members  are  admitted  into 
the  Society  of  the  Primitive  Methodists,  is  simply 
that  the  applicant  is  animated  by  "a  desire  to  flee 
from  the  wrath  to  come."  Three  months'  probation 
is  required  before  full  admission  is  granted  into  fel- 
lowshii).  Members  can  only  be  excluded  from  com- 
munion by  a  proved  wilful  immorality ;  or  absence 
from  class  four  weeks  successively  without  assigning 
sufEcient  reason  for  such  absence.  The  Connexion 
is  composed  of  classes,  one  member  of  which  is  called 
the  Leader,  and  usually  another  called  the  assistant. 
The  members  of  each  class  have  their  names  entered 
in  a  class-book ;  and  further,  each  member  holds 
Society  ticket  which  is  renewed  quarterly.  A  mem- 
ber removing  from  one  place  to  another  is  furnished 
with  credentials.  The  lay-officers  of  the  body  are, 
the  "  Leader,"  corresponding  to  the  "  Elder"  of  the 
New  Testament ;  and  the  "  Society  Steward,"  corres- 
ponding to  the  "  Deacon."  It  is  regarded  as  an  in- 
dispensable qualification  of  a  preacher  among  the 
Primitive  Methodists,  that  he  give  satisfactoiy  evi 
dence  of  a  scriptural  conversion  to  God,  and  of  a 
Divine  call.  In  the  induction  of  preachers  to  the 
ministerial  office,  there  is  no  ceremony  or  laying  on 
of  hands  as  in  the  case  of  ordination  in  otliei 
churches.  From  the  period  of  a  preacher  being 
"  called  out,"  he  enters  on  a  probation  of  four  years 
after  which,  if  successful,  he  is  admitted  into  full 
connexion.  The  salary  allowed  to  a  preacher  of  the 
gospel  is  proverbially  small,  so  that  there  is  no  temp- 
tation to  any  one  to  undertake  the  ministerial  office 
from  mere  worldly  motives. 

The  object  of  the  Primitive  Methodist  Connexion 
is  "to  aid  in  extending  the  kingdom  of  Christ 
throughout  the  world  by  preaching  the  gospel  in 
the  open  air,  private  houses,  and  public  edifices,  and 
by  holding  various  religious  services  throughout  its 
societies,  congregations,  circuits,  branches,  and  mis- 
sions." The  constitution  of  the  body  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Church  in  his  'Sketches  of  Primitive 
Methodism:'  "A  number  of  societies  or  classes  in 
different  places  form  what  is  called  a  mission ;  or 
when  self-supporting,  a  circuit.  This  generally  in- 
cludes a  market  town,  and  the  circumjacent  viUages, 
to  the  extent  of  ten  or  twenty  miles.  Two,  three,  or 
more  preachers,  are  annually  appointed  to  a  circuit; 
one  of  these  is  called  the  superintendent.  This  cir- 
cuit is  their  sphere  of  labour  for  at  least  one  year, 
and  not  exceeding  three  years ;  while  the  superin 
tendent  may  probably  remain  five  or  six  years  in  the 
same  circuit.  This  constant  change  of  preachers  is 
an  excellent  rule.  '  Some  indeed,  have  imagined 
that  this  is  a  hindrance  to  the  work  of  God;  bat 


428 


METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 


long  experience  in  every  part  of  tlie  liingdom  proves 
to  the  contrary. 

"  A  number  of  circuits,  from  five  to  ten,  more  or 
fewer,  according  to  circumstances,  compose  a  dis- 
trict. Tlie  Primitive  Metliodist  Connexion  is  divid- 
ed into  14  districts.  Each  district  has  an  annual 
meeting,  preparatory  to  the  Conference.  It  is  at- 
tended by  a  travelUng  preacher,  or  a  lay  delegate 
from  eacli  of  the  circuits  belonging  to  the  district, 
and  also  by  a  delegate  from  tlie  general  or  '  Coniiex- 
ional  Committee.'  '  The  district  meeting,'  according 
to  the  Various  Reguktions  of  1836,  'inquires  re- 
specting the  conduct  and  success  of  each  travelUng 
preacher;  and  whether  any  trespass  on  the  rules 
respecting  preaching,  or  are  neghgent  in  ministerial 
family  visiting,  or  in  other  duties,  and  notes  the 
same  on  the  minutes.' 

"  Six  delegates  from  each  district  attend  the  Con- 
ference. 'They  shall  consist,'  says  the  Deed  Poll, 
'  of  the  travelhng  preachers,  one-tliird ;  and  the 
other  two-thirds  shall  consist  of  those  members  who 
shall  sustain  each  the  office  of  local  preacher,  class- 
leader,  or  circuit  steward.'  The  majority,  therefore, 
is  as  two  to  one  in  favour  of  the  people.  Laws  made 
at  the  Conference  govern  the  Connexion.  The  Con- 
ference is  the  supreme  church  court.  It  also  exa- 
mines the  number  of  members,  finances,  &c.,  and 
stations  the  preachers  for  the  ensuing  year." 

Open-air  worship  is  frequently  practised  by  the 
Primitive  Methodists.  At  the  risk  of  imprisonment 
and  persecution  they  "  go  out  into  the  highways  and 
liedges  to  compel  soiJs  to  come  in,"  and  be  saved. 
Love-feasts  are  observed  from  time  to  time,  at  which 
bread  and  water  are  distributed  in  token  of  Christian 
fellowship.  Watch-nights  also,  after  the  manner  of 
the  vigils  of  the  ancients,  are  held  on  the  last  night 
of  the  year ;  and  on  these  occasions  the  services 
consist  of  prayer,  praise,  and  exhortation  by  preach- 
ers. Silence  is  usually  observed  a  few  minutes  be- 
fore midnight,  and  until  the  new  year  has  commenced, 
when  the  services  are  ended.  Protracted  meetings, 
which  originated  in  America,  were  introduced  into 
England  by  a  Primitive  Methodist  preacher  in  1838, 
and  they  have  ever  since  been  resorted  to  by  the 
body  generally,  as  a  favourite  means  of  bringing 
about  a  revival  of  religion.  Tlie  ordinary  worship  of 
tlie  Society  is  characterized  by  great  liveliness  and 
excitement,  the  people  being  accustomed  to  utter 
liearty  responses  with  loud  voices  in  the  course  of 
the  devotional  exercises.  In  not  a  few  of  their  con- 
gi'egations  instrumental  music  has  been  introduced, 
though  others  are  much  opposed  to  what  they  regard 
as  an  unwarranted  innovation  on  the  primitive  sim- 
phcity  of  Christian  worship. 

The  Priinitivo  Methodists  have  from  their  first 
rise  admitted  of  a  practice  which  is  unknown  in 
other  dononiinatior/',  with  the  exception  of  the 
Friends,  that  of  female  preacliing.  It  has  been  some- 
times argued  in  defence  of  this  practice,  that  it  ig 
not  epecifically  condenuicd  in  Scripture,  and  lias  in 


many  cases  b^en  blessed  for  the  good  of  souls.  But 
while  in  sevoral  circuits  females  are  still  employed 
occasionally  as  local  or  lay  preachers,  female  preach- 
ing is  gi-eatly  on  the  decline  throughout  the  Con- 
nexion generally.  In  this  and  a  few  other  particulars 
the  Primitive  Methodists  differ  from  other  churches, 
but  wiih  all  their  pecuharities,  they  are  a  body  of 
simple-hearted  and  devoted  Christians,  whose  pre- 
doniii:/»nt  desire  is  to  win  souls  to  Christ. 

The  Primitive  Methodist  Magazine  commenced  in 
1818.  Subsequently  it  was  edited  by  Hugh  Bom-ne 
until  1S43,  when  a  new  series  was  begun  imder  the 
editorship  of  Jolm  Flesher,  and  under  the  present 
arrangement  a  new  editor  is  appointed  every  five 
years.  "  Hitherto,"  says  Mr.  Church,  referring 
to  18*4,  "  the  Connexion  has  been  isolated  in  its 
missionary  operations.  Each  circuit,  which  has 
been  able,  has  employed  a  missionaiy,  and,  with 
few  exceptions,  has  had  to  support  him  with  its  own 
resources.  In  the  youth  of  the  Connexion  this  plan 
appears  to  have  been  best  adapted  for  the  diffusion 
of  its  energies  through  tlie  land ;  but  growing  events 
seem  to  demand  a  different  state  of  things,  and  hence 
arrangements  were  made  at  the  Conference  to  con 
centrate  our  missionary  energies  in  part,  that  we  may 
try,  on  a  partial  scale,  whether  the  plan  is  not  better 
siuted  to  the  altered  condition  of  the  Connexion. 
In  April,  two  missionaries  set  out  for  America. 
Duiing  the  same  month  an  association  of  Sunday- 
scholars  was  formed  to  support  a  missionary  to  and 
at  Adelaide,  South  Australia."  The  following  year 
an  association  of  Sunday-scliool  teachers  was  formed 
to  sustain  a  missionary  in  New  Zealand.  The  Con- 
nexion now  organized  a  foreign  missionary  Society, 
adopting  Canada,  New  Zealand,  and  Australia,  as 
theii-  fields  of  labour.  The  total  number  of  their 
foreign  missionaries  throughout  the  world  is  at  present 
40 ;  of  whom  22  are  in  Canada,  14  in  Australia,  and 
4  in  New  Zealand.  The  whole  number  of  members 
ill  their  foreign  stations  is  3,363.  From  the  General 
Minutes  of  the  Annual  Conference  held  in  June 
1857,  we  leam  that  the  travelling  preachers  of  the 
whole  Connexion  amount  to  598,  the  local  preachers 
to  10,205,  and  the  members,  including  the  Home  and 
Foreign  Missions,  in  connection  with  the  Briti.sli 
Conference,  to  110,683.  The  Primitive  Methodists 
have  uniformly  taken  a  very  lively  interest  in  the 
religious  education  of  the  young.  Their  Sabbath 
scliools  were  reported  at  the  last  Annual  Conference 
to   be    1,092,   with   25,403    teachers,   and   139,480 

METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN 
AMERICA,  a  respectable  body  of  seceders  from  the 
Mellwduit  Episcopal  Church,  who  formed  themselves 
into  a  regularly  organized  churcli  in  1830,  the  first 
General  Convention  of  the  body  having  been  held  in 
that  year  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  State  of  Mary- 
land. It  would  appear  that  at  an  early  period  in  tlie 
history  of  Methodism  in  America,  exception  was 
taken  by  not  a  few  members  of  the  body  to  a  pecu- 


MliTllUDIST  I'KOTESTANT  CJIUJiCU  IN  AMEUICA. 


429 


liar  feature  in  the  government  adopted  by  the  Con- 
furence  in  1784,  which  consisted  exclusively  of 
preacliers.  Tlie  oljnoxious  feature  was  tliat  whieli 
secured  to  the  itinerant  ministers  the  entire  exercise 
of  the  lei;islative,  executive,  and  judicial  powers  of 
the  cliurch  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  classes  of 
ministers,  as  well  as  the  whole  nicnibersliij)  of  tlie 
body.  The  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  which  so  soon 
manifested  itself,  continued  every  year  to  gain  ground, 
until  at  lenglli,  in  1820,  the  feelings  of  the  Reform- 
ing partv  found  vent  in  a  periodical  which  was  insti- 
tuted, called  the  '  Wesleyan  Repository.'  Numer- 
ous petitions  were  now  presented  to  the  Conference 
from  all  (juartcrs  of  the  country,  praying  for  a  repre- 
sentation of  both  ministers  and  laymen  in  the  ride- 
making  department ;  but  no  change  either  in  the 
principles  or  practical  operations  of  the  body  could 
he  obtained.  At  length,  at  the  close  of  the  Con- 
feretice  in  1824,  a  meeting  of  the  reforming  party 
was  held  in  Baltimore,  at  which  it  was  determined 
to  publish  a  periodical  pamphlet,  entitled  '  The  Mu- 
tu.al  Rights  of  the  Ministers  and  Members  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,'  for  the  purpose,  as  was 
alleged,  of  giving  the  Methodist  community  a  suita- 
ble opportunity  to  enter  upon  a  calm  and  dispa.ssion- 
■ate  discussion  of  the  subjects  in  dispute.  The  meet- 
ing also  determined  to  resolve  itself  into  a  Union 
Society,  and  recommended  similar  societies  to  be 
formed  in  all  parts  of  the  United  St.ates,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  number  of  persons  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  friendly  to  a  change  in  her  gov- 
ernment. These  steps  exposed  the  reformers  to 
much  persecution  and  annoyance,  but  their  views 
were  adopted  by  a  large  body  of  zealous  Methodists. 
The  further  history  of  the  controversy,  until  the 
secession  actually  took  place,  is  thus  stated  by  the 
Rev.  Thomas  P.  Norris :  "  Sometime  during  the 
spring  of  the  year  1820,  the  Baltimore  Union  So- 
ciety recommended  state  conventions  to  be  held  in 
the  several  States,  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  mak- 
ing inquiry  into  the  propriety  of  making  07ie  united 
petition  to  the  approaching  General  Conference  of 
1828,  praying  for  representation ;  and  to  elect  dele- 
gates to  meet  in  a  General  Convention  for  the  pur- 
pose. Conventions  were  accordingly  held,  and  dele- 
gates elected  ;  in  consequence  of  wliich,  reformers,  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  were  made  to  feel  the 
displeasure  of  men  in  power.  In  North  Carolina,  sev- 
eral members  of  the  Granville  Union  Society  were 
expelled  for  being  members  thereof.  In  the  fall  of 
1827,  eleven  ministers  were  suspended,  and  fin.ally 
expelled  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  this 
church  in  Baltimore,  and  twenty-two  laymen,  for 
being  members  of  the  Union  Society,  and  supporters 
of  mutual  rights.  The  members  expelled,  and  others 
who  saw  fit  to  secede,  organized  under  Mr.  Wes- 
ley's general  rules,  taking  the  title  of  Associated 
Methodists. 

"  In  November  1827,  the  General  Convention  as- 
sembled in  Baltimore,    composed   of  ministers  and 


lay  delegates,  elected  by  the  State  Conventions  and 
Union  Societies.  This  Convention  prepared  a  me- 
moriid  to  the  General  Conference  of  May  1828,  pray- 
ing that  the  govcniment  of  the  church  might  be 
made  representative,  and  more  in  accordance  with 
the  mutual  rights  of  the  ministers  and  people.  To 
this  memorial  the  General  Conference  replied,  in 
a  circular,  claiming  for  the  itinerant  ministers  of 
their  church  an  exclusive  divine  right  to  the  same 
unlimited  and  unamenable  power,  which  they  had 
exercised  over  the  whole  church  from  the  establish- 
ment of  their  government  in  1784.  Soon  after 
the  rise  of  the  General  Conference,  several  refoiiners 
in  Cincimiati,  Lyncliburg,  and  other  places,  were  ex- 
pelled for  being  members  of  Union  Societies  and 
supporters  of  the  mutual  rights. 

"  The  reformers,  now  perceiving  that  all  hope  of 
obtaining  a  change  in  the  government  of  the  church 
had  vanished,  withdrew,  in  considerable  numbers,  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  called  an- 
other General  Convention  to  assemble  in  Baltimore, 
November  12,  1828.  This  Convention  drew  up 
seventeen  'Articles  of  Association,'  to  serve  as  a 
provisional  government  for  the  Associated  Methodist 
churches,  until  a  constitution  and  book  of  discipline 
could  be  prepared  by  a  subsequent  Convention  to  lie 
held  in  November  1830." 

The  first  General  Convention,  accordingly,  at 
which  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church  was  regulai'- 
ly  organized,  was  held  at  Baltimore  in  1830.  The 
meeting  commenced  on  the  2d  of  November,  and  con 
tinued  in  session  till  the  23d  inclusive.  It  was  attend 
ed  by  eighty-three  ministerial,  and  a  large  number  of 
lay  representatives  of  about  5,000  members  of  the 
respective  associated  Methodists,  a  large  majority  of 
whom  had  already  withdrawn  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  on  account  of  her  government  and 
hostility  to  lay  representation.  In  this  important 
Convention,  a  form  of  constitution  and  discipline  for 
the  newly  organized  church  was  considered  and 
approved.  The  principles  on  wliich  the  Secession 
proceeded  are  tlius  stated  in  the  preamble  and  arti 
cles  which  precede  the  constitution  :  "  We  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Associated  Methodist  churches  in 
General  Convention  assembled,  acknowledging  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  the  oidy  head  of  the  church, 
and  the  Word  of  God  as  the  sufficient  rule  of  faith 
and  practice,  in  all  things  pertaining  to  godliness; 
and  being  fully  persuaded,  that  the  representative 
form  of  church  government  is  the  most  scriptural, 
best  suited  to  our  condition,  and  most  congenial  with 
our  views  and  feelings  as  fellow-citizens  with  the 
saints,  and  of  the  household  of  God  ;  and  whereas  a 
written  constitution,  estabhshing  the  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  securing  to  the  ministers  and  members  of 
the  church  their  rights  and  privileges,  is  the  best 
safeguard  of  Christian  liberty  :  We.  therefore,  trust- 
ing in  the  protection  of  Almighty  God,  and  acting  in 
the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  our  constituents, 
do  ordain  and  establish,  and  agree  to  be  governed  by 


430 


METHODIST  (Reformed)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 


the  following  elementary  principles  and  constitution  : 

"  1.  A  Christian  church  is  a  society  of  believers 
in  Jesus  Christ,  and  is  a  divine  institution. 

"  2.  Christ  is  the  only  Head  of  the  church  ;  and 
the  Word  of  God  the  only  rule  of  faith  and  conduct. 

"  3.  No  person  who  loves  the  Lord  Jesus  Clirist, 
and  obeys  the  gospel  of  God,  our  Saviour,  ought  to 
be  deprived  of  church  membership. 

"4.  Every  man  has  an  inalienable  riglit  to  private 
judgment,  in  matters  of  religion ;  and  an  equal  right 
to  express  his  opinion,  in  any  way  which  will  not 
violate  the  laws  of  God.  or  the  rights  of  his  fellow- 
men. 

"5.  Church  trials  should  be  conducted  on  gospel 
principles  only  ;  and  no  minister  or  member  should 
be  excommunicated  except  for  immorality  ;  the  pro- 
pagation of  unchristian  doctrines  ;  or  for  the  neglect 
of  duties  enjoined  by  the  Word  of  God. 

"  6.  The  pastoral  or  ministerial  office  and  duties 
are  of  divine  appointment ;  and  all  elders  in  the 
church  of  God  are  equal ;  but  ministers  are  forbidden 
to  be  lords  over  God's  heritage,  or  to  have  dominion 
over  the  faith  of  the  saints. 

"  7.  The  church  has  a  right  to  form  and  enforce 
such  rules  and  regulations  only,  as  are  in  accordance 
with  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  may  be  necessary  or 
liave  a  tendency  to  carry  into  eftect  the  great  sys- 
tem of  practical  Christianity. 

"  8.  Whatever  power  may  be  necessary  to  the  for- 
mation of  rules  and  regulations,  is  inherent  in  the 
ministers  and  members  of  the  church ;  but  so  much 
of  that  power  may  be  delegated,  from  time  to  time, 
upon  a  plan  of  representation,  as  they  may  judge 
necessary  and  proper. 

"  9.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  ministers  and  members  of 
the  church  to  maintain  godliness,  and  to  oppose  all 
moral  evil. 

"  10.  It  is  obligatory  on  ministers  of  the  gospel  to 
be  faithful  in  the  discharge  of  their  pastoral  and  min- 
isterial duties  ;  and  it  is  also  obligatoiy  on  the  mem- 
bers, to  esteem  ministers  highly  for  tlieir  works' 
sake,  and  to  render  them  a  righteous  compensation 
for  their  labours. 

"11.  The  church  ought  to  secure  to  all  lier  official 
bodies  the  necessary  authority  for  the  pui-jioses  of 
good  government ;  but  she  has  no  right  to  create  any 
distinct  or  independent  sovereignties." 

Lay  representation  being  adopted  as  an  essential 
element  in  the  constitution  of  the  Methodist  Pro- 
testant Church,  its  General  Conference,  which  meets 
every  seventh  year,  is  composed  of  an  e(|ual  number 
of  ministers  and  laymen,  being  one  minister  and  one 
layman  for  every  thousand  persons  of  its  member- 
ship. The  Annual  Conferences  consist  of  all  the 
ordamed  itinerant  ministers,  and  of  one  delegate  from 
each  circuit  and  station  within  the  bounds  of  the 
district,  for  each  of  its  itinerant  ministers  The 
Quarterly  Conferences  are  the  immediate  official 
meetings  of  the  circuits  and  stations.  The  leaders' 
meeting,  and,  indeed,  i>ll  tjie  other  arrangements,  are 


similar  to  those  of  the  clmroh  from  which  they  se- 
ceded. The  only  difference  between  the  two  churches 
lies  in  government,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
rejecting  lay  representation,  and  adopting  an  unli- 
mited episcopacy,  while  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church  admits  lay  representation,  and  a  parity  in 
the  ministry. 

METHODIST  (Reformed)  CHURCH  IN 
AMERICA.  This  body  sprung  out  of  a  feeble  se- 
cession which  took  place  from  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  in  1814.  The  original  seceders  amounted 
to  no  more  than  fourteen  persons  belonging  to  the 
towns  of  Wliitiiigham  and  Readsborough,  Vermont, 
who  felt  straitened  in  (heir  religious  rights  and  pri- 
vileges under  the  Episcopal  mode  of  church  govern- 
ment. Having  represented  their  grievances  to  the 
General  Conference,  and  meeting  with  no  favoura- 
ble answer,  they  formally  separated  from  the  church, 
and  on  the  16th  of  January  1814  met  in  convention 
at  Readsborough.  At  this  Convention  they  formed 
themselves  into  a  church  under  the  name  of  the 
"Reformed  Methodist  Church,"  and  appointed  a 
Conference  to  be  held  on  the  following  5tli  of  Feb- 
ruary, at  which  they  adopted  articles  of  religion  and 
rules  of  church  government. 

The  Reformed  Jlethodists  agree  with  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  in  regard  to  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  gospel.  Their  system  of  church  gov. 
enmient  is  essentially  Congregational  in  its  character, 
all  power  being  considered  as  vested  in  the  primary 
bodies,  the  churches.  The  leading  men  among  the 
Reformed  Methodists  have  generally  maintained, 
that  the  same  faith  would  produce  the  same  effects  it 
did  in  primitive  times.  They  believe  that  the  church 
has  apostatized ;  that  as  all  blessings  given  in  an- 
swer to  prayer  are  suspended  upon  the  condition 
of  faith,  therefore,  faith  is  the  restoring  principle. 
They  dare  not  limit  faith  except  by  a  "  thus  saith 
the  Lord,"  and  hence  they  believe  that  the  sick  aie 
often  restored  to  health  in  answer  to  their  prayers. 
Another  peculiar  tenet  which  they  maintain  is,  that 
it  is  possible  for  a  believer  to  attain  perfection  in 
this  world  or  complete  sanctiiication  of  heart  and  life 
through  faith  in  the  atoning  blood  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  They  hold  that  the  church  of  Christ  is  a 
spiritual  body,  and  tli.it  members  ouglit  to  be  admit- 
ted into  tlie  church,  not  by  subscribing  certain  doc- 
trines, but  by  exhibiting  clear  evidence  of  the  for- 
giveness of  their  sins,  and  tlie  renewal  of  their  heart. 
Tliey  are  conscientiously  opposed  to  war,  both  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  and  also  to  slavery  and  slavehold- 
ing.  An  article  has  been  added  to  their  Discipline 
excluding  all  apologists  for  slavery  from  church  mem- 
bership. 

Reformed  Methodism  was  planted  in  Upper  Can- 
ada in  1817  or  1818,  and  its  introduction  was  sig- 
nalized by  a  remarkable  revival  of  religion.  Both  in 
Canada  and  the  United  Stales  it  has  made  steady 
progress  ;  but  it  bad  no  periodical  organ  until  1837, 
when  the  'South  Cortland  Luminary'  was  started  by 


METHODIST  SOCIETY  IN  AMERICA— METHODISTS  (Romish). 


431 


the  Now  York  Conferenco,  in  the  first  instance,  and 
Bftcr  a  short  time  became  the  organ  of  tlie  whole 
cliurch.  In  18.39  this  periodical  changed  its  name 
to  that  of  the  '  Fayettoville  Luminary.'  In  18  U  .-m 
association  was  formed  between  the  lieforined  Me- 
thodists, Society  Methodists,  and  local  bodies  of 
Wesleyan  Methodists,  tlie  oliject  of  wliicli  was  har- 
moniously to  co-operate,  without,  however,  merging 
the  various  bodies  into  one  church.  By  tlie  terms 
of  the  association  the  name  of  the  '  Luminary'  wa-s 
again  clianged  to  that  of  the  '  Methodist  Reformer,' 
which  became  the  organ  of  the  association,  wliile  the 
property  of  the  periodical  still  belonged  to  the  Re- 
formed Methodists.  After  the  organization  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  in  America  in  184.3, 
the  subscription  list  of  tlie  '  Jletliodist  Reformer,' 
by  an  arrangement  on  the  association  principle  be- 
tween the  Refoniied  Methodists  and  tlie  Wesleyans, 
was  transferred  to  the  periodical  eaUed  the  '  True 
Wesleyan,'  publislied  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  as  a 
preliminary  step  to  the  union  of  the  two  bodies. 
Latterly  the  Reformed  Methodists  Iiave  become  com- 
pletely merged  in  tlie  Wesleyan  Methodist  Chureli. 
METHODIST  SOCIETY  IN  AMERICA 
(The).  This  body  of  Christians  was  first  composed 
of  a  small  body  of  seceders  from  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Cluirch  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1820. 
The  point  on  which  the  Secession  arose,  was  the 
circumstance  of  the  ruling  preacher,  so  called,  in- 
sisting on  receiving  the  money  collected  in  the  dif- 
ferent churclies  under  liis  charge,  tlirough  stewards 
of  his  own  appointment,  instead  of  by  the  trustees 
appointed  according  to  law,  and  in  accordance  with 
the  practice  of  the  churcli  in  all  time  previous.  In 
addition  to  this  objectionable  practice,  the  Seceders 
dissented  from  certain  resolutions  passed  by  the  New 
York  Annual  Conference  of  ministers,  to  petition  the 
legislature  for  a  law  recognizing  the  pecuharities  of 
the  church  discipline,  by  which  the  whole  property  of 
the  church  would  have  been  placed  under  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  the  body  of  ministers,  who,  ac- 
cording to  their  discipline  from  the  bishop  down- 
wards, are  to  take  charge  of  the  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual business  of  the  cluirch.  Having  left  the  ^le- 
thodist  Episcopal  Church,  the  Seceders  erected  a 
new  place  of  worship,  and  a  congregation  of  about 
■300  members  was  organized  under  the  Rev.  William 
M.  Stilwell,  who  withdrew  from  the  travelling  con- 
nexion, and  became  the  pastor  of  this  new  church. 
The  brief  history  of  the  Jlethodist  Society  is  thus 
slated  by  Mr.  Stilwell :  "  In  the  course  of  the  three 
years  following  their  first  formation  as  a  separate 
body,  they  had  erected  two  other  places  of  worship, 
and  formed  a  discipdine,  in  which  the  general  prin- 
ciples, as  taught  by  the  Methodists,  were  recognized 
but  in  the  government  of  the  church  there  was  a 
difference :  1.  No  bishop  was  allowed,  but  a  presi- 
dent of  each  Annual  Conference  was  chosen  yearly, 
by  ballot  of  the  members  thereof  2.  All  ordained 
ministers,  whfither  travelling  or  not,  were  allowed  a 


seat  in  the  Annual  Conferences.  3.  Two  lay  dele- 
gates from  each  Quarterly  Conference  could  eit  in 
the  Annual  Conference,  with  the  ministers.  4.  No 
rides  or  regulations  for  the  church  could  be  made 
unless  a  majority  present  were  lay  members.  5.  A 
preacher  could  remain  with  a  congregation  as  long 
as  they  agreed.  6.  Class  meetings,  love  feasts,  &c., 
were  to  be  attended ;  the  leader  of  each  class  being 
chosen  by  the  members.  7.  Tlie  property  of  the 
Societies  to  be  vested  in  trustees  of  their  own  choice, 
and  the  minister  to  have  no  oversight  of  the  tem- 
poral alVairs  of  the  church.  They  prospered  greatly 
for  a  few  years,  when  some  of  the  preachers  and 
people,  being  desirous  to  have  a  more  itinerant  con- 
nexion, thought  it  best  to  unite  with  a  body  of  Se- 
ceders from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  who 
held  a  Convention  in  Baltimore,  and  took  the  name 
of  Protestant  Methodist  Church :  since  which  the 
Methodist  Society  have  not  sought  to  enlarge  their 
body  so  mucu.  as  to  supply  such  congregations  as 
may  feel  a  disposition  to  enjoy  a  liberty,  which  the 
other  bodies  of  dissenting  Methodists,  as  well  as  the 
Jtethodist  Episcopal  Church,  do  not  see  fit  to  grant 
to  the  laity." 

METHODISTS  (Romish).  This  name  was  ap- 
plied to  certain  Romish  Controversialists  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  wlio  arose  in  France,  and  attempted 
by  ingenious  sophistry  to  silence  the  Huguenots  in 
argument.  These  Methodists  are  arranged  by  Mo- 
sheim  under  two  classes.  The  first  class  attempted 
to  foreclose  the  argument  by  demanding  from  the 
Protestants  a  direct  proof  of  their  doctrines,  and 
calling  upon  them  to  adduce  explicit  declarations 
of  the  Holy  Scripture.  By  this  mode  of  con 
ducting  the  argument,  it  was  assumed  at  the  very 
outset  of  the  controversy,  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
was  an  ancient  church,  and  in  possession  of  a 
system  of  doctrines  which  she  had  held  unmolest- 
ed for  ages ;  and,  therefore,  the  Protestants,  be- 
ing on  this  theory  innovators  in  religion,  the  bur- 
den of  proof  lies  upon  them,  and  it  behoves  there 
to  adduce  not  indirect  and  inferential,  but  direct 
and  positive  statements  of  the  Bible  in  favour  ol 
tlieir  novel  doctrines.  To  this  class  of  Romish  Me- 
thodists belonged  Veron,  Xihusius,  and  Peter  and 
Adrian  von  Walenburg.  The  second  class  of  Con 
troversialists  of  this  kind  refused  to  encounter  the 
Protestants,  by  arguing  with  them  on  the  various 
points  in  detail,  but  they  sought  to  overwhelm  them  by 
urging  certain  great  principles  or  general  arguments 
involving  the  whole  subject.  One  of  the  most  dex- 
terous reasoners  of  this  class  was  the  celebrated 
Peter  Nicole,  the  .lansenist,  and  the  illustrious  Car 
diual  Richelieu.  The  most  distinguished,  however, 
of  all  these  Romish  Methodists  was  Father  Bossuet, 
the  author  of  the  '  Histoire  des  Variations  des  Eg- 
lises  Protestantes,'  who  lays  it  down  as  a  fundamen- 
tal principle,  that  whatever  church  frequently  modi- 
fies and  clianges  its  doctrines,  lias  not  the  Holy 
Spirit.     The  ingenious  author  seems  to  have  been- 


432 


METHODISTS  (Welsh  Calvinistic). 


blinded  to  the  important  fact,  that  the  weapon  wliich 
he  had  so  carefully  forged  against  Protestantism  bore 
with  equal,  if  not  more,  efleet  against  Romanism. 
This  is  very  ably  and  conclusively  shown  in  a  work 
entitled  '  Variations  of  Popery,'  compiled  as  an  an- 
swer to  Bossuet  by  the  late  Rev.  S.  Edgar,  one  of 
the  ministers  of  tlie  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland. 
METHODISTS  (Welsh  Calvinistic).  This 
large  and  efficient  body  of  Methodists  dates  its  ori- 
gin from  1735.  A  gentleman  of  Trevecca  in  Breck- 
nockshire, by  naine  Howel  Harris,  had  entered  one 
of  the  colleges  of  Oxford  with  the  view  of  taking 
holy  orders  in  the  Church  of  England.  Disgusted 
with  the  immorality  and  unprincipled  conduct  which 
then  prevailed  at  that  seat  of  learning,  he  left  it  and 
returned  home.  His  own  mind  being  deeply  im- 
pressed with  a  sense  of  divine  things,  he  began  to 
visit  from  house  to  house  in  his  native  parish,  press- 
ing home  upon  the  people  the  necessity  of  attendiitg 
without  delay  to  the  things  which  belonged  to  their 
eternal  peace.  Not  confining  his  labours  to  house- 
hold visitation,  he  commenced  public  preaching. 
Crowds  flocked  to  hear  him,  and  many  individuals, 
as  well  as  whole  families,  were  spiritually  awakened. 
He  now  established  a  school  at  Trevecca,  which  was 
largely  attended,  and  where  the  young  were  care- 
fully instructed  in  the  great  truths  of  the  gospel. 
Feeling  that  his  labours  for  the  good  of  both  old  and 
young  met  with  the  most  encoiu-agmg  success,  he 
proceeded  to  establish  meetings  for  religious  conver- 
sation in  various  places ;  and  thus  commenced  those 
Private  Societies  which  have  ever  formed  a  promi- 
nent feature  in  the  arrangements  of  the  Welsh  Cal- 
vinistic Methodists.  Mr.  Harris  now  devoted  much 
of  his  time  to  preaching,  being  engaged  in  tliis  im- 
portant work  three,  four,  and  even  five  times  a  day. 
And  liis  labours  were  eminently  successful,  multi- 
tudes being  awakened,  and  not  a  few  savingly  con- 
verted. A  spirit  of  opposition  now  arose  against 
this  devoted  man.  "The  magistrates  threatened  to 
punish  him;  the  clergy  preached  against  him;  and 
the  common  rabble  were  generally  prepared  to  dis- 
turb and  to  pelt  liim."  In  the  midst  of  persecut  on, 
however,  the  cause  continued  to  prosper,  and  in  1739, 
tliough  he  had  laboured  only  four  years,  and  that 
too  single-handed  and  alone,  he  had  established  about 
.300  Societies  in  South  Wales.  The  revival  which 
had  thus  commenced  among  the  Methodists  attracted 
the  attention  of  good  men  in  all  Christian  denomi- 
nations, and  Mr.  Harris's  haiuls  were  eminently 
sfrongtliened  by  tlie  efiicient  assistance  which  he 
received  from  the  Rev.  Daniel  Rowland  of  Llan- 
geitlio,  Canligansliire,  whose  popularity  and  elo- 
quence attracted  crowds  from  great  distances  to  wait 
upon  his  ministrations.  In  a  short  time  several  pious 
ministers  of  the  Establishment  seceded  and  joined 
the  Methodists.  A  considerable  band  of  itinerant 
missionaries  was  now  formed,  who,  with  apostolic 
zeal,  wandered  from  place  to  place  tliroughout  the 
principality,  proclaiming  the  glad  tidings  of  salva- 


tion through  a  Redeemer.  A  revival  of  a  most  re- 
freshing kind  now  took  place  among  the  different 
religious  denominations ;  and  tlie  new  sect  daily 
rose  in  popularity  and  influence,  being  joined  in 
seven  years  from  its  commencement  by  no  fewer 
than  ten  ministers  of  the  Church  of  England. 

The  first  chapel  built  by  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Me- 
thodists was  erected  in  1747  at  Builth  in  Brecknock- 
shire. In  the  following  year  two  others  were  built  in 
Carmarthenshire.  The  cause  made  steady  progress 
in  South  Wales  ;  but  it  was  much  hindered  in  Nortli 
Wales  by  the  keen  opposition  to  wliich  its  ministers 
and  adherents  were  exposed.  Shortly  after  this  time 
Providence  raised  up  one  who  was  made  an  eminent 
instrument  in  advancing  the  spiritual  interests  of 
large  masses  of  the  Welsh  population.  We  refer  to 
that  devoted  servant  of  Christ,  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Charles  of  Bala,  Merionethshire,  to  whose  exertions 
and  influence  the  Societies  of  Calvinistic  Methodists 
in  North  Wales  are  chiefly  indebted  for  tlieir  organi- 
zation and  present  flourishing  condition.  Tliough  in 
liis  early  days  he  had  experienced  occasional  serious 
impressions,  it  was  not  until  his  eighteenth  year  that 
he  was  brought  to  a  saving  knowledge  of  the  truth, 
through  the  powerful  preaching  of  Mr.  Rowland. 
His  thouglits  were  now  turned  towards  the  ministry, 
and  having  passed  through  the  usual  preparatory  stu- 
dies, he  entered  upon  a  curacy,  the  salary  of  which 
was  only  forty-five,  and  was  afterwards  reduced 
to  thirty  pounds.  The  fervent  piety  and  devotedness 
with  which  he  discharged  the  duties  of  the  ministe- 
rial office  gave  great  oft'ence  to  many  of  the  careless 
and  ungodly  among  the  people.  On  this  account  he 
was  under  the  necessity  of  removing  from  place  to 
place,  and  at  length,  in  1781,  he  resolved  to  leave  a 
church  which  was  fettered  with  so  many  forms,  and 
to  enjoy  the  free  air  and  the  open  fields  of  Method- 
ism. The  Welsh  principahty  was  at  this  time  one 
vast  moral  wilderness,  and  although,  by  the  labours 
of  Harris,  Rowland,  and  the  other  Methodist  preach- 
ers, much  good  liad  been  effected,  the  most  lamenta- 
ble ignorance  and  ungodliness  still  pervaded  the 
great  mass  of  the  people.  A  Bible  could  scarcely 
be  found  in  any  of  the  cottages  of  the  peasantry,  and 
in  some  parishes  very  few  persons  were  able  to  read 
it.  Such  was  the  state  of  the  principality  when  Mr. 
Charles  commenced  his  labours  in  connexion  with 
the  Calvinistic  Methodists. 

The  manner  in  which  this  faithful  and  earnest  min- 
ister of  Christ  entered  upon  the  wide  field  of  Christian 
effort  which  was  thus  opened  up  for  liim,  showed  tlie 
comprehensiveness  of  liis  mind,  and  liis  anxiety  to 
overtake  the  spiritual  destitution  of  the  country  in  a 
systematic  way.  He  inquired  into  the  moral  statis- 
tics of  the  entire  principality,  and  set  himself  to  de- 
vise a  system  of  spiritual  machinery  suited  to  the 
peculiar  condition  and  habits  of  the  people.  On  a 
strict  examination  into  the  whole  matter  he  resolved 
to  establish  "  circulating  schools,"  which  might  be 
transplanted  from  one  place  to  another  at  the  end  ol 


METHODISTS  (Welsh  Calvinistic). 


4J3 


a  definite  period,  say  nine  or  twelve  montlis.  Two 
serious  dillictilties,  liowcver,  prcaeiiled  tliomselves, 
tlie  want  of  money  and  tlie  want  of  teachers.  But 
IVIr.  CliHrlca  could  not  easily  be  deterred  by  any 
obstacles  from  carrying  out  liis  benevolent  plans. 
lie  trained  the  first  teachers  himself,  and  went  to 
England,  where  he  succeeded  in  raising  a  considera- 
ble sum  towards  defraying  the  expenses  of  his  pro- 
ject. The  mode  in  wliich  he  managed  to  establish 
his  circulating  schools,  and  the  benefits  which  ac- 
crued from  them,  be  afterwards  described  thus  : 
"  In  my  travels  through  dill'crent  parts  of  North 
Wales  about  twenty-throe  years  ago,  I  perceived  that 
the  state  of  the  poor  of  the  country  in  general  was 
so  low  as  to  religious  knowledge,  that  in  many 
parts  not  one  person  in  twenty  was  capable  of  reading 
the  Scriptures,  and  in  some  districts  hardly  an  indi- 
vidual could  be  found  who  bad  received  any  instruc- 
tion in  reading.  I  found  then  and  still  do  find  daily 
proofs  of  the  ignorance  of  the  poor  people  who  can- 
not read,  and  have  never  been  calechetically  instruct- 
ed, even  where  constant  preaching  is  not  wanting. 
This  discovery  pained  me  beyond  what  I  can  ex- 
press, and  made  me  think  seriously  of  some  remedy, 
ellectual  and  speedy,  for  the  redress  of  this  grievance. 
I  accordingly  proposed  to  a  few  friends  to  set  a  sub- 
Bcription  on  foot  to  pay  the  wages  of  a  teacher,  who 
was  to  be  moved  circuitously  from  one  place  to  an- 
other ;  to  instruct  the  poor  in  reading,  and  in  the 
first  principles  of  Christianity  by  catechising  them. 
This  work  began  in  tlie  year  1785.  At  first  only 
one  teacher  was  employed.  As  the  funds  increased, 
so  in  proportion  the  number  of  teachers  was  enlarg- 
ed, till  they  amounted  to  twenty.  Some  of  the  first 
teaoliers  I  was  obliged  to  instruct  myself;  and  these 
afterwards  instructed  others  sent  to  them  to  learn  to 
be  schoolmasters. 

"  The  fruits  of  these  circulating  schools  are  our 
numerous  Sunday  Schools  all  over  the  country ;  for 
without  the  former,  we  could  not  have  found  teachers 
to  cany  on  the  latter.  Although,  through  the  pre- 
sent general  prevalency  of  Sunday  Schools,  con- 
ducted by  gratuitous  teachers,  the  circulating  schools 
are  not  so  much  wanted  as  formerly,  yet  I  still  find 
we  cainiot  go  on  without  some  of  them.  There  are 
yet  many  dark  places  in  dilferent  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, where  none  are  found  able  or  willing  to  set  up 
Sunday  Schools.  My  only  remedy  therefore  is,  to 
send  there  the  cu'culating  schools,  with  a  view  of 
raising  up  by  degrees  Siniday  Schools  to  succeed 
them,  and  to  keep  on  the  instruction  after  they  are 
removed.  Besides,  I  find  it  absolutelj'  necessary 
that  the  circulating  schools  shoidd  occasionally  re- 
visit those  places  where  the  Sunday  Schools  are  kept, 
to  revive  them  and  reanimate  the  teachers  and  peo- 
ple in  the  work  of  carrying  them  on ;  else,  in  time, 
they  gradually  decline  in  country  places,  where  the 
children  are  scattered  far  from  one  another.  So  that 
now  I  constantly  employ  from  six  to  ten  teachers ; 
and  several  more  might  be  usefully  employed  did 

u. 


our  finances  enable  us  to  engage  an  additional  num 

bcr." 

The  schools  were  soon  highly  appreciated  by  the 
people.  Both  parents  and  children  in  many  cases 
eagerly  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  thus 
allbrded  of  obtaining  instruction.  The  Sunday 
Schools  in  particular  proved  a  singular  blessing  to 
multitudes  of  children,  and  through  them  to  tlitir 
parents.  At  Bala  in  1791,  the  Sunday  Schools  were 
made  instrumental  in  giving  rise  to  an  awakening. 
Seasons  of  revival  indeed  were  experienced  in  dill'cr- 
ent parts  of  the  country ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
there  was  something  of  a  periodical  character  in 
many  of  these  awakenings,  for  several  of  them  oc- 
curred at  the  interval  of  seven  years. 

In  1709,  a  religious  periodical  entitled  'The  Spiri- 
tual Treasury,'  was  started  by  Mr.  Charles,  which, 
as  the  people  had  now  acquired  a  taste  for  reading, 
was  intended  to  supjjly  them  with  interesting  and 
useful  information,  wholly  of  a  religious  nature. 
Hitherto  there  had  been  a  lamentable  scarcity  oi 
Bibles  in  North  Wales  in  the  vernacular  language, 
and  the  desire  of  supplying  this  want  led  to  the  for- 
mation in  1804  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  No  sooner  was  this  invaluable  institution 
organized,  than  it  issued  an  edition  of  Welsh  Bibles 
and  Testaments,  which  were  eagerly  received 
throughout  the  I'rincipality  as  a  boon  of  the  mo.st 
precious  kind.  For  several  years  longer,  Mr.  Charles 
continued  to  prosecute  the  work  of  a  laborious  min- 
ister and  evangelist,  but  in  1814  his  labours  were 
brought  to  an  end,  and  the  country  was  called  to 
mourn  the  loss  of  one  of  its  greatest  benefactors,  one 
who  had  done  more  than  almost  any  other  man  to 
advance  the  cause  of  the  Redeemer  in  North  Wales. 

In  the  organization  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Me- 
thodist Society,  Mr.  Charles  took  an  active  and 
prominent  part.  At  an  Association  held  at  Bala  in 
1790,  he  drew  up  certain  Rules  for  conducting  the 
Quarterly  Meetings  of  the  North  Wales  Association, 
consisting  of  the  preachers  and  leaders  ;  which  Rules 
form  the  basis  of  the  present  system  of  church  gov- 
ernment of  the  whole  Society.  In  1801,  'Rules  of 
Discipline'  were  iirst  published,  laying  down  the 
order  and  form  of  the  church  government  and  disci- 
pline. To  these  were  added  several  regulations  m 
1811,  which  were  framed  chietiy  with  the  view  of 
rendering  the  denomination  permanently  indepen- 
dent, in  its  organization  and  ministry,  of  the  Estab- 
blished  Church. 

In  1823  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists  adopted 
and  published  a  Confession  of  Faith,  which  was 
unanimously  agreed  upon  at  the  Associations  of 
Aberystwith  and  Bala.  The  doctrines  of  this  Con- 
fession are  decidedly  Calvinistic,  and  accord  with 
the  Tliirty-Nine  Articles  and  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession in  all  the  essential  points  of  Christian  doc- 
trine and  practice.  Their  church  government  ig 
neither  Episcopalian  on  the  one  hand,  nor  Congre- 
gationalist  on  the  other,  but  approaches  somewhat  to 
2  o  * 


4.H 


ilEriiODlrii'  (The  Tkue  Wesleyan)  CHURCH— METHODISTS  (Wesletan). 


fhe  Presbyterian  form.  The  private  Societies  are 
subordinate  to  the  Monthly  Meetings,  and  these 
again  to  tlie  Quarterly  Associations,  at  wliich  tlie 
general  business  of  the  body  is  transacted.  Their 
preachers  itinerate  from  one  place  to  another,  and 
being  rarely  men  of  education,  they  are  generally  de- 
pendent on  some  secular  employment  for  tlieir  sub- 
sistence. 

In  the  course  of  the  revivals  which  occurred 
so  frequently  in  Wales  during  the  last  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  practice  seems  to  have  been 
occasionally  followed  of  "jumping,  accompanied 
by  loud  expressions  of  praise,  during  the  solemni- 
zation of  public  worship."  (See  Jumpers.)  This 
practice,  however,  has  never  been  encouraged  by  the 
preacliers  of  the  Connexion,  but  is  affirmed  to  be 
"  a  mere  accident  or  non-essential  of  Welsh  Calvin- 
istic  Methodism;"  and  it  is  now  of  rare  occurrence, 
though  the  members  of  the  Connexion  have  not 
given  it  a  direct  opposition.  Of  late  years  the 
Welsh  Methodists  have  turned  their  attention  to- 
wards the  importance  of  an  educated  ministry.  Ac- 
cordingly in  1837  a  college  for  the  purpose  of  train- 
ing theological  students  was  established  at  Bala,  and 
in  1842  another  was  established  at  Trevecca. 

The  ministers  of  the  Connexion  are  selected  by 
the  private  Societies,  and  reported  to  the  Monthly 
Meetings,  which  examine  them  as  to  their  qualifica- 
tions, and  permit  them  to  commence  on  trial.  A 
certain  number  only  who  must  previously  have  been 
preachers  for  at  least  five  years,  are  ordained  to 
administer  the  sacraments,  and  this  ordination  takes 
place  at  the  Quarterly  Associations.  The  preachers 
are  expected  each  to  itinerate  in  a  particular  coun- 
ty ;  but  generally  once  in  the  course  of  a  year  they 
undertake  a  missionary  tour  to  different  parts  of 
Wales,  when  tliey  preach  twice  every  day,  on  each 
occasion  at  a  different  chapel.  Their  remuneration 
is  derived  from  the  monthly  pence  contributed  by 
the  members  of  each  congregation;  out  of  which 
fund  a  trifling  sum  is  given  to  them  after  every  ser- 
mon.   Some  have  a  stated  stipend. 

Tlie  number  of  chapels  returned  at  the  Census  of 
1851  as  pertaining  to  tlie  Welsh  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dist body,  amounted  to  828,  containing  accommoda- 
tion for  211,951  persons.  In  1853  the  number  in 
ministers  was  reported  to  be  207,  and  that  of  preach- 
ers 234,  while  the  number  of  communicants  was 
mated  to  be  58,577. 

In  1840,  this  active  and  energetic  body  of  Chris- 
tians formed  an  association  for  sending  missionaries 
to  tlie  lieathen,  and  towards  tlie  end  of  that  same 
year,  a  mi.ssion  was  commenced  among  one  of  the 
hill-tribes  in  the  north-east  part  of  Uengal.  They 
have  also  a  mission  station  in  Brittany,  south  of 
France,  the  language  of  that  country  being  a  sister 
dialect  of  the  Welsh  ;  and  they  have  besides  a  mis- 
sion to  the  Jews.  Tlie  operations  of  the  Home  Mis- 
sion of  this  denomination  are  carried  on  among  tlie 
English  population  inhabiting  the  borders  between 


England  and  Wales.  There  are  several  Societies  in 
England  belonging  to  the  Connexion,  for  instance,  in 
London,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Bristol,  Chester, 
Shrewsbury,  whose  worship,  public  and  private,  is 
performed  in  the  Welsh  language.  There  is  also  a 
small  congregation  among  the  Welsh  miners  in 
Lanarkshire  in  Scotland,  who  have  the  gospel 
preached  to  them  in  their  own  language.  Id  some 
parts  of  Wales,  and  on  the  borders  of  England 
where  the  English  language  is  most  prevalent,  wor- 
ship is  conducted  in  that  tongue. 

METHODIST  (The  True  Wesleyan) 
CHURCH  IN  AMERICA.  This  Methodist  body 
was  constituted  at  a  convention  held  at  Utica,  New 
York,  on  the  31st  May  1843.  The  convention  was 
composed  of  ministers  and  laymen  who  were  sum- 
moned to  meet  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  Wes- 
leyan Methodist  Church  free  from  bishops,  intem- 
perance, and  slavery.  After  a  lengthened  and  har- 
monious deliberation,  a  Discipline  was  drawn  up, 
called  "  the  DisoipUne  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church  in  America,"  granting  to  all  men  their  rights, 
and  making  them  free  and  equal  according  to  the 
Word  of  God,  and  the  preamble  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  of  the  United  States.  They  also 
organized  six  annual  Conferences,  including  the  chief 
portions  of  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States.  This 
church  thus  differed  in  several  pomts  from  both  the 
Episcopal  and  Protestant  Methodist  Churches.  From 
the  former,  it  differed  in  holding  that  aU  elders  in 
the  church  of  God  are  equal,  and  from  the  latter,  in 
disowning  all  connection  with  slavery  as  it  exists  in 
America.  The  Articles  of  Faith  maintamed  by  this 
Christian  denomination  are  in  accordance  with  those 
Iield  by  orthodox  churches  generally.  The  six  Con  ■ 
ferences  of  which  it  consists,  include  about  300  min- 
isters and  preachers  who  itinerate,  and  upwards  ot 
300  other  ministers  and  preachers  to  whom  stations 
have  not  been  allotted,  and  about  20,000  comraimi- 
cants. 

METHODISTS  (Wesleyan),  a  very  large,  ener- 
getic and  influential  body  of  Christians,  originated 
by  a  great  religious  movement  which  commenced  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  quarter  of  last  century. 
John  Wesley,  the  founder  of  Methodism  in  Eng- 
land, was  born  at  Epworth  in  Lincolnshire  in  1703, 
his  father  being  rector  of  that  parish.  While  yet  a 
child  he  experienced  a  remarkable  providential  deli- 
verance, having  narrowly  escaped  from  destruction 
in  the  flames  of  his  father's  house,  which  was  on  fire. 
This  Divine  interposition  in  his  behalf  made  a  deep 
impression  on  ins  mind,  which  seems  never  to  have 
been  effaced  during  life.  The  lirst  rudiments  of  his 
education  were  received  from  his  mother,  who  was 
the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Anncsley,  an  eminent 
nonconforming  minister ;  and  it  is  highly  probable 
that  from  this  devoted  Christian  woman  he  imbibed 
those  religious  principles  and  feelings  which  through- 
out his  whole  life  so  eminently  characterized  him. 
At  the  age  of  eleven  lie  was  sent  to  Charter  House 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


43e 


Bchool  in  London,  where  lie  signiilizcrl  himself  ahove 
his  fellows  hy  diligence  and  progress  in  his  studies. 
Being  destined  for  the  church,  he  proceeded,  along 
with  his  brother  Charles,  to  the  University  of  Oxford. 
After  prosecuting  his  studies  with  the  most  exem- 
plary diligence  and  success,  John  Wesley  was  or- 
dained a  di!acon  in  1725,  and  in  the  following  year, 
he  was  chosen  Fellow  of  Ijncohi  College,  and  ob- 
tained priest's  orders.  After  assisting  his  father  at 
Kpworth  for  a  short  time,  he  returned  to  Oxford  in 
1729.  Here  the  two  brothers  first  began  to  exhibit 
that  earnestness  in  religion  which  was  ever  after  so 
marked  a  feature  in  their  character.  Associating 
themselves  with  a  few  of  their  fellow-students  who 
were  like-minded,  they  held  meetings  for  prayer  and 
religious  conversation.  The  marked  propriety  and 
strictness  of  their  behaviour  made  them  objects  of 
ridicule  and  reproach  among  the  irreligious  and  un- 
godly, who  were  accustomed  to  taunt  them  with 
being  Methodists,  a  name  which  was  meant  to  indi- 
cate that  they  were  precise  and  scrupulously  atten- 
tive to  religious  duties  and  exercises.  Among  those 
who  shared  with  the  Wesleys  in  this  obloquy  were 
James  Ilervey  and  George  Whitfield,  to  whose  after- 
labours  in  their  Master's  cause,  evangelical  religion 
in  England  owes  a  deep  debt  of  obligation. 

John  Wesley  continued  to  reside  at  Oxford  till 
the  death  of  his  father,  which  took  place  in  1735; 
and  although  his  friends  wished  him  to  apply  for 
the  living  at  Epworth,  which  was  in  the  gift  of  the 
chancellor,  he  declined  to  yield  to  their  entreaties, 
however  urgent.  About  this  time  an  event  occurred 
whicli  opened  up  for  him  a  wide  sphere  of  usefulness 
in  a  distant  land.  A  colony  had  just  been  founded  by 
Governor  Oglethorpe  in  Georgia,  who,  having  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Creek  Indians,  was  anxious 
to  establish  a  mission  among  them.  John  and 
Charles  Wesley  were  prevailed  upon  to  undertake  the 
management  of  the  mission,  and  in  October  of  the 
same  year  in  wliich  their  father  died,  they  left  Eng- 
land for  America.  On  reaching  the  colony  they  enter- 
ed upon  their  missionary  labours  with  much  zeal,  but 
unexpected  obstacles  were  thrown  in  their  way,  and 
after  spending  two  years  in  fruitless  endeavours  to 
carry  the  gospel  to  the  Indians,  they  abandoned  the 
mission  and  returned  home  in  17.38.  While  resident 
in  Georgia,  however,  John  Wesley  had  become  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  several  .settlers  who  belonged 
to  the  Moravian  church,  and  in  particular  with  David 
Nitschman,  a  bishop  of  that  persuasion.  The  prin- 
ciples and  practices  of  this  interesting  community 
attracted  his  special  favour,  and  suggested  doubtless 
to  his  mind  many  of  those  an-angements  which  he 
afterwards  laid  down  for  the  regulation  of  the  Me- 
thodist Societies. 

The  intercourse  which  John  Wesley  enjoyed  with 
the  Moravians  in  Georgia  led  to  more  serious  im- 
pressions of  divine  things  than  he  had  ever  before 
experienced.  He  tells  us  tli.at  one  thing  he  had 
learned  by  his  mission  to  the  Indians,  that  he  who 


had  gone  to  America  to  convert  others  had  ncvei 
been  converted  himself.  The  anxiety  which  he  now 
began  to  feel  about  his  own  personal  state  continued 
to  agitate  his  mind  throughout  his  voyage  homo- 
ward  ;  but  through  the  instructions  of  Tcter  Bolder, 
a  Moravian  minister  in  London,  he  was  enabled  to 
exercise  a  simple  faith  in  the  merits  and  mediation 
of  Jesus.  He  dated  his  conversion  from  the  24th  of 
May  1738,  and  having  obtained  peace  and  joy  in  be- 
lieving, he  burned  with  ardent  desire  that  others 
should  become  partakers  of  like  precious  faith.  The 
momentary  relief  whicli  he  himself  had  obtained  un- 
der the  teaching  of  Biihler,  led  him  to  entertain 
the  opinion  which  he  afterwards  delighted  to  pro- 
claim of  the  possible  instantaneousness  of  conver- 
sion— a  doctrine  wliich,  as  held  by  the  followers  of 
Wesley,  only  impHes  that  they  maintain  the  act  of 
conversion  to  be  sometimes,  though  not  always,  in- 
stantaneous. 

John  Wesley  now  sought  access  to  the  pulpits  of 
some  of  the  most  evangelical  ministers  of  the  Esta- 
blishment, and  wherever  he  was  permitted,  he 
preached  justification  by  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus, 
which  had  now  become  his  favourite  doctrine.  One 
after  another,  however,  excluded  him  from  their  pul- 
pits. Private  meetings,  accordingly,  were  forced  up- 
on him.  About  fifty  persons  agreed  to  meet  once 
a-week  in  small  companies  or  bands  of  from  five  to 
ten  persons  each  for  mutual  conversation,  with  occa- 
sional love  feasts.  "The  first  rise  of  Methodism," 
says  Wesley,  "was  in  November  1729,  when  four  of 
us  met  together  at  Oxford;  the  second  was  at  Sa- 
vannah ni  April  1736;  the  thu-d  at  London  on  this 
day.  May  1st,  17.38." 

A  small  society  of  earnest  religious  persons  met 
in  Fetter  Lane,  London,  and  of  this  little  band  Whit- 
field and  the  two  Wesleys  were  members.  To  be- 
come still  better  acquainted  with  the  rules  and  habits 
of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  Jolin  Wesley  paid  a  visit 
to  their  settlement  at  Herrnhut  in  Germany.  On 
his  retiu-n  to  London,  he  and  his  followers  were  as- 
sociated at  Fetter  Lane  with  the  Moravians ;  but 
several  Societies  wholly  coaiposed  of  Methodists 
met  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places.  Whit- 
field and  Wesley  now  commenced  outdoor  preach- 
ing, and  with  the  most  wonderful  success.  Wher- 
ever they  went  crowds  flocked  to  hear  from  theii 
mouths  the  glad  tidings  of  salvation  through  a  Re- 
deemer. In  his  diary,  Wesley  frequently  mentions 
that  thousands  waited  upon  his  mhiistry  in  the  open 
fields,  and  although  the  service  might  commence 
amid  annoyance  and  persecution,  he  generally  suc- 
ceeded ere  long  in  subduing  his  audience  to  quiet- 
ness and  attention.  Thus  was  Methodism  at  iti 
fir.^t  outset  beset  with  difficulties  and  much  oppo«i- 
tion.  But  the  great  founder  of  the  system  was  un- 
wearied in  his  exertions  to  advance  the  good  cause. 
For  a  time  he  took  particular  pleasure  in  co-operat- 
ing with  the  Moravians,  whose  simplicity  of  faith 
and  purity  of  life  he  had  learned  to  admire.     But 


436 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


the  more  closely  he  examined  the  doctrines  and 
precepts  of  the  Brethren,  his  admiration  diminished, 
and  at  length  he  became  disgusted  with  then-  mys- 
ticism, their  exclusiveness,  and  their  tendency  to 
Antinomianism.  He  therefore  published  a  protest 
against  their  tenets  and  practices,  and  retired  with 
his  followers  to  the  Foundry  in  Moorfields. 

About  the  same  time  Wesley  separated  from 
Whitfield  in  consequence  of  a  diflerence  of  opinion 
which  arose  between  them  on  the  subject  of  election. 
Tlie  Wesleys  had  for  some  time  evinced  a  decided 
leaning  towards  Arminian  views,  while  Wliitfield 
entertained  a  strong  partiality  for  Calvinistic  senti- 
ments. The  contest  was  carried  on  with  the  utmost 
ardour,  and  even  unseemly  bitterness,  on  both  sides, 
though  not  by  the  leaders  in  the  controversy,  at 
least  by  their  subordinates.  John  Wesley  was  most 
unwilling  that  a  rupture  should  take  place,  and  to 
prevent  such  an  unhappy  result,  he  drew  up  certain 
statements  in  regard  to  the  three  disputed  points, 
unconditional  election,  irresistible  grace,  and  liie  final 
perseverance  of  the  saints,  hoping  that  both  he  and 
his  opponents  might  still  have  it  in  their  power  to 
continue  their  united  labours  in  the  cause  of  Christ. 
The  difference  of  opinion,  however,  was  found  to  be 
such  as  to  call  for  their  friendly  separation,  which 
accordingly  took  place  in  1740,  witliout  however 
diminishing  the  respect  and  esteem  which  Wesley 
and  Whitfield  entertained  for  each  other. 

Up  to  this  period,  the  great  founder  of  Wesleyan 
Methodism  seems  never  to  have  contemplated  the 
formation  of  a  church  or  separate  denomination  of 
Christians.  Strongly  attached  to  the  Church  of 
England,  he  continued  to  minister  within  her  pale 
as  long  as  he  was  allowed  to  do  so,  and  even  when 
prevented  from  officiating  in  her  pulpits,  he  recom- 
mended his  followers  to  adhere  to  her  doctrines  and 
worship.  In  forming  Societies,  his  primary  wish 
seems  to  have  been  to  gather  togetlier  little  bands  of 
earnest  Christian  men,  whose  simple  design  was  mu- 
tual edification.  The  Societies  were  at  first  accord- 
ingly separate  and  detached,  with  no  other  uniting 
bond  than  a  common  object  or  end.  As  they  in- 
creased in  number,  however,  certain  regulations  were 
framed  for  their  guidance.  Tliese  are  regarded  by 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists  as  binding  upon  the  body 
to  this  day.  In  the  preamble  to  the  Rules,  Mr. 
Wesley  thus  describes  the  origin  of  the  Societies : 
"  In  the  latter  end  of  the  year  17.39,  eight  or  ten  per- 
sons came  to  me  in  London,  who  appeared  to  be 
deeply  convinced  of  sin,  and  earnestly  groaning  for 
redemption.  They  desired  (as  did  two  or  three 
more  the  next  day)  that  I  should  spend  some  time 
with  them  in  prayer,  and  advise  them  liow  to  floe  from 
tlie  wrath  to  come,  which  they  saw  coiitiimally  hang- 
ing over  their  heads.  That  we  might  have  more 
time  for  this  great  work,  I  appointed  a  day  when 
they  might  all  come  together,  which  from  tlu^nco- 
forward  they  did  every  week,  viz.,  on  Tliursday  in 
the  evening.     To  these,  and  as  many  more  as  desir- 


ed to  join  with  them  (for  their  number  increased 
daily),  I  gave  those  advices  from  time  to  time  which 
I  judged  most  needful  for  them,  and  we  always  con- 
cluded our  meetings  with  prayer  suitable  to  their 
several  necessities." 

Methodism  under  Mr.  Wesley  now  began  to  as- 
sume a  regularly  organized  system.  Money  was  col- 
lected ;  meeting-houses  were  built  or  rented  in  dif- 
ferent places  for  the  accommodation  of  the  members 
of  the  United  Society ;  and  that  each  individual 
might  be  an  object  of  careful  instruction,  the  Socie- 
ties were  divided  into  classes  of  twelve  persons,  each 
class  having  its  distinct  superintendent  or  class- 
leader,  whose  duty  is  thus  laid  down.  1.  To  see 
each  person  in  his  class  once  a-week,  at  least,  in 
order  to  inquire  how  their  souls  prosper ;  to  advise, 
reprove,  comfort  or  exhort,  as  occasion  may  require ; 
to  receive  what  they  are  willing  to  give  towards  the 
poor,  or  towards  the  gospel.  2.  To  meet  the  minis- 
ter and  the  stewards  of  the  Society  once  a-week,  in 
order  to  inform  the  minister  of  any  that  are  sick,  or 
of  any  that  walk  disorderly  and  will  not  be  reprov- 
ed ;  to  pay  to  the  stewards  what  they  have  received 
of  their  several  classes  in  the  week  preceding ;  and 
to  show  their  account  of  what  each  person  has  con- 
tributed. 

The  only  condition  required  of  any  person  who 
wishes  to  be  admitted  into  a  Methodist  Society,  is,  in 
the  words  of  Wesley,  "a  desire  to  flee  from  the 
wrath  to  come  ;  to  be  saved  from  their  sins."  Such 
a  desire,  wherever  it  truly  exists,  will  of  course  mani- 
fest itself  by  its  fruits,  and  accordingly  those  who 
in  joining  the  Methodist  Societies  declare  that  they 
are  animated  by  a  desire  for  salvation,  are  expected 
to  give  evidence  of  it  by  the  following  traits  of  char- 
acter and  conduct : 

"  First,  hy  doiiig  no  harm ;  by  avoiding  evil  in 
every  kind ;  especially  that  which  is  most  generally 
practised,  such  as  taking  the  name  of  God  in  vain ; 
the  profaning  the  day  of  the  Lord,  either  by  doing 
ordinary  work  thereon,  or  by  buying  or  selling ; 
drunkenness;  buying  or  selling  spirituous  liquors,  or 
drinking  them,  unless  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity , 
fighting,  quarrelling,  brawling;  brother  going  to  law 
with  brother;  returning  evil  for  evil,  or  railing  for 
railing ;  the  using  many  words  in  buying  or  selling ; 
the  buying  or  selling  uncustomed  goods ;  the  giving 
or  taking  things  on  usury;  i.  e.  unlawful  interest. 

"  Uncharitable  or  unprofitalile  conversation  ;  par- 
ticularly speaking  evil  of  magistrates  or  of  ministers. 

"  Doing  to  others  as  we  would  not  they  should  do 
mito  us. 

"Doing  what  we  know  is  not  for  the  glory  of 
God;  as  the  putting  on  gold  or  costly  apparel;  the 
taking  such  di\ersions  as  cannot  be  used  in  the  name 
of  tlio  Lord  Jesus. 

"  The  singing  those  songs,  or  reading  those  books, 
whicli  do  not  lend  to  tlie  knowledge  or  love  of  God; 
softness  and  needless  soll'-iiululgcnce ;  laying  up 
treasure  u]ion  the  earth ;  borrowing  without  a  pro- 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


437 


bability  of  paying,  or   fakini;  up  goods  witliout  a 
probability  of  paying  for  tlieiii. 

"It  is  expected  of  all  who  continue  in  these  Socie- 
ties tliat  they  should  continue  to  evidence  their  de- 
sire of  salvation, — 

"Secondly,  hy  i/inng r/nod ;  by  being  in  every  kiuil 
merciful  after  tlieir  jjower,  as  they  have  opportunity  ; 
doing  good  of  every  possible  sort,  and  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, to  all  men ;  to  their  bodies,  of  the  ability 
which  God  giveth  ;  by  giving  food  to  the  Iiungry,  by 
clothing  the  naked,  by  visiting  or  helping  them  that 
are  sick,  or  in  prison  ;  to  their  souls,  by  instructing, 
reproving,  or  exhorting  all  we  have  any  intercourse 
with  ;  trampling  under  foot  that  enthusiastic  doctrine 
of  devils,  tliat,  '  We  are  not  to  do  good,  unless  oiu- 
hearts  be  free  to  it.' 

"  I!y  doing  good,  especially  to  them  that  are  of 
the  household  of  fiiith,  or  groaning  so  to  be  ;  employ- 
ing them  preferably  to  others ;  buying  one  of  an- 
other; helping  each  other  in  business;  and  so  much 
the  more,  because  tlie  world  will  love  its  own,  and 
them  only ;  by  all  possible  diligence  and  frugality, 
that  the  gospel  be  not  blamed ;  by  rumiiiig  with  pa- 
tience the  race  set  before  them,  denying  themselves, 
and  taking  up  their  cross  daily ;  submitting  to  bear 
the  reproach  of  Christ ;  to  be  as  the  tilth  and  otf- 
Bcouring  of  tlie  world,  and  looking  that  men  should 
say  all  manner  of  evil  of  them  falsely  for  the  Lord's 
sake. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  desire  to  continue  in 
these  Societies,  that  they  should  continue  to  evi- 
dence their  desire  of  salvation, — 

"  Thirdly,  by  attendrnt}  on  all  the  ordinances  of 
God;  such  are,  the  public  worsliip  of  God ;  the 
ministry  of  the  word,  either  read  or  expounded  ;  the 
supper  of  the  Lord ;  family  and  private  prayer ; 
Searching  the  Scriptures ;  and  fastirjg  and  absti- 
aence." 

Such  were  the  general  rules  drawn  up  for  the  Me- 
thodist Societies  by  John  and  Charles  Wesley.  No 
formal  creed  was  adopted,  and  persons  of  all  deno- 
minations were  welcome  to  join  the  body  provided 
simply  they  were  willing  to  conform  to  the  regula- 
tions now  stated.  As  yet  it  is  quite  plain  that 
Wesley  had  no  intention  to  form  a  separate  sect. 
His  whole  feelings  were  in  favour  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  it  would  have  afforded  him  peculiar 
satisfaction  if  the  clergy  of  that  church  would  have 
taken  the  members  of  the  Methodist  societies 
throughout  the  country  under  their  spiritual  over- 
sight. The  greatest  coolness,  however,  was  mani- 
fested on  the  part  of  the  Established  clergy  towards 
Wesley  and  his  followers.  Hence  the  necessity 
arose  for  lay  agency  in  order  to  secure  the  instruc- 
tion and  supervision  of  the  converts.  Pious  and 
experienced  men  were  accordingly  selected  to  dis- 
charge this  important  duty.  At  first  they  were 
permitted  only  to  expound  the  Scriptures  in  a  plain 
familiar  style ;  but  in  course  of  time  lay  preaching 
was  reluctantly   sanctioned.     Thus  there  was  Bent 


forth  a  large  staff  of  zealous  men,  who  proclaimed 
the  glad  tidings  of  salvation  with  such  energy  and 
success,  that  many  new  converts  were  added  to  the 
ranks  of  Methodism.  Several  clergymen  also  con- 
nected themselves  with  the  movement,  who,  along 
with  Wesley  and  a  large  body  of  lay  assistants,  car- 
ried on  a  regular  system  of  open-air  preaching,  which 
was  attended  everywhere  by  immense  crowds  of 
eager  and  attentive  hearers. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  Methodist  Society  called 
for  some  further  steps  towards  union  and  system. 
By  the  invitation  of  the  Wesleys,  therefore,  tho 
leaders  were  invited  to  meet  in  London,  and  in  June 
1744  the  first  Conference  was  held.  See  CONFER- 
ENCB  (Wesleyan).  Hitherto  the  preachers  had 
carried  on  their  operations  simply  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  Wesley,  but  without  any  intercourse  with 
one  another.  But  by  uniting  them  in  Conference 
they  were  enabled  to  adopt  a  regular  and  systema- 
tic arrangement.  At  the  finst  Conference  only  six 
persons  were  present,  of  whom  five  were  clergymen 
of  the  Established  Church.  With  this  small  Con- 
vention originated  a  thoroughly  organized  ecclesias- 
tical structure,  which  has  proved  itself  one  of  the 
most  potent  influences  in  the  religious  history  of 
England.  The  Methodist  movement  was  now  re- 
duced to  order.  The  country  was  divided  into  cir- 
cuits, each  with  its  assistant  or  superintendent.  All 
chapels  were  conveyed  to  lay  trustees ;  travelling 
preachers  were  allowed  a  stated  sum  for  support, 
and  regulations  were  laid  down  for  the  guidance 
of  the  different  officers  of  the  Society  ;  all,  however, 
being  imder  the  undisputed  control  of  John  Wesley, 
Charles,  his  younger  brother,  having  withdrawn  from 
the  active  management  of  affairs  in  consequence  of 
his  disapproval  of  lay-preaching. 

The  Conference  met  regularly  every  year,  and  one 
improvement  after  another  was  introduced  into  the 
system  of  Methodism  according  as  peculiar  circum- 
stances seemed  to  demand.  One  point  Wesley  kept 
in  view  in  all  his  arrangements,  to  prevent  if  possible 
the  separation  of  the  Societies  from  the  Church  of 
England.  It  was  with  the  utmost  reluctance  that 
he  deviated  even  in  the  .slightest  degree  from  church 
order.  Even  when  the  numbers  of  his  adherents 
were  very  large,  and  their  preachers  had  obtained 
great  influence  over  the  people,  the  sacraments  were 
received  only  in  the  parish  churches.  JIany  years 
elapsed  before  the  sacraments  were  administered,  or 
pastoral  authority  exercised  by  the  Wesleyan  preach- 
ers. This  of  itself  is  a  sufficient  indication  how  un- 
willing Mr.  Wesley  was  to  dissever  his  adherents 
from  the  Church  of  England,  or  to  establish  a  se- 
parate and  independent  sect. 

How  rapidly  the  Methodists  increased  in  number 
after  the  organization  of  the  body,  may  be  seen  from 
the  fact,  that,  in  1749,  there  were  twenty  circuits  in 
England,  two  in  Wales,  two  in  Scotl.and,  and  seven 
in  Ireland.  In  17G5  the  circuits  in  England  had  in- 
creased to  twenty-five,  those  in  Scotland  to  four,  and 


^» 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


those  in  Ireland  to  eight.     Methodism  had  now  be- 
come an  impoi'tant  agency  in  reviving  Cliristianity 
hi   England,  and  both  in  doctrine  and  discipline  it 
had  assumed  a  regular  and  consistent  form,  not  by 
any  preconcerted  plan  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Wesley, 
but  simply  by  the  leadings  of  Providence.     "  Our 
venerable  Foimder,"  says  the  Conference  of  1824, 
"  kept  one  end  only  in  view, — the  diffusion  of  scrip- 
tural Christianity  throughout  the  land,  and  the  pre- 
servation of  all  who  had  believed,  through  grace,  in 
the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel.     This  guiding  princi- 
ple he  steadily  followed  ;  and  to  that  he  surrendered, 
cautiously,   but  faithfully,  wliatever,  in  his  precon- 
ceived opinions,  lie  discovered  to  be  contrary  to  the 
indications  of  Him  whose  the  work  was,  and  to  wliom 
he  had  yielded  himself  up,  implicitly,  as  his  servant 
and  instrument.     In  the  further  gi-owth  of  the  So- 
cieties, the  same  guidance  of  providential  circum- 
stances,— the  same  '  signs  of  the  times,' — led  to  that 
full  provision  for  the  direction  of  the  Societies,  and 
for  tlieir  being  supplied  with  all  the  ordhiances  of 
the  Christian  Church,  and  to  that  more  perfect  pas- 
toral care  which  the  number  of  the  members,  and  the 
vastness  of  the  congregations,  (collected  not  out  of 
the  spoils  of  other  churches,  but  out  of  '  the  world' 
which  '  Keth  in  wickedness,')  imperatively  required. 
Less  than  this,  the  demands  of  piety  and  conscience 
would  not  allow ;  more  than  those  interests  required, 
has  not  been  aimed  at.     The  object  has,  at  no  time, 
been  to  make  a  sect,  but  to  extend  the  Christianity 
of  the  Scriptures  throughout  the  land ;  not  to  give 
currency  to  a  mere  system  of  opinions,  but  to  bring 
men  everywhere  under  the  effectual  influence  of  the 
'  truth  which  is  according  to  godliness;'  and,  in  the 
degree   to  which  God  should  give  his  blessing  to 
these  efforts,  to  fold  the  gathered  flock  from  danger, 
and  to  supply  to  it  wholesome  and  sufficient  pasture. 
These,  beloved  brethren,  are  the  principles  which 
lead  us  to  God  alone,  wlio  has  made  us  'a  people 
who  were  not  a  people,' — and  which  constantly  re- 
mind us  of  the  purposes  for  which  we  were  thus 
gathered  in  His  name,  and  that  our  only  business  on 
earth  is  to  show  forth  the  praises  of  Him,  '  who  hath 
called  us  out  of  darkness  into  marvellous  light.'" 

The  year  1784  constituted  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant eras  in  the  history  of  Wesleyan  Meihodism.  It 
was  at  this  period  that,  in  order  to  secure  'he  stability 
and  government  of  the  connexion  after  his  removal, 
Mr.  Wesley  got  a  "  Deed  of  Declaration"  drawn  uji 
and  regularly  enrolled  in  the  High  Court  of  Chan- 
cery, which  established  a  legal  description  or  defini- 
tion of  the  term  "  Conference  of  tlie  people  called  Me- 
thodists." Without  this  legal  instrument  the  Confer- 
ence woi'Jd  have  become,  at  Wesley's  ieatli,  a  com- 
plete nonentity  in  the  eye  of  law.  But  another  event 
which,  by  its  importance  and  manifold  bearings,  sig- 
nalized the  year  1784,  was,  that,  in  the  course  of  it, 
Mr.  Wesley,  for  the  first  time,  assumed  and  exer- 
cised the  power  of  ordination  in  the  case  O.  Dr. 
Coke,  whom  he  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Me- 


thodist Societies  in  North  America.  In  this  act  ha 
was  assisted  by  other  ordained  ministers ;  and  in 
taking  upon  himself  this  power,  though  only  a  pres- 
byter of  the  Church  of  England,  he  justified  himself 
by  an  appeal  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  many  oi 
his  adherents  in  the  southern  provinces  of  North 
America  being  greatly  distressed  for  want  of  min- 
isters to  administer  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  according  to  the  usages  of  the  Church 
of  England.  On  the  same  principle,  in  1787,  three 
of  the  English  preachers  were  ordained  for  Scotland. 

Happily  for  the  interests  of  Wesleyan  Methodism, 
its  founder  lived  till  he  had  reached  the  advanced 
age  of  eighty-seven,  and  thus  enjoyed  the  high  pri- 
vilege of  seeing  the  cause  which  he  had  originated 
fully  consolidated,  and  in  vigorous  operation,  exercis- 
ing an  influence  over  the  religion  of  the  English  peo- 
ple second  only  to  that  of  the  National  Establishment 
itself.  Wesley's  death,  in  1791,  necessarily  pro- 
duced a  great  alteration  in  the  relations  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  Conference.  Throughout  his  life  he  had 
acted  as  the  arbiter  between  these  two  parties,  and 
such  was  the  respect,  and  even  veneration  in  which 
he  was  held,  that  his  decisions  invariably  commanded 
instant  and  cordial  submission.  The  Conference  na 
turally  imagined  that  after  his  death  the  power  and 
authority  which  he  possessed  might  safely  be  exer- 
cised by  them ;  but  there  being  no  one  now  to  mo- 
derate or  restrain  its  exercise,  considerable  dissension 
existed  from  1792  to  1797,  when  at  length  certain 
rules,  a  portion  of  which  were  called  "  The  Rules  of 
Pacification,"  were  agreed  to  by  the  Conference, 
placing  some  limitation  upon  the  power  of  the  preach- 
ers, and  increasing  that  of  the  people. 

Tlie  death  of  the  founder  of  Methodism  was  deeply 
deplored  by  the  whole  connexion.  It  was  felt  by 
multitudes  to  be  the  loss  of  their  spiritual  father. 
He  was  the  final  arbiter  in  all  disputes  which  arose 
throughout  the  body,  and  even  the  Conference  itself 
had  been  wont  to  bow  with  implicit  submission  to  his 
will.  No  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  removal  of  such 
a  man, — a  man  so  universally  honoured,  respected, 
and  beloved, — should  have  been  mourned  as  an  almost 
irreparable  loss.  And  all  the  more  deeply  was  his 
departure  regretted,  that  no  sooner  was  he  withdrawn 
from  them  than  the  most  painful  dissensions  broke  out 
among  his  followers.  Difficulties  began  to  arise  as  to 
the  rights  of  trustees  over  tlie  chapels,  and  over  the  ap- 
pointment of  ministers  ;  and  a  questio.n  was  now  agi- 
tated for  the  first  time  as  to  the  right  of  the  laity  to 
participate  in  the  spiritual  and  secular  government  of 
the  body.  It  had  been  the  anxious  desire  of  Wes- 
ley throughout  his  life,  to  obviate  any  chance  of  a  col- 
lision between  the  Methodists  and  the  Established  . 
Church.  No  such  delicacy,  however,  was  felt  by  his 
followers  after  his  decease.  The  people  urged  upon 
the  Conference  their  "  right  to  hold  public  religious 
wor.sliip  at  sucli  hours  as  were  most  convenient,  with- 
out being  restricted  to  the  nu^re  intervals  of  the  hours 
appointed  for  service  hi  the  Established  Church.' 


J 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


43S 


And  not  only  so,  but  the  popular  (lemfinfls  rose  Btill 
^ligher.  The  members  of  the  Metliodint  body  were 
no  longer  contented  with  occupying  the  compani- 
tively  luunble  position  of  i\  Society,  beyond  which 
the  ambition  of  their  founder  bad  never  risen;  they 
demanded  that  Methodism  should  bo  recognized  as 
a  chnrch,  ordaining  ministers,  dispensing  sacraments, 
and  administering  discipline. 

For  several  years  the  Methodist  Societies  were  in 
a  state  of  the  utmost  confusion  and  insubordination  ; 
and  tliis  was  aggravated  by  an  attemjit,  on  the  part 
■  if  the  travelling  preachers,  to  exercise  over  the  peo- 
ple the  same  power  which  Wesley  bad  exercised  dur- 
ing his  life.  Year  after  year  the  Conference  had 
under  their  serious  consideration  the  alarming  state 
iif  matters  in  the  body  generally,  and  the  necessity 
of  discovering  some  cfBoient  remedy.  At  length,  in 
1795,  a  Plan  of  Pacificfvtion  was  devised  by  the  Con- 
ference, which,  for  a  time  at  least,  allayed  the  wide- 
spread discontent,  by  yielding  to  a  certain  extent  to 
the  demands  of  the  people.  Thus  it  was  decided, 
that  the  ministerial  office  .shoidd  no  longer  be  limited 
in  its  duties  to  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  but 
should  include  also  the  dispensation  of  the  sacra- 
ments, by  those  only,  however,  who  were  authorized 
by  the  Conference,  and  at  such  times  and  in  such 
manner  only  as  the  Conference  should  appoint.  In 
regard  to  the  claims  of  the  chapel  trustees  and  the 
laity  generally,  the  Plan  of  Pacification  declared  the 
absolute  right  of  the  Conference  to  appoint  preach- 
ers, and  the  inability  of  the  trustees  to  refuse  their 
admission  into  the  chapels.  While  thus  resisting,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  demands  of  the  trustees,  the 
Conference  formed  a  new  court,  for  purposes  of  Dis- 
cipline, consisting  of  all  the  preachers  of  the  dis- 
trict and  all  the  trustees,  stewards,  and  leaders  of 
the  circuit ;  and  before  this  court  any  accusation 
against  a  preacher  could  be  laid,  while  it  had  power 
to  suspend  him  from  his  office  until  next  Conference, 
to  whom  the  case  must  be  referred. 

The  Plan  of  Pacification  thus  framed  in  1795  con- 
tiiuies  in  force  among  the  Wesleyans  down  to  the 
present  day.  Tlie  framework  of  Methodism  was 
now  set  up,  and  the  body  thoroughly  organized, 
though  great  numbers  of  its  people  still  remain- 
ed in  communion  with  the  Church  of  England.  The 
following  concise  and  comprehensive  view  of  the 
entire  system  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  is  given  by 
the  Rev.  R.  Spence  Hardy,  in  his  '  Memorials  of 
Jonas  Sugden :  "  No  one  is  regarded  as  a  member 
of  this  church  who  does  not  meet  in  class.  Each 
class  consists  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  persons,  who 
are  under  the  care  of  a  leader.  They  meet  together 
every  week  to  relate  their  spiritual  exercises,  and 
receive  advices  from  the  leader,  commencing  and 
concluding  with  singing  and  prayer,  and,  at  the  same 
.ime,  a  sm.all  sum  is  given  towards  the  sustentation 
of  tfie  ministry.  The  class-meeting  is  regarded  as 
the  most  precious  and  efficient  of  the  arrangements 
peculiar  to  Methodism ;  its  safeguard,  its  power,  and 


its  hope.  The  leaders  of  each  Society  meet  toge- 
ther weekly,  and  then  pay  in  the  contributions  they 
have  received  to  their  own  steward.  Another  meet- 
ing is  held  quarterly,  of  local  preachers,  leaders, 
stewards,  and  trustees  of  chapels^  from  all  the  So- 
cieties in  the  circuit,  when  the  Society-stewards 
hand  over  the  contributions  from  the  classes  to  the 
circuit-stewards,  through  whom  the  ministers  re- 
ceive their  stipend.  A  circuit  comjirises  the  por- 
tion of  country  under  the  care  of  the  same  ministers 
who  officiate  alternately  in  all  the  chapels  with- 
in its  limits.  They  are  assisted  by  local  prcacliers, 
a  useful  and  honourable  class  of  men,  who,  without 
fee  or  earthly  reward,  preach  the  gosjiel  on  the  Sab- 
bath, but  on  the  week-days  follow  a  secular  calling. 
They  are  more  numerous  than  the  ministers  ;  there 
being  at  present  in  the  Keighlcy  circuit,  three  min- 
isters and  thirty- five  local  preachers.  No  minister 
can  remain  in  the  same  circuit  more  than  three 
years.  Several  circuits  form  a  district,  all  the  min 
isfcrs  and  circuit-stewards  of  which  meet  together 
annually,  for  the  transaction  of  business  [jrejiaratoiy 
to  the  Conference ;  and  the  ministers,  in  a  commit- 
tee of  their  own,  examine  character,  receive  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry,  and  ini|uire  into  the  spiritual 
state  of  each  circuit,  taking  account  of  the  number  of 
members  in  Society.  In  England  there  are  4,39  cir- 
cuits and  29  districts.  The  minister  having  charge  of 
a  circuit  is  called  the  superintendent ;  and  of  a  dis- 
trict, the  chairman.  The  highest  ecclesiastical  court  is 
the  Conference.  It  meets  annually  in  one  or  other  of 
the  principal  towns  in  England,  and  is  attended  by 
from  three  to  five  hundred  ministers.  At  this  time 
ministers  are  admitted  and  ordained  ;  every  minister's 
name  in  the  whole  connexion,  in  whatever  part  of 
the  world  resident,  is  read  aloud,  and  relative  to 
each  the  question  is  asked,  if  there  be  any  objection 
to  his  character,  and  the  representative  of  the  dis- 
trict in  which  be  lives  must  return  an  answer,  foimd- 
ed  on  pre\ious  investigation,  in  each  separate  case  ; 
cases  of  discipline  are  examined ;  the  ministers  are 
appointed  to  the  circuits  in  which  they  are  to  la- 
bour during  the  following  year ;  each  of  the  con- 
nexioual  Institutions  and  Societies  passes  under  re- 
view; officers  and  comnn'ttees  are  appointed;  and 
all  business  is  transacted  that  relates  to  the  t-enerd 
interests  of  this  branch  of  the  Church  of  Christ. 
Previous  to  the  sitting  of  the  Conference,  all  matters 
connected  with  finance  are  arranged,  in  preparatory 
committees,  composed  of  ministers  and  of  the  princi- 
pal laymen  in  the  Connexion.  To  the  uninitiated 
stranger,  Methodism  may  appear  like  a  tissue  of 
meaningless  anomalies ;  but  on  a  nearer  acquaint 
ance  he  would  find  that  it  is  a  wonderful  system  of 
nice  adjustment  and  adaptation ;  in  no  other  church 
is  lay  agency  employed  to  the  same  extent,  and  yet 
in  no  other  church  are  the  ministers  more  indepen 
dent  of  any  influence  that  might  deter  them  from  the 
declaration  of  unwelcome  truth,  or  the  exercise  of  a 
godly  discipline ;  and  its  efficiency  is  made  manifest 


440 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


in  nearly  every  place  in  which  its  course  is  not  ob- 
Btructed  by  those  who  have  previously  rendered 
themselves  amenable  to  the  censure  of  its  courts,  or 
by  the  members  of  other  churches  who  would  seek 
to  assimilate  it  to  their  own  institutions." 

Besides  the  Classes,  to  which  the  Wesleyan  Me- 
thodists attach  much  importance  as  the  very  life  of 
tlieir  system,  there  are  also  still  smaller  collections  of 
four  or  five  persons  called  "  Bands,"  which  were  first 
established  by  Mr.  Wesley  in  1742.  These  little 
companies  were  instituted  to  afford  an  opportunity 
to  the  members  of  the  Society  of  a  more  private 
and  unrestrained  confession  to  each  other,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Apostolic  exhortation,  "  Confess  your 
faults  one  to  another."  The  persons  forming  each 
"  band"  are  all  of  the  same  condition ;  either  mar- 
ried women  or  single  women,  married  men  or  single 
men.  The  rides  of  the  "Bands"  are  (1.)  That  no- 
thing spoken  in  the  Society  be  spoken  again ;  (2.) 
That  every  member  submit  to  his  minister  in  all  in- 
different tilings ;  (3.)  That  every  member  bring  once 
a-week,  aU  he  can  spare  to  a  common  stock.  The 
four  following  questions  are  to  be  proposed  to  the 
members  separately  at  every  weekly  meeting:  1. 
What  known  sins  have  you  committed  since  oui-  last 
meeting?  2.  What  temptations  have  you  met  with? 
3.  How  were  you  delivered?  4.  What  have  you 
thought,  said,  or  done,  of  which  you  doubt  whether 
it  be  a  sin  or  not  ? 

The  classes  attached  to  each  Wesleyan  chapel  are 
termed  as  a  whole,  a  "  Society,"  which  corresponds 
to  a  church  or  congi-egation  in  other  denominations ; 
and  a  number  of  Societies  within  a  certain  range  are 
termed  a  "  circuit."  In  each  circuit  there  are  two 
descriptions  of  preachers,  regular  and  local.  The 
regular  are  separated  entirely  to  the  work  of  the 
ministry,  and  are  supported  by  the  weekly  and  quar- 
terly contributions  of  members  in  their  classes,  and 
the  proceeds  of  what  are  called  Quarterly  Collec- 
tions, made  in  every  congregation  once  in  three 
months.  From  one  to  four  "  itinerant  preachers," 
as  the  regular  ministers  are  called,  are  appointed  for 
a  term  not  exceeding  three  years  in  immediate  suc- 
cession to  the  same  circuit.  They  are  expected  not 
to  confine  their  ministry  to  one  place,  but  to  itinerate 
throughout  the  circuit.  There  are  probal)ly  about 
1,000  Wesleyan  itinerant  preachers  in  Great  Britain. 
The  local  preachers  follow  a  secular  calling,  and 
preach  on  the  Sabbaths  according  to  a  plan  which  is 
laid  down  every  quarter.  The  number  of  these  local 
preachers  is  about  15,000. 

The  public  worship  of  the  Wesleyan  body  varies 
considerably  in  ditt'erent  places.  In  some,  more 
especially  of  the  larger  chapels  in  London,  and  other 
large  towns  in  England,  the  Liturgy  of  the  CInu'ch 
of  England  is  in  regular  use  ;  while  in  many  chapels 
the  service  is  conducted  wholly  in  an  extemporaiy 
form.  When  tlie  Liturgy  is  used,  it  is  according  to 
a  revised  form,  which  was  prepared  by  Wesley  for 
his  adherents.     The  thirty-nine  articles  also  of  the 


Church  of  England  are  reduced  in  the  hands  of  th« 

Wesleyans  to  twenty-five.  The  rite  of  confirma 
tion  is  not  practised  by  the  body,  but  many  parents 
belonging  to  the  Connexion  send  their  children  to  be 
confirmed  by  an  English  bishop.  The  Lord's  Sup- 
per is  usually  administered  according  to  the  rubric 
of  the  Church  of  England.  Love  Feasts  are  occa- 
sionally celebrated ;  and  a  solemn  Watch-night  or 
midnight  meeting  at  the  close  of  each  year  is  regu- 
larly observed.  Tliere  is  also  a  practice  observed  in 
the  beginning  of  tlie  year,  called  the  "renewing  of 
the  covenant,"  when  the  members  of  the  Society  de- 
dicate themselves  anew  to  the  Lord.  The  hymn- 
book  fonns  an  important  element  in  the  worship  of 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  and  where  instrumental 
music  is  used  in  any  of  their  chapels,  the  utmost  care 
is  taken  that  the  congregation  be  encouraged  to  join 
with  heart  and  voice  in  suiging  the  praises  of  God. 
A  quarterly  fast  is  enjoined  to  be  kept  by  each  mem- 
ber of  the  Society. 

No  feature  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  has  given  nsa 
to  more  frequent  and  more  violent  disputes  than  the 
exclusively  clerical  composition  of  the  Conference. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  when  a  love  of 
change  and  an  impatience  of  restraint  was  so  strongly 
engendered  by  the  French  Revolution,  a  class  ot 
people  arose  among  the  followers  of  Wesley,  who 
enthusiastic  for  liberty,  demanded  that  the  laity 
should  be  represented  in  the  Conference  as  well  as 
the  clergy.  And  this  cry  for  popular  rights  was 
not  only  raised  without,  but  also  within  the  Con- 
ference, and  under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  Kilham  a 
secession  on  this  account  took  place  in  1796.  The 
question  as  to  the  admission  of  lay-delegates  was 
carefully  discussed  at  the  next  meeting  of  Confer- 
ence, and  after  mature  deliberation  it  was  decided 
"  that  they  cannot  admit  any  but  regular  travelling 
preachers  into  their  body,  either  in  the  Conference 
or  in  district  meetings,  and  preserve  the  system  of 
Methodism  entire ;  particularly  the  itinerant  plan 
which  they  are  determined  to  support."  This  de- 
cided refusal  on  the  part  of  the  Conference  to  allow 
the  introduction  of  the  lay  element  into  their  body, 
gave  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  new  society  of  Me- 
thodists, commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Kilham- 
ites,  or  as  they  styled  themselves,  the  Methodist 
(Wesleyan)  New  Connexion  (which  see). 

The  agitation  of  the  subject  of  lay  delegation,  and 
the  secession  which  followed,  led  the  Conference  to 
gi-ant  several  concessions,  handing  over  a  portion  ot 
the  authority  which  they  themselves  had  hitherto  ex  ■ 
ercised  in  financial  and  other  secular  matters,  to  the 
quarterly  and  district  meetings.  The  laity  were  also 
admitted  to  a  sliare  in  the  exercise  of  discipline  both 
in  the  matter  of  the  admission  and  tlie  expulsion  ot 
members.  In  consequence  of  these  concessions,  har- 
mony was  restored,  and  for  tlurty  years  ))eace  reign- 
ed throughout  the  whole  of  the  original  Connexion. 
Every  year  the  Wesleyans  increased  in  numbers, 
and  grew  in  influence  and  political  importance.     In 


METHODISTS  (Webleyan). 


441 


Kfiveral  public  questions  tlioy  toolc  an  active  interest, 
iMore  L'Hjiecially  i"  tlie  supiiression  of  the  slave  trade, 
anil  in  the  eniancipation  of  tlio  slaves. 

In  1827  a  controversy  arose,  which  gave  rise  to 
niMcli  unseemly  contention.  The  trustees  of  a 
cliaiiol  in  Leeds  being  desirous  of  introducing  an 
organ,  made  application  to  the  District  Meeting 
for  permission  to  do  so,  which,  however,  was  re- 
fused. Accordingly,  tlie  Trustees  ajipealod  to  the 
Conference,  who  reversed  the  decision  of  tlic  Dis- 
trict Meeting,  and  grunted  the  request.  A  discus- 
sion now  commenced  throughout  the  Society  on 
the  question,  whether  the  Conference  possessed 
the  right  of  overriding  the  decision  of  a  District 
Meeting.  About  tlie  same  time  the  question  was 
revived  and  keenly  discussed  as  to  the  power  df 
preachers  to  expel  members  from  the  Society ;  and 
as  this  power  was  both  claimed  and  exercised  by  the 
preachers,  several  thousand  members  left  the  Con- 
nexion. 

A  still  more  serious  secession  took  place  from  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists  in  1835,  giving  rise  to  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Association.  This  additional 
rupture  arose  out  of  the  case  of  Dr.  Warren,  who, 
in  consequence  of  his  active  opposition  to  some  moa- 
siu'es  adopted  by  Conference,  was  suspended  by  the 
Manchester  District  Meeting.  Against  this  sen- 
tence he  appealed  to  the  Court  of  Chancery,  wdiich 
decided  against  him,  and  affirmed  the  power  of  the 
District  Meeting  to  suspend,  and  declared  that  in  the 
circumstances  they  had  acted  legally.  The  Con- 
ference, in  a  formal  resolution,  recorded  their  fer- 
vent gratitude  to  the  Great  Head  of  the  Clun-ch 
for  the  gracious  interpositions  of  his  providence  in 
this  decree  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  "  securing  to 
the  preachers  appointed  by  the  Conference  the  in- 
alienable occupation  of  our  pulpits ;  recognising  the 
pastoral  supervision  and  authority  of  the  Conference 
as  the  supreme  tribunal  of  Methodism,  through  the 
medium  of  its  district  committees,  and  aflbrding  the 
ample  security  of  British  law  to  the  general  economy 
of  Wesleyan  Methodism." 

Not  even  by  this  third  secession  was  the  inherent 
strength  or  vitality  of  Methodism  to  any  consider- 
able extent  diminished.  The  year  1839  was  cele- 
brated as  the  centenary  of  the  Society,  and  during 
the  hundred  years  which  had  passed  since  its  foun- 
dation, the  number  of  regular  chapels  had  risen  to 
the  large  number  of  3,000,  in  addition  to  the  numer- 
ous preaching  stations  where  no  chapels  had  been 
built.  The  ministers  of  the  Wesleyan  body  were 
reported  in  that  year  to  amount  to  1,019,  the  local 
preachers  to  about  4,000,  and  the  members  to  296,801. 
Such  is  the  vigour  and  efficiency  of  this  compact 
body  of  Christians,  that  on  the  occasion  of  celebrat- 
ing their  centenary,  they  contributed  a  sum  amount- 
ing to  £210,000,  which  was  expended  in  the  erection 
of  the  Theological  Institutions,  the  Centcnaiy  Ilall 
and  Mission  House  in  London,  and  the  Centenary 
Chapel  in  Dublin;  the  purchase  of  a  Missionary 

II. 


ship;  the  reduction  of  Chapel-debts  to  a  large  ex- 
tent ;  the  formation  of  the  Education  Eund  for  the 
extension  of  Day-schools,  and  of  the  Worn-out  Min- 
isters and  Ministers'  Widows  Fund,  with  otiier  im- 
portant objects. 

Amid  all  the  rejoicings  and  congratnktions  of  the 
jubilee  year,  however,  new  trials  were  preparing  for 
Wesleyan  Methodism.  The  idea  very  generally  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  Societies  that  the  legitimate 
influence  which  bad  once  belonged  to  the  Leaders' 
Meetings  and  the  Quarterly  Meetings  was  seriously 
abridged,  and  that  the  Conference,  or  rather  a  email 
party  in  the  Conference,  ruled  with  uncontrolled 
and  despotic  authority.  The  feelings  of  discontent 
and  dissatisfaction  which  were  entertained  in  many 
quarters,  found  vent  in  several  tracts,  which  ajipeared 
at  intervals  between  1844  and  1848,  under  the  name 
of  the  '  Fly  Sheets."  These  tracts,  which  were  pub- 
lished anonymously,  were  evidently  the  production 
either  of  a  member  of  Conference,  or  at  all  events 
of  one  who  was  acquainted  with  all  its  proceedings ; 
and  their  chief  object  seemed  to  be  not  a  change  in 
the  constitution  of  the  Wesleyan  body,  but  a  change 
in  the  mode  of  its  administration.  Such  severe  and 
even  scurrilous  attacks  as  were  contained  in  the 
'  Fly  Sheets,'  were  fitted  only  to  produce  irritation  in 
the  minds  of  those  whose  proceedings  were  so  freely 
canvassed,  and  the  Conference  therefore  proceeded  to 
take  steps  for  the  discovery  of  the  persons  who  had 
been  implicated  in  the  preparation  and  publication  of 
the  '  Fly  Sheets.'  To  facilitate  the  discovery  of  the 
guilty  parties,  the  question  was  put  to  each  of  the 
suspected  parties,  whether  he  was  the  author  of  the 
obnoxious  tracts.  Tluree  of  the  brethren  declined 
to  reply  to  the  question,  and  were  in  consequence 
expelled,  while  two  other  ministers  were  censured 
and  degraded  from  the  office  of  superintendent,  but 
not  expelled.  These  prompt  and  decisive  measures 
appeared  for  a  short  time  to  restore  order  and  quiet 
throughout  the  Societies ;  but  in  the  course  of  two 
years  more  the  Conference  found  it  necessary  to  ex- 
pel another  minister  for  countenancing  the  "  un- 
righteous agitation."  The  general  prosperity  of  the 
body,  however,  was  unimpaired  by  all  that  had  hap- 
pened, the  members  actually  admitted  having  in- 
creased by  9,000  in  the  year  1850,  while  20,000  more 
had  been  taken  on  trial. 

A  serious  crisis  now  seemed  to  be  rapidly  approach- 
ing. The  agitation  which  had  so  long  been  spreading 
secretly  among  the  people,  found  vent  in  numerous 
memorials  to  the  Conference,  which  were  only  an- 
swered by  an  avowal  of  the  determination  of  that 
court  to  adhere  to  the  true  principles  of  Methodism. 
Four  hundred  delegates  from  the  discontented  parties 
throughout  the  kingdom  held  a  meeting  in  London 
previous  to  the  meeting  of  Conference,  and  when  the 
supreme  court  assembled,  petitions,  with  more  than 
50,000  signatures,  were  laid  upon  the  table,  praying 
for  the  redress  of  certain  grievances,  and  the  conces- 
sion of  certain  rights.  Finding  that  matters  had 
2  P  * 


442 


METHODISTS  (Wesleyan). 


assumed  an  aspect  so  alarming,  the  Conference  re- 
solved to  act  with  firmness,  and,  accordingly,  with 
an  unsparing  hand,  they  cut  off  from  all  connexion 
with  the  Society  eveiy  individual  who  had  been  in 
any  way  concerned  in  the  meeting  of  delegates,  and 
all  even  to  the  extent  of  whole  classes  and  societies 
who  had  been  accessory  to  those  disturbances  which 
were  threatening  the  very  existence  of  Methodism 
in  England. 

The  Conference  of  1851  conducted  its  proceedings 
in  a  spirit  of  undiminished  firmness.  The  delegates 
again  assembled  and  sought  an  interview  with  the 
supreme  com-t,  but  were  refused.  Still  a  step  in 
advance  was  gained,  for  several  memorials  having 
been  presented  from  the  disaffected,  the  Conference 
appointed  a  large  committee  of  their  number  to  "  ex- 
amine the  suggestions  contained  in  them,  and  to 
report  on  the  same."  The  president  was  also  au- 
thorized, if  he  saw  fit,  to  invite  a  number  of  suitable 
laymen  "  to  confer  with  them  on  the  results  to 
which  they  had  attained."  It  was  all  the  more 
necessary  to  adopt  such  conciliatory  measures,  the 
Connexion  having  lost  in  the  course  of  the  year  the 
enormous  number  of  56,000  members  by  expulsion 
and  secession. 

With  so  large  a  body  of  members  alienated  from 
her  communion  in  the  com-se  of  a  single  year,  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Cliurch  had  now  evidently 
reached  a  crisis  in  her  history.  But  the  Conference 
refused  to  be  driven  from  the  position  they  had 
taken  up,  and  in  their  annual  address  they  declared 
their  determination  "  to  hold  the  pastoral  crook  with 
steady  and  unfaltering  hand."  Firmness,  however, 
did  not  avail  to  check  the  growing  dissatisfaction. 
A  large  assembly  of  members  and  office-bearers  of 
the  Society  was  held  at  Birmingham  in  December 
1851,  to  deliberate  upon  "the  present  disastrous 
state  of  Methodism;"  and  on  this  occasion  a  docu- 
ment was  signed  by  more  than  700  trustees,  le<adeis, 
and  local  preacliers,  containing  a  detailed  enumera- 
tion of  the  grievances  which  it  was  expected  the 
Conference  would  take  steps  to  redress.  Yet  the  agi- 
tation, far  from  being  repressed,  was  as  violent  as  ever 
when  the  Conference  met  at  Sheffield  in  1852,  de- 
tennined,  althougli  in  the  course  of  two  years  the 
Societies  had  lost  77,000,  still  to  preserve  the  spirit 
of  resistance  by  which  it  had  hitherto  been  ani- 
mated. The  Declaratiouists,  who  had  now  reached 
the  large  number  of  2,000,  presented  a  respectful 
petition  to  the  Conference  praying  to  be  heard  by 
deputation.  This  request  was  refused,  and  the  irri- 
tation thereby  excited  was  aggravated  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  President,  while  he  had  invited 
745  laymen  to  meet  with  the  Committee  of  Con- 
ference, had  carefully  excluded  from  the  number 
every  individual  whose  name  was  attached  to  the 
Birmingham  declaration.  By  tlio  conjunct  labours 
of  the  Committee,  and  the  laymen  thus  selected  to 
deliberate  along  with  tliem,  several  aherations  were 
made  with  the  view  of  conciliating  the  agitators. 


But  aU  was  of  no  avail;  the  breach  only  became 
wider  and  wider  as  time  rolled  on.  Another  protest 
was  issued  in  December  1852,  denying  "the  right  of 
itinerant  ministers  to  excommunicate  members  with- 
out the  sanction  of  the  church  or  of  its  local  officers ; 
nor  to  depose  officers  without  the  sanction  of  their 
peers."  "  We  cannot  admit,"  it  is  added,  "  the  right 
of  either  ministers,  jiastors,  or  others  to  select  whom 
they  please  for  special  conference  on  matters  upon 
which  all  are  equally  concerned.  We  cannot  admit 
the  right  of  any  class  of  men  to  fetter  all  other 
classes  in  the  church  for  the  prevention  of  a  free  and 
honest  expression  of  opinion  on  matters  of  church 
polity  and  discipline,  put  forth  in  a  peaceable  and 
godly  manner."  This  protest,  which  was  laid  upon 
the  table  of  the  Conference  at  its  meeting  in  1853, 
was  rejected,  though  the  secession  had  been  enlarged 
in  the  course  of  the  previous  year  by  the  addition  to 
its  numbers  of  10,000  Methodists. 

The  shock  which  the  Wesleyan  body  has  received 
of  late  years  by  the  large  secessions  which  have  from 
time  to  time  been  thinning  its  ranks,  shows  the  mas- 
culine strength  and  vigour  of  the  Society,  which  after 
all  continues  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  in- 
fluential religious  denominations  in  England.  The 
seceding  bodies  of  Methodists  are  evidently  dis- 
posed to  maintain  their  position  with  firmness  and 
perseverance ;  but  none  seem  to  push  their  distinc- 
tive principles  to  so  great  a  length  as  the  Wesleyan 
Reformers,  a  class  of  people  wliich,  though  they  have 
not  assumed  the  form  of  a  regular  sect,  hold  opi- 
nions which  are  completely  at  variance  with  the 
fundamental  principles  of  Wesleyan  Methodism,  as 
these  are  understood  by  the  Conference.  Thus  they 
assert  that  the  right  of  admitting  members  into  the 
church,  and  excluding  them  from  it,  is  vested  only  in 
the  church-members,  who  are  entitled  to  be  present 
at  all  meetings  in  which  the  business  of  the  church 
is  transacted.  They  hold  also  that  it  belongs  to  the 
church  to  nominate  and  elect  all  office-bearei's,  and 
that  the  local  courts  should  be  independent  of  the 
Conference,  and  their  decisions  reckoned  final.  The 
Reformers  still  account  themselves  as  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  and  instead  of  seceding  from  the  Society 
and  forming  a  new  sect,  they  direct  their  whole  ef- 
forts towards  a  complete  change  in  the  constitution 
of  the  original  Connexion ;  and  insist,  as  essential  to 
the  restoration  of  peace  and  harmony,  that  all  preach- 
ers, officers,  and  members,  who  have  been  expelled 
in  consequence  of  recent  proceedings,  should  be  re- 
stored. But  although  by  the  dissensions  of  late 
years  Wesleyan  Methodism  is  calculated  to  have 
lost  100,000  members,  or  one-third  of  the  whole,  the 
Conference  and  the  remanent  body  maintain  that 
the  proceedings  of  Conference  have  been  thoroughly 
in  accordance  with  the  constitution  of  the  Society  as 
laid  down  in  the  poll-deed,  and  besides,  carry  with 
them  the  warrant  of  Scripture.  Such  assumptions, 
of  course,  are  strongly  denied  by  the  various  seced- 
ing bodies,  and  the  Conference  is  condemned  as  ex- 


METHODIST  (Wesleyan)  ASSOCIATION. 


443 


ercising  a  clerical  despotism  fi-om  wliicli  tlie  mind  of 
Wesley  would  have  revolted,  and  which  is  thought 
at  variance  not  only  with  special  passages,  hut  with 
tlio  whole  spirit  and  tenor  of  the  Word  of  God. 

The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Society  is  rapidly  repair- 
ing tlie  losses  it  has  sustained  by  tiic  retirement  and 
expulsion  of  so  many  of  its  members,  the  number  at 
present  in  communion  with  the  Society  being,  ac- 
c.ordhig  to  the  latest  accountB  in  Great  Britain, 
270,095,  being  an  increase  during  the  last  year  of 
G,2G0.  The  number  of  ministers  in  Great  Britain  is 
reported  on  the  same  autliority  to  be  1,205,  and 
preachers  on  trial,  83.  In  Ireland  the  members  are 
19,287,  tlie  ministers,  107,  and  the  preachers  on 
trial,  18.  "  The  Wesleyan  missions  were  commenced 
in  178G,  and  were  until  1813  confined  chiefly  to 
British  North  America  and  the  West  Indies.  In 
tlie  December  of  that  year,  however.  Dr.  Coke,  ac- 
companied by  a  band  of  young  missionaries,  em- 
barked for  India.  Up  to  this  period.  Dr.  Coke  had 
mainly  raised  the  funds  needed  to  carry  on  the  Me- 
thodist Missionary  operations.  The  additional  evan- 
gelistic enterprise  now  entered  upon  made  new  ar- 
rangements and  exertions  necess.ary.  Various  plans 
were  suggested  ;  but  that  which  originated  with  the 
late  Rev.  George  Morley  and  the  Kev.  Dr.  Bunt- 
ing, then  stationed  in  Leeds,  and  sanctioned  by  sev- 
eral of  the  ministers  in  that  town  and  neighbour- 
hood, was  adopted  by  the  ensuing  Conference. 
Tliat  scheme  has  been  greatly  owned  of  God.  In 
1814  tlie  income  of  the  Missionary  fund  was  below 
£7,000 ;  there  were  70  Missionaries,  and  the  number 
of  members  under  their  care  was  18,747.  Now,  there 
are,  according  to  the  last  returns,  114,528  accredited 
church-members,  besides  6,922  on  trial  for  member- 
ship, under  the  care  of  632  Missionaries ;  and  the 
income  is  £119,205  8s.  2d." 

METHODIST  (Wesleyan)  ASSOCIATION. 
riie  most  frequent  source  of  the  dissensions  which 
have  agitated  the  Societies  of  the  Wesleyan  Method- 
ists has  involved  the  question.  Where  lies  the  power  of 
expelling  members  from  the  body  ?  Is  it  with  the 
preachers  solely  ?  as  the  Conference  affirms  ;  or  with 
preachers  and  class  leaders  jointly  ?  as  the  movement 
party  maintain.  The  controversies  which  have  been 
raised  upon  this  point  have  almost  uniformly  termi- 
nated in  a  secession.  One  of  the  most  recent  of  these 
disputes  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Wesleyan  Method- 
ist Association.  In  1834  a  discussion  commenced  as 
to  the  propriety  of  establishing  a  Theological  Institu- 
tion, and  a  minister,  named  Dr.  Warren,  having  pub- 
licly expressed  his  disapproval  of  the  measure,  and 
pubn'shed  a  pamphlet  against  it,  was  expelled  from 
the  Connexion  by  the  District  meeting  at  Leeds. 
Several  parties  who  held  and  avowed  similar  senti- 
ments were  also  cut  off.  Such  summary  proceed- 
ings, on  the  part  of  the  local  courts,  led  to  a  keen 
controversy  throughout  the  Wesleyan  Societies 
generally,  affecting  the  government  of  the  church. 
Matters  had  now  assumed  so  threatening  an  aspect 


that  the  Conference  in  1835  took  action  on  tlie  nub 
ject.  Thoy  refused  to  yield  the  point  which  they 
had  always  maintained,  that  the  ministers  have  the 
exclusive  power  of  passing  sentence  on  convicted 
members  ;  but  at  the  same  time  they  deemed  it  expe- 
dient to  introduce  certain  limitations  which  tended 
to  modify  the  disciplinary  authority  which  they  held 
as  essentially  belonging  to  the  pastoral  office.  The 
limiting  clauses  enacted  at  this  time  professed  to 
guard  accused  members  against  unfair  treatment. 
Tlius  it  was  enacted  (1.)  That  the  sentence  should 
not  be  pronounced  till  a  week  after  the  trial.  (2.) 
Tliat  in  difficult  cases  the  superintendent  should  con- 
sult the  leaders  and  others.  (3.)  That  cases  of  pro- 
posed expulsion  should  be  brought  before  the  weekly 
meeting  of  preachers ;  and  (4.)  That  an  appeal 
should  be  allowed  by  either  party  to  a  "  minor  dis- 
trict meeting,"  composed  of  five  preachers,  two  se- 
lected by  the  superintendent,  two  by  the  accused, 
the  fifth  being  universally  the  chairman  of  the 
district.  Other  conciliatory  measures  were  also 
passed  by  the  Conference,  which,  however,  left  the 
entire  government  of  the  Connexion,  at  least  in  all 
essential  matters,  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 
ministers.  The  movement  party,  therefore,  having 
failed  to  obtain  the  reforms  they  sought,  seceded, 
and  in  1835  became  a  separate  and  independent  Me- 
thodist Society. 

The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Association  differs  from 
the  original  Connexion  neither  in  doctrine  nor  wor- 
ship, but  solely  in  constitutional  arrangements.  The 
principal  peculiarities  are  thus  stated  in  their  own 
published  'Regulations:'  "The  Annual  Assembly 
(answering  to  the  Old  Wesleyan  Conference)  is 
distinguished  by  the  introduction  of  the  laity  as 
representatives.  It  consists  of  such  of  the  itiner- 
ant and  local  preachers,  and  other  official  or  pri- 
vate members,  as  the  circuits,  societies,  or  churches 
in  union  with  the  Association  (and  contributing 
£50  to  the  support  of  the  ministry)  elect.  Tlie 
number  of  representatives  is  regulated  by  the  num- 
ber of  constituents.  Circuits  with  less  than  500 
members  send  one ;  those  with  more  than  500 
and  less  than  1,000  send  two ;  and  such  as  have 
more  than  1,000  send  three.  The  Annual  Assem- 
bly admits  persons  on  trial  as  preachers,  examines 
them,  receives  them  into  full  connexion,  appoints 
them  to  their  circuits,  and  excludes  or  censures 
them  when  necessary.  It  also  directs  the  applica- 
tion of  all  General  or  Connexional  Funds,  and  ap- 
points a  committee  to  represent  it  till  the  next  As- 
sembly. But  it  does  not  interfere  with  strictly 
local  matters,  for  'each  circuit  has  the  right  and 
power  to  govern  itself  by  its  local  courts,  without 
any  interference  as  to  the  management  of  its  inter- 
nal affairs.'" 

It  is  a  distinctive  feature  in  the  ecclesiastical  goy- 
emment  of  the  "  Association,"  that  in  matters  cf  dis- 
cipline the  laity  are  permitted  to  exercise  more  in- 
fluence than  in  the  original  Wesleyan  Connexion. 


444  METHODIST  (Wesletan)  NEW  CONNEXION— METHODIST  (TVesleyan)  REFORMERS. 


Accordingly,  it  is  provided  that  "  no  member  shall 
be  expelled  from  the  Association  except  by  the 
direction  of  a  majority  of  a  leaders'  society,  or 
Circuit  Quarterly  Meeting."  The  Methodist  As- 
sociation has  made  rapid  progress,  and  is  now  a 
large  and  increasing  body.  In  1857  there  were  in 
England  ninety-three  preachers.  The  members  in 
England  and  Scotland  were  20,873 ;  in  Wales,  250  ; 
in  Ireland,  34  ;  and  on  foreign  stations,  1,185. 

METHODIST  (Wrsleyan)  NEW  CONNEX- 
ION. Tliis  large  body  of  seceders  from  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  Society  owes  its  origin  to  the  Rev. 
Alexander  Killiam.  This  Methodist  minister,  who 
was  a  native  of  Epworth  in  Lincolnshire,  tlie  birtli- 
place  of  the  Wesleys,  first  rendered  himself  conspi- 
cuous by  claiming  the  right  of  the  people  to  meet  for 
worship  in  church  hours,  and  to  receive  the  sacra- 
ments from  their  own  ministers.  In  a  pamphlet  which 
he  publislied  under  the  name  of  the  '  Progress  of  Li- 
berty,' he  advocated  warmly  the  necessity  of  the  laity 
being  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  government  of  the 
church.  The  expression  of  such  opinions  rendered 
him  obnoxious  to  tlie  Conference,  who,  in  1796,  ex- 
pelled him  from  the  Connexion.  A  large  number  of 
Wesleyan  Methodists,  amounting  to  5,000,  sympa- 
thized with  the  sentiments  of  Kilham,  and  his  ex- 
pulsion accordingly  led,  in  1797,  to  the  formation  of 
a  separate  body,  called  the  New  Connexion.  The 
New  agrees  with  the  Old  Connexion  in  doctrine,  and 
in  all  its  distinctive  features.  It  has  the  same  ec- 
clesiastical machinery,  including  classes,  circuits, 
districts,  and  the  Conference.  The  chief  difference 
between  the  two  lies  in  the  degree  of  power  allowed 
in  each  communion  to  the  laity.  In  the  Original 
Connexion  all  authority  is  virtually  vested  in  the 
preachers,  who  not  only  exclusively  compose  the 
Conference,  but  exercise  the  chief  influence  in  the 
inferior  courts.  Tlie  New  Coimexion,  on  the  con- 
trary, admits  in  all  its  courts  tlie  influence  of  tlie 
laity,  giving  them  a  share  along  with  the  preachers 
in  all  matters  of  church  government ;  candidates  for 
membership  must  be  admitted,  not  by  the  minister 
alone,  but  with  the  consent  of  the  whole  of  the  ex- 
isting members  ;  members  cannot  be  expelled  even 
on  a  cliarge  of  immorality,  without  the  concurrence 
of  a  leaders'  meeting  ;  officers  of  the  body,  whether 
leaders,  ministers,  or  stewards,  are  elected  by  tlie 
church  and  ministers  conjointly ;  and  both  in  Dis- 
trict Meetings  and  the  Annual  Conference  lay  dele- 
gates to  the  same  number  as  ministers  are  present, 
freely  chosen  Ijy  the  members  of  Societies. 

In  1847  the  Jubilee  of  the  New  Connexion  was 
celebrated,  and  in  honour  of  the  occasion  a  large  sum 
of  money  was  raised,  which  has  to  a  great  extent 
reduced  the  debt  on  their  chapels,  and  tlius  removed 
a  heavy  incumbrance  from  their  congregations. 
They  have  a  Magazine  published  monthly,  which  has 
a  circulation  of  several  thousands;  a  'Juvenile  In- 
structor' for  the  use  of  the  young,  and  a  weekly 
uewspaper  called  the  '  Methodist  Pilot,'  which  is  the 


organ  of  the  denomination.  At  the  Conference  of 
1857  there  were  reported  as  being  in  England  10 
districts,  52  circuits,  and  4  missions,  112  preach- 
ers, and  19,247  members ;  and  in  Canada  57  circuit 
preachers,  and  4,405  members.  Both  in  England 
and  Canada  this  denomination  is  steadily  on  the  in- 
crease. 

METHODIST  (Wesleyan)  REFORMERS,  a 
considerable  party  of  Methodists,  who,  though  they 
have  not  formally  seceded  from  the  Original  Wes- 
leyan Connexion,  nor  formed  themselves  into  a  se- 
parate sect,  occupy  the  position  of  a  party  who  have 
been  expelled  by  Conference  from  the  Society,  yet 
protest  against  their  expulsion  as  illegal,  and  de- 
mand the  restoration  of  all  preachers,  officers,  and 
members,  who  have  thus  been,  in  their  view,  con- 
trary to  law  and  justice  excluded.  Tlie  proceedings 
of  Conference  which  led  to  the  formation  of  this 
party,  took  place  in  1849,  several  ministers  having 
been  in  that  year  expelled  in  consequence  of  their 
real  or  supposed  connexion  with  the  publication  of  a 
series  of  pamphlets  called  '  Fly  Sheets,'  in  which 
some  points  of  Methodist  procedure  were  discussed 
in  strong  and,  as  it  was  deemed,  scurrilous  language. 
See  Methodists,  (Wesleyan.)  The  chief  point 
on  which  the  complaints  of  the  Reformers  who  sym- 
pathize with  the  expelled  ministers  turns,  refers 
to  ministerial  authority  in  matters  of  church  disci- 
pUiie.  On  tliis  point  their  opinions  are  at  complete 
variance  with  those  of  the  Conference.  In  1852 
they  published  a  '  Declaration  of  Principles,'  which 
is  as  follows  : 

"  (1.)  That '  the  Church  of  Christ  is  the  v:lioh  hochj 
of  true  believers.' 

"  (2.)  That  Christ  is  head  over  all  things  to  His 
church,  and  His  Word  the  only  and  sufficient  rule 
both  of  its  faith  and  practice. 

"  (3.)  That  no  rules  or  regulations  should  be  adopt- 
ed but  such  as  are  in  accordance  with  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  have  received  the  full  concurrence  of 
the  church. 

"  (4.)  That  the  admission  of  members  into  the 
church,  the  exercise  of  discipline  upon  them,  and 
their  exclusion  from  the  church,  are  rights  vested 
solely  in  the  hands  of  cliurch  members,  to  be  exer- 
cised by  them,  either  directly  or  representatively ; 
and  that  it  is  the  right  of  members  to  be  present  at 
all  meetings  for  the  transaction  of  the  general  busi- 
ness of  the  church. 

"  (5.)  That  the  nomination  and  el.ectioii  of  all  of- 
fice-bearers is  the  inalienable  right  of  tlie  church. 

"  (6.)  That,  while  desirous  of  maintaining  the  con- 
nexional  principle,  we  hold  tliat  all  local  courts 
should  be  independent,  and  their  decisions  affecting 
internal  economy  fni.al. 

"  (7.)  That  any  restriction  upon  discussion  and 
free  interchange  of  opinions  on  matters  allbcting  the 
interests  of  the  cluircli  is  an  unwaiTantcd  interfer- 
ence witli  its  liberties  and  with  the  i-ights  of  private 
judgment. 


METHYMNiEUS— METROPOLITAN. 


44S 


"  (8.)  Tliat  preachers  of  tlie  Gospel  are  not '  lorda 
over  God's  lieritage,'  for  'one  is  your  master,  even 
Christ,  and  all  ye  are  brctliren.' 

"  (9.)  Tliat  tlie  restoration  of  all  preachers,  officers, 
and  niombors  who  had  been  expelled  in  consequence 
of  the  recent  proceedings  of  the  Conference  is  essen- 
tial to  the  future  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  Con- 
nexion." 

In  accordance  with  these  principles,  they  have  set 
in  operation  a  distinct  macliincry  of  Metliodisin, 
though  still  claiming  to  be  considered  not  as  a  .seced- 
ing body,  but  as  Wesleyan  Methodists  who  have 
been  illegally  excluded  from  the  Society.  The  Cen- 
sus in  18.51  reports  339  eh.apels  as  then  in  connec- 
tion with  the  movement,  but  this  gives  a  very  imper- 
fect idea  of  the  re.il  state  of  the  Reforming  party, 
which  in  its  present  state  is  calculated  to  include  at 
least  one-half  of  the  100,000  members  which  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Connexion  has  lost  in  conse- 
quence of  the  controversies  wliich  have  successively 
agitated  the  denomin.ation  for  many  years  past. 

METIIYMNjEUS,  a  surname  of  Dionysus,  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  Methymna,  which  was 
rich  in  vines. 

METONIC  CYCLE.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Common  Prayer  Book  of  the  English  Church  are 
several  astronomical  tables,  most  of  them  simply 
jalculations  of  the  day  on  which  Easter  will  fall  on 
iny  given  year,  as  well  as  the  moveable  feasts  which 
depend  upon  it.  In  the  early  Christian  church,  as 
wo  have  already  shown  under  the  article  Easteu 
(which  see),  disputes  arose  on  this  point  between  the 
Eastern  and  the  AVesteni  Churches.  The  subject 
was  brought  under  the  consideration  of  the  council 
of  Nice  in  the  fourth  century,  when  they  came  to  a 
decision  on  which  the  following  rule  was  founded ; — 
"  Easter-d.a)'  is  always  the  first  Sunday  after  the  full 
moon,  which  h.ippens  upon  or  next  after  the  twenty- 
iirst  day  of  March  ;  and  if  the  full  moon  happens  on 
a  Sunday,  Easter-day  is  the  Sunday  after."  Pro- 
ceeding on  this  rule,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first  in- 
stance to  discover  the  precise  time  of  the  full  moon, 
and  to  calculate  accordingly.  This  would  be  an  easy 
matter  if  the  solar  and  the  lunar  years  were  exactly 
of  equal  length,  since  in  such  a  case  Easter  would 
always  fall  on  the  same  day.  But  the  lunar  year 
being  shorter  than  the  solar  by  eleven  days,  Easter 
must  for  a  course  of  years  alw.ays  fall  at  a  dili'erent 
time  in  each  successive  year.  Accordingly,  the 
council  of  Nice  adopted  the  Meionic  Cycle,  which 
enabled  them  to  calculate  these  changes  with  toler- 
able accuracy.  From  the  high  value  attached  to 
this  cycle,  its  numbers  were  usually  written  in  letters 
of  gold  in  the  calendar,  and  hence  it  was  called  the 
Golden  Number. 

METROPOLITAN,  the  bishop  who  presides  over 
the  other  bishops  of  a  province.  In  the  Latin 
Church  it  is  used  as  synonymous  with  an  archbishop. 
In  England,  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York 
are  both  Metropolitans.     In  the  Greek  Church  it  is 


applied  only  to  a  bisliop  whose  see  is  a  civil  metro- 
polis. This,  it  is  probable,  was  the  ciirlicst  use  of 
the  word,  those  bishops  being  exclusively  so  termed 
who  presided  over  the  principal  town  of  a  district  or 
province.  The  title  was  not  in  use  before  the  coun- 
cil of  Nice  in  the  fourth  century.  What  li.'is  beeu 
termed  by  ecclesi.'istical  historians  the  Metro[iolitan 
Constitution,  in  all  probability  arose  gradually  in  the 
Christian  church.  Proclaimed  first  by  the  Apostitu 
in  cities,  Christianity  was  thence  spread  to  the  othei 
provincial  towns.  Thus  naturally  the  churches  of  a 
province  came  to  constitute  a  whole,  at  the  head  of 
which  stood  the  church  of  the  metropolis,  whose 
bishop  would  of  course  occupy  an  honourable  place 
among  the  bishops  of  the  province.  The  progress 
of  the  Metropolitan  Constitution  in  the  fourth  century 
is  thus  detailed  by  Neander:  "On  the  one  hand,  to 
the  metropolitans  was  conceded  the  superintendence 
over  all  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  province  to 
wdiich  their  metropolis  belonged ;  it  was  decided  that 
they  should  convoke  the  assemblies  of  provincial 
bishops,  and  preside  over  their  deliberations;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  their  relation  to  the  entire  colle- 
gium of  the  provincial  bishops,  and  to  the  individuals 
composing  it,  were  also  more  strictly  defined,  so  as  to 
jirevent  any  arbitrary  extension  of  their  power,  and 
to  establisli  on  a  secure  footing  the  independence  of 
all  the  other  bishops  in  the  exercise  of  their  func- 
tions. For  this  reason,  the  provincial  synods,  which 
were  bound  to  assemble  twice  in  each  year,  as  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  tribunal  for  the  whole  province, 
were  to  assist  the  metropolitans  in  determining  all 
questions  relating  to  the  general  aftairs  of  the 
church ;  and  without  their  participation,  the  former 
were  to  be  held  incompetent  to  undertake  any  busi- 
ness relating  to  these  matters  of  general  concern. 
Each  bishop  was  to  be  independent  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  his  own  particular  diocese,  although  he 
could  be  arraigned  before  the  tribunal  of  the  pro- 
vincial synods  for  ecclesiastical  or  moral  delinquen- 
cies. No  choice  of  a  bishop  could  possess  vaUdity 
without  the  concuiTcnce  of  the  metropolitan ;  he 
was  to  conduct  the  ordination ;  yet  not  alone,  but 
with  the  assistance  of  at  least  two  other  bishops; 
and  all  the  bishops  of  the  province  were  to  be  pre- 
sent at  the  ordination  of  the  metropohtan." 

The  rise  of  the  authority  of  Metropolit;ins  seems 
to  have  taken  place  without  any  distinct  interference 
on  the  part  of  the  church.  The  council  of  Nice  was 
the  first  to  give  an  express  deliverance  on  the  sub- 
ject, particularly  with  reference  to  the  Alexandrian 
church.  The  sixth  canon  of  that  council  ran  in 
these  terms :  "  Let  the  ancient  custom  which  h.as 
prevailed  in  Egypt,  Libya,  and  Pentapolis,  that  the 
bishop  of  Alexandria  should  have  authority  over  all 
these  places,  be  still  maintained,  since  this  is  the 
custom  also  with  the  Roman  bishop.  In  like  man- 
ner, at  Antioch,  and  in  the  other  provinces,  the 
churches  shall  retain  their  ancient  prerogatives." 
This  canon  refers  evidently  not  to  the  ordinary  per- 


446 


MEVLEVIES. 


son  of  a  Metropolitan,  but  to  a  peculiar  dignity  or 
rank  which  seems  to  have  been  awarded  to  Alexan- 
dria, along  with  Rome  and  Autioch,  the  three  great  ca- 
pital cities  of  the  Roman  Empire — a  rank  which  was 
afterwards  recognized  under  the  name  of  Patkiaechs 
(which  see).  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  power 
of  the  Metropolitans  would  have  become  excessive 
had  it  not  been  checked  by  the  rise  of  the  patriarchal 
system,  which,  thougli  its  foundation  was  laid  before 
tlie  fourth  century,  was  not  fully  developed  until  the 
middle  of  the  fifth.  The  appointment  of  patriarchs 
i;ave  to  the  Metropolitans  a  subordinate  place.  But 
what  tended  above  all  to  weaken  the  Metropolitan 
constitution  was  the  disorganization  of  the  Roman 
Empire  by  the  descent  of  the  barbarous  tribes  upon 
Italy.  This,  of  course,  introduced  confusion  into  the 
limits  of  Metropolitan  provinces.  Difficulties  also 
arose  to  prevent  the  redistribution  of  ecclesiastical 
provinces,  which  had  thus  become  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Metropolitan  system.  A  revival, 
indeed,  of  the  Metropolitan  authority  was  attempted 
by  Pepin  and  Carloman ;  and  it  took  effect  in  France 
and  Germany  with  certain  limitations  and  restric- 
tions. But  this  institution,  though  on  a  reform- 
ed footing,  never  took  firm  root  in  the  new  states ; 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  dominant  power  of  the 
sovereign,  and  partly  in  course  of  time,  because  it 
was  overshadowed  by  the  rising  power  of  the  Pope. 
Thus  the  Metropolitans  gi-adually  lost  their  power 
over  the  diocesan  bishops  of  their  provinces,  and 
became  little  more  than  their  titular  superiors. 
Many  of  the  bishops,  accordingly,  were  quite  pre- 
pared to  throw  off  tlieir  authority,  more  especially  as 
they  were  frequently  chargeable  with  an  unjust  in- 
terference in  diocesan  affairs.  In  sucli  a  state  of 
matters,  tlie  principles  of  the  false  decretals  were  the 
more  readily  adopted,  as  these  laid  down  the  doctrine 
tliat  it  belonged  to  the  Pope  alone  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  affairs  in  wliich  bishops  were  concerned. 

The  Metropolitan  power  now  underwent  a  rapid 
decHne ;  and  ere  long  the  Metropolitans  were  placed 
merely  in  the  position  of  papal  delegates,  and  only 
retained  so  far  as  they  promoted  the  interests  of  the 
Roman  see.  "  Tlie  popes  often,  at  pleasure,"  says 
tlie  Rev.  J.  E.  Riddle,  in  his  '  History  of  the  Pa- 
pacy,' "  interfered  with  their  ancient  right  of  conse- 
crating provincial  bishops.  As  late  as  the  eleventh 
century,  this  was  regarded  as  the  indefeasible  right 
of  Metropolitans,  which  could  not  be  questioned  or 
disturbed.  Even  Gregory  VII.,  altliough  lie  conse- 
crated some  provincial  bi.shops  under  peculiar  circum- 
stances and  as  exceptional  cases,  made  no  attempt 
to  invade  the  right  of  Metropolitans  in  this  respect ; 
BO  tiiat,  for  example,  wlicn  Robert  entreated  liini  to 
consecrate  a  new  bishop  of  Malta,  he  wrote  back 
word  to  him,  that  he  must  first  show  him  that  Malta 
did  not  belong  to  the  Metropolitan  province  of  Reg- 
gio,  since  in  that  case  he  would  be  unable  to  comply 
with  his  request,  inasmuch  as  by  so  doing  he  would 
be  infringing  the  right  of  the  archbishop,  and  give 


inexcusable  offence  to  all  his  brethren  the  bishops 
Under  the  successors  of  Paschal  II.,  however,  it  be- 
came a  common  practice  for  bishops  elect  to  run  to 
Rome  for  consecration  from  different  provinces ;  and 
the  Popes  now  began  to  perform  the  ceremony  with 
out  even  offering  an  apology  to  the  Metropolitan  foi 
so  doing.  The  right  of  Metropolitans  to  consecrate 
provincial  bishops  was  not  denied  ;  but  as  soon  as  it 
was  maintained  that  the  right  belonged  also  to  the 
Pope,  '  from  the  fulness  of  his  power,'  it  was,  to  a 
great  extent,  taken  practically  out  of  their  hands. 
Some  Metropolitans  sought  to  indemnify  themselves 
for  their  loss  by  exercising  an  immediate  jurisdiction 
within  the  dioceses  of  their  provincial  bishops  ;  but 
the  bishops  found  themselves  protected  from  this  in- 
vasion by  Rome;  and  such  attempts  at  immediate  ju- 
risdiction were  expressly  prohibited  by  Innocent  III." 

MEVLEVIES,  the  most  remarkable  of  the  rigid 
orders  of  Mohammedan  monks.  A  thousand  and 
one  days  is  the  mystic  number  prescribed  by  the 
noviciate,  and  the  candidate  receives  his  preliminary 
training  in  the  kitchen  of  the  convent.  During  his 
noviciate  he  is  called  "  the  scullion,"  and  he  is  pre- 
sented by  the  head-cook  to  the  abbot  or  superior  foi 
admission  into  the  order.  The  cook  assists  at  the 
ceremony  of  initiation,  holding  the  head  of  the  no- 
vice while  the  superior  pronounces  some  verses  over 
him ;  a  prayer  is  then  clianted,  after  which  the  chief 
or  abbot  places  upon  the  head  of  the  novice  the 
cylindrical  cap  worn  by  the  Mevlevies ;  the  candi- 
date then  sits  down  beside  the  cook,  while  the  supe- 
rior pronounces  a  form  of  admission,  enumerates  the 
duties  incumbent  upon  him  in  connection  with  th(> 
order,  and  recommends  the  new  member  to  the 
prayers  and  wishes  of  his  brethren. 

The  doctrines  of  this  order  of  Moslem  monks  are 
chiefly  those  of  the  Persian  SuFis  (which  see).  In 
accordance  with  their  extravagant  opinions  they 
have  adopted  not  only  new,  but  even  forbidden 
practices.  Thus  music  and  dancing  were  strictly 
prohibited  by  the  Prophet;  but  the  Mevlevies 
insisted  that  the  exercise  of  these  in  a  mystic 
sense  was  an  acceptable  form  of  devotion.  The 
mystic  dances  of  the  Mevlevies  dift'er  from  those  of 
other  orders  of  Jlohammcdan  monks.  They  are 
thus  described  by  Dr.  Taylor  in  his  History  of  Mo- 
hammedanism :  "  Nine,  eleven,  or  thirteen  of  the 
fraternity  squat  down  on  sheep-skins  in  a  circle ; 
the  floor  of  the  dancing-room  is  circular,  its  design 
being  manifestly  borrowed  from  a  tent.  They  re- 
main for  nearly  an  hour  perfectly  silent,  with  their 
eyes  closed,  as  if  absorbed  in  meditation.  The  pre- 
sident then  invites  his  brethren  to  join  in  reciting 
the  first  chapter  of  the  Koran,  '  to  the  honour  of 
God,  his  prophets,  especially  Mohammed,  the  saints, 
Mohammed's  wives,  disciples,  and  descendants,  the 
martyrs,  the  Klialiphs,  the  founder  of  the  order, 
&c.'  Prayers  are  then  recited  in  chorus,  and  after 
wards  the  dance  begins.  All  quitting  their  places 
at  the  same  time,  range  themselves  on  the  left  of 


MEXICO  (Relioion  of  Ancient;. 


447 


tlieir  superior,  and  slowly  advance  towards  him,  with 
folded  arms  and  dow7icast  eyes.  Wien  the  first  of 
tlie  Dervishes  comes  nearly  opposite  the  president, 
he  salutes,  with  a  low  bow,  the  tablet  in  the  wall 
over  his  head,  on  which  is  engraved  the  name  of  the 
fonndor  of  tlie  ordor;  he  then  with  two  sjirings  g(!ts 
to  the  right  side  of  tlie  president,  and  having  hum- 
bly sainted  him,  begins  his  dance.  This  consists  in 
turning  on  the  heel  of  the  left  foot,  with  closed  eyes 
and  extended  arms,  advancing  slowly,  and  making 
as  it  were  insensibly  the  romid  of  the  apartment. 
He  is  followed  by  the  second  and  third  Dervishes ; 
after  which  all  begin  spinning  on  the  foot,  and  mov- 
ing round,  taking  care  to  keep  at  such  a  distance 
that  they  may  not  interfere  with  each  other's  mo- 
tions. This  fatiguing  process  continues  two  hour.s, 
interrupted  only  by  two  brief  pauses,  during  which 
the  Superior  chants  some  short  prayer.  When  the 
performance  draws  toward  a  close,  the  Superior 
joins  in  the  dance,  and  the  whole  concludes  with  a 
prayer  for  the  royal  family,  the  clergy,  the  members 
of  the  order,  and  the  faithful  throughout  the  world." 

The  Mevlevies  are  the  best  endowed  of  all  the 
orders  of  Moslem  monks;  yet  they  use  only  the 
coarsest  fare  and  the  plaine.st  raiment,  while  they 
distribute  their  superabundant  revenues  to  the  poor. 
These  Mevlevies  or  Maulavies  are  the  Dancing 
DervisJies  of  Turkey,  who  date  their  origin  from 
the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They 
chiefly  consist  of  the  higher  class  of  Turks,  and 
have  a  large  monastery  at  Galata,  and  another  at 
Teonium. 

MEXICO  (Religion  of  Ancient).  Before  the 
.irrival  of  Columbus  and  the  Spaniards  in  South 
America,  Mexico  formed  the  most  powerful  and 
populous,  and  with  one  doubtful  exception,  the 
most  civilized  empire  of  the  western  world.  The 
traditions  of  the  Toltecs,  handed  down  by  the  Az- 
tecs or  Mexicans  proper,  inform  us  that  they  mi- 
grated from  an  miknown  country  called  the  primitive 
Tlapallan,  about  A.  d.  544,  and  advancing  southwards 
settled  in  Mexico  about  A.  d.  648.  The  Mexicans 
[iroper,  issuing  from  the  fai'  north,  did  not  reach  the 
borders  of  Anahuac  till  the  beginnuig  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  only  fixed  their  habitation  near  the 
principal  lake  in  1325.  At  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  just  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards, 
the  Aztec  dominion  reached  across  the  continent 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Li  regard  to  the 
religion  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  the  question  has 
been  raised,  whether  they  were  worshippers  of  many 
gods  or  of  only  one  God.  One  thing  is  certain,  that 
they  had  a  general  name  for  the  Divine  Being  whom 
they  termed  Teo-tl.  The  kindred  word  Teot  was 
used  by  the  aboriginal  population  of  Nicaragua  to 
denote  both  the  superior  gods  and  also  the  Spaniards. 
That  the  Teo-tl  of  the  Mexicans  was  the  invisible, 
incorporeal  Being,  the  Supreme  Spirit,  the  Cause  of 
causes,  and  the  Father  of  aU  things,  is  plain  from 
the  fact  that  he  was  identified  with  the  Teo-tl  or 


»un-god.  This  one  God  of  highest  perfection  and 
purity  was  only  recognized  by  superior  minds,  but 
never  worshipped  by  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 
Hence  Mr.  Prescott  remarks,  "The  idea  of  unity,  of 
a  being  with  whom  volition  i»  actiony  who  has  no 
need  of  inferior  ministers  to  execute  his  purposes — 
was  too  simple  or  too  vast  for  their  understandings; 
and  they  sought  relief  as  usual  in  the  plurality  of 
deities,  who  presided  over  the  elements,  the  changes 
of  the  seasons,  and  the  various  occupations  of  man." 
The  chief  divinities  of  the  ancient  Mexicans  were 
thirteen  in  number,  at  the  head  of  whom  stands 
Tezcatlipoca,  almost  equal  in  rank  vnlh  Teo-tl,  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  liis  name  being  inteqiretcd 
"  shining  mirror,"  he  is  represented  on  the  monu 
ments,  and  in  the  paintings,  as  encircled  by  the  disc 
of  the  sun.  It  is  not  improbable,  indeed,  that  this 
deity  was  an  impersonation  of  the  generative  powers 
of  nature,  and  hence  tbp  Mexican  legend  represents 
him  as  united  to  the  primitive  goddess,  and  first  wo 
man  CliUtuaeohuatl,  who  is  always  accompanied  by 
a  great  serpent.  The  highest  emblem  of  Tezcatli- 
poca was  the  sun,  and  annually,  in  the  month  of 
May,  a  human  being,  m  the  vigour  of  youth  and  of 
unblemished  beauty,  was  offered  up  in  saciifice,  and 
the  heart  of  the  victim  still  palpitating  was  plucked 
from  his  bosom,  held  up  towards  the  sun,  as  if  to  pro- 
pitiate him,  and  then  thrown  down  before  the  image 
of  the  great  divinity,  while  the  people  were  engaged 
in  solemn  worship.  The  national  divinity,  however, 
of  the  Aztecs  or  Mexicans  proper,  was  the  terrible 
Huitzilopochtli,  whose  name  Milller  derives  from 
huitzilin,  a  humming-bird,  and  opocldli,  on  the  left ; 
and  in  accordance  with  this  name  his  gigantic  image 
liad  always  some  feathers  of  the  humming-bird  on 
the  left  foot.  This  was  the  mighty  warlike  god  who 
was  recognized  as  the  guardian  of  the  country,  which 
seems  to  have  received  the  appellation  Mexico,  from 
one  of  bis  titles,  Mexitli.  His  wife  was  called  Teo- 
yamiqui,  from  miqiii,  to  die,  and  teoyao,  divine  war, 
because  she  conducted  the  souls  of  warriors,  who 
died  in  defence  of  the  gods,  to  the  house  of  the  sun, 
the  Elysium  of  the  Mexicans,  where  she  transformed 
them  into  humming-birds.  "  The  numerous  altars 
of  Huitzilopochtli,^'  says  Mr.  Hardwick,  in  his  '  Christ 
and  other  Masters,  "reeked  continually  with  the 
blood  of  human  hecatombs,  and  that  in  cities  where, 
amid  some  cheering  gleams  of  moral  sensibility,  the 
conquerors  fowid  no  lack  of  goodly  structiu-es  and 
of  gracefiU  ornaments,  to  indicate  the  progress  made 
by  the  ferocious  Aztec  in  the  arts  of  social  life. 
These  desperate  efforts  to  secure  the  favoiu-  of  the 
gods  by  offering  human  victims  were  indeed  by  no 
means  limited  to  ancient  Mexico ;  for  all  the  wild 
tribes  of  America  had  been  wont  from  ages  immemo- 
rial to  sacrifice  both  children  of  their  own  and  pri- 
soners taken  in  their  savage  conflicts  with  some 
neighbom'ing  people.  Acting  also  on  the  rude  be- 
lief, that  such  oblations  would  conduce  to  gratify 
the  animal  wants  of  their  divinity,  as  well  as  to  ap- 


448 


MEXITLI— MEZUZZOTH. 


pease  his  wi'ath,  they  teid  contracted  the  vile  habit 
of  feasting  on  the  remnant  of  these  human  sacrifices, 
and  at  other  times  proceeded  to  indulge  in  the  most 
brutish  forms  of  c<annibahsm.  But  when  the  Aztec 
rule  eventually  prevailed  in  every  pare  of  Anahuac, 
the  sacrificing  of  all  foreign  enemies  became  a  still 
more  solemn  duty.  We 'are  told  that  '  the  amount 
of  victims  immolated  on  its  accursed  altars  would 
stagger  the  faith  of  the  least  scrupulous  believer ; ' 
while  cannibalism,  that  dark  accompaniment  of  hu- 
man sacrifice  in  almost  every  country,  was  in  Mexico 
peculiarly  rife,  and  from  the  partial  efforts  to  disguise 
it,  had  become  peculiarly  revolting." 

Tlie  enormous  extent  to  which  human  sacrifices 
were  oflered  to  the  national  god,  appears  from  the 
startling  fact,  that  l.^SjOOO  human  skulls  were  found 
by  the  companions  of  Cort(?s  within  the  temple  of 
Huitzilopochtli.  Such  was  the  importance  attached 
to  the  favom*  and  protection  of  this  deity,  that,  in 
the  migi-ations  of  the  Aztec  tribes,  a  wooden  image 
of  the  god  was  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  four 
priests. 

The  water-god  of  the  ancient  Mexicans  was  Tlaloc, 
on  whose  altars  children  were  usually  offered.  To 
his  wife,  Chalchincueje,  all  infants  were  presented 
immediately  after  birth  for  purification.  One  of  the 
most  important  divinities,  however,  of  the  Aztec 
pantheon,  was  QuelzalcoatI,  who  appears,  indeed,  to 
have  been  worshipped  at  an  earlier  period  by  the 
Toltccs.  His  birth  is  said  to  have  been  miraculous, 
and  he  was  destined  to  become  the  high-priest  of 
Tula,  the  metropolis  fomided  by  the  Toltecs  when 
they  passed  into  Mexico.  Great  were  the  benefits 
which  he  conferred  upon  the  nation,  constructing  an 
equitable  code  of  laws,  reforming  the  calendar,  in- 
structing the  people  in  the  arts  of  peace,  and  setting 
his  face  against  all  war  and  bloodshed.  This  was 
the  golden  age  of  Anahuac,  when  all  was  prosperity, 
and  comfort,  and  peace.  But  such  a  state  of  things 
was  of  short  duration.  The  god  Tezcatl/poca  direct- 
ed all  his  etTorts  towards  undoing  all  tliat  Q.uetzakoatl 
had  accomplished,  and  compelled  him  to  quit  the 
scene  of  liis  benevolent  labou}'s.  On  his  departure  he 
wandered  towards  Cholula,  where,  for  some  years, 
he  carried  out  his  plans  for  the  civihzation  and  im- 
provement of  the  peojile.  It  was  at  this  place  that 
lie  was  first  worshipped  as  a  god,  a  temple  being  de- 
dicated to  his  honour.  lie  appears  to  have  been  a 
personification  of  natural  energies,  and  his  symbols 
were  the  sparrow,  the  fire-stone,  and  the  serpent. 
lie  was  worshiiipcd  by  all  persons  concerned  in  traf- 
fic. Forty  day.s  before  the  festival  of  the  god,  tlie 
merchants  purchased  a  licautlful  slave,  who,  during 
tliat  time,  represented  the  deity,  and  was  obliged  to 
assume  an  appearance  of  mirth,  and  to  dance  and 
rejoice  while  devotees  worshipped  him.  On  the 
feast  day  they  sacrificed  him  to  (liietzalcoatl.  At 
Cholula  tliis  deity  was  worshijiiied  in  a  manner 
.  somewhat  diflerent,  five  boys  and  five  girls  being 
eacrificed  to  him  before  any  martial  expedition  was 


entered  upon.  It  appears  from  the  monuments  that 
the  Mexicans  exhibited  their  deities  in  temples  under 
the  symbols  of  serpents,  tigers,  and  other  fierce  and 
destructive  animals,  wliich  inspired  the  mind  with 
gloomy  and  tenible  ideas.  They  sprinkled  their 
altars  with  human  blood;  sacrificed  in  the  temples 
eveiy  captive  taken  in  war,  and  employed  various 
other  means  to  appease  the  vengeance*  of  their  angi-y 
deities. 

MEXITLI,  one  of  the  principal  gods  of  the  an 
cient  Mexicans.     See  preceding  article. 

MEZUZZOTH,  schedules  for  door-posts  among 
the  modern  Jews.  A  Mezuzza  is  a  piece  of  parchment 
on  which  are  written,  Deut.  vi.  4 — 9,  "  Hear,  0  Israel : 
The  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord  :  and  thou  shalt  love 
the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  with  all 
thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  might.  And  these  words, 
which  I  command  thee  this  day,  shall  be  in  thine 
heart :  And  thou  shalt  teach  them  diligently  unto 
thy  childi'en,  and  slialt  talk  of  them  when  thou  sit- 
test  in  thine  house,  and  when  thou  walkest  by  the 
way,  and  when  thou  liest  down,  and  when  thourijest 
up.  And  thou  shalt  bind  them  for  a  sign  upon  thine 
hand,  and  they  shall  be  as  frontlets  between  thine 
eyes.  And  thou  shalt  write  them  upon  the  posts  of 
thy  house,  and  on  thy  gates ; "  and  xi.  13 — 20,  "  And 
it  shall  come  to  pass,  if  ye  shall  hearken  diligently 
unto  my  commandments  which  I  command  you  this 
day,  to  love  the  Lord  your  God,  and  to  serve  him 
with  all  your  heart  and  with  all  your  soul,  that  I  will 
give  you  the  rain  of  your  land  in  his  due  season,  the 
fii'st  rain  and  the  latter  rain,  that  thou  mayest  gather 
in  thy  corn,  and  thy  wine,  and  thine  oil.  And  I  will 
send  grass  in  thy  fields  for  thy  cattle,  that  thou  may- 
est eat  and  be  full.  Take  heed  to  yourselves,  that 
your  heart  be  not  deceived,  and  ye  turn  aside,  and 
serve  other  gods,  and  worship  them ;  and  then  tho 
Loi-d's  wrath  be  kindled  against  you,  and  he  shut  up 
the  heaven,  that  there  be  no  rain,  and  that  the  land 
yield  not  her  fruit :  and  lest  ye  perish  quickly  from 
ofl"  the  good  land  which  the  Lord  giveth  you. 
Therefore  shall  ye  lay  up  these  my  words  in  your 
heart  and  in  your  soul,  and  bind  them  for  a  sign  up- 
on your  hand,  that  they  may  be  as  frontlets  between 
your  eyes.  And  ye  shall  teach  them  your  children, 
speaking  of  them  when  thou  sittest  in  thine  house, 
and  when  thou  walkest  by  the  way,  when  thou  liest 
down,  and  when  thou  risest  up.  And  thou  shalt 
write  them  upon  tho  door-posts  of  thine  house,  and 
upon  thy  gates."  The  parchment  is  rolled  up  with 
the  ends  of  the  lines  inward,  the  Hebrew  word  S/iad- 
dai  is  inscribed  on  the  outside,  and  the  roll  is  put 
into  a  cane  or  a  cylindrical  tube  of  lead,  in  which  a 
hole  is  cut,  that  the  word  Shaddai  may  appear. 
This  tube  is  fastened  to  the  door-post  by  a  nail  at 
each  end.  The  fixing  of  it  is  preceded  by  the  repe- 
tiliou  of  the  following  benediction*  "Blessed  art 
thou,  0  Lonl  our  God,  King  of  tho  universe !  who 
hast  sanctified  us  with  thy  precepts,  and  commanded 
us  to  fix  the  Mezuzza."    The  most  minute  injuno- 


5^ 


FOR    REFERENCE 


NOT  TO  BE  TAKEN  FROM  THE  ROOM 

f  J        CAT.      NO.     23    012  "* 


1 

c 

000  407  142     9