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4 



THE 



GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS. 



CLASS BOOK OF ASTRONOMY ; 



▲OOOMFAMIU BT 



A CELESTIAL ATLA8 



BY ELIJAH H BURRITT, A. M. 



WITH AN INTRODUCTION. 

BY THOMAS DICK, LL. IK, 
Antkor of Om ** ChriitlAii PhUoMpher,** he 



NEW YORK: 

PUBUSHEB BY HUNTINGTON AND SAVAGE, 

216 PEARL STREET. 
CINCINNATI :— H. W. DERBY A CO. 

1850. 



KC //33I 



F. J. Huntington & Co. have recently published, in one unall 
Tolume 16mo., suitable for children just entering upon the study of 
Astronomy, and introductory to the " Greog^phy of the Heavens." 

ASTRONOMY FOR BEGINNERS, 

vuh a AJap and 27 Elngrarings. By Francis Feliowes, A. M. 

" This is one of the most successful attempts to simplify sublime sei- 
enoe to the comprehension of children. The author has employed an 
arrangement and style entirely new, with a clear and luminous pen. and 
in the happiest manner. I cordially commend to parents, to teacner% 
and to' children, this result of his labours."— it^«. Sigoumey, 



HARVARD 

'.'NiVERSiTV 

tlBRARY 



EirrxBaD, 

aooordmA Ui Act of Congress, in tiie year 1833, by 

P. J. HUNTINGTON, 

in the Clerk's Office of the Dbtript Court of ConnectMsat. 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICR 



b piQwntSng a new edition of this work to the pntlie. it is priK 
per to point oat several very important improyements wnieh haTt 
been ni^e« 

Dr. Dick of Scotland, so well known both in Europe and in this 
country, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, and other 
scientific and popular works, has prepared, expre»ly for the 
work, an IniroiuUion tm the Advaniiges 9^ tie Siudy of AMtram0- 
my. So far as authority and name can go to gire currency to the 
work, and to establish the confidence of teachers in it as a proper 
^text book, this simple fact, the publisher flatters himself, furnisnes 
eyery testimonial which can oe desired: beside which, the con- 
tributions of Professor Olmsted, oi Yale College, cannot bat be 
read with extreme interest 

The work has been thoroughly reyised, and the errors of for- 
mer editions corrected: subsequent to which, it has undergone a 
thorough examination from one of our most eminent mathema- 
ticians and astronomers. It will be obeeryed thai seyeral new 
Chapters, on the important subjects of PkMetarp Motion^ The Pko* 
nomena of Dojf and Sights The Seasons^ The Tides, The OUinaif 
of the BclipUc, The Preceaion of the Eguinoxee, 4^., have been 

h, it only necessary to ohetve the Atlas, to discover that the 
Plates haye been engraved entirely anew, upon steel, and in a 
very superior and beautiful style. The figures of the Constella- 
tions are far more natural and spirited than those of the former 
Atlas. Especially, the characters which represent the stars are 
diartinct, so that the pupil can discern, at once, to what class they 
belong. One new plate has been introduced, illustrating U the 

2«, Ae Relative BibgwUudes, Distanoes, and PosUiom of the di^ 
rent bodies which compose the Solar System. This plate the 
teacher will find to be of very important service, and to aid him 
muck in his verbal explanations. The arrangement of the Plates 
in the present Atlas, is such, that the teacher and pupil can easily 
place them, in mind, so as to have a distinct view of the entire 
sur&ce 4f the visible &eavens. 

Such are the principal improvements which have been mada 
in the work. They speak for themselves. The publisher knows 
not whav could express his satisfaction with the past, or his hopes 
Cor the Ihtore saccess of the work, better than sucn improv menta 



PREFACE. 



I HAVE long felt the want of a Glass Book, which should be to the 
starry heavens, what Greography is to the earth ; a work that should 
exhibit, by means of appropriate delineations, the scenery of the 
heavens : the various constellations arranged in their order, point 
out and classify the principal stars, according to their magnitudes 
and places, and be accompanied, at the same time, with such 
familiar exercises and illustrations, adapted to recitation, as should 
bring it within the pale of popalar instruction, and the 8C(^e of 
juvenile understandings. 

Such a work I have attempted to supply. I have endeavored to 
make the descriptions of the stars so familiar, and the instructions 
for finding them so plain, that the most inexperienced should not 
fail to understand them. In accomplishing tnis, 1 have relied but 
little upon globes and maps, or books. I very earhr discovered 
that it was an eAsy matter to sit down by a celestial globe, and, by 
means of an approved catalogue, and the help of a little graduated 
slip of brass, make out, in detail, a minute description of the 
stars, and discourse quite familiarly of their position, magnitude 
and arrangement, and that when all this was done, I had indeed 
given the pupil a few additional facilities tor finding those stars 
upon the artificial globe, but which left him, alter all,, about as 
ignorant of their apparent situation in the heavens, as before. I 
came, at length, to the conclusion, that any description of the stars, 
to be practically useful, must be made from a careful observation 
of the stars themselves, and made at the time of observation. 

To be convinced of this, let any person sit down to a celestial 
^lobe or map, and from this alone, make out a set of instructions 
m regard to some favorite constellation, and then desire his pupil 
to trace out in the firmament, by means of it, Uie various stars 
which he has thus described. The pupil will find it little better 
than a fancy sketch. The bearings and distances, and especially, 
the comparative brightness, and relative positions, will rarely be 
exhibited with such accuracy that the young observer will be in- 
spired with much confidence in his guide. 

I have demonstrated to myself at least, that the most judicious 
instructions to put on paper for the guide of the young in this study 
are those which I have used most successfully, while in a clear 
evening, without any chart but the firmament above, I have 
pointed out, with my finger, to a group of listeners, the various 
stars which compose this and that constellation. ' 

In this way, the teacher will describe the stars as they actually 
appear to the pupil — taking advantage of those obvious and more 
striking features that serve to identify and to distinguish thfiin 
from all others. Now if these verbal instructions be committed to 



PRSFACB. 

"writing and placed in the hands of any other pnpil, they will 

«wer nearly the same end. This is the method which I have pnr- 
tsaed in this worlc. The descriptive part of it, at least, was noi 
composed by the light of the sun, principally, nor of a lamp, bnt 
by the light of the stars themselves. Having fixed upon the moat 
conspicuous star, or group of stars, in each constellation, as it 
passed the meridian, and with a pencil carefully noted all the 
identifying circumstances of position, bearing, brightness, number 
and distance — their geometrical allocatioD, if any, and such other 
descriptive features as seemed most worthy of notice, I then re- 
tamed to my room to transcribe and classify these memoranda in 
their proper order ; repeating the same observations at different 
hoars the same evening, and on other evenings at various periods, 
for a succesxian of fears; always adding such emendations as sub- 
sequent observations matured. To satisfy myself of the applica- 
bility of these descriptions, 1 have given detached portions ofthem 
to different pupils, and sent them out to find the stars ; and I have 
generally had the gratification of hearing them report, that " every 




piovement, it was made on the spot. It is not pretended, however, 
that there is not yet much room for improvement ; for whoever 
undertakes to delineate or describe every vi|ible star in the heav- 
ens, assames a task, in the accomplishment of which he may well 
claim some indulgence. 

The maps which accompanf the work, in the outlines and ar- 
rangement of the constellations, are essentially the same with 
those of Dr. WoUaston. They are projected upon the same prin- 
ciples as maps of Geegraphy, exhibiting a faithful portraiture oi 
the heavens for every month, and consequently for every day in the 
year, and do not require to be rectified, for that purpose, like globes. 

They are calculated, in a good measure, to supersede the neces- 
sity of celestial globes in schools, inasmuch as they present a more 
natural view of the heavenly bodies, and as nearly all the prob- 
lems which are peculiar to the celestial globe, and, a great num- 
ber besides, may be solved upon them in a very simple and satis- 
ftctory manner. They may be put jnto the hands of each indi- 
vidual in a class at the same time, but a globe cannot be. The 
stadent may conveniently bold them before his eye to guide 
his survey of the heavens, but a globe he cannot. There is not a 
conspicuous star in the firmament which a child of ten years may 
not readily find by their aid. Besides, the maps are always right 
and ready for use, while the globe is to be recUfied and turned to 
a^ particular meridian ; and then if it be not held in that position 
for the time being it is liable to be moved by the merest accident 
er l»eath of wind. 

There is another consideration which renders an artificial globe 
©f very little avail as an auxiliary for acquiring a knowledge of 
the stars while at school. U is this ;— the pupil spends one, yer- 
haps two weeks, in solving the problems, and admiring the fig- 
oies on it, in which time it has been turned round and round a 



Vl PREFACE. 

hundred times ; it is then returned safely to its case, and some 

months afterwards, or it may be the next evening, he directs his 

eye upwards to rec^nize his acquaintance among the stars. He 

may nnd himself able to recoUect the names of the principal stars. 

and the uncouth forms by which the constellations are pictured 

out ; but which of all the positions he has placed the globe in, is 

now so present to his mind that he is enabled to identify it with 

any portion of the yisible heavens ? 

He looks in vain to see 

** Lions and Ceiftann, Ooigons, Hydras rise, 
And gods and heroes blase along the rtdes." 

He finds, in short, that the bare study of the globe is one thing, 
and that of the heavens quite another ; 'and he arrives at the con- 
clusion, that if he woald be profited, both must be sttidied and 
compared together. This, since a class is usually furnished with 
but one globe, is impracticable. In this point of view also, the 
maps are preferable. 

I have endeavored to teach the Geography of the heavens in 
nearly the same manner as we teach the Geography <^ the earth. 
What that does in regard to the history, situation, extent, popula* 
tion and principal cities of the several kingdoms of the earth, I 
have done in regard to the constellations ; and 1 am persuaded, 
that a knowledge of the one may be as easily obtained, as of the 
other. The systems sre similar. It is only necessary to change 
the terms in one, to render them applicable to the other. For this 
reason, I have yielded to the prefer^ce of the publisher in calling 
this work '* G^ecgraphy of the Heavens," instead of Urinoorapht, 
or some other name more et3rmologically apposite. 

That a serious contemplation of those stupendous works of the 
Most High, which astronomy unfolds, is calculated above all 
other departments of human knowledge, to enlarge and invigorate 
the powers of religious contemplation, and subserve the interests 
of rational pieW, we have the testimony of the most illustriovs 
characters that have adorned our race. ' 

If the work which I now submit, shall have this tendency, I shall 
not have written in vain. Hitherto, the science of the stars has 
been but very superficially studied in our schools, for want of 

E roper helps. They have continued to gaze upon the visible 
eavens without comprehending what they saw. They have cast 
a vacant eye upon the splendid pages of this vast volume, as chil- 
dren amuse themselves With a book which they are unable to read. 
They have caught here and there, as it were, a capital letter, or a 
picture, but they have failed to distinguish those smaller charac- 
ters on which the sense of the whole depends. Hence, says an 
English Astronomer, " A comprehensive work oa Deacnptwe AS" 
Uronomy, detailing, in a popular manner, all the facts which have 
been ascertained respecting the scenery of the heavens, accom- 
panied with a variety of striking delineations, accommodated to the 
capacity of youth, is a desideratum,** How far this desirable end 
is accomplished by the following work, I humbly leave to the 
public to decide. 
H^rtftrrd, Fd>, 1833. 



INDEX. 



■nhil.tk* Twin. M TnliJflit, ' 

Hrin, lbs Wtin SerpeiU, ud tM Dn> Minw^.Iks Uttl* 'Biai,— 
Ha^lu Hi Via LutH.tb4 Mtiki-Vu."' 



INTRODUCTIOJl. 



ABTAmGSS OF TIE STUDY OF iSTROJIOIT. 

BY 
THOMAS DICK, LL. D. 



Astronomy is a science which has, in all ages, engaged the aw 
tention of the poet, the philosopher, and the di^me, and been the 
ftubject of t^eir study and admiration. Kings have descended from 
thei^ thrones to render it homage, and have sometimes enriched it 
with their labors; and humble shepherds, while watching their 
flocks by night, have beheld with rapture the blue vault of heaven, 
with its thousand shining orbs moving in silent grandeur, till the 
morning star announced the approach of day. The study of this 
science must have been co-eval with the existence of man. For 
there is no rational being who, for the first time, has lifted his eyes 
to the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking in brightness 
among the planetary orbs and the host of stars, but must have been 
struck with awe and admiration at the splendid scene, and its sub- 
lime movements, and excited to anxious inquiries into the nature, 
the motions, and the destinations of those far-distant orbs. Com- 
pared with the splendor, the amplitude, the august motions, and 
the ideas of infinity which the celestial vault presents, the most 
tesplendent terrestrial scenes sink into inanity, and appear un- 
worthy of being set in competition with the glories of the sky. 

Independently of the sublimity of its objects, and the pleasuie 
arising from their contemplation, Astronomy is a study of vast 
utility, in consequence of its connection with terrestrial arts and 
sciences, many of which are indebted to the observations, and the 
principles of this science, for that degree of perfection to which 
they have attained. 

Astronomy has been «f immense utility to the science of 

GEOGRAPHY; 

for it is chiefly in consequence of celestial observations that the 
true figure of the earth has been demonstrated and its dtnHty as- 
certained. It was from such observations, made on the mouafaia 
SckekaUitn in Scotland, that the attraction of mountains was de- 
termined. The observations were made by taking the meridian 
distances of different fixed stars near the zenith, first on the south, 
and allerwards on the north side of the hill, when the plumb line 
nf the Sector was found, in both cases, to be deflected from the 



nmoDuonoif. ut 

perpeadicalar towards the mountain; and, from calcolationa 
ibonded on the quantity of this deflection, the mean density of the 
earth was ascertained. It was liirewise by means of celestial ob- 
servations that the length of a degree of the meridian was measur- 
ed, and the circumference of the globe, with all its other dimen- 
sions, accurately ascertained ; for, to ascertain the number of 
degrees between any two parallels on the Earth's surface, obsenra- 
tions must be taken, with proper instruoients, of the sun or of the 
stars, at different stations ; and the accurate measurement of the 
terrestrial distance between any two stations or parallels, partly 
depends on astronomical observations combined with the princi- 
ples and operations of Trigonometry. So that without the aids of 
this science^ the figure and density, the circumference and diame- 
ter of our terrestrial habitation, and the relative position of places 
OD. its surface, could never have been ascertained. 
Astronomy is likewise of great utility to the art of 

NAVIGATION; 

without a certain knowledge of which the mariner could never 
have traced his course through pathless oceans to remote regions 
— the globe would never have been circumnavigated, nor an inter- 
course opened between the inhabitants of distant lands. It is of 
essential importance to the navigator, not only to know the situa- 
tion of the port to which he is bound, but also to ascertain with 
precision, on what particular portion of th^ terraqueous globe he 
IS at any time placed — what course he is pursuing — how far he 
has traveled from the port at which he emoarked — what danger- 
ous rocks or shoals lie near the line of his course — and in what 
direction he must steer, in order to arrive, by the speediest and the 
safest course, to his destined haven. It is only, or chiefly, by as- 
tronomical observations that such particulars can be determined. 
By accurately observing the distance between the moon and cer- 
tain stars, at a particular time, he can calculate his distance East 
or West from a given meridian ; and, by taking the meridian 
altitude of the sun or of a star, he can learn his distance from the 
Equator or from the poles of the world. In such observations, a 
knowledge of the constellations, of the pole-star, and of the general 
positions of all the stars of the first and second magnitude, is of 
particular importance ; and, therefore, a navigator who is unac- 
quainted with the science of the heavens, ought never to be ap- 
pointed to conduct a ship through the Indian, the Atlantic, or the 
Pacific oceans, or through any portions of the sea which are not 
within sight of land. By the observations founded on astronomi- 
cal science, which have been made in different regions by mari- 
ners and travelers of various descriptions, the latitudes and 
longitudes of the principal places on the globe, and their various 
bearings and relations have been determined, so that we can now ' 
take a view of the world we inhabit in all its multifarious aspects, 
and direct our course to any quarter of it, either £or business, for 
pleasure, or for the promotion of philanthropic objects. Thus. 
Astronomy has likewise become of immense utility to Tirade and 
Cmnmeree^ in opening up new emporiums for our mann&cture. in 



z nmtoDtromof. 

augmentiDg and mQltiplying the sources of wealth, in promoting 
an intercoarse between the most distant nations, and enabling ns 
to procure, for our accommodation or luxury, the firodoetions of 
every climate. If Science has now explored almost every region ; 
if Politics and Philosophy have opened a communication be^een 
the remotest inhabitants of the globe ; if alliances have been form- 
ed between the most distant tribes of mankind ; if Traffic has 
explored the multifarious productions of the earth and seas, and 
transported them from one country to another, and, if heathen 
lands and barbarous tribes have been " visited wilii the Day*spfing 
from on high, and the knowledge of salvation," — it is owing to. 
the aids derived from the science of the stars, without which the 
continents, the islands, and the different aspects of our globe 
would never have been explored by those who were separated 
from them by intervening oceans. 
This science has been no less useful to 

AGRICULTURE 

and to the cultivators of the earth. The successful cultivation of 
the soil depends on a knowledge of the course of the sun, the exact 
length of the seasons, and the periods of the year most proper for 
tlie operations of tillage and sowing. The ancients were directed 
in these operations, in the first instance, by observing the courses 
of the moon, and that twelve revolutioDs of this luminary cor- 
responded nearly with one apparent revolution of the sun. But 
finding the coincidence not exact, and that the time of the seasons 
was changing — in order to know the precise bounds of the sun's 
annual course, and the number of days corresponding to his ap- 
parent yearly revolution, they were obliged to examine with care 
what stars were successively obscured in the evening by the sun, 
or overpowered by the splendor of his light, and what stars were 
beginning to emerge from his rays, and to re-appear before the 
dawn of the morning. By certain ingenious methods, and nu- 
merous and attentive observations, they traced out the principal 
stars Uiat lay in the line of the sun's apparent course, gave them 
certain names bv which they might be afterwards distinguished, 
and then divided the circle of the heavens in which the sun ap - 
pears to move, first into quadrants, and afterwards into 12 equal 
parts, now called the dgtis of the ZodiaCt which they distinguished 
by names corresponding to certain objects and operations con- 
nected with the difierent seasons of the year. Such were tlie 
means requisite to be used for ascertaining the length of the year, 
and the oommeneement of the difierent seasons, and for directiog 
the labors of the husbandman ; and, were the knowledge of these 
things to be obliterated by any extensive moral or physical con- 
vulsion, mankind would again be under the necessity of having 
recourse to astronomical observation.^ for determining the limits 
of the solar year, and the course of the seasons. Although we 
find no difficulty, in the present day, and require no anxious ob- 
servations, in determining the seasons, yet, before astronomical 
observations were made with some degree of accuracy, the ancient 
Greeks had to watch the rising oSArcturuSf the Pleiades and Orion, 



nmoBuonoir. si 

Id mark their seasons, and to determine the proper time for their 
agricaltaral labors. The rising of the star Sinus along with the 
son, announced to the Egyptians the period when they might ex- 
pect the overflowing of the Nile, and, conseqaently, the time whem 
they were to sow their grain, cut their canals and reservoirs, and 
prepare the way for their expected hanrest. 
The science of 

CHRONOLOGY 

likewise depends on celestial observations. The knowledge of an 
exact measure of time is of considerable importance in arranging 
and conducting the affairs of life, without which, society in its 
movements would soon run into confusion. For example, if we 
could not ascertain, within an hour or two, when an assembly 
or any concourse of htftnan beings was to meet for an important 
purpose, all such purposes would soon be frustrated, and numan 
improvement prevented. Our ideas of time or succession in dura- 
tion, are derived from motion $ and in order to its being divided 
into equal parts, the motions on which we fix as standards of 
time must be constant and uniform^ or at least, tbat any slight 
deviation from uniformity shall oe capable of being ascertained. 
But we have no uniform motion on earth by which the lapse of 
duration can be accurately measured. Neither the flight of birds, 
the motion of the clouds, the gentle breeze, the impetuous whirl- 
wind, the smooth-flowing river, the roaring cataract, the falling 
rain, nor even the flax and reflux of the ocean, regular as they 
generally are, could afford any certain standard for die measnie 
of time. It is, therefore, to the motion of the celestial orbs alone 
that we can look for a standard of duration that is certain and in- 
variable, and not liable to the changes that take place in all terre^ 
trial movements. Those magnificent globes which roll aroand««i 
m the canopy of the sky — whether their motions be considered as 
real or onl^ apparent, move with an order and regularity which is 
not found m any physical agents connected with our globe ; and 
when from this quarter we have derived any one invariable mea^ 
sure of time, we can subdivide it into the minutest portions, to 
subserve all the purposes of civil life, and the improvements of 
science. Without the aids of astronomy, therefore, weshoukl have 
had no accurate ideas of the lapse of time, and should have been 
obliged, like the rude savage of the desert, to compute our time by 
the falls of snow, the succession of rainy seasons, the melting of 
the ice, or the progress and decay of vegetation. 

Celestial observations, in consequence of having ascertained a 
regular measure of time, have enabled us to fix chronological dates, 
and to determine the principal epochs of History. Many of those 
epochs were coincident with remarkable eclipses of the sun or 
moon, which the ancients regarded as prognostics of the loss of 
battles, the death of monarchs, and the fall of empires ; and which 
are recorded in connection with such events, wnere no dates are 
mentioned. The astronomer, therefore, knowing the invariable 
movements of the heavenly orbs, and calculating backwards 
through the past periods of time, can ascertain what remarkable 
eclipses must have been visible at any particular time and place, 



Zii ' IRTEODUCTION. 

«nd conseguentlr, can determine the precise date of contemporary 
events, dalyisius, for example, founds his Chronology on m 
eclipses of the sun, and 127 or the moon, which he had calculated 
for the purpose of determining epochas and settling dates. The 
grand conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which occurs 
once in 800 years, in the same point of the zodiac, and which has 
happened only eight times since the Mosaic Creation, furnishes 
Chronology with incontestable proofs of the date of events, when 
■ttch phenomena happen to be recorded. On such data, Sir Isaac 
Newton determined the period when Thales the philosopher flour- 
ished, particularly from the famous eclipse which he predicted, 
and which happened just as the two armies under Alyctties^ king 
of Lydia, and Cyaxaresthe Mede were engaged; and which has 
been calculated to have happened in the 4th year of the 43d Olym- 
piad, or in the year before Christ 603. On similar grounds Dr. 
Ualley, a celebrated astronomer of the last century, determined 
the very day and hour of the landing of Julius Cesar in Britain, 
merely from the circumstances stated in the '* Commentaries " <^ 
that illustrious general. 
Astronomy has likewise lent its aid to the 

PROPAGATION OP RELIGION, 

and the conversion of the heathen world. For without the light 
derived from this celestial science, oceans would never have been 
traversed, jior the continents and islands explored where benighted 
Bations reside, and, consequently, no messengers of Peace could 
have been dispatched to teach them '* the knowledge of salvation, 
and to guide their steps io the way of peace." But, with the di- 
rection aflbrded by the heavenly orbs and the magnetic needle, 
thousands of Christian missionaries, along with millions of bibles, 
may now be transported to the most distant continents and islands 
of the ocean, to establish among them the >' Law and Testimony " 
of the Most High — ^to illume the darkness and counteract the 
moral abominations and idolatries of the Pagan world. If the 

Sredictions of ancient prophets are to be fulfilled ; if the glory of 
ehovah is to cover the earth ; if " the isles afar off," that have 
not yet heard of the fame of the Redeemer, nor seen his glory, are 
to be visited with the *' Day-spring from on high," and enrolled 
among the citizens of Zion ; ir the world is to be regenerated, and 
Righteousness and Praise to spring forth before all nations — those 
grand events will be accomplished partly through the influence 
and direction of those celestial luminaries which are placed in the 
firmament to be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and years. 
The light reflected from the material heavens will lend its aid in 
illuminating the minds of the benighted tribes of mankind, till 
they be prepared tor being transported into those celestial man- 
sions where knowledge shall be perfected, and sovereign power 
triumphant. It will be likewise from aid derived from the heav- 
enly orbs that the desolate wastes of the globe in every region will 
be cultivated and replenished with inhabitants. For the Almighty 
"created not the earth in vain, but furmed it to be inhabited ;" and 
his puipose in this respect must ultimately be accomplished ; and 



mTEODucnoiL ziil 

the process of peopling and cultivation is now goiitf forward in 

New Holland, van Diemen's Land, Africa, the Western States 
of America, and other regions where sterility and desolation have 
prevailed since the universal Deluge. But how could colonies of 
men be transported from civilized nations to those distant regions, 
unless by the guidance of celestial luminaries, and by the aid oi 
those arts which are founded on the observations of astronomy 1 
So that this science exerts an extensive and beneficial influence 
over the most important affairs of mankind. 

In short, astronomy, by unfolding to us the causes of certain 
celestial phenomena, has tended to 

DISSIPATE SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS 

and vain alarms. In former ages the approach of a blazing coiDet| 
or a total eclipse of the sun or inoon, were regarded with univerMl 
consternation as prognostics of impending calamities, and as har* 
bingers of Divine vengeance. Aiul even in the present dav, such 
notions prevail among most of those nations and tribes that are 
unacquainted with astronomical science. During the darkneea 
occasioned by a solar eclipse, the lower oiders of Turkey have 
been seen assembling in clusters in the streets, gazing wildly at 
the sun, running about in wild distraction, and firing volleys d 
muskets at the sun to frighten away the monster by which they 
supposed it was about to be devoured. The Moorish song of 
death, or the howl they make for the dead, has been heard, on 
such occasions, resounding from the mountains and jthe vales, 
while the women brought into the streets ail the brass pans, and 
vessels, and iron utensik they could collect, and striking them with 
all their force, and uttering dreadful screams, occasioned a horrid 
noise that was heard for miles around. But astronomy has put to 
flight such terrific phantoms and groundless alarms, by uniokiing 
to us the true causes of all such phenomena, and showing us that 
they happen in exact conformity with those invariable laws by 
which the Almighty conducts the machine of the universe — that 
eclipses are merely the effects of the shadow of one opaque globe 
falling upon another, and that comets are bodies which move in 
regular, but long elliptical orbits — which appear and disappear in 
stated periods of time, and are destined to subserve some grand 
and beneficent designs in the svstem to which they belong. So 
that we may now contemplate all such celestial phenomena, not 
(Xily with composure and tranquillity, but with exultation and de- 
lignt. In short, astronomy has undermined the absurd and I'allac 
cious notions by which the professors of Judicial Aslrology have 
attempted to impose on the credulity of mankind, under pretence 
of disclosing the designs of i^oto, and the events of futurity. It 
shows us, that the stars are placed at immeasurable distances 
from our terrestrial sphere — that they can have no influence upon 
Ihe earth, but what arises from the law of universal gravitation — 
that the great end for which they were created was to diffuse light, 
and to perform other important services in regions infinitely dis- 
tinct from the sphere we occupy — that the planets are bodies of 
different sizes, and somewhat similar to the globe on which we 

3 



Xrr INTB-ODUCTIOW. 

live — that all their aspects and conjunctions are the pesult of phy« 
«ical laws which are regular and immutable — and that no data 
can be ascertained on which it can be proved that they exert a 
morai influence on the temperaments and destinies of men, except 
in so far as they tend to raise our affections to their Almighty 
Author, and' excite us to confide in his care, and to contemplate 
the effects of his wisdom and omnipotence. The heavens are set 
before us, not as the " Book of Fate," in which we may pry into 
the secrets of our future destiny, which would only serve to de- 
stroy activity, and increase the pressure of our present afflictions — 
but as the " Book, of God," in which we may read his wondrous 
works, contemplate the glory of his eternal empire, and be excited 
to extend our views to those expansive scenes of endless felicity 
which await the faithful in the realms above. 

Independently of the considerations above stated, the study of 
astronomy is attended with many advantages in a moral, intel- 
lectual, and religious point of view. 

] . This department of science unfolds to us ^ most striking diS" 
plays of ike perfections of ike Deity — particularly the grandeur of 
his Omnipotence. His Wisdom is conspicuously displayed in the 
general arrangement of the heavenly orbs, particularly in refer- 
ence to the globes which compose the solar system — ^in placing 
near the center of this system that immense luminary the San^ 
from whence light and heat might be distributed, in due propor- 
tion, to all the worlds that roll around it — in nicely proportioning 
the motions and distances of all the planets, primary and second- 
ary — ^in uniting them in one harmonious system, by one grand 
universal law which prevents them from flying off* in wild confu- 
sion through the infinity of space — in the constancy and regularity 
of their motions, no one interfering with another, or deviating 
from the course prescribed — in the exactness with which they run 
their destined rounds, finishing their circuits with so much ac- 
curacy as not to deviate from their periods of revolution the hun- 
dredth part of a minute in a thousand years — in the spherical 
figures given to all those mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions 
impressed upon them, by which a due proportion of light and heat 
is difiused over every part of their surface. The Beitevolence of 
the Deity shines no less conspicuous in those upper regions, in 
ordering all the movements and arrangements of the celestial 
globes so as to act in subserviency to the comfort and happiness 
of sentient and intelligent beings. For, the wisdom of God is 
never employed in devising means without an end ; and the grand 
end of all his arrangements, in so far as our views extend, is the 
communication of happiness ; and it would be inconsistent with 
the wisdom and other perfections of God not to admit, that the 
same end is kept in view m every part of his dominions^ however 
far removed from the sphere of our contemplation. The heavens, 
therefore, must be considered as presenting a boundless scene oi 
Divine benevolence. For they unfold to view a countless number 
of magnificent globes, calculated to be the habitations of various 
orders of beings, and which are, doubiless, destined to be the 
abodes of intellectual life. For the character of the Deity would 
be impeached, and his wisdom virtually denied, were we to sup- 



niTRODITCTIOlf. XV 

pose him to arrange antl establish a magnifieent aeries of msanu 
without an end corresponding, in ntility and dignity, to the p^ran- 
dear of the contrivance. When, therefore, we consider the inno* 
merable worlds which must exist throughout the immensity of 
space, the countless myriads of intelligences that people them, ihe 
various ranks and orders of intellect that may exist among them, 
the innumerable diversified arrangements whic|^ are made for 
promoting their enjoyment, and the peculiar displa3rs of Divine 
benigDity enjoyed in every world — we are presented with a scene 
of Divine goodness and beneficence which overpowers oar con- 
ceptions, and throws completely into the shade all that we perceive 
or enjoy within the confines of this sublunary world. And, al- 
though the minute displays of Divine benevolence in distant 
worlds are not yet particularly unfolded to our view, yet this cir- 
cumstance does not prove that no such displays exist ; — ^and as we 
are destined to an immortal life in another region of creation, we 
shall, doubtless, be favored with a more expansive view ef the 
efiects of Divine benignity in that eternal scene which lies b^ 
fore us. 

But this science exhibits a more striking display than any other 
of the Onmipotent energies of the Eternal Mind. It presents before 
us objects of overpowering magnitude and splendor — planetary 
globes a thousand times larger than the earth — magnificent rings 
which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and woald 
inclose within their vast circumference 500 worlds as large as 
ours — sdns a million times larger than this earthly ball, diffusing 
their light over distant worlds — ^and these suns scattered in every 
direction through the immensity of space, at immeasurable dis- 
tances from each other, and in multitudes of groups which no man 
can number; presenting to the eye and the imagination a per- 
spective of starry systems, boundless as immensity. It presents to 
our view motions so astonishing as to overpower and almost ter- 
rify the imagination — bodies a thousand times larger than the 
earth flying with a velocity of 29,000 miles an hour, performing 
circuits more than three thousand millions of miles in circumfer- 
ence, and carrying along with them a retinue of revolving worlds 
in their swifl career ; nay, motions, at the rate of 880,000 miles 
an hour, have been perceived among the celestial orbs, which as 
far surpass the motions we behold around us in this lower world, 
as the heavens in height surpass the earth. 8uch motions are 
perceived not only in the solar system, but in the most distant re- 
gions of the universe, among double stars — they are regular 'and 
uninterrupted — they have been going forward for thoosands, per- 
haps for millions of years — there is perhaps no body in the uni- 
Ycrsc but is running its round with similar velocity ; and it is not 
unlikely that the whole machine of universal nature is in per- 
petual motion amidst the spaces of immensity, and will continue 
thus to move throughout all the periods of endless duration. Such 
objects and such motions evidently display the omnipotence of the 
Creator beyond every other scene which creation presents ; and, 
when seriously contemplated, cannot but inspire us with the most 
lofty and impressive conceptions of the "eternal power" and me 
jesty of Him who sits on the throne of the universe, and by wi* 



XVI INTRODUCTION. 

all its mighty movements are condacted. They demonstrate, that 
his agency is aniirersal and unconirailadle — ^that he is able to ac- 
eomplish all his designs, however incomprehensible to mortals — 
that DO created being can frustrate bis purposes, and that he is 
worthy of our highest affection, and our incessant adoration. 

2: Astronomy displays before us the extent and grandeur of God*s 
universal empire^ The globe we inhabit, with all its appendages, 
forms a portion of the Divine empire, .ind. when minutely investi- 
gated, exhibits a striking display of its Creator's power, benignity, 
and intelligence. But it forms only one small province of his uni- 
versal dominionft--«in almost undistinguishable speck in the great 
map of the universe : and if we confine our views solely to the 
limits of this terrestrial ball, and the events which have taken 
place on its surface, we must form a very mean and circumscribed 
idea of the extent of the Creator's kingdom and the range of his 
moral government. But the discoveries of astroogmy have ex- 
tended our views to other provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, 
far more spacious and magnificent. They demonstrate, that this 
earth, with all its vast oceans and mighty continents, and numer- 
ous population, ranks among the smaller provinces of this em- 
pire — that the globes composing the system to which it belongs, 
(without including the sun,) contain an extent of territory more 
than two thousand times larger than our world — that the sun 
himself is more than 500 times larger than the whole, and 
that, although they were all at this moment buried in oblivion, 
they would scarcely be missed by an eye that could survey the 
whole range of creation. They demonstrate, that ten thousands 
of suns, and ten thousand times ten thousands of revolving worlds, 
are dispersed throughout every region of boundless space, dis- 
playing the creating and supporting energies of Omnipotence: 
and consequently, are all under the care and superintendence of 
Him " who doeth according to his will in the armies of heaven, 
and among the inhabitants of the earth." Such aa empire, and 
such only, appears corresponding to the perfections of Uim who 
has existed from eternity past, whose power is irresistible, whose 
goodness is unbounded, and whose presence fills the immensity of 
space; and it leads us to entertain the most exalted sentiments of 
admiratioi^ at the infinite intelligence Implied in the superiTitendcnce 
of such vast dominions, and at the boundless beneficence displayed 
ai^ong the countless myriads of sensitive and intellectual beings 
which must people his wide domains. 

3. The objects which this science discloses, afford subjects of 
tubUme contemplation, and tend to elevate the sotU above vicious pds" 
sions a/nd grtweling pursuits. In the hours of retirement and soli* 
tude what can be more delightful, than to wing our way in imagi- 
nation amidst the splendid objects which the firmament displays 
— ^to take our flight along with the planets in their wide career — 
to behold tbemrunning their ample rounds with velocities forty 
times swifter than a cannon ball — to survey the assemblages of 
their moons, revolving around them in their respectives orders, 
and carried at the same time, along with their primaries, through 
the depths of space — to contemplate the magnificent arches which 
adorn the firmament of Saturn, whirling round that planet at the 



UTTRODUCmON. xvu 

rate of a thonsaod mile^ in a minute, and displaying their radi* 
ance and majestic raoTements to an admiring population — to add 
scene to scene, and magnitude to magniinde, till the mind acquire 
an ample conception of such august ohject»~to dive into the 
depths of infinite space till we be surrounded with myriads ot suns 
and systems of worlds, extending beyond the range of mortal com- 
prehension, and all mnning tlMir appointed rounds, and accom- 
plishing tbe designs of beneficence in obedience to the mandate of 
their Almighty Author 1 Such objects afford matter for rational 
conversation, and for the most elevated contemplation. In this 
ample field the most luxuriant imagination may range at large, 
representing scenes and objects in endless variety and extent ; and, 
after its boldest excursions, it can scarcely go beyond the reality 
of the magnificent objects which exist within the range of creating 
power and intelligence. 

The frequent contemplation of such objects tends to enlarge the 
capacity of Hhe mind, to ennoble the human faculties, and raise the 
soul above groveling affections and vicious pursuits. For the 
dispositions of mankind and their active pursuits generally cor- 
respond to the train of thought in which they most frequently in- 
dulge. If these thoughts run among puerile and vicious objects, 
such will be the general character of their affections and conduct. 
If their train of thinking take a more elevated range, the train of 
their actions, and the passions they display, will, in some measure, 
be correspondent. 

Can we suppose, that a man whose mind is daily conversant 
with the noble and expansive objects to which I have adverted, 
would have his soul absorbed in the pursuits of ambition, tyi'anny, 
oppression, war, and devastation 1 

Would he rush like a madman through burning cities, and 
mangled carcasses of the slain, in order to trample underfoot the 
rights of mankind, and enjoy a proud pre-eminence over his fel- 
lows—and find pleasure in such accursed pursuits 1 

Would he fawn on statesmen and princes, and violate every 
moral principle, in order to obtain a pension, or a post of opulence 
or honor 1 Would he drag his fellow-men to tbe stake, because 
thev worshipel Qod according to the dictates of their consciences, 
and behold with pleasure their bodies roasting in the flames 1 

Would he drive men, women, and children from their homes, 
loaded with chains and fetters, to pine in misery and to perish in 
a distant land, merely because they asserted the rights to which 
they were entitled as citizens and as rational beings 1 

Or, would he degrade himself below the level of the brutes by a 
daily indulgence in rioting and drwnkenness, till his faculties were 
benumbed, and his body found wallowing in the mire 1 

It is scarcely possible to suppose that such passions and conduct 
would be displayed by the man who is habitually engaged in 
celestial contemplations, and whose mind is familiar with the 
august objects which the firmament displays. "If men were 
taught to act in view of all the bright worlds which are looking 
down upon them, they could not be guilty of those abominable 
cruelties " which some scenes so mournfully display. We should 
then expect, that the iron rod of oppression would be broken 5 



XTlii mTRODUCTIOXf. 

pieces— that war would cease its horrors and deTastations — that 
libertj would be proclaimed to the captives — that " righteoasness 
would run down our streets as a river," and a spirit congenial to 
that of the inhabitants of heaven would be displayed by the rulers 
of nations, and by all the families of the earth. For aU the scenes 
which the firmament exhibits have a tendency to inspire tran- 
fwiUity — to produce a love of fuirmony and order, to stain ike pride 
of kumamgrandeur-^to display the riches of Divine beneficence — to 
excite admiration and reverence— ^B3i<di to raise the soul to God as the 
Supreme Director of universal nature, and the source and center 
of all true enjoyment ; — ^and such seniiments and affections are 
directly opposed to the degrading pursuits and passions which 
have contaminated the society of our world, and entailed misery 
on our species. 

, I might have added, on this head, that the study of this subject 
has a peculiar tendency to sharpen and invigorate the mental fac- 
ulties. It requires a considerable share of attention and of intel- 
lectual acumen to enter Into all the particulars connected with the 
principles and facts of astronomical science. The elliptical form 
of the planetary orbits, and the anomalies thence arising, the 
mutation of the earth's axis, the causes of the seasons, the diffi.^ 
culty of reconciling the apparent motions of the planets with their 
real motions in circular or elliptical orbits, Ihe effects produced 
by centrifugal and centripetal forces, the precession of Uie equi- 
noxes, the aberration of light, the method of determining the dis- 
tances and magnitudes of the celestial bodies, mean and apparent 
time, the irregularity of the moon's motion, the difficulty of fom»- 
ing adequate ideas of the immense spaces in which the heavenly 
bodies move, and their enormous size, and various other particu- 
lars, are apt, at first view, to startle and embarrass the mind, as 
if they were beyond the reach of its comprehension. Bur, when 
this science is imparted to the young under the guidance of en- 
lightened instructors — when they are shown not merely pictures, 
globes and orreries, but directed to observe with their own eyes, 
and with the assistance of telescopes, all the interesting phenomena 
of the heavens, and the motions which appear, whether real or 
apparent — ^wben they are shown the spots of the sun. the moons 
and belts of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the rings of Saturn, and 
the mountains and vales which diversify the surface of the moon^- 
such objects tend to awaken the attention, to expand the faculties, 
to produce a taste for rational investigation, and to excite them to 
more eager and diligent inquiries into the subject. The objects 
appear so grand and novel, and strike the senses with so much 
force and pleasure, that the mind is irresistibly led to exert all its 
energies in those investigations and observations by which it 
may be enabled to grasp all the principles and facts of the science. 
And every difficulty which is surmounted adds a new stimulus to 
the exertions of the intellect, urges it forward with delight in the 
path of improvement, and thus invigorates the mental powers, 
and prepares them for engaging with spirit and alacrity in every 
other investigation. 

4. The study of astronomy has a tendency to moderate the pride 
jf many and to promote kumUUy. Pride is one of the distinguishing 



mTEODuonoH. aus 

eto^ieteristies of pany maD, and has been one of the chief eanses 
of all the CQDtentioiie, wars, deyastations, oppressions, systems of 
slavery, despotisms, and ambittons projects which hare desolated 
and demoraiiaEed oar sinful world. Yet there is no disposition 
more inconfrruous to the character and circamstances of man. 
Perhaps there are no rational beiogs throufrhout the universe 
among whom pride would appear more unseemly or incompatible 
than in man; considering the abject situation in which he is 
placed. He is exposed to innumerable degradations and calami- 
ties, to the rage oi storms and tempests, the deirastations of earth- 
quakes and Tuleanoes, the fury of whirlwinds, and the tempestuous 
billows of the ocean, the ravages of the sword, pestilence, famine, 
and numerous diseases, and, at length, he must sink into the 
grave, and his body become the companion of worms. The most 
dignified and haughty of the sons of men are liable to such degra- 
dations, and are frequently dependent on the meanest fellow- 
creatures whom they despise, for the greater part of their accom- 
modations and comlbrts. Yet, in such circumstances, man, that 
puny worm of Che dust, whose knowledge is so limited, whose 
follies are so numerous tind giaring — has the effrontery to strur in 
ail the haughtiness of yride, and to glory in his shame. When 
scriptural arguments and motives pr^uce little effect, I know no 
considerations which have a more powerful tendency to counteract 
this deplorable propensity of human beings than those which are 
borrowed Irom the objects connected with astronomy. They sbow 
us what an insigniJficant beiog^what a mere atom, iodee4» man 
appears amidst the immensity of creation. What is the whole of 
tms globe, compared with the solar system, which contains a 
mass of matter ten hundred thousand times greater 1 What is it 
in comparison of the hundred miliioas of suns and workls which 
the telescope has descried throughout the starry regions, or of that 
infinity of worlds which doubtless He beyond the range of human 
vision in the unexplored regions of immensity ? What, then, is a 
kingdom, or a province, or a baronial territory, of which we are 
as proud as if we were the lords of the universe, and for which 
we engage in so much devastatipn and carnage 1 What are they 
when set in competition with the glories of the sky 1 Could we 
takcoor station on the lofty pinnacles of heaven, and look down 
on this scarcely distinguishable speck of earth, we should be ready 
to exclaim with Smeca, « is it to this little spot that the great de- 
signs and vast desires of men are confined 1 Is it for tbis there is 
so much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, and so many 
ruinous wars 1 O folly of deceived men, to imagine great king- 
doms in the compass of an atom, to raise armies to divide a pHiU 
of earth with Ihe sword I" It is unworthy of the dignity of an im- 
mortal mind to. have its affections absorbed in the vanishing 
splendors of earthly grandeur, and to feel proud of the paltry pos- 
sessions and distinctions of this sublunary scene. To foster a 
spirit of pride and vain-glory in the presence of Him who <' sitteth 
on the circle of the heavens,*' and in the view of the overwhelming 
grandeur and immensity of his works, is a species of presumption 
and arrogance of whici everv rational mind ought to feel asha** 
«d. Ani, therefore, we have 'reason to believe, that those mr 



DITRODirCTIOH. 

tudes of fools, " drcMcd in a little brief authority," who walk In 
all the loftiness of pride, haTe not yet considered the rank they 
hold in the scale of universal being ; and that a serious contem- 
plation of the immensity of creation woakt have a tendency to 
convince us of our ignorance and DothiDgness, and to humble us 
in the dust, in the presence of the Former and Preserver of all 
worlds. We have reason to believe that the most exalted beings 
in the universe — those who are furnished with the most capacious 
powers, and who have arrived at the greatest perfeccion in know- 
ledge — are distinguished by a proportional share of bnraility ; for, 
in proportion as they advance in their surveys of the universal 
kingdom ^ Jehovah, the more will they feel their comparative 
ignorance, and be convinced of tbeir limited faculties, aixl of the 
infinity of objects and operations which lie beyond tbeir ken. At 
the same time they will feel, that all the faculties they possess 
were derived from Him who is the original fcrantain of existence, 
and are continually dependent for their exercise on bis sustaining 
energy. Hence we find, that the angelic tribes are eminendy 
distinguished for the exercise of this heavenly virtue. They 
» cover their faces with their wings "in the presence of their 
Sovereign, and fly, with cheerfulness, at his command, to our de- 
graded world, '* to minister to the heirs nf salvation." It is only 
in those worlds where ignaravce and deyravuif prevail (if there be 
any such besides our own) that such a principle as pride ia known 
or cherished in the breast of a dependent creatuie — and therefore 
every one in whom it predaminales, however high his statitm or 
worldly accomplishments, or however abject his condition may be, 
must be considered as either ignorant or depraved, or more prop- 
erly, as having both those evils existing in his constitution, the 
one being the natural and necessary result of the other. 

5. The studies connected with astronomy tend to prepare the 
soul for the employments of ike future world. In that world, the 
glory of the Divine perfections, as manifested throughout the 
illimitable tracts of creation, is one of the objects which anceaa- 
ingly employ the contemplation of the blessed. For they are 
represented in their adorations as celebrating the attributes of the 
Deity displayed in his operations : *' Great and marvelous are 
thy works, Lord Grod Almighty I thou art worthy to receive glory 
and honor and power, for thou hast created all things, and for thy 
pleasure they are and were created." Before we can enter that 
world and mingle with its inhabitants, we must acquire a 'relisk 
for their employments, and some acquaintance with the objects 
which form the subject of their sublime investigations; other-. 
wise, we could feel no enjoyment in the society of heavenly intel- 
ligences, and the exercises in which they engage. The investig*- 
tions connected with astronomy, and the frequent contemplation 
of its objects, have a tendency to prepare us for such celestial em- 
ployments, as they awaken aUenUon to such subjects, as they in- 
vigorate the faculties, and enlarge the capacity of the intellect, as 
they suggest sublime inquiries, and desires for further information 
which may aiterwards be gratified ; as they form the groundwork 
of the progress we may afterwards make in that state in our sur- 
veys 01 the Divine operations, and as they habituate the mind to 



OfTROlHTCTIOlI. ZZl 

lake large and eomprehensire views of the empire and moral 
gorernmeot of the Auntgfaty. Those who have made progress in 
such studies, ander the infliience of holy di^ipositions may tje con- 
sidered as fitted to enter heaven with peculiar advantages, as they 
will then be ioirodoced to ^employmeots and investigations to 
which they were formerly accustomed, and for which thev were 
prepared — ^in consequence of which they may be prepared lor ftll- 
log stations of superior eminence in that world, and lor directing 
the views and investigations of their brethren who enjoyed few 
opportunities of instruction and improvement in the present state. 
For we are informed, in the sacred records, that *'they who are 
wise," or bh the words should be rendered, " they who excel in 
wisdom sliall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they 
that torn many to righteonsoesa, as the stars for ever and ever." 

6. The researches of astronomy demonstrate, that il is i» Ut 
power of the Creeitortoopen to his intelligent ofkpting endlest sources 
of/diaif. fn looking forward to the scene of our future destina- 
tion, we behold a series of ages rising in suocestMon without any 
prospect of a termination; and, at first view, it might admit of a 
doubt, whether the universe presents a scene so diversified and 
boundless, that intelligent beings, daring an endless duration, 
could expect that new scenes of glory and felicity might be con- 
tinually openin|f to their view, or, whether the same series of pei^ 
eeptions and enjoyments might not be reiterated so as to produce 
satiety and indifference. Without attempting positively to decide 
on the particalar scenes or sonrces or happiness that may be 
opened in the eteraal world, it any be admitted, that the Deihf has 
U in kit vomer to gratify his rational creatures, during every period 
of duration, with new objects and new sources of enjoyment; and, 
that it is the science of astronomy alone which has presented us 
with a demonstration, and a full illustration of this important truth. 
For, it has displayed before us a univone boundless m its extent, 
diversified as to its objects, and infinite as to their number and 
Tariety. Even within the limits ol human vision the number of 
worids which exist cannot be reckoned less than tkree thousand 
millions ; and those which are nearest to us, and sabject to our 
particular examination, present varieties of different kinds, both 
as to magnitude, motion, splendor, color and diversity of surface- 
evidently indicating, that every world has its peeuUer scenes of 
beauty and grandeur. But, as no one will be so presumptuous aa 
to assert, that the boundaries of the universe terminate at the 
limits of human vision, there may be an assemblage of creation 
beyond all that iA visible to us, which as iar exceeds the visible 
system as the vast ocean exceeds in magnitude a single drop of 
water ; and this view is nothing more than compatible with the 
idea of a Being whose creating energies are innnite, and whose 
presence fills immensitv. Here, then, we have presented to our 
contemplation a bounuless scene, corresponding, in variety and 
extent of space, to the ages of an endless duraticm ; so that we can 
conceive an immortal mind expatiating amidst objects of benig- 
nity, sublimity and grandeur, ever varied and ever new, through- 
out an eternal round of existence, without ever arriving at a point, 
where it might be said, *' Hitherto shalt thou come, but no far- 



Xxii INTRODUCTION, 

ther." And we have reason to conclade that such will be the 
privilege and enjoyment of all holy beings. For we are informed 
on the authority of inspiration, that " in God*s presence there isfu^ 
ness ofj^fffy ond at his right hand are pleasures far evermore. 

7. The science of astronomy is a study which will be prosecuted 
without intermission in the eternal world. This may be inferred 
from what has been already stated For it is chiefly among the 
numerous worlds dispersed throughout the universe that God is 
seen, his perfections manifested, a^ the plans of his moral govern- 
ment displayed before the eyes of unnumbered intelligences. The 
heavens constitute by far the grandest and most extensive portion 
of the empire of Omnipotence ; and if it shall be one part of the 
happiness of immortal spirits to behold and investigate ttie beauty, 
grandeur and beneficence displayed throughout this empire, we 
may rest assured, that they will be perpetnaUy employed in such 
exercises ; since the objects of their investigation are boundless as 
immensity; — or, in other words, astronomy, among other branches 
of celestial science, will be their unceasing study and pursuit. As 
it has for its object, to investigate the motions, relations, phenome- 
na, scenery, and the ultimate destination of the' great bodies of the 
universe, the subject can never 'be exhausted. Whatever may be 
said in regard to the absolute perfection of other sciences^ astrono- 
my can never be said, at any future period of duration, to have 
arrived at perfection, in so far as it is a subject of study to finite 
minds ; and, at this moment^even in the view of the Infinite Mind 
that created the universe^ its objects may not yet be completed. 
For we have reason to believe that the work of creation is still 
going forward, and, consequently, (hat new worlds and sjrstems 
may be continually emerging from nothing under the energies of 
Creating Power. However capacious, theretcure, the intellects of 
good men, in a future world, may be, they will never be able fttlly 
to explore the extent and variety, ^*-the riches and glory *' of Him 
<* who dwells in light unapproachable ;" — ^yea, the most exalted of 
ereated intelligences, wherever existing, althoogh their mental 
powers and activities were incomparably superior to those of man, 
will be inadequate to a full investigation and comprehension of 
the grandeur and sublimities of that kingdom which extenls 
throughout the regions of immensity. And this circumstance will 
constitute one ingredient of their happiness, and a security' for its 
permanency. For, at every period of intinite duration, they will 
be enabled to look forward to a succession of scenes, objects and 
enjoyments different from all they had previously conteuiplated or 
experienced, without any prospect of a termination. We may 
therefore conclude, that, unless the material universe be demolish* 
ed, and the activities.of immortal minds suspended, the objects of 
astronomy will continue throughout eternity to be the subject of 
study, and oi unceasing contemplation. 

. Such are some of the advantages attending the study of the 
aeience of astronomy. It lies at the foundation of our geographi- 
cal knowledge — it serves as a handmaid and director to the trav- 
eler and navigator — it is subservient to the purposes of universal 
commerce — it determines the seasons, and directs the operations 
of the husbandman — it supplies us with an equable standard of 



INTEODUCnOM. 

time, and settles the e^enb of history — ^it lends its aid to the propa* 
gation of religion, and anderminfs the foundation of saperstition 
and astrology. Above all, it illastrates the glory of the perfec lions 
of the Deity — displays the extent and grandeur of his universal 
empire — ^affords subjects of sublime contemplation — enlarges the 
conceptions, and invigorates the menial po wen— counteracts the 
influence of pride, and promotes the exercise o( humility — pre- 
pares the soui for the employments of the future world — and de> 
monstrates, that the Creator has it in his power to open up end* 
lessly diversified sources of happiness to every order of his intelli- 
gent offspring, throughout all the revolutions of eierniiy. The 
moral advantages arising from the study of this science, however, 
cannot be appreciated or enjoyed, unless such studies and investi- 
gations be prosecuted in connection with the facts and principles 
of Revelation. But, when associated with the study of the Scrip- 
tures, and the character of God therein delineated, and the practice 
of Christian precepts, they are calculated " to make the man of 
€rod perfect," to enlarge his conceptions of Divine perfection, and 
to expand his views of " the inheritance of the saints in light." 

Such being the advantages to be derived from the .^tudy of this 
science, it ought to form a subjecl!*of attention in every seminary 
intended for the mental and moral improvement of mankind. In 
order to the improvement of the young in this science, and that its 
ol^ects may make a deep impression on their minds, they should 
be directed to make frequent observations, as opportunity offers, on 
the movements of the nocturnal heavens, and to ascertain all the 
facts which are obvious to the eye of an attentive spectator. And, 
while tbey mark the different constellations, the apparent diurual 
motion of the celestial vault, the planets in their several courses, 
and the moon walking in her brightness among the host of stars — 
they should be indulged with views of the rings of Saturn, the belts 
and satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Mercury and Venus, the 
numerous groups of stars in the MUJnf Way, the double and treble 
stars, the most remarkable Nebula, the mountains and plains, the 
caverns and circular ridges of hills which diversify the surface of 
the moon, as they appear though good achromatic or reflecting 
telescopes. Without actual observation, and the exhibition of 
such interesting objects, the science of astronomy makes, compara- 
tively, little impression on the mind. Our school hooks on as- 
tronomy should be popular in their language and illusiraiions, 
but, at the same time, they should he comprektnsive in their details, 
and every exhibition should be clear and vfell dejined. They 
should contain, not merely descriptions of facts, to be received on 
the authority of the author or the instructor, but illustrations ol 
the reasons or arguments on which the conclusions of astronomy 
are founded, and of the modes by which they have been ascer- 
tained. And, while planetariums, celestial globes, and plani- 
spheres of the heavens are exhibited, care should be taken lo di- 
rect the observations of the pupils as frequently as possible to the 
objects themselves, and to guard them against the lvM%f£d and dis- 
UfTUd notions which all kinds of artificial representations have a 

'^ There i^s*tUUwm for improvement in all. the iniutory books 



ZZIT ncntODVCTIOH. 

OD this subject, I hare examined ; bat such books are bow rapidljr 
ImDroving, both as to their general plan, and the inieiesting na- 
ture ot their details. I ha^e seen nothing ^uperior ia this respect, 
or better adapted to the purpose of rational instruction, than Mr. 
Bnrriit's excellent wovk entitked, '' The Greography of the Heav- 
ens," second ediiion, comprising 342 closely printed pages. It 
contains, in the first place, a full and interesting description of all 
the constellations, and principal stars in the hearens, interspersed 
with a great v.ariety of mythological, historical and philosophical 
information, calculated to amuse and instruct the general reader, 
and to arrest the attention ot* the young. The descriptions of the 
bodies connected with the solar system are tx>th popular and 
scientific, containing a lucid exhibition of the facts which have 
been ascertained respecting them, and a rational explanation of 
the phenomena connected with their various aspects and motions. 
The Celestial Adas which accompanies the work is varied, com- 
prehensive, and judiciously constructed, and forms the most com- 
plete set of planispheres, lor the purpose of teaching, which ha» 
nitherto been published. It consists of four maps abimt fourteen 
inches square, delineated on the same principles as geographical 
projections, exhibiting the stars^tbat pass near the oaeridian at a 
certain hour, along with the circumjacent constellatioas for ev- 
ery month, and for every day of the year. Besides these there 
are two circumpolar maps of the northern and southern hemi- 
spheres of the heavens, and a planisphere on the principle of 
Mercator's projection, which exhibits at one view tne sphere of 
the heavens, and the relative positions of the different constella- 
tions and principal stars. With the assistance of these. maps, 
which in a great measure supersede the use of a celestial globe, an 
intelligent teacher may, at certain intervals in the course of a 
year, render his pupils familiar with mtjst of the visible stars in 
the heavens : and they will make a deeper impression on their 
minds when taught in this way, than by the use of a globe. This 
work, on the whole, indicates great industry and research on the 
part of the author, and a familiar acquaintance with the various 
departments of the science of the heavens. He has derived his 
materials from the most valuable and modern works of science, 
and has introduced not a few illustrations and calculations of his 
own, which tend to enhance the general utility oi' the work. The 
moral and religious reflections which the objects of this science 
naturally suggest, have not been overlooked, and, I trust, will have 
a tendency to raise the minds of the young to that Almighty Be- 
ing, whose power, wisdom, and superintending providence are so 
strikingly displayed throughout the regions of the firmamenU 



PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 



In entering upon this study, the phenomena of the heaTena. 
as mey appear m a clear evening, are the first objects thai 
demand our attention. Our first step is to learn the names 
and positions of the heavenly bodies, so that we can identify, 
and distinguish them from each other. 

In this manner, Uiey were observed and studied ages before 
books were written, and it was only after many, careful and 
repeated observations, that systems and theories of Astronomy 
were formed. To the visible heavens, then, the attention of 
the pupil should be first directed, for it is only when he shall 
have become in some measure, familiar with them, that he 
will be able to loccUe his Astronomical knowledge, or fully 
comprehend the terms of the science. . 

For the sake of convenient reference, the heavens were 
early divided into constellations, and particular names assign- 
ed to the constellations and to the stars which they contain. A 
constellation may be defined to be a cluster or group of stars 
embraced in the outline of some^figure. These figures are in 
many cases, creations of tne imagination, but in others, the 
stars are in reality so arranged as to form figures which have 
some resemblance to the objects whose names have been as 
signed to them. 

These divisions of the e«leadal sphen, bear a strlkinff analogy to the clvi] 
divisions of the globe. The const Jiutiona answer to atates and kingdoms, the 
most brilliant clasters to towns and cities, and the number of stars in each, tc 
their respective population. The pupil can trace the boundaries of any conste!> 
btion, and name all its stars, one by one, as readHly as he can trace the buunda- 
ries of a state, or name the towns and cities from a map of New England. In 
this sense, there may be truly said to be a Oeogr^ihy ofthe Heavens. 

The stars are considered as forming, with reference to then 
magnitudes,, six classes ; the brightest being called stars oi 
the first magnitude, the next brightest, stars of the second 
magnitude, and so on to the sixth class, which consists of the 
smallest stars visible to the naked eye. In order to be able 

Why, In entering upon the study of Astronomy, should the attention of the pupU ba 
Int directed to th^^ visible heavens? Why were the heavens early divided into con. 
ttellations, and nai. es assigned to the constellations and the stars l What Is a con- 
stellation? Do these flgures really exist in the skies 7 In what teiwe may there titU§ 
he mid to be a Qengraphy qf the Heaven* 1 How many classes an the s14Tb conslderad 
IS forming with reference to their magnitude. 

3 



96 PRCUBUNAKT OBAFTIB 

to designate, with precision their situations, imaginary circles 
have been considered as drawn in the heayens, most of which 
correspond to and are in the same plane with similar circles 
supposed, for similar purposes, to be drawn on the surface oi 
the Earth. 

In order to facilitate the study of it, artificial representations 
!)f the iiearens, similar to those of the surface of the £larth| 
liave been made. Thus, a Celestial Atlas, composed of se- 
ireral maps, accompanies this work. Before, however, pro- 
ceeding to explain its use, it is necessary to make the pupil 
acquainted with the imagmary circles alluded to above. 

Circles op the Sphere. — The Axis of the Earth is an 
onaginarjr line, passing through' its centre, north and south, 
about which its diurnal revolution is performed. 

The Poles of the Earth are the extremities of its axis. 

The Axis of the Heavens is the axis of the Earth pro- 
duced both ways to the concave surface of the heavens. 

The Poles of the Heavens are th6 extremities of their axis. 

The Equator of the Earth is an imaginarv great circle 

Sassing round the Earth, east and west^ everywhere equally 
istant from the poles, and dividing it into northern and 
southern hemispheres. 

The Equator of the Heavens^ or Equinoctial^ is the great 
circle formed on the concave surface of the heavens, by pro- 
ducing the plane of the Earth's equator. 

A plane is that which has sarface ^t not thickness. The plaae of a circle is 
that imaginary superficies which is bounded by the circle. 

The Rational Horizon is an imaginary great circle, whose 
plane, passing through the centre of the Earth, divides the 
heavens into two hemispheres, of which the upper one is 
called the visible hemisphere, and the lower one, the invisi- 
ble hemisphere. It is the plane of this circle which deter- 
mines the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies. 

The Sensible or Apparent Horizon, is the circle which 
terminates our view, where the Earth and sky appear to meet. 

To a person standing on a ^lain, this circle is but a few miles in diameter. If 
ibe eye be elevated five feet, the radius of tlie sensible horizon will be less than 
two miles and three quarters ; if the eye be elevated six fee% it will be jnst three 
miles. The observer being always in the centre of the sensible horizon, it will 
■Mve as he moves, and enlarge or contract, as his station Is eleVated or deprei» 



What expedient has lieen devised for designating, with pxecision, the situations tt 
the heavenly bodies? Wliat Is the axis of the Earth) What are the poles of the Baxth? 
VFhat Is the axis of the heavens } What are the poles of the he-»vens f What is the 
tiquator of the Earth 7 What is the equator of the heavens or the equinoctia] 7 Whmi U 
mpimu? What i» the plane ftf'a circle? What is the rattohal horizonl What Is the 
tenslble or apparent horizon? WTmt i» the diameter <tf thie efrele te a perton ttatid- 
ingonapbun? WhatioittiUradiuebeiftheeyebeelevatMJlvefeetf IfUbee^^ 
mtttdeisjputi Onwhatdoeethepkioe^uecMiremidttee^tamv^eneedepmdi 



The PoleB of the Horiaxm are twopomts, of which the one 
tti directly orer head, and is called tne Zeidth ; the other m 
directly ander foot, and is called the Nadir, 

Vertical Cirdea are circles drawn through the Zenith and 
Nadir of any place, putting the horizon at nght angles. 
' The Prime Vertical is that which passes through the east 
and west points of the horizon. 

The Ecliptic is the great circle which the Bon appears to 
describe annually among the stars. It erosses the Kqninoe- 
tial, a little obliquely, in two opposite points which are called 
the EmUnoxeB* Tne Sun rises in one of these points on the 
21st oi March ; this point is called the Vernal Equinox. It 
sets in the opposite point on the 23d of SeptCTiber ; this point 
is called the Autumnal Equinox. One hau of the ecliptic lies 
on the north side of the EquinoctiaL the other halt on the 
south side, making an angle with it ol 23^^. This angle is 
called the obliquity of the Ecliptic, The axis of the Eclip- 
tic makes the same angle with the axis of the hearens ; so 
that the poles of each are 23^^ apart. 

This angle is perpettuUy decreasing. At the eommeneement of the Chrisdan 
era, it was about 23<' 45^ At the beginning of ISML it was onW 23<' 27' 38 ", show- 
ing an annual diminution of about half a aecono, or 45'^70 in a hundred years. 
A time will arrive, however, when this angle, havhig reached its minimum, win 
again increase in the same ratio that it had before dOminiahed, and thua it win 
continue to osciDate at long periods, between certain limits, which are said to b« 
comprised within the qwoe of 20^ 42^. 

The ecliptic, like every other circle, contains 360^, and it is 
divided into 12 equal arcs of 30^ each, called signs, which the 
ancients distinguished by particular names. This division 
commences at the vernal equinox^ and is continued east- 
wardly round to the same point again, in the following order : 
ArieSy Taurus^ Gemitn^ Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scor- 
pto, Sagittarius, Capricomus, Aquarius, Pisces. The Sun. 
commencing at the first degree of Anes, about the 21st oi 
March, pas&es, at a mean rate, through one sign every month. 

The Zodiac is a zone or girdle, about 16 degrees in breadth, 
extending quite round the heavens, and including all the 
heavenly bodies within 8^ on each side of the ecliptic It in- 
cludes^ also, the orbits of all the planets, except some of the 
asteroids, since they are never seen beyond 8^ either north or 
south of the ecliptic 

Parallels of Latitude are small circles imagined to be 

What aieth« poles of the borlnm) What are vertical circles? What Is the prime 
vertical} What Is the ecUpUcl What are the equinoxes? The vernal equinox f The 
•itlnmnal equinox? Row is the ecliptic situated with respect to the equinoctial 7 What 
Is the fAllquity of the ecliptic 7 Deaerihe the numner in which thi» angle varie». De- 
flcribe the division of the ecliptic into signs. How much, at a mean rate, does the Sua 
advance in the ecliptic every month? what Is the zodiac? What are parallels oc 
^tode? 



18 PBELUUNABT CHAPTEB. 

drawn on the Earth's surface, north and south of the equatoi4 
and parallel to it. 

Parallels of Dedinatum are small circles, imagined t% be 
drawn on the concave surface of the heavens, north and south 
of the equinoctial, and parallel to it ; or^ they may be consid- 
ered as circles formed by producing the puallels of latitude 
to the heavens. 

The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle, which lies 23^^ 
north of the equinoctial, and parallel to it. The Tropic of 
Capricorn is a small circle, which lies 23^^ south of th9 
equinoctial, and parallel to it. On the celestial sphere, these 
two circles mark the limits of the Sun's farthest declination 
north and south. On the terrestial sphere, they divide the 
torrid, from the two temperate zones. That point in the 
ecliptic which touches the tropic of Cancer, is called ihe Sumr 
tner Solstice ; and that point in the ecliptic which touches 
the tropic of Capricorn, is called the Winter Solstice, 

The distance of these two points from the equinoctial is always equal to the 
obliquity of the ecliptic, which, in round numbers, is 23c^ ; but as we have seen 
the obliquity of the ecliptic is continually changing ; therefore the position of tb« 
tropics must nuike a correspondent change. 

The Colures are two ^eat circles which pass through the 
poles of the heavens, dividing the ecliptic into four equal - 
parts, and mark the seasons of the year. One of them passes 
through the equinoxes at Aries and Libra, and is thence 
called the Equinoctial Colure ; the other passes through the 
solstitial points or the points of the Sun's greatest declination ' 
north and soutli, and is thence called the Solstitial Colure, 

The Sun is in the equinoctial points the 21st of March and the 23d of Septem 
ber. He is in the solstitial points the 22d of June and the 22d of December. 

The Polar Circles are two small circles, each about 66*« 
from the equator, being always at the same distance from the 
poles that the tropics are from the equator. The northern is 
called the Arctic circle, and the southern the Antarctic 
circle.* 

Aleridians are imaginary great circles drawn through the 
poles of the world, cutting the equator and the equinoctial at 
light angles. 

Every place on the Earth, end every corresponding point in the heavenk, to 
KMurideied as having a meridian passing through it ; aJttiough astronomers applf 



What are parailels of declination ? What is the tropic of canoer9 What is the tronis 
•r Capricorn) What is the summer solstice? What is the winter lolsUoe? What U 
their dMancejlrom the equator, compared toWi the (Mtguin^ of the edtiptic ? U thl$ 
distance alioaye the eame? What are the colures? What is the equinoctial colure} 
What is Che solstitial colure? On what titoys of the year is the sun In the equlnocttal 
IMlnts ? On what days, is he In the solstltia] points ? What are the polar circles 7 ftr 
what names, are they distinguished? What are meridians? Bow mamt meridUum 
tare thto-e 7 How many, do attronomere appty to the heavene? 



ool 2K to th0 ImTeiiiu tbnt dnri flns the whole eoae«ve Muihee talf» M ue t t hm tt 
eackj 15^ in width. TheM meridiaae mark the spece wnlch the heavenly bodiec 
mffie»t to describe, everjr hour, lor the 21 houra of the day. They aie ihene* 
■amerHw»» dewnaioated Hour Circlet. 

In uieasuring ^ataocea and deteriuining poaitiona on the Earth, the eqaatori 
and some fixed meridian, aa that of Greenwicli, contain the ^triiiaarr atarting 
pointa ; in the heavens, thcae points are in the ecliptic, the equinoctial, and that 
Ipreat meridian which paaaes thiou|{h Uie first point of Arieai called the equinoC' 
tial eolure. 

Laiilvde on the Earthy is distance nortn or south of tht 
eqtuUoTy and is measured on a meridian. 

Latitude in the Heavens^ is distance north or south of the 
ecliptic^ and at right angles with it 

Longitvde on the Earthy is distance either east or west 
from some fixed meridian, measured on the equator. 

Longitude in the Heavens, is distance east from the first 
point of Aries, measured on the ecliptic. 

Declination is the distance of a heavenly body either north 
or south of the equinoctial, measured on a meriaian. 

Right Ascension is the distance of a heavenly body east 
from the first point of Aries, measured on the equinoctial 

It Is more convenient to deacribe the situation of the heavenly bodies by thelx 
declination and right ascension, tlian by their latitude and longitude, amce the 
fmner correspond to terrestrial latitude and longitude. 

Latitude and declination way extend 90^ and no more. Terrestrial longitude 
may extend 18(9^ either east or west ; but celestial longitude an<l riglii ascen- 
sion, being reckoned in only one direction, extend entirely round the circle, oi 

In consequence of the Earth's motion eastward m its orbit, 
the stars seem to have a motion westward, besides theii 
apparent diurnal motion caused by the Earth's revolution on 
its axis ; so that they rise and set sooner every succeeding 
day by about four minutes, than they did on the preceding. 
This is called their daily acceleration. It amounts to just 
two hours a month. 

ExAMFLB. — ^Those Mars and constellations which do not rise until 10 o'clock 
this eveuing. will, at the same hour, one month hence, be 90^ above the 
horiason i and, for the same reation, those stars which we see directly over head 
this evening, will at the same hour, tliree niontlis hence, be seen setting in the 
west ; liaving in thia time, performed one fourth of their apparent annua^revo- 
huion. 

The fttllowing table oftidereal revolutions^ shows the difference between nolai 
and sidereal time. The first column contains the numbers of complete rcvoiu- 
dons of the stars, or of the Earth's rotation on its axis ; the second exhibits the 

Into how many teetUma, do these meridians divide the concave surjkee qfthe heavens t 
Of what width are these sections 1 Why are these meridians sometimes called hour dr- 
eks f In measuring distances on the Earth, what circles contain the prtmary starting 
points 7 Where are these points in measuring distances in the heavens 1 whut is la- 
titnde on the Earth 1 What Is latitude in the heavens? What Is lonffitudeon the Earthf 
What Is loiuritude in the heavens? What is declination? What is rtirht asccnsioni 
Wh^ is it more convenient to describe the situation qfttie heaveniy bodies by their d^ 
Mnation and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitvde f How many do- 
groos may latitude and declinaiion extend ? How many terrestriatUmgitude } H019 
y celestial longitude 7 What Is meant by the daily acceleration of the stars 7 To 
aaoy lulnotas does it amount? Illustrate this suljeet v^lth an eatampla. - 

3* 



dO 



ntSUMIMAKT CHAPTI 



In whkh tlMM revolnttont are made; and the tbk6, diowB hotr mne^ 
the Stan gain on the Sun every day— 'Jiat 1% how much aooner they riaa and 
eeme lo the meridian every succeeding day, than they 'did en the preceding 

OaOj acceleratian of the 



Bevolutlona 


Times in which Revolutions 


er the Stan. 




ate made. 


t 




days. 


ho. 


min. 


•Secii 


1 





88 


88 


4 


t- 


1 


88 


88 


8 


s 


8 


88 


48 


18 


4 


8 


88 


44 


18 


1 


4 


88 


40 


80 


• 


8 


88 


88 


81 


T 


8 


88 


88 


88 


8 


T 


88 


88 


88 


• 


8 


88 


81 


81 


M 


8 


88 


88 


41 


11 


18 


88 


18 


48 


18 


11 


88 


18 


48 


U 


18 


88 


8 


88 


14 


18 


88 


4 


87 


16 


14 


18 


1 


1 


U 


18 


88 


87 


8. 


17 


18 


88 


68 


8 


18 


17 


88 


48 


18 


18 


18 


88 


46 


17 


80 


18 


88 


41 


88 


81 


80 


88 


87 


86 


88 


81 


88 


88 


80 


88 


88 


83 


88 


84 


84 


88 


88 


86 


88 


85 


8f 


88 


81 


48 


8t 


88 


88 


17 


48 


87 


81 


88 


18 


60 


88 


87 


88 


8 


64 


88 


88 


88 


6 


86 


80 


88 


88 


8 


8 


40 


88 


81 


88 


44 


SO ' 


48 


80 


48 


- 86 


too 


88 


17 


81 


68 


800 


188 


10 


68 


40 


800 


898 


4 


80 


80 


800 


868 


8 


84 


86 



884 



8 
8 



4 
1 



min. 

8 

7 

11 

16 

18 

88 
87 
81 



48 

47 

61 



8 

8 

10 

14 

18 



81 

47 



81 



18 
14 

18 

8 
8 



48 

48 
60 
61 

87 
87 
18 



81* 

17 

18 

8 

6 

I 

67 
18 

m 

18 

8 



8 
8 



On this account, we have not always the same constella 
tions visible to us throughout the year. While some, that 
were not visible before, are successively rising to view in the 
east, and ascending to the meridian, others sink beneath the 
western horizon, and are seen no more, until, having passed 
through the lower hemisphere, they again reappear in the east. 

It is easy to convert right ascension into time, or time into right ascension . 
far if a heavenly body is one hour in passing over 16^, it will be one fifteenth o' 
«n hour, or 4 minutes, in passing over 1^. 

If the first poim of Aries be on the meridian at 12 o'clock, the next hour lins^ 
which is 16^ E. of it, will come to the meridian at 1 o'clock ; the second hom 
Ine at 2 o'clock ; thv third at 8, &c. Of any two bodies whose rifht ascensiona 
ure given, that one will pass the meridian ^Era/ which has the least tyfiit ascenskm. 

The first map of the atlas represents, upon a large scale 
ft general view of the solar system. 

This wiQ be more fully described in the Second Part of the work. 



Do we always see the samp constellations f 
mctntUm into tinut and time into riffht ~ ' 



th§ 



ffftmwntmg riaM 



pneLfMnffART CRArrcB* 91 

Tiie next six maps represent difierent sections of the coneare 
fturt'ace of the heavens. The first of th^se exhibits the principal 
constellations visible to us in October, November and Decern* 
ber ; the second, those visible in Januarjr, February and March | 
the third, those visible in April, May and June; and the 
fourth, those visible in July. August and September; with 
the exception, however, of tne constellations which lie be* 
yond the 50th degree of north and south declination, of which, 
indeed, those around the North Pole are ai«ay«, and thoM 
around the South Pole, never, visible to us. 

These constellations are represented on the sixth and seventh 
maps, called circumpolar maps, which are an exact continu- 
ation of the others, and if joined to them at their correspond* 
jng degrees of right ascension and declination, they mi^t b« 
considered as constituting one map. The scale on which all 
the above-mentioned maps are drawn is that of a 16 inch 
globe. The lines drawn on the maps have been already de* 
fined ; and their use, being nearly the same with those in 
Greography, will be readily understood. Those which are 
drawn from right to left, on each side of the equinoctial and 
parallel to it, are called Parallels of Declination, Those 
which are drawn up and down through the maps, at intervals 
of 15°, are called Meridians of Right Ascension, or Hour 
Circles, The scale at the top and bottom of the first four 
maps, and in the circumference of the circumpolar maps, in- 
dicates the daily progress of the stars in right ascension, and 
shows on what day of the month any star will be on the me 
ridian at 9 o'clock in the evening. 

The constellation called the Great Bear is an exeepCion to this mia ; in thfai 
•cnatellation the principal stars are marlced in the order of their r%ht ascension. 

That point of projection for the maps which would exhilNt each soccesaiTa 
portion of the heavens directly overhead at 9 o'clocic in the evening, was chosen, 
because in siunmer at an earlier hour the twilight would bedim our observation 
of the stars, and at other seasons of the year it is easier to loolc up to stars that 
want an hour ol laeir meridian altitude than to those which are directly over 
head. 

U win be reaffily seen that the stars are so represented on the maps as to show 
Iheir relative mamitudes. The method invented by Bayer, of designating them 
by the letters of the Oreett and Roman alphabets, Is adopted. Thus m each con- 
stellation the stars are marked alpha, beta, &c., and should the letters of the 
Chreek alphabet be exhausted, those of the Roman are employed. Some of the 
■tars have also proper names. 

The first four maps of the heavens are so constructed that the 

' — — ^-^— ^— ^— — ^^~^— — ^-^ 

ffmr what months does the first map represent the heavens f For what months does 
tke second map represent the heavens) The thinll The fourth? What constellations 
sue represented on the sixth and seventh maps 1 1n what manner mtut these six maps 
se ananged t; fimn one complete map of the heavens ? On what scale are these maps 
Irawn 7 what is the use of the scale at the top and bottom of the first (bur maps, and 
In the circumference of the elicumpolar maps 1 Why toot that point qf prciMmn fm 
t%0 mapn, iohich vfould reptetent each nteeeaHve portion nf tho heaven* direody <yver 
head at 9 <f&ode in the e/oening, choeenl What ie the method by tohieh the etare art 
imisnated on the maps 7 How must the pupil, In using either of the first ftmr rasps 
Imagine himself to stand and to hold it? 



al PREUMINAST CBATnOU 

pupil in using them must suppose himself to face the south, ami 
'o hold them directly over head in such manner that the top ot 
the map shall be towards the north, and the bottom towards 
the south ; the right hand side of the map will then be west, 
and the left hand east. In using the cuxumpolar maps he 
must suppose himself to face the pole, and to hold them in 
such a manner that the day of the given month shall be up- 
permost. The Celestial Planisphere represents the whole 
neavens lying between 70 degrees of north and south decli- 
nation, not as the surface of a concave sphere, but of a con- 
cave cylinder, and spread out so as to form a plam surface. 
A great variety of interesting problems, includmg almost all 
those that are peculiar to the celestial globe, may be solved 
upon it with facility and readiness. 

We mav now imagine the pupil ready to begm the study 
of the visible Heavens. The first thing of importance is to 
fix ur)on the proper starting point. This, on many accounts, 
would seem to be the North Polar Star. Its position is ap- 
parently the same every hour of the night throughout the 
year, while the other stars are continually moving. Many of 
the stars also in that region of the skies never set, so that 
when the sky is clear, they may be seen at any hour of the 
night. They, revolve about the Pole in small circles, and 
never disappear below the horizon. On this account they are 
said to be within the circle of perpetual apparition. On the 
other hand, the identity of the North Polar Star, strange as 
it may appear, is not so easily determined, by those who. are 
just entering upon this study, as that of some others. For 
this reason, the point directly over heady called the zenith, 
is preferable, since upon this point every one can fix with cer- 
tainty in whatever latitude he may be. It will be alike to all 
tne central point of the visible heavens, and to it the pupil 
will learn imperceptibly to refer the bearing, motion, and dis 
ances of the heavenly bodies. • 

That meridional point in each map, whose declination corresnponds vikh 
Uie latitude of the place of observation, represents the zenith of the heavens 
at that place ; and those constellations of stars vrhich occupy this position 
on the maps, will be seen directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening of the 
day through which the meridian passes.— Thus in Georgia, for instance, the 
vUuting point should be those stars which are situated in uiis meridian near the 
33d deipree of' north declination, while in New England it should be those which 
■re suuated in it near the 42d degree. 



How, In using the cirrumpolar maps? Describe the construction and use of the Ce 
lestial Planisphere. When the pupil Is ready to begin the study of the visible heav 
ens, wliat is the first step to be taken ? What advantages has the North Polar Star, as 
a proper starting point? What disadvantages? What point Is prsfemble to the Polar 
Star? Why Is It preferable ? How may the point eorretponding U this be found upon 
the map9 7 At what time in the evening, wiU the etara tohich are near thie point on 
the ffuipB, be eeen directly over head 7 Is it Indispensably neoessaxy to begin with the 
tuirs near this central o eridian) 



nUBLmUf ABT OOAPTUL SB 

We mighty nowerer, beein with the stars near eithe * ot the 
meridians represented on the maps, the only rule of selection 
being to commence at that which approaches nearest to being 
orer head at the time required. 

We have chosen for our starting point in this work, thai 
meridian which passes through the vemal ecjuinox at the first 
point of Aries, not only because it is the meridian from which 
the distances of all the heavenly bodies are measured ; boi 
especially because the student will thus be enabled to obserre 
and compare the progressive motion of the constellations ao» 
cording to the order in which they are always arrayed in 
catalogues, and also to mark the constellations of the Zodiac 
oassing over head as they rise one after another in their or- 
der, and to trace among them the orbits of the Earth and of 
the other planets. 

As Greek letters so frequently occur In catalognes and mftp> of the slari uul 
•B the celestial globes, the Greek alpliabet is here introduced ior the use of thoM 
irho are unacquainted with it The capitals are seldom used for design uing th« 
■tsn^ but are here given for the sake of regularity. 

THE GREEK ALPHABET. 



5 

e short 
z 

elong 
th 

« 

1 
k 

m 
n 

X 

o short 

P 
» 

3 
t 

ch 

olong 

la 10OB, John Ba^er, of AngsbuTK, in Germany, published a complete Atlas of 
■U the eoBsiellationSi with the useful mTention of denoting the stars in evei^ 

What Is the only rule of selection 7 What is the starting point chosen for this wuik 
What advantages baa this meri lian as a starthuc point! 



A 




Alpha 


B 




Beta 


r 




Gamma 


A 




Delta 


E 




Epsilon 


Z 




Zeta. 


H 




Eta 


e 


I ^ 


Theta 


I 




Iota 


K 
A 




Kappa 
Lambda 


M 




Mu 


N 




Nu 


S 




Xi 


o 




Omicron 


n 




Pi 


p 




Rho 


E- 




Sigma 


T 




Tau 


Y 




Upsilon 


X 


X 


Chi 


* 


w^0 


Psi 


42 


0> 


Omega 



. jabrthelMlenorth 

flnek leturau Iha nrinelpal . 
* - " ha tfilrd, ud i 



■n^[nltuiie, >* lo Iba U 



ihii\>ul BoBHa .UitailMI)) Hiiiib 
II ■■ sish cwKel'M.iKi, ^ia the lea 
(U ; lid i4WD i1k OiwK ilplabet w 



tbt iDHiBiT Ddflit BUI bs pei]>J««i Willi ■ niliitnila oC buhk ihia i 
mediBilof dHjnuliic Iha Man bu b««a •dcMad br dl ■Bcceedhif *■ 
^ bne knSw adu(ad It bj Iba AnUe MKmWv 1, % 1, Ac wb 






IMC-REASB OF SIDEREAL TIME IH MEAA BCHAX HODRG^ Ac 





Incrcua. 


Incr. 




locr. 




Iner. 








MbL KC 


■Id. 




«». 








B.9G7 




31 


S.093 


1 


O.D03 










89 


967 


s 








stiew 




33 




s 






t 


X-iX 






666 








G 


n.sta 




36 






014 








( na 


36 






Oil 


36 




1 sisBG 




37 






OIR 


w 
















38 




s&Toe 




as 


w 








10 


3&»S 


ID E43 












II 








7» 








12 






49 








«i 


IS 




13 s-iaa 


43 








43 






li ^ 




'99S 














339 






46 






IS «e 


*t 






044 


46 




47:Eaa 


ir 793 


4T 






«7 
















049 


48 








49 


GlOGO 




069 


49 


20 






CO 




90 


OGS 


60 


ii 


%!eao 


a «o 


61 






oes 


11 


U.§42 


m «u 


69 






060 


39 


2 






63 






003 


63 


ai 


Ge.£» 






9^ 




066 










66 




069 


66 








68 








66 








67 


864 






(7 








68 


m 




017 


EB 








6« 


«B 




<in 


n 




mm 


n m 


60 




» 







GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS. 



CHAPTER I. 

OISOTIONS FOR TRACOfO THE CONSTEtLATIOm WHIOB JAI Ofl 

THE MERIDIAlf IN NOVEMBBR. * 

ANDROMEDA. 

If we look directly over head at 10 o'clock, on the 10th o 
November, we shall see the consteUation celebrated in fable, 
by the name of Andromeda. It is represented on the map by 
the figure of a woman having her anns extended, and chamed 
by her wrists to a rock. It is bounded N. by Cassiopeia, E.' 
by Perseus and the head of Medusa, and S. oy the Triangles 
and the Northern Fish. It is situated between 20<> and 50^ 
of N. declination. Its mean ri^ht ascension is nearly 15^ ; 
or one hour £. of the equinoctial colnre. 

It consists of 66 visible stars, of which three are of the 2d 
magnitude, and two of the 3d ; most of the rest are small. 

The stars directly in the zenith, are too small to be seen in 
the presence of the moon, but the bright star Almaack, of the 
2d magnitude, in the left foot, may be seen 13<> due E., and 
Merach, of the same magnitude, in the girdle, 7^, south of the 
zenith. This star is then nearly on the meridian, and with 
two oUiers N. W. of it forms the girdle. 

The three stars forming the girdle are of the 2d, 3d. and 
4th magnitude, situated in a row, 3^ and 4^ apart, and are 
called Merach, Mu and Nu. 

About 20 from Nu at the northwestern extremity of the 
girdle, is a remarkable nebula of very minute stars, and the 
only one of the kbd which is ever Visible to the naked eye. It 
resembles two cones of light, joined at tlieir base, about ]o in 
length, and ^o in breaddi. 

If WB look dliectly over head at lo o'clock on tte iMh of Noveniber. what eon8teIl|k> 
Ooaaballweflee? Howls itrepreaentodon tlieaiubl How it itbounded? What are Iti 
riffiit ascension and decUnattonl How many Tlraie Stan has it9 Describe the «inlto 
x Andromeda. Describe the t fymrvpf* «( i wiwkiMa attnila which lies al tif 
oofthwiMteni tattioiitjr. 



16 PICimiB OF TBB HEATB1I8. 

ff a straig t line, connecting Almaack with Meracli, be 
produced southwesterly, 8^ farther, it will reach to Delta^ a 
star of the 3d magnitude in the left breast. This star mav 
be otherwise known by its forming a line, N. and S. with 
two smaller ones on either side of it ; or, by its constituting, 
with two others, a rery small triangle, S. of it. 

Nearly in a line with Almaack, Merach imd Delta, out 
curving a little to the N. 7^ farther, is a lone star of the 2d 
magnitude, in the head, called Alpheratz. Tnis is the N. E. 
comer of the great '' Square of Pegasus," to be hereafter de- 
scribed.* 

It will be well to have the position of AlpheraU well fixed in the mind, becauMI 
tt is but one uiiuute west ofthe great equinoctial colure. or first mericban of thf 
Sieaveos, and fi>nus nearly a right Une with Algenib in the wing of Pegasus. \.4fi 
a. of iL and wiili Beta in Cassiopeia, 30° N. of it If a line, connecting these three 
■tars, be pruduced, it will terminate in the pole. These three guides, in connex 
ion Willi the North Polar Star point out to astronomers the position of thm great 
circle in tlie heavens from wmch the right ascension of all the heavenly bodies 
is measured. 

HiaTOBY —The storv of Andromeda, from which this consteiladon derives j$m 
name, is as follows : She was daughter of Cepheus, king of .Ethiopia, by Cassfa>> 
peia. She vras promised in marriage to Pnineus, her uncle, when riejitune 
drowned the iLingdom, and sent a sea monster to ravage the country, to appease 
tlie resentment which his favourite Nymphs bore against Cassiopeia, because 
she had boasted herself fairer than Juno and the Nereides. The oracle of Jo* 
Diter Ammon was consulted, and nothing could paciiV the anger of Neptune 
unless tlie beautiful i^dromeda should be exposed to the sea monster. She was 
accordingly chained to a rock for this purpose, near Joppa, (now Jaflk, in Syria,) 
and at the moment the monster was going to devour her, Perseus, who was then 
returning through the air from the conquest of the Goi^gons, saw her and was 
eaptivaied by her beauty. 

"Chained to a rock she stood ; young Perseus slay'd 
His rapid flight, to woo the beauteous maid.** 

He promised to deliver her and destroy the monster if Cepheus would give 
her to him in marriage. Cepheus consented, and Perseus instantly changedthe 
sea monster into a rock, by stiowing him Medusa's head, which was still reeking 
in his hand. The enraged Pliineus opposed thehr nuptials and a violent battls 
ensued, in which he, alw), was turned mio a stone by tne petrifying influence m 
the Gorgon's head. 

The morals, maxima, and historical events of the ancients, were usually cooi> 
municated in fable or allegory. The fiible of Andromeda and the sea monster, 
Bight mean tlial she was courted by some monster of a sea-captain, who al> 
tempted to carry her away, but was prevented by anoUier more gallant and sue- 
•essful rival 



PISCES. 

Tbe Fishes.— 'i ms constellation is now the first in order, 
of the Va constellations of the Zodiac, and is usually repre^ 
sented by two fishes tied a considerable distance apart, at the 
extremities of a long undulating cord, or riband. It occupies 



Describe the magnitude and position of Delta. How may this star be otherwise 
known t lescribe the position and magnitude of Alpheratz. What |)osttion doss this 

present 
IS wine zodiac f How is It represc 
J 1% ^ ens. 



«.Nt occm. ' in the great square of Pegasus ? MHity U U impcrtont totutve the potitim 
a* .^ tt/^" VfeU Jlsed in the mind 7 What Is the present onler of the Pishes amooi 
%Q \mtt lations(rf the Zodiac f Howls it represented 9 DesorUw Its outline and mmm 



cisosa. . 37 

ft laig€ triangular spaee in the hearens, and its oadine at first 
IS somewhat difficult to be traced. 

In conwqiience of the anniMd preceasion of the ttlan, Che ctmtteOahan PltCM 
aas now come to occupy the ngn Aries ; each c-oneteHatfam bavtnf •4STHiced 
one whole sign in the order of the Zodiac. The >nn entem the ngn Placei^ 
while the earth enters that of Virso, about the I9th of Februann bat he does nee 
reach the eonatellation Pisces before the 6ch of March. The Fishes^ therefoi% 
un now called the " Leaders of ihe Celestial Hosts."— Slee ilnes. 

That loose assemblage of small stars directly south of 
(Vf erach, in the constellation of Andromeda, constitutes the 
Northern Fish, whose mean length is about 16°, and breadth, 
7^. Its mean ri^ht ascension is 15^, and its declination 25^ 
N. Consequently, it is on the meriiliun the 24th of Novem- 
ber ; and, from its breadth, is more than a week in passing 
over it. The Northern Fish and its riband, beginning at 
Merach, may, by a train of small stars, be traced, in a S. S, 
easterly direction, for a distance of 33^, until we come to the 
star El Rischa, of the 3d magnitude^ which is situated in the 
node, or Jlfiamre of the riband. This is the principal star in 
the constellation, and is situated 3^ N. of the equinoctial, and 
53 minutes east of the meridian. 

Seven decrees 8. E. of El Rischa, passing hj three or Ibor rerj tmall stars 
we come to Mira, in the Whale, a star of jibout the 3d magnitude, and Imown as 
the " Wonderful tStar of 1596." El Rischa may be otherwise identified by means 
of a remarkable cluster of five stars in the form of t^pentagonf about 15^ E. of 
H.^See CetuM. 

From El Rischa the riband or cord makes a sudden flexure, 
doubling back across the eclijjtic, where we meet with three 
stars of the 4th and 5th magnitude situated in a row 3^ and 
4° apart, marked on the map Zeta, Epsilon, Delta. From 
Delta the riband runs north and westerly alon^ the Zodiac, 
and terminates at Beta, a star of the 4th magnitude, ll^ S. 
of Markab in Pegasus. 

This part of the riband including the Western Fish at the 
end of it, has a mean declination of 5° N., and may be seen 
throughout the month of November, passing the meridian 
slowly to the W., near where the sun passes it on the 1st ol 
April. Twelve degrees W. of this Fish, there are 4 small 
stars situated in the form of the letter Y. The two Fishes, 
and the cord between them, make two sides of a large 
triangle, 30° and 40° in length, the open part of which is 
towards the N. W. When the Northern Fish is on the 

What aie the size and position of the Northern Pish 1 When, and how long Is it on the 
.-nerldlanl How may it be traced 7 What Is the principal slaur in this constellatlpn, and 
where Is It situated 1 How far, and In what direction from Alpha, Is Mira, In the Whale I 
By what peculiar appellation Is this star known ? What Is the direction of the riband frtm 
Aisfaa? what stars do we meet with, where the riband doubles back across Uie eclip- 
ilcf What is the direction of this part of the riband flrom Delta, ahd where does It tei^ 
minate 1 What ate its mean declination, and the time of Its jp.-wslng the meridian ? W bat 
8trikin£ cluster is seen about la^ W. of the Western Pish? What geometrical flffuie 
war bcconcelved to be formed by the two Pishes and the cord between th«»»n^ Wh^xa 
IsOie Wertem Pish when the Northern is on the meridian ' 

4 



98 PICTURE OF THE HEAVUNS. j^lCO 

» 

meridian, the Western is nearly 2 hours past it. This co< 
stellation is bounded N. by Andromeda, W. by Andromeu 
and Pegasus, S. by the Cascade, and E. by the Whale, tt-t 
Ram and the Triangles. 

When, to enable the pupil to find anj star, Its direction fipom another ib giveis 
the litfter is ahraya onderstood to be on the meridian. 

After a little ezpeaience with the maps, even though onaccmnpanied tj A 
rectiona, the mgenioua youth will be able, of himself to deriae a great manf e>4 
pedienta and facUitiea for tracing the constellationa, or selecting out particult 



HisTORT.— The ancient Greeks, who have some fable to account for the of* 

£1 of almost everj constellation, say. that as Venus and her son Cupid were on« 
J on the banks of the Euphrates, tnev were greatly alarmed at the ^pearanc« 
of a terrible giant, named Typhon. liurowing fiiemselves Into the river, thej* 
were changed into fishes, and dv this means escaped danger. To commemorati 
this event, Minerva placed two nshes among the mars. 

According to Ovio, Homer, and Virgil, this Typhon was a famous giant Ha 
had a hundred heads, like those of a serpent or dragon. Flames of devourint 
fire darted firam his mouth and eyes. He was no sooner bom, than he mad« 
war against heaven, and so frightened the gods, that they fled and assumed dif 
ferent ahiq)es. Jupiter became a ram ; Mercuiy, an ibis ; Xpollo, a crow ; Juno^ 
a cow ; Bacchua, a goal ; IMana. a cat ; Venus, a fish, 4kc. The father of tha 
gods, at least, put T^hon to fiignt and crushed him under Mount JStna. 

The obvious sentiment Impued in the lable of this Mdeous mbnster, is evi- 
dently this : that there is in the world a description oC men^whose mouth is ac 
** fiill of cursing and bitterness," derision and violence, that modest virtue la 
sometimes forced to disguise itself or flee from their presence. 

In the Hebrew Zodiac, Pisces is allotted to the escutcheon of Simeon. 

No sign appeara to have been considered of more malignant influence than 
PUcea. The astrological calendar describes the emblems of this consteUation 
aa indicative of violence and death. Both the Syrians and Egyptians abstained 
from eating fish, out of dread and abhorrence : and when the latter would re- 
present any thing as odious, or express hatred oy hieroglyphics, they painted a 
fiah. 

In using a circumpolar map, fiu^e the pole, and hold it up in your hands in 
such a manner that the pert which contauis the name of the given month shaU 
be uppermost and you will have a portraiture of the heavens as seen at that 
time. 

The conatellatlons about the Antarctic Pole are not visible In the United 
States ; those about the Aretie or northern pole, are alwaya visible. 



CASSIOPEIA. 

Cassiopeia is represented on the celestial map, in reffal 
state seated on a tlurone or chair, holding in her left hand me 
branch of a palm tree. Her head and body are seen in the 
Milkv Way. Her foot rests upon the Arctic Circle, upon 
whico her chair is placed. She is surrounded by the chiei 
persona^res of her royal family. The king, her husband, is 
on her right hand — Perseus^ her son-in-^aw^ on her left — ^and 
Andromeda, her daughter, just above her. 

This constellation is situated 26° N. of Andromeda, and 
midway between it and the North Polar Star. It may be 

▼hsCap^.ane *Mrio^ « ofthis^oonstellatlonl Bow Is the oonstellaUon Cassiopeia 
JSSSrtS? Ji2?J^ «^ J^*w«J *■ »be sunroondady How la this consteUaUoii 
mmt^ v.^iMAls ^ ■Maedaand the polar start 



MAP VL] CASSIOPEIA. 39 

seen, from our latitude, at all hours of the night, and may be 
traced out at almost any season of the year. Its mean de- 
clination is 60^ N. and its right ascension 12^. It is on our 
meridian the 22d of November, but does not sensibly change 
its position for several days ; ror it should be remembered 
that the apparent motion of the stars becomes slower and 
slower, as tney approximate the poles. 

Cassiopeia is a beautiful constellation, containing 55 start 
that are visible to the naked eye ; of which four are of the 
3d magnitude, and so situated as to form, with one or two 
smaller ones, the figure of an inverted chair. ■ 



-** Wide her atan 



Diapetied, nor shine with mntoal aid impnnred ; 
Nor dazzle, brilh'ant with contiguoos flune : 
Their number fiAy-fiTe." 

CapJi, in the garland of the chair, is almost exactly in the 
equinoctial colure; 30^ N. of Alpheratz, with which, and the 
Polar Stai*, it forn^ a straight line. [^See note to Androme- 
da.'] Caph is therefore on the meridian the 10th of Novem- 
ber, and one hour past it on the 24th. It is the westernmost 
star of the bright cluster. Shedir*, in the breast is the up- 
permost star of the five bright ones, and is 5° S. E. of Caph : 
the other three bright ones, forming the chair, are easily dis- 
tinguished, as they meet the eye at the first glance. 

There ier an importance attached to the position of Caph 
that concerns the mariner and the surveyor. It is used, in 
connection with observations on the Polar Star, for determin- 
ing the latitude of places, and for discovering the magnetic 
variation of the needle. 

It is fenerally tupposed that the North Polar Star, so called, h the real immor* 
able pole of the heavens ; but this ia a miatake. It ia «o near the true pole that 
it has obtained the appellation of the North Polar Star;, bat it ia, in reality, more 
than a degree and a half distant from it, and reyolves about the true pole every 
21 hours, m a circle whose rtdius is V 2&. It will consequently, in 31 hours, be 
twice on the meridian, once above^ and once below the pole ; and twice at its 
pvatest elongation E. and W. [See North Polar Star.) 

The Polar Star not being exactly in the N. pole of the 
heavens, but one degree and 35 mintttea on that side of it 
which is towards Caph, the position of the latter becomes 
important, as it always shows on which aide of the true pole 
the polar star is. 

There is another important fact in relation to the position 



• Shedir, from El Seder, the Seder tree ; a name given to this eoutellation bjr Ulofh 
Beiffa. 

"When may it be seen finm this latitude ? When is it on our meridian ) How ia the 
motion of the utan aliened aa they approach the pole* ? How many principal atars in 
this oonatellation, and whnt ia their appearance 7 Deacribe the aituation of Caph. 
When ia Caph on the meridian 7 What is the relative poaition of Shedir l Why la the 
position of Caph impdrtant ^ 



10 PICTORE OF THfi BEAVB1I8. NOV 

of this Star. Tt is equidistant from the pole, and exactly op- 

Sysile another remarkable star in the square of the Great 
ear, on the other side of the pole. [^See MegrezJ] It also 
serves to mark a spot in the starry heavens, rendered memo- 
rable as being the place of a lost star. Two hundred and fifty 
years ago, a bright star shone 5^ N. N. E. of Caph where 
now is a dark void ! 

On the 8th of November, 1572, Tycho Brahe and Corne- 
lius Gemma saw a star in the constellation of Cassiopeia, 
which became, all at once, so brilliant, that it surpassed the 
splendour of the brk^htest planet^ and might be seen even at 
noonday ! Graduafiy, this great orilliancy diminished, until 
the 15th of March, 1573, when, without moving>from its place, 
it became utterly extinct. 

Its colour, during this time, exhibited all the phenomena 
of a prodigious flame — first it was of a dazzling white, then 
of a reddish yellow, and lastly of an ashy paleness, in which 
its light expired. It is impossible, says Mrs. Somerville, to 
imagine any thing more tremendous than a conflagration that 
could be visible at such a distance. It was seen for sixteen 
months. 

Some astronomers imagined that it would reappear a«;ain 
after 150 yeirs^ but it has never been discovered since. 
This phenomenon alarmed all the astronomers of the age, 
who beheld it ; and many of them wrote dissertations con 
cerning it. 

Rev. Professor Vince, one of the most learned and pious 
astronomers of the age, has this remark : — " The disappear- 
ance of some stars may be the destruction of that system at 
the time appointed by the Deity for the probation of its in- 
habitants ; and the appearance of new stars may be the for 
piation of new systems for new races of beings then called 
into existence to adore the works of their Creator." 

Thus, we may conceive the Deity to have been employed from all eternity, 
•ad thus he may continue to be employed for endless ages ; forming new sys- 
tems of beings to adore him ; and transpiantiug beings already formed into hap- 
pier regions, w)h> will continue to rise higher and higher in their enjo^meuta^ 
and go on to contemplate systetn after system through the boimdless universe. 

La Placb says : — ** As to those stars wliich suddenly shine forth with a very 
vivid light, and then immediately disappear, it is extremely probable that great 
conllagrations, produced by extraordinary causes, take place on their surface. 
I'his conjecture, continues he, is confirmed by their change of colour, which is 
analogous to that presented to us on the earth by those bodies wliich are set on 
fire and then gradually extinguished." 

The late euunent Dr. Good also ubservrs that— Worlds and systems of worMi 

What memorable spot does Caph serve to mark out? Describe the phenomenon ol 
Ute lost star. What does Mrs. Somerville say of it 7 How long was it seen? Has any 
thing been discovered of it since? How di«l this phenomenon affect the astrononKm 
•f the age ? What does Vince say of tViv disappearance of some Rtars, and the ne> sp 
pcarance of others? Repeat the obftervatUms of Dr. Good upon the suii/ea qfnMo «»• 
appearing and diaappearirur. 



II AF VI. I CBPHEU8. 41 

We not 011I7 perpetoallj ereaUn^t tn^ •!><> p«n»etiuU7 dinppeaiinf . It U ■■ 
fxtxaonliiuury fact, that within the period of the lasc century, not less than thic 
«en stars, in different constellations, seem to have totally perished, and ten new 
fnea to have been created. In many instances it is unquestionable, that the stan 
themselves, the supposed habitation of other kinds or onlers of intelligent be* 
ingh, together with the different planets by which it is probable they were sor 
rounded have utterly vanished, and the spots which they occupied in t* e hear 
vens, have become blanks ! What lias befallen other systems, will assuredly 
be&ll our own. Of the time and the manner we know nothing, but the foct is 
incontrovertible; it la foretold by revelation; it is inscribed. in the heavens; U 
is felt through the earth. Such is the awful and daily text ; wfa^ then ought to 
be the comment 1 

The great and good Beza, falUng in with the superstition of his ace, attemptei 
to prove that tliis was a comet or the same luminous appearance which condocU 
ed the nugi, or wise men of the East, into Palestine, at the birth of our Saviour 
Ufid that it now appeared to announce his second coming ! 

About 6° N. W. of Caph, the telescope reveals to us a 
grand nebula of small stars, apparently compressed into one 
mass, or single blaze of light, with a great number of loose 
stars surrounding it. 

HisTORT. — Cassiopeia was wife of Cepheus, king of ^Ethiopia, and mother of An* 
ilromeda. She was a aueen of matchless beauty, and seemed to be sensible of it ; 
for she even boasted herBelf fairer than Juno, the sister of Jupiter, or the Nerel« 
de&--a name given to the sea nymphs. This so provoked the ladies of the sea that 
they complained to Neptune of the Insult, who sent a frightful monster to ravage 
her coast, as a punishment for her Insolence. But the anger of Neptune and the 
jealousy of the nymphs were not thus appeased. They demanded, and it was 
finally ordained that Cassiopeia should chain her dauffnter Andromeda, whom 
she tenderly loved, to a desert rock on the beach, and leave her exposed to the 
fyrj of this monster. She was thus left, and the monster approached ; but jost 
as he was going to devour her, Perseus killed him. 

''The savour youth the royal pur confess. 
And with heav'd hands, their daughter's bridegroom bless." 

Eusden*§ (Md. 



CEPHEUS 

Cepheus is represented on the map as a king, in his royal 
robe, with a sceptre in his left hand, and a crown of stars upon 
his head. He stands in a t^ommanding posture, with his left 
foot over the pole, and his sceptre extended towards Cassio- 
peia, as if for favour and defence of the queen. 

" Cepheus illumes 

The neighbouring heavens ; still faithful to his queen, 
With thfrty-five mint luminaries markU" 

This constellation is about 25° N. W. of Cassiopeia, near 
the 2d coil of Draco, and is on the meridian at 8 o'clock the 
3d of November ; but it will linger near it for many days. 
Like Cassiopeia, it may be seen at all hours of the nignt, 
when the sky is clear, for to us it never sets. 

By reference to the lines on the map, which all meet in the pole. It will be evi- 
dent that a star, near the pole, moves over a much lest space in one hour, thaa 

There is a ienuuicidl>le nebula In this constellation ; describe Its ^HQ»tion and ap* 
peanmce. How is Cepheus represented? What is his postursf WIk*^ * tttf mo 
stellatlon situated) 

4* 



AS rtCTURE OP THIi HEATEM8. l^MMT. 



one at the eqnmoetial; and fetMraUy, tbe naarer the pole, the nat nmu r the 
iuace) and the tlototT the motion. 

The stars that are so near the pule mav be better described by their jMlar 
dutancCf than by their declination. By polar distance, is meant fhn di§t t mt§ 
teom the pole ; and is what the declination wants of 9(P. 

In this constellation there are 35 stars visible to the naked 
eye ; of these, there c^litters on the left shoulder, a star of the 
3d magnitude, called Alderamin, which with two others of 
the same brightness, 8^ and 12^ apart, form a slightly-curved 
line towards the N. £. The last, whose letter name is Gam- 
ma, is in the ri^^ht knee^ 19^ N. of Caph, in Cassiopeia. The 
middle one in me line, is Alphirk. in the |^irdle. This star is 
one third of the distance from Alderamm to the pole, and 
nearly in the same right line. 

It cannot be too well understood that the bearings, or direction of one star fran 
another, as given in this treatise, are strictly applicable enly when the former 
one is on, or near the meridian. The bearinss given, in many cases, are not the 
least approximations to what appears to be their relative position ; and in some, 
If relied upon, will lead to erroars. For example :'--It is said, in the precedinf 
paragraph, that Gamma, in Cepheus, bears 19^ N. of Caph in Cassiopeia. This 
«s true, when Caph is on the meridian, but at this very moment, while the author 
IS writing this line, Gamma appears to be 19*^ due west of Caph ; and six months 
hence, will appear to be the same distance east of it The reason is obvious ; 
the circle which Cepheus appears to describe about the pole, is within that o1 
Cassiopeia, and consequently when on the east side of the pole, will be within^ 
or between Cassiopeia and the pole — that is, west of Cassiopeia. And for the 
same reason, when Cepheus is on the west side of the pole, it is between that 
and Cassiopeia, or ecut of it. 

\jei it also be remembered, that m spealcfng of the po/e, which we shall have 
frequent occasion to do, in the course of this woric, the North Polar Star^ or an 
imaginary poin^ very near it, is always meant ; and not as some will vaguely ap- 
prehend, a point in the horizon^ directly N. of us. The true pole of the heavens 
IS always elevated just as many degrees above our horizon, as we are north of 
the Equator. If we live in 42^ N. latitude, Uie N. pole will be 42^ above our 
horizon. iSee North Polar Star.') 

There are also two smaller stars about 9<^ E. of Alderamm 
and Alphirk, with which they form a square; Alderamin 
being the upper, and Alphirk the lower one on the W. 8^^ 
apart. In the centre of thb square there is a bright dot, or 
Bemi-yisible star. 

The head of Cepheus is m the Milky-Way, and may he 
known by three stars of the 4th magnitude m the crown, 
which form a small acute triangle, about 9^^ to the right of 
Alderamin. The mean polar distance of the constellation is 
25<>. while that of Alderamin is 2S^ 10'. The right ascension 
of the former is 338^ ; consequently, it is 23<) E. of the equi- 
noctial colure. 

The student will undentand that right aacemion is reckoned on the eqn!noc> 
tial, from the first point of Aries, E., quite round to the tame point again, which 

How many, and what are the principal stars in It? Describe the last star m th« 
earve. Describe the middle one. What fbur stars tbnn a square In this constellation f 
Where Is the head of Cepheus, and how may It be known ^ What Is the mean polar 
ttstance of this constellation) How fkr, and which way Is It ftrnn the equinocila. 
Miurei 



n.{ Amm 43 



m9BtP, Now 9BBP, nnwi-td from the wtmm poit, will wcfc Ifaa „_- 

«fun, withiD 22^ ; which is Um diffBrence between 30IK> and 838o. This r«k 
will applj to any other case 

BmoflT.— This constellation immortalizes the name of the Una of ^Ethiopia. 
The name ofhis queen was Cassiopeia. They were the parents of Anoromeda, wha 
waa betrothed to Feraens. Cepbenswaa one of the Aifonaiita who accompanied 
Jason on his perilous expedition in quest of the golden fleece. Newton supposes 
Aat it was owing to this circumstance that he was placed in the heavena : aiid 
that not only this, but all the ancient constellationa, relate to the AzfODautic c» 
pedition, <Hr to persons some way connected with it. Thus, he observes thataa 
Hussus, one of the Ar^nauts, waa the first Greek who muaae a celestial spherei 
he would naturally dehneate on it those figures wtuch had some reference to 
the expedition. Accordingly, we have on our globea to thia day, the Oolden Rem^ 
the ensign of the abip in which Phryxus fled to Colchis, the scene of the Arf»> 
nautic achievements. We have also the BtM with brazen hooft, tamed by J^ 
■on; the Twiruj Castor and Pollux, two sailors, with their mother Xedo, in the 
form o<'a Stparij and ArgOj the ship itself; the watchful Dromon Hydra, with tha 
Cup of Medea, and a raven upoA its carcass, as an emblem of death ; also OW> 
rotKthe Master of Jason, with his AUar^ and Sacrifice; Hereule»f the Argonaut, 
with his club^ his dartf and vutturCy with the dragon^ crab and Hon which he slew ; 
and OrpheuMy one of the company, with hia karp. All these, saya Newton, refer 
to the Argonauts. 

Again; we have Onon, the son of Neptune, or, as some say. the grandson of 
Minos, with his dogSf and kare^ and rtver, ana teorpitm. We nave the story of 
Perseus in the constellation of that name, as well aa in Cassiopeia, Cepheus, An- 
dromeda and Cetus; thatof Calisto and her son Arcaa, in Uraa Major; that of 
Icareus and his daoahter Erigone, in Bootes and Virgo, Ur»a JiSnor relates to 
one of the nurses of Jupiter ; Auriga, to Erichthonius; Ophiuehttt, to Phorbas : 
Sagittarius, tc Crolus, the son of one of the Muses ; Cbprieom, to Pan. and 
Aquarius to Ganymede. We have also Anadne's erown, Bellerophon's horst, 
Neptune's €U>lpkin, Ganymede's caglSy Jupiter's goat with her kidSy the eases or 
Bacchus, the fishes of Venus and Cupid, with thefar parent, the southern fish. 
These, accorcOng to Deltoton, comprise the Grecian constellations mentioned by 
the poet Aratus ; and all relate, as Newton supooses^ remotely or immediately, 
to the Argonauts. 

It may be remarked, however, that while none of these figures refer to any 
transactions of a later date than the Argonautic expedition, yet the great disa^ 

Eeement which appears in the mythological account of them, proves that their 
▼ention must have been of greater antiquity than that event, and thst thesa 
emtstellations were received for some time among the Greeks, before their poeta 
rafiBrred to them in deacribtog the particulars of that memorable eihibldoii. 



CHAPTER II. 

mSECTlOMS FOB TBACINQ THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON 

THB MEBIOIAN IN DECEMBER. 

ARIES. 
The RAM.--Twentjr-two centuries ago, as Hipparchus id 
foims us, this constellation occupied the first sign in the 
ecliptic, commencing at the yemai equinox. But as the cob- 
BtelmtJons gain about 5C on the equinox, at every reTolution 
of the heavens, they have advanced in the ecliptic nearly 31^ 
beyond it, or more than a whole sign : so that the Fishes now 

What was the position of Arias In the ecliptic » centuries agol 



44 PICTCDB Mr THE HEAVENS. \ 

occupy the same placet 19 the Zodiac, thfeit Aries did, in the 
tiine of Hipparchus ; why e the constellation Aries is now in 
the sign Taurus, Taurus in Gemini, and Gemini in Cancer, 
and so on. 

Aries is therefore nof7 the second constellation in t'le 
Zodiac. It is situated next east of Pisces, and is midway 
between the Triangles and the Fly on the N. and the head 
of Cetus on the S. It contains 66 stars, of which, one is of 
the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th magnitudes. 

''First, from the east, the Ram conducts the year ; 
Whom Ptolemy with twice nine stars adorns, 
Of which two onW claim the second rank ; 
The rest, when Cynthia fills the sign, are lost" 

It is readily distinguished by means of two bright stars in 
the head, about 4^ apart, the brio^htest heins the most north- 
easterly of the two. The first, which is of tj^e 2d magnitude, 
situated in the right horn, is called Alpha Arietis, or simply 
Arietis ; the other, which is of the 3d magnitude, lying near 
the left horn, is called Sheratan, and may be known by an- 
other star of the 4th magnitude, in the ear, 1^^ S. of it, called 
Mesarthim, which is the Jirst star in this constellation. 

Arietis and Sheratan^ are one instance out of many, wherck 
stars of more than ordmary brightness are seen together in 
jpairs, as in the Twins, the Little Dog, dec., the brightest star 
being commonly on the east. 

The position of Arietis affords important facilities to nau- 
tical science. Difficult to comprehend as it may be, to the 
unlearned, the skilful navigator who should be lost upon an 
unknown sea, or in the midst of the Pacific ocean, could, by 
measuring the distance between Arietis and the Moon, whicn 
often passes near it, determine at once not only the spot he 
was in, but his true course and distance to any Known merir 
dian or harbour on the earth. 

Lying along the moon's path, there are nine conspicuous 
stars that are used by nautical men for determinmg their Ion 
gituds at sea, thence called nautical stars. 

These stars are Arietis^ AldebaraOy Pollux^ ReguluSy 
Spica Virginis, Antares, Altair, Fomalhaut, and Markab, 

The true places of these stars, for every day in the year, are given in the Nao* 
tical Almanac, a valuable work published annually by the English "*Board of Ad- 
miralty," to guide mariners in navigating the seas. They are usually pubhshed 
two or three years in advance, for the benefit of long voyages. 

That a man, says Sir John Herschel, by merely measuring the moon's appa- 
rent distance from a star, with a little portable instrument held in his hand, and 

What Is its presentpositionf How is it now situated with respect to the surnmad- 
Ing constellatfonst What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How Is this 
coastellation readily disanguishod? Describe the two bright stars in the head. FIM 
what purposes is the position of some of the stars in Arietis Important? How many 
stars are used for determining longitude at sea, and where are they situated I fiywhst 
KVOfttna name are th«]r called f Enumerate them 



MAP U.] ABIES. 



I«* 



■lipBod tohis ejft, even iwllh m lUMtibto aiiollBf MflMilMik of • flhla tljAjMiy 
poflittYelx within five milei^ where he to, on a boancfleas oceeo, cannot D*at appear 
to peraons ignorant of physical astrononiT, an approach to the miraculou*. And 

Jet, aajs he, the alternatives of life and death, weakh and mln, are daily and 
muty staked, with perfect confidence, on these marreUom ooniputationa. 
C^t. Basil HalL of the royal navy, relates that he had aailed from Ban Bias on 
Che west coast of Mexico^ and after a voyage of 8000 miles oecnpying eightv-nine 
days, arrived off Rio Janeiro, having In tlus interval passed throngn the PacMe 
ocean, rounded Cape Horn; and crossed the Boath Atlantic without malting any 
land or seeing a smgle sail on the voyage. Arrived within a few days' sail of 
Rio, he took a set of lonar observations, to ascertain his true poshlon, and tbe 
bearing of the harbour, and shaped his course accordingly. "I hove to," save 
he, ** at 4 in the morning, till the 6aj should break, and then bore up ; for 
although it was liacy, we eoold see before us a couple of miles or so. About 8 
o'clock it became so Ibggy that 1 did* not like to stand In farther, and was last 
bringing the ship to the wind again before sending the people to breakfast, when 
it suddenly cleared ofl^ and I had the satis&ction of seeing the great Sugar-loaf 
rock, which stands on cme side of the harbour's mouth, so nearly right ahead 
tltat we had not to aber our course above a poiitf in order to hit the entrsnce of 
Rio. This was tbe first Isnd we had seen for three months, after crossing so 
many seas, and being set backwards and forwards by Innumerable currents and 
foul winds.' 

Arietis comes to the meridian about 12 minutes after She- 
ratan, on the 5th December, near where the sun does in mid- 
summer. Arietis, also, is nearly^on the same meridian with 
Almaach, in the foot oi Andromeda, 19<^ N. of it, and culmi- 
nates only four minutes after it. The otner stars in this con- 
stellation are quite small, constituting that loose cluster which 
we see between the Fly on the north, and the head of Cetus 
on the south. 

When Arietis is on the meridian, Andromeda and Cassio- 
peia are a little past the meridian^ nearly over head, and Per- 
seus with the head of Medusa, is as far to the east of it. 
Taurus and Auri^ are two or three hours lower down; 
Orion appears in the S. E.. and the Whale on the meridian, 
just below Aries, while Pegasus and the Swan are seen halt 
way over in the west. 



The manner in which the ancients divided the Zodiac into 12 equal parts, ' 
both simple and ingenious. Having no instrument that would measure time 
exactly, "They took a vessel, with a small hole in the bottom, and having filled 
ft with water, suffered the same to distil, drop by drop, into another vessel set 
beneath to receive it, beginning at the moment when some star rose, and con- 
dnuing till it rose the next following night, when it would have performed one 
complete revolution in the heavens. The water falling down into the receiver 
fkey divided into 12 equal parts ; and having twelve other small vessels in readi- 
ness, each of them capable of containing one part, they again poured all the wa- 
ter into the upper vessel, and observing the rising of^ some star in the Zodiac, 
at the same time suffered the water to (&op into one of the small vessels. Ana 
as soon as it was fiilL they removed it, and set an empty one in its place. Just 
•a each vessel was full, they took notice what star of the Zodiac rose at that 
time, and thus continued the process through the year, until the 12 vessels weni 
tBeti " 

Thus the Zodiac was divided into 12 equal portion^ corresponcfing to tbe 19 



When does Ailetls pass the merldfani What other brilliant star Is on the meridiaa 
BKriy at the same ttane? When Aries is on the meridian, what other constellations 
are nnraedlatelj In viewi DeterUte the manner in which the aneUntt dMded (Ikt 
fSodiac Mwhatp^M(tfth§ZodtaedidthUdMHonco mme nc$J 



#6 PICTURE or TBB BEAY£N8. |MU 

BonUM of Um JMTt eomneneiog at lhe.T*ni«t wioiBox. Each of Him* pnwtwi 
served as the Tisible representaiive or sign of the month it appeared in. 

All those stars in the 2odiac which were observed to rise while the first vesseJ 
was filling, were constellated snd hicluded in the first sign, and called Arimf an 
anioud helid in great esteem by the shepherds of CThatdea. All those slam in th« 
Zodiac which rose while the second vessel was filling, were constellated and 
included in the second sign^ which for a similar reason, was denomin^^d TVn*- 
nw ; and all those stars which were observed to rise while the third vessel was 
filling, were constellsted in the tkird sign, and called Gemini, in allusion to the 
iufin Moaon of the fiocks. 

Thus each sign of 30^ in the Zodiac,' recebed a distinethre ^mellation, acconl- 
ing to the fancy or superstition of the inventors; which names nave ever 8in<:« 
been retained, althoiwh the constellations themselves have since left their nom. 
inal signs more than 30^ behind. The sign Aries, therefore, included all the itara 
embraced in the first 90^ of the Zodiac, «nd no more. The sign Taurus, in ltk« 
manner, included all those stars embraced in the next30<^ of the Zodiac, or those 
between dOP and 60°, and so of the rest Of those who imagine that the twelve 
constellations of the Zodiac refer to the twelve tribes of favael, some asctibe 
Arids to the tribe of Simeon, and others^ to Gad. 

HisTORT.— According to fable, this is the ram which bore the golden fleece^ 
and carried Phryxus and his sister llelle through the air, when they fled to Cot 
chis from the persecution of their stepmother mo. The rapid motion of the ram 
in Ills aerial flight high above the eaith, caused the head of Helle to turn with 
giddiness, and she fell from his baclc into that part of the sea which was after- 
wards called Helletpont^ in commemoration of the dreadful event Phirxus 
arrived safe at Colciiis, but was soon murdered by his own father-in-law. JBtes, 
who envied him his golden treasure. This gave rise to the celebratea Arvo< 
nautic expedition under the command of Jason, for the recovery of the golden 
fleece. 

Nephele, queen of Thebes, having provided her children, Phryxus and Helle, 
with this noble animal upon which they might elude the wicked designs of 
those who sought tlieir life, was afterwards changed into a cloud, as a reward 
for her parent^ solicitude ; and the Greeks ever after called the clouds by her 
name. But the most probable account of the origin of this constellation is given 
bi a preceding paragraph, where It is referred to the flocks of the ChiddesB 
shepherds. 

During the campaigns of the French army in Egypt, General I>e882ux discor 
ered among the ruins at Dendera, near the oanks of the Nile, the great temple 
supposed by some to have been dedicated to Isia, the female deity of the EgTP 
tians, who believed that the rising of the Nile was occasioned by the tears whl^zh 
she continually shed for the loss of her brother Osiris, who was murdered by 
Typbon. 

Others suppose this edifice was erected for astronomical purposes, from the 
, circumstance that tteo Zodiac* were discovered, drawn upon the ceiling, on op* 
posite sides. On both these Zodiacs the emiinoctial points are in Leo, and not 
m Aries ; firom which it has been concluded, bv those who pertinaciously en> 
deavour to array the aivuments of science against the chronology of the Bible 
and the validity of the Bfosaic account, that these Zodiacs were constructed when 
the sun entered the sign Leo, which must have been 9720 years ago, or 4000 yean 
before the inspired account of the creation. The infidel writers in Fnmce and 
Germany, m&ke it 10,000 years before. But we may "set to our seal," that what- 
ever is true in lact and correct In inference on this subject will be founc!^ in the 
end not only consistent vrith the Mosaic record, but vmh the common meaning 
of the expressions it uses. 

The discovery of Champollion has put this questicm for ever at rest ; and M. 
Latronne, a most learned antiquary, has very satisfactorily demonstrated that 
these Egyptian Zodiacs are merely tne horoscopes of distinguished personages, 
or the precise situation of the heavenly bodies in the Zodiac at their nativi^. 
The idea that such was their purpose and origin, first suggested itself to thia 
Kentleman on findhig, in the box of a mummy, a similar Zodiac, with such 

WhtU dUeathiiffheBe portion* t)f the Zodiac MTvel What otan were pUteeHn Oim 
firateignl WhatnamewaogtventotheconMeimionthuoJbnnod? Wkatetanwere 
placed in the eeeomdeignl whattPaetheeecondcoMteUaHoneaOedf What etart *o€n 
alaeedinthethirdrtgihandtohatwatUcaUed? Are the 9amentt$nee9tiU retained* 
whatdoeethUpreeeeeiothorgoingJirwardqfthoetareamomutoinayear? 




MAi> U.J crrns. 47 

peraon. 

Of all the discoveries of tlie antiquarr among the roUca of ancient Greece, (ha 
mills of Palmyra, the gigantic pyramids of E^^ the temples ef their fods, or 
Che sepalchres or their icings, scarcely one so aroused ami riveted the curioelly 
of the learned, as did the discovery of Cliampollion ttie younger, which deeipM0n 
the hieroglyphiea of ancient EgrpL 

The poteucv of this iovaloabfe discovery has alreadv beea tipudhr manllbsCed 
ia settling a formidable controversy between the cuaauiions of Infidelity and 
those who maintain the Bible accoiuit of the creation, n has been shown t*nit 
the constellation J'tsees, since the days of Hipparchua, has come, by reason of 
the annual precession, to occupy the same apparent phiee In the heavens that 
Aries did twc thousand years ago. Hie Cliristtan astronomer and the taifldel are 
perfectly agreed as to the faety and the amount of tliis yearly gain In the mm- 
rent motion of the atars. They botli iieUeve, and both can defltonatrate, that tlM 
Axed stars Itave gone forward in the Zodiac, about 60" of a degree in every revo> 
lotion of ihe heavens since the creation ; so that were the wond to light upon any 
authentic inscription or record of past agea, which should give the true podtion 
or longitude of any particular star at that time, it would be easy to fix an unquote 
tionable date to such a record. Accordingly, when the famous "Egyptian Zo> 
diaca," which were sculptured on the wadls of the temple at Pendera, were 
brought away en imiMc, and exhibited in tlie Louvre at Paris, they enkindled a 
more exciting interest in Mm thousands who saw them, than ever did the en- 
trance of Napoleon. " Educated men of every order, and those who had dia 
vanity to thinlc themselves such," aays the commentator of Chanmollion, "rush* 
ed to behold the Zodiaca. These Zodia^^li were immediately published and com* 
mented upon, with more or less good fiuth and decorum. Science struck out 
>lmo syateins vetj l>old; and tiie spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discovery, 
flsttered itself Mnth the hope of drawing from thence new support It was unjua* 
tifiably taken for granted, that the ruins of E(;ypt furnished astronomy with mon- 
uments, containing observations that exhibited the state of the heavens in the 
most remote periods. Starting with this assumption, a pretence was made of 
demonstrating, by means of calculations received as Infajlible, that the celestla] 
appearances assigned to these monuments extended back from forty-five to six- 
ty-five centuries; tiiat the Zodiacal system to which they must belong, dated 
back filteen thousand years, and must reach far IteyomI the limits assigned by 
Moses to the existence of the world." Atiiong tlMse who stood forth more ot 
less bold as the adversaries of revelation, the most prominent was M. Dupol^ 
the famous author of U origine de tons Its CuUea. 

The infidelity of Dupuis was spread about by means of pamphlets, and the ad- 
vocates of the Mosaic account were scandalized " until a new Alexander arose 
to cut the Gordlan knot, which men had vainly sought to untie. This was Cham- 
pollion the younger, armed with his discovery," The hieroglyphics now speak 
a language that ul can understand, and no one gainsay. "The Egyptian Zodiacs, 
then," says Latronne, " relate in no respect to astronomy, but to the idle phan- 
tasies of judicial astrology, as connected with the destinies of the emperors who 
made or completed them." 



CETUS. 

The Whale. — As the whale is the chief monster of the 
deep, and the largest of the aquatic race, so is it the largest 
constellation in the heavens. It occupies a space of 50<> in 
length, E. and W., with a mean breadth of 20° from N. to S. 
It is situated below Aries and the Triangles, with a mean 
declination of 12® S. It is represented as making its way to 
the E., with its body below, and its head elevated above the 
equinoctial : and is six weeks in passing the meridian. Its 

What Is the comparative size of the Whalel What Is Its aztentt Where Is It site 
aiedi Bow long is the Whale In passing the meridian) 



48 picniM or tbb heatbhs. Imo. 

Mil come* to the meridian on the 10th o( Horember, wtd Uc 
iiead leaves it on the 22d of December. 

This conslellation contains 97 stars ; two of 'be Sd mag- 
nitude, aeren of the 3d, and thirteen of the 4th. The head 
of CetUB may be readily distinguished, about 20" 8. E. of 
Aries, by means of fiye remarkable stars, 4° end 5° apart, 
and so situated as to form a regular i)entagoQ, The brightest 
of these is Menkar, of the 2d magnitude, in the nose of titv 
Whale. It occupies the S. E, angle of the figure. It is 3^" 
N. of the equinoctial, and 15° E. of El Rischa in the bight of 
the cord between the Two Fishes. It is directly 37° 8. of 
Algol, and nearly in the same direction from the Fly. It 
makes an equilateral triangle with Arietis and the Pleiades, 
being distant from each about 23° S. , nnd may otherwise be 
known bv a star of the 3d magnitude in the mouth, 3° W. of 
it, called Gamma, placed in the south middle angle of the 
pentagon. 

JVu is a star of the 4th m«gnitode, 4° N. W. of Qamma, 
and these two constitute the S. W. side of the pentagon in 
the head of the Wbele, and th^N. E. side of a similar oblong 
figure in the neck. 

Three d^ees 8. 8. W. of Gamma, is anotheT star of the 3d 
magnitude in the lower jaw, marked Delta, constituting the 
E. side of the oblong pentagon ; and 6° S. W. of this, is a 
noted star in the neck of the Whale, called Miru, or the 
" wonderful star of I5a6," which forms the S. E. side. This 
variable star was first noticed as such by Fabricius, on the 
13tb of August, 1596. It changes from a star of the 2d m^- 
nitude so as to become invisible once in ?34 days, or about 
7 times in 6 years. Herschel makes its period 331 days, 10 
hours, and ISminutes; while Hevelius assures us that it once 
disappeared for 4 years ; so that its true period, perhaps, haa 
not been satisfactorily determined. 

Mira is 7° 8. S. E. of El Rischa, in the bend or knot of the 
riband which cotmecta the Two Fishes. Ten degrees S. of 
Mira. are 4 small stars, in the breast and paws, about 3° apart, 
whicn form a square, the brightest being on the E. Ten de 




iUr a.J PEBflEUB, ST OAPOT MlPfM. 49 

^rees B. W. of Mira, is a stai of the 3d magaitnde A tlie 

heflrt, called Baten KaitaSy which makes a scalene tiiangle 
with two other stars of the same magnitude 7^ and 10^ W. of 
it ; also, an equilateral triangle with Mira and the eastern- 
most one in the square. 

A fpnmt number of geomeoical fipatm vaaj be fonnad trom the Mara in thii^ 
•nd in most of the other constellationa, merely bj reference to the maps ; but 
It is better that the atudent should exercise his own inaennitj In this way with 
reference to the atara themselve^ for ^hen mice he naa constructed a grovqp 
Into any letter or figure of his own mvention, he never wlU fcrget ft. 

The teacher should therefore require his claaa to commit to writinc the result 
of their own observations upon the relative position, magnitude and flgurea of 
the principal- stars in each constellation. One evening's exercise in tnis way 
will disclose to the student a surprising multitude of crosses, sgiMim, triangki, 
arcs and letterty by whicli he will be better able to identify and remember them, 
than by any instructions thst coold be given. 

For example : Mira and Baten in the Whale, about IQP apail make up th« 
8. E. or shorter side of an irregular square, with El Rischa in the node of the 
riband, and anodier star in the Whale as ftr to the right of Baten, as El Rischa 
la above Mira. Again, t 

There are three stars of eqnal magnitude, forming a straight line W. of Baten; 
irom which, to the middle star is 10^, thence to the W. one 12^ ; and 8^ or 9^ 0. 
of this line, in a triangular direction, is a bright star of the aeeood magnitude fan 
the coil of the tail, called Diphda. 

In a southerly direction, 25° betow IMphda, is Alpha in the head of the Phe- 
nix, and al>out the same distance 8. W. is FomuhauL in the mouth of the 
Southern Fish, forming together a large triangle, with Diphda in Uie vertex ot 
topof it 

That fine cluster of small stan 8. of the little square in the Whale, constitutes 
a part of a new constellation called the Ckymieqt Fumaee. The two stars N. E. 
and tlie three to the aouthward of the little square, are in the river Eridantu. 

HisTORT.— This constellation is of very early antiquity ; though most writera 
consider it the fiunous sea monster sent bv Neptune to devour Andromeda be^ 
eauae her mother Cassiopeia had boasted herself fairer than Juno or the 8ea 
N jmpbs ; but slain by Ferseus and placed among the stara in honour of S^ia 
•cxievemeiiL • 

**The winded hero now descends, now soars, 
And at his pleasure the vast monater gores. 
Deep in his back, swift stooping from above. 
His crooked sabre to the hitt he drove." 

It is quite certiJn, however, that this constellation had a place in the heavens 
long prior to the time of Perseus. When the equinoctial sun in ArieSjWhicb It 
right over the heaa of Cetus, opened the year, it was denominated the Prtaervm 
CT DeUvtirer^ by Uie idolaters of the East. On this account, according to Pau8» 
nlaa, tlie sim was worshipped, at Eleusis, under the name of the Preserrer ot 

<* With gills pulmonic breathes the enormous whale, 
And sponts aquatic columns to the rale ; 
Sports on the shining wave at noonode hours, 
And shifting rainbows crest the rising showers." — Dannn. 



PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSA. 

Perseus is represented with a sword in his right hand, tht 
kead of Medusa in his left, and wings at his feet. It is situ- 

How is Baten Kaltos situated? WTuU ia wid cf tht vcerioua Jlgurea that different 
rnntteUatians exhibit 7 Give an example. Of what constellation does thatjlne cluster 
•f ttara of the little eqitare in t?ie WhaU, constihUe a part i How U the constellatioo 
^rteus Tsoresentedi 

c 



50 MCTORE OP THE HEAVENS. | ©EC 

ated directly N. of the Pleiades and the Ply, between Andni- 
«meda on the W. and Auriga on the E. Its mean declination 
is 49° N. It is on the meridian the 24th of December. It 
contains, mcluding the head of Medusa, 59 stars, two of which 
are of tne 2d magnitude, and four of the 3d. According to 
Endosia, it contains, including the head of Medusa, 67 stars. 

" Perseus nej^ 

Brandishes high in heaven his sword of flame, 
And holds triumphant the dire Gk>rgon's head, 
Flashing with fiery snakes ! the stars he counts 
Are sixty-seven ; and two of these he boasts, 
Nobly refulgent in the second rank — 
One m his vest, one in Medusa's head.'' 

The Head of Medusa is not a separate constellation, but 
forms a part of Perseus. 

It is represented as the trunkless head of a frightful Gor- 
gon, crowned with coiling snakes, instead of hair, which the 
victor Perseus holds in his hand. 

There are, in all, about a dozen stars in the Head of Me 
dusa; three of. the 4th magnitude, and one, varying alter 
nately from the 2d to the 4th magnitude. This remarkable 
star is called Algol, It is situated 12^ E. of Almaach, in the 
foot of Andromeda, and may be known by means of three 
' stars of the 4th magnitude, lying a few degrees S. W. of it, 
' and forming a small triangle. 

It is on the meridian the 21st of December; but as it 
continues above the^horizon 18 hours out of 24, it may be seen 
every evening from September to May. It varies from the 2d 
to the 4th magnitude in about 3^ hours,* and back again in the 
same time ; after which it remains steadily brilliant for 2| 
days, when the same changes recur. 

The periodical variation of Algol was determined in 1783, 
by John Groodricke of York (Eng.) to be 2 days, 20 hours, 48 
minutes, and 56 seconds. 

Dr. Herschel attributes the variable appearance of Algol to 
spots upon its surface, and thinks it has a motion on its axis 
similar to that of the sun. He also observes, of variable stars 
generally : — " The rotary motion of stars upon their axes is a 
capital feature in their resemblance to the sun. It appears to 
me now, that we cannot refuse to admit such a motion, and 
that indeed it may be as evidently proved as the diurnal mo- 

Where Is it situatedl What is Its decllrjitlon, and when Is it on the meridian? What 
Is the whole number of its stars ? What is the magnitude of its principal onesf Oi 
what constsllatlon does Caput Medusae form a par* ? How is it represented? What 
Is the whole number of its stars? What Is the magnitude of the principal ones? mial 
aro the name and position of the variable star In this constellation? When is it on the 
meridian, and how long may it be seen ? In what time does it vary flrom the 9d to thtt 
Itb magnitude, and back again? How long is It steadily brilliant? when and by whan 
was its periodical variaUon determined? What is its eicact period? To what does Dr 
Berachel attribute its variable appsanunoef 



ul] FEwaoa, rr CAnrr mwmsBMk .61 

uim of die earth. Dark spots, or large iMNrtions of the awrftee. 
less iuminoas than the rest turned aftemately in certain di' 
lectioBB either towards, or firom lis, will account for all the 
phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the stars, so 
satisfactorily, tnat we certainly need not look out for any other 
cause." 

H i8 said, ibat the fuaouB utroD<«ier LAfamde, who died at Pwrit In 1807, waa 
wont to remain wliole nightly in hia old age, npon the Poni Nenf, to ejdiioit to 
the conoua the vartetiona in ue brilliancy of the atar AlgoL 

Nine degrees K. by N. from Al^ol, is the bright star Al^e- 
m&, of the 2d magnitude, in the side of Perseus, which with 
Almaack, makes a perfect right angle at Algol, with the open 
part towards Cassiopeia. By means of this strikingly perfect 
figure, the three stars last mentioned may always be reco^- 
msed without the possibility of mistaking them. Algenib 
may otherwise be readily distinguished by its being the 
brightest and middle one of. a number of stars lying four and 
five degrees apart, in a large semicircular iorm, cunring to 
wards Ursa Major. 

Algenib comes to the meridian on the 21st December, 15 
minutes after Al^oL at which time the latter is almost di- 
rectly over head. Wnen these two stars are on the meridian 
that oeautiful cluster, the Pleiades, is about half an hour E. 
of it ; and in short, the most brilliant portion of the starry 
neavens is then visible in the eastern hemisphere. The 
glories of the scene are unsi>eakablv magnificent ; and the 
student who fixes his eye upon those lofty mansions of being, 
cannot fail to covet a knowledge of their order and relations, 
and to "reverence Him who made the Seven Stars and 
Orion." 

The Milky- Way around Perseus is very vivid, being un- 
doubtedly a rich stratum of fixed stars, presenting the most 
wonderful and sublime phenomenon ol the Creator's power 
and greatness. Kohler, the astronomer, observed a beautiful 
nebma near the face of Perseus, besides eight other nebulous 
clusters in different parts of the constellation. 

Hie head and sword of Peraeua are exhibited on the circumpolar map. That 
very bright star 239 E. of Algol, is Capella in the Charioteer. 

HiSTOBT.— Perseus was the son of Jupiter and Danae. He waa no sooner born 
Chan he was cast into the sea with his mother ; but being driven on the coasts 
of one of t^ie islands of the Cyclades, they were rescued by a fisherman, and 
earried to Pofydectes, the king of the place, who treated them with great hu- 
manity, and intrusted them to the care of the priests of Minervd's Temule. His 
rising genius and manly courage soon made nim a favourite of the gods. At a 



How may Alsenib be distinguished? When Is it on the meridian? How long allet 
AlgolY When these two stars are on the meridian, what bcautliUl cluster is half an 
ftour east of itl What is the general appearance of the eastern hemlsptiere at that time? 
What is the appearance of the Milky Way around Perseusi What netwlff have Iwea 
jliserved in thu constellation ? 



52 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [jAlf. 

great kuet of Polydeetn, M the nobles wei% expected to present the king with 
a sujjerb and beautiful horse ; but PereeuSf who owed his bene&ctor much, not 
wishing to be thought less munificent than the rest, engaged to bring him the 
head o( Medusa, the only one of the three Gorgons who was subject to Mortality, 
li'he names of the other two were Stheno and Euryale. They were represented 
with serpents wreathing round their heads instead of hair, having yellow wings 
and brazen hands ; their bodies which grew, indissolubly together were covered 
with impeoetrable scales, and their very iooics had the power of turning into 
stones all those on whom they fixed their eyes. 

To equip Perseus for this perilous enterprise, Pinto, the god of the infernal 
regions, lent him his helmet, which had the power of rendering the wearer iii> 
visible. Minerva the goddess of wisdom, furnished him with her buckler, which 
was as resplendent as a polished mirror; and tie received from Mercury wings 
for his feet, and a dagger made of diamonds. Thus equipped, he mounted into 
the air, conducted by Minerva, and came upon the monstere who, with the 
watchful snakes about their heads, were all asleep. He appcoached them, and 
with a courage which amazed and delighted Minerva, cut on with one blow Me- 
dusa's head. The noise awoke the two immortal sisters, but Pluto's helmet rea- 
dered Perseus invisible, and tiie vengeful pursuit of the Qoigons proved fruitless. 

" In the mirror of his polished shield * 

Reflected, saw Medusa slumbers take, 
And not one serpent by gno<l chance awake ; 
Then backward an uuerring blow he sped, 
•p And from her body lopped at once her head." 

Pereeus then made his way through the air, with Medusa's head yet reeking 
in his hand, and from the blood which dropped from it as he flew, sprang all 
tiiose innumerable serpents that have ever since infested the sandy deserts of 

Libya. ' 

** The victor Perseus, with the Ooi^on head| 
O'er Libyan sands his airy journey sped. 
The gory drops distilled, as swift he new, 
And from each drop envenomed serpents grew." 

' The destruction of Medusa rendered the name of Perseus immortal, and he 
was changed into a constellation at his death, and placed among the atara, with 
the head of Medusa by his side. 



CHAPTER III. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE 
ON THE MERIDIAN IN JANUARY. 

The ccHistellations which pass oar meridian in the months of January, Febni. 
ary and March, present to us the most brilliant and interesting portion of the 
heavens ; embracing an annual number of stars of the hi|hest order and bright* 
ness, ail so coospicaously situated, that the most inexperienced can easily trace 
them out 

TAURUS. 

The Bull is represented in an attitude of rage, as if about 
to plunge at Orion, who seems to invite the onset by provoca-. 
tions of assault and defiance. Only the head and shoulders of 
the animal are to be seen ; but these are so distinctly marked 

What U tf»e oomparuHve briiUancv cf^ the coMtellattoru wMeh fom the meridian in 
January, February and Marehi How is Taurus represented } what parts of the an- 
imal are to be seen 1 



MAP III.] TAXmXJB. 53 

that thev cannot be mistaken. Tann» is now the teeond 
sign and third constellation of the Zodiac ; but anterior to 
the time of Abraham, or more than 4000 years ago, the ver- 
nal equinox took place, and the year opened when the sun 
was in Taurus ; and the Bull, for the space of 2000 years, 
was the prince and leader of the celestial host The Ram 
succeeded next, and now the Fishes lead the year. The head 
of Taurus sets with the sun about the last or May, when the 
opposite constellation, the Scorpion, js seen to rise in the S. 
£. It is situated between Perseus and Auriga on the north. 
Gemini on the east, Orion and Bridanus on the south, ana 
Aries on the west, having a mean declination of 16° N. 

It contains 141 visible stars, including two remarkable 
clusters called the Pleiades and Htades. The first is now 
on the shoulder, and the latter in the face of the Bull. 

The Pleiades, according to fable, were the seven daughters 
of Atlas and the nymph PTeione,* who were turned into stars, 
with their sisters the Hyades, on account of their amiable 
virtues and mutual affection. 

Thus we everj where find that the ancients, with all their barbarism and 
idolatry, entertained the belief that unblemished Tirtue and a meritorious life 
would meet their reward in the sky. Thus Virgil represenla Hfscnus Apollo aa 
bending from the aky to address the youth lulus : — 

^ Macte nova virtute puer ; sic itur ad astra ; 
Diis genite, et geniture Deos." 

** Oo on, spotless boy, in the paths of virtue ; it is the wst to the stan ; oftprlnf 
of the gods thyself— so sbalt thou become the fiither of gods." 

Our disgust at their superstitions may be la some measure mitigated, by seri- 
ously reflecting, that had some of these personages lived in our day, they had 
been ornaments in the Christian church, and models of social virtue. 

The names of the Pleiades are Alcione, Merone, Maia, 
Blectra, Tayeta, Sterope and Celeno. Merope was the only 
one who married a mortal, and on that account her star is 
dim among her sisters. 

Although but six of these are visible to the naked eye, yet 
Dr. Hook informs us that, with a twelve feet telescope, he 
saw 78 stars ; and Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars 
in this small cluster. 

The most ancient authors, soch as Homer, Attains, and Oeminus, counted only 
»ix Pleiades ; but Simonides, Varro, Pliny, Aratus, Hippanshus, and Ptolemy, 
reckon them seven in number ; and it was asserted, that the seventh had been 
seen before the burning of Trov ; but this difference might arise from the differ- 
ence in distinguishing them with the naked eye. 

* Dr. Hutton is of opinion that Atlas belnc the first astronomer who disoovend tlMse 
stars, called them by the names of the dausntenof his wile Pleiooe. 

What is the numerical order of Taums among the sif^ns and conatellations of the 
Zodiac ? What was its position in the Zodiac belbre the time of Abraham ) How kxig 
did it continue to lead the celestial host? What ccMistellation succeeded next 7 Where 
is Taurus now situated } How many stars does it contain? What remarkable dusten 
are in tliis constellation 7 Where are these placed } Mention the names of the Plei- 
ades. Which of these seven stars is not seen* and why } Are these six all tliat can be 
seen through the telescope ) 

6* 



64 nOTURE OF TOB HEAVENS. [JAK. 

The Pleiades are so called from the Greek word, »a««», 
pleein, to sail; because, at this season of the year, they 
were considered "the star of the ocean" to the benighted 
mariner.* Alcyone, of the 3d magnitude, being the bright- 
est star in this cluster, is sometimes called the light of the 
Pleiades, The other five are principally of the 4th and 5th 
magnitudes. 

The Pleiades, or, as they are more familiarly termed, the 
seven stars , come to^ the meridian 10 minutes before 9 
o'clock, on the evening of the 1st of January, and may serve, 
in place of the sun, to indicate the time, and as a* guide to 
the surrounding stars. 

According to Hesiod, who wrote abont 900 yean before the birth of our Sa- 
▼ioor, the heliacal rising of the Pleiades took place on the 11th of May, about the 
time of harvest. 

" When, Atlas-born, the Pleiad stars arise 
Before the sun above the dawning slcies, 
'Tis time to -reap ; and when they sink below 
The morn-illumin'd west, 'tis time to sow." 

Thus, In all ages, have the stars been ol>served by the husbandman, for <• signs 
and for seasons." 

Pliny says that Thales, the Miletan astronomer, determined the cosmical setting 
of the Pleiades to be 26 days after the autumnal equinox. This would make a 
difference between the setting at that time and the present, of 35 days, and as a 
day answers to about 59' of the ecliptic, these days will make 34"^ 25'. This di- 
vided by rhe annual precession (SO^"). will give 2465 years since the time of 
Thales. Thus does asTronomy become the parent of chronology. 

If it be borne in mind that the stars uniformly rise, come to the meridian, and 
Bet about four minutes earlier every succeeding night, it will be very easy to 
determine at what time the seven stars pass the meridian on any night subse- 
quent or antecedent to the 1st of January. For example : at what time will the 

* Virgil, who flourished ISOO years before the invention of the magnetic needle, says 
that the stan were relied upon, in the first ages of nautical enteipriae, to guide the 
rude bark over the seas. 

" Tunc alnos primum fluvii sensere cavatas j 
Navita turn steilis numeros, et nomina fecit, 
Pleiadas, Hyadas, claramque Lycaonis Arcton." 

** Then first on seas the shallow alder swam ; 
Then sailors quartered heaven, and found a name 
For ever/ fix'd and every wand 'ring star— 
The Pleiades, Hyades, and the Northern Car." 

The same poet also describes Palinurus, the renowned pilot of the Trqjan fleet, as 
watching the face of the nocturnal heavens. 

" Sidera cuncta notat tacito labentia ccelo, 
Arcturum, pluviasque Hyadas, gemini^sque Triones, 
Armatumque auro circumspicit Oriooa." 

" Observe the stars, and notes their sliding course. 
The Pleiades, Hyades, and their wat'ry force ; 
And both the Bears is careful to behold, 
And bright Orion, arm'd with bumish'd gold.'* 

Indeed, this sairacious pilot wns once so intent in gazing upon the stan while at the 
helm, that he fell overboard, and was lost to his companions. 

" Headlong he fell, and struggling in the main, 
Cried out for helping hands, but cried in vaiiL" 

From what circumstance do the Pleiades derive their "name } What is the brightest 
of the Pleiades called? What is the size of the rest? When are the Pleiades on the 
meridian ? How mueti earlier do the etare t i$e, come to the meridian, and eet, every 
tuoceeding night 1 



nLJ TAVBU8. 55 

sevoi Stan cahnioate on tb« Gth of January 1 MnlUp^ the 6 dqrs by 4 and take 
the result from the tine they ealminate on the 1st, and it will fire 30 minutes 
after 8 o'clock in the evening. 

The Pleiades are also sometimes called VereiluB, or the 
'* Virgins of spring ;'' because the san enters this cluster in 
the ^'season of blossoms," about the 18th of May. He who 
made them alludes td this circumstance when he demands 
of Job: "Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Plei- 
ades," &c.— [Job 38 : 31.] 

The Syrian name of the Pleiades is JSuceoth, or Suceoth-Benotk^ derived flrom 
a Chaldaie word, whk;h sijniifies " to speculate, to otaeerre," and the ** Men of 
Saccoth" (2 Kings 17 : 30) have been thence considsrsd obeenrera of the 
Stan. 

The Hyades are situated 11^ S. E. of the Pleiades, in the 
face of the Bull, and may be readily distinguished by means 
of five stars'^ so placed as to form the letter V. Tiie most 
brilliant star is on the left, in the top of the letter, and called 
Aldebaran ; from which tne moon's distance is computed. 

** A star of the first magnitude iltumee 
His mdiant head ; and of the second rank 
Another beams not far remote." 

Aldebaran is of Arabic origin, and takes its name from 
two words whiph signily, " He went before, or led the way " — 
alluding to that period in the history of astronomy when this 
star led up the starry host from the vernal equinox. It comes 
to the meridian at 9 o'clock <on the 10 of January, or 48# 
minutes after Alyc4>ne, on the Ist. When Aries is about 27<' 
high, Aldebaran is just rising to the east So Manilius : — 

** Thus when the Ram hath doubled ten degrees. 
And join'd seven more, then rise the VtjmeM." 

A line \5\° E. N. E. of Aldebaran will point out a bright 
8tar of the 2d magnitude in the extremity of the northern 
horn, marked Beta or El Nath ; (this star is also in the foot 
of Auriga, and is common to both constellations.) From 
Beta in the northern horn, to Zeta, in the tip of the southern 
horn, it is 8°, in a southerly direction. This star forms a 
right angle with Aldebaran and Beta. B6ta and Zeta, then, 
in the button of the horns, are in a line nearly north ana 
south, 8° apfirt, with the brightest on the north. That very 
bright star 17i° N. of Beta, is Capella, in the constellation 
Auriga^ 

* The ancient Gieelu oounted scTen in this cluster :— 

" The Bull's head shines with seven refulgent flames, 
Which, Qrecta, Hyades, fiom their ehotoering, names." 

At what time loiU the seven $tan culminate on the 6th January i By what other 
names are they aometimes called, and why l What allusion is made to this cluster in 
the ancient Scriptures ? Describe the situation and appearance of the trades. What 
is the brightest of them called 7 What is the origin of the word Aldebaran, and to 
what does it allude 7 When does Aldebaran culminate ? Describe the position of Beta. 
What are the name and direction of the star in the southern horn? What is the vamr 
Ure posiuon of these stais? What very bright star is seen 17* 80' N. of Beta 7 



66 PICTir&E OF THE beaveks, [j^ir. 

HislrosT.— According to the Grecian aiTthology, tMa is the animal which bore 
Europa over the seas to that coiiotry which deil veo firozp her its name. She wu 
the daughter of Agenor, and princess of Phoenicia, ^e was so beautiful that 
Jupiter became enamored or her: and assuming the shape of a snow-white 
boil) he mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with her female afp 
tehdanto, were gathering flowers in the meadows. Eurom caressed ttie beao- 
tiful animal, and at last had the courage to sit upon his bacK. The god now took 
advantage of her mtuation, and with precipitate steps retired towards the shore, 
and crotned the sea with Europa upon his back« and arrived safe in Crete. Som« 
-suppose she lived about ISBu years before the Christian Em. It is prolMible, 
however, that this constrilation had a place in the ZQdnc before the Greelcs be^ 
can to cultivate a knowledge of the stars ; and ttiat it was rather an invention of 
the Egyptians or Chaldeans. Both the Egyptians and Persians worshiped a 
ddty under this figure, by the name of Apis ; and Belzoni is said to have fouiul 
an embalmed bull m one of the notable sepulchres near Thebes. 

In the Hebrew Zodiac, Taurus is sacribed to Joseph. 



ORION. 



Whoever looka op to this constellation and learns its name, 
will never forget it. It is too beautifully splendid to need a 
description.* When it is on the meridian, there is then above 
the horizon the most magnificent view of the celestial bodies 
that the starry firmament affords ; and it is visible to all the 
habitable world, because the equinoctial passes through the 
middle of the constellation. It is represented on celestial 
maps bv the figure of a man in the altitude of assaulting the 
Bull, with a sword in his belt, a huge club in his right hand, 
and the skin of a lion in his lefl, to serve for a shield. 

Manili\is, a Latin poet who composed five books on as- 
tronomy a short time before the birth of our Saviour, thus 
describes its appearance : — 

** First next the Twins, see great Orion rise. 

His amis extended stretch o'er half the skies ; 

His stride as lai^e, and with a steady pace 

He marches on, and measures a vast space ; 

On each broad shoulder a bright star display'd, 

And three obliquely grace his hanging blade. 

In his vast head, immers'd in boundless spheres, 

Three stars, less Inight, but yet as great, ne bears, 

But farther off removed, their q>lendor's lost ; 
^ Thus graced and arm'd he leads the starry host." 

The center of the constellation is midway between the 
poles of the heavens and directly over the equator. It is also 
about 8° W. of the solstitial colure, and comes to the meri- 
dian about the 23d of January. The whole number of visi- 
ble stars in this constellation is 78 ; of which, two are of the 
first magnitude, four of the 2d, three of the 3d, and fifteen 
of the 4th. 

Those four brilliant stars in the form of a long square or 

What 18 the general appearance of the constellation Orion ? When this constellatioa 
is on the mendian, what is the appearance of tbe starry firmament? To whom la it 
visilile, and why? How is Orion represented on celestial maps ? Describe its position. 
How is it situated with respect to the solntitiai colure, and when is it on the meridian ) 
What remarkable stan Sam the outlines of the constellation 7 



MAP m.] ORION. 67 

parallelogram, intersected in the middle by the ^ Three 
Stars," or ''Eil and Yard," about 25'> S. of the Bull'iihoraa, 
form the outlines of Orion. The two upper stars in the par- 
•aiielogram are about 15^ N. of the two lower ones \ and, 
being placed on each shoulder, may be called the epaulets 
of Oj-ion. The brightest of the two lower ones is in the left 
foot, on the W., and the ojther, which is the least brilliant of 
the four, in the right knee. To be more particular ; Bella- 
trix is a star of the 2d magnitude on the W. shoulder ; Be- 
teiguese is a star of the Ist magnitude, 7|^ E. of Beliatrix, 
on the E. shoulder. It is brighter than Beliatrix. and lies a 
little farther toward the nortli; and comes to the meridiau 
30 minutes after it, on the 2 1st of January. These Wo form 
the upper end \)f the parallelogram. 

JRigel is a splendid star of the 1st magnitude, in the led 
foot, on the W. and 15^ S. of Beliatrix. Saiph is a star of 
the 3d magnitude, in the right knee, 8i^ E. of RigeL These 
two form Sie lower end of Uie parallelogram. 



" First io raok 

The martial star «pon his shoulder flamM ; 
A rival star iUuminates his foot ; 
And on his girdle beams a luminarj 
Which, in Ticiuity of other stars, 
Might claim the proudest honon." 

There is a little triangle of three small stars lb the head 
of Orion, which forms a larger triangle with the two in his 
shoulders. In the middle of the parallelogram are three stars 
of the 2d magnitude, in the belt of Orion, that form a straight 
line about 3^ in length from N. W. to S. E. They are usu- 
ally distinguished by the name of the Three Stars, because 
there are no other stars in the heavens that exactly resemble 
them in position and brightness. They are sometimes de- 
nominated the Three Kings^ because they point out the 
Hyades and Pleiades on one side, and Sirius, or the Dog-star, 
on the Other. In Job they are called the Bands of OrUm; 
while the ancient husbandmen called them Jacoh^s rodj and 
sometimes the Rake. The University of Leipsic, in 1807, 
gave them the name of Napdeon, ]DUt the more common 
appellation for them, including those in the sword, is the EU 
and Yard. They derive the latter name from the circum- 
stance that the line which unites the " three stars " in the belt 
measures just 3° in length, and is divided by the central star 



Describe the two upper ones in the froup. Describe the two lower ones. Give a 
more particular description of the stars in the shoulder. How do you disliocuiah Be- 
telguese from Beliatrix 1 When does Betelruese come to the meridian l Describe the 
•tars which form the lower end of the parallelogram. What stars do you observe in the 
head of Orion ? Describe the situation and appearance of the "Ihree Stars." Why 
am they called the three stars 7 What else are they denommated, and why? What 
names were jriven to them by Che ancients 1 What by the University of Leipsio I What 
is the more tamiiiar term for them, and whence is it derived ; 



58 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ' [jAN. 

into two equal parts, like a yard-stick; thus serving as a 
graduated standard for measuring the distances of stars from 
each other. When, therefore, any star is described as being 
so many degrees from another, in order to determine the 
distance, it is recommended to apply this rule. 

It is necessary that the scholar should task his in^eouitj only a few evefamga In 
applying such a standard to the starB, before he will learn to judge of their rela- 
tive distances with an accuracy that will seldom vary a degree from the truth. 

The northernmost star in the belt, called MirUika, is less 
than h^. S. of the equinoctial, and' when on the meridian, is 
almost exactly over the equator. It is on the meridian, the 
^th. of January.* 

The " three stars" are situated about 8^ W. of the solsti- 
tial colure, and uniformly pass the meridian one hour and 
fifly minutes afler Uie seven stacs. 

There is a row of stars of tftie 4th and 5th magnitudes, S. 
of the belt, running down obliquely towards Saiph, which 
forms the sword. This row is also called the Ell because it 
is once and a quarter the length of the Yard or belt 

A very little way below Thabit, in the sword, there is a 
nebulous appearance, the most remarkable one in the hea- 
vens. With a good telescope an apparent opening is disco- 
vered, through which, as through a window, we seem to get 
a glimps^ofother heavens, and brighter regions beyond. 

As the telescope extends our knowledge of the stars and greatly increases 
thdr visible number, we behold hundreds and thousands, wmch, but for this 
almost divine improvonent of our vision, had forever remained, unseen by us^ 
fn an un&thomabfe void. 

A star in Orion's sword, which appears single to the unassisted vision, is mul- 
tiplied into six by the telescope ; and another, into twelve. Galileo found 80 in 
the belt, 21 In a nebulous star In the head, and about 500 in another part of Orion, 
with in the compass of one or two degrees. Dr. Hook saw 78 stars In the Fleiadasi, 
and Rbeita, with a better telescope, saw about 200 in the same cluster and more 
than 2000 in Orion. 

About 9° W. of Bellatrix are eight stars, chiefly of the 4th 
magnitude, in a curved line running N. and S. with the con- 
cavity toward Orion ; these point out the skin of the Hon in 
his lefl hand. Of Orion, on the whole, we may remark, with 
Eudosia: — 

** He who admires not, to the stars Is blind.*' 

HisTOBT.— According to some authorities, Orion was the son of Neptune and 
queen Euryale, a famous Amazonian hitntress, and possessing the dispo8iti<m of 

, * Though the position of this star, with respect to the equator, is the same at all 
times whether it be on the meridian or in the horizoo ; yet it appeen to occupy this 
position, only, when it Is on the meridian. 

How may the dbtanees of the stars from each other be measured by reference to the 
Yard ? How are the three stars situated with respect to the sobtitiaJ colure, and how 
with respect to the seven stars} Describe the stars which Ibrm the sword of Orion 
What else is this row called? Describe the nebulous appearance which is visible in 
ttiis duster.^ What other tUfoovehm hm tht Mncope madt inthi» oonucUatiamf 
What Stan about 8«W. of Belktrixl 



MAP. III.] ORtON. 59 

his mother, he became the freitfest hunter in the worlds and even boasted that 
there was not an animal on earth which he could not conquer. To ponWi this 
vanity, it is said tliat a scorpion sprung up out of the earth and bit his foot, that 
he died ; and that at the request of Diana he was placed among the sCan direetlj 
opposite (o the Scorpion that caused his death. Others saj that Oriott bad no 
motr>er, but was the gift of the gods, Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, to a peasant 
of Baeotia,as a reward of pi^^, and that he was invested with the power of walk- 
ing over the sea without wettinx his feet In strength and stature he surpsaaed 
all other mortals. He was skilleil in the working of iron, from which he (abri- 
Ciited a sitbterrauean palace for Vulcan; he alao walled in the coasts of Sicily 
agaiiist the inundations of the sea, and built thereon a temple to its gods. 

Orion was betrothed to the daughter of (Enopion, but he, unwilling to give up 
his daugliter, contrived to intoxicate the illustrious hero and put outhis eves on 
the seashore wltere he had laid himselC down to sleep. Orion, finding himself 
blind when he awoke, was conducted b^ the sound to a neighboring forge, wbera 
he placed one of the workmen on his back, and, by his directions, went to a 

£lace where the rising sun was seen with the greatest advantage. Here he turned 
is face toward the luminary, and, as it Js reported, immediately recovered hit 
sight, and Iiastened to punish the perfidious crueltv of OSnopioo. * 

The daughters of Orion distinguished themselves as much as their father; 
and, when the oracle had declared that Boeotia shoultl not be delivered from • 
dreaiiful pestilence, before two of Jupiter's children were immolated on the 
altars, they joyfully accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacrificed themselves for 
the good of their countnr. The deities of the infernal regions were struck at the 
patriotism of the two temales^and immediately two stars were seen to ascend 
up from the earth, still smoking with their blood, and they were placed in the 
lieavens in the form of a crown. Ovid savs' their bodies were burned by the 
Thebaas, and that two peraons arose from tiieir ashes, whom the gods soon after 
changed into constellations. 

A« the constellation Orion, which rises at noon about the 9th day of March, 
and sets at noon about the 21st of June, is' generally supposed to be accompanied, 
at its rising, with great rains and storms, it became extremely terrible to mari- 
ners, in the early adventures of navigation. Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, with some 
of the Greek poets, make mention of this. 

Thus Eoeas accounts for the storm which cast him on the' African coast on his 
way to Italy :— 

**To that blest shore we steer'd our destined wnj, 
When sudden, dire Orion rous'd the sea ; 
All cliaiiK^d with tempests rose the baleful star. 
And on our navy pour'd his wat'ry war." 

To laduoe him to delay his departure. Dido's sfeter advises hmr to 

*' Tell him, that, charg 'd with deluges of rain, 
Orimi rages on the wintry main." 

The tanie of this constellation is mentioned In the books of Job and Amos, and 
io Homer. Tfie inspired prophet, penetrated like the psalmist of Israel with 
the omniscience and power displayed in the celestial glories, utters this sublime 
injunction : ^* Seek Him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and tumeth the 
shadow of death into morning." Job also, with profound veneration, adores His 
awful majesty who " commandeth the sun and sealeth up the stars ; who alone 
8prea<leth out the heavens, and maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the 
cnambers of the south :" and in another place, the Almighty demands of him— 
■* Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven 1 Canst thou bind the sweet influences 
of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion j canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in 
his season, or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons '", , ^ ^ , 

Caimet supposes that Mazzaroth is here put for the whole order of celestial 
bodies in the Zodiac, which, by their appointed revolutions, produce the various 
seasons of the year, and the regular succession of day and night ilrcticrua is 
the name of the principal star in Bootes, and is here put for the constellation 
itself. The expression, his aorta, doubtless refers to Asterion and Chanu the 
two greyhounds, with which he seems to be punning the Great Bear around tho 
Mbrui pole. , , _ 

The following lines are copied from a work entitled " Astronomical Recreap 
tions," by J. Green, of Pennsylvania, to whom the author is indebteit for many 
valoabie hints concerning the mythology of the ancient constellations. 



60 nCTUKE OF THE HEAVENS. fJAN. 

.• (^wiienchiniof wiBtMrtprMiis his aaare skies, 
Behold Orion^a giant form ansa; 
VLiBgoidin girdle glitters on the sight ; 
Anothe broadfalckion beanaci in splendor bright ; 
A {ton's brindled hide his bosom shields. 
And his right hand a ponderous weapon wiekls. ' 

The River'e shining streams beneath him pour. 
And angnr 7>mrus rages close before ; 
Behind him Procyon barks, and SKriua growb, 
While full in front, the m<m8ter Cetua howls. 

See bright Capelta, and Medusa there. 
With horrid serpeTta hissing throogh her hair ; 
See Cancer too, and near the Hydra dire, 
With roaring Leoj filled with furious fire. 

The timid Hare, the Dove with olive green, 
And ilries, fly in terror from the scene ; 
The warrior Peraeua gazes from above, 
And the Twin oflbpring of the thunderer Jove. 

Lo ! in the distance, Cttaaiope fair 

In state reposes on her golden eherir ; 

Her beauteoita daughter, bound, before her stands^ 

And Taiulj strives to free her fettered hands ; 

For aif I she ealls on rojal Oephau» near, 

Bat shrieks from her reach mot herjdther'0 ear. 

See last of ail, around the glowing pole, 
with shining scales, the spiry Dragon ro>I 
A grizzly Bear on either side appears, 
Creeping with lazy motion 'mia the stars.'* 

These lines are easily committed to ihemory, and would assist the popfl in 
recalling the names of the constellations in this very interesting portion of the 
beaveuu 



LEPUS. 

The Hare. — Thw constellation is situated directly south of 
Orion, and comes to the meridian at the same time ; namely, 
on the 24th of January. It has a mean declination 18° S., 
and contains 19 small stars, of which, the faur prmcipal ones 
are of the 3d magnitude. It may be readily distinguished 
by means of four stars of the 3d magnitude, in the S>rm of 
an irregular square, or trapezium. 

Zeta^ of the 4th magnitude, is the first star, and fs situated 
in the back, 5° S. of Saiph, in Orion. About the same dis- 
tance below Zeta are the four principal stars, in the legs and 
feet. These form the square. They are marked Alpha, 
Beta, Gamma, Delta. Alpha, otherwise called Avneh^ and 
Beta form the N. W. end of the trapezium, and are about 
3° apart Gamma and Delta form the S. E. end, and are 
about 2i° apart The upper right-hand one, which is Arneb, 
is the brightest of the lour, and is near the center of the 

Where is the constellation of the Hare situated ? When does it come to the meri- 
dian 7 What is the whole number ofits stars ? What is the magnitude of its principal 
ones? How may it be distinguished ? In what part of the animal are these stars 
placed? Describe the principal star in Lepas. What are the distance and direction of 
the square from Zeta ? Describe the atan at each end of this square. Wtiich is 
the brightest of the four? 



MAP UI.] OOLV^PA— fSftlPAinm. 61 

constellation. Four or five degrees S. of Rigel are four 
very minute stars, in the ears of the Hare. 

HnTORT.— ThncoMCelUtfioD ta >itaated about 180 weetoTtlM Qrmt Dog, whteh, 
finom the motion of the earth, seems to be punuing ft, as the Greybouods do die 
Bear, roand the circuit of tlte skies. It was ooe ofthose animals which Orion la 
sMd to have delighted in homing, and which, for this reason, was made into a 
constellation andplaced near him among the stan. 



COLUMBA. 

' Noah's Dove. — This constellation is situated about 16^ 
S. of the Hare, and is nearly on the same meridian with 
the '< Three Stars," in the belt of Orion. It contains only 10 
stars ; one of the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th mag- 
nitudes ; of these, Phaet and Beta are the brightest, and are 
about 2p apart. Phaet, the principal star, lies on the right 
and is the highest of the two ; Beta may be known by means 
of a smaller star just east of it, marked Gamma. A line 
drawn from the easternmost star in the belt of Orion, 32° 
directly south, will point out Phaet ; it is also m° S. of the 
lower lefl-hand star in the square of the Hare, and makes 

' with Sirius and Naos, in the ship, a large equilateral triangle. 

HiSTORT.— This constellation is so called in commemoratiou of the dove which 
Noah '* sent forth to see if the waters were abated from off the ftce of the 
ground," aft^ the arlc had rested on mount Ararat. ** And the dove came in to 
nim in the evening, and lo, In her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off 

'• The surer meesengeri 

A dove sent forth once and again to spy 
Green tree or ground, whereon his foot may light : 
The second time returning, in his bill 
An olive leaf he brings, pacific sign I" 



ERIDANUS. 

The River Po. — This constellation meanoers over a large 
and very irregular space in the heavens. It is not easy, nor 
scarcely desirable, to trace out all its windings among the 
stars. Its entire length is not less than 130°; which, for 
the sake of a more easy reference, astronomers divide into 
two sections, the northern and the southern. Thsit part of 
it which lies between Orion and the Whale, including the 
great bend about his paws, is distinguished by the name of 
the Northern stream; the remainder of it is called the 
Souihem stream. 

The Northern stream commences near Rigel, in the foot of 

Are these all the atan that are visible in this constellation 7 Describe the situation 
of .Noah's Dove. Eow maojr stan does ttcontaia, and what are the mincipal? Which 
of these are the brightest, and how situated ; How may Beta be known ? what w 
the position of Phaet with regard to Orion ? Describe the general forpa of the constel- 
lation Eridanus. What is its entire length, and how is it divided? Bjr what nuaes 
STB these seetions distinguished 7 What are the ooune and distance of the Northora 

6 



62 PICTUEB OF raS lUUVSNS. [JAK. 

Orion, and flows out westerly, in a serpentine coarse nearly 
40^, to the Whale, where it suddenly makes a comf^ete cir- 
cuit and returns back nearly the same distance toward its 
source, but bending ^adually down toward the south, when 
it again makes a similar circuit to the S. W. and finally dis- 
appears below the horizon. 

West of Rigel tb«re are five or six gtuB of the 3d and 4th magnitodes, archinf 
np in a semicircalar fonn, and marking the first bend of the northern stream. 
About 8° below theae, or iS9 W. of Rigel, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, 
in the second bend of the northern stream, marked Gamma. Tliia star cul* 
minates 13 minutes after the Pleiades, and one hour and a quarter before RigeL 
Passing Gamma, and a smaller star west of it, there are feur stars nearlv in a 
row, which bring us to the breast of Cetus. 8^ N. of Gamma, is a small star 
named Kiedy which is thought by some to be consideraUj nearer the earth than 
Sirius. 

TTieemimy in the southern stream, is a star of the 3d magnitude, about 17^ 8. 
W. of the square in Lepus. and may be known by means of a smaller star, !<> 
above it. Achemar is a brilliant star of the 1st ma^itude, in the extremity of 
the southern stream ; but having 56° of S. declination, can never be seen in this 
latitude. 

The whole number of stars in this constellation is 84; of 
which, one is of the Ist magnitude, one of the 2d. and eleven 
are of the 3d. Many of these cannot be pointed out by ver- 
bal description ; they must be traced from the map. 

History.— Eridanus is the name of a celebrated river in Cisalpine Gaul, also 
called Padus. Its modem name is Po. VirEil calls it the king of rivers. The 
Latin poets have rendered it memorable ftom its connection with the fiU>le of Phae> 
ton, vmo, being a son of PhcBbus and Clymene, became a &vorite of Venus, who 
intrusted him with the care of one of her temples. This iavor of the goddess 
made him vain, and he sought of his &ther a public and incontestable sign of his 
tenderness, that should convince the world of his origin. Phoebus, after some 
hesitation, made oath that he would grant him whatever he required* and no 
sooner was the oath uttered, than— 

" The youth, transported, asks without delay. 

To guide the sun's bright chariot for a day. 

The god repented of tlio oath he took. 

For anguish thrice his radiant head he shook ; — 

My son, says he, some other proof require. 

Rash was my promise, rash wss thy aeidre— 

Not Jove himself, the ruler of the sky. 

That hurls the three-forked thunder from above, 

Dares try his strength ; yet who as strong as Jove 1 

Besides, consider vmat impetuous force 

Turns stars and planets in a different coune. 

I steer sgainst their motions ; nor am I 

Borne back by all the current of the sky : 
. But how eoula you resist the orbs that roll 

In adverse whirls, and stem the rapid pole?" 

PhOBbus represented the dangers to which he would be exposed in vain. He 
undertook the aerial journey, and the explicit directions of his fcther were for- 
gotten. No sooner bad Phaeton received the reins than he betrayed his ig- 
norance of the manner of guiding the chariot. The flying coursers became sen- 
sible of the confusion of- their driver, and immediately departed Irom the usual 
track. Phaeton repcsited too late of his rashness, and already heaven and earth 

• ^^^^ 

Describe its first bend. Describe the positioa of Osmma. and tell when it eomes to 
the meridian. HTmU •fan are between Qamma and lAe WhaU} What tmaU etar 
about V above fktmma, and what i§ it»dUtaneeJ)rom the earth eompafed with that 9f 
atriw? Deecribe the eittuulonqfTheemim. Deeeribe the poettlon and magnUude ^ 
Achemari What is the whole number of stars in this constellation? what is thia 
mai nitude of the piindpal ones ) 



iil] 

were iJbreatened with a onivenMl eonllBgratlaii m ths cenMqiieiiee, wbaa JihI 
ter, perceiving the disorder o( the horses, struck the driver with a thunderbol^ 
•od hurled him hradlonf from heaven into the river Exidsnus. Hia hody, eon* 
•umed with fire^ was found by the n7a4)h8 of the place, who hononred nimwith 
a decent burial, and inscribed this epitaph upon his tomb ; — 

" Hie aituB est Phaeton, currus auriga patemi : 
Quene « non temtit, magnie tamen einidit anaia." 

His (risters mourned his unhappy end^ snd were chanfed by Jupiter ktft 
poplars. 

"AJi. the long night their mournful watch they keepi 
And all the day stand round the tomb snd weep."— Ovis. 

It is said the tears which they shed, turned to amber, with which the Phoenl* 
alaas and Garthaginians carried on in secrecy a most lucrative trade. The great 
heat produced on the occasion of the sun's departing oat of his usml course, is 
aaid to have dried up the blood of the Ethiopians, and turned their skins blaek{ 
and to have produced sterility and barrenness over the greater part of Lybia. - 

^At once from life and from the chariot driven, 
Th' ambitious boy fell thunderstruck from heaven." 

"The breathless Phaeton, with flaming hair, 
Bhot from the chariot like a falling star. 
That in a summer's evening from the top 
Of heav'n drops down, or seems at least to drop, 
Till on the Po his blasted corpse was hurl'd, 
Far from his country, in the western world." 

The &ble of Phaeton evidently alludes to some extraordinary heiUa which 
were experienced in a very remote period, and of which only this confused tra* 
dition has descended to later times. 



AURIGA. 

The Charioteer, called also the Wagoner, is represented 
on the celestial map by the %ure of a man in a declining 
posture, resting one foot upon the horn of Taurus, with a 
goat and her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. 

It is situated N. of Taurus and Orion, between Perseus on 
the W. and the Lynx on the E. Its mean decimation is 45^ 
N. ; so that when on the meridian, it is almost directly over 
head in New England. It is on the same meridian with 
Orion, and culminates at the same hour of the ni^ht. Both 
of these constellations are on the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 
24th of January, and 1 hour and 40 minutes east of it on the 
1st of January. 

The whole number of risible stars in Auriga, is 66, inclu- 
ding one of the 1st and one of the 2d magnitude, which mark 
the shoulders. Capella is the principal star in this constel- 
lation, and is one of the most brilliant in the heavens. It 
takes its name from Capella, the goat, which hangs upon the 
left shoulder. It is situated in the west shoulder of Aunga, 

B»wis Oieoonstellattan AuTigarepresented? Where Is It situated? What isltsmean 
iorttnnfinn and what its posltton on the meridian? How is it situated In respect te 
Moni When are these constellations on the meridian? What la the wh<^ number 
of vlsfl>le stars In Auriga? How many of the 1st and 9d ma^itude? What is the : 
9t flM pftncipal star, and whence derived ? Wliere U this situated! 



.U nommB or rum hbavehb. | 

24^ E. of Al^ol, and 28o N. E. of the Pleiades. It may be 
known by a little sharp-pointed triangle formed by three stars. 
30 or 40 this side of it, on tlie left. It is also 18^ N. of El 
Nath^ which is common to the northern horn of Taurus, anu 
the right foot of Auriga. Capella comes to the meridian on 
the 19th of January, just 2^ minutes before Ri^el, in the foot 
of Orion, which it very much resembles in brightness. 

Menkalituij in the east shoulder, is a star of the 2d maxnitude, 7|^ E. of C^tellik 
and calminates the next, minute after Betelguese, 37p S. of it Theta, in the 
rgiit arm. is a star of the 4th magnitude, 8° directly south of Menkalina. 

It may oe remarked as a curious coincidence, that the two stars in the shouV 
deTS of Auriga are of the same magnitude, and just as iar apart as those in OrioOf 
aud opposite to them. Again, the two stars in the shoulders of Auriga, with the two 
in the shoulders of Orion, mark the extremities of a long, narrow parallelogram^ 
lying N. and S., and whose lengrh is just five times its breadth. Also, the two 
stars in Auriga, and the two in Orion, make two slender and similar triangIei^ 
l>oth meetine in a common point, half way between tliem at El Nath, in the north* 
em horn of Taurus. 

Delta, a star of the 4th macnitude in the head of Auriga, is about 9° N. of the 
two in the shoulders, with which it makes a triangle, about half the height of 
those just alluded to, with the vertex at Delta. The two stars in the shoulders 
are therefore the base of two similar triangles, one extending about 9*^ N., to the 
head, the other 18<^ S., to the heel, on the top of the horn : both figures together 
resembling an elongated diamond. 

Delta in the head^ Menkalina in the right shoulder, and Theta in the arm of 
Auriga, make a straight line with Betelguese in Orion, Delta in the square off thd 
Hare, and Beta in Noah's Dove ; all being very nearly on the same meridian, 
4° W. of the solstitial colure. 

"See next the Gk>atherd with his kids : he shines 
With seventy stars, deducting only tour. 
Of which Capella never sets to us,* 
And scarce a star with equal radiance oeams ■ 
Upon the earth : two other stars are seen 
Due to the second order." — Eudosia. 

HniTOKT.'-The Greeks give various accounts of this constellation ; some mm 
pose it to be Erichthonius, the fourth king of Athens, and son of Vulcan and I& 
nerva, who awarded him a place among the constellations on account of his many 
useful inventions. He was of a monstrous shape. He is sud to have invented 
chariots, and to have excelled all others in the management of horses. In aOi^ 
sion to tliis, Virgil han the following lines : — 

"Primus Erichthonius currus etquatuor ausus 
Jdngere equos, rapidisque rotis insistere victor.** 

Oeoisic. Lib. iU. p. 123 

"Bold Erichthonius was the first who join'd 
Four horses for the rapid race design'd. 
And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sate *'— JDrycfen. 

Other writers sav that Bootes invented the chariot and that Auriga was the 
son of Mercury, and charioteer to (Enomaus. king of Pisa, and so experienced, 
.hat he rendered his horses the swiftest in all Greece. But as neither of these 
fkbles seems to account for the goat and her kids, it has been supposed that they 
refer to Almathtea and her sister Melissa, who fed Jupiter, during his inftncyi 

* In the latitude of London ; but In the latitude of New England, Capella dlsappean 
Mow the horizon, in the N. N. V., for a few hoars, and then reappears in the N.n. B. 

How may It be known? What are Its distance and direction from El NaCh, in the 
bom of Tdunis 7 When does Capella come to the meridian ? Describe Vie star In lAs 
Auf shovMer qfJurieeL Describe Theta. What curious eotneldenee exists be lw eem 
Vte stars in the shoulders qf Auriga and those in the shouiders vfOrion'i Describe Chi 
situation of DeUa. The two stars in the shouiders of Auriga farm the ha»o of two tr^ 
vngles ; please describe them. What stars in Auriga, Orion, the Hare, and the Dooa, 
^e on the same meridian? Hoto fhr is this Unsqf autre foettq^tlU90lsti:iaicolm at 



UM9 ni.| cuau»AM»jajm.'^^nM ltnz. W 

wttu fMt't milk, mad that, u a reward Ibr their IrtiMhiews thej were pUeed to 
the heavens. Bat ihere^s no reason assiKned for their beinc placed in the anui 
•f Auriga, and the inference ia unaToi<bble, that mytholoKy ia in fiuift on Jbi» 
point. 

Jdmieson is of opinion that Auriga is a mere type or seientiflc ajmbol of th« 
beaadfttl Able of Phaeton, because he was the attenduit of PhOBbiia at that'r» 
ttoce period when Taurus opened the year. 



CAMELOPARDALUS. 

The Camelopard. — This constellation was made b/ He* 
r alius out of the unformed stars which lay scattered ^tween 
Perseus, Auriga, the head of Ursa Major, and the Pole Star, 
It is situated directly N. of Auriga and the head of th«> Lynx, 
and occupies nearly all the space between these and the pole. 
It contains 58 small stars ; tne five largest of which are only 
of the 4th magnitude. The principal star lies in the thigh, 
and is about 20^ from Capella, in a northerly direction. It 
marks the northern boundary of the temperate zone ; being 
less than one degree S. of the Arctic circle. There are two 
other stars of the 4th magnitude near the right knee^ 12<> N. E. 
of the first mentioned. They may be known by their standing 
1^ apart and alone. 

The other stars in this constellation are too small, and too 
much scattered to invite observation. 

HisTORT.-— The Camelopard is so called from an animal of that name, necnliai 
(D Ethiopia. This animal resembles both the camel and the leopard. Its bodj 
to spotted like that of the leopard. Its neck is about seven feet long, i&».fore and 
hind legs, from the hoof to the second joint, are nearly of the same lei^h ; bal 
from the second Joint of the legs to the lx>dy, the fore legs are so long in com- 
parison with the hind ones, that no person could sit Ujpon its back, without ia 
masaij sliding off as from a horse that stood up on his hmd feet 



CHAPTER IV. 

IMRCCnONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WmCH ARE OV 

THE MERmiAN IN FEBRUARY. 

THE LYNX. 

The constellation of the Lynx, like that of the Camelopar^' 
eihibits no very interesting features by which it can be dis- 
unguished. It contains only a moderate -number of inferior 
stars, scattered over a large space N. of Gemini, and betweei 
Auriga and Ursa Major. The whole number is 44, including 

Of what was the Camelopard made? Where is It situated? What Is the whole num 
ber of stars? What is the magnitude of the largest 7 What are the name and positloa 
of the principal one? Where are the other pzlncipal stars situated? How may they 
be known? Whence does U derive Utt name! What is the situation of the i^j^nxY 
What are the number and magnitude of its stars ) 

6 



nCTUBB OP THB HSATSNM [Wtm, 

onW three that are so large as the 3d ma^itude. The larseiit 

of taesej near the mouth, is in the solstiadl colure, l^i^ N. of 

Menkalina, in the E. shoulder of Auriga. The other two prin 

cipal stars are in the brush of the tau, 3^^ S. W. of another 

star of the same brightness in the mouth of the Lesser Lioiiy 

with which it makes a small triangle. Its centre is on the 

meridian at 9 o'clock on the 23d, or at half past 7 on the 1st, 

of February. 

HuTORT —This consteSstkm takes its name from a wfld beaat which Is nid tt» 
be of the genus of the wol£ 



GEMINL 

The Twins. — This constellation represents, in a sitting 
|Osture, the twin brothers, Castor and Pollux. 

Gremini is the third sign, but fourth conateUcUixm in the 
order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the Lynx, le- 
tween Cancer on the east, and Taurus on the west. The 
orbit of the earth passes through the centre of the constella- 
tion. As the earth moves round in her orbit from the first 
{)oint of Aries to the same point again, the sun, in the meau- 
time, will appear to move through the opposite signs, or those 
which are situated right over against* tlie earth, on the other 
side of her orbit 

Accordingly, if we could see the stars as the sun appeai-ed 
to move by them, we should see it passing over the constel- 
lation Gemini between the 21st of June and the 23d of July ; 
but we seldom see more than a small part of any constellation 
through which the sun is then passing, because the feeble 
lustre of the stars is obscured by tne superior efiiilgence of the 
sun. 

When the sun is just entering the ontlines of a constellation ofl[|he east, its 
western limit may be seen in the morning twilight, just above the rising son. So 
when the sun lias arrived at the western limit of a constellation, the eastern pan 
of it may be seen lingering in the evening twilight, just behind the setting sun. 
Under other circumstances, when the sun is said to be in, or to enter, a partica« 
lar constellation, it is to be understood that that constellation is not then visible, 
but that those opposite to it, are. For example : whatever constellation sets wiUi 
the sun on any dav, it is plain that the one opposite to it must be then rising, 
and continue vinble through the night Also, whatever constellation rises and 
sets with the sun to-day, will, six months hence, rise at son-setting^ and set at 
sun-rising. For example : the son is in the centre of €temini about the 6th of 

Describe the poslticn of the largest Describe the position of the other two princlpa« 
stars. What are their distance ami direction ftom the one in the headf When Is Its 
centre on the meridian? Describe the position and appearance of the Twins. What 
Is the relative position of Gemini among the signs and constellations of the Zodiac* 
How is the orbit of the earth situated, with respea to these constellations! How de 
ttie sun and earth appear to move through these signs? When does the sun appear to 

Siss through the constellation Gemini? Do we usually see the constellations while 
e sun ispasslDg through them? Under what eireumatanem osit we tee wmt fart qf 
tftsm? WMn the §un Ulnor entering any conatesttatUm, are the oppoHte oofMCeOs 
tioneviHbU ornotJ If a conateUation riae with the eun to-dfUif, hew wiUit rt»4 tm 
monthahenul (Hveanexamfite. 



ni.j owmii. 07 

JNilj, and must liae tad Mi with it on tbat dfty; ronaoqnwirty. lU monlh* ftum 
Ibat time, or about tlie 4tfa of January, it wili rif« in the east, Juit wtien the son 
ia acting in the west, aikl will come to the meridian at midaifnt ; being then e» 
aetly f^poaite to the aun. 

Now 88 the stara gain upon the sun at the rate of two honra every month, k 
Aillowv that the cei^e of this oonateUation will, on the 17th of February, oone 
10 the meridian three hours earlier, or at 9 o'clock in the evening. 

It would be a pleasant exercise for studems to propose questions to each 
aCher, somewhat like the ibilowing :~What zodiacal constellation will rise and 
set with the sun to^lay 1 What one will rise at ann-setting 1 What constellatton 
is three hours high at sun-set, and where will it be at 9 o'clock 1 What conat^l* 
lation rises two hours before thb suni Bow many days or months hence, and 
at what hour of the evening or morning, and in what part of the sky shall we sea 
the constellation whose centre is now where the sun is 1 Ac., Ac 

In solving these and similar questions, it may be remembered that the sun ia 
in the vernal equinox about the 21st of March, from whence it advances throQgh 
one ngn or constellation every succeeding month thereafter ; and that each coi»> 
tteUaUon is one month in advance of the ngn of tliat name : wherefore, reckon 
nsces in March, Ariea in April, Taurus in May. and Gemini in June, dec ; ba> 
ginning with each constellation at the Slst, or 22a of the month. 

Gemini contains 85 stars, including one of the 1st, one of 
the 2d, four of the 3d, and seven of the 4th mas^nitudes. It is 
readily recognised bv means of the two principal stars, Ccu-. 
tor and PoUux^ of the Ist^and 2d magnitudes, in thefiead of 
^the Twins, about 4^^^ apart. 

There being only 11 minutes' difference in the transit of 
these two stars over the meridian, they may both be consid- 
ered as culminating at 9 o'clock about the 24th of February. 
Castor, in the head of Castor, is a star of the 1st magnitude, 
4Jo N. W. of Pollux, and is tne northernmost and the bright- 
est of the two. Pollua:, is a star of the 2d magnitude, in the 
head of Pollux, and is 4^*^ S. £. of Castor. This is one of 
the stars from which the moon's distance is calculated in the 
Nautical Almanac. 

"Of the famed Ledean pair, 

One most illustrious star adorns tiieir sign. 
And of the second order shine twin lights.'' 

The ]Q|}atiye magnitude or brightness of these stars has 
undergone considerable changes at different periods ; whence 
it has been conjectured by various astronomers that Pollux 
must vary from the 1st to the 3d magnitude. But Herschel, 
who observed these stars for a period of 25 years, ascribes the 
Taxiation to Castor, which he found to consist of two stars, 
very close together, the less revolving about the larger once 
in 342 years and two months. 

Bradly and Maskelyne found that the line joining the two stars which form ' 
CSastor was, at all timea of the year, parallel to the line Joining Castor andPolluz ; 
and that both of the former move around a common centre between them, fai 

ItfaemtielUttion come to the meridian «U nMnirht to-day, how hHf b^in-€ it wik 
tome to ttie meridian at 9 o'elo^ in the ovmUng? ]^ the eomteUationOemini corns m 
ike meridian at midniirht, ontheith qf January, when toiU it culminate at 9 o'cipdtj 
Vhat^s tbe number of stars In Gemini? By what means is It readily rec<»[msedl 
m do these stars culnUnate? Desciibe Castor. Describe Pollux. For what vn^ 
IS it Observed at sea? Is the brightness of these two stars always the samel \ .< 
iftes this variableness to Castor* and for what reason) 



68 PICTCRB 0¥ THB BBA7ENS >1« 

;rbtti neaxlyclnsiilar, utwo bafls attached to a nxl would do^ If lOfpeBdad by » 

■criiuc affixed to the centre of gravity between them. 

** These men," says Dr. BowJitch, **were endowed with a shaiimeaa of Ttebm, 
and a power of penetrating into apace, ahnost unexampled in the history of ••• 
tronomy." 

&.bout 20° 8. W. of Castor and Pollux, and in a line nearly parallel with then^ 
Is a i-ow of stars 3P or 4° apart, chiefly of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, which dis- 
tinguish the feet of the twins. The briglitest of these is AlhenOf in PoUux's upper 
foot ; the next small star S. of it. is in his other foot : the two upper stars in the 
Uno next above Ganuna, mark Castor's feet 

■ This row of feet is nearly two thirds of the distance from Pollux to Beteigneae 
lu Orion, and a line connecting them will pass through Alhena, the principal ttor 
in the feet About two thirds of the distance from Uie two in the head to those 
In the feet, and nearly parallel with them, there is another row of three stars. 
about 6^ apart, which mark the knees. 

'There are, in this constellation, two other remarkable parallel rows, lying at 
right angles with the former; one, leading from the head to the^bot of CaMor, 
the brightest star being in the middle, and in the knee : the other, leading from 
the head to the foot of Pollux, tlie brightest star, called Wasat being In the body, 
and Zeta, next belcw it, in the knee. 

Wasat is in the eclipttc, and very near the centre of the constellation. The 
two stars, Mu and Tejat. in the northern foot, are also very near the ecliptic : 
Tejat is a small star of between the 4th and &th magnitudes, 29 W. of Mu, and 
deserves to be noticed because it marks tlie spot of the* summer solstice, in the 
tropic q£ Cancer^ just where the sun is on the longest day of the year, and ii^ 
moreover, the dividing limit between the torrid andthe N. temperate zone. 

ProptUj also in the ecliptic^ 2|o W. of Tejat, is a star of only the 5th magBH 
fude, but rendered memorable as being the star which served for many years to 
determme the position of the planet Uerschel, after its first discovery. 

ThuB as we pursue the study of the stars, we shall find continiuJly new and 
more wonderful developments to engage our reelings and reward our labour. We 
shall have the peculiar satisfaction of reading the same volume that was spread 
out to the patriarclis and poets of other ages, of admiring what they admired, and 
of being led as they were led, to look upon these lofty mansions of being as har* 
ing, above them all, a common Father with ourselves, " who ruleth in the armies 
ofheaven, and bringeth forth their hosts by number." 

Distort.— <?astor and Pollux were twin brothers, sons of Jupiter, by Leda, 
the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. The manner of their birth was very sin- 
gular. They were educated at rallena, and afterwards embarked with Jason in 
the celebrated contest for the golden fleece, at Colchis ; on which occasion they 
behaved with unparalleled courage and bravery. Pollux distinguished himaeu 
by his achievements in arms and personal prowess, and Castor jn equestrian 
exercises and the management of horses. Whence they are represented, in the 
temples of Greece, on white horses, armed with spears, riding side by aide, 
their heads crowned with a peituusjon whose top glittered a star* Among the 
ancieitts, and especially among the komans, there prevailed a superstition tha* 
Castor and Pollux often appeared at the head of their armies, and led on theli 
troops to battle and to victory. 

*< Castor and Pollux, first in martial force, 
One bold on foot, and one renown'd Ibr horse. 

Fair Leda's twins in time to stars decreed, 

One fought on foot, one curb'd the fiery Bteed."^Fir|riL 

"Castor alert to tame the foaming steed. 
And Pollux strong to deal the manly deed."— Iferlia^. 

Ths brdthers cleared the Hellespont and the neighbourinc seas from pirates 
after tLrsir return from Colchis ; flrom which circumstance mey have ever sinot 
been regarded as tlie friends and protectors of navigation, m the Argonaoti' 
expedition, d'uing a violent storm, it is said two flames of fire were seen to play 
around their heada^ and immediately the tempest ceased, and the sea was calm. 



Detcrthe the 9tan whUA mark the feet of the Ttoine. Specify the etan in etteh. Haw 
U this r<M^ situated vHSM respect to Orionf Describe the seamd row qf stars In tMa 
oonstellattun. Are there vet other rows in this constettation? Describe them. What 
is the position qf Wasat ? Two other stars are very near the ecHptic ; mention i 
tfttscrtbe the position qfT^^. Qive a description qf the star Fr^^ 



Mir IILj 0ANI8 MIMOS. 

From this cireamMnM. Ifaa Milon infexred, that whenever brfh ins appeerad 
n Ihe ekj, it would be air weather : but when oaly one appeared then would 
beatorma. 

St. Paul, after beinf wrecked on the ialaod of Melita, embarked for Rome *!■ 
ft ahip whose sign was Ctutor and PoUus ;" ao formed, no doubt in accordance 
irilh the popular belief that theae dirinitiea preaided over the acience and aalatv 
ofnaTigation. 

They were initiated into the aacred myateriea of Cabiri, and into thoee of Cerea 
md Eleuaia. They were invited to a feaat at which Lynceus and Idea were goint 
to celebrate their niqitiala with Phcebe ind Telaria, the daoghtera of Leucippua^ 
DTother to Tyndarua. They became enamoured of the daughtera, who were 
•boat to be married, and reaolved to supplant their rivals : a battle ensued, in 
which Caator killed Lynceus, and waa himself killed by Idea. Pollux revenged 
Ihe death of hia brother by killing Idas ; but, being hunaelf immortait and most 
tenderly attached to hia deceased brother, he waa unwilling to aurvive him ; he 
therelbre entreated Jupiter to restore him. to life, or to be deprived himself of 
fanmertality ; whereibre, Jupiter permitted Caator, who had been slain, to ahara 
the immortality of Pollux ; and consetjuently, as long as the one was upon eartlk 
ao lon|g waa the other detained in the mfemai regions, and they altematelv lived 
and died eveir day. Jupiter also further rewarded their fraternal attachment 
by changing them ooth into a constellation under the name of Qeminii TVrtfia, 
iniich, it ia strangely pretended, never appear toged^er, but when one rises the 
othsr aeia, and ao on altemately. 

**By turns they visit this ethereal sky, 
And live alternate, and alternate die."— Jlbmer. 

''Pollux, offering his alternate life, 
Could free hlsbrother, and could daily go 
By turns aloft, by tuma descend below."— TirgiL 

Oasfior and PoUux wese wor8him>ed both by the Greeks and Romans, who 
aacrificed white lambs upon their altars. In the Hebrew Zodiac, the conatellar 
tkMi of the Twins refers to the tribe of Benjamin. 



CAMS MINOR. 

The Little Dog. — This small constellation is situated 
about 5^ N. of the equinoctial, and midway between Canis 
Major and the Twins. It contains 14 stars, of which two are 
very brilliant. The brightest star is called Procyon. It is 
of tne 1st magnitude, and is about 4^ S. E. of the next bright- 
est, marked ufomelza, which is of the 2d magnitude. 

These two stars resemble the two in the head of the Twins. 
Procyon, in the Little Dog, is 23° S. of Pollux in Gemini, 
and Gromelza is about the same distance S. of Castor. 

A great number of geometrical figures may be formed of 
the principal stars in the vicinity of the Little Dog. For ex- 
ample ; Procyon is 23o S. of Pollux, and 26© E. of Betelguese, 
and forms with them a large right angled triangle. A^ain 
Procyon is equidistant from Betelguese and Sirius, and forms 
with theui an "equilateral triangle whose sides are each about 
26°. If a straight line, connecting Procyon and Sirius, be 
produced 23° farther, it will point out Phaet, in the Dove. 

Describe the situation of Canls Minor. What Is Its whole number of stars? What 
U the masnituile of its principal ones } What is the brightest one called, and how Is 
It situated? What other stars do Procyon and Gomelza resemble? What aro the distance 
anddlrectlcnof Procyon from Pollux? Of Gomelzaft-om Castor? What are thelrdlstanor 
and illrecUon from Castor and Pollux? What kind of figures may be fbnred of th* 
stars in the neig'ibourhocd of the Little Dok? Give sonie cxauiples. 



70 PICTUBB or TRE HBA7EM8. |,f«t. 

Procyon is often taken for the name of the Little Dog, or 
for the whole constellation, as Sirius is for the greater one^ 
hence it is common to refer to either of these constellations 
bj the name of its principal star. Procyoa comes to the me- 
ridian 53 minutes after Sirius, on the 24th of Febrauy; 
although it rises, in this latitude, about half an hour before it. 
For this reason, it was called Pracyon, from two Greek words 
which signify (Ante Cants) "before me dog." 

*<Canicula, fourteen thy stars ; bnt fiir 
Above them all, illustrious through the skiei^ 
Beams Procyon ; justly by Greece thus called 
The bright /orerttnn«r of the greater Dog.** 

HtsTOBT.— The Little Dog, according to Greek fable;, is one of Orion's boundb 
Borne suppose it refers to the Egyptian god Anubis, which was represented wtth 
a dog's head : others to Diana, the eoddess of hunting ^ and others, that it is tto 
fiuthAil dog Msra, which belonged to Icarus, and discovered to his daqf^itei 
Erigone tlie place of his burial. Others, again, say it is one of Actnon's boonds 
that devoured their master, after Diana ha^ transformed him into a stag^ to pr»' 
vent, as she said, his betraying her. 

"This said, the man began to disappeai 
By slow degrees, and ended in a deer. 
Transformed at lencth, he flies away in hMte, 
And wonders why he flies so fast 
But as bv chance, within a neighbMng brook, 
He saw nis branching horns, and alterd look, 
Wretched Actson ! m a doleful tone 
He tried to speak, but only gave a groan ; 
And as he wept, within the watery glass, 
He saw the big round drops, with silent pace. 
Run trickling down a savage, hairy fece. 
What should he do 1 or seek his old abodes. 
Or herd among the deer, and skulk in woods 1 
As he thus ponders, he behind him spies 
His opening hounds, and now he hears their cries. 
* From sliouting men, and horns, and dogs, he flies. 

When now the fleetest of the pack that press'd 
Close at his heels, and sprung before the rest, 
Had fasten'd on hini, straight another pair 
Hung on bis wounded side, and held him there^ 
Till all the pack came ap^ and every hound 
Tore the sad huntsman grovelling on the ground.'** 

It is most probable, however, that the E;gyptians were the inventors of this eon 
■tellation ; and as it always rises a little before the Dog-star, which^ at a partieo- 
lar season, they so much dreaded, it is properly represented as a httle watchAil 
creature, giving notice like a foithful sentinel of the otber's ^iproach. 

* It is not diflRcult to deduce the moral of this fiible. The selfishness and capilee of 
human firlendshlp (Urnlsh dally lUustTations of it While the good nam, the phllaii> 

I tiiropist, or the public benefoctor, la in afliuent circumstances, and, with a heart l« 

devise, has the power to minister blessings to his numerous beneficiaries, his virtoes 

I are the general theme: knit when adverse storms have changed the idbilidr, thoogb 

they could not shake the will of their bene&ctor, be is straightway pursued, like Ao* 
taaon, by his own hounds ; and, like Actaeon, he Is " torn to tlte ground" by the ftagi 
that fed upon his bounty.— L. Qu C L. 

What name is usually given to the Little Dog? When does Procyon rise and cntanl> 
nats, with respect to the Dog-Ptar) What name, for this reason, was given to this 
constellation} 



HAP HI. I MQMOGBKO»— <3AlVn BlUOB. ^ 

MONOCEROS. 

The Unicorn. — This is a modern constellation, which wa« 
made out of the unformed stars of the ancients that lay scat- 
tered over a large space of the heavens between the two 
Dogs. It extends a considerable distance on each side of the 
equinoctial, and its centre is on the same meridian with 
Procyon. 

It contains 31 small stars, of which the seven principal 
ones are of only the 4th magnitude. Three of these are 
situated in the head, 3^^ or 4° apart, forming a straight line 
N. E. and S. W. about 9^ E. oi Betelffuese in Orion's shoul- 
der, and about the same distance S. of Alhena in the foot of 
the Twins. 

The remaining stars in this constellation are scattered over 
a large space, and being very small, are unworthy of particu- 
lar notice. 

Hi8T0iiT.--THB MoNOcmoB is a species of the Unicorn or Rhinoceros. It hi 
about the size of a horse, with one white horn growing out of the middle of Its 
forehead. It is said to exist in the wilds of Ethiopia, and to be very formidable. 

Naturalists sa^ that, when pursued by the hunters, it precipitates itself from 
the tops of the highest roclcs, and pitches upon its horn, which sustains the whoto 
force of its fall, so that it receives no damage thereby. Bparmann informs usl 
that tlie fiffure of the linicom, described br some of the ancients, has been found 
delineated on the surface of the rock in Caffraria; and thence conjectures that 
such an animal, instead of being fabulotu^ as some suppose, did once actoallj 
exist in Africa. Loboaffirmsthat he has seen it 

The rhinoeeroBy which is akin to iC^s found in Bengal, Biam, Oochin Chln^ 
Dart of China Proper, and the isles of Java and Sumatra. 



CANIS MAJOR. 

The Great Doo. — This interesting constellation is situa- 
ted southward and eastward^ of Orion, and is universally 
Known by the brilliance of its principal star, Siriics, which is 
apparently the largest and bri£fntest m the heavens. It glows 
m the winter hemisphere with a lustre which is unequalled 
by any other star in the firmament. 

Its distance from the earth, though computed at 20 millions 
of millions of miles, is supposed to be less than that of anv 
other star: a distance, however, so great that a cannon ball, 
which flies at the rate of 19 miles a minute, would be two 
millions of years in passing over the mighty interval ; while 
sound, moving at the rate of 13 miles a minute, would reach 
Sirius in little less than three millions of years. 

What stars comnoss the constellation Monocerosl How Is this constellation sltii' 
ated, and when Is It on the meridian i What is the whole number of Its stars 7 



Is the magnitude of Its princltel ones? Describe those tai the head. Describe th0ji» 
sltkm and apiiearaace of Cams Mi^or. What Is its appearance In the winter? WmC 
IS Its distance flrom the earth computed to be, and how Is It compared with that of tha 
uthsr stars 7 How long would it take a cannon-ball to pais orer this dlitanea In wkfll 
lima would sound reach Sirius firom the earth 2 



72 PIGTURB OF TBS BKAVBlTft. iim 

It may be shown in the same manner, that a ray of light, which occupies only 
R minutes and 13 seconds in coming to as from the sun, which is at the rate q{ 
nearly two hundred thousand miles a second, would be 3 years and S2 days in 
passing through the vast ^pace that lies between Sirius and the eartiL. Conse* 

Siuently, were it blotted from the heavens, its light would continue visible to ns 
or a period of 3 year^ and 82 days after it had ceased to be. 

If the nearett stars give such astonishing results, what shall we say of those 
which are situated a tliousand times as fu beyond these, as these are from usi 

In the remote age? of the world, when every man was his 
own astronomer, the rising and setting of Sirius, or the Dog' 
star, as it is called^ was watched with deep and various so- 
licitude. The ancient T hebans, who first cultivated astro- 
nomv in E^pt, determined the length of the year b)r the 
number of its risings. The Egyptians watched its rising 
with mingled apprehensions of nope and fear; as it was 
ominous to them of agricultural prosperity or blighting 
drought. It foretold to them the rising of tne Nile, whicE 
they called Siris, and admonished them when to sow. The 
Romans were accustomed yearly, to sacrifice a dog to Sirius 
to render him propitious in his influence upon tneii herds and 
fields. The eastern nations generally believed the rising of 
Siiius would be productive of great heat on the earth. 

Tlius Virgil :— 

" Turn steriles exurere Sirius agros : 

Ardebant herbs, et victum seges sgra negabat" 

" Parched was the grass, ami blighted was the com : 



ai^l 
is,^c 



Nor 'scape the beasts; for Sirius,^om on high, 
With pestilential heat infects the sky." 

Accordingly, to that season of the year when Sirius rose 
with the sun and seemed to blend its own influence with the 
heat of that luminary, the ancients gave the name of Dag- 
days, (Dies Canicular es). At that remote period the Dog- 
days commenced on the 4th of August, or four days after the 
summer solstice, and lasted forty days or until the 14th of 
September. At present the Dog-days begin on the 3d of 
July, and continue to the 11th of August, being one day less 
than the ancients reckoned. 

Hence, it is^lain that the Dog-days of the modems have no 
reference whatever to the rising of Sirius, or any omer star, 
because the time of their rising is perpetually accelerated by 
the precession of the equinoxes : they have reference then 
only to the summer solstice which never changes its position 
in respect to the seasons. 

Hoto lone is light in cvtningfrom Sirius to the earth 7 Suppose this star were now ta 
he blotted fr/tm the heavens, hoto long before its twinkling would expire ? How was the 
rising of Sirius re^nled ii> the remote ages of the world ? What use was made of It 
by the ancient Thebans? How did the Egyptians regard It, and fbr what reason? 
What did it foretel to them ? What did the Romans oflfer in sacrlflce to Sirius annualiy ? 
Why? How was it regarded by the eastern nations generally 1 What season of the 

£ ear did the ancients call Dog-days? When did these begin, and how long did Xhej 
ist? At present, when do they begin and end* Have our Dc^-days any reference ts 
the TMff ftar) 



ill.] ' CAMUS MAJO& 79 



The time of Birius' rising ▼aries with the latitude oftbe place, and in the 
latitude, ia sensibly changed after a course of yeara, on account of the precet 
aion ai tlie equinoxes. This enables us, to determine with ^>projciDuae aec» 
mcy, the dates of many events of antiquity, which cannot be well determined 
by other records. We do not icnow. for instance, in what precise period of the 
world Hesiod flourished. Yet he tells us, in his Opera et JHet^ Ub. li. v. 18& that 
Arsturu« in his time rose heliacallpr, 60 days after the winter solstice, which, 
th^n was in the 9th degree of Aquarius, or 39° beyond its present position. Now 
39^ 1 £0^" —2794 years since the time of Heaiod, which correqmnda very nearly 
with history. 

When a star rose at sun-setting, or set at sun-rising, it was called the Aehroni 
aal rising or setting. When a planet or star appeared above the horizon jnH 
beibre the sun, in the morning, it was called the Heliacal rising of the star ; ano 
when it sunk below the horizon mimediatelv after the sun, in the evening, it was 
called the Heliacal setting. According to Ptolemy, stars of the firwt magnitude 
are seen rising and setting when the sun is 12^ below the horizon: stars of ttia 
a magnitude require the sun's depression to be 13^ ; stais of the od magnitude, 
.4°,^and so on, allowing one degree for each magnitude. The rising and setting 
of the stars described in this wtiy, since this mode of description oflra occurs 
in Hesiod, Virgil, Columella, Ovid Pliny, Sec. are called poetical rising and set 
ting. They served to mark the times of religious ceremonies, the seasons al- 
lotted to the several departments of husbandry, and the overflowing c^'^ ' Nile 

The student may be perplexed to understand how thv 
Dog-star, which he seldom sees till mid-winter, should be 
associated with the most fervid heat of summer. This is 
explained by considering that this star, in summer, is over 
our heads in the daytime^ and in the lower hemisphere at 
night. As " thick the floor of heaven is inlaid with patines 
of bright gold," by day, as by night ; but on account of the 
superior splendour bf the sun, we cannot see them. 

Sirius is situated nearly S. of Alhena, in the feet of the 
Twins, and about as far S. of the equinoctial as Alhena i? 
N. of it. It is about 10° E. of the Hare, and 26^ S. of Be- 
telguese in Orion, with which it forms a large equilateral 
triangle. It also forms a similar triangle with Phaet in the 
Dove, and Naos in the Ship. These two triangles being joined 
at their vertex in Sirius, present the figure of an enormous 
X, called by some, the Egyptian X. Sirius is also pointed 
out by the direction of the Three Stars in the belt of Orion. 
Its distance from them is about 23^. It comes to the meri- 
dian at 9 o'clock on the Ilth of February. 

Mirzam, in the foot of the Dog, is a star of the 2d magni- 
tude, D^o W. of Sirius. A little above, and 4° or 5° to the 
left, there are three stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, form- 
ing a triangular figure somewhat resembling a dog's head. 



What U meant hu the Aehronical rieing and eetting qfthe etan 7 What, by then 
BeUacal rising and eetting 7 By whom were the terms thue applied, and what wer% 
Iheee ritinge and aetHnge called 7 What did they serve 7 Explain how t is, that tba 
Dog-star, which fs seldom seen Ull mid-winter, should be associated with the roojrt 
fe^d heat of summer. Are there as many stars over our head In the daytime as i« 
the night I Describe the sltuaUon of Sirius. What is Its position with regard to Ba- 
telguese and Procyon, and in connexion with them what figure dues It Ibmi wiUi 
what other stars does it form a similar triangle? What Is the appearance of these twti 
trfansles taken together? How else Is Sirius pointed out? Describe the position and 
•■CnlUide of MIxxam. What stars marlc the head of the Dogf 

7 



74 nOTVRB' OF THE HEAVENS. [MAR. 

The brightest of them, on the left, ia called Muliphen. It 
entirely disappeared in 1670, and was not seen again for 
more than 20 years. Since that time it has maintained a 
steady luster. 

Wesen is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, in 
the back, 11^ S. S. £. of Sirius. with which, and Mirzam in 
the paw, it makes an elongated triangle. The two hinder 
feet are marked by Naos and Lambda, stars of the 3d and 
4th magnitudes, situated about 3° apart, and 12^ directly S. 
of the ^refoot. This constellation contains 31 visible stars, 
including one of the Ist magnitude, four of the 2d, and two 
of the 3d ; all of which are easily traced out by the aid of 
the map. 

HisTOBT.—Manilius, a Latin poet who floariaheil in the Augustan afe, wrote 
an admirable poenif in five booiu, upon the fixed stars, in which lie thus speaka 
of this constellation : — 

** All others he exeels ; no &irer light 
Ascends the skies, naae sets so clesr and bright" 

But EvBOSiA best describes it :— 

" Next shines the Dog with sixty-four distinct ; 
Famed for pre-eminence in envied song, 
Thane of Homeric and Virglhan lays : 
His fierce mouth flames with dreaded Sirtu$; 
Three of his stars retire with feeble t)eams." 

According to some mythologists, this constellation i^presents one of Orion's 
hounds, which wss placed in tne sky, near this celebrated huntsman. Others 
say it received its name in honor of the dog given by Aurora to Cepbalus, which 
surpassed in speed all the animals of his species. Cephalusj it is said, attempted 
to prove this by running him against a fox, which, at tliat time, was thought to 
be the fleetest of all animals. Afier they had run together a long tiipe without 
either of them obtaining the victory, it is said that Jupiter was so much gratified 
at the fleemess of the dog, that he assigned him a place in the heavens. 

But the name and form of this constellation are, no doubt, derived from the 
Egyptians, who carefully watched its rising, and by it judged of the swelling of 
the Nile, which they called Siris, and, in their hieroglyphical manner of writing, 
since it was as it were the sentinel and watch of the year, repreaented it under 
the figure of a dog. They observed that when Sirius became visible in the east, 
just before the moniing dawn, the overflowing of the Nile immediately followed. 
Thus it warned them, uke a laithftd dog, to escape fiom the region of the Invii- 
dation. 



CHAPTER V. 

DIREOTIOHB FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICB aA 

ON THE MERIDIAN IN MARCH. 

ARGO NAVIS. 

The ship Argo. — This constellation occupies a large 
space in the southern hemisphere, though but a small part 

Which is the biifhtest of these, and what remarkable cireumstanoe in its history} 
Bow iMS It appealed since iti return 7 Describe the situation and magnitude of We- 
sen? Wbat stan mark the hinder feet? What ia the number of visibTe stais in tids 
eensteUatMNi} Desaribe iheeowteilaiionAiieNavis? 



MAT III.] AR60 NAVIS. 75 

of it can be seen in the United States. It is situated & E. 
of Canis Major, and may be known by the stars in the provr 
and deck of the ship. 

If a straight line joining Betelguese and Sirius, be pro- 
duced 18^ to the southeast, it will point out Naos, a star of 
the 2d magnitude, in the rowlock of the ship. This star is 
in the S. E. corner of the Egjrptian X, and of the large 
equilateral triangle made by itself with Sirius and the Dove. 
When on the meridian, it is seen from this latitude about 8^ 
above the southern horizon. It comes to the meridian on 
the 3d of March, about half an hour after Procyon, and con- 
tinues visible but a few hours. 

Gamma, in the middle of the ship, is a star of the 2d mag- 
nitude, about 7° S. of Naos, and just skims above the soutn- 
ern horizon for a few minutes, and then sinks beneath it 
The principal star in this constellation is called, afler one 
of the pilots, Canopu8; it is of the 1st magnitude, 36^ nearly 
S. of Sirius, and comes to the meridian 17 minutes afler it; 
but having about 53^ of S. declination, it cannot be seen in 
the United States. The same is true oi Miaplacidus^ a star 
of the 1st magnitude in the oars of the ship, about 25° &. of 
Canopus, and 61° S. of Alphard, in the heart of Hydra. 

An observer in the northern hemisphere, can see the stars as many degrees 
■oath of the eqainoctial in the southern hemisphere, as his own latitude lacks of 
90Pi and no more. 

Markehj is a star of the 4th magnitude, in the prow of the 
ship, sftid may be seen from this latitude, 16° S. E. of Sirius, 
ana about 10° E. of Wesen, in the back of the Dog. This 
star may be known by it& forming a small triangle with two 
others of the same magnitude, situated a little above it, on 
the E., 3° and 4° apart. 

This constellation contains 64 stars, of which two are of 
the Ist magnitude, four of the 2d, and nine of the 3d. Most 
of these are too low down to be seen in the United States. 

Bistort.— This constellation is Intended to perpetuate the memory of the 
fiunoos ship which carried Jason and his 54 companions to Oolchis, when they 
resolved upon the periious expedition of recovering the folden fleece. The de- 
rivation or the word Areo has been often disputed. Some derive it from Argos, 
supposing that this was the name of ihe person who first proposed the expedition, 
and boilt the ship. Others maintain that it was built at Argos, whence its name. 
Cicero calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, commonly called Argives. 
Diodonis derives the word from opydc,* which signifies stoift. Ptolemy says, 
bfi: not trulv, that Hercules built the ship and called it Argo. after a son of Jason, 
wlu) bore the same name. This ship had fifty oars, and being tlius propellecl 
moat have liiLllen far short of the bulk of the smallest ^hip craft used by modems. 

Where is it situated ? Point out the situation of Naos, in the ship ) When may it be 
seen in this latitude ? When is it on the meridian 7 Describe the position and mogni- 
tnde of Gamma. What are the situation and name of t)ie principal star in this conatel- 
Mtion 1 Why can it not be seen in the United States 1 Is any other coniiiderable star 
in the thi,} similarly sttuatt'd ) Describe Markeb. How may thid star be iinown ? 
What is the number of vixible blan m this constellation 7 WhiU u the magnitude of its 
principal oats} 



76 PICTURE OF THE HEAVEN& [ifAJl. 

It w even said that the crew were able to carry it on their backs from the Dan- 
ube to^he Adriaiic. 

^ccoitling to many authors, she hail a beam on her prow, cut in the Ibrest of 
Dodnna by M'nervA, which had the power of giving oracles to the Argonauts. 
Thin stiip'was tlie firvt, it is said, that ever ventured on the sea. After the expe- 
dition was fiiii8he<i, and Jason had returned in triumph, he ordered her to be 
drawn ajihore at the istlimus of Corinth^ and consecrated to Neptune, the god of 
the sea. 

Sir iKaac Newton endeavors to settle the period of this expedition at about 90 
vears before ilie destruction of Troy, and ^ yeara after the death of Solomon. 
I>r. Bryant, howevet', rejects the history of the Argooautic expetlition as a mere 
fiction *oi' the Greeks, and supposes that this group of stars, which the poets de- 
nominate Argo Ndvis. refers to Noah's ark and the deluge, and that the fable of 
tiie Artfoiiauric expedition is founded on certain Elgyptiah traditions that related 
to the preservation of Noah and his family during the flood. 



CANCER 

The Crab is now the fiflh constellation and fourth sign 
of the Zodiac. It is situated in the ecliptic, between Leo on 
the E. and Gemini on the W. It contains 83 stars, of which 
one is of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitude. Some 
place the first-mentioned star in the same class with the other 
seven, and consider none larger than the 4th magnitude. 

Beta is a star of the 3d or 4th magnitude, in the south- 
western claw. 10° N. E. of Procyon, and maybe known from 
the fact that it stands alone, or at least has no star of the 
same magnitude near it. It is nridway between Procyon 
and Acubens. 

Acubens^ is a star of similar brightness, in the south-eastern 
claw, 10° N. E. of Beta, and nearly in a straight line with it 
and Procyon. An imaginary line drawn from Capella through 
Pollux, will point out Acubens, at the distance of 24° from 
Pollux. It may be otherwise distinguished by its standing 
between two very small stars close by it in the same claw. 

l^egmine, the Kist in the back, appears to be a small star, 
of between the 5th and 6th magnitudes, 8i° in a northerly 
direction from Beta. It is a treble star, and to be distinctly 
seen, requires very favorable circumstances. Two of them 
are so near together that it requires a telescopic power of 
300 to separate them. 

About 7° north-easterly from Tegmine, is a nebulous clus- 
ter of very minute stars, in the crest of Cancer, sufficiently 
luminous to be seen by the naked eye. It is situated in a 
triangular position with regard tolhe head of the Twins and 
the Little Dog. It is about 20° W. of each. It may other- 
wise be discovered by means of two conspicuous stars of 

What is the relative position of Cancer amoni; (he signs and constellations of tba 
Zodiac ' How is it situated .< What are the number and ma'.'nitude uf its fitarv ) 
Whe^e is Beta situated, and how nnuy it be Iti.ovvn ? Which way fiom Procyon and 
Acubens } Describe Aeubtins. What are is disance and di.ectiou from Pollux > liow 
majr It be otherwise kiiowu) Describe Teirmine. '1 here is a lemariiable cluster La 
tbi» conat«(liatM>a— daacribe its poaition. How may it other%vise be discovertt«l } 



MAP in.] CANCER. 77 

the 4th magnitude lying one on either side of it, at the dich 
tance of about 2° cailed the nortJiem and southern AseUL 
By some of the Orientalists, this cluster was denominated 
PrcBsepCy the Manger, a contrivance which their fancy fitted 
up for the accommodation of the Aselli or Asses ; and it ie 
eo called by modern astronomers. The appearance of this 
nebula to the unassisted eye, is not unlike the nucleus of a 
comet, and it was repeatedly mistaken for the comet of 
1832, which, in the month of November, passed in its neigh- 
borhood. 

The southern Asellus, marked Delta, is situated in the 
line of the ecliptic, and, in connection witn Wasat and Tejet, . 
marks the course of the earth's orbit for a space of 36° from 
the solstitial colure. 

There are several other double and nebulous stars in this 
constellation, most of which are too small to be seen ; and 
indeed, the whole constellation is less remarkable for the 
brilliancy of its stars than any other in the Zodiac. 

The sun arrives at the sign Cancer about the 2l8t of June, 
but does not reach the constellation until the 23d of July. 

The mean right ascension of Cancer is 126°. It is conse- 
quently on the meridian the 3d of March. 

A few degrees S. of Cancer, and about 17® E. of Procyon, are foar atars of the 
4th maipiitude, 3° or 4° apart, which mark the head of Hydra. Thia conalella* 
lion will be described on Bf ap III. 

The beginning of the sign Cancer (not the constellation) is called the TVopie 
of CkLftttr^ and when the sun arrives at this point, it has reached its utmost limit 
of north declination, where it seems to remain stationary a few days before it 
begins to decline again to the south. Tiiis stationary attitude oi the sun is called 
the summer «o/sf tee ; from two Latin words signifying the sun* a standing stUL 
The distance from the. first point of Cancer to the equinoctial, which, at present, 
is 23^* 271', is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. It is a remarkable and well-as- 
certained fact, that this is continually growing lees and less. The tropics are 
slowly and steadily approaching the equinoctial, at the rate of about half a eecood 
every year ; so that the sun does not now come so far north of tiie equator in 
summer, nor decline so hx south in winter, as it must have done at the creation, 
by nearly a degree. 

History. — ^In the Zodiacs of Esne and Dendera, and in most of the astrologi* 
cal remains of Egypt, a Scarahseus, or Beetle, is used as the symbol of this sign ; 
but in Sir William Jones' Oriental Zodiac, and in some others found in India, we 
meet with the figure of a crab. As the Hindoos, in all probabilitv, derived their 
knowledge o( the stars from the Chaldeans, it is supposed that the figure of the 
crab, in uiis place, is more ancient than the Beetle. 

In some eastern representations of this sign, two animals, like asses, are found 
in this division of tne Zodiac ; and as the Chaldaic aame for the ass may be 
translated muddinesa, it is supposed to allude to the discoloring of the Nile, 
which river was rising when the sun entered Cancer. The Greeks, in copying 
this sign, have placed two asses as the appropriate symbol of it, which still re- 

What is the name of this cluster 7 What is \t» appearance to the naked eye, and Ar 
what has it been miHtaken } How is the star called the somhera Asellus situated, 
with respect to the ecliptic? What other stars in this conste' latum i At what time 
does the sun enter the »ign Cancer? At what time the comtellatiom Where is tha 
tropic of Cancer situated / When the aun reaches this point, what ia said qf its da- 
eUnatUm 1 What ia thia etationetry attitude of the sun called J What ia the objiqiiity 
tlfthc ecliptic 7 What remarkable fact in respect to thia dUtance l Doea thia affect tAs 
9taMiity qf tfmropiCBi 



76 PICTURE OF TfiE BEATE.iS. LaFMIL. 

main. They Ajqilain fheir reason, however, for adofiting this figure^ bT nying 
HuA these are the animals that assitited Jupiter in his victory over the giants. 

Popuis accounw Tor the origin of the aaaes in the folhrxring words :— Le Cttn* 
cer. 4& sont les etoiles appeuees 1 js anes, forme IMnipreinte du paviUon d' I» 
■achar que Jacob asriniile k F toe. 

Mythologistfl give different accoi nts of the origin of this eonstellatioiL Tbm 
prevailing opinion is, that while Hercules was engaged in his ftmous contest 
with the dreadful Lernasan monster, Juno, envious of the &me of his achieve- 
ments, sent a sea-crab to bite and annoy the hero's feet, bat the erab being aooa 
despatched, the goddess to reward its services, placed it among the conateHa- 
tions. 

''The Scorpion's claws here elaap a wide extent. 
And here the Crab's hi lesser daflps are lient" 



CHAPTER VI. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH AJK OM 

THE MERIDIAN IN APRIL. 

LEO. 

The Lion. — This is one of the most brilliant const&ilatioiis 
in the winter hemisphere^ and contains an unusual number 
of very bright stars. It is situated next E. of Cancer, and 
directly S. of Leo Minor and the Great Bear. 

The Hindoo Astronomer. Varaha, says, '* Certainly the southern solstice waa 
once in the middle of Aatena iLeo) ; the northern in the first decree of Dhan- 
Uhtt^* iAquarituiy. Since tliat time, the solstitial, as well as ue equinoctial 
points, have gone bacicwards on the ecUptic 76^* This divided by 6(«", gives 
6373 years ; which carry as back to the year of the world 464. Sir W. Jones, 
says, that Varaha lived when the solstices were in the first degrees of Cancer 
and Capricorn j or about 400 years l>efore the Christian era. 

Leo is ik<^Jifth sign, and the sixth constellation of the Zo- 
diac. The mean ri^ht ascension of this extensive group is 
150<^, or 10 hours. Its centre is therefore on the meridian the 
6th of April. Its western outline, however, comes to the 
meridian on the 18th of March, while its eastern limit does 
not reach it before the 3d of May. 

This constellation contains 95 visible stars, of which two 
are of the 1st magnitude, two of the 2d, six of the 3d, and 
fifteen of the 4th. 

*<Two splendid stars of highest dignity, 
^ Two of the second clsss the Lion boasts, 

And justly ilgures the fierce summer's rage.' 

The principal star in this constellation is of the 1st mag- 
nitude, situated in the breast of the animaL and named /?e- 
gulus, from the illustrious Roman consul of that name. 

What is the general appearance of the constelltttlon Leo9 Where Is It situated) 
What Is the relative order among the signs and con8tBnatIons>of the Zodiac ? What Is 
the right ascension of Leo, and when Is its centre on the meridian? When do tba 
outlines of the figure come to the meriiUan 7 What nmhher of #BfbIe stars does it con 
tain, and how large are the principal ones f What Is the name of the first star In the 
constellation, and whence is It derived) 



«4PIT.| UBO. IB 

It is utuated almost exactly In Me eclq^tk, and maf bi 
rtsadily distinguished on account of its superior Diilllancy. It 
IS the largest and lowest of a group of fire cr six bright 
stars which form a figure somewhat resembling a sickle, in 
the neck and shoulder of the Lion. There is a little star of 
the 5th magnitude about 2<^ S. of it, and one of the 3d mag* 
aitude 5^ N. of it, which will serve to point it out 

Re^us is the brightest star in the constellation, except 
Denebola, |n the tail, 25^ E. of it. Great use is made of Re- 
ffulus by nautical men, for determining their longitude at sea. 
Its IcUitudey or distance fr<»a the ecliptic^ is less than ^^\ baf 
its declination, or distance from the equinoctial is nearly 
13^ N. ; so that its meridian altitude will oe just equal to that 
of the sun on the 19th of Ausnist. Its right ascension is very 
nearly 150°. It therefore ciuminates about 9 oc.ock on the 
6th of April 

When Recolufl ia on the merMian. Castor and PoUuz are aeen about 40^ M. 
W. of it, and the two stars in the Little DoCi are about the same distance In a 8 
W. directioQ ; with which, and the two former, it makes a lai^js isosceles tri- 
angle whose ▼ertez is at Regulus. 

The next considerable star, is 5° N. of Regulus, marked 
Eta, situated in the collar ; it is of between the 3d and 4th 
magnitudes, and, with Regulus, constitutes the handle of the 
sicUe. Those three or four stars of the 3d magnitude, N. and 
W. of Eta, arching round with the neck of tne animal, de- 
scribe the blade. 

Al Gieba, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, situated in 
the shoulder, 4° in a N. E. direction from Eta, and may be 
easily distinguished by its being the brightest and middle 
one of the three stars lying in a semicircular form, curving 
towards the west ; and it is the first in the blade qj^the sickle. 

Adhafera, is a star of die 3d magnitude, situated in the 
neck, 4^ N. of Al CnehcLmd may be known by a very mi- 
nute star just below it. This is the second star in the blade 
of the sickle. 

Ras cd Aead, situated before the ear, is a star of the 3d or 
4th magnitude, 6° W. of Adhafera, and is the third in the 
blade of the sickle. The next star, EpstUyru of the sMne 
magnitude, situated in the head, is 2\° S. W. of Ras al Asad, 
and a little vnthin the curve of the sickle. About midvray 



Describe tfae situation or Regulus. What other stars serve to point it out? Wsatls 
Rs comparative brightness) what use is made of it in nautical astronomy 1 What are 
Its latitude and dedmationf On what day will Regulus culminate at 9 o'clock in the 
0venlDg7 WJten Uitont?ie meridiant with what start doe» U /brm a large (ruwiglc. 
and <n what direction are Uusyfrom it? What are the name and posltiot of the next 
considerable star in its vicinity 7 What stars form the blade of the sickle 7^ w Mie la 
Al Gieba situated, and how may it be distinguished? What is the position u Adhareia 
and how may it be known? Describe the situation of itas al Asad. 



80 PfCTOBS or TBE flEATEMS. IaMUI. 

^tween these, and a little to the E., is a yery^ smaii star 
hardly visibie to the naked eye. 

Lambda^ situated in the mouth, is a star of the 4th magn»- 
cude, 3^^^ S. W. of Epsilon, and the last in the sickle's point. 
Kappa, situated in the nose, is another star of the same 
magnitude, and about as far from Lambda as EpsOon. Epsiloa 
and Kappa are about 5^^ apart, and form the longest side of 
a triangle, whose vertex is m Kappa. 

Zozma, situated in the back of the Lion, is a star of the 
2d magnitude, 18° N. E. of Regius, and midway between 
it and Coma Berenices, a fine chister of small stars, 18<^ N. 
E. of Zozma. 

Theta, situated in the thigh, is another star c^ the 3d mag«- 
nitude, 5^ directly S. of Zozma, and so nearly on the same 
meridian that it culminates but one minute after it. This star 
makes a right angled triangle with Zozma on the N. and 
Denebola on the E., the right angle being at Theta. 

Nearly in a straight line with Zozma, and Theta, and 
south 01 them, are three or four smaller stars^ 4^ or 5^ apart, 
which mark one of the legs, 

Denebola^ is a bright star of the 1st magnitude, in the 
brush of the tail, 10^ S. E. of Zozma, and may be distin- 
guished by its great brilliancy. It is 6^ W. of the equinoc- 
tial colure, and comes to the meridian 1 hour and 41 minutes 
after Regulus, on the 3d of May ; when its meridian altitude 
is the same as the sun's at 12 o'clock the next day. 

When Denebola is on the meridian, Regulus is seen 25^ W. of it, and Phad, 
ID the square of Ursa Major, bears 99^ N. of it It forms, with these two, a bur]^ 
right angled triangle: the right angle being at Denebola. it is so nearly <hi the 
same meridian with rhad that it culminates only four minutes before it. 

Denebola is 35^^ W. of Arcturus, and about the same dis- 
tance N. ^V. of Spica Virginis, and forms, with them, a 
)arge equilateral triangle on the S. E. It also forms with 
Arcturus and Cor CaroH a similar figure, nearly as lai^e on 
the N. E. These two triangles, being joined at their base, 
constitute a perfect geometrical figure of the forms of a Rhom- 
bus : called by some, the Diamond of Virgo. 



A line drawn from Denebola through Regulus^ and continued 7^ or 8^ further 

point out Ai* 
tudes, mtuated in the fore claws, and about 3*^ apart. 



in the same direction, will point outXt and Omicrony of the 3d and 4th magni. 



What star is next? Describe the position of Lambdaf What are the situation and 
nagnitude of Kappa) What is the distance between Epsilon and Kappa? Describe the 
position of Zosma? Vltat are the magnitude and position of Theta ? What geometri- 
cal figure may be formed with this star, Zozma and Denebola? What stars in this 
neighbourhood mark one of the legs of Leo? Describe Denebola? How for is it from 
the eqiuinoctial colure, and when does it come to the meridian? YHun Den^ola it en 
the imridian, what treometrical Jlgure does it form, in oonneasUm vrith lUguUt* and 
Phad 7 With what other star is it nearly on the same meridian 7 What is the position 
of Denebola in regard to Arcturus and Sulca Vlrglnis, and what figure does it fbini 
with them ? With what other stars does Denebola form a similar figure ? What laiM 
geometrica' figure is formed by these two »«tangle8? HTUtf stars poht out Moss in mt 
lurc clouts 7 



MAP IV.| LEO. 81 

There are a nomber ot other stars of the 3d and 4th magnrtndes in this con* 
ateUation, which require no descriptloD, aa the scholar will easily trace theui out 
Iroia the nu^. The position of Regulus and Deneboia are often referred to In 
the geography of the heavens, as they serve to point out other clusters in the 
same neighbourhood. 

History.— According to Greek fitble, this Lion represents the formidable anl 
nial which infested the forests of Nemsaa. It was slain by Hercules, and placaiP 
by Jupiter among the stars in commemoration of the dreadful conflict. 8oma 
writers have applied the story of tlie twelve labours of Hercules to tlie progress 
of the sun tlirough the twelve signs of the ecliptic ; and as tlie combat of iliat 
celebrated hero with the Lion was his first labour, thev have placed Leo as ths 
first sign. The figure of the Lion wa& however, on the Egyptian cliarts long 
before the invention of the fables of Hercules. It wouki seem, moreover, ac- 
cording to the fable itself; that Hercules, who represented the sun, actually atow 
tile Nemaean Lion, because Leo was already a zodiacal sign. 

In hieroglyphical writing, the Lion wa*i an emblem of violence and fury ; an4 
the representation of this animal in the Zodiac, signified the intense heat ckcc^ 
stoned by the sun when it entered that part of the ecliptic. The Egyptians were 
much annoyed by lions during the heat of summer, as they at that season, left 
the desert, and hunted the bantcs of the Nile, which had then reached its greatest 
elevation. It was therefore natural for their astronomers to place the Lion where 
we find him in the lodiae. 

Tlie figure of Leo, very much as we now have it, is in all the Indian and Effyp- 
tian Zodiacs. The overflowing of the Nile, which was regularly and anxiously 
expected every year by the Egyptians, took place when the sun was in this sign. 
They therefore paid more attention to it, it is to be presumed, than to any other. 
Tuid was the principal reason. Mr. Green supposes, why Leo stands fine in the 
auiliacs of Dendera. 

The circular zodiac, mentioned in our account of Aries, and which adorned 
the ceiling in one of the inner rooms in the famous temple in that city, was 
brouglit away en masse in 1821, and removed to Paris. On its arrival at the louvre, 
it was purchased by the king for 150,000 franca, and, after being exhibited there 
for a year. wii« <n*aced in one of the halls of tlie library, where it is now to bo 
seen in apparently perfect preservation. This most interesting relic of astrologv, 
after 'being cut away from the ruins where it was foimd, is about one foot thick, 
and eight feet square. The rock of which it is composed, is sandstone. On the 
&ce of this stone, appears a large square, enclosing a circle four feet in diaine- 
tfcr, in which are arranged in an irregular spiral line, the zodiacal constellations, 
commencing with the sign Leo. On each side of this spiral line are placed a 
great variety of figures. These are supposed to represent other constellations, 
though they bear no analog, in form, to tliose which we now have. Manv or 
these figures are accompanied with hieroglyphics, which probably express their 
names. The commentator of ChampoUion, from whom we have derived many 
interesting (acts in relation to them, nas furnished merely a general history of 
their origin and purpose, but does not add particulars. Copies of these drawings 
and characters, nave been exhibited in this country, and the wonderful conclu* 
tfions that luive been drawn from them, have excited much astonishment. 

Compared with our present planispheres, or with stellar phenomena, it abounds 
with contradictory and irrelevant matter. So far from proving what was strenu- 
nisly maintained by mfidel vmters, soon after its discovery, that the Greeks 
look fi-om it the model of their zodiac, which they have trannnitted to us, it 
seems to demonstrate directly the reverse. The twelve signs, it is true, are 
diere. but they are not In their proper places. Cancer Is between Leo and the 
pole ; Virgo bears no proportton to the rest ; some of the signs are placed double : 
they are all out of the ecuiMic, and by no means occupy those regular and equal 
portions of space which Egyptian astronomers are said to have exactly measured 
by means ofthefar cA^i^o. . . ^ ^ ^, , , , 

The figures, without what may be termed the zodiacal circle, could never have 
Included the same stars hi the heavens which are now circumscribed by the 
flgnres of the constellations. Professor Green is of opinion, that the small 
UMUtment in the ruins of Dendera, which was mysteriously ceiled with this zo- 
mac, vras used for the purposes of judicial astrology, and tliat the sculptured 
llgnres upon it were employed in horoscopical predictions, and in that casting of 
BitiTitles for which the Egyptians were so famous. 

Why U the posMm qfRegtOut and Deneboia qften reared tot 



88 PICTURE OF TBS BEATEHB. [APIIIU 

In Ihe Hebrew Zodiac, Leo is MslAied to Jadal|»on wboM •tendard, aeeonilBi 
to an traditions, a IJon is painted. Tliis is clearly intimated in nmnerous |IMM> 

Ees of the Hebrew writings : Ex.—** Judah is a Lion's whe^ ; he sUwpeth dowA. 
e croucheth as a Lion ; and as an old Lion ; who shall rouse him up 1*^ " 
zHx. 8 "The lion of the tribe of Judah hath prevailed." Aev. t. 6. 



» 



LEO MINOR. 

Tbb Little Lion. — This constellation was formed 
Hevelius, out of the StellcR informeSy or unformed stars 
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Zodiacal con- 
stellation Leo, on the S. and Ursa Major, on the N. Its mean 
right ascension is the same with that of Regulus. and it 
comes to the meridian at the same time on the 6th oi April. 

The modem constellations, or those which have been added to our celestial 
maps 8in6e the adoption of the Greelc notation, in 1608, are referred to by the 
letters of the English alphabet, instead of the Greek. This is the case in regard 
to Leo Minor, and all other constellations whose origin is sabsequent to that 
period. 

Leo Minor contains 53 stars, including only one of the 3d 
nia^itude, and 5 of the 4th. The principal star is situated 
in the body of the animal, 13<> N. or Gamma Leonis,* in a 
straio^ht line with Phad, and may be known by a group of 
smaller stars, a little above it on tne N. W. 

It form's an equilateral triangle with Gamma and Delta Leonla^ the vertex beinc 
tn Leo Minor. This star is marlced with the letter i, in modem catalogues, and 
being the Principal representative of the constellation, is itself sometimes called 
the Little Lion : 8° E. of this star (the Little Lion) are two stars of the 4th mag* 
nitude, m die last paw of Ursa Major, and about l(P N. W. of i^ are two oihiNr 
■tars of the 3d magnitude, iA the first hind paw. 

*'The StiuiUer Lion now succeeds; a cohort 
Of fifty stars attend his steps ; 
And three, to sight unann'd, mvlslble.'* 



SEXTANS. 

The Sextant, called also Urania's Sextant,! is a modem 
constellation that He melius made out of the unformed stars of 
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Lion, on the 
N., and Hydra, on the S. 

it contains 41 rery small stars, ineludmg only one as large 

* Leontt is tlie senltlTe, or possessive case of Leo, and Qmnms I.«ottl» means the 
Gamma of Leo. Tfaus also the principal star in Aries Is maiked JUfhit ArietUt mean 
Ing the Alpha of Axles, ftc 

T Urania was one of the muses, and daughter of Jupiter and MnemosTne. She pie* 
tided over astroncnny. She was represented as a young virgin, dressed In an asnre* 
coloured robe, crowned with stars, holding a robe in her hands, and having many 
mathematical instruments about her. 



Wliat is the origin of Leo Minor, and how is it situated f What is Its mean right as> 
eenslonf When la it on the meridian? What are the number and magnitude of Its 
stars 1 What is the position of the principal star In this consteHation, and how maj U 
be known ) What figure does HJhrm ftHth aome other stars 7 What letter repraoenu 
thte atar, and what else ia it called 7 What nOmttt do toe Jlnd in tMa eonoteOmtiom I 
What are the origin and position of the Sextant? How many sian does it contalM * 



HAT IV.1 SYDBA AND THE CUT. 83 

as the 4th magnitude. Tiiis is situated very near the equi- 
lioctiai, 13^ S. of Regulus, and comes to the meridian alxmt 
the same time on the 6th of April. The other stars in this 
constellation are too small to engage attention. A few of the 
largest of them may be traced out from the map. 

H18TORT.— A sextant, in mathematics, is the sixth part of a circle, or an are! 
eomprehending 60 degrees. But tlie term is more partlciilarty lued to denoia 
an ascrouomicai instrument well known to mariners. Ita use is the same aa that 
of the quadrant; namely, to measure the ansular distance, and take the altitude 
of the sun, moon, planets, and fixed st&rs. tt is indispensaUe lo the mariner tai 
finding the latitude and longitude at sea, and abould be in the hands of every 
coTTeyor and practical enipneer. It may serve the purpose of a theodoUtSk in 
measoring inacceissiblG heights and distances. It maj gratify the young pl^Ml to 
know, that by means of such an instrument, weU adjusted, and with a clear eye 
mad a steady hand, he could readily tell, within a few hundred yards, how ftur 
■orth or south of tlie equator he was, and that from any quarter of the worikL 
known or unknown. This constellation is so calle<i^ on accouitt of a auppoMd 
resembjance to this instrument' 



HYDRA AND THE CUP. 

HirnRA, THE Water Serpent, is an extensire constella- 
tion, winding from E. to W. in a serpentine direction, orei 
a space of more thao 100 degrees in length. It lies south of 
Cancer Leo, and Virgo, and reaches almost from Canis Mi 
nor to Libra. It contains sixty stars, including one of the 2d 
magnitude, three of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. 

Alphard, or Cor HydrcB, in the heart, is a lone star of the 
2d magnitud€L 23^ S. S. W. of Regulus, and comes to the 
meridian at tne same tipe with Lambda, in the point of the 
sickle, about 20 minutes before 9 o'clock on the 1st of April. 
There is no other considerable star near it, for which it can 
be mistaken. An imaginary line drawn from Gamma Leonis 
through Regulus. will point out Cor Hydrse, at the distance 
of 230. 

The head of Hydra may be distinguished by means of four 
stars of the 4th ma^tude. 2^^ and 4<=> apart, situated 6° S. of 
Acubens, and forming a rnomboidal figure. The three upper 
stars in this cluster, form a small archj and may be known bv 
two very small stars just below the middle one, making witn 
it a very small triangle. The three western stars in the head, 
also mstke a beautiful little triangle. The eastern star in this 
group, marked Zeta, is about 6<=> directly S. of Acubens, and 
culminates at the same time. 

When Alphard is on the meridian, Alkes, of the 4th mag- 

ni7ide, situated in the bottom of the Cup, may be seen 2^^ 

• •• I . 

What Is the position of the laxgest one ? Describe the situation and extent of the 
Mmstellation Hydra. What are the number and magnitude of its stars } Describe the 

Sitkm and magnitude of Alphard. What are the distance and direction of Cor Ry- 
t ftom Gamma Leonis ) How may the head of Hydra be distinguished 7 How may 
the three upper stars in this cluster be Icnownl which stars form a beautiflil HftM 
Muigle7 Bow is Alices situated, and when may it be seeni 



84 - PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [aFUX.. 

6. E. of it, and is distingaished by its forming an eqnilaterai 
triangle with Beta and Gamma, stars of the same magni- 
tude, 6*> S. and E. of it, Alkes is common both to Hydra and 
the Cup. Beta, on the S., is in Hydra, and Gamma, on the 
N. E., IS near the middle of the <Jup. A line drawn from 
Zozraa, through Theta Leonie, and continued 38i° directly 
S. will reach Beta ; it is therefore on the same meridian, and 
will culminate at the same time on the 23d of April. 

The Cup itself, called also the Crater^ may be easily dis- 
tinguished by means of six stars of the 4th magnitude, form- 
ing a beautiful crescent, or semicircle, opening to the W. 
The center of this group is about 15° below the equinoctial, 
and directly S. of the hinder feet of Leo. The crescent 
form of the stars in the Cup is so striking and well defined, 
when the moon is absent, that no other description is neces- 
sary to point them out. Its center comes to the meridian 
about two hours after Alphard. on the same evening j and 
consequently, it culminates at 9 o'clock, one month after 
Alphard does. The remainder of the stars in this constel- 
lation may be easily (raced bv^ aid of tlie map. 

When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, its other ex- 
tremity is many degrees below the horizon, so that its whole 
length cannot be traced out in the heavens until its center, 
or the Cup, is on the meridian. 



>' Near the eaufttor rolls 



The sparkling Hydn^, proudly eminent 
To drink the Gcdaxy's refttlj?ent sea ; 
Nearly a fourth of the encircling curve 
Which girds the ecliptic, his vast folds involve ; 
" Yet ten the number of hia stars diffused 
O'er the long track of his enormous spires : 
CAt^ beams his heart, sure of the second rank, 
But emulous to gain the first"— £7udo«ta. 

History.— The astrologers of the easti in dividing the celestial hosts Into vari- 
ous compartments, assigned a popular and allegorical meaninsr to each. Thus 
the sign Iao^ which passes the meridian about midnight, when the sun is tn 
Pisces, was called /Ae House of the Ltons, Leo being the domicil of Sol. 

The introduction of two serpents into the constellations of the ancients, had its 
origin, it is supposed, in the circum.9tances that the polar one represented ttie 
oblique course of the stars, wiiile the Hydra, or Great Snake, in the southern 
hemisphere, symbolized the moon's course : hence the Node* are called the 
Dragon*9 head and tail to this day. 

The hvdra was a terrible monster, which, according to mythologists, infested 
the neighborhood of the lake Lema, in the Peloponnesus. It had a hundred 
heads, according to Diodorus ; fifty, according to Simonides j and nine, accord- 
ing to the more commonly received opinion of Apollodorus, Hyginiis, and others. 
As soon as one of these heads was cut off, two immediately grew up if the wound 
was not stopped by fire. f o r 



».« ^..^»fc»'i^t- 1 '♦" •** P*^.' ^^V^ »' ?'»o included in Hydn > How are the other 
J!%!!^un^A ^K^f a/nanfle with Alkes situated? How is Beta situated with re^peeC 
£-7i?^!h*-'^ ,^H *i P?^" ' ^*^*2 l*.^e** on ^« meridian ? How may the CupK 
f^ i^'S'ff-M'^ wJ?^'*'" /*** ''®"*«^<>'^^h'» »«>"P wtuated with respect to Leo and tho 
ffiSLn^?? L T^? »■"??'* circumstance is sufficiect to designate the stara in the Cup 1 
2hS"«ti:JSt?^X*SSiLlJiS° "»« »»^ •f H'*' » » the meridian where is £i 



MIP. Vt.J URSA MAJOR. 8ft 

'^ AtI .1)1 rn^rtton'd to th« hydn'a lMigtti« 

' Vfhij by nk wounds, received augmented slrcnxth 1 
He raiscO i hundred hissing heads in air, 
WbeD ctt'c 1 loi^'d, up qprang a dreadlul pair." 

Tr desutyy thHi dreadfa: looneter, was one of the labours ol ITercttA«i^ and 

this he easily eflTected wilt tho assistance of lolaus, who applieil a burning iron 
to tho wounds as woon as one head was cut off. IVhile Hercules was destroying 
tlve hydra, Juno, jealous ol l.W glory, seat a seapcrab to bite his foot. Tills now 
eaeuiy was aaon despatched; imd Juno was unable to succeed in hei^ atten*])ta 
to lesfiien tlie fame or Hercules. The conqueror dipped his arrows in the gall of 
he hydra, whicb ever after rendered the wounds inflicted %rith them incurabla 
UMi otortal. 

Tliis fable of the many-headed hydra may be understood to mean nothing more 
han thai the marshes of Lcrna wcro infested with a multitude of serpeitfa, which 
seemed to multiply as last as they wor.» deatrojed. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE C0NS1 CLLATIONS WHICB ARE ON 

THE MERIDIAN IN MAT. 

URSA MAJOR. 

The Great Bear. — This great coDstellation is situated 
between Ursa Minor on the north, anJ Leo Minor on the 
south. It is one of the most noted and conspicuous in the 
northern hemisphere. It has been an object of universal ob- 
servation in all ages of the world. The piiests of Belus, and 
the Magi of Persia ; the shepherds of Chaldea, and the Phoe- 
nician navigators, seem to have been equally struck with its 
peculiar outlines. And it is somewhat remarkable that a re- 
mote nation of American aborigines, the Iroquois, and the 
earliest Arat)s of Asia, should have given to the very same 
constellation the name of " Great Bear," when there had 
probably never been any communicution between them j and 
when the name itself is so perfectly arbitrary, there being no 
resemblance whatever to a bear, or to any other animal. 

it is readily distin^isbed from all otiiers by means of a 
remarkable cluster of seven bright stars, fonning what is 
familiarly termed the Dipper, or Ladle. In some parts of 
England it is called *' Charles's Wain," or wagon, from its 
fancied resemblance to a wagon drawn by three horses in a 
hne. Others call it the Plough. The cluster, however, ia 
more frequently put for the whole constellation, and called, 
simply, the Great Bear. But we see no reason to reject the 

How Is Ursa Major situated? How has it always been re^anledi What people 
•eetn to have been peculiarly stniclc with its splendour? Wtmt n'markahlc clr> 
enn;stan(*>e respcctinff its name? Is there uny resemhlajice hetwoen the outlinef. i)J 
thl^ constellatlim anti the flg\tre of a t)ear? By what Is this oonstellution rendHy ilis 
Mn|nif»hpd frnm all others? By what other namca is Ute Dipper cajl<;'l ] What \s Utlf> 
duster wore frequently cullcJ i 

8 



86 PICTURE OP THE HEAVENS. [mA«. 

▼ery appropriate appellation of the shepherds, for the resem- 
blance 13 certainly in favour of the Dipper : the four stars in 
the square forming the howl, and the other three, the handle. 

When the Dipper is on the meridian, above the pole, the 
bottom lies towards us, with the handle on the r'gii 

Benetnasch is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, and is th« 
€rst in the handle. The second, or middle star m the handle, 
IS Mizar, 7° distant from Benetnasch. It may be known by 
means of a very minute star almost touching it, called Alcor^ 
which appears to be double when seen through a telescopcL 
and of a silver white. The third star in the handle is called 
Alioth^ and is about 4^° W. of Mizar. Alioth is very nearly 
opposite Shedir in Cassiopeia, and at an equal distance from 
the pole. Benetnasch, Mizar, and Alioth, constitute the han- 
dle, while the next four in the square form the bowl of the 
Dipper. 

Five and a half degrees W. of Alioth is the first star in the 
top of the Dipper, at the junction of the handle, called Megrez; 
it is the smallest and middle one of the cluster, and is used 
in various observations both on sea and land, for important 
purposes.* At the distance of 4^° S. W. of Megrez, is Phad, 
the first star in that part of the bottom, which is next the 
handle. 

The stars in this cluster are so well known, and may be so easily described 
withoat reference to their relative bearings, that they would rather confuse tfaaa 
assist the student were they given with ever so much accuracy. The several 
bearings for this cluster were taken when Megrez was on the meridian, and will 
not apply at any other time, though their respective distances will remain thtf 
same.. 

At the distance of 8° W. of Phad. i^ the westernmost star 
in the bottom of the Dipper, called Merak. The bright star 
5° N. of it. towards the pole, is called Dubhe : but these two. 
Merak ana Dubhe, are, oy common consent, called the Point- 
cr«, because they always point towards the pole 5 for, let the 
line which joins them be continued in the same direction Sd|o 
farther, it will just reach the north pole. 

The names, positions, and relative distances of the stars in 
this cluster, snould be well remembered, as they will be fre- 

■ ■ 

* When Megres and Caph have the same altitude, and are seen in the same boii 
■ontal line east and west, the polar star Is then at its greatest elongation ftom the Vtm 
pole of the heavens ; and this is the proper time fcr an observer to take its angle of 
elevation, in onler to determine the tatUvde, and its azimuth or angle of declinatloiv 
la order to determine the magnetic variatlmi. 

What, on the whole, is an appropriate appellation fbr It, and why 7 Describe the ink 
■itlon of the Dipper when on the meridian. Describe the position of Benetnasch. What 
Is the next star in the Dipper, arid haw may it be known I What is the next, or thM 
star in the Dipper 1 What stars form the bowl and handle of the Dipper? Describe tiM 
position and use of Megrez. What star is situated next to Megrez 1 Describe the p** 
sitlon of Merak and Dubhe. What are these suum called, t od why f 



quently adverted to. The distance of Dabhe, or the Powtei 
aearesr to the north pole, is 28)^. The distance between die 
two upper stars in the Dipper is 10^ ; between the two lower 
ones is 8° : the distance from the brim to the bottom next the 
handle, is 4}^ ; between Megrez and Alioth is 5^° ; between 
Alioth and Mizar 4|°, and between Mizar and Benetnasch, 7^ 

The reason why it is importsnt to have these distances eleady settled in th« 
mind is, that these stars, being always in view, and more fiuniliar tlian any oth^r, 
the student will neyer nil to Inve a standard measure before him, which the eye 
can easQy make use of in determining the distances between other stars. 

m 

The position of Megrez in Ursa Major, and of Caph m 
Cassiopeia, is somewhat remarkable. They are both in the 
equinoctial colure, almost exactly opposite each other, and 
equally distant from the pole. Caph is in the colure, which 
passes through the vernal equinox, and Megrez is in that 
which passes through the autumnal equinox. The latter 
passes me meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 10th of May, and the 
former just six months afterwards, at the same hour, on the 
10th of November. 

PHy in the left leg of Ursa Major, is a star of the 3d mag- 
nitude, in a straight line with Megrez and Phad, distant from 
the latter 12^o. a little out of the same line, 3^ farther is 
another star of ^e 3d magnitude, marked Eifsilon^ which 
may be distinguished from Psi, from its forming a straight 
line with the two Pointers, 

The right fore paw, and the two hinder ones, each about 
Id^^ from the other, are several y distinguished oy two stars 
of the 4th magnitude, between P and 2^ apart. These three 
duplicate stars are nearly in a rieht line, 20® S. of, and in a 
direction nearly parallel with, Phad and Dubhe. and are the 
only stars in this constellation that ever set in tnis latitude. 

There are few other stars of equal brightness with those 
just described, but amidst the more splendid and interesting 
group with which they are clustered, they seldom engage our 
observation. 

The whole number of visible stars in this consteUation is 
87; of which one is of the 1st, three are of the 2d, seven of 
the 3d, and about twice as many of the 4th magnitude. 

HnROBT.— Ubsa lluon is said to be Calisto, or Helice, daughter of Lycaooi 

What Is the distance of Dablie tnm the north pole 7 Mention the relatiTe distances 
tt fiwa the other stars in this group. Wfnf ^ » important to haw t/te relative dls* 
tameee qftheee t*anfirom each other toeU eettled in the mind 7 What Is there renuurk- 
riile In the posift « of Megrez, and Caph In Casslopeial When do they pass the me- 
ifdtan) Describt «e position of Psi. Where Ir-fipsUon situated, and how may li be 
dlsthaguished 7 Ht v are the paws of the Bear disdnfiuislted } what is the situation 
of these stars with Xx «pect to Ptiad and Dubhe t Wliat are the only stars in this con- 
stellation that ever se In this latitude? What Is the whole number of visible stars in 
this constellation, am iw many of each magnitude t 



PICTDBB or TUJK HKAVEMfl. iBf-^Y 

king of AVca^a. She was ao attendMit of Diana,* and mother of Ar^^ («t hi^ 

Dii'-^r, wIk) placed her among the constellatiouH, aller tlie jealousy of .1 ^ HI 
•hafiged her into a bear. ,» 

''Thia said, her hand within her hair she wound, 

Swuni; her to earth, and dra^'d her on the ground; 

The prostrate wretcii lifts up her hand in prayer; 

Her arms grow shaggy aiid detbrui' J with hair, 

Her nails are sharpeu'd into pointed claws, 

Her hands bear half her weight, and turn to paws ; 

Her Ups, tlial once could tempt a god, begin 

To grow distorted in an ugly grin ; 

And lest the supplicating brute might reach 
. The ears of Jove, she was deurived of speech. 

How did she fear to lodge in woods alone, 
And haunt the fields and uieailows, once her own! 
How often would the deep-niouth'd dogs puisne, 
WhiLit from her hounds Uie frignted hunters Hew." — Ovid's Afef. 
Some suppose that her son Areas, otherwise called Bootes, was changed into 
tTrsa Minor, or the Little Bear. It is well known, that the ancients represented 
both these constelIationi$ uitder the figure of a wagon drawn by a team of horses ; 
hence the aftpellation of Charleses Wain^ or wagon. This is alluded to in the 
Phenomena of Aiatus, a Greek poem, from which St Paul quotes, in his address 
Id Uie Athenians: — 

"The one call'd HeUx,t soon as day retires, 
Observed with ease, lights up his tadlant fires : 

* Diana was the goddess of hunting, and the patroness of modestjr and chastltj t— 

" Tlie huntress XMon, 
Fair, silver-shafted queen, for ever f haste, 

set at naught 

The frivolous bolt of Cupid : gods and men 
Pear her stem (town, and she Mras queen o* th* woods.*'— MBfOH. 
Tlie most famous of her temples was that tf Bphesus, near Snoyma, in Asia, which 
was one of the seven wonders of the world. It is relatetl in the Acts of the Aftostles, 
that " Demetrius, a silversmith; who made silver shrines for Diana," endeavoured to 
excite ou{M>8lUon to the Christian rpllgkon, because " this Paul had persuaded much 
people that tliey be no gods which are made with hands," and " that the temple of tite 
great goddess Diana should be despised, and her marnifloenoe should be destroyr^i. 
whom all Asia and the world worshippeth. And whea theV heard these savings they 
were full of wrath, and cried out, saying, Great i9 Diana qfthe EpfteHtam ! Ami tb<» 
they c(mtinued shouting for the space of two hours." And a^^ln, " When tiie town 
clerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man 1^ there that 
knoweth not how that the city of the Ephcsians is a wortihipper of tlie gietit goddess 
Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?" 

The " image which fell down from Jupiter," doubtless alludes fo thefhhie that Juno 
east her out of heaven, and that Neptune, in pity of her desolate condition, nused tlie 
island of Delos, from the iEj^ean sea, for her birth and habitation ; for it was in this 
Island that tl>e twins, Apollo and Diana, were bom. Diana is therefore sometimes 
Galled Delia, flrom the name of the island that pave her birth. She was represented 
under the figure of a very lieautifni virgin, in a hunting dress, ahead taller than any 
of her attendant nymphs, with a bow in her hand, a quiver suspended across her 
shoulders, imd her forehead ornamented with a silver crescent " which Jews might 
kiss and infidels adore." The inhabitants of Tanrica sacrificed upon her altars all tha 
strangers that were shipwrecked upon their coast. The Ljicedemonians ycavly oflfei^ 
ed her human victims till the age of Lycurgtis, who chaiii^efl this b^irbarous custom of 
iuunolatlon to flagellation. The Athenians generally o£Eered her goats, while ol'isrs 
(^red white kids an(* ewes. 

" Haste the sacrifice ; 
Seven bullocks yet unyoked for PhoBbus choose, 
And for Diana, seven unspotted ew es.'^—Virgril. 
Who does not bow with grateful veneration at hat Christian intrepidity of St. Pmil. 
who risked his life in exposing the delusion and idolatiy of the worshippers of Oifb 
goddess Diana i 

It is a remarkable circumstance, that the temple of Diana was burnt to the grvotitf 
the very day on which Alexander the great was bom 1 

t Callsto was a native of the city of Helioe. in Achaia. a district near the bay of Go- 
lf nth ; hence the Greater Bear is sometimes called Helice :— - 
" Night on the earth pour'd itarkness ; on Uve sea. 
The watchtni sailor, to Orion's star 
▲04 Beliee, tum'd hesdfU."— ijioUontais. 



MAF iY.] OOMA BCSCIIlCinL 



The other, mianer, aad wiCb IbeMer 

Id a lewB circle drives its Isz^ teams : 
W But more adapted for the sailor's guide, 

Whene'er, by night, he tempts the briny tide." 

In the Egrpiian planisphefes of remote antiqoitx, these two emuttHkAmm mn 
represented by the figures bf bears, instead of wagons : and the Oreelta, wlio 
derived most of their astronomical symbols from the Egyptians, though they 
usually altered them to emblems of their own history or superstitioD, havai nevw 
erthelessj retained the original form of the two bears. It is said by Aratua, that 
the Phenician navigators made use of Ursa Minor in directing their voysges :—> 

** Observing this, Phenicians plough the main :" 

while the Greeks confined their observations to Ursa M i^or. 

gome imsgine that the ancient Esyptians arranged the stars near the wntt' 
pok3^ within the outlines of a bear, Because the pmar re^iona are the haunts of 
th's animal, and also because it makes neither ejaensive journeys nor rapid 
AVT'hes. 

At what i^eriod men began to sail by the stars, or who were the fint people 
ihat did so, is not clear; but the honour ia usuayijr given to the Phenicians. Tint 
It waa practised by the Greeks, as early as the time of the Trojan war, tliat is, 
about 120O years B. C, we learn finom Homer; ibr he says of Ulysse% when 
sailing on his raft, that 

** Placed at the helm he sate, sad mark'd the 8Ue% 
Nor closed in sleep his ever watchftd eyes." 

It is rational to suppose that the stars were first used as a guMe to traveflers 
by land, for we can scarcely imagine that men would venture ttiemsehres uprai 
the sea by niglu, before they h^ first learned some safe and sure methoo of 
directing their course by land. And we find, according to Diodorus Biculus, that 
traTellers in the sandy pUuna of Arabia were accustomed to direct their course 
by the Bean. 

Tbst people travelled in these vast deserts at night by observing the stars, is 
firedt^ proved bv this passage of the Koran :—"' God has given you the stars to 
be guides in the dark, both by Isnd and by aea." 



COMA BERENICES. 

Berenice's Hair. — This is a beautiful cluster of small 
stars, situated about 5<^ E. of the equinoctial colure, and mid- 
way between Cor Caroli on the northeast, and Denebola on 
the southwest. If a straight line be drawn from Benetnasch 
through Cor Caroli, and produced to Denebola, it will pass 
dirongh it. 

The principal stars are of between the 4th and 5th magni 
tudes. According to Flamsted, there are thirteen of the 4th 
masnitade. and according to others there are seven ; but the 
student will find a^eeably to his map, that there is apparently 
bat one star in this group, entitled to that rank, and thb u 
situated about 7^ S. E. or the main cluster. 

Although it is not f Asy to mistake this group for any other 
i x the same region <^>f the skies, yet the stars, which compose 
it are all so small as to be rarely distinguished in the full pre- 
sence of the moon. The confused lustre of this assemblage 

Describe the appeanuioe and altaadon of Coma Bersnlcea. yr\ax are the msfmitwles 
af the prtucipoa stars In this clusteri What are they, aocnnllng to Flamsted and 
<ithers f How many stars of the 4th maenitude will the student find on the map I is II 
mtKf to mistake this group, and is It visible in piesenoe of the moonl 

o 



flP PICTOU or TBS BEATEN8. tHAV., 

of small stars somewhat resembles that of the Millnr-Way . ft 
contains besides the stars already alluded to, a number ^of 
nebulae. 

The whxAe number of stars in this constellation is 43 ; its 
mean right ascension is 185<>. It consequently is on the me- 
ridian the 13th of May. 

"Now behold 

The ffUtteiing nuuse of Beremce'« Hair; 
Forty the ttars ; but meh as seem to kiss 
The Jlowing fresves with a lambent fire : 
Four to the telescope alone are seen." 

HiSTORT.^Berenice was of royal descent and a lady of great beauty, wte 
mariied Ptolemy Soter, or E^ergetes, one ot the kincs of Egypt, her own bro* 
ther, *Tiiom she loved with much tenderness. When ne was going on a danger* 
ous expedition against the Assyrluis, she vowed to dedicate her hair to th« 
goddess of beauty, if he returned in safety. Sometime after the victorious re- 
turn of her husband, Everretes, the locks which agreeably to her oath, she had 
deposited in the temple of Venus disappeared. The king expressed great re* 
gret at the loss of what he so much prized ; whereupon Q>non,.his astronomer, 
publicly reported that Jupiter had taken away the queen's locks Irom the temple, 
and placed them among the stars. 

"There Berenice's iocka first rose so bright, 
The heavens bespangling with dishevelled light" 

Conon. bemg sent for by the king, pointed out this constellation, sayioA 
*Tliere behold the lockP of the queen." This group being among tlie unformed 
stars until that time, and not known as a constellation, the king was satisfied wub 
the declaration of the astronomer, and the queen became reconcilcKl to the pac^ 
tialiry ofthegods. 

C^lknachus, an historian and poet who flourished long before the Cbriflti— 
era, has these lines as translated by Tytler : — 

"Immortal C-onon, blest with skill divine, 
Amid the sacred skies behold nie shine ; 
E'en me, the beauteous hair^ that lately rtied 
Refulgent beams from Beremce*s head ; 
The lock she fondly vowed with lifted arms, 
Imploring all the powers to save from harms. 
Her dearer lord, when from his bride he fiew, 
To wreck stern vengeance on the Assyrian crew." 



CORVUS. 

The Crow. — This small constellation is situated on the 
eastern part of Hydra, 15° E. of the Cup, and is on the same 
meridian with Coma Berenices, but as far S. of the equinoc- 
tial as Coma Berenices is N. of it. It therefore culminates 
at the same time, on the 12th of May. It contains nine visi- 
ble stars, including three of the 3d magnitude and two of th^ 
4th. 

This constellation is readily distingt^shed by means of 
three stars of the 3d magnitude and one o/ the 4th, forming t 
trapezium or irregular square, the two upper ones being 
about 3^*^ apart, and the two lower ones 6° apart. 

What does Its iustxe resemble? What is the number of ^-tars in this constellatioa 
and when is it on the meridian } Where is the Crow situated " When 1*i n on the yn*r 
ikttanT Wfrat are the number and niagnitinle of its star^i IIow is it teadily disUn 
IQisbedr 



The brigbtest of tlie two upper staTS, on \he left, is called 
dlgorab, and is situated in the E. wing of the Crow ; it has 
nearly the same declination S. that the Dog-^tar has, and is 
on the meridian aboat the 13th of May- » is 2l^o E. of 
Alkes m the Cup, 14j° S. W. of Spica Virffinis, a brilliant 
star of the 1st magnitude to be described in the next chapter. 

Bela^ on the back of H3rdra and in the foot of the Crow, is 
a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 7^ S. of Alsocab. It is the 
brightest of the two lower stars, and on the left The right- 
hand lower one is a star of the 4th magnitude, situated in the 
neck, maiited Epsilon^ about 6^ W. of Beta, and may be 
known by a star of the same magnitude situated 2^ below it, 
in the eye, and called Al Chiba. Epsilon is 21f ^ S. of the 
▼emal equinox, and if a meridian should be drawn from the 
pole through Megrez, and produced to Epsilon Conri, it would 
mark the equinoctial colure. 

Gramma in the W. witig, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 3}^ 
W, of Aigorab, and is the upper righthand one in the square. 
It is but 1^ E. of the equinoctial colure. 

10^ E. of Beta is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the tail of 
Hydra, marked Gamma; these two, with Algovab^fbrm 
nearly a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Beta. 

UurroRT.— Tlie Crow, ic is said, was once of the inireflt white, bat WMCbMgii 
fcr tale-bearing to its present colour. A fit punisDoient for suich a indt 1 

*'The raven once in snowy pluines was dreaC^ 
White as the whitest dove's unsullied breast, 
Fair as the guardian of the capitoi, 
Soft as the Swan ; a large and lovely fowl ; 
His tongue, his prating tongue, had changed him qtlitei 
To sooty blackness from the purest white." 

According to Greek &ble, the Ckx>w was made a eonstettitkn by AfXAx TUt 
god being jeak>us of Corpnis. (whom he tenderly toved,) the dai^hiwr of Phi*- 
gyas and mother of CBsculapias, sent a crow to watch ner behaviour ; the bird 
perceive<l her criminal partiality for Ischys the Thessalian, and immediateiy 
acquainted Apotfo with her conduct, wtiich so fired his iadigaatioM that Iw lui ig til 
•a arrow in her breast, and killed her instantly 

"The god was wroth ; the colour left his look, 
Tite wreath his head, ttke harp his hand forsook; 
His silver bow and feather'd shafts he took} 
And lodged an arrow in the tender breast, 
That had so often to his own been prest.'* 

To reward the crow, he pku^ed her auwng the constellathmA 
Others say that this constellation takes its name from the daughter of Cowh 
naeus, king of Phocis, who was transformed into a crow by Minerva, to rescu« 
the uiaid from the pursuit of Neptune. The following, firom an eminent Laflp 
poet of the Augustme age, is her own account of the metamorphosis as ttansiar 
led iolo English verse by Mr. Addison : — 

* For as my arms I lifted to the skies, 
1 saw black feathers from my fingers rise: 

Describe the position of Aigorab. How does Its *«Uto«o« wmimre with that ef 
BIriasT What are its distance and direction from Alkes and Splca Vlrginls? De- 
•erfbe the situation of Beta. Descrihe the sliuatlon of the richthand lower «**»;• ]JJ»5 
10 the distance of Epsilon from the vernal «iab»x .««»«1 .*f^ iJ^lJIl? «<^i5 
Satm he traced out by Iti Wbutwra the ma^ltude ani position of CMramaf Of Betif 



PICTORB or TBB HEAVEICS. \mAt 

I atrote to fling my garmeut on the fronnd ; 

My garment turned to plumes, and girt m« round: 

ttj bands to beat my naked bosom trv : 

Nor naked bosom now nor liands had I : 

Lightly 1 tripp'd, nor weary as before 

Bunk in the sand, but skimm'd along the shor* ; 

TilL riidng on my wings, 1 was preferr'd 

To be the chaste Minenra's vixgin bird." 



VIRGO. 



The Virgin. — This is the sixth sign, and seyenth oonsietr 
lation in the ecliptic. It is situated next east of Leo, and 
about midway between Coma Berenices on the N. and Coi* 
Tus on the S. It occupies a considerable space in the hear 
yens, and contains, according to Flamsted, one hundred and 
ten stars, including one of the 1st, six of the 3d. and ten <rf 
the 4th magnitudes. Its mean declination is 5^ N^ and its 
mean right ascension is 195°. Its centre is therefore on the 
meridian about the 23d of May. 

The sun enters the sign Yirgo, <m the 23d of August, but does not oiter tlM 
eonatellation before the 15th of September. When the sun is in this sign, tha 
aarth is in Pisces ; and viee versa. 

Spica Virginis, in the ear of com* which the yirgin holds 
m her left hand, is the most brilliant star in this constella- 
tion, and situated nearly 15° E. N. E. of Algorab in the Crow, 
about 35° S. E. of Denebola, and nearly as far S. S. W. 
of Arcturus — three yery brilliant stars of the 1st magnitude 
that form a large equilateral triangle, pointing to the S. Arc 
turns and Denebola are also the base of a similar triangle on 
the north, terminating in Cor Caroli, which, joined to the 
former, constitutes the Diamond of Vireo. The length of this 
figure, from Cor Caroli on the north to Spica Virginis on the 
south, is 50°. Its breadth, or shorter diameter, extending from 
Arcturus on the east, to Denebola on the west, is 35i<>. Spica 
may otherwise be known by its solitary splendour, there being 
no yisible star near it except one of tiie 4th magnitude, situ- 
ated abbut lo below it, on the left 

The position of this star in tiie heayens, has been deter- 
mined with great exactness for the benefit of nayigators. It 

.V"?**^ Egypttan Zodiac, IM». whose place was supplied by Virgo, was represented 
wiOk throe ears of com in her hand. AcconUng to the Egyptian mylholocy, Ms was 
said to have dropped a sheaf of com, as she fled firom Typhon, who, m be eontiinied 
to pursue her, scattered it over the heaven . The Chinese call the Zodiac ttte ysfhwp 
rogg, as resembling a path over which the ripened ears of com are scatlerod. 

JHO^^ ^^^^J^^.S^ ^^'K® among the signs and oonstellaUons of th« 
ecliptic} How Is it situated? How many stars does it contain, and how lane an the 
principal ones 1 What are its mean declination and right ascension? Wfen is Jm 
••■•H? ^v5? «w»tei**Uon on the meridian ? Describe the princiual star in Virao Wh«l 
•m the distance and dlrecUon of Virpo flrom Algorab, Denebola and Aretumst WiS 

Etbe magnitude and aiipeaiance of these three stars, and what flgure do they fonnt 
WlSjKujiStow?^ distinguished? Why has its poslUra beendeS^Ml 



MAP l^.J VIRGO. it 

IS ODC of tb« Stars from which the moon's distance is taken 
for determining the longitude at sea. Its situation is highly 
favourable for this purpose, as it lies within the moon's path, 
and little more than 2^ below the earth's orbit. 

Its right ascension beinff 199<\ it will come to oor meridiar 
at 9 o'clock about the 28tn of May, in that point of the heav- 
ens where the sun is at noon about the 20*h of October, 

VindemitUriXj la a Har of the 3d magnitade, in the rMit armi or northern wiiif 
of Virgo, and ia akuated nearly in a atraisht line with, and midwav between 
C<nua. Berenieea, and flpica Virginia. It is 194^ 8. W. of Arctorua, ana about the 
same distance 8. E. of Coma mrenices. and forma with these two a burge trl> 
%r.^Ic, pointing to the south. It bears also 18*^ 8. 8. E. of Denebola, and comcc 
to the meridian about 23 minuf^es before 8pica Vlninis. 

Ze/o, is a star of the 3d magnitude 11^^ N. of fi^iica, and venr near the equi- 
noctial. Ga»wia, situated near the led side, is abo a star of the 3d magnitude, 
and very near the equinoctial. It ia 13*^ due west of Zeta, with which and Spica 
it forms a handsome trtangte. Ettk, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the soutaam 
wings, 5^ W. of Gamma, and but 2^° E. oi the autumnal e({uinox. 

Beta, called also Zori/avo, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the shoulder of 
the wing, 7|° W. of Eta, with which and Gamma, it forms a line near the Earth's 
orbit, and paraOel to it Beta, Eta. Gamma and spica, form the lower and longer 
f Kle of a lar&e sptierical triangle whose vertex is in Beta. The other stars in this 
figure may be easily traced by means of the map. About 13^ E. of Spica, there 
are two stars of the 4th magoitude, 3^ apart, which matlc the foot of Viigo. 
These tPm stars are on nearly the same meridian with Arcturua, and culminate 
neariy at the same time. The lower one, mariced LambdOy is on the aouth, and 
but 8^ W. of the prineipal star in Libra. Several other stars of .the 3d magni- 
tude lie scattered about m this constellation, and may be traced out by theoM^). 

''Her lovely tresses glow with starry light : 
8tais om&ment the bracelet on her hana; 
Her vest in fmple fold, glitters with stars : 
Beneath her snowy feet they diiae ; her eyef 
Lighten, all glorious, with the heaveolv rayiL 
hatfint the star which erowita the goldea sheail'' 

. HisTOBT.— The faoKms Bodiac of Denders. as we have already noticed, com- 
mences with the sign Leo ; but another zodiac, discovered among the ruins at 
Estne, in EgyvC, commencea with Virgo ; and from tUs ciremnatance, some 
have argued, that the regular precessioD of the eqolnojcea estiMished a date to 
this at least 2000 yeara older than that at Dendera. The discoveries of Cham- 
pMllioa, however, render it probable that this ancient relic of astrology at Estne 
was erected during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, and consequendy did 
not precede the one at Dendera more than fourteen vears. 

Of ttus, however, we may be certain : ttie autumnal equinox now correspond 
wUh the first degree of K{rgt» ; and, consequently, If we find a xodiac in which 
the sumn^r solstice was placed where the autumnal equinox now is, that zodiac 
carries us back 90'> on the ecliptic ; this divided by the annual precessioa SOy*, 
must fix the date at about 64€0 years ago. This computatton, according to the 
chronology of the 8acred writings, carries us baclt to the earliest ages of the 
human mecies on earth, and proves, at least, ttiai astronomy was among th«! 
first studies of mankind. The most rational way of accounting for this sodisc, 
says Jamieaon, is to ascribe it to the fomily of Noah ; or perhaps to the patriarch 
himself; who constructed it for the benefit of those who should Ihre after the 
tf eiuge, and who preserved it as a monument to perpetuate tlie actual state of 
the heavens immediaCely subsequent to the creation. 

Fable represents the ancient Egyptians as believing that the yearly and tmu- 
lar InUkidaUQBS of the Nile proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis shed 



Why is Its situation /kvonrabte for taWng the moon*8 distance) When does Itinss 
aor meridian f Detertbe the iUiMimi qf VIndemUitris. Desi^thAjlgunwMdiit 
ibrm$ xolth other ttan in the tame neighbourhood. What are Ue iUtance ai^Jearinf 
^wnDeneMaf Deeerthe Zeta. Deacrfbe Gamma. DeaerihetheppeMonifEta m- 
erUte the poeftion of Beta. What gemnetr tcalMure imij/ hejomud of the stare In (Ms 



94 nCTCIlE OF THE U£AVEN8. (MAV. 

for the loM of OriifL whom Typbon had basely murdered. Bj coi^fomMiiof 
th»simple aUef ory or the learned with the oiYtholoflnical creed of the vukaTf tb^ 
historical accomit furnished us respecting Isis, becomes perplexed and uniu 
telligibie. Perhaps with the foUo¥ring ke^, we may imlock the mrstery : — ^The 
mm in Leo, was adorned as the god Osins ; in Viigo, it was wor«nippcd as his 
sister Isis ; at its passage taito Scorpio, the terrible reigu of Tvphon commenced. 
C}olumeUa fixes the transit of the sun into Bcorpio, on the IStn of the calends ot 
November ; and this period nearly corres}ionds with that in which Osiris was 
teigned to have been slain by Typhon, and the death of Orion was to have lieio 
occasioned by the sting of a scorpion. When Scorpio begins to rise, Orion netH * 
when Scorpio comes to the meridian, Leo begins to set :— Typhon then reigns 
Oxiris is slain, and his sister follows him to tlie tomb weeping. The traditicms aOo 
Uie sign Virgo to Naphtali, whoDe standard had for its symbol a tree "bearing 
guodly branches." 

Thus mythology, in describing the physical state of the world. mvAmec a 
symbolical language which personified manimate objects ; and the priests redti' 
ced the whole of their noblest science to fables, which the people believed as 
true histories representing the moral condition of mankind during the first aces 
of civil government 

According to the ancient poetay this constellation represents the virgin As 
trsBa, the goddess of justice, who lived upon the earth during the golden age ; 
but being offiended at the wickedness and impiety of mankind during the brazen 
and iron ages of the world, she returned to heaven, and was placed among the 
constellations of the zodiac, wilh a pair of scales (Libra) in one hand and a 
sword in the other. 

Hesiod, who flourished nearly a thousand years before the birth of oiar 
Saviour, and later writers, mention four ages of the world ; the golden, the 
silver, the brazen, and the iron age. In the beginning of thincs, say they, aB 
men were happy, and all men were good ; the earth brought rortti her fruits 
without the labour of man ; and cares, and wants, wars and diseases, were ub- 
knovm. But this happy state of things did not last long. To the golden age, the 
silver age succeeded ; to the silver, the brazen ; antl to the brazen, the iron. 
Perpetual spring no longer reigned ; men continually quarrelled with each otlker ; 
''rime succeeded to crime ; and blasphemy and murder stained the history of 
every day. In the golden age, the gods did not (flsdain to mix fomiiiarly widi 
the sons of men. The innocence, the integrity and brotherly love which they 
found among us, were a {rieasing spectacle even to 6ni>erior natures ; but as 
mankind degenerated, one god after another deserted their late beloved haunts ; 
Astr»a lingered the last ; but finding the earth steeped in human gore, she her* 
self flew away to the celestial regions. 

** Victa jacet pietas ; et virgo csede madentes 
Ultima eoelestum terras Astrsa reliqiiit." 

Met Lib. i. v. 149. 

" ^ith flees, and piety In exile mourns ; 
And justice, here oppressed, to heaven returns.'' 

Ck>me, however, maintain, that Erigone was changed into the eonstelltttioB 
Tirgo. The death of her father Icarius, an Athenian, who perished by the 
hands of some peasants, whom he harl intoxicated with wine, caused a fit of 
despair, in which Erigone hung herself; and she was afterwards, as it is sa^ \ 

8 laced among the signs of the zodiac. She was directed by her fitithfu) a ^ 
tora to the place where her lather was slain. The first bough <m which ii ^ 
hung herself breaking, she sought a stronger, in order to effect her porposetp 

**Thiis once in MarathtHi's impervious wood, 
Erigone beside her father stood. 
When hastening to discharge her pious vows, 
dhe loos'd the Imot, and cull'd the stroncest boughs." 

Lewis's Statins, B. xi. 



ASTERION ET CHARA; VEL CANES VENATICL 

The Greyhounds. — This modem constellation, embracing 
two in one, was mad e by Heyelius out of the unfonned stars 

What Is the origin of the constellation called the GieyhoundsY ' 



MAP nr ^ Boonw. 

of the «iacients which were scattered between Bootes on the 
east^nd Ursa Major on the west, and between the handle fi 
the Dipper on the north, and Coma Berenices on the MWth. 

These Hounds are represented on the celestial spnere as 
being in pursuit of the Great Bear, which Bootes is nuntinff 
round the pole of heaven, while he holds in his hand the leash 
by which they are fastened together. The northern one is 
called Aslerion^ and the southern one, Chora, 

The stars in this sroun are considerably scattered, and are 
principally of the 5th and 6th magnitudes ; of the twenty-fire 
stars which it contains, there is but one sufficiently large to 
engage our attention. Cor Caroli^ or Charlet^t UearL so 
named by Sir Charles Scarborough, in memory of Kinff 
Charles the First, is a star of the 3d magnitude, m the neck 
of Chara the Southern Hound. 

When on the meridian, Cor Caroli is 17}^ directly S. of Alioth, the third itmr 
in the handle of the Dipper, and ia so neanyon the same meridian that it calmi- 
Males only one minute and a hslf after it This oeears on the 90th of May. 

A line drawn from Cor Oupoli thioof h Alioth will lead to the N. polar alar. 
This star may also be readily distinfuiphed by its beiuf in a straight Une witk 
and midway i»etween Benemasch, the ftrat star in the handle of the Dipper, and 
Coma Berenices : and also by the fiust that when Cor Caroli is on the meruttan, 
Denebola bears 2B° 13. W., and Arctoms 260 S. E. of it, forming with these two 
stars a very large trianf^e, whose vertex is at the north; it is also sC th« north* 
«m extremity of the la^e Diamond, already deacribed. 

The remaining stars in this constellation are too null, snd too much ieattered 
to oxcJte oar interest 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DtRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ABS OH 

THE MERIDIAN IN JUNE. 

BOOTES,* 

The Bear-Driver is represented by the figure of a hunts- 
man in a running posture, ffraspin^ a club in his right hand, 
and holding up in his left the leasn of his two greyhounds, 
Asterion and Chara, with which he seems to be pursuing the 
Great Bear round the pole of the heavens. He is thence called 
Arctophylaz, or the " Bear-Driver." 



• Pfonoaneed Bo^'-tes. 



How sre the Greyhounds represented? By what names are they dlstlngolshed? 
What are the msenitudes of the stars which compose this group, and how are they stt- 
Mled with respect toeach other? Describe the^princlpal star. Whm on the m erWrnn 
wkai U it* tiluatUm urtth regrard to Mtotht How it fey Oyf* <<yf<«Liggl rawwg 
m ate potar tar 7 Hmo mau this »rar he othmoUe readilv ^ji^j^USS^ SS i?^ 
^omSiekMundoetU Mm tot*Attoo other brig?U8t^ Howls^ 

Sonstallatton Bootes lepiesentedi Why U Bootes called the Bear-Drlren 



PICTURE or THE HEATENS [.^'^^ 

This eenstellation is situated between Corona Borealis, on 
tke east, and Cor Caroli, or the Greyhounds, on the we&t. It 
contains fifty-four stars, including one of the 1st magnitude, 
seven of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. Its mean declination is 
20^ N^ and its mean right ascension is 212<> ; its centre is 
therefore on the meridian the 9th of Jime. 

Bootes may be easily distinguished by the position and 
splendour of Us principal star, ArcturuSj which shines with a 
reddish lustre, yery much resembling that of the planet Mars. 

Arcturus is a star of the 1st magnitude, situated near the 
left knee, 36^ S. E. of Cor Caroli and Coma Berenices, with 
which it forms an elongated triangle, whose rertex is at Arc- 
turus. It is 35^^ £. of Denebola, and nearly as far N. of 
Spica Virginis, and forms with these two, as has already 
been observed, a large equilateral triangle, it also makes, 
with Cor Caroli and Denebola, a large tnangle whose Terte:x 
is in Cor Caroli. 

A great Tariet^ of geometrical figores may be fonned of the atara in this brigla 
region of the akiea. For example ; Cor Caroli oa the N., and Spica Virginia in 
the £k, coiMtitute the extreuie points of a very large figure in the shape «^a dia- 
mond ; wtiile Denebola on the W. and Arctorua on tlM E^ limit tl*e mean diaui- 
eter at the other poinfci; 

Arcturus is supposed, by some, to be nearer the earth than 
any other star in the northern hemisphere. 

Five or six degrees 8. W. of Arcturus are three stars of the 3d and4tb magBK 
tudes, lying in a curved tine, about 29 apart, ami a little below the left knee of 
Bootes ; and about 7^ E. of Arcturus are tiirce or four other stars of siuular mag- 
nitude, situated in the other leg, making a larger curve N. and S. 

Miracj in the girdle, is a star of the 3«1 magnitude, 10° N. N. E. of Arcturus, 
and about 11° W of Alphacca, a star in the Northern Crown. Stginua^ in the 
west shoulder, is a star of the 3d ma^tude, hearly 20^ E. of Cor Carolisand 
about the same distance N. of Arcturus, and forms, with tliese two, a right an- 
gled triangle, the right angle benig at Scjpnus. Tlie same star forms a right an- 
gled triangle with 0>r Caroli and Alioth, in Ursa Major, the right angle behig at 
Cor Caroh. 

AlkaturopB, situated in tlie top of the club, is a star of the 4th macnitu«le, abom 
10j^° in an easterly direction from Seginua, which ties in the left siionlder : and 
about 4^° S. of Alkanirops is another star of the 4th magnitude, in the club near 
the east shoulder, marked Delta. Delta is about 9° distant from Mirac, and 7i^ 
from Alphacca, and forms, with these two, a regular triangle. 

Nekkar is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in tiie head, and is about 6° N. 
E. of Seginus, and 5° W. of Alkaturops; it forms, with Deha and Segiuus, nearly 
a ri<rht angled triangle, the right angle being at Nekkar. 

These are the pnncipal stars in this constellation, except the three stars of 
llie 4tli magnitude situated in the right hand. Tliese titxirs ntay be known, by 
two of them being close together, and about 5° beyond Benetnasch, the first star 

How is this oonsteIIatl<Hi situated? How many stars does it contain} How huge am 
the principal ones? What Is its mean right ascension 1 Whnt is its mean dcclinutioni 
When Is Its centre on the meriiUan? How is It easily distinguished tnxA the sur 
rounding constellations ? Descritw Arcturus. What Is its siniation with respect to 
Oenebola and Splca Vlrglnls 1 How Is it situated with respect to Cor Camll and Dene> 
liola) IVhatnmaiicMbU con/lgumtion in thU part (^the akyi What is tite rtistunoe 
or ArcmruR frmnthe earth, compared with that of the other stars in the northern hem* 
tmhere I What ^njive or Hx degreu wuthtoeat q/" Arcturus? What sfart in tkt 
mer leg? DomtIU the $tar Mirac. Describe Sefrinus. WUh whet ther atara doe» 



If AT IV.J bOOTES. 97 

in the handle of die Dipfier. About 6o E. of BenettiMcfa to another mar of the 
Uti magnitude, situated in the arm, which forma, with BenetLaach and the three 
in the hund, an equilateral triangle. 

The three stars in the left tiand of Bootes, the first In tlie handle of th» Itipgpr 
Cor Carols, Doua Berenices, and Denebola, are all situated nearly in die »Sa» 
right line, running from northeast to soiuhwest 

** Bootes follows with redundant light ; 
Fifty-four stars he bcaMs: one guards the BaaTi 
Thence called Areturtts^ or resplendent flnoiit, 
The pride of the Jirst order : eight are Teii'^ 
Invisible to the unaided eye." 

liJ ANiuuB thus speaks of this constellation : — 

"And next Bootes comes, whose ordered beams 
Present a fi^re drivins of his teams. 
Below his girdle, near his knees, he bears 
The bright Arcturutt fiurest of the stars." 

Arcturus is mentioned by name in that beautiful passage 

in Job, alread)r referred to, where the Almighty answers '* out 

of the whirlwind," and says : — 

** Canst thou the sky's benevolence restrsin, 
And cause the Pleiades to shine in Tain 1 
Or, when Orion sparkles from his sphere, 
Thaw the cold seasons and unbind me yearl 
Bid Mazzaroth his station know, 
And teach the brigh^ Arcturua where to glowl" 

Ypun^t Parapkra»e. 

History. — ^The' ancient Greeks called this constellation Lycaon — a name de- 
rived from XtfMoCi which signifies a toolf. The Hebrews called it Caleb Anubachf 
the " Barking Dog ;" while the I^ina, among other name& called it Cants. If 
we go back to the time when Taurus opened the year, and when Virgo was the 
fifth of the zodiacal signs, we shall find that brilliant star Arcturus, so remarlta- 
ble for its red and fiery appearance, corresponding with a period of the year as 
remariuble for its heat Pythagoras, who introduced the true system of the 
universe into Greece, received it from (Enuphis, a priest of On, in EgvpL Ami* 
this college of the priesthood was the noblest of the east, in cultivating the studies 
of philosophy and astronomy. Among the high honours which Pharaoh confer- 
red on Joseph, he very wiselv gave him in marriage "a daughter of the priest of 
On.'^ The supposed era of the book of Job, in which Areturtu is repeatedly 
mentioned, is 1513 B. C. 

Bootes is supposed bj some to be Icarus, the lather of Ericone, who was killed 
by shepherds for intoxicating them. Others maintain that It is Ericthonius, the 
fanventor of chariots. According to Grecian foble, as well as later authorities, 
Bootes was the son of Jupiter and Calisto, and named Areas. Ovid relates, that 
Juno, being incensed at Jupiter for his partiality to CJalisto, changed her into a 
bear, and uiat her son Areas, who became a famous hunter, one day ronecd a 
bear in the chase, and not knowing that it was his mother, was about to kill her» 
when Jupiter snatched them both up to heaven and placed them among the coa 
■leUtttions. Met b. ii. v. 49&<60a 

'*But now her son had fifteen summers told, 

Fierce at the chase, and m the forest bold ; 

When as he beat the woods in quest of prey. 

He chanced to rouse his mother where she lay. 

She knew her son, and kept him in her sight, 

And fimdlv gazed : the boy was in a Aright, 

And aim'd a pointed arrow at her breast ; 

And would have slain his mother in the beast ; 

But Jove forbad, and snatch'd them through the air 

In whulwinds up to heaven, and fiz'd 'em there ; 



De$enbe the three etart IntheUfi hand qf Bootes. What etara in thU nHfhhMU^hMi 
fbvm a Img Un» through the heavene? Where is Arcturus mentioned in the Scrtr 
Voesf 

9 



Id add ■ luHTii In the malbeni Mitt." 



PICTURE or 

*^llwl Bnuuii mi the Irair timmi iBteaL 
To vMuoiu Cms'* homblc (Nnltlu went. 
TwMxhen Ihaielauia dMdoralfliteaBaMi 
Wbu brliiu OaHttt, wiU iter uUwv"S 
Kow tail/lEu circle njood the pole hud mn." 
TUa.conitelluiimiaalledBMtu. nriClrcTo.t^of. Deg. £a. It, tt> froa a 
Or»rt wordilfoWni »«»tiiiior, orjJoothimii j »iid eoiMdiB-- ' 
aaiBt«n>are*kiTOr&ri(iiQ|iii|DH[-keflper or heu-driTSr. 
"Arctophjlu Tulfo qui dlclLur e«ae Bootee, 
Quod quel umone edjuDCIum prs ee quuM Arc 

TheMUBlnUilirefloDoriheiklssuBiaUhsn uiruudtL 

tfawetiUltieeiiiJaeniwillenofutlquitj. Cleudlaa obeeriM, Ihu 
^SooteiwUtibiBwelnUie north nnfiildi^ 

And Amto*,' who Oouriihed neerij 900 feert before CUodlan, bt^ 
** BflhiDil and ieemlriM Id urf e on the Beer, 
AretophTlu, m «ulh Bootee nemedk 
Staede o'eitbe Arctic cur Ma lUier U|)it.'' 

CENTAURUS. 
Tbh Centaiir. — This fabulous monster is represented by 

• Ttilalatbe poet wlum St Paul refcn lo wlien be lalla tke Atbenlana, Acta nil. 

de." ef Annua i a MletiWed Oieek iwem wSuentoThe reHnef Ptolemj Pliltadelplim. 
twotkeuaaad (gMhandradnanan. udafterwanlanaalated ini'<T..i.._„h, 

ttie Maw pott, belkUUB%i[a^(eai*0>lBtlMB, Bill umuL 1 
ratmmtraot and IusmMui kooe w« tnd II nMnd Io u Hi 
OlnnBt,«.JeRBaB.atlJhijMtoB,(B--~~"-~ —' '- 



llten] vwtatloiibr the apoitle ftoro die Thala of Heiuuidei. an laventor of an«k 
eonedTi and a oelelinted AtlWDLio poet, wlw Rourfabed nearir «• Tean beftH lh« 

■■'-— '-"--Tth-CoilBiiiiani. nuupml tdoiaihe MnUmesi e( Om 

ii^lDwed br " tbe dlvlnllr that adned wWUn bu" 1^ 

iwtniiitliU.ttaeiHiMilahutiaiuHlllMtkepaetlMntlmeM' 



MAP IV. I iMfvm ' 9i 

uie figure of a man terminating in the body of a horse, hold* 
mg a wolf at arm's length in one hand, while he transues iti 
ocSy with a spear in the other. 

Although this constellation occupies a large space in the 
touthem hemisphere, yet it is so low down that the main 
part of it cannot he seen in our latitude. It is situated south 
of Spica Virginis, with a mean declination of 50^. It eon- 
tains thirty -five stars, including two of the 1st masnitude, one 
of the 2d, and six of the 3d ; the brightest of which are not 
visible in the United States. 

Theta, w a star of between the 2d and 3d macnitode, in the eael ehonkier, and 
may be seen irom this latitude during the month of June, being about ST^ o. bj 
E. from Spica ^{irginis, and 12° or 13' above the southern horizon. It la easily 
recognised, in a clear evening, from the circumstance that there Is no other star 
of similar brightness, in the same region, for which it can be mistaken. It is so 
nearly on the same me^dian with Arcturus that it culminates but ten minutes 
before it. 

Iota, is a star of between the 4th and 5th magnitude, in the west shoulder, 9|^ 
W. of Theta. It is about 26° almost directly south or Spica Viiginis, and ia on 
the meridian nearly at the same time. 

Mu and Nuj are stars of (he 4tn magnitude, In the breast, very near together, 
and form a regular trianffle with the two stars in the shoulaers. 

A few degrees north of the two stars in the shoulders, are fonr small stars in 
the head. The relative position of the stars in the head and shoulders is very 
similar to that of the stars in the head and ahoulders of Orion. 

HisTOBT. — Centaurs, in mythology, were a kind of fabulous mcmsters, half men 
•nd half horses. This (able is, however, differently interpreted; some suppose 
the Centaurs to have been a body of shepherds and herdsmen, rich in catUe, who 
inhabited the mountains of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invemion of 
pastoral poetry. But Plutarch and Pliny are of opinion, that such monsters iiave 
really existed. Others say, that under the reign of uion, king of Thessaly, a 
nerd of bulls ran mad, and ravaged the whole country, rendering the mountains 
faiaceeasible ; and that some young men, who had found the art of taming and 
monnCfaig horses, undertook to expel these noxious animals, which they pur* 
sned on horseback, and thence obtiuned the appellation of Ceniaurs. 

This success rendering them insolent, they maulied the LajntbaB, a people of 
Thessaly ; and because, when attacked, they fled with great rapidi^, it was sup- 
posed that they were half horses and half men ; men on horses being at that 
period a very unconmion sight, and the two appearing, especially at a distance^ 
to constitute but one aninuu. So the Spanish cavalry at first seemed to the a» 
tonished Mexicans, who imagined the horse and his rider, like the Centaurs of 
tlie ancients, to be some monstrous animal of a terrible form. 

The Centauiv^ in reality, were a tribe of Li4>ithiB, who resided near Mom 
TeOtm, and first invented the art of breaking horses^ as intimated by VirgU * 

<<The Laplthn to chariots add the state 
Of bits and bridles ; taught the steed to boond ; 
To turn the rinft and trace the masy ground; 
To stop, to fly. me rules of war to know ; 
To obey the rider, and to dare the foe." 



LUPUS. 

Ths Wolf. — This constellation is situated next east ot 
Jie Centaur, and south of Libra ; and is so low down m the 

What Is the situation of this constellation f What axe the number and manUtwle of 
ttsstarsf DetcrlbetfugUuaOonqfTfieta. Howls it eaailjf reownitedina&ear tven- 
^ftgt What UUsdiatanee from tfutMrUUanqfAreturwJ DMcribe OiS ttar inlht 
wmthoulUr. Describe the 9tan in the bremt. Where is tbs Wolf sUnHedf 



ffjO PICTURE OF TBr BGAVENS. {.JIBII. 

j*<nitliem hemisphere, that only a fer«r stars m the group art 
risible to us. 

It contains twenty-four stars, including three of the 3d mag 
nitude, and as many of the 4th ; the brightest of which, when 
on the meridian, may be seen in a clear eTening, just above 
the southern horizon. Their particular situation, however 
trill be better traced out by reference to the map than by writ- 
ten directions. 

The most favourable time for observing this constellation, 
IS towards the latter end of June. 

History.— This constellation, according; to fitble, is LycaoD, kinjj^ of ArcacDa, 
who lived about 3^600 years ago, and was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, because 
he offered human victims on the altars of the god Pan. Some aftribute this met* 
amorphosis to another cause. The sins of mankind, as they relate, had become 
so enormous, tliat Jupiter visited the earth to punish its wickedness and impiety. 
He came to Arcadia^ where he was announced as a god, and the people begaa 
to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however, who used to sacrifice 
ail strangers to his wanton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his subjects^ 
and to try the divinity of the god, served up human flesh on his table. Thw im> 
piety so offended Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house #. hji 
and changed him into a woUl 

<' Of these he murders one ; he boils the flesh, 
And lays the mangled morsels in a dish ; 
Some part he roasts ; then serves it up, so dress'f^ 
And bids me welcome to his human feast 
Moved with disdmn, the table I o'ertum'd, 
And with avenging flames the palace bum'd. 
The tyrant in a fright for shelter gains 
The neighb'ring fields^ and scours along the plams : 
Howling he flea, and min he would have spoke, 
But human voice his brutal tongue forsooK. 
His mantle, now his hide, Mrith rugged hairs, 
Cleaves to his back ; a famish'd face he bean; 
His arms descend, tiis shoulders sink away 
To multiply his legs for chase of prey ; 
He grows a wolf" — Ovidf Met. B. i. 



LffiRA. 



The Balance. — This is the seventh sign, and eighth con- 
stellation, from the vernal equinox, and is situated in the Zo- 
diac, next east of Virgo. 

The sun enters this aigUy at the autumnal equinox, on the 
23d of September ; but does not reach the constellation before 
the 27th of October. 

Virgo was the goddess of justice, and Libra, the scales, 
which she is usually represented as holding in her left hand, 
are the appropriate emblem of her oflBice. When the sun en- 
ters the sign Libra, the days and nights are equal all over the 

How many stars does it contain ) Under what circumstances may the brightest of 
them be seen? How may the stars in this group be most conveniently traced out! 
When Is the most fhvourable time for observing this constellation? How is TJhm. sit* 
uated among the constellations of the Zodiac? At what season of the year does ths 
sun enter Ubnif Who was Virgo, and what was the emblem of ber office? What Is 
the relative length of the days and nights when the sun enters LOnai 



IV.j UMUL 10 

world, and seem to observe a kind of eqnilibrhiin, luce t 
balance. 

When, howeTer, it is said that the vernal and aatnmna^ 
equinoxes are in Aries, and Libra, and the tropics in Cance* 
and Capricorn, it must be remembered that the signs Ariei 
and Libra, Cancer and Capricorn, and not the constellation 
Df these names are meant ; for the equinoxes are now in 4h% 
constellations Pisces and Virgo, and the tropics in Gemim 
and Sagittarius ; eocA constellation having gone forward 
one sign in the ecliptic. 

About 23 centuries ago. the constellation Libra coincided 
with the sign Libra ; but naving advanced 30<^ or more in the 
ecliptic, it is now in the sign Scorpio, and the constellation 
Scorpio is in the sign Sagittarius, and so on. 

While Aries is now advanced a whole sign above the equi- 
noctial point into north declination. Libra has descended as 
far below it into south declination. 

Libra contains fifty-one stars, including two of the 2d mag- 
nitude, two of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. Its mean decli- 
nation is S^ south, and its mean ri^ht ascension 226<'. Its 
centre is therefore on the meridian £U>out the 22d of June. 

It may be known by means of its four principal stars, form- 
ing a quadrilateral figure, lying northeast and southwest, and 
having its upper and lower corners nearly in a line running 
north and south. The two stars which form the N. E. side or 
che square, are situated about 7^ apart, and distinguish the 
Northern Scale. The two stars which form the S. W. side 
oi the square, are situated about 6^ apart, and distinguish the 
Southern Scale. 

ZubenesckamcUi^ in the Southern Scale, about 2P E. of Spica, and 8^ E. of 
Lambda Virgints, is a star of the 2d magnitude, and is situated very near the 
ecliptic, about 42j^° E. of the autumnal equinox. The distance firom this star 
down to Theta Centauri, is about 23^, with which, and Spica Virginia, it forms a 
iazve triangle, on the right 

ZubenelgemabL the uppermost star in the Northern Scale, is also of the 3d 
magnitude, 9^^ above Zubeneschamali, towards the northeast, and it comes to 
the meridian about twenty-six minutes after it, on the 23d of June. Zubenelge* 
mabi is the northernmost of the four bright stars in this figure, and is exactly 
opposite the lower one, which is 11° south of it. 

ZubenhcArcAi, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the Northern Scale, 7° S. E. of 
Zobenelgemabi, and nearly opposite to Zubeneschamali, at the distance of 11 ^^ 
on ttke east. These two make the diagonal of the square east and west 

/oto, Is a star of the 3d magnitude, and constitutes the southernmost comer of 

When ft is Bidd that the vemal and autumnal ecpitnoxes are in Aries and Libra, and 
the tropics in Cancer and Capricorn, what la meant? In what constellations, then, are 
che equinoxes and the tropics situated? When did the constetlation of Libra coincide 
with the sign of that name 1 In what sign is the constellation Libra now situated; 
What are the number and magnitude of the stars in Librae What are Its ri^ht ascen- 
sion and declination? When is its centre on the meridian? How may this constella 
tkm be known? What figure do the three upper stars in this figure form? What star^ 
distinguish the Northern Scale? What theSoutliem? Describe Zttbatenchamali. With 
t0iAc/ other atarr does it form a large triangle i Dencrids the principal star in tht 
Northsm Scale. Describe the position qf Zubmhakrabi. Describe fhe eosition ^Jotm, 

9* 



108 PICTURE OP TWB HBA.TEN8. {mm- 

the aquare. It Is abom 6^ B. E. of ZubeneachMiwll, and 11^ M. c* ZubemlM- 
mabL with which it forms the other diagonal north and south. 

Zehenelgttbii is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated below the Southem ftcal^ 
•t the distance of 6° from Iota, and marks the southem limit of the Zodiac. It ia 
situated in a right line with, and nearly midway between, Bpica Virginia and Beta 
Scorpionis ; and comes to toe meridian nearly at fbe same moment with Nelclmi; 
m the head of Bootes. 

The remain injS stars in this constellation are too small to engage attenti<». 

The scholar, in tracing out this constellation in the heavens, will perceive tnat 
Lambda and Mu, which lie in the feet of Virgo on the west, form, with Zubene»> 
chamali and Zutienelgemabi, almost as handsome and perfect a figure^ as tba 
other two stars in the Balance do on the east 

HisTORT.^The Libra of the Zodiac, sa^s Maurice, m his Indian Antiquities, is, 
perpetually seen upon all the hierogljrphics of Egypt : which is at once an arcu-' 
ment of Uie^reat antiquity of this asterism^ and of the probability of its havmg 
been originally fabricated by the astronomical sons of Ifisraim. In some few 
xodiacs, Astrea, or the virgin who holds the balance in her hand as an emblem 
of equal justice, is not drawn. Such are the zodiacs of Estne and Dendera. 
Humboldt is of opinion, that although the Romans introduced this constellation 
into their zodiac m the reign of Julius Cesar, still it might have been used by the 
Ean^ptians and other nations of very remote antiquity '' 

It is gener^y supposed that the figure of the balance has been used by all 
nations to denote the equality of the days and nights, at the period of the sun's 
arriving at this sign. It has also been observed, that at this season tliere is a 
greater uniformity in the temperature of the air all over the earth's surfoce. 

Others affirm, that the beam only of the balance was at first placed among the 
btars, and tliat the Egyptians thus honoured it as their iViUomeler, or instrument 
by which they measured the inundations of the Nile. To this custom of measur- 
ing the waters of the Nile, it is thought the prophet alludes, when he describes 
the Almighty as ntetuuring the tD€Uer« in the hoUoto of hie Aand.— Isa. xL 12. 

The ancient husbandmen, according to Virgil^ were wont to regund this sign 
as indicating the proper time for sowing their winter grain : — 

"But when Astreea's balance, huns on high, 
Betwixt the nights and days divides the sky, 
Then yoke your oxen, sow your winter gniik 
Till cold December comes with driving raui.'' 

The Greeks declare that the balance was placed among the stars to perpetuate 
the memory of Mochus, the inventor of weights and measures. 

Those who refer the constellations of the Zodiac to the twelve tribeH of Israel 
ascribe the Balance to Ai^er. 



SERPENS. 

The Serpent. — There are no less than four kinds of ser 
pents placed among the constellations. The first is the Hydra, 
which is sitaated south of the Zodiac^ below Cancer, Leo and 
Virgo ; the second is Hydrus, which is situated near the south 
pole ; the third is Draco, which is situated about the north 
pole; and the fourth is the Serpent^ call**! terpens Ophiuchi, 
and IS situated chiefly between Libra and Corona Borealis. 
A large part of this constellation, however, is so blended with 
Ophiuchus, the Serpent-Bearer, who grasps it in both hands, 
tna the concluding description of it wl be deferred until we 
come to that constellation. 

**The Serpens OpMuehi winds his sptre 
Immense ; fewer by ten his figiire trace ; 

Whatetar in thU cenetOlatien marke the aouthem Hmtt ^the Zodiac 7 How man 

Khtds of serpents have been placed among the constellations? Mmtlontheo) vuXtma 
•luiations. mth what is a lai«6 pan of Uiis oonstellatlon blemtodY 



▼. . MBKIIt. MS 






^OMofdMaeeoDdnok; tenahimtlietiAt; 
And aeren, he who bean the monster hides.** 

Those Stars which lie scattered along for about 25^, in a 
leipentine direction between Libra and the Crown, mark the 
boay and head of the Serpent. 

About 10<^ directly S. ot the Crown there are three stars of 
the 3d magnitude, which, with several smaller ones, distin- 
guish the head. 

Unuk, of the 2d magnitude, is the pnncipal star in this con- 
stellation. It is situated in tne heart, about 10<^ below those 
in the head, and may be known by its being in a Lne with, 
and between^ two stars of the 3d magnitude — the lower one, 
marked Epsilon, being 2^^, and the upper one, marked Delia, 
about 5^0 from it. The direction of tms Ime is N. N. W. and 
S. S. E. Unuk may otherwise be known by means of a small 
star, just aboYe it, marked Lambda. 

In that part of the Serpent which lies between Corona Bo- 
realis and the Scales, about a dozen stars may be counted, of 
which five or six are conspicuous. 

For the remainder of this constellation, the student is refer* 
red to Serpentarius. 

"Vast as the starry Serpent, that on high 
Traelcs tlie clear ether, and divides the skj. 
And southward winding from tlie Northern' Wain, 
Shoots to remoter spheres its glittering train." — Statitu. 

HisTORT. — The Hivites, of the Old Testament, were worshippers of the Ber* 
pent, and were called Ophites. The idolatry of these Ophites was extremely 
ancient, and was connected with Taahaiam, or the worship of the host of heaven. 
The heresy of the Ophites, mentioned by Mosheim in his Ecclesiastical History, 
orteinated. perhaps, in the admission into the Christian church of some remnant 
of uie ancient and popular sect of Tsabaists, who adored the celestial Serpent 

According to ancient tradition, Ophiuchiis is tlie celebrated physician JBscu- 
Vi*9hui, son of Apollo, who was instructed in the healing art by Chiron the Cen- 
taur ; and the serpent, which is here placed in his hands, is understood b]r some 
to be an emblem of his sagacity ana prudence ; while others suppose it was 
designed to denote his skill in healing the bite of this reptile. Biblical critics 
imj^e that this constellation is alluded to in the following passage of the book 

" By his spirit He hmh garnished the heavens ; his hand hath formed the 
extx>ked serpent" Bfr. Green supposes, however, that the inqrired writer here 
refers to I>raco, because it is a more ob^ous constellation, hemg nearer the pole 
where the constellations were more universally noticed ; and moreover, because 
Ris a more ancient constellation than the Serpent, and the hieroglyphic by which 
ttM Egyptians nsually r^resented the heavens. 



CORONA BOREALIS. 

The Nobtherk Cbown.— This beautiful constellation may 
be easily known by means of its six principal stars, whicn 
are so placed as to form a circular' figure, very much resem- 

Wtat ttSTi mark the head and body of the Beipentf Describe the prlncfpal star In 
lUs eonstellatiiML How may it be known? What stars disttngufsh the head f How 
JMOur stars maybe counted in that part of the constellation which lies between Coxons 
KeaUs and the Scales} How may Corona Boiealls be easily known) 



*04 PICTURE or THB HEATENB. | njKft 

bling a wreath or crown. It is situated directly north of the 
Serpent's head, between Bootes on the west and Hercules on 
the east 

This asterism was known to the Hebrews by the name ofAtarothy and by this 

name the stars in Corona Borealis are called, in the East, to this day. 

« 

Alphacca, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest and middle 
star m the diadem, and about lic> E. of Mirac, in Bootes. It 
is very readily distinguished from the others both on account 
of its position and superior brilliancy. Alphacca, Arcturus. 
and Seginus, form nearly an isosceles triangle, the vertex or 
which IS at Arcturus. 

This constellation contains twenty-one stars, of which 
only six or ei^^ht are conspicuous ; ana most of these are not 
larger than the 3d magnitude. Its mean declination is 30^^ 
noilh, and its mean right ascension 235^ ; its centre ia 
therefore on the meridian about the last of June, and the first 
of July. 

"And, near to Helice^ effulgent rays 
Beam, Ariadne, from thy starry crown : 
Twenty and one her stars ; but eight alone 
Conspicuous ; one doubtful, or to claim 
The second order, or accept the third." 

Bistort.— This beautiful little cluster of stars is said to be in commemoratioii 
of a crown presented by Bacchus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, second kins 
of Crete. Theseus, king of Athens. (1235 B. C.,) was shut up in the celebrated 
labyrinth of Crete, to be devoured by the ferocious Minotaur which was con- 
fined in that place, and which usuaily fed upon the chosen young men and 
maidens exacted from the Athenians as a yearly tribute' to the tyranny of Minos , 
but Theseus slew the monster, and being furnished with a clue of thread by 
Ariadne, who was passionately enamqurea of him, he extricated himself froui 
the difficult windings of his confinement 

He afterwards married the beautifal Ariadne, according to promise, and ear^ 
ried her away ; but when he arrived at the island of Naxos, he deserted her, 
notMithstanding he had received from her the most honourable evidence of at> 
tachment and endearing tenderness. Ariadne vras so disconsolate upon beiiw 
abandoned by Theseus, that, as some say, she hanged herself; but PlutarcS 
says that she lived many years after, and was espoused to Bacchus, who love^ 
aer with much tenderness, and gave her a crown of sevfen stara^ which, afta 
her death, mm placed among the stars. 

*( Resolves, for this the dear engaging dame 
9hould shine forever in the rolls otfame ; 
And bids her crown among the stars be placed, 
And with an eternal constellation grac'd. 
The golden circlet mounts; and, as it flies, 
Its diamonds twinkle in the distant skies ; 
There, in their pristine form, the gemmy rays 
Between Alcides and the Dra^n blaze.*' 

MaBlfiui^ in the first book of his AstronoTnieont thus speaks of the Crmm. 

" Nrar to Bootes the bright crown is view'd 
Aai shines with stars of different magnitude : 



a Where Is it situated? Describe the principal star in the frroup. What maama 
pxre Is formed by the stars in this neighbourhood 1 What are the number and « 
tude of the stars In this oonstellaUon 7 What are Its mean declination and rlcht 
cension} When is it on car meridian ) 



¥l.| IIB8A MINOR. tl35 



Or placed in front soove the rest dtaplajt 
A vigorous light, and darts surprising rays. 
This shone, since Theseus first his faith betray'd 
The moDimentof the forsaken maid." 



QRSA MINOR. 

The Little Bear. — This constellation, though not re- 
markable in its appearance, and containing but lew conspi- 
cuous stars, IS, nevertheless, justly distinguisned from a)\ 
others for the peculiar advantages which its position in the 
neavens is well known to afford to nautical astronomy, and 
especially to navigation and surveying. 
• The stars in this group being situated near the celestia. 
pole, appear to revolve about it. very slowly, and in circles 
so small as never to descend below the horizon. 

In all ages of the world, this constellation has been more 
universally observed, and more carefully noticed than any 
other, on account of the importance whicn mankind early at- 
tached to the position of its principal star. 

This star which is so near the true pole of the heavens, 
has, from time immemorial, been denominated the North 
Polar Star. By the Greeks it is called Cynosyre ; by the 
Romans, CynosurOj and by other nations, Alruccabah. 

It is of the 3d magnitude, or between the 2d and 3d, and 
situated a little more than a degree and a half from the true 
pole of the heavens, on that side of it which is towards Cassi- 
opeia, and opposite to Ursa Major. Its position is pointed 
out by the direction of the two Pointers, Merak and Dubhe, 
whicn lie in the square of Ursa Major. A line joining Beta 
Cassiopeise, which lies at the distance of 32^ on one side, and 
Megrez, which lies at the same distance on the other, will 
pass through the polar star. 

So general is the popular notion, that the North Polar Star 
is the true pole of the world, that even surveyors and 
navigators, who have acquired considerable dexterity in the 
use of the compass and the quadrant, are not aware that it 
ever had any deviation, and consequently never make allow- 
ance for any. All calculations derived from the observed posi - 
I ion of this star, which are founded upon the idea that its 
bearing is always due north of any place, are necessarily er- 
roneous, since it is in this position only twice in twenty-four 
hours ; once when above, and once when below the pole. 

WTiat renders Ursa Minor an important constellationi What is its situation with 
respect to the North Pole, and how do its stars appear to revolve around tliis pole? 
■WT»y has this constellation been more universally observed, in all ages of the worM. 
tlMua any othei ? What is this star denominated f What are its ma^itude and posi- 
tion? How 18 its position pointed oufi How is it situated with resi«ect to Megrez 
and Beta CasslopeiaB? Is it generally considered to be the north pole of the heavens? 
calaUatiuna liMinded upon this notion correct! 



106 PICTCBS OF TBF REAVE AS. ( 

According to the Nautical Almanac, the mean distance c/ 
this star firom the true pole of the heavens, for the year 1833 
IS 1° 34' 53'', and its mean right ascension is 1 hour and 19 
seconds. Consequently, when the right ascension of the me- 
ridian of any place is 1 nour and 19 seconds, the star will be 
exactly on the meridian at that time and place, but 1'^ 34^ 
53" above the true pole. Six hours after, when the right as- 
cension of the meridian is 7 hours and 19 seconds, the star 
will be at its greatest elongation, or 1° 34' 53" directly west 
of the true pole^ and parallel to it, with respect to the horizon; 
and when tne right ascension of the meridian is 13 hours and 
19 seconds, the star will be a^in on the meridian, but at the 
distance or 1° 34' 53" directly below the pole. 

In like manner, when the right ascension of the meridan is 
19 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be at its greatest east- 
ern elongation, or 1° 34' 53" east of the true pole ; and when 
it has finished its revolution, and the right ascension of the 
meridian is 25 hours and 19 seconds, or, what is the same 
thing, 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will now be on the 
meridian again, 1° 34' 53" above the pole. 

N. B. The right ascension of the meridian or of the mid-heaven, is the d!» 
tance of the first point of Aries from the meridian, at the time and jiiace of ob- 
serration. The right ascension of the meridian for any time, is found, by addhw 
to the given time the sun's right ascension at the same time^ and deducting S)i 
hours, when the sum exceeds 21 hours. 

From the foregoing facts we learn, that from the time the 
star is on the meridian, above the pole, it deviates farther and 
farther from the true meridian, every hour, as^ it moves to the 
west, for the space of six hours, when it arrives at its greatest 
elongation west, whence it reapproaches the same meridian 
below the pole, during the next six hours, and is then again 
on the meridian ; being thus alternately half the time west 
of the meridian, and half the time east of it. 

Hence, it is evident that the surveyor who regulates his 
compass by the North Polar Star, must take his observation 
when the star is on the meridian, either above or below the 
pole, or make allowance for its altered position in every other 
situation. For the same reason must tlie navigator, who ap- 
plies his ;<uadrant to this star for the purpose of detennining 
the latitude he is in, make a similar allowance, accordii^ as 
its altitude is greater or less than the true pole of the Eea- 

Wh«t is the present distance of this star firom the true pole of the heavens? What Is 
Its mean right ascension 7 When is it on the meridian, and what then is its bearing 
trom the pole. What Is Its situation six hours afterwards) What is its sltnation alx 
hours after that? What is its situation when In its third iiuadxant 1 What do you ut^ 
ientandbiftherightascentimiqf tfiemeridian^ or qf the mid-heaven 7 HModoyam 
fbnd the rUfht aacemtion of the mid-heaven ? In what manner does the north star 4» 
viate fcmn the meridian during one revolution i How do these Acts concern tbe sm • 
veyor' 



MAP n.J VBM imioR. 1€7 

reus; for we have seen that it is alternately half the time 
zb*fve and half the time below the pole. 

The method of finding the latitude of a place from the alti- 
tude of the polar star, as it is veiy simple, is very often re- 
sorted to. Indeed, in northern latitudes, the situaticn of thia 
star IS more favonrable for this purpose tnan that of any other 
of the hearenly bodies, because a single observation, taken al 
any hour of the night, with a good instrument, will give the 
trie latitude, without any calculation or correction, except 
that of its polar aberration. 

If the polar star always occapied that point in the heavens which is direct^ 
opposite the north pole of the eartli, it would be easy to understand how latitude 
could be determined from it in the northern hemisphere ; for In this case, to ft 

Esraon on the equator, the poles of the world would be seen in the honxon. 
onsequently, the star would appear just Tisible in the northern horizon, with 
oat any elevation. Should the person now travel one degree towards the northi 
lie would see one degree below the star, and he would thinlc it had risen oom 
degree. 

And since we slwajrs see the whole of the npper hemirohere at ooa view, 
when there is nothing in the horizon to obstruct our vision, it follows that if we 
should travel 10^ north of the equator, we should see just 10^ below the polS) 
which would then appear to have risen 10^ ; and should we stop at the 42a cto- 
gree of north latitude we should, in lilce manner, have our horizon just 439 below 
the pole, or the pole would appear to have an elevation of 452^. Whence we de* 
rive this general truth : 7^ elevation of the pole of the equator^ is tUwaya equal 
to the latitude of the place of observation. 

Any instrument, then, which will give us the altitude of the north pole, will 
give us also the latitude of the place. 

The method of illustrating this phenomenon, as given in most treatises on th« 
globe, and as adopted bv teachers generally, is to tell the scholar that the north 
pc4e rises higher and nigher, as he travels &rther and farther towards it in 
other words, whatever number of deftrees he advances towards the north pcde, 
so many degrees will it rise above his horizon. This is not only an obvious errour 
In principle, but it misleads the apprehension of the pupil. It is not that the p<HM 
ts elevated, but that our horizon m depressed as we advance towards the north. 
Tne same objection lies against the artificial globe; for it ought to be so fixed 
that the horizon might be raised or depressed, and the pole remain in ita ovni 
invariable position. 

Ursa Minor contains twenty-four stars, including three of 
the 3d magnitude and four of the 4th. The seven principal 
stars are so situated as to form a fi^re very much resembling 
that in the Great Bear, onlv that the Dipper is reversed, ana 
about one half as large as tne one in that constellation. 

The first star in the handle, called Cynosura, or Alrucct^ 
bah, is the polar star, around which the rest constantly r^ 
rolve. The two last in the bowl of the Dipper, corresponding 
CO the Pointers in the Great Bear, are ot the 3d magnit ade, 

Why is the method of finding the latitude by the polar star, often resorted toT Wigr 
Im die posiiton of this star fi&vourable to this purpose) Jf the north star perfeeOy eo- 
imtidA with (he north paieqf the heavens, where would it be seen from the equatort 
ShmUda person travel one degree north qfthe equatoT, tohere would the star appear 
than? Suppose he should travel 19 degrees north qf the equator? Suppose he were to 
atop at Ike *ad degree (if north laHhtde J What general truth resiMs from these facts? 
What, thent is all we unrnt, to find the latitude cfany ptace? Of what advantage to m 
vutgfner, is an instrument which will give the altitude qfthe pole? What are the 
flsanber and magnitude of the stars, contained In Una Minor? What figure do the 

principal stars foim? Describe the first taihe handle of the LItUe Dipper. D* 

Um two last in the bowl of the Dipper 



108' piormuB of tbb msavens. iJumb. 

and situated about 15^ from the pole. The brightest of them 
is called Kochab, which signifies an axle or hmge, probsCbly 
in reference to its moving so near the axis of the earth. 

Kochab may be easily known by its being the brightest 
and middle one of three conspicuous stars forming a row, one 
of which is about 2^, and the other 3^, from Kochab. The 
two brightest of these are situated in the breast and shoulder 
of the animal, about 3^ apart, and are called the Guards or 
Pointers of Ursa Minor. They are on the meridian about the 
20th of June, but may be seen at all hours of the night, when 
the sky is clear. 

Of the four stars which form the bowl of the Dipper, one 
is so small as hardly to be seen. They lie in a direction to- 
wards Gramma in Cepheus; but as they are continually 
changing their position in the heavens, they maybe much 
better traced out from the map, than from description. 

Kochab is aoout 25<^ distant from Benetnasch, and about 
24<^ from Dubhe, and hence forms with them a very nearly 
equilateral triangle. 



-"The Lesser Bear 



Leads from the pole the lucid band : the stars 
Which form this constellatioa, faintlv shine, 
Twice twelve in number ; only one oeams forth 
Conspicuous in high splendour, named by Greeee 
The Ctfnoaure ; by us tlie Polar Star." 

History.— The prevailing opinion is, that Ursa Major and Ursa Minor are the 
nymph Calisto and her son Areas, and that they were transformed into bean 
by the enraged and imperious Juno, and aiTerwards translated to heaven by the 
iavour of Jupiter, lest they might be destroyed bv the huntsmen. 

The Chinese claim that the emperor Hong-ti, the grandson of Noah, fiist dia- 
covered the polar star, and applied it to purposes of navigation. It is certain that 
It was used for this purpose m a very remote period of antiquity. From various 
passages in ttie ancients, it is manifest that the Phceniciau^s steered by Cynosura, 
or the Lesser Bear ; whereas the mariners of Greece, and some other nations 
steered by the Greater Bear, called Ilelice, or Helix. 

Lucan, a Latin poet, who flourished about the time of the birth of our Saviour 
Cinu adverts to the practice of steering vessels by Cynosura: — 

*« Unstable Tyre now Jtnit to firmer ground, 
^ With Sidun for her pur))le shells renown'd. 
Safe in the Cynosure their glittering guide * 
With well-directed navies stem the tide." 

RowB's Translation, B. lU. 

The following extracts from other poets contain allusions to the same ftct : " 

" PlKBnicia, spurning Asia's bounding strand, 
By the bright Pole starts steady ramance le^ 
Bade to the winds her daring sails expand, 
And fearless ploughed old Ocean's stormy bed." 

Maurice's Eleffy on Sir TV, Jcnm 

" Ye radiant si^s, who from the ctherial ])lain ' 
Sidonians guide, and Greeks upon the main, 
Who from your poles all earthly things explore, 
And never set beneath the western sYiore.^' « 
Ovid's TrUUa 

How ttxy Kochab be easily known? What are the position and name of the turu 
irtKhtcst of these) When are they on the meridian i How is Kochab situated 
Jtspsato Benstnasch and Dubhe « 



wxwno. W 



«*Of «]1 jron muttlaKie ot goUea 
Which the wide roundinc sphere InceaaanC beam. 
The cauUoua inariner relies on none, 
But keeps him to the constant pole alooe." 

LucAJf'B Pharsalia, B. tIU. ▼. 



Urea Major and Ursa Minor, are sometimes called TWones, and ■u..., ..»■■— ^ 
Oreaier and Lesser Wains. In Pennington's Memoirs of tlM learatd Mnk Ov 
ler, we have the following beautiful lines: — 

'* Here, Cassiopeia fills a lucid throne. 
There, blaze the splendours of the Northeiti Crown* 
While the slow Car, the cold Tritmet roll 
O'er the pale countries of the frozen pole : 
Whose fiuthful beams conduct the wand'ring ship 
Through the wide desert of the pathless deep." 

Thales, an eminent geometrician and astronomer, and one of the aeren 
men of Greece, who nourished six hundred years before the Ohristlaii era, ia 
generally reputed to be the inventor of this constellation, and tc have tanght UM 
use of it to the Phosnician navigators ; it ift certain that he brought the knowledf 6 
of it' with him from Phcenice into Greece, vnth many other discoveriaa both la 
astronomy and mathematics. 

Until the properties of the magnet Mtere known and applied to the use of navt 
fation, and for a long-time after, the north polar star was the only sure giiida. 
At what time the attractive powers of the magnet were first known, la not eef^ 
Aaia ; they were known in Europe about six hundred years before the Chriatiaa 
tra ; and by the Chinese records, it Is said that its polar attraction was known to 
that country at least one thousand years earlier. 



CHAPTER IX. 

BIBSCTIONS POR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARK OK 

THE MERIDIAN IN JULY. 

SCORPIO. 

The Scorpion. — This is the eighth sign, and ninth constel* 
lation, in the order of the Zodiac. It presents one of the most 
interesting groups of stars for the pupil to trace out that is tc 
be found in the southern hemisphere. It is situated sout]^ 
ward and eastward of Libra, and is on the meridian the 10th 
of July. 

The sun enters this 9ipt on the 23d of October, but does not reach the eonatettO' 
Hon before the 30th of November. - When astronomy was first cultivated in tha 
Bast, the two solstices and the two equinoxes took place when the sun waa te 
Aquarius and Leo, Taurus and Scorpio, respectively. 

Scorpio contains, according to Flamsted, forty-four stars 
including op jf / e 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleren 
of the 3a. - ^Badily distinguished from all others by the 
peculiar lus"* ^ and the position of its principal stars. 

Antares, is the principal star, and is situated in the heait 

* ■ .1 »■ 

Vhat is the position of Scorpio, among the signs and constellations of the Zddlaaf 
flow la it situated with respect to Libra, and when is It on our meridian? What ai« 
tfM number and magnitude of Itt stars 1 How is It readily distinguished tnm M 
It Describa the TMlncioal star in this constallJttaki 

10 



10 nCTCRB OP TBS BRAVElfS. {jOiT. 

of the Scorpion, about 19^ east of Znbenelgahi, the soathem- 
most star Id the Balance. Antares is the most brilliant star 
in that region of the skies, and may be otherwise distinguish- 
ed by its remarkably red appearance. Its declination is about 
26^ S. It comes to the meridian about three hours after 
Bpica Virginis, or fifty minutes after Corona Borealis, on the 
10th of July. It is one of the stars from which the moon't 
distance is reckoned for computing the longitude at sea. 

There are four creat atars in the heavens, Pamalhautj Aidebaran^ RegubUf 
and Antarett which formerly answered to the solstitial and equinoctial poiuta* 
and which were much noticed by the astronomers of the East 

About 84^ northwest of Antares, is a star of the 2d mag^ 
nitude, in the head of the Scorpion, called Grqffiaa. It is but 
one degree north of the earth's orbit. It mayoe recognised 
by means of a small star, situated about a degree northeast 
of it, and also by its forming a slight curve with two other 
stars of the 3d magnitude, situated below it, each about 3^ 
apart. The broad part of the constellation near Graffias, is 
powdered with numerous small stars, converging down to a 
point -at Antares, and resembling in figure a boy's kite. 

As you proceed from Antares, there are ten conspicuous 
stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, which mark the tau of the 
kite, extend mg down, first in a south, southeasterly direction 
about 17°, thence easterly about 8° further, when they turn, 
and advance about 8° towards the north, forming a curve like 
a shepherd's crook, or the bottom part of the letter S. This 
crooked line of stars, forming the tail of the Scorpion, is very 
conspicuous, and may be easily traced. 

The first star below Antares, which is the last in the back, is of only the 4th 
mag^nitude. It is about 2^ southeast of Antares, and is denoted by the Greek 
name of T. 

Epailon, of the 3d magnitude, is the second star from Antares, and the first is 
the tail It is situated about 1^ below the star T, but inclining a little to the easL 

ilfu, of the 3d magnitude, is the third star from Antares. It is situated 4^^ be- 
low Epsilon. It may otherwise oe known by means of a small star cloae by it, 
CD the left. 

Ze/o, of about the same magnitude, and situated about as far below Mu, is th« 
fourth star from Antares. Here the line turns suddenly to the east 

Eta. also of the 3d magnitude, is the fifth star from Antares, and about 340 
eastofZeta. -i -■ 

7*Ae/a. of tlie same magnitude, is the sixth star from Antares, and about 44^ 
east of Eta. Here, the line turns again, curving to the nonh, and terminates » 
a couple of stars. 

/ot<L is the seventh star from Antares, 3|^o above Theta, curving a little to the 
left. It is a star of the 3d magnitude, and may bo known by means of a 8n«all 
•Can ahnost touching it, on the east 

JCappoy a star of equal brightness, is less than 2^ above Iota, and a little to the 
t^*^ 

How is Antares otherwise distinguished? What Is Its declinaUoni What Is the 
S?*2Lr5,P^*"* ^^ meridian) What nautical importance is atUMhedtoiUposlUont 
KSSPS!^.**'*®^' S®^ "^'y *^ *» recognised? What is the appeanmoe of the consteK 
(K?? Z^^^ Graffias and Antares ? How many conspicuous stars below Antaresf 
2™ ■5* 2?Sf iiMgnlUide^and general direction? Describe thejir»t »tar Mow Jbt- 
KL, *-MiS2S!l^**??2? star below Antares. Dtseribe the third star, attd tell kotm 
iL^HSiSSS^ ^^^'^^^^ the fourth. Describe thejifth. Describe Theta. ' 
smi^ vment4 Kappa. 



V,\ BOOBPIO. Ill 

LBtuth, of the '3d maenltnde, if the brightest of the two tatt fai the tiil, aad It 
rtfxiated about Z° above Kappa, still farther to the right It maj reaoilj *»• 
koowi: b; m^ans of a smaller star, close by it, on the west 

This IS a very beautiful ^oup of stars, and easily tiaced 
out in the heavens. It furnishes striking evidence oi the fdh 
cility with which most of the constellations may be so accu- 
rately delineated, as to preclude every thing like uncertainty 
in the knowledge of their relative situatibn. 

"The heart with lustre of amazing force, 
Refulgent vibrates ; fiiint the other parts, 
And iU-defined by stars of meaner note." 

BiBTOBT. — This sign was anciently represented by various symbols, sometimes 
by a snake, and sometimes by a crocodile ; bat most commonly by the scorpioo. 
This last symbol is found on tlie Mithraic monuments, which is pretty good evl> 
dence that these monuments were constructed when (he vernal equinoztsccord- 
ed with Taurus. 

On both the zodiacs of Dendera, there are rude delineations of this animal; 
that on the portico differs considerably from that on the other zodiac, now in 
the Louvre. 

Scorpio was considered by the sncient astrologers as a sign accursed. The 
EgyptiBDS fi ced the entrance of the sun into Scorpio as the commencement of 
the reign of Typbon. when the Greeks fabled the death of Orion. When the sun 
was in 8corpK>, in the month of Athyr, as Plutarch informs us, the Egyptians 
enclosed the body of their god Osiris in an ark, or chest, and during this cere* 
mony a great annual festival was celebrated. Three days after the priests 
had enclosed Osiris in the ark, they pretended (o have found him again. The 
death of Osiris, then, was lamented when the sun In Bcorpio descended to the 
lower hemisphere, and when he arose st the vernal eqamox, then Osiris was 
■aid to be bom anew. 

The Egyptians or Chaldeans, who first Uranged the Zodiac, might have placed 
Scorpio in this part of the heavens to denote that when the sun enters this sign, 
the diseaaes incident to the fruit season would prevail ; since Autumn, which 
abounded in fruit often brought with it a great variety of diseases, and might be 
thus fitly represented by th«t venomous animal, the scorpion, who, as he re* 
cedes, wounds vrith a sting in his tail. 

Mars was the tutelary deity of the scorpion, and to this circumstance is owing 
■11 that jargon of the astrologers, who say that there is a great analogy between 
the mahgn influence of the planet Mars, and this sign. To this also is owing the 
doctrine of the alchymists, that iron, which metal they call Mars, is under the 
dominion of Scorpio ; so that the transmutation of it into gold can be effected 
M^ when the sun is in this sign. 

Xbe constellation of the Scorpion is very sncient Ovid thus mentions it in his 
oeaotilal fiible of Phaeton :— 

" There is a place above, where Scorpio bent, 
In tul and arms surrounds a vast extent ; 
In a wide circuit of the heavens he shines, 
And fills the place of two celestial signs. '* 

According to Ovid, this is the fiunous scorpion which sprang out of the eartli 
■t the command of Juno, and stung Orion ; of which wound he died. It was !■ 
0ite way the imperious goddess chose to punish the vanity of the hero and the 
hnnter, for iKMuiting that there was not on earth any animal which he coukl not 

(■BQhSk* 

f Words that provok'd the gods once from him fell, 
*No beasts so fierce,' said he. ' but I can quell ;' 
When lo ! the earth a baleful scorpion sent. 
To kill Latona was the dire intent ; 
Orion saved her, tho' himself was slain, 
But did for that a spacious place obtain 
In heaven : *to thee my Ufe,* said she, *tra«<lear 
And/or thy merit afdne iUustrioue there.* " 



Wt PICTCniE (V TBB HEAVENS. {4«II.V» 



aUmm^i both OrioD wid fieoi^ w«re bonowred bf lli« c i Juti i T i mm « 
ptece among the stars, yet iheir niaatkuis were so ordered that when one rosa 
Ihe other should set, aind vice vtraa ; so that they never appear In the aamt 
keuiisphere at the saiue time. 

In the Hebrew zodiac tliis sign is allotted to Dan. because it ii written, "Das 
•hall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path." 



HERCULES. 

Hercules is represented on the map invested with the skin 
of the Nemsean Lion, holding a massy club in his right hand, 
and the three-headed dog Cerberus in his left. 

He occupies a' large space in the northern hemisphere^ 
with one foot resting on the head of Draco, on the north, ana 
his head nearly touching that of Ophiuchus, on the south. 
This constellation extends from 12° to 50*^ north declination, 
aTkd its mean right ascension is 255° ; consequently its centre 
is on the meridian about the 21st of July. 

It is bounded by Draco on the north, Lyra on the east, 
Ophiuchus or the Serpent-Bearer on the south, and the Ser- 
pent and the Crown on ti^e west. 

It contains one hundred and thirteen stars, including one 
of the 2dj or of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, nine of the 
3d magnitude, and nineteen of the 4th. The principal stat 
is Bos Algethi, is situated in the head, about 25° southeas 
of Corona Borealis. It may be readily known by means ot 
another bright star of 'equal magnitude, 5° east, southeast ot 
it called Ras Alhague. Ras Alhague marks the head of 
Ophiuchus, and Ras Algethi that of Hercules. These two 
stars are always seen together, like the bright pairs in Aries, 
Gemini, the Little Dog, <fec. They come to our meridian 
about the 2Sth of July, near where the sun dres, the last of 
April, or the middle ot August. 

Ahou midway between Ras Algethi on the southeast, and Ariadne's Crown 
on the norfiiwest, may be seen Beta and Gaimna, two stars of the 3d magnitude 
■ituatvil in the west shoulder, about 3^ apart. The northernmost of these two 
ia called Rutilicua. 

Those four stars in the shap* of a diamond, 8° or 10° southwest of the two 
in the ahoiildcr of Hercules, are .situated in the head of the serpent. 

About 12° EL N. E. of Rutilicus, and 10^° directly north of Ras Alfethif ar« 
Iwo stars of the 4th magnitude, in the east shoulder. They may be known \gj 
jwo very minute stars a little above them on the left. The two stars in caca 
ilioulder of Heicules, with Ra& .^Isethi in the iiead, form a reguUr triangle. 

The lell, or east arui of Hercules, which grasps the triple-headed mcaotor 
(^crberus, may be traced by means of three or four stars of the 4th uiagnitude^ 

How Is the constellation Hercules representetl ? What space does It ocaipy, and 
what Is its situation in the heavens? "What «re its rlecllnaiiuu and right ascension? 
When Is its centre on the meridian ? How is It bounded? What are tlie nuntber and 
mit«nltude of its stars? Describe the principal star. What do R.-is Algethi and Ras 
Alhat'ue ser^'e to mark? When are they on our meridian? Describe the Mtua>- 
Hon qf Bttn and ■Gannma. Wfia: is tlie norther nviott (if these two called ? What four 
$tara are situated 8^ or 10° S. W. qfthe tvoo in the shmlder ? Describe the Htarn ft* thM 
eaut s/iou'der. How may these be known ? What getrntetrtcal figure do the atan in 
the timd and shoulderit of HercuUm fonn f How nuty the left arm qfHerciUsg b« trm- 



MAT %*\ BSMULBB. 113 

■ilQilied iB a n>w3^ mui 49 uput, exiendtaif frointh« alieaJdftr, In ■ aordieailenj 

JirecticHi. Tiiat small cluster, situated in a triaiiciilar tbnu, about 14^ nonhaaal 
of Raa AJg^hi, and 13° eaiic, southeaat of the leCahoukler, diafingwiah tha bead 
of Cerberua • 

£uUt£an or 30° northeast of dii '^^ko, are four stars of the 3d and 4cli mif • 
iiituues, forming sua irregular 8ciaai\j, of which the two southern ones are alxHfl 
4° ai^art, and in a line 6°* or 7° south ol the two northiini ones, whici. are nearlj 

Ply in the northsast comer, mar bo known b j means of one or two other small 
iters, close by it, on the east JBiOy in the nonhwrvt comer, may be known bj 
its beina in a row with two smidler stars, extending towards ttia northwest, and 
about 4° aoart The stars of the 4th magnitude, just south of the Dragon's n«Ml 
point out *h'» left foot and ankle of HerciUes. 

t»eveiaJ other stars, of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, may be tnced out In thli 
aonsioUation, by reierence to the map. 

HisTCNiT.-^This constellation is intended to immortalize the name of Hercules^ 
the Theban, so celebrated in untiquity for his heroic valour, and invincible 
prowess. According to the ancients, tliere were msny persons of this name. Of 
all these, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena is the most celebrated, and to him the 
actions of the others have been generally attributed. 

The birth of Hercules was attended with many miraculous events. He was 
brought up a4 Tiryntlius, or at Thebes, and before he had completed hia eighth 
monui, the jealousy of Juno, who was intent upon his destruction, sent two 
snakes to devour him. Not terrified at the sight of the serpents, he boldly seized 
them, and squeezed them to death, while his brother Iphicles alarmed the house 
with nis frightful shrieks. 

He was early insdructed in the liberal arts, and rfoon became the pupil of th« 
centaur Chiron, under whom he rendered himself the most valiant and accom* 
pushed of all the heroes of antiquity. In the I&h year of his age, he com- 
menced his arduous and glorious pursuits. He subdued a lion that devoureo 
the flocks of bis supposed fut'ner, Amphitryon. Alter he had destroyed the lion, 
he delivered his country from the annual tribute of a hundred ozen, which i* 
paid to Erginus. 

As Hercules, by the will of Jupiter, was subjected to the power of Emystheus, 
and obliged to obey him in every respect, Eurystheus. jealous of his rismg iaine 
and power, ordered him to appear at Mycenae, and perform the labours whicli, 
by priority of birth, he was empowered to impose U{K>n him. Hercules refused, 
but afterwards consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must be sub- 
servient, for twelve years, to the will of Eurystheus, in compliance with the 
commands of Jupiter ; and that, after he had achieved the most celebrated faip 
bours, he should be reckoned m the number of the sods. So plain an answer 
determined him to go to Mycene, and to bear with wrtitude whatever gods or 
men should impose upon liim. Eurystheus, seeing so great a man totallv sub- 
jected to him, and apprehensive of so powerful an enemy, commanded him to 
achieve a number of enterprises the most difficult and arduous ever known, 
generally called the Twblvs Lasours of HmujvuuL Being furnished with 
complete armour by the &vour of tlie gods, he boldly encountered the imposed 
laboitrs. 

1. He subdued the Nemnan Lion in his den, and invested himself with hit 



2. He destroyed the Lernsan Hydra, with a hundred hissing heads, and dip 
pMl bis arrows m the gall of the monster to render their wounds incurable. 

3. He took alive the stag with golden horns and brazen feet, so famous for its 
bieredible swiftness, after pursuing it for twelve months, and presented it, un* 
hurt, to Eurystheus. 

4. He took ahve the Erimanthiaa Boar, and killed the Centaurs who opposed 
hfan. _ 

6. He cleansed the stables or Augias, in which 3000 cien had been eobfined 
tor many years. 

5. He killed the camiverous bhrds which ravaged tl e country of Arcadia, and 
IM on human flesh. 

7. He took alive, and brought into Peloponnesus, the wild bull of Crete, which 
AC mortal durst look upon. 

H9W 1* the head qf Cerberw distinguisfted 7 There are four stars xn tf»L . W» j^'m 
trretruktr square, in the body of Hercules-describe them. nescrUte tV stt»* 40 tof 
PL De$eHbe the situation ^Sta. VThat stars po/hu ma th^ ::Si fiM (h U^ 

10* 



114 PECTDRB or TBB BBAVEN8. fiUUT' 

8b He obtained for Enrrttheuu ttie maree of Dtomedes. which ftd oo hmnui 
Aean, after hayinf giTeo their owner to be firat eaten by tnem. 
0. He obtained the girdle of the queen of the Am^ww^ i^ fonnidabto nataon of 

warlike females. 

10 He Icilled the monster Geryon, king of Gades, and brought away bis n«- 
uerous flocks, which fed upon human flesh. 

11. He obtained Uie golden appleB from the garden of the Heqperideai whic^ 
were waiclied by a dragon 

lid. And finally, he brought up to the earth the three>headed dogCerterus, tlia 
guardian of the entrance to the infernal regions. 

According to Dupuis, the twelve labours of Hercules are only a figurative rep> 
resentation of the annual course of the aun throu|;h the twelve signs of the ^^o* 
disc ; Hercules being put for the sun, inasmuch as it is the powerfm planet which 
animates and imparts fecundity to the universe, and whose divinity has been 
honoured^ in every quarter, by temples and alturs, and consecrated in the rell* 
gious strains of ail nations. 

Thus Virgil, in the eighth book of his JEneid, records the deeds of Hercule% 
and celebrates his praise :— 

**The lay records the labours, and the praise, 

AnM all the immortal acts of Hercules. 

Fi' n, how tlie mightv babe, when sw^ath'd in bandik 

1 iC seri>ent8 strangled with his infant hands ; 

'j hen, as in years and matchless force be grew, 

The (Echalian walls and Trojan ovefthrew ; 

Besides a thousand hazards they relate, 

Procured by Juno's and Euristheus' hate. 

Thy hands, unconquer'd hero, could subdue 

Th'e cloud- tiom Centaurs, and the monster crew; 

Nor thy resistless arm the bull withstood ; 

Nor he, the roainng terrour of the wood. 

The triple porter of the Stygian seat 

With lolling tongue lay fawning at thy feet. 

And, seized witli fear, forgot the mangled meat 

The infernal waters tremLled at thy sight : 

Thee, god, no &ce of danger could afTnght ; 

Nor huge Tynheusj nor the unnumber'd snake, 

Increased wilh hissing heads, in Lerna's lake." 

Besides these arduous labours which the jealousy of Eurystheus imposed upon 
Min, he also achieved others of his own accord, equally celebrated. Before ha 
delivered himself up to the king of Mycenc he accompanied the Argonauts to 
Colchis. He assisted the gods in their wars against the giants, and it was through 
him alone that Jupiter obtained the victory. He conquered Laomedon, and pil- 
laged Troy. 

At tliree different times he experienced fits of insanity. In the second, lie eiew 
the brother of his beloved lole ; in the third he attempted to carry aviray the va> 
cred tripod from ApoUo's temple at Delphi, for whicn the oracle tokf him ne 
must be sold as a alave. He was sold accordingly to Qmphale, queen of iO[dia, 
who restored him to liberty, and married him. After this he returned to Pek>* 

Eonnesus, and re-established on the throne of Sparta his friend Tyndarus, who 
ad been expelled by Hippocoon. He became enamoured of Dejanira, wliom, 
after having overcome all his rivals, he married; but was obliged to leave his 
father-in-law's kingdom, because he lud inadvertently killed a man with a blow 
of his fist He retired to the court of Ceyx, king of Trachina, and in his way was 
stopped by the streams of the Evenus, where he slew the Centaur Nessus, for 
presuming to offer indicnity to his beloved Dejanira. Tlie Centaur, on ezpiriDf, 
^ave to Dejanira the celebrated tunic which afterwards caused the death of Her- 
eules. "Triis tunic," said the expiring monster, 'Jhaa the virtue to recaU a hu» 
jand firom unlawful love " Dejanira, fearing lest^i^rcules should relapse agatn 
ln*o love for the beautif* i lole, save him the fatal tunic, which vras so infected 
with the poison of the Lemsan Hydra, that he had no sooner invested himself 
with it, tnan it began to penetrate his bones, and to boil throufh all his 
Be attemiAed to pull it ofl^ but it was too late. 

'*A8 the red iron hisses in the flood, 
8o boils the venom in his curdling blood. 
Now with the greedy flame his entrails glow, 
And livid sweats down all his body flow ; 



T. I SflRPSHTAHIUB. Uh 

The enekinf nerwtm, burnt up^ are bunt in twili^ 
The lurking veaom melts hie swimmiiig brain." 

ILS the (fistemper was mcarable, he implored the proCeeti<m of Jiqiiter, ganre 
KIs bow and arrow to Fhiloctetea, and erected a large buminf ]rile on the top of 
Mount CBta. He spread on the pile the lAin of the Nenuean lion, and laid him> 
self down upon it, as on a bed, leaning his head upon his club. Philoctetes set 
fire to the pile, and the hero saw himself on a sodden, surrounded bjr the moitt 
appalling flames ; yet he did not betray any marks of fear or astonishment. Jv* 
pner saw him from heaven, and told the surrounding gods, who would havp 
drenched the pile with tears, while they entreated that ne would raise to thm 
rides the immortal part of a hero who had cleared the earth from so many moii 
sters and tyrants ; and thUs the thunderer spake : — 

— — " Be all your fears forborne : 
Th' CEtcan fires do thou, great hero, scorn. 
Who vanqulsh'd all things shall subdue the flame. 
That part alone of gross maternal frame 
Fire shall devour ; while what from me he drew ^ 
Shall live immortail, and its force subdue : 
7%at, when he's dead, I'll raise to realms above ;— 
May all the powers the righteous act approve." 

CMd'9 Met. Ub. Ix 

Accordingly, after the mortal part of Hercules was consumed, as the 
poets say, he was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn by four ho; 

"Q,uem pater omni|)otens inter cava nubila raptonii 
Quadrijugo corru radiantibus intulit asUis." 

" Almightv Jove 

In his swift car his honoured offspring drove ; 
High o'er Uie hollow clouds the coursers fly, 
And lodge the hero in the starry sky." 

Chnef* Mitt. Ub. iz. t. SZ71. 



SERPENTARIUS, VEL OPHIUCHUS. 

The Serpent-Bearer is also called iEsculapius, or the 

fod of medicine. He is represented as a man with a genera 
le beard, having both hands clenched in the folds of a pro 
digious serpent, which is writhing in his grasp. 

The constellation occupies a considerable space in the mid> 
heayen, directly south of Hercules, and west of Taurus Po- 
niatowski. Its centre is very nearly over the equator, oppo- 
site to Orion, and comes to the meridian the 26th of July. It 
contains seventy-four stars, mcluding one of the 2d magni 
tude. five of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. 

Tne principal star in Serpentarius is called Ras Alhague,. 
It is of the 2d ma^itude, and situated in the head, about 5® 
£. S. E. of Ras Algethi, in the head of Hercules. Ras Al- 
hague is nearly 13^ N. oi the equinoctial, while Bho, in the 
bouthem foot, is about 25<^ south of the equinoctial. These 
two stars serve to point out the extent of the constellation 
from north to south. Ras Alhague comes to the meridian on 
the 28th of July, about 21 minutes after Ras Algethi. 

How Is the constellation Serpentarius represented) What is Its extent, and where 
Is it situated? When is its centre on the meridiani "WhaX are the number and mag* 
nitude of its stars t What axe the name and position of its prindmd star 1 What two 
stars mark the extremes of the constellation, north and south ) When is Ras Alhasiit 
ta the meriUlaji) 



\H « « nCTDBB or TBE HCA?BM8. |jCf.T 

Abnat 10° S. W. of Has Alhofae are two somII atan of tlie 4th inagiiHiMlaii 
warcely more than a degree apart. They Jiatingoiab the left or west aboaJder. 
Tiie Dorthem one ia marked iota, and the other Kappa. 

Eleven or twelve degrees 8. 8. E. of Has Albague are two other stara of the 3d 
mafcnitude, in the eaat ahouMer, and about 29 apart The upper i^ne is called 
Olulebi and the lower one Oamma. These stars in the head and b loulders of 
Serpentarius, form a triangle, with the vertex in Raa Albague^ and pointing to* 
wards the northeaat 

About 4t^ E. of Qamma, is a remarkable cluster of four or 
fiv« stars, in the form of the letter V, with the open part to 
the north. It very much resembles the Hyades. This beau 
tiful littie group marks the face of Taurus Foniatowski. The 
solstitial colure passes through the equinoctial about 2^ E. of 
the lower star in the vertex of the V. The letter name of >this 
st^r is k. There is something remarkable in its central posi- 
tion. It is situated almost exactly in the mid-heavens, being 
nearly equidistant from the poles, and midway between the 
Temal and autumnal equinoxes. * It is, howerer, about one 
and a third degrees nearer the north than the south pole, and 
about two degrees nearer the autumnal than the vernal equi 
nox, being about two degrees west of the solstitial colure. 

Directly south of the V, at the distance of about 12^, vo two very small 8tBr% 
about 2^ afiart, situated in the right hand, where it grasps tlie serpent Abou. 
halfway between, and nearly in a line with, the two in the hand and the two ia 
the shoulder, is another star of the 3d magnitude, marked ZetOy situated in tho 
Serpent, opposite the right elbow. It may be known by means of a minute star, 
just under it 

Marncy iathe left arm, is a star of the 4th maipitude, about 10° 8. W. of Iot% 
and Cappa. About 7° ferther in the same direction are two stars of the 3d mag 
Bitade, situated in the hand, and a little more than a degree apart The uppei 
one uf the two, which is about 16° N. of Graffias in Scorpio, is called Yetf ; th* 
other is marked Epsilon. These two stars mark the other point in the foidt of 
the monster where it is grasped by Serpentariua. 

Tlie left arm of Serpentanus may be easilv traced by means of tlie two slaia 
in the shoulder, the one (Marsic) near the elbow, and the two in the hand ; all 
lying nearly in a line N. N. E. and 8. 8. W. In the same manner mav the right 
arm be traced, bv stars very similarly situated ; that is to sav, first Dy the two 
h the east shoulder, just west of the V, thence 8° in a southerly direction in- 
etaning a little to the east, by Zeta, (known by a little star risht under it,) and th«» 
by the two small ones in the right hand, situated about 6° below Zeta. 

About 12° from Antares, in an easterly direction, are two stars in the r^ht 
foot, about 2° anart. The laiigest and lower of the two, is on the lefthand. ft \m 
of between the 3d and 4th mamitudes, and marked Rho. There are several other 
■tars in tliis constellation of we 3d and 4th magnitudes. They may be traced o«l 
from the maps. 

**Thee, fierpentarloa, we behold disffnet, 
With eeventV'four refulgent stars ; and one 
Graces thy helmet, of the second class: 
The Serpenty in thy hand grasp'd, winds his apire 
Inunenae ; fewer by ten tSa figure traee ; 

DeeeribB the eten M the weet ahonlder ofSerpentartue. What stare dieHnguMi tk$ 
eaet^oiMer? How are theee tteo atare denominated? What ie the relative poeiiime 
if the ttare in the head and ehoulderaJ What lemarkable cluster of stars in thta 
■elghbourbood? To what constellation does this group belong? How is this cluaM 
situated with respect tn the solstitial colure? What is remarkable in the central posi 
tion of Kappa? Deeeribe the etare in the right hand of Berpentariue. Deeerlba <h« 
situation ({f Zeta Describe Maraic, and the two stare in the l^ hand. VThUh qf M* 
*woisoaaedYed,«mdhmoie it sUvatedl How mau the tefi arm <^ Serpenuurlae H 
traeedf How mmi the right arm be traced? Describe the stars in the rigfitjmtw 
Serpetuarine. What other etars may be traced out in Me coneteikuion? 



HAT V\ I DBACO. tlY 

One of the wcond nmk ; ton shan the eifffit ; 

And seven, he who bears the monster hides." — Eudotia, 

HisTORT.— Tliis consteUation was known to the ancients twelve hundred 7e«n 
lAfbre the Christian era. Homer menlioas U. It is thus referred to In Um Ab 
frooomicon of Manilius : — 

''Next, Ophiucbtts. strides the mighty snake, 
Untwists his winding folds, and smooths his back, 
Extends his bulk, and o'er the slippery scale 
Bis wide-stretch'd hands on either side prevaiL 
The snake turns back his bead, and eems to rage : 
That war must last where equal power prevails/' 

iBscnlapins was the son of Apollo, by Coronis. and was educated by Chlroa 
Uie Centaur, in the art of medicine, ^n which he became so skilful, that he was 
isidered the inventor and god of n»edicine. At the birth of JBscuUpiu^ tlM 
7ired daughter of Chiron uttered, *'in sounding^ verse," this prof hetie stralD* 

**Hail, great physician of the world, all hall I 
Hail, mightv infant, who, in years to come, 
Shall heal the nations and defraud the tomb ! 
Swift be thv growth 1 thy triumphs unconfined I 
Make kingooms thicker, ahd increase mankind: < 
Thy daring art shall animate the dead, 
And draw the thunder ttn thy guilty head : 
Then siialt thou die, but from the dark abode 
Rise up victorious, and be twice a god" 

accouipanfed the Argonauts to Colchis, In the capacity of physician. He 

said to have restored atany to life, insomuch that Pluto complained to Jupher, 

lat iiis dark tloiniuion was in danger of being depopulated by ills art 

JEsculapius vras worshipped at Epidaurus, a city of Peloponnesus, and hence 

is srylcd by Milton, "the god in Epidsiirus." Being sent for to Rome in the 

le of a plague, he aesuuied the form of a serpent and accompanied the amba» 

loi£i, but though thus changed, he was ^srulapius still, in aerpente deua^^ 

(lehy in a serpent, and under that form he continued to be wor8hipi>ed at 

le. The cocic and tlie serpent were iftacred to him, especially the latter. 

Tl^ancient physicians used them in their prescriptions. 

I of the last acts of Socrates, who Is accounted the wisest and best man ol 

antiquity, was to offer a cock to JEscuiapius. He, and Plato, were botJi 

; they conformed, and advised others to conform, to the religion of their 

, to gross idot^ry and absurd superstition. If the wisest andmust lewn- 

|i io blind, what ma«t the IboUsh and Ignorant have been 1 



CHAPTER X. 

■onBcnoNs for tracing the constellations which arc OB 

THE MERIDIAN IN AUGUST. 

DRACO. 

Ths Dragon. — This constellation, which compasses a 
isige circiiit in the polar regions bv its ample folds and cod> 
torCions, contains many stars which may l>e easily traced. 

From the head of the monster^ which is under the foot of 
Hercales. there is a complete coil tending eastwardly, about 
17® N. or Lyra ; thence he winds down northerly about 14* 

"Wtet Is the situation of tbe eonstellaUon Draco 9 Describe. If yev :;loase. the van 
«ollt of the Dngon. 



tl8 PICTURE OP THB HEAVENS. AML 

10 the second coil, where he reaches almost to the girdle of 
Cepheus, then he loops down somewhat in the shape of tti* 
letter tJ, and makes a third coil about 15^ below the firsC 
From the third coil he holds a westerly course for about 13°, 
then goes directly down, passing between the head of the 
Lesser and the tail of the Greater Bear. 

This constellation contains eighty stars, including four ot 
the 2d magnitude, seven of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. 

**The Dragon next, winds like a mighty stream; 
Within its ample folds are eightu stars, 
Four of the second order. Far he vraves 
His ample spires, invoWing either Bear." 

The head of the Dragon is readily distinguished by means 
of four stars, 3°, 4°, and 5° apart, so situated as to form an 
irregular square ; the two upper ones bein^ the brightest, and 
both of the 2d magnitude. The righthand upper one, called 
Etanin, has been rendered very noted in modem astronomy 
from its connexion with the discovery of a new law in phys- 
ical science, called the Aberration of Light 

The letter name of this star is Gammq^ or Gamma Drctco- 
nis; and by this appellation it is most frequently called. The 
other bright star, about 4^ from it on the left, is Rastahen, 

About 4° W. of Rastaben, a small star may, with close at 
tention, be discerned in the nose of the Dragon, which, with 
the irregular square before mentioned, makes a fio^ure some- 
what resembling an Italic F, with the point towards the west, 
and the open part towards the east. The small star in the 
nose, is called Er Bakis. 

The two small stars B^ or 6^ S. of Rastaben are in the left foot of Hercules. 

' Rastaben is on the meridian nearly at the same moment 
with Ras Alhague. Etanin, 40^ N. of itj is on the meridian 
about the 4th of August, at the same time with the three 
western stars in the face of Taurus Poniatowski, or the V. It 
is situated less than 2° west of the solstitial colure, and is 
exactly in the zenith of London. Its favourable position hms 
led English astronomers to watch its appearance, for long 
periods, with the most exact and unwearied scrutiny. 

In the year 172Es Mr. Molyneux and Br. Bradley fitted up a very accurate ud 
costly instrument, in order to discover whether the fixed stars had any sensibla 
j^ralbz, while the earth moved from one extremity of its orbit to the other ; or 
which is the same, to determine whether the nearest fixed stars are ^tuated aC 
iuch an immense distance from the earth, that any star which is seen this night 
directly north of us, will, six months hence, when we shall have gone 190 miB* 

What *n the coarse of the monster tram the third colli What are the nomber and 
magnitude of the stars r-^ntained in this constellntlon? How is the head of the DrMon 
distinguished 1 Which star is called Etanin, and for what is it noted? By what outer 
appellation is it generally known? What stars in the heau of Draco form the letter f, 
and how is it situated? When is Rastaben on the meridian? When is Etanin on tha 
meridian, and what stars in this region culminate at he same time? How is Rasahw 
■ituated with respect to the solsUUal colurs. and the senith of Loudon. 



ift4P. fl.J DBAOO. 1J9 

W>n9 of mile to the eastward of tbe place we are dujiv in, be then aeen esacUy 
n *rth of OS atill, without changing its pofdthm ao much as the thickneea of a aiii 
dffr'B web. 

These observations were subsequently repeated, with but little intennlasiciii 
fbi twenty years, by the uiost acute observers in Europe, and with telescopes 
varying from 12 feet to 36 feet in length. In the meantime, Dr. Bradley had tils 
)|>nour of announcing to^the woiid the very nice discovery, that the motion of 
fifhtj combined with the pro^eaoixe motion uf the earth in ito orbit^ eatueo /At 
heaven 'y bodieo to be oeen in a different poottion from what they wouid be^ tf 
the eye were at reeU Thus was established the principle of the Aberration of 
LighL 

This DTinciple, or law, now that It is ascertained, seems not only very plafak 
but sell-evident For if light be progressive, the position of the telescope, in ordei 
to receive the ray, must be different from what it would have been, if liglit had 
been instantaneous, or if the earth stood stilL Hence the place to which the te^ 
escope is directed, will be different from the true place of the object 

The quantity of diis aberration is determined by a simple proposition. Tht 
earth describes 69' 8'' of her orbit ra a day -•3548'', anu a ray of light comet 
iirom tlie sun to us in S' 13"- 493'' : now 24 hours or 86400^' : 493" : : 3648^' : 
22^' ; which is the change in the star's place, arising ftom the cause abovetneB- 
tioned. 

Of the four stars forming tne irregular sqiiare m the head, the lower and right* 
hand one is 6j^° N. of Etaoin. It is called Grumium^ and is of tbe 8d magnitude. 
A few de^nrees E. of the square, may be seen, with a little care, eight stars of the 
5th magnitude, and one of the 4th, wiiich is marlced Omicron^ and lies 8° E. of 
Grumium. Tnis group is in the first coil of the Dragon. 

The second coil is anout 13^ below the first, and may be recognised by meeae 
of four stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, so situated as to form a small square, 
about half the size of that in the head. 

The brightest of them is on the left, and is marked D<^lta. A line drawn from 
Eastaben through Grumium, aiid produced aiiout 14^, will point it out A line 
drawn from Lvra through Zi Draconis, and produced 10*^ further, will point oul 
Zefa, a star of the 3d magnitude, situatfid in ttie third coil. Zeta may otherwise 
be known, by its being nearly in a line with, and midwav between, Etanin an4 
Kochab. From Zeta. the remaining sti'.rs in tiiis constellation are easily traced 

Eta, Thtta, and Atich, come next ; all sUrs of the 3d magnitude, and at tlie 
distance, severally, of 6*^, 4°, and 5^ from Zeta. At Asich, the third star from 
Zeta, the tail of the Dragon inakos a sudden crook. 2%ubaHf Kappa^ and Oian- 
tar, follow next, and complete the taiL 

ThubaUy is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, ll^ from 
Asich, in a line with, and about midway between, Mizar and 
the southernmost guard in the Little Bear. By nautical men 
this star is called the DragorCs Tail^ and is considered of 
much importance at sea. It is otherwise celebrated as being 
formerly the north polar 8tar> About 2,300 years before the 
Christian era, Thuoan was ten times nearer the true pole of 
the heavens than Cynosura now is. 

Kappa is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10^ from Alpha, between Megres and the 

S. Mizar and Megrez. in the tail of the Great Bear, form, with Thuban and 
pa, in the tail of the Dragon, a large quadrilateral fiJEure, whose fongest side 
om Megrez to Kappa. . ^ , _^ 

Gianaar, the last star in the tail, is between the 3d and 4tn magnitudes and S^ 
from Kappa. The two pointers will also point out Giansar, lying at the distance 
ef little more than 8^ fh>m them, and in the direction of the pole. 

„ ■ - — — — - — — •" ■ — ~- 

Deocribe the etarekt the Jlroteoaqf Draco. DeeertbeOioetareintheeeoondeoM 
What 1» the brightetti^thU group oalied, and HotonM»Ubt pointed out7 V^ U 
the principal etarqfthe third coil, and how mauU be fitmdj BowOae may Zeis is 
knownl What atare come next to Zeta, in tMe eoneteOationt What stare JoOow 
Oteee 7 Describe Thuban. By what other name is this star known, and for what is H 
aelebtated) When was Thuban within ten mlmites of the pole? DewrtteJCefjtti. 
Whatjlgure do Misar and Megrez, in the tail cf the Great BMr,fmn with TMm 
mndKamM, in the taUtif the Dragon? DeeeribethepoeUionqfCHanear^andteUhow 
miepouOodouL 



t20 riCTUHE OF THE HEAVENS. |.A1MU 



-"Here the vast Dragon twines 



Between tlie Bears, and tike a river wiDds, 
The Bears, that still with fearful caution keep^ 
Untinged beneath the aur&ce of the deep." 

Warton'a Virgil^ 6. L 

BiiTtmT.— Whoever attends to the situation of Draco, surroundlni;, as ir. ao«k 
Ike pole of the Ecliptic, will perceive that its tortuous windings are symLioUcai 
•f the oblique course of the stars. Draco also winds round the pole of the worfi^ 
M if to indicate, in the symbolical language of Egyptian astronomy, the mtKioii 
of the pole of the Equator around the pole of the Ecliptic, produced by the pre- 
•ession of the heavens. The Egyptian hyeroglyphic for the heavens, wis a 
§erpent. whose scales denoted the stars. When astronomy first began lo be cul- 
tivated in Chaldea, Draco was the polar eonstelltUion. 

Mytbologists, however, give various accounts of this constellation ; by serine 
k is represented as the watchful dragon which guarded the golden triples in the 
ftmous garden of the Hesperides,* near Mount Atlas in Africa ; and was slain by 
Hercules. Juno, who presented these apples to Jupiter on the day of their nup- 
tials, took Draco up to heaven, and made a constellation of him, as a reward far 
his faithful services. Others maintain, that in the war with the giants, this dragoB 
was brought into combat, and opposed to Minerva, who seized it in her hand, siid 
hurled it, twisted as it was, into the heavens round the axis of the world, beft. re 
it had time to unwind its contortions, where it sleeps to this day.' Other wriCars 
•f antiquity say, that this is the dragon killed by Cadmus, who was ordered >y 
ais father to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had c&rried aw%T 
ana never to return to Phoenicia without her. 

** When now Agenor had his daughter lost. 
He sent his son to search on every coast ; 
And sternly bade him to his arms restore 
The darling maid, or see his (ace no more." 

His search, however, provmg fruitless, he consulted the oracle of Apollo, and 
was ordered to build a city where he should see a heifer stop in the grass, and 
to call the country Boeotia. He saw the heifer according to the oracle, and as he 
wished to render thanks to the gud by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to 
fetch water from a neighbouring grove. The waters were sacred to Mars, and 
guarded by a most terrific dragon, who devoured all the messengers. Cadmiis, 
tired of their seeming delay, went to the place, and saw the monster still feeding 
Ml their flesh. 

**Deep in the dreary den, conceal'd from day, 
Sacred to Mars, a mighty dragon lay. 
Bloated with poison to a monstrous size ; 
lire broke in flashes when he glanced his eyes : 

* Those who attempt to explain the mythology of the ancient^', ol)5;erve that the Hes- 
perUes were certain persons who had an immense number of flocks ; and that the 
ambiguous Greek word ^xo?, meton, which sometimes signifies an apple and some- 

tfanes a sheep, gave rise to the fkble of the golden apple of these gardens. 

The " Hesperian gardens finned of old,'' as Milton obsf-rves, were so called fVom 
F^i$perua Ve»per, because placed in the west, under the evening star. Some suppose 
lKnn-u> have been situated near Mount Atlas, in AfMca; others maintain that thejr 
were the isles about Cape Veid, whose most westerly point is still called Hesperiumi 
C4m«.lhe Horn of the Hesperides ; while others contend, that they were the Canaxy 
felands. 

4tlas, said to have been contemporary with Moses, was king of Mauritania, in the 
Bfirth part of Africa, and owner or a thousand flocks of eveiy kind. For refhsing hne^ 
pilality td Perseus, he was changed into the mountain that still bears his muone ; and 
which is so high, that the ancients imagined that the heavens rested upon its summit. 
amL consequently, tlu^ Atlas supported the world on his shoulders. Vlxgil has VUm 
ld««. where he speaks of " Atlas, whose brawny back supports the skies ;** and H» 
•ted, venw 786, advances the same notion :— 

** Atlas, so hard necessity ordains. 
Erect, the ponderous vault of stars sustains. 
Not far flrom the Hesperides he stands. 
Nor from the load retracts his head or hands.*' 

Pran this very ancient and whimsical notion, Atlas is represented by artists, and !• 
'JKKtkM of myth<lcny, as an old man hearinsr the world on his shoulders. Hence It ftk 
tlMi» a ooUaction wmaps, embracing the whole world, is called an AUom, 



f] 



LYRA. 181 



flis lowering crest waa glorious to behold, 

His shoulders and his sides were scalMJ with gold 

Three tunf^iies he brandish 'd when he c>iargeu bin CM*. 

His teeth Hiuud jaggy in three dreadful rowa 

The Tyrians in the den for wator sought, 

iLntl with their urns explorefl the hoUuw vault: 

From side to side their empty urns rebound, 

And rouse the sleeping serpent with their M>und. 

Straight lie bestirs nim, and is seen to rise ; 

And now with dreadful hissings fills the skies, 

And darts his forky tongues, and rolls his clarinf eywh 

The Tyrians drop their vessels in the fright, 

All pale and trembling at the hideous sighL 

Spire above spire uprear'd in air he stood; 

And gazing round hnn, overiook'd the wood: 

Then floating on the ground in circles roli'd; 

Then leap'd upon them in a miirlity fold. 

AH their endeavours and their lio{)e8 are vSln ; 

Stnne die entangled in the winding train ; 

Some are devour'd. or feel a loathnome death| 

SwoU'n up with blasts of pestilential breatlL" 

Cadmus, beholding such a scene, boldly resolved to avenge, or to shsr« taatr 
ibte. He therefore attacked the monster with slings and arrows, and, with tns 
assistance of Minerva, slew him. He then plucked out his teeth, and sowed 
theia, at the command of Pallas, in a plain, when they suddenly sprung up taHJ 
armed men. 

"Pallas adest: motaeque jubet supponere terra 
Viperos dentes, populi incrementa futuri. 
Paret: et, ut presso sulcum patcfecit aratro, 
S(»argit humi jussos, mortalia semina dentes. 
Inde (fide majus) giebs cspcre inoveri : 
Primaijue de sulcis acies apjiaruit hasts 
T'Ntniina mox capitum picto nutantia cono . 
Kxistunt : crescitque seges clypoata virorum." 

OvitT* M9t. lib. JIL ▼. lOQL 

" He pows the teeth at Pallas's conmiand. 
And flings the future people from his hand. 
The clods grow warm, and crumble where he sows; 
And now the pointed s])ears advance in rows; 
Now nodding plumes ap})ear, and shinhig crests^ 
Now the broail shoulders and the rising breasts j 
O'er all the field the breathing harvest swarms. 
A growing host ! a crop of men and arms !" 

Entertaining worse aiiprehension from the fllrefiil offspring tlisn he had ifoM 
from the dragon himseiC he wa.< aliout to fly, when ihey all fell iX]'or\ <>ach other 
mm] were all slain in one promiscuous carnage, except five, who a.s£is!ed Caibnus 
(o build tlie eity of Bceotia. 



LYRA, 



The Harp. — This constellation is distinguished hy one of 
Ike most brilliant stars in the northern hemisphere. It is sit- 
uated directly south of the first coil of Draco, between the 
Swan, on the east, and Hercules, on the west ; and when on 
the meridian, is almost directly over head. 

It contains twenty-one stars, including one of the 1st m^- 
nitude, two of the 3d, and as many of the 4th. 

ev w1«t is tfw constellation of the Harp distinguished f Where is It situated} W'hal 
■rs'the lumlier and magBltude of its stan? 

11 



188 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |aS9 

'There LyrOf for the brightness of her stars, 
More than their number eminent ; thrice seven 
She coants, and one of these illuminates 
The heavens fiir around, blazing iniperia4 
In the J8r.7/ order." 

This Star, of " the first order, blazmg with imperial" lustre, 
is called Vega, and sometimes Wega; but more frequently 
It is called I/y^ra, after the name of the constellation. 

There is no possibility of mistaking this star for any other. 
It is situated 14}° S. £. of Etanin, and about 30° N. N . E. of 
Ras Alhague and Ras Algethi. It may be certainly known 
by means of two small, yet conspicuous stars, of the Sth mag- 
nitude, situated about 2° ai)art, on the east of it, and making 
with it a beautiful little triangle, with the angular point lU 
Lyra. 

The northernmost of these two small stars is marked EpaUon^ and the soathr 
em one, Zeta. About 2P S. E. of Zeta, and in a line with Lyra, is a star of th« 
4th magnitude, marked Delta, in the middle of the Harp ; and 4° or 6° 8. ol 
Deita, are two stars of the 3d magnitude, about 2° apart, in the garland of the 
Harp, forming another triangle, whose vertex is in Delta. The star on the easti 
is marked Gamma ; that on the west, Betcu If a line be drawn from Etanin 
through Lyra, and produced 6° farther, it will reach Beta. 

This is a variable star, changing from the 3d to nearly the 6th magnitude in th« 
space of a week ; it is supposed to have spots on its surface, and to turn on its 
axis, like our snn. •- 

Oarrnna comes to the meridian 21 minutes after Lyra, and precisely at the 
■une moment with EpaUon^ in the tail of the Eagle, 17JP S. of it 

The declination of Lyra is about 38|° N. ; consequently 
when on the meridian, it is but 2P S. of the zenith of Hart- 
ford. It culminates at 9 o'clock, about the 13th of August 
It is as favourably situated to an observatory at Washington, 
as Rastaben is to those in the vicinity of London. 

Its surpassing brightness has attracted the admiration of 

astronomers in all ages. Manilius, who wrote in the age of 

Augustus, thus alludes to it : — 

"Onb, placed in front above the rest, displavf 
A vigorous light and darts surprising rays.^' 

Aatronondeony B. I. p. 16. 

Bistort.— It is generally asserted that this is the celestial Lyre which Apolie 
or Mercury gave to Orpheu^ and upon which he played with such a masterly 
hand, that even the most rapid rivers ceased to flow, the wild beasts of the foreii 
foraot their wildness, and the mountains came to listen to his song. 

Of all the liymphs who used to listen to his song, Eurydice was the only one 
who made a deep impression on tlie musician, and their nuptials were ^efebra' 
ted. Their happiness, however, was short. Aristeeus became enamoured of 
Eurydice, and as she fled frrim her pursuer, a serpent, lurking in the grass, bit 
her foot, and she died of the wound. Orpheus resolved to recover her, or perish 
fai the lUtempt With his lyre in his hand, he entered the infernal regions, and 
gained admission to Pluto. The khig of hell was charmed with his strains^ the 

What Is the name of the principal star? Describe its position. Or wliat means max 
It be certainly known? What are the names qfthe two emaU stare mrming the tatstf 
the triangle 7 Describe the star in the middle.Qf the Harp, and those vfith wMcft ll 
/brms another triangU. How are the stare in the base qf this triangle marked m Vsi 
••^ ^^?? *^* V}*^ ]?^^ ** pointed out ? What is there remarkable in the mppmt 
f"^ ^i/l^ '^"^^ when is Gamma on themeridianJ What is the deoUnafloasf 
Lyiai When does it culminate ? What ancient poet Boentkms it? 



V«P T.| LYBA. lit 



wtteel of Uon Mopped, the Hone of fli^ffihui Mood ellll, TwMni iMSoC bli 
tbirflt, and even the nuriee relented. 

Pluto and PiXMorpine were moved, and conaented to reatore Mm Kurydlee^ 
prorided he forbore looking behind nim till he had come to the ejoreoieat bor> 
Aera of their darlL dominiona. The condition wae aeeepied, and Orphena wai 
•hready in sight of the upper regiona of the air, when he ibigot, and tamed beck 
lo looic at hi» long loat Efurydice. He aaw her, but ahe inatantW vaniahed from 
hia sight He attempted again to follow her, but waa reitaaed aoniaakML 

From this time, Oipheus aeparated himself from the society of mankind, whleh 
•o offended the Thracian women, it ia aaid, that they tore hia body to pleeea. and 
flirew hia head mto thi Hebrua, atill articulating the worda Burifuce I Enryoicef 
as it was carried down the atream into the JBgean aea. Orpheua waa one of the 
Anonauta^ of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account, which it 
tmi extant After his death, he received divine honoura, and his lyre became 
one of the constellationa. 

This foble. or allegory, designed merely to represent the power of musle !■ 
the hands or the great master jf the science, ia similarly described by three of 
the moat renowned Latin poeta. Virgil, in the fourth book of his Oeorgtesi that 
describes the effect of the lyre : — 

*<E'en to the dark dominiona of the night 
He took hia way, through foresta void of Ught| 
And dared amid the tremblina ghoata to aiog^ 
And atood before the inexorable king. 
The infernal troops like passing shadows gUde^ 
And listening, crowd the sweet musician's side ; 
Men, matrons, children, and the unmarried mai<^ 
The mighty hero's more maieetic shade. 
And youth, on funeral piles oefore their perenta laid. 
^ E'en from the depths of hell the damn'd advance ; 
The infernal mansions, nodding, seem to dance ; 
The gaping thi-ee-mouth'd dog forgeta to anarl; 
The furies hearken, and their snakes uncuri; 
Ldon, seems no more his pain to feel, 
But leana attentive on his standing wheeL 
All dangers past, at length the lonely bride 
In safe^ goes, with her melodious guide." 

Pytliagoras and his followers represent ApoUo plaviiif upon a harp of aevea 
strings, by which ia meant (as appears from Plinv, d. it. c. 2d~-Macrobius L c. 
19, and Censorinus c. ii.) the son in conjunction with the seven planets ; for they 
omde him the leader of^tliat septenary chorua, and the moderator of nature, and 
thought tljat by hia attractive force he actod upon the phmeto in the harmonical 
ratio of their distancea. 

The doctrine of celestial harmony, by which waa meant the muaic of die 
spheres, waa common to all the nations of the East To this divine mnsic Euri- 
pides beautifully alludes : — " Thee I invoke, thou self-created Being, who gaire 
birth to Nature, and whom light and darkness, and the whole train oif globea 
circle with etomal music. "-^ also Shakspears : — 



-"Look, how the floor of heaven 



Is thick inlaid with .patines of bright gold ; 
There's not the anuulest orb, which thou behohPi^ 
But in his motion like an angel sings, . 

Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim : 
Such harmonv is in immortal souls ; 
But. whilst this muddv vesture of decay 
Doth groas^ cloae it m, we cannot hear It *' 

Hm lyre waa a fhmons stringed inatnmient, much used among the anelest% 
eaid to have been taivented by Mercury about the year of the world 2000; though 
■ome ascribe the invenion to Jubal. (Genesis iv. 21.) It is universally allowed, 
that the lyre waa the first in tniment of the string kind ever used in Greece. 
The (ttflferent lyres, at various periods of time, had from four to eighteen string! 
each. The modern lyre is the Welsh harp The lyre, among painters, is an 
attribute of Apollo and the Musas 

All poetry, it haa been conjectured, was in its origin lyric ; that is, adapted to 
fecitttion or song, ttUi he accompaniment of muaio and diatinguished oy the 



184 PICTORB <MP THE HEA7ENS. I AIMS 



Btfuoft boittiieM of tiiongfat and expreaaion; being at first emjjioyed in ceiabi 
Uiig the praises of gods and lieroes. 

neslios was the principal seat of the Lyric Muse ; and Terpander, a native of 
tliis i«laud, who flourished about 6G0 years B. C, is one of the earliest of ttv« 
lyric poets whose name we find on record. Sappho, whose misfortunes have 
united vrith her talents to render her name memorable, was born at Mitylene, tha 
chief city of Lesbos. She was reclconed a tenth muse, and placed wiuioiit coii> 
troversy at the head of the female writers m Greece. But Pindar, a na'ive of 
Thebes, who flourished about 600 years B. C. is styled the prince of lyric poeta. 
To liim his feUow-citizens erected a monument ; and when the Lacedem«inians 
ravaaed Bceotia, and burnt the capital, the following words were written npon 
the door of the poet : Fobbbab to burn this boitbb. It wab thb DWBLUMa ov 



SAGITTARIUS. 

The Archer. — This is the l mth sign and the tenth con* 
stellation of the Zodiac. It is situated next east of Scorpio, 
with a mean declination of 35^ S. or 12^ below the ecliptic. 

The sun enters this sign on the 22d of November, but does 
not reach the constellation before the 7th of Decemoer. 

It occupies a considerable space in the southern hemisphere, 
and contains a number of subordinate, though very conspicu 
ous stars. The whole number of its visible stars is siicty- 
nine, including five of the 3d magnitude, and ten of the 4th. 

It may be readily distinguished by means of five stars of 
the 3d and 4th magnitudes, forming a figure resembling a 
little short, straight-handled Dipper, turned nearly bottom up- 
wards, with the handle to the west, familiarly called the 
Milk-Diftper, because it is partly in tne Milky-Way. 

This little i^aie is so conspicuous that it cannot easily be 
mistaken. It is situated about 33^ E. of Antares. and comes 
to the meridian a few minutes after Lyra, on the 17th of Au- 
gust. Of the four stars forming the bowl of the Dipper, the 
two upper ones are only 3^ apart, and the lower ones 5^. 

The two smaller stars forming the handle, and ejctending westerly about 44°, 
and the easternmost one in the bowl of the Dipper, are all of the 4th magnitude 
The star in the end of the handle, is marked Lambdci, and is placed in the bow 
of Sagittarius, just within the Milky- Way. Lambda mav otherwise be known 
by its being nearly in a line with two other stars a][x)Ut 4^° apart, extending to* 
wurds the S. E. It is also equidistant from Phi and Delta, with which it uiaket 
a handdome triangle, with the vertex In Lambda. About 5° above Lambda, and 
^ litde to the west, are two stars close togetlier, in the end of the bow, the brght* 
est of which is of the 4th magnitude, and marked Mu. This star serves to priitf 
out the winter solstice, being about 29 N. of the tropic of Capricorn, and i'lM 
than one degree east of the solstitial colvtre. 

If a line be drawn from 8igina through Phi, and produced about 6° farther to 
the west, it will point out DeltOj and produced about 3*^ from Delta, it will point 
out Gamma ; stars of the 3d magnitude, in the arrow. The latter is in tlie point 

Wfaai is the order in the Zodiac, of Sagittarius? How is It situated? When does 
the sun appear to enter this constellation 7 What are its extent and appearance? What 
ere Uie number and nu^ltude of its stars? How may It be readily distinguished t 
What is this figure callod, and why? Where is this figure to be found, and when is It 
"Ml the meridian? How fhr apart are the two upper stars in the bowl of the Dipper! 
How fax apart are the two lower ones? Describe the stars in ttw htmdle. Deser&e tht 
position qf Lambda. How may Lambda be otherwise Hiown 7 With what other stan 
does it form a hatidsome trioHtfle t Deserite the position t^Mu. :Iqw may Delta w^ 
"^ be pointed out? 



.V.J AQDILA. ET AlfTOIOVS. Itt 

•f Um arrow, and umj be known bj means of a small star jvat abort IL on tba 
gigzit This star is so nearly on the same meridian wUh Elanin, ia thenead of 
Draco, that it culminates only two minutes after it. 

A few other conspicuous stars in this eanstellatioiii forming a varieOr of cao* 
metrical figures, may be easily txaced from the map. 

History. — ^This constellation, it is said, commemoratea the femooa Centauff 
Chiron, son of Philyra and Saturn, who changed himself into a horse, to eluda 
ttieieajous inquiries of his wife Rnea. 

C^ron was famoua for his knowledge of music, medicine, and shooting. Ho 

taught noankind the use of plants and medicinal herbs ; and instructed, in all the 

pohte arts, the greatest heroes of his age. He taught JEsculapiua phytie: 

Apollo music ; and Heresies astronomy ; and was tutor to Achilles, Jaimi, aao 

Cneas. According to Ovid he was slain by Hercules, at the river Erenua, for 

•flering indignity to his newly married bride. 

" Thou monster double shap'd, my right set free- 
Swift as his words, the fatau arrow llew : 
The Centaur's back admits the feather'd wood, 
And through his breast the barbed weapon stood ; 
Wliich, when in anguish, thrdugh the llesh he tore, 
From both the wounds gush'd forth the spumy gore." 

The arrow which Hercules thus sped at the Centaur, having boon df|mod ii 
iie blood of the Lerneean Hydra, rendered the wound incurable, even by tht 
fother of medicine himself; and he begged Jupiter to deprive him of immortality. 
if thus he might escape his excruciating pains. Jupiter granted hia request, aiM 
translated him to a place among the constellations. 

'^Midst golden stars he stands refulgent now. 
/ And th'rusrs the scorpion with his bended now.*' 

This is the Grecian account of Sstgittarius ; but as this constellation rapears on 
the ancient zodiacs of Egypt, Dendera, Esne, and India, it seems conclusive that 
the Greeks only borrotoea the figurt, while they invented the fcMe. This is 
knoMm to be true with respect to very many of the ancient constellations. 
Hence the jargon of the conflicting accounts which have descended to ua. 



AaUILA, ET ANTINOUS. 

The Eagle, and Antinous. — This double constellation is 
sitnated directly south of the Fox and Gkx>se, and between 
Taurus Poniatowski on the west, and the Dolphin, on the 
east. It contains seventy-one stars, including one of the 1st 
magnitude, nine of the 3d, and seven of the 4th. It may be 
readily distinguished by the position and superior brilliancy 
of its principal star. 

AUair, the principal star in the Eaj^le, is of the 1st, or be- 
tween the 1st and 2d magnitudes. It is situated about 14° S. 
W of Dolphin. It may be known by its being the largest 
and middle one of the tnree bright stars which are arranged 
in a line bearing N. W. and S. E. The stars on each side 
of Altair^ are of the 3d magnitude, and distant from it about 
29, This row of stars very much resembles that in the 
Guards of the Lesser Bear. 



4s Oamma tUuated vrtth retpeet to Btanin 7 In what part of the heavens Is tha 
situated? MThat are the number and magnitude of Its stars f How is It lUbtlii- 
Nl7 Describe Its principal star. How iamr it be known 1 What is the magnitude 
stars on each side of Altair? How tax distant from it ars theyl What row nf 
this row resendsle) 

11» 



126 ncTovi or tta heavens. l 

Altair is one of the stars from which the moon's distance 
is taken for computing longitude at sea. Its mean declination 
is nearly 8^° N., and when on the meridian, it occupies 
nearly the same place in the heavens that the sun does at 
noon on the 12th day of April. It culminates ahout 6 minutes 
before 9 o'clock, on the last day of August. It rises acronym 
colly about tlie beginning of June. 

Ovid alludes to the riong of tbki conatellaUon ; or, more probably, to thit «C 
•Jm principal star, Altair :— 

"Now view the akleS} 

And you'll behold Jove's hook'd-bill bird arise." 

" Among thy splendid group 

Omb dubious whether of the second rank, 
Or to the First entitled ; but whose claim 
Seems to deserve the FmsT.'* 

The northernmost star m the line, next above Altair, is caHed Taraxed. In 
the wing of the Eacle, there i8 another row composed of three stars, situated 4^ 
or 6^ ajMrt. eztencung down towards the southwest ; the middle one in this line 
is the smallest, beins only of the 4th magnitude ; the next is of the 3d magnitade^ 
marlced DeUa^ and situated 8^ S. W. of Altair. 

As you proceed from Delta, there is ano^ier tfne of three stars of the 3d mag 
nitude, between 6° and 6° apart, extending southerly, but curving a little to tha 
west, which mark the youth AntinouB. The northern wing of the Eagle ia noC 
distinguished by any conspicuous stars. 

Zela and Epnlon. of the 3d niaciiitude, situated in the tail of the Eaglis are 
about 2" apart, and 12^ N. W. of ^tair. The last one in the tail, marked Epai- 
kin, is on the same meridian, and culminates the same moment with Gamma, ia 
the Harp. 

From Epsilon, in tfie tail of the Eagle, to Thets, in the wrist of Antinous, may 
be traced a long line of stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, whose letter names 
are Theta, Eta, Mu, Zeta, and Epsilon. The direction of this line is from 8. B. 
to N W., and its length is about 25°. 

Eta is remarkable for its chimgetMe appearance. Its jcreatest brightness con- 
tinues but 40 hours ; it then gradually dmiinishes for 66 hours when its lustre 
remains stationary for 30 hours. It then waxes brighter and brighter, until it 
appears again as a star of the 3d magnitude. 

From these phenomena, it is inferred that it not only has spots on its surliiea, 
2ike our sun, but that it also turns on its axis. 

Similar phenomena are observable in AlgoL Beta, in the Hare, Delta, in Ce- 
iiheiui, and Omicron, in the Whale, and many others. 

" Aquila the nest, 
Divides the ether with her ardent wing : 
Beneath the Swarif nor &t from Pegaautf 
PoBTic Eaolx." 

HiflTOKT.— Aquila, or the Eagle, is a constellation usuaDy joined with Antlnoua. 
Aqoila, is supposed to have been Merops, a king of the island of Cos, in the At* 
ahlpelago, and the husband of Clymene, the mother of Phaeton ; this monaich 
having Deen transformed into an eagln, and placed among the constellationa. 
Some have imagined that Aquila was the eagle whose form Jupiter assumed 
when he carried away Cranymede ; others, that it represents the eagle which 
brought nectar to Jupiter while he lay concealed in UKe cave at Crete, to avpM 

Of what Importance is this star at sea? What is its derllnation? What place does 
K occupy in the heavens when on the meridian, and when does It culminate f Whan 
ines it rise acronycallyf Deaeribe the poaiiion qfTarazftd. Deaeribe the row qfetmn 
ff» the wiftg qfau Batrle. Deeeribe the rme of atara wnich mark the youth AntiiunuL 
What atara m the northern v>ing ) Deaeribe Zeta and Epailon. When ia EpaiUm am 
the meridian f What long tine qT atara terminatea at Epailon 7 Wfua are the diruD- 
Hon and extent tfthU HneJ Deaeribe the remarkabU appearance ef fif& Wim^ • 
kafkrredfnm theae phenomena? 



T.J OCLPBINUfl. 127 

A« hsrj of luB frfher. flatuni. Some of the anciont pooti i4y, tbm. thli m tho 
•ofle which furiushed Jupiter with weapons in hit war wUh the fiant*:— 



"The tow'rini; Eagle next doth boldly i 
As if the thunder in hia ciaws he bore ; 
He's worthy Jove, since he, a l»inj, auppllea 
The heaven with sacred bolts, and arms the skies." 

The eagle is justly styled the "sovereign of birds," sfaice he Is the 
■trongeat, and swiftest of all the feathered tribe that tlve by prey. Homer 
Che eaj^Ie, ^ the strong sovereign of the plumy race ;" Horace alylaa hii»* 

"The royal bird, to whom the king of heaven 
Tae empire of the feather'd race has given:" 

And Miltoa Jenominales the eaxle the "Bird of Jove.** Its iiftat laqalafe 
•broBg and piercing, to a proverb : Job zxiz. 28, &c. 

" Though strong the hawk, though practis'd well to fly, 
An eagle drops her in the lower sky ; 
An eagle when deserting human sight. 
She seeks the sun in lier unwearied flight; 
Did thy command her yellow pinion lift 
So high in air, and set her on tne clift 
Where far above thy world she dwells alone, 
And proudlv makes the strength of rocks her owa ; 
Thence wide o^er nature takes her dread survey, 
And with a glance predestinates her prey 1 
Bhe feasts her young with blood; and hov*ring o'er 
Th' oaslaughter'd host, enjoys the promis'd gore.** 

ANTINOUa. 

Antit JUS is a part of the constellation Aqnlla, and was invented by l^bt 
Brmlio. Antinous was a youth of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. So greatly was bia 
•ealh >jnented by the emperor Adrian, that he erected a temple to his memory, 
•a i>ailt in honour of him a splendid city, on the banks of the Nite, the miiM of 
m ill are stiil visited by travellers with much interest. 



CHAPTER XL 

JIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARS ON 

THE MERIDIAN IN SEPTEMBER. 

DELPHINUS. 

The Dolphin. — This beautiful little cluster of stars is sit- 
uated 130 or 140 N. E. of the Eagle. It consists of eighteen 
stars, including five of the 3d magnitude, but none larger. It 
is easily distin^ished from all others, by means of the four 
principal stars in the head, which are so arranged as to form 
the figure of a diamond, pointing N. E. and S. W. To many, 
this cluster is known by the name of Job^3 Coffin ; but from 
whom, or from what fancy, it first obtained this appellation, 
is not known. 



Where is the constellation Delphinus situated? What are the nnmber and _ 
OLie of Its stars? How is tliis constellation d<stln^l8^«d nrom all others 1 What slli> 
gular name is somstimes «iven to this clusiert and whence was it dertved f 



138 nCTlTKB Or..T«B.HEATENa . [VHT. 

There is another star of the 2d magnitudei situated m tiie 
body of the Dolphin, about 3° S. W. of the Diamond, and 
maraed Epsilon. The other four are marked Alpha, Beta, 
Gamma, Delta, Between these are seTeral smaller stars, too 
•mall to be seen in presence of the moon. 

The mean declination of the Dolphin is aboat 15^ N* 
It comes to the meridian the same moment with Deneb 
Cygni, and about 50 minutes after Altair, on the 16th of 
September. 

"Thee I behold, majestic CygnuB^ 
On the inarge dancing of the heavenly sea, 
Arion'8 friend ; eighteen thy stars appear^ 
One telescopic." 

lixmitT.— The Dolphin, accorcfing to some inythok^ats, was made a eomtd- 
iHtton by Neptune, because one of these beautiful fishes had persuaded the god- 
dess Amphitrite, who had made a vow of perpetual celibacy, to become the wile 
of that deity ; but others maintain^ that it is the dolphin which preserved the 
fcauras lyric poet and musician Anon, who was a native of Lesbos, aa island m 
the Archipelago. 

He went to Italy with Perlander, tyrant of Cbrinth, where he obtained immense 
riehes by his profession. W'shing to revisit his native country, the sailors ot 
Um ship in which he enibarked, resolved to murder him, and get possession of 
IiIb wealth. Seeing them immoveable in their resolution, Arion beeeed pennie 
rton to play a tune upon his lute before he should be put to death, ^he melody 
of the instrument attracted a number of dolphins around tl>e ship ; ne immedi 
■tely precipitated himself into the sea ; when one of them, it is assertecl, carrieo 
him safe on his back to Taenarus, apromontory of Laconia, in Peloponneaus , 
whence he hastened to the court of Periander, who ordered all the sailors to ht 
•mcifled at their return. 

**But, (past belief,) a dolphin's arched back 
Preserved Arion from nis destined wrack ; 
Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains 
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains." 

When the fitmoos poet Hesiod was murdered in Naupactom, a c\ij of JStoO^ 
la Oreec^ and his body thrown into the sea, some dolphins, It is said, broug hr 
back the floating corpse to the shore, which was immediately renognisetl by hit 
friends ; and the assasans beinc afterwards discovered by the dogs of the de- 
parted bard, were put to death. By immersion in the same sea. 

Taraa, said bv some to have been the founder of Tarentum, now Tarento, ie 
the south of Italy, was saved from shipwreck by a dolphin ; and the inhabitants 
of that city preserved the memorv of this extraordinary event on their coin. 

The natural shape of tlie dolpnin, however, is not incurvated, so that one 
nbrht ride upon its back, as the poets imagined, but almost straight When it 
is first taken from the water, it exhibits a variety of exquisitely beautiful but 
evanescent tints of colour, that pass in succession over its body until it dies. 
They are an extremely swift-swimming fish, and are capable of living a long 
time out of water ; in net, they seem to delight to gambol, and leiH[» out <^tbeir 
nalTO elemenL 

''thpon the swelling waves the dolphins show 
Tneir bending backs ; then swiftly darting go, 
And in a thousand wreaths their bodies ahow.** 



CYGNUS. 

The Swan. — This remarkable constellation is situated in 
Jie Milky- Way, directly E. of Lyra, and nearly on the same 

Mention some o^er stars in the Dolphin. What Is the mean declination of the Dal> 
yUB, and when U it on the meridian': m what part of the heavens is the oonslsllMtle 
OjgMUS situated) 



MAP ▼.) CTONUft. IS9 

ineridiaoi ivith the Dolphin. It is rq)resented oa outspread 
wiu^s, flying down the Milky- Way, towards the southwesu 

The pnncipal stars whicn mark the wings, the body and 
the bill of Cygnus. are so arranged, as to form a large and 
regular Cross ; the upright pie/:e lying along the MLJky- 
Way from N. E. to S. W.,v while the cross piece^ repre- 
sentmg the wings, crosses the other at right angles, from 
S. E. to N. W. 

Arided, or Deneh Cygni, in the body of the Swan, is m 
star of the 1st magnitude, 24^ E. N. E. of Lyra, and 30^ d* 
rectly N. of the Dolphin. It is the most brilliant star in the 
constellation. It is situated at the unper end of the cross, 
and ccnnes to the meridian at 9 o'cloclc, on the 16th of Sep- 
tember. 

SatPr^ is a star of the 3d macnUude, 6° S W. of Deneb, ritaated ezacUj In th« 
cross, or where the upright piece intersects the cross piece, snd is about 20° K. 
•f Lyra. 

J}eUa, the principsl star in ttie west wing, or arm wf the cross, Is situated N. 
W. of 8ad'r, at the distance of little more than 8^, snd is of the 3d msmitude. 
Beyond Deltt^ towards the eztreaiity of the wing, are two smaller stars about 6^ 
^Mtrt, and inclinlhg a Httle obliquely to the north : the last of which rearhet 
•earlv to the first coil of Draco. TheBe stars maric the west wing ; th.e east wtaiif 
fD^ be traced by means of stars very similarly situated. 

Oienah, is a star of the 3d mai^nitude, in the east wing, Jnst as far eastof Aad*? 
Id the centre of the cross, as Delta is west of it. This row of three equal stan^ 
I>elta, 8ad*r. snd Gienah, form the bar of the cross, and are equidistant fima 
each other, being ai>out 8° apart. Beyond Gienah on the east, at the distance of 
^o Of 70 there are two other stars of the 3d ma^itude ; the last of which marks 
Che extremity of the eastern wing. 

The jitars m the neck are all too small to be noticed. There Is one. however, 
in the beak of the Swan, 1^ the foot of tlw cross, called Albireo, which is of the 
9d magnitude, and can foe seen very plainly. It is about le^^ 8. W. of Sad'r, and 
•bout the rune distance S. E. of Lyra, with which it makes nearly a right anfie 

**In the small space between SadTand Albireo,"j>ays Dr. Herschei, ^'the stars 
in the Milky- Way seem to be clustering into two separate <iyvi8ions ; each cuvi- 
flkm containing more than one hundred and sixty -Jive thatuand stare." 

Albireo liears northerly from Altair about SO^. immediately aooiU and south- 
east of Albireo, may be seen the Fox and Goosb ; and about midw. \y between 
Albireo and Altair, there may be traced a line of ibur or five niin«ite iitars, called 
Che Abrow; the head of which is on the S. W., and can be dlstli»|'uished by 
means of two stars situated close together. 

According to the British catalogue, this consteUation con- 
tains eighty^-one stars, includincr one of the 1st or 2d mag- 
nitude, six of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. The author 
of the following beautiful lines, says there are one hundred 
and seven. 

*Thee, silver 'Swan, who, flSlent, can e*erpass1 
A hundred with seven radiant stars compose 
Thy graceful form : amid the lucid stream 

Bow is it represented? What remaikable figure is fonmed by its arinclpal starsf 
Oeaeribe the posttion and apueaxance of Arlded, or Deneb Cygnl. when does tt cul- 
nilnate at •o'clock 7 Desertbe the poeUiwi qf 8ad'r. Describe Delta. WhfaetarsU- 
yontf DeUa 7 What stars in the east wing 7 What stars form the bar of thetross 7 
What stars beuondOienah on the east 7 Desertte the etarstntheneckaadbOlafUu 
0MM. How is the star in the hilt situated with respect to SmTr and Lvra7 Whsi 
amsters souih and southeast qf AtMreoJ Whnt are the number and magnitude of tlie 
in t>>e dwan t 



UO PICTURE OP THB dEATEMH. | SVK 

« Of tfie lUr Milky- Wfty distinKUisn'd ; one 

Adorns the sectmd order, wliere she cum 
The waved that follow in her utiiiont track; 
This never hides its fire throughout tne night, 
And of the rest, the more conspicuous mark 
Her snowy pinions and refulgent neck." — EvdonOf b. !▼. 

Attmnomers have discovered tkree variable stars in the Swan. CUf situstMl 
Id tiie neck, between Beta and Bad'r. was first observed to vary its brightneM^ 
■I 1666. Its periodical changes of lignt are now ascertained tc be completed in 
#06 days. SaiPr is also changeable. Its greatest lustre is somewhat less than thai 
of a star of the 3d magnitude, and it gradually diminishes till it reaches that of 
the 6th. Its changes are far from being regular, and, from present observations, 
they do not seem to recur till after a period of ten years m more. 

A third variable star was discovered in the head on the 20tb of June, 1670, by 
Anthehne. It appeared then to be of the 3d magnitude, but was so far duninished 
in the foUovring Ck^tober, as to be scarcelv visible. In the beginning of ApriL 
1671, it was again seen, and was rather brighter than at first After sevenu 
etaanges, it disappeared in March, 1672, and hka not been observed since. 

These remarkable facts seem to indicate, that there is a brilliant planetary 
system in this constellation, which, in some of its revolutions, becomes visibto 
tons. 

HisTOBT.— Mytholo^sts give various accounts of tiie origin of this ccmsteOa- 
Hon. Some suppose it is Orpheus, the celebrated musician, who, on being mnr- 
dered by the cruel priestess of Bacchus, Mras changed into a Svvan, and placod 
near his Harp in the heavens. Others suppose it is the swan into which Xupiter 
transformed himself when he deceived Leda, vrife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. 
Some affirm that it was Cidnus, a son of Neptune, who was so completely TnTul- 
nerable that neither the javelins nor arrows, nor even the blows <m AchiUesi te 
fiutoos combat, could make any impression. 

**Headlonff he leaps from off his loftv car, 
And in close fight on foot renews tne war ; — 
But on his flesh nor wound nor blood is seeu. 
The sword itself is blunted <m the skin.'* 

But when Achilles saw that his darts and blows had no effect on him, he tai^ 
mediately threw nim on the ground and smothered him. While he was attempt 
ing to deqx)il him of his armour, he was suddenly changed into a swan. 

"With ea^er haste he went to strip the dead ; 
The vaiushM body from his arms was fled. 
His seagod 8ire,'t' immortalize his fame, 
Bad turn'd it to a bird that bears his name." 

Aecordinc to Ovid this constellation took its name from Cygnua, a rebtlTe of 

Phaeton, who deeply lamented the untimely fate of that youfh, and tlM mela» 

ahoiy end of his nsters, who, staiuUng around his tomb, wept tbemselvea ' 

tonlam. 

**Cicnus beheld the nymphs transform'd, allied 
To their dead brother on the mortal side, 
In friendship and affection nearer bound ; 
He left the cities, and the realms he own'd. 
Through pathless fields, and lonety shores to ^^ 
And woods made thicker by the sisters' change^ 
Whilst here, within the dismal gloom alone, 
The melancholy monarch made his moan ; 
ffis voice was lessen'd as he tried to speak, 
And issued through a long-extended neck : 
His hair transforms to down, his fingers meet 
In skinny films, and shape his oanr feet ; 
From both his sides the winrs and feathers break : 
And fh>m his mouth proceeds a blunted beak : 
All Cicnus now into a swan was tum'd."— Ovid's JIfel. b. H. 



Wfm! -HuriatU ttun hao*. astronomen dUcovered in thu eomtteUatUm 7 WM€k it 
mtAnt discovered to he varlabU in wm » In what period are it» MrMtari 

^M cf light cempletedl Describe the appearonce of Sad'r. DeMTiUtM m» dtt^ 

tmfertd in IS70. What do these remarkable Jkcte indicate 7 



MAT V.| CAPBlOORinifl. 

Virgil, aiMi, in tlie 10(h book of liis iEneid, aHudet to the 

** For Cicnus loved unha{^ Phaeton, 
And sang his loss in poplar groves alone^ 
Beneath the sister shades to sooth his grief; 
Heaven heard his song, and hasten'd his relief; 
And clianged to snowy plumes his hoary iuiir, 
And wing'd his flight to sing aloft in air." 

Of an the leathered race, there is no bird, perlkaps, wldcli makaa ao beaniftl 
and majestic an appeanmce as tlie swan. Almost every poet of emiDeoea has 
taken notice of iL The swan has, probably, in all ages, and in every country 
where taste and elegance liave been cultivated, been considered aa the emblem 
of poetical dignity, purity, and ease. By the ancients it was conaecrated to Apolla 
and the Muses ; they also entertained a notion that thia bird foretold ita own ap^ 
and sang more sweetly at the ^>proach of deaOL 

——"She, like the swan 

Bering, dies in melody."— JEbeJ^liia. 

"So on the silver stream, when death is nigii, 
The moumiiil swan sings ita own elegy." — Ovidf TtiadBi 



CAPRICORNUS. 

The Goat. — This is the tenth sign, and eleventh constel- 
lation, in the order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the 
Dolphin, and next east of Sagittarius. Its mean declination 
Is 20^ south, and its mean ri^ht ascension, 310°. It is there- 
fore on the meridian about the 18th of September. It is to 
be obsenred that the first point of the sign Capricorn, not the 
constellation^ marks the southern tropic, or winter solstice. 
The sun, therefore, arrives at this point of its orbit the 2l8t 
of December, but does not reach the constellation Capricorn 
until the 16th of January. 

The sun, having now attained its utmost declination south, 
after remaining a few days apparently stationary, begins once 
more to retrace its progress northwardly, affording to the 
wintry latitudes of the north, a grateful presage of returning 
spring. 

At the period of the winter solstice, the sim is vertical to 
the tropic of Capricorn, and the southern hemisphere enjoys 
the same light and heat which the northern hemisphere en- 
joys on the 21 St of June^ when the sun is vertical to the tropic 
ofCancer. It is, at this period, mid-day at the south pole, 
and midnight at the north pole. 

The whole number of stars in this constellation is fifty 
one 5 none of which are very conspicuous. The three largest 
are only of the 3d magnitude. There is an equal number 
of the 4th. ___^__ 

Where is Capricomus situated ? What am its mean rlffht ascension and decltnaUonf 
When is the main body of the constellation on the meridian 7 When does the sun enter 
Hbofign, and when the eonatelkUion Capricorni Does the sun ever extend M^ona 
fbla point Into the southern hemisphere 1 What is the position of the sun with »• 
meet to the tropic of Capricorn, at tlM winter solstice, and what are the seasons m 
fbe two tkemlspheTes} What are the numher and magnitude of the stsrs in tiua ooo* 
stallation? . 



13ft PICTURE OF THB HfiAVERS. [fierry 

The head of Capricorn may be reco^isetl by means of 
nvu stars of the 3d magnitude, situated a little more than 2^ 
apart, called Gitdi and Dabih. They are 28<^ from the Dol~ 
pmn^ in a southerly direction. 

Giedi is the most northern star of the two, and is double. 
If a line be drawn from Lyra through Altair, and produced 
about 23^ farther, it will point out the head of Capricorn. 
These two stars come to the meridian the 9th of September, 
a few minutes after Sad'r, in Cygni. 

A few other stars, of inferior note may be traced out by 
reference to the maps. 

The sign of the Goat was called by the ancient oriental 
ists the " Southern gate of the Sun," as Cancer was dennoi 
inated the " Northern gate." The ten stars in the sig-n Ca 
pricorn, known to the ancients by the name of the " Towei 
of Gad," are probably now in the constellation Aquarius. 

BuTORT. — CapricomiiB is mid to be Pan, or Bacchus, wlio, with aarne oHhet 
deitied were feasting near the banko of the Nile, when suddenly Ihe dreadful 
giant Typhon caoie upon them, and conipetled tneui aU to assanie a differeal 
riiape, in order to escape his fuiy. Ovid relates, 

**How TyphoD, from tlie conquer'd skies, pursued 
Their routed godhewis to the sevcn-mouto'd flood: 
Forced every god, (his fury to escape,) 
Borne beastly lorui to take, or earthly shape. 
Jove (sings the bard) was chang'd into a nun, 
From whence the hums of Lybiari Auuuon came. 
Bctechua a goat^ Apollo was a crow ; 
Photbe a cat ; Uie wife of Jove a cow, 
Whose hue was whrter than tfie falling snow 
Mercury to a nasty Ibis turned — 
While venns from a fish protection craves, 
And once more plunges in her native waves.** 

Oft this occasion it is further celated that Bacchus, or Pan, led tlie way siid 
plunged into tlie Nil& and that the part of his body which was under tlie water, 
assuuied the form or a fish, and the other part that of a goat ; and that to pre 
serve the memory of this frolic, Jupiter made him into a con^eQation, in hi« 
metamorphosed shape. 

Some say that this constellatfon was the goat Amalthea, who supported the in 
fimt Jupiter with her milk. To reward her kindness, the fether of the godi 
placeil her among the constellaticms, and gave one of her horns to the nymphi 
who had taken care of him in his infantile years. This gift was ever after called 
the horn of jtlenty ; as it possessed the virtue of imparting to the holder what^ 
ever she desired.* 

The reHl sense of this fable, divested of poetical embellishment, appears to be 
this ; that in Crete, some say in Lybia, there was a sntall territory shaped very 
much like a bullock's horn, and exceedingly fertile, which the king presented 
lo his daughter Amalthea, whom the poets feicned to have been Jupiter's nurse 

**The bounteous Pan," as he is styled by Mdton, was the god of rand aceiiMy 
shepherds, and-huntsmeu. Virgil thus addresses him : — 

* On this account the Latin term Cmmuoopia, denotes plenty, or abundance of good 
ndngs. The word Amalthea, when used fleuratlvely , has also the same meaning. 



How may It be recognised) How are Giefli and Dablh situated with respect lo Uie 
Dolphin? How are these two stars distin^ished from each other, and what Is theli 
ppsUion In res]iect to the Eagle? When are they on our meridian? What weie the 
signs Capricorn and Cancer origUially called ? Where are the ten stars, known to the 
KiicientB i>7 the name of the " Tower of G%d." now to be fband« 



■AP I* , raGA9l71l. IV 

'And thoo, the shepherd's taltelury go^L 
Leave, for a while, O Paa ! thy loTed atode."* 

The name of Pan is derived from a Greek word signifyiiw >m. thmjn ; and b« 
as often considered as the great principle of vegetable ano ^. uial life. He rv* 
nidAd cliiefljr in Arcadia, in woods and the most rugged lu Jitainfl. As I^M 
ai>iially terrified the inhabitants of the adiacent country, ev»- . when he was no- 
where to be seen, that kind of fear which often seizes met • and which is onlj 
ideal or imsginary, has reeelved bom him the name t4 Ptmto. 



CHAPTER XII. 

MRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE OM 

THE MERIDIAN IN OCTOBER. 

PEGASUS. 

The Flying Horse. — This constellation is represented in 
an inverted posture, with wings. It occupies a large space 
in the heavens, between the Swan, the Dolphin and the 
Eagle, on the west, and the Northern Fish ana Andromeda, 
on the east. Its mean right ascension is 340^, or it is situa- 
ted 20° W. of the prime meridian. It extends from the 
equinoctial N. 35°. Its mean length E. and W. is about 40°, 
and it is six weeks in passing our meridian, viz. from the 1st 
of October to the 10th of November. 

We see but a part of Pe^sus, the rest of the animal, 
being, as the poets imagined, nid in the clouds. 

It is readily distinguished from all other constellations by 
means of four remarkable stars, about 16° apart, forming the 
dgure of a square, called the square of Pegasus. The two 
western stars in this square come to the meridian about the 
23d of October, and are 13° apart. The northern one, which 
js the brightest of three triangular stars in the martingale, is 
of the 2d magnitude, and is called Scheat, Its declination is 
26}^ N. Markab^ also of the 2d magnitude, situated in the 
bead of the wing, is 13^ S. of Scheat, and passes the meri- 
dian 11 minutes sifter it. 



* Pales, Che female deitF corresponding to Pan, was the goddess of sheepfoUs and 
«f pastnies among the Remans. Thus VTrgll :— 

" Now, sacied Pales, in a lofty strain. 
I sing the rural honours of thy reign.*' 

The shepherds oflfered to this goddess milk and honey, to gain her protection ovei 
llieir flocks. She is rnnesentea as an old woman, and was worship- «d with gnsS 
Mriemnlty at Rome. Her festivals which were called JVriiMo, were celebrated on ths 
of April, tbe day oa which Romulus laid the foun<iation8 of tlw city. 



Bow is Pegasua reprerontedl What space and position does it occupy in the hen- 

eu; What aie the distance and direction of it« centre team the prime meridiani 

What are its mean length and breadth f How long is it in passing our meridian « 

when does it pass the meridian? How Is this ronstellatlon distinguished fkem ai 

iCheisf Dcscnbe the two stars which form the we^t side of the sooare^ 

12 



1S1 PICTUHB OF TBI HBAVGMB. |oet 

The two stais which fonn the eastern side of the square^ 
f ome to the meridian about an hour after those in the western. 
The northern one has akeady been described as Alpheraiz 
in the head of Andromeda, but it also belongs to this c« ^nstel- 
lation, and is 14^ E. of Scheat. 14° S. of Alpheratz, is Air 
genib, the last star in the wing, situated 16^° £. of Ma kab. 

Algemb^ in Pegasus, Alpheratz^ in Andromeda, and Cktph in Cassiopeia are 
■ituated on the prime mendian^ and point out its direction uirough the pole. For 
this reason, they are sometimes called the three guidea. They form an arc of 
that great circle in the heavens from which the distances of all the heavenly bo- 
dies are measured. It is an arc of the equinoctial colure which passes throuifh 
the vernal equinox, and which the sun crosses about uie 21st of Afarch. It is, in 
astronomy, what the meridian of Greenwich is in geography. If the sun, or « 
planet, or a star, be said to have so many degrees of right ascension, ft means 
that the sun or planet has ascended so many degrees from this prime meridian. 

JSniff sometimes called Enir, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the nose of Pe* 
gasus, about 20° W. S. W. of Markab, and halfway between it and the Dolphin. 
About I of the distance from Markab towards Eni^ but a little to the S., there is 
a star of the 3d magnitude situated in the neck, whose letter name is Zeta. The 
loose cluster dirrcuy S. of a line joinins Enif and Zeta, forms the head of Pe- 
gasus. 

In this constellation, there are eighty-nme stars visible to 
the naked eye, of which three are of tlie second magnitude 
and three of the third. 

Bistort.— This, according to fable, is the celebrated horse which sprung from 
the blood of Medusa, after Perseus had cut off her head. He received his name 

according to Ilesiod, fit>m his being bom near the sources (^^"lO^i Pege) of the 
ocean. According to Ovid, he fixed his residence on Mount Helicon, where by 
striking the earth with his foot, he raised the &bled fountain called Hippocrene. 
He became the &vourite of the Muses ; and being tamed by Neptune or Mi- 
nerva, he was given to Bellerophon, son of Glaucus, kini^ of Ephyre, to aid hiiu 
in conquering the Chimsera, a nideous monster that contniually vomited flames. 
Iliis monster had three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a (jfragon. The fore 
parts of its body^ were those of a lion, the middle those of a goat, and the hinder 
those of the dragon. It liv^ in Lycia, of which the top, on account of its deso- 
late wilderness, was the resort of liuns, the middle, which was fruitful, was cov- 
ered with goats, and at the bottom, the marshy ground abounded with serpents 
Bellerophon vras the first who made his habitation upon it 

Plutarch thinks the Chimsera was the captain of some pirates who adorned 
their ship with the images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. 

After tne destruction of this monster^ Bellerophon attempted to fiy up to hea- 
ven upon Pegasus ; but Jupiter was so displeased at this presmnptioa, that he 
sent an insect to sting the horse, which occasioned the melancholy fall of his 
rider. Bellerophon fell to the earth, and Pegasus continued his flight up to h<ea- 
ven, and was placed by Jupiter among the constellations. 

" Now heav'n his further wand'ring flight confines, 
Where, splendid with his num'rous stars, he shines." 

Ovid^eFoHi 



EaUULUS, VEL EaUI SECTIO. 

The Little Horsh, or the Horse's Head. — This Aste- 
rism, or small cluster of stars, is situated about 7^ W. of 
Enil, in the head of Pegast;s, and about halfway between h 

Describe the two on the east side. What Is the name of the star in the N. E. correi 
of the square I In the 8. E. comer? In the S. W. comerf In the N. W. corner ) ils* 
teribe the poHtion and magnitude qf Enif. What is the whtde number of stars in 
Pegasus 7 What *m the magnitude of the pifncljial ones 7 Describe the situat' ai of lM 
likB Little Hoitf 



Mir u I AauAHiua. 

and the Dolpnin. It ia on the meridian at 8 o'clock, on the 
11th of October. It contains ten stars, of which tlje four 
principal are onlv of the 4th magnitude. These may ba 
readily distinguisned by means of the long irregular square 
which they form. The two in the nose, are much nearer to- 
gether than the two in the eyes ; the former being 1° apart, 
and the latter 2^^. Those in the nose are uppermost, being 
4° N. of those in the eyes. This figure also is m an invert^ 
position. These four stars are situated 10^ or 12(> S. E. of 
the diamond in the Dolphin's head. Both of these clusters, 
are noticeable on account of their figure rather than their 
brilliancy. 

HxsTORT.— This constellation is supposed to be the brother of Fe|!ra8iif^ named 
Celeria^ given bv Mercury to Castor, who was so celebrated for his skill in the 
management of horses; others take him to be the celebrated horse which Nep* 
lune struck out of the earth with his trident, when he disputed with Miuerra wt 
superiority. The head only of Celeris is visible, and this, aliW) is represented 
in an inverted position. 



AaUARIUS. 

The Water-Bearer. — This constellation is represented 
by the figure of a man, pouring out water from an urn. It is 
situated in the Zodiac, immediately S. of the equinoctial, 
and bounded by the Little Horse, Pegasus, and the Western 
Fish on the N., the Whale on the E., the Southern Fish on 
the S. and the Goat on the W. It is now the 12th in order, 
or last of the Zodiacal constellations ; and is the name of the 
11th sign in the ecliptic. Its mean declination is 14^ S. and 
its mean right ascension 335^, or 22 hours, 20 min. ; it being 
1 hour and 40 min. W. of the equinoctial colure ; its centre 
is, therefore, on the meridian the 15th of October. 

It contains one hundred and eight stars ; of which the ruur 
largest are all of the 3d magnitude. 

"Bis head, his shoulders, and his lucid breast, 
Glisten writh stars ; and where his urn inclines 
Rivers of light brighten the watery track." 

The northeastern limit of Aquarius may be readily distin- 
ffoished by means of four stars of the 4th ma^itude, in the 
band and handle of the urn, so placed as to form the letter 
y, very plainly to be seen, 15° S. E. of Enif, or 18° S. S, 
W. of Markab, in Pegasus ; making with the two latter nearly 
ft right angle. 

When is it on the meridian ? What is the whole number of its stars ? What Is fba 
laacnitude of the principal ones? How may the principal stars be distinguishedl 
How are the two in the nose distinguished from the two in the eyes? What are thelf 
distance and direction flrom the Dolphin? On what account are these clusters noticei^ 
blel How Is Aquarius represented? Where is it situated? What is its present ontef 
■anmig the constellations of the Zodiac? What are its right asoension and declinationt 
what is the whole number of its stars ? What Is the magnitude of the principal ones! 
Bow niay the N. £. limitof A^quarius lie readily distinguished? What are the distanet 
■ad dixe;tlon <tf thii letter Y, nom Markab and Enif, In Pegasus ? 



130 KGTDRG OP THE BEATEN6. \OVEi 

About 4|<' ^ . uT tf»« figure 1« El MeUk^ a star of the 3d nuunutua& in the & 
■hoiiider, and the prui :i^ one in this constellation. 10^ B. W. of El Metik. if 
inotlier star of the <mnie magnitude, situated in the W. shoulder, caUed Sadm 
StuuL 

Aneha of the 4U. tnaguitude, is in the right side, 8<^ B. of El Mehk. 9^ E. of 
Ancha, is another Ac:.- of the 4th magnitude, whose letter name is Lambda. 

SchecU, of the 3d ii..ignitude, lying below the knee, is situated 8^^ 8. of Lamb* 
da i and 14° S. of Scneat, the brilliant star FomalhauL* of between the Ist and 
2(i magnitudes, termmates the cascade in the mouth orthe Southern Fish. This 
star is common to both these constellations, and is one of tiMMe from which the 
hinar distance is computed for ascertaining the longitude at sea. It culminates 
■t9 o'ciocic on tlie 22d of October. 

Fomalhauu' Deneb Kaitos, and Alpha in the head of the Fhoeiih^ make a larm 
triangle, whose vertex is in Deneb Kaitos. Those two stars of the 4th magnitude 
situated 4" id ol Sad es Saud, and nearly the same distance from Ancha, are ic 
the tail ot Capricorn. They are about 29 apart The western one is called 
Deneb Algedi. 

The rest of the stars in the cascade are quite small; they mar be tracei vcook 
the letter Y, in the urn, in a southeasterly direction towards the tail of Cetu% 
from which the cascade suddenly bends off near Scheat, in an opposite couraei 
and finally disappear^ in the mouth of tlie Southern Fish, dKP S. ofY. 

History.— This constellation is the £eunous Ganymede, a beautiful youth of 
Phrygia, son of Tros, icing of Troy, or, according to Lucian, son of Dardanua 
He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he was tending his father's flocks on 
Mo\mt Ida, and became the cupbearer of the gods in place of Hebe. There ar« 
various opinions, however, among the ancients respecting its origin. Some sup- 
pose it represents Deucalion, who was placed among the stars after the celebra* 
ted deluge ofThessaly, 1600 years before the birth of our Savtour ; while others 
think it designed to commemorate Cecrops, who came from Egynt to Greece, 
founded Athens, established science, and mtroduced the arts of polished Ufe. 

The ancient Egyptians supposed the setting or disappearance of AquariuA 
caused the Nile to rise, by the sinking of his urn in the water.— In the Zodiac of 
the Hebrews, Aquarius represents the tribe of Reuben. 



PISCIS AUSTRALIS, VEL NOTIQS. 

The Southern Fish. — This constellation is directly S. oi 
Aquarius, and is represented as a fish drinking the water 
which Aquarius pours from his urn. Its mean declination is 
31° S. and its mean right ascension and time of passing the 
meridian are the same as those of Aquarius, and it is seen on 
the meridian at the same time ; yiz., on the 15th of October. 
It contains 24 visible stars, of which one is of the 1st magni- 
tude or between the 1st and 2d, two are of the 3d, and five of 
the 4th. The first and most beautiful of all is FomcUhmUy 
situated in the mouth. This is 14° directly S. of Scheat in 
Aquarius, and may be seen passing the meridian low down 
m the southern hemisphere, on the 22d and 23d of October. 

* Pronounced FtMna4o. 

What is the name of the principal star in this constellation? What i» Ue jtoeitionf 
Wuu etar In the W. ehmmerl Deeertbe the eUuatton qfAnOm. What U theveetL 
Hon (ff Scheat and Fomalhaut? To what cowtteOatiofu u FomaXkaiM eommonj Of 
what nautioaX impartanee fait? When does it culmfnateJ With tehat other 8tmn 
4oee it form a large triangle ? Hoie may you trace the etars in the eaeoade h'^peacrlim 
the situation and aupearanoe of tbe Southern Fish. What are its mean right Mcensloifc 
and declhntion? when is it on the meridian 7 What is the whole number of Its stars f 
What is the magnitude of its principal onesi What are the name and poslti(ni of the 
Most tnrlUlant star In the constellation 3 When and where does It pass th« "^iHiim i 



TARIABLB AND DOUBLE STTAIW, dbc. 197 

[is position in the heavens has been determined with the 
greatest possible accuracy, to enable nayigators to find their 
lon^tude at sea. 

Hie mode of doiaftlifs cannot be explained here. The problem is one of 9om« 
(yfficuity. It cimsists in finding the ai^;ular distance between suuie star wlkos9 
position ta well known, and the moon when she is passing near it ; also, the 
altitude of each, at the same instant, with good sextants. These data furnish the 
elements of a iq)hericai triangle, the sotaiion of which, after various intric^* 
corrections, is made to result in the longitude of the given place. — See note t§ 
Arieties. In 1714, the British Parliament offered a reward oflQ,000 pounds 8ter> 
ling, to any man wlto should discover a method of determining the longitude 
within 1°, or 60 geographic miles of the truth ; 15,000 pounds to the man whe 
should find it within ^ miles, and 20^000 pounds, if founii within 30 miles. These 
rewards in part have been since distributed among eminent mathematiclaiM, li 
Europe, agreeably to the respective merits of their discoveries. 

HisTOKT.— This constellation is supposed to have taken its name from tbe 
transformation of Venus into tbe shape of a fi.sh when she fled, terrified at the 
horrible advances of the monster Tvphon, as we have related in tlw mvthologf 
of the Fishes.— <«S!ee Piaeea.) 



CHAPTER XIII. 

VARIABLE AND DOUBLE STARS— CLUSTERS — NEBULA. 

1. Variable Stars. — The periodical variations of brilliancy 
to which some of the fixed s^ars are subject, may be reckoned 
among the most remarkable of their phenomena. Several 
stars, formerly distinguished by their splendour, have entirely 
disappeared ; others are now conspicuous which do not seem 
to have been visible to the ancient observers ; and there are 
soine which alternately appear and disappear, or, at least, of 
which the light undergoes great periodic changes. Some 
seem to become gradually more obscure, as Delta in the Great 
Bear; others, like Beta in the Whale, to be increasing in 
brilliancy, some stars have all at once blazed^forth with 
great splendour, and, after a gradual diminution of their light, 
again become extinct. The most remarkable instance of this 
Imid is that of the star which appeared in 1572, in the time 
of Tycho Brahe. It suddenly shone forth, in the constella- 
tion Cassiopeia, with a splendour exceeding that of stars of 
the first magnitude, even of Jupiter and of Venus, at their 
least distances from the earth ; and could be seen, with the 
naked eye, on the meridian, in full day ! Its brilliancy gradu- 
ally diminished from the time of its nrst appearance, and at 
the end of sixteen months, it entirely disappeared, and has 

For what purpose has its position been very accurately detennineil? Describe the pe- 
riodical variations of brilliancy to which some of the flxed stars are subject? Mention 
Mme of tbe most remarkable instances of such variations, and deB''.rib« 'Jieiu parUc» 
iBrij. 

12* 



ISB DOUBLE 8TAM. 

MTer been seen smce. (See a more partictdat aceouni q/* 
this phenomenon^ page 40.) 

Another instance of the same kind was obsenred in 1604, 
when a star of the first magnitude suddenly anpeared in th« 
nght foot of Ophiuchus. It presented, like tne tormer, all the 
phenomena of a prodigious name, being, at first, of a dazzling 
white, then of a reddish yellow, and, lastly, of a leaden pa e- 
ness ; in which its light expired. These instances prove that 
the stars are subject to great physical revolutions. — Page 41. 

A great number of stars have been observed whose light 
seems to undergo a regular periodic increase and diminution. 
They are properly called Variable Stars. One in the Whole 
has a period of 334 days, and is remarkably for the magni- 
Ittde of its variations. From being a star of the second ma^ 
nitude, it becomes so dim as to be seen with difficulty throu^ 
powerful telescopes. Some are remarkable for the shortness 
of the period of their variation. Algol has a period of between 
two and three days ; Delta Cephei, of 5^ days ; Beta Lyrct, 
of 6 2-5 days ; and Mu Antinoi^ of 7 days. 

The regular succession of these variations precludes the 
supposition of an actual destruction of the stars ; neither can 
the variations be supposed to arise from a change of distance; 
for as the stars invariably retain their apparent places, it would 
be necessary to suppose that they approach to, and recede 
from the earth m straight lines^ which is very improbable. 
The most probable supposition is^ that the stars revolve, like 
the sun and planets, about an axis. " Such a motion," says 
the elder Herschel^ '* may be as evidently proved, as tKe diur- 
nal motion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the 
surface, less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in 
certain directions, either towards or from us, will account for 
all the phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the 
stars, so satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look for any 
other cause." 

2. DooBLE Stars. — On examining the stars with telescopes 
of considerable power, many of them are found to be com- 
posed of two or more stars, placed contiguous to each othei^ 
or of which the distance subtends a very minute angle. This 
apj>earance is, probably, in many cases, owing solely to the 
optical effect or their pG«(ition relative to the spectator ; for it 
m evident that two stars will appear contiguous if they are 

^Wnnt are such stan denominated) Describe the yariationi of one In tiM Whalt^ 
Wkat Stan are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their Tariationsi W^ 
■Mj we not suppose that the staia which disappear are actually destrared I WhjiMur 
MM Uie variations arise fh»n a change of distance 9 What Is the moat probidUe aapp*- 
Mtion in regard to their cause? How does Dr. Herschel explain these phenomeiMt 
Pa examining the stnra with a telescope of considerable power, whatother pecuUail&f 
do we fin If To what Is this appearance, in many cases, owlns I 



alflced nearly in the same line of Tisioa, althooga their real 
•istance may be immeasurably great. 

There are, howerer, many mstances in which the angle of 
position of the two stars varies in such a manner as tc ind^* 
cate a revolution about each other and about a common cefk^ 
tre. In this case they are said to form a Binary System^ 
performing to each otlier the office of sun and planet, and are 
connected together by laws of gravitation like those which 

5 re vail in the solar system. The recent observations of Sir 
ohn Herschel and Sir James South, have established the 
truth of this singular fact, beyond a doubt. Motions have been 
detected, so rapid as to become measurable within very short 
periods of time ; and at certain epochs, the satellite or feebler 
star has been observed to disappear, either passing behind or 
before the primary, or approaching so near to it that its light 
has been absorbea by that of the other. 

The most remarkable instance of a regular revolution of 
this sort, is that of Mizar, in the tail of the Great Bear ; in 
which the angular motion is 6 degrees and 24 minutes of a 
CTeat circle, annually ; so that the two stars complete a revo- 
mtion about one another in the space of 58^ years. About 
eleven twelfths of a complete circuit have been already de^ 
scribed since its discovery in 1781, the same year in which 
the planet Herschel was discovered. 

A double star in Ophiuchus presents a similar phenomenon, 
and the satellite has a motion in its orbit still more rapid. 
Castor, in the Twins,* Gamma VirginU, Zeta in the Crab, 
Zi Bootis, DfiJta Serpentis, and that remarkable double star 
61 Cygnif together with several others, amountinof to 40 in 
number,t exhibit the same evidence of a revolution aoout each 
other and about a common centre. But it is to be remem- 
bered that these are not the revolutions of bodies of a planet- 
ary nature around a solar centre, but of sun around sun — 
each, perhans, accompanied by its train of planets, and their 
satellites, closely shrouded from our view by the splendour 
of their respective suns, and crowded into a space bearing 
hardly a greater proportion to the enormous interval which 
separates them^ than the distances of the satellites of our plan* 

* AifB #7. t Hendiort Aitrooomjr, pHo m- *■ 

Aie tbere, however, war initancea where one >tar levolTes with another around • 
common centre? When two stars are thas situated, what system are they said to 
form? Why is it thus denominated? What modern astronomers of great celebri^- 
teve established the truth of this theory 7 What rates of motion did they detect in 
fhese blnaiy systems } What other interesting phenomena, indicating a mutual revo* 
Qtion, did they discover) What is the most remarkable instance of this fort 7 Men- 
tlon some other Instances. Are these revolving stars of a planetary nature i Of wluit 
■atuieamthey? 



1^ DODBLB flVAltO. 

018 from their primaries, bear to their distances from the i^Ufc- 
iiseif. 

The examination of double stars was first undertaken by the late Sir Willian 
Derdchel, with a view to the question of parallax. His attention was, however 
Mon arrested by the new and unexpected phenomena which these boilies pre 
sented. Sir William observed of them, in all, 2400. Sir James South and Her 
■chet have ^ven a catalogue of 380 in the Transactions of the Roynl Society, fo. 
1824. and South added 468, in 1826. Sir Joim Herschel, in addiiiun to the above 
published an account of 1000, before he left England for the Cape of Good Hop^ 
where he is, at the time we write, pushing his discoveries in the southern hen^ 
{sphere wit' great perseverance and success. Professor Struve, with the gxeal 
Dorpat telescope, has given a catalogue of %063 of the most remarkable of th^e 
stars. 

The object of these cataiognes is not merely to tx the place of the star within 
•ach limits as will enable as easily to discover it at any mture time, but also lo 
lecord a description of the appearance, position, and nmtual distances, of the 
individual stars coinposmg the system, in order that subsequent observers may 
have the means of detecting their connected motions, or any changes which they 
may exhibit Professor Struve lias also taken notice of S2 triple stars, anionf 
which No. 11 of the Unicom^ Zeta of Cancer, and Zi of the Balance, appear to 
be ternary systems in motion. Quadruple and quintuple Mars have likewiee 
been observed, which also appear to revolve about a coaunon centre of gravity ; 
in short, every region of the heavens furnishes examples of these curious ph»> 
nomena. 

Colour of the Stars, — Many of the double stars exhibit the 
curious and beautiful phenomenou of contrasted colours', or 
complimentary tints. In such instances, the larger star is 
usually of a ruddy or orange hue, while the smaller one ap- 
pears blue or green, probaWy in virtue of that general law of 
optics, which provides, that when the retina is under the in- 
fluence of excitement by any bright, coloured li^^ht, feebler 
lights, which seen alone would produce no sensation but that 
01 whiteness, shall for the time appear coloured with the tint 
complimentary to that of the brighter. Thus, a yellow colour 
predominating in the light of the brighter star, that of the less 
bright one, in the same field of view, will appear blue ; while, 
if the tint of the brighter star verge to crimson, that of the 
other will exhibit a tendency to green — or even appear a vivid 
green. The former contrast is beautifully exhibited by lota^ 
n Cancer; the latter by Almaxich, in Andromeda — both fine 
double stars. If, however, the coloured star be much the less 
bright of the two, it will not materially affect the other. Thus, 
for instance, Eta Cassiopeise exhibits the beautiful combina 
tion of a large white star, and a small one of a rich ruddy 
purple. 

It is not easy to conceive what variety of illumination tici 
tuns — a red and a green, or a yellow and a blue one — must 
afford to a planet revolving about either ; and what charming 

^What beautiftil and curious phenomenon has been observed, as it regards the coloox 
•r double s^rs ) Explain how these colours are usually contrasted. Mention an ex* 
ample of this phenomenon. How, if the coloured star he much the less bright of the 
two, will the other be affected? Give an Instance. What may ^ the dfUi of such ■ 
■*rJety of coltn"' If solar light? 



ffmtrasts and sraleM Ticissimdes — a red and a green day, 
for instance, alternating with a white one and with dc^kneie 
•anight arise from the presence or absence of one or the other, 
or both, aboFe the horizon. Insulated Rtars of a red coluuTy 
afanost as deep as that of blood, ocenr in many parts of the 
heavens, but no ereen or blue star (of any decided hue) hasi 
we belieTC, erer been noticed, unassociated with a companion 
brighter tfaon itself. 

CLU8TEII8. — When we cast our eyes orer the concave sur- 
face of the heavens in a clear, night, we do not fail to obseire 
that there are, here and therej groups of stars which seem to 
be compressed together more densely than those in the neigh- 
bouring parts ; forming bright patches and clusters. 

There is a group called the Pleiades, in which six or seven 
stars may be noticed, if the eye be directed full upon it ; and 
many more if the eye be turned carelessly aside, wnile the at- 
tenlum is kept directed* upon the group. Telescopes show 
fifty or sixty lars^e stars thus crowded together in a very mod- 
erate space, and comparatively insulated from the rest of the 
heavens. Rheita afiorms that he counted 200 stars in this 
small cluster. The constellation, called Coma Berenices, is 
another group, more diffused, and consisting of much larger 
stars. 

In the constellation Cancer, there is a nebulous cluster of 
Very minute stars, called Prcts'epey or the Beehive, which is 
sufficiently luminous to be seen Dy the naked eye, in the ab- 
sence of the moon, and which any ordinary spyglass will re- 
solve into separate stars. In the s«?ord-handle ol Perseus, also, 
is another such spot, crowded with stars. It requires, ho .^ever, 
rather a better telescope to resolve it into individual stars. 

These are called Clusters of Stars. Whatever be their 
nature, it is certain that other laws of aggregation subsist in 
these spots, than those which have determined the scattering 
of stars over the general surface of the sky. Many of them, 
mdeed, are of an exactly round figure, and convey the idea 
of a globular space filled full of» stars, and constituting, in it- 
self, a family or society apart, and subject only to its own 
internal laws. 

" It would be a vain task," says the younger Herschel, " to 

• ** :t is a very Temarkable fbct," mtb Sir John Hencbel, "that the emtre of the 
Tf aual Oman la by fitr leas aensible to neble Impreaaloiui of light, than the exterior 
porUooa of the retina. "—Jit. p. 886. 

Axe ImUvidual atan of a deep colour ever (bund separate ftom others f What an 
ctaaters of stars i Mention some instance. Describe it Mention some othet instance, 
neacrtbe the position and appearance of Prceseps. Descrtlie any other cluster which 
foa may recollect What are the constitution and flrare of such groups 9 Wkar dU 
Um younger Herschel say of the number of surs which compose these chuitni> 



142 NBBOLiB. 

fit tempt to count the stars in on« of these globular cluster. 
They are not to be reckoned by hundreds ; for it would ap* 
pear that many clusters of this description must contain, nt 
least, ten or twenty thousand stars, cmnpacted and wedged 
together in a round space, not more than a tenth part as large 
OS that which is covered by the moon. 

4. Nebulje. — The Nebulse, so called from their dim^ cloudy 
appearance, form another class of objects which furnish mat- 
ter for curious speculation, and conjecture respecting the for- 
mation and structure of the sidereal heavens. When exam- 
ined with a telesco[>e of moderate powers, the greater part of 
the nebuisB are distinctly perceived to be composed of little 
stars, imperceptible to the naked eye, because, on account of 
their apparent proximity, the rays of light proceeding from 
each are blended together, in such a manner as to produce 
only a confused luminous appearance. 

In other nebuls, however, no individual stars can be pei^ 
ceived, even through the best telescopes; and the nebulsB 
exhibit only the appearance of a self-luminous or phosphores- 
cent patch of gaseous vapour, though it is possible that even 
in this case, the appearance may be owing to a congeries of 
stars so minute, or so distant, as not to afford, singly, sufficient 
light to make an impression on the eye. 

In some instances a nebula presents the appearance of a 
faint luminous atmosphere, of a circular form, and of large 
extent, surrounding a central star of considerable brilliancy. 

One of the most remarkable nebulae is in the sword-hanale 
of Orion. It is formed of little flocky masses, like wisps of 
cloud, which seem to adhere to many small stars at its out- 
skirts. It is not very unlike the mottling of the sun's disk, 
but of a coarser grain, and with darker intervals. These wisps 
of light, however, present no appearance of being composed 
of small stars ; but in the intervals between them, we fancy 
that we see stars, or that, could we strain our sight a little 
more, we should see them. These intervals may be compa- 
red to openings in the firmament, through which, as through 
a window, we seem to get a glimpse of other heavens, and 
brighter regions beyond. — Page 58. 

Anothsr very remarkable nebula is that in the girdle of Aa- 
d/omeda, which, on account of its being visible to *he naked 
ey % has been known since the earliest ages of astronomy. It 
is cften mistaken for a comet, by those unacquainted with the 



Wh> are the nebula so called) Descilbo the usual appeaianoes of neuule, as ki^>«u 
tftrougi a telescope. What other appearance do nebulae somethnes exhibit! Mention 
¥^y "■ V^F^' of the must renuurkable nebulre. Describe the one In the swoid 
handle « Orion. Describe the one which is in the einlle of Amliuiaeda. 



HBMJUB. 143 

fteavens. Marius, who noticed it in 1612, describes its ap* 
Clearance as that of a candle shining through horn ; and th« 
resemblance is certainly very striking. Its form is a long 
oYal, increasing, by insensible gradations of brightDess, from 
the circumference to a central point, which, though very much 
brighter than the rest, is not a star, but only a nebula in a 
high state of condensation. No power of vision hitherto di- 
rected to this nebula has been able to resolvp it into the least 
appearance of stacs. It occupies an area comparatively large 
— equal to that of the moon in quadrature. — Tnis nebula m»y 
be considered as a type, on a large scale, of a very numerous 
class of nebulae, of a round or oval figure, increasing more o 
less in density towards the centre. 

Annular nehuUB also exist, but are among the rarest ob- 
jects in the heavens. The most conspicuous of this class, is 
to be found exactly halfway between the stars Beta and 
Gamma Lyrse, and may be seen with a telescope of moderate 

f»ower. It is small, and particularly well defined ; appearing 
ike a flat oral ring. The central opening is not entirely 
dark, but is filled with a faint, hazy light, uniformly spread 
over it, like a fine gauze stretched over a hoop. 

Planetary nehulce are very extraordinary objects. They 
have, as their name imports, the appearance of planets, witn 
round or slightly oval disks, somewnat mottled, but approach- 
ing, in some instances, to the vividness of actual planets. 
Some of them, upon the supposition that they are equally dis- 
tant from us with the stars, must be of enormous mas^nitude. 
That one, for instance, which is situated in the left hand of 
Aquarius, must have a volume vast enough, upon the lowest 
computation, to fill the whole orbit of Herschel ! 

The nebulae furnish an inexhaustible field of speculation 
and conjecture. That by far the larger number of them con- 
sists of stars, there can be little doubt ; and in the in term ma- 
ble range of system upon system^ and firmament upon firma- 
ment, which we thus eaten a glimpse of. the imagination ia 
bewildered and lost. Sir William Herscnel conjectured that 
the nebulae might form the materials out of which nature 
elaborated new suns and systems, or replenished the wasted 
light of older ones. But the little we know of the physical 
constitution of these sidereal masses, is altogether insufiacient 
to warrant such a conclusion. 

Of wliat class of ndimlgB ini^ this be considered as a typel What other species of 
netmise exist in the heavens? Describe the most conspicuous of this class. Wiuk 
ether species of nebuls are more rarely found) Describe the appeardnoe of planetary 
oebulaB. What do wa know in regard to their macnlto«Jel How lan?e must )j>e one U 
wtUch is situated in the left hamfof Aquarius TWhal did Sir WiUia*u H<it cbei ccr 
feature as to the use of the nrtwla? Hare we fitcts sufficient tc wa«rHn S' ch a < 



141 VIA LACTBAi OM (m\P 

CHAPTER XIV. 

VIA LACTEA. 

** Throughout the Galajty's extended line, 
fJnnuiiiber'd orbs in gay confusion shine : 
Wtiere every star that gilds the gloom of night 
With the faint tremblings of a distant light, 
Perliaps illumes some system of its own, 
With the strong influence of a radiant sun." — Mr». Carter 

There is a luminous zone or pathway of singular white- 
ness, varying from 4^ to 20<^ in width, which passes quite 
round the heavens. The Greeks called it Galaxy, on ac- 
count of its colour and appearance : the Latins, for the same 
reason, called it Via Lactea, which,- in our tongue, is Milky 
Way. 

Of all the constellations which the heavens exhibit to our 
view, this fills the mind with the most indescribable gran- 
deur and amazement. When we consider what unnumbered 
millions of mighty suns compose this cluster, whose distance 
is so vast that the strongest telescope can hardly separate 
their mingled twilight into distinct specks, and that the most 
contiguous of any two oJ them may be as far asunder as our 
sun is from them, we fall as far short of adequate language 
to express our ideas of such immensity, as we do of instru- 
ments to measure its boundaries. 

It is one of the recent acliievements of astronomy that has 
resolved the Milky-Way into an infinite number of small 
stars, whose confused and feeble lustre occasions that pe- 
culiar whiteness which we see in a clear evening, when the 
moon is absent. It is also a recent and well accredited doc- 
trine of astronomy, that all the stars in the universe are ar- 
ranged into clusters, or groups, which are called Nebulje or 
Starry Systems, each of which consists of many thousands 
of stars. 

The fixed star which we call our Sun, belongs, it is said, 
to that extensive nebula, the Milky-Way ; and although ap- 
parently at such an immeasurable distance from its fellows, 
IS, doubtless, as near to any one of them, as they are to one 
another. 

Of the number and economy of the stars which compose 
this group, we have very little exact knowledge. Dr. Her- 
schel informs us that, with his best glasses, he saw and 

What do ycu understand by the Milky- Way i By what difl^rent names Is It called 
Why does the coniemplation of this constellation fill the mind with Ideas of grHiHlewr 
wid amaze.' ""ti What causes the whiteness ef the Milky- Way 7 Into what are al 
the stun in tnb universe artHnged? To what nebula does the sun belong, and wtoat 
to probattly Its distance ftom its fellows? What knowledge have we of the number »i -^ 
tctttvKav of the stars in this group? 



MAP Via. } fiUUCY-WAV. 146 

counted 588 stars m a single spot, without moying his tele- 
scope ; aod as the gradual motion of the earth carried these 
out of view and introduced others successively in their places, 
while he kept his telescope steadily fixed to one point, '^ there 
passed over his field of vision, in the space of one quarter of 
an hour, no less than one hundred and sixteen thoiuand 
stars, and at another time in forty-one minutes, no less thaa 
two hundred awl fifty-eight tliousandJ*^ 

In ail parts of the Milky- Way he found the stars unequally 
dispersed, and appearing to arrange themselves into separate 
clusters. In the small space, for example, between Beta and 
Sad'r, in Cy^ni. the stars seem to be clustering in two di- 
visions ; each aivision containing upwards of one hundred 
and sixty-five thousand stars. 

At other observations, when examining a section of the 
Milky- Way, not apparently more than a yard in breadth, anu 
six in len^h, he discoverea^)^l^v thousand stars; large enough 
to be distinctly counted ; and he suspected twice as many 
more, which, lor want of sufficient light in his telescope, he 
saw only now and then. 

It appears from numerous observations, that various changet 
are taking place amon^ the nebulae — that several nebulae are 
formed by the dissolution of larger ones, and that many ne- 
bulae of this kind are at present detaching themselves from 
the Milky- Way. In that part of it which is in the body of 
Scorpio, there is a large opening, about 4° broad, almost 
destitute of stars. These changes seem to indicate that 
mighty movements and vast operations are continually going 
on in the distant regions of the universe, upon a scale oi mag- 
nitude and grandeur which baffles the human understanding. 

More than two thousand five hundred nebulae have already 
been observed ; and, if each of them contains as many stars 
as the Milky- Way, several hundreds of millions of stars must 
^st, even within that portion of the heavens which lies open 
to our observation. 

" O what a confluence of ethereal iirea, 
From urns unnumber'd down the steep of hearen 
Streams to a point, and centres on my sight" 

Although the Milky- Way is more or less visible at all 
aensons of the year, yet it is seen to the best advantage du- 
ring the months of July, August, Septeml)er, and October. 
When Lyra is on, or near the meridian, it may be seen 

How many did Dr. Heiw:bel count In a single spot duilng the «P^^ « SJSSSlI? 
How did he find the stars dispersed, throughout Se ^^^Y^-^Ji„Si^^SS?SS£^ 
Give another hMtance. Wl»l changes are takhig place In ?» MflltyWV wido«Mt 
aebnla? What do these changes tadcaie? How many neLmto have »»» ««»J«»2' 
If each of these cebuls contains as many stars a«.»he Milky- Wv.ho^»jmW«m 
oadst even In that portion of the heavens which Ilea open to f«' JSfJ****' 
and af what period may the Milky- Way Ve seen lo the best aarmtase? 

IT 



146 ORIOIR OP TUB 

Stretching obliquely oyer the hearens from northeast to sonta 
west, gradually moving over the firmament in common with 
other constellations. 

Its form, breadth and appearance aie rarioos, in difieient 
parts of its course. In some places it is dense and luminous ; 
m others, it is scattered and faint. Its breadth is often not 
more than fire degrees ; though sometimes it is ten or fifteen 
degrees, and eren twenty. In some places it assumes a 
double path, but for the most pait it is smgle. 

It nutj be tneed In the hesTeni, banning near the head of Cepbew about 
30^ ftem the north pole, through the conatellatkna Oaaaiopeia, Peneui^ Auitfa, 
■■d part of Orion and the feet of Gemini, where it croaaea the SEodiac ; thenco 
aver the eoulnoctial into the aonthem hemisphere, through Monoceroik and the 
«M(Be of the ahip Aigo, wliere it ia moat lununoua, Charlea'aOak. the Croai^ tho 
IbeC of the Centaor. and the Altar. Here it ia divided into two oranehei^ aa it 
aaaaea orer the SEooiac again into the northern hemiephere. One branch nma 
Uiroogh the tail of Scorpio^ the bow of Bagittariua, the ahield of Sobieaki, the feel 
•f Aminona, Ajqnila, Delphinu% the Arrow, and the 8wan. The other branch 
paaaea tlurongh the upper part of the tail of Scorpio, the aide of Berpentariu^ 
raurua PoniatowalEi, the Goose and the neclc of the Swan, where it again unites 
with the other branch, and paaaea on to the head of Cepheuis the place of ita bo 
ihuiing. 

There are several other nebulte in the heavens as large as 
the Milkv-Way, but not visible to the naked eye, which may 
exhibit tne phenomenon of a lucid zone to tne planetaiy 
worlds that may be placed within them. 

Some of the pagan philoaophera maintained that the Milky- Way waa tomoierly 
the aun'a path, and that its |>reaent Iiiminoua appearance ia the track which ita 
acattered oeama left Tiaible in the heavena. 

The ancient poeta and eren i^iloaophera^ apeak of the Galaxy, or Wtkst Way* 
aa the path whieh their deitiea uaed in tlie heavena, and which lei ^ofadk at ma 
throne of Jn|riter. Thna, Orid, hi hia Metamorphoaea, Book L :— 

** A waT there ia in heaven'a extended iriain, 
Which when the akiea are clear ia aeen bekvw, 
And mortals, by the name of Milky, know : 
The groundwork la of stara, through whicn the road 
Lif^a open to the Thunderer'a abode." 

MlltoD Ofidea to lHa, in the Mk>wing linea:— 

** 1 iwoad and ample road, whoae duat ia gokl^ 
And pavement, atara, aa atars to thee appear, 
Been in the Chdasy, that Milky-Way, 
Whieh nightlK aa a eircUog aone, thou 
Fowdorad wiUi atara." 



CHAPTER XV, 

ORIGIN OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

^ The science of astronomy was cultivated by me mime 
diate descenda nts of Adaon. Josephus informs us that the 

AP ggJ^^ . ^yy<b and appwaance of the Mg cy-Way. BmvmmrltHineadiik 
StirS2J?fi^SJ25r!L?*^°*"*" *>» **» beaw a aa tana as the Mllky-Waf Y How 
SrWa SS^ffSSf^^S""'''^ eulUvaladl Hiat authoiity aare wa tat afladni 



coif STCUJmONS. Mi 

ions of Seth employed themselves in the study of a»tronom\ , 
and that they wrote their observations upon two pillars, ono 
of brick, ana the other of stone,* in order to preserve them 
against the destruction which Adam had foretold should come 
upon the earth. He also relates, that Abrdiam argued the 
unity and power ot God, from the orderly course of thinsps 
both at sea and land, in their times and seasons, and fiom his 
observations upon tne motions and influences of the svn. 
moon, and stars ; and that he read lectures in astronomy ana 
arithmetic to the Egyptians, of which they understood noth- 
ing till Abraham brought thes^ ijciences' from Chaldea to 
Egypt; from whence they pap..ed to the Greeks. 

Berosos also observes that Abraham was a great and just 
'man, and famous for his celestial observations; the making 
of which was thought to be so necessary to the human we£> 
fare, that he assigns it as the princiml reason of the Al- 
mighty's prolonging the life of man. This ancient historian 
tells us, in his account of the longevity of the antediluvians, 
that Providence found it necessary to prolong man's days, in 
order to promote the study and advancement of virtue, and 
the improvement of geometry and astronomy, which required, 
at least, six hundreci years lor making and perfecting obser- 
vations.t 

When Alexander took Babylon, Calisthenes found that the 
most ancient observations existing on recoi-d in that city, were 
made by the Chaldeans about 1903 years before that period. 
which carries us back to the time of tne dispersion of mankina 
by the confusion of tongues. It was 1500 years after this 
that the Babylonians sent to Hezekiah, to inquire about the 
shadow's going back on the dial of Ahaz. 

It is therefore very probable that the Chaldeans and Egyp- 
tians were the original inventors of astronomy ; but at what 
period of the world they marked out the heavens into constei- 
iations, remains in uncertainty. La Place fixes the date 
thirteen or fourteen hundred years before the Christian era, 
since it was about this period, that Eudoxus constructed the 
first celestial sphere upon which the constellations were de- 

— ■ — - - ■ ■ - - , ■ - ■ - -. — — — .... _ — ■_ .- 

* JoseplKM alBnns» U»t **hb saw himself that of stone to remain In Sjnla In Ui 
•fmtbna.** 

* Vlnoe's Complete fligrstem of Astronom7i VoL U. ik M4. 

1 — -■ — ■ ■ ■ 

WtaC does Josephus relate concerning Abraham's knowledge of astnmomff Who* 
Aim b0 sagr, first introduced this science into Egypt? What other historian of remote 
■ntkinitr speaks of Abraham's attention u> this science 7 What reason does Beromui 
aMlcn for the longevity of the antediluvians t When Alexander took Bab/lon, what 
aadent olMervattons did he find in that cityl To what period of the world do thess 
dlMervBllons carry us hack 7 How long alter this was it that the Babylonians senf ta 
flewkiah, to inouire idMut the shadow^s going back on the dial of Ahaz f Who, *'aUL 
we conclude, were the original inventors of astronomy, and at what peiiud did 
tmaoge the Axed stars into constellaUons "* Wl«en does La Place flx the date f 



143 ORIGIN OF THB 

(ineatetl.* Sir Isaac Newton was of opinion, that all the old 
constellations related to the Argonautic expedition, and that 
they were invented to commemorate the heroes and events of 
that memorable enterprise. It should be remarked, howevei, 
that while none of the ancient constellations refer to tiansao 
tions of a later date, yet we have various accounts of them, 
of a much hicrher antiquity than that event. 

Some of me most learned antiquarians of Europe have 
searched every page of heathen mythology, and ransacked all 
the legends ot poetry and fable for the purpose of rescuing 
this subject from that impermeable mist which rests upon it, 
and they have only been able to assure us, in c^eneral terms, 
that they are Chaldean or Egyptian hieroglyphics, intendea 
to perpetuate by means of an imperishable record, the m.emory 
of the times in which their inventors lived, their religion and 
manners, their achievements in the.arts, and whatever in their 
history, was most worthy of being commemorated. There 
was at least, a moral grandeur in this idea ; for an event thus 
registered, a custom thus canonized, or thus enrolled among 
the stars, must needs survive all other traditions of men, and 
stand forth in perpetual characters to the end of time. 

In arranging the constellations of 4he Zodiac, for instance, 
It would be natural for them, we may imagine, to represent 
those stars which rose with tne sun in the spring of the yeas, 
by such animals as the shepherds held in the greatest esteem 
at that season ; accordingly, we find Aries, Taurus, and 
Gremini, as the symbols of March, April, and May. 

* Tlie usual size of artlflelal globes, designed to represent the celestial sphere, ts 
tnm 9 to IS inches in diameter. Globes have been recently constructed in Gennuiy, 
which are said to be more splendid and complete than any in the world. The larfeat 
ever made are that of Gottorp, two In the librazy of the late king of France, and one 
In PembEoke college, Cambridge. 

The globe of Gottorp, nowin the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, is a largii 
boyow sphere, eleven and a half feet in diameter, containing a table and seats for 
twelve persons. The inside represents the visible surface of the heavens, bespangled 
with gililed stars, ranged in their proper order and magnitude, and by means of a ca- 
rious piece of mechajiism by which it is put in motion, exhibits the true position o< 
(he stars, at any time, together with their rising and setting. The convex surftce, m 
outside of this globe, represents the terrestrial sphere. 

In 1704, two j(iot)es of equal dimensions, it is said, were made for Cardinal d'Estrees, 
by CornclII, a Venltian, and deposited in tlie king's library at Paris. These, however, 
are fur inferior in size to one of similar construction, erected at Pembroke college, in 
the University of Cambridge, by the late Dr. Long, president of that institution. Thl» 
is a hollow sphere, sufficiently capacious to admit thirty persons to sit within it. 
where they can observe the artificial- world of stars and planets, revolving over theii 
heails, in the same order as they are seen in the heavens. This sphere is eighteen Itat 
in diameter. 



What opinion has Sir Isaac Newton advanced upon this subject? Have we bowover, 
any accounts of thn constellations, of a higher antiquity than that event? Do any of 
the ancient constellations refer to transactions of a later date? What have the most 
flamed antfquarinns of Europe done ufion this subject, and of what do they assure m* 
2^^w long would the memory of an action, or event, thus re^lstrred, be Ukely tn 
gmjre? hi vruiging the constellations of the Zodiac, hnw was it natural toiepr^seAt 

UUr 8IA4S 1 



OOflCrnCLLATlOltfl. I4l 

Wnen. the son enters the sign Cancer, at the sommer soi- 
t^<ce^ he discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and 
begins to return towards the south pole. This retrograde m«* 
tion was fitly represented by a Crab, which is said to go hack- 
wards. The sun enters this sign aoout the 22d of June. 

The heat which usually follows iu the next month, was 
represented hy the Lion ; an animal remarkable for its fierce- 
ness, and which at this season was frequently impelled bv 
thirst, to leare the sandy desert, and make its appearance m 
the banks of the Nile. 

The sun entered the sixth sign about the time of harvest, 
which season was therefore represented by a Virgin, or female 
reaper, with an ear of corn. in her hand. 

At the autumnal. equinox, when the sun enters Libra, the 
days and nights are equal all over the world, and seem to ob- 
serve an equilibrium or balance. The sign was therefore 
represented under the symbol of a pair of Scales. 

Autumn, which produces fmit in great abundance, brings 
with it a variety of diseasesp and on this account was repre- 
sented by that venomous anmial the Scorpion, which, as he 
recedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. The fall of tne leaf 
was the season for hunting, and the stars which mark the 
sun's path at this time were represented by a huntsman, or 
archer, with his arrows and weapons of destruction. 

The Croat, which delights in climbino^ and ascending some 
motmtain or precipice, is the emblem of the winter solstice, 
when the sun begms to ascend from the southern tropic, and 
gradually to increase in height for the ensuing half year. 
. Aquarius, or the Water-Bearer, is represented by the figure 
of a man pouring out water from an urn, an emblem of the 
dreary and uncomfortable season of winter. 

The last of the zodiacal constellations was Pisces, or a 
joaple of fishes, tied Lack to back, representing the nshing 
season. The severity of winter is over; the fiocks do not 
•fiford sustenance, but the seas and rivers are open and abound 
with fish. 

"Thus monstrous fonns^ o'er heaven's nocturnal areh 
. tSeen b^ the sage, in pomp celestial march ; 

See Anes there his glitterinf bow unfoldL 

And raginK Taurus toss his horns of gold; 

With bended bow the sullen Archer lowers, 

And there Aquarius comes with all his showers ; 

i^— 1^»^— » ■ »»— ■ ■ n il. 

What sign was represented under the figure of a Crabt and ^hy 1 When does thf 
«n enter this sign ? What animal represented the heat of suitur^er, ond why 7 When 
does the sun enter the sixth slsrn, and how is this season repieseu*ec Why Mras Vit 
Sim which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox represented uni.>r the s}rmbol of 
a Balance 7 Why were the autumnal slgirs, Scorpio and Sagittarius, leuresentAd . 
(hey rael What does the Goat represent What Is signified by the !^ fci-0^ r^r} 
What do the Fisliet represent! 

13* 



100 oueof or mr 

Uomi and Centoim, Goiyoni. Hydna tif, 
And gods and heroes blaze alonf the akdea."* 

Whatever may have led to the adoption of these rude naioea 
at first, they are now retained to avoid confusion. 

The early Greeks, however, displaced many of the Chal- 
dean constellations, and substituted such images in their plac^ 
as had a more special reference to their own history. Tlie 
Romans, also, pursued the same course with regard to their 
history ; and nence the contradictory accounts that have de- 
Ece ded to later times. 

Some, moreover^ with a desire to divest the science of tbe 
stars of its pagan jargon and profanity, have been induced to 
alter both the names and figures of the constellations. In 
doin V this, they have committed the opposite fault ; that of 
^ blending tnem with things sacred. The " venerable Bede,** 
* for example, instead of the profane names and figures of the 
twelve constellations of the Zodiac, substituted those of the 
twelve apostles, Julius Schillerius, following his example, 
completed the reformation in 1627, by giving Scripture names 
to all the constellations in the heavens. WeigeUus, too, a 
celebrated professor of mathematics in the university of Jena, 
made a new order of constellations, by converting the firma- 
ment into a ccELUM heraldicdm, in wnich he introduced the 
arms of all the princes of Europe. But astronomers, gene- 
jrally, never approved of these innovations ; and for ourselves, 
we nad as lief the sages and heroes of antiquity should con- 
tinue to enjoy their fancied honours in the sl^, as to see their 
places supplied by the princes of Europe. 

The number of the old constellations, including those of 
the Zodiac, was only forty-eight. As men advanced in the 
knowledge of the stars^ they discovered many^ but chiefly in 
southern latitudes, which were not embraced m the old con- 
stellations, ant« ^ence arose that mixture of ancient and mod 
ern names which we meet with in modem catalogues. 

* The Older of the aigoM la ttius described by Dr. Watta ^- 

The Ram, Uie Butt, the heavenlv Ttfflnt 
And next the Crab, tbe Lion shinea. 
Hie Virgin, and the Scales; 
The Scorpion, Ardter, and Sea-Goo^ 
The Man that holds the Watcr-Pott 
And Pish, with glittering tails. 

Similar to this are the Latin verses :— 

Sunt, arieo, taurua, gemini, cancer, Uo, vtrgo, 
LIbraaue, tcorplut, arcUenemh caper, ampkorOt piaem. 



Why have attempts been made to change the names and flgures of the ancient t ^ 
atellationai What ftnilt has been commftted in doing this) What did the Tonerrirft 
Bede si;rtMtltate for the profane names and flgures of the twelve constelhitlons of t%t 
Zodiac) Who followed his example, and to what extent? What other chang« WM 
tttempted, and by whom? Ha\e astronomers generally approved of these uuioy*' 
tloas? What was the number of the old constenationsi Whence is the mJxtarc W 
anciant and modem names whicl; we meet with in modem catalogues? 



Ui 

Astronomen diride the keayens Into three wurtt, called the 
northern and southern hemispheres, and ihe Zodiac. In the 
northern hemisphere, astronomers usually reckon thirty-four 
constellations; m the Zodiac twelre, and in the southern 
hemisphere forty-scTen ; making, in all, ninetv-three. Besidea 
these, there are a few of inferior note, recently formed^ which 
are not considered sufficiently important to he particularly 
described. 

About the year 1603, John Bayer, a natire of Gennanyi 
mrented the conrenient system ot denoting the stars in each 
constellation by the letters of the Greek alphabet, applying 
to the largest star the first letter of the alphabet ; to tne next 
largest the second letter, and so on to the last. Where there 
are more stars in the constellation than there are Greek let- 
ters, the remainder are denoted by the letters of the Roman 
aljmabet, and sometimes by fijg;ures. By this system of no- 
tation, it is now as easy to refer to any particular star in the 
hesTens, as to any paracular house in a populous city, by its 
street and number. 

Before this practice was adopted, it was customary to de- 
note the stars W referring them to Uieir respectiye sitwiiumB 
tn ihejigtare of the constellation to which they sererally be- 
longed,, as the head, the arm, the foot, &c. 

It is hardly necessary to remark tluit these figures, which 
are all very curiously depicted upon artificial gloMS and maps, 
are. purely, a fanciful invention — answering many conyenient 
enas, however, for purposes of reference and classification, as 
they enable us to designate with facility any particular star, 
or cluster of stars ; though these clusters very rarely, if ever. 



represent the rea! figures of the object whose names thev bear. 
And yet it is somewhat remarkable that the name of ^^ Great 
Bear,'^ for instance, should have been given to the very same 
constellation by a nation of American abori^^nes, (tne Iro- 
quois,) and by the most ancient Arabs of Asia, when there 
neyer had been any communication between them 1 Among 
other nations, also, between whom there exists no evidence 
of any intercourse, we find the Zodiac divided into the same 
number of consteUations, and these distinguished by nearly 
the same names, representing the twelve months, m seasons 
of the year. 

The history of this whimsical personification of the stars 
canies us bacJc to the earliest times, and introduces us, as we 
have seen, to the languages and customs, the religion and 

How do attRnuxnen usoaUy diylde the heftTeni, and what la the number of com- 
aAeUations In each diTiaiont what convenient ayatem of notation haa been Invented 
tat denoting the ataxa In each oonatellatlanY Who invenled thia a/atem 1 Befon thJa 
■letbod was introduced, what waa the pxactice ^ 



103 RUMBEB, onfANCC, AKB 

poeny the sciences and arts, the tastes, talents, and peculln 
geniiis, of the early nations of th^ earth. The ancient Atlaii- 
tides and Ethiopians, the Egyptian priests, the magi of Pei* 
sia, the shepherds of Chaldea^ the Bramins of India, the man^ 
darins of China, the Phoenician navigators, the philosophers 
of Greece, and the wandering Arat^, have all added mor« 
or less to these curious absurdities and ingenious inren- 
tions, and have thus registered among the stars, as in a sort 
of album, some memorial of themselves and of the times in 
which they lived. The constellations, or the uncouth figures 
by which they are represented, are a faithful picture of the 
ruder stages of civilization. They ascend to tmies of which 
no other record exists ; and are destined to remain when all 
others shall be lost. Fragments of history, curious dates and 
documents relating to chronology, geography, and languages, 
are here preserved in imperishable characters. The adven- 
tures of the gods, and the inventions of men, the exploits of 
heroes, and the fancies of poets, are here spread out in the 
heavens, and perpetually celebrated before all nations. The 
Seven stars, and Orion, present themselves to us, as they 
appeared to Amos and Homer : as they appeared to Job, more 
than 3000 years ago, when the Almignty demanded of him — 
^ Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven ? Canst thou bind 
the sweet influences of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of 
Orion ? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaboth in his season, 
or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons ?" Here, too, 
are consecrated the lyre of Orpheus, and the ship of the Ar- 
gonauts ; and, in the same finijiament, glitter the mariner^ 
compass and the telescope of Herschel. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND ECONOMY OF THE 8TAB8. 

The first conjecture in relation to the distance of the fixed 
itars, is, that they are all placed at an equal distance from the 
observer, upon the visible surface of an immense concare 
vault, which rests upon the circular boundary of the world, 
and which we call the Pirmament, 

We can with the unassisted eye, form no estimate of their 
respective distances ; nor has the telescope vet enabled us to 
arrive at any exact results on this subiect, although it has re- 
vealed to us many millions of stars that are as nir removed 
'^■^^^— —^■^■^^^-^-^^— ^— ^— ^^— 

-!!]?' \Sr^ *"* conjecture which we fonn in relation to the distances ef the 
fftan 1 Whiit means have we for ascerL-Uninir their number and distance } 



■OONOMT OP THS 8TA«8. 158 

beyond those which are barely yisible to the naked eye, as 
these are from us. Viewed through the telescoiie. the hea- 
vens become quite another spectacle — not only to tne under- 
standing, but to the senses. New worlds burst upon the sight, 
and old ones expand to a thousand times their former dimen- 
sions. Several of those little stars which but feebly twinkle 
on the unassisted eye, become immense globes, with land 
and water, mountains and valleys, encompassed by atmos- 
pheres, enlightened by moons, and diversified by day and 
night, summer and winter. 

Beyond these are other suns, giving li^ht and life to other 
systems^ not a thousand, or two thousand merely, but multi- 
{uied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense dis- 
tances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten 
thousand worlds, all in rapid motion ; yet calm, regular and 
harmonious — all space seems to be illuminated, and every 
particle of light a world. 

It has been computed that one hundred millions of stars 
which cannot be discerned by the naked eye, are now visibU 
through the telescope. And yet all this vast assemblage of 
suns and worlds may bear no greater proportion to what lies 
beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision, than a drop 
of water to the ocean ; and, if stricken out of being, would be 
no more missed, to an eye that could take in the universe, 
than the fall of a single leaf from the forest. 

We should therefore learn, (says an eminent divine of the 
present century,*) not to look on our earth as the universe of 
God, but as a single, insignificant atom of it ; that it. is only 
one of the many mansions which the Supreme Being has 
created for the accommodation of his worshippers ; and that 
he may now be at work in regions more distant than geome- 
try ever measured, creating worlds more manifold ihan num- 
bers ever reckoned, displaying his goodness, and spreading 
over aU, the intimate visitations of his care. 

The immense distance at which the nearest stars are known 
to be placed, proves that they are bodies of a prodigious size, 
not inferior to our sun^ and that they shine^ not by reflected rays, 
bat by their own native light. It is therefore concluded, with 
good reason, that every ued star is a sun, bo less spacious 
than ours, surrounded by a retinue of planetary worlds, which 

* ClMlflMIS. 

Bow do tbe beavens appear through the telescope I What aie b^ond those llttia 
wtaxa which are scarcely visible to the naked eye? How manf stars are visiMe 
through the telescope ? What proportion may this vast assemblage of suiui and worlds 
Mar to what Ilea beyond the utmost boundaries of human visionT How should we 
Jsam Arom this to regard our own earth } What does the immense distance of the stars 
%wa>v% in Kganl to their magnitude and light; 



154 KUMBEH, VWTXIICB, AHO 

rerolTe around it as a centre, and deriye from it li^ht taxA 
heat, and the asreeable Vicissitudes of day and night. 

Tnese vast globes of lip^ht. then^ could never have been de- 
signed merely to divers!^ tne voids of infinite space, nor t« 
shed a few glimmering rays on our far distant world, for the 
amusement of a few astronomers, who, but for the most pow- 
erful telescopes, had never seen the ten thousandth part of 
them. We mav therefore rationally conclude, that wherever 
the All-wise Creator has exerted his creative power, there 
also he has placed intelligent beings to adore his goodness. 

Hipparchua, the fiuher of astronomy, first made a catatogue of the fixed 
stars. It contained 1022: The accuracj with which the places of these were 
recorded, has conferred essential benefit upon the science, and has enabled as 
to soUre many celestial phenomena and problems of chronology, which othei^ 
wise had been diffi«*ult. 

During the 18th century, upwards of 100,000 were catalogued b^ the ▼arious 
astronomers of Euroi)e, anu their position in the heavens determmed with an 
exactness that seldom varied a second from the truth; insomuch that it has 
been justly remarked, that "there is scarcely a star to be seen in the heavens, 
whose place and situation is not better known than that of most cities and towns 
upon the earth." 

But the staivazers of our times are not idle. Professor Bessejl of Konlgi^ 
bei^, observed in three years, it is asserted, between 90,000 and 40,000 stan^ 
comprehended within a zone of 15^ on each side of the equator; Ixit even this 

great number is but a small portion of the whole number which lie within the 
mit of the zone which he examined. To procure a more complete survey, the 
academy of Berlin proposed that f Ats §ame zone should be parcelled out among 
twenty-four observers, and that each should confine himself to an hour of liriit 
ascension, and examine it in minute detail. This plan was adopted ; and the 18th 
hour was confided to Frofessor Inghirami, of Florence, and examined with as 
much care, that the positionB of 75,000 stars in it, have been determined. Pro- 
fessor M. Struve, of tW Dorpat university, has examined in person, 120^000 stany 
of which 800 (double ones) were before unknown to science. 

The li^urs of Sir Wm. Herschel were chiefly devoted to exploriiig the ^s- 
teras of nebula and double stars that lie, for the mosipart, bevond the reach of 
ordinary telescopes. No fewer than two thouaandmoe hundred nebula were 
observed by this inde&tigable astronomer, whose places have been comptued 
from his observations, reduced to a common epoch, and arranged into a eat^ 
loffue in order of their right ascension, by his sister Mnis Carolhoi Hbbscwbli 
a hdy so iustly celebrated in Europe ror her astronomical knowledge and dis> 
eoveries, but whose name, strange as it is, is seldom mentioned in this country. 
Be it remembered, nevertheless, for her fiune, that she discovered two of the 
satellites of the planet which bears her brother's name, besides a multitude of 
comets. 

The greatest possible in^nuity and pains have been taken 
by astronomers to determine, at least, the approximate dis- 
tance of the nearest fixed stars. If they have hitherto been 
unable to arrive at any satisfactory result, they have at least, 
established a limit beyond which the stars must necessarily 
be placed. If they have failed to calculate their true distan* 
ces from the earth, it is because they have not the requisite 
data. The solution of the problem, if they had the d^ta, 
would not be more difficult than to compute the relative dis- 

What conclusion maybe dxawn flrom this Ihct as to their great design* What palM 

have as^ooiners taken to find the distaftoe of the stars, and what resuA teveUwy 

ISS^ ^«L ^ "^^ reason have they fUled to oalculate their Jistaneet Is thai 
Mm a cuffiealt one t 



■ooMom or tbc wtawl IM 

iMiees of the planets — a thing which any sohool-ljoy can 4a 
In estimating so gieat a distance as the nearest filxed sfar, 
it 18 necessary that we employ the longest measure which 
astronomy can use. Accordingly, we take the whole diame- 
ter of th<* earth's orhit, which, in round numbers, is 190 millions 
of miles, and endeayour, by a simple process in mathematics. 
to ascertain how manv measures of this length are contained 
m the mighty interval which separates us from the stars. 

The method of doinff this can be explained to the appre- 
hension of the pupil, if he does not shrmk from the illustra- 
tion, through an idle fear that it is beyond his capacity. 

For example ; suppose that, with an instrument construct- 
ed for the purpose, we should this night take the jNrecise bear- 
ing or angular direction from us of some star in the northern 
hemisphere, and note it down with the most perfect exact- 
ness, and, havins waited just six months, when the earth 
shall have arrived at the opposite point of its orbit, 190 mill- 
ions of miles east of the place which we now occupy, we 
should then repeat our observation upon, the same star, and 
see how much it had changed its position by our travelling 
so great a distance one side of it. Now it is evident, that if 
it changes its apparent position at all, the quantity of the 
change will bear some proportion to the distance gone over ; 
that IS, the nearer the star, the greater the angle ; and the 
DEiore remote the star, the less the angle. It is to oe observed, 
that the angle thus found, is called the star's Annual Par' 
aUax. 

But it is found by the most eminent astronomers of the^ 
age, and the most perfect instruments ever made, that thia 
parallax does not exceed the four thousandth part of a de- 
gree^ or a single second ; so that, if the whole great orbit of 
the earth were lighted u]^ into a globe of fire 600 millions of 
miles in circumference, it would be seen from the nearest stai 
only as a twinkling atom ; and to an observer placed at thb 
distance, our sun, with its whole retinue of planetary worlds, 
would occupy a space scarcely exceeding the thickness of a 
fader's web.* if the nearest of the fixed stars are placed at 

• A jast idea of the Imwnrt of this term, will tmfMit m fi>n3« M^,fY!^.^^n?.!t?^^ 
■ntsioD of St James, which no power of worts could improye^t is i«ia, Ohapun l 
!SS iS.VHim from whom cometh down every good and perfect Bit, thrt there it 
« oc« SM Wfu^LKM-yn n rfmt *iwrJM*r/u*/* UteiaUy. There is '^ntUJutrfmr 
mO^ nor dmiMo of change ."* As if the apostle had said— Peradventuxe, that in t» 
^^^^i^SSr^^^ftf^mVi^ through the ^^^^,^^^1^ f^*l^^ 
ftiN^Sble paxallax to some of the fixed stars ; yet, as to the Father of "tW TJ^S 
S£^S^ wlSever point of his Empire we may . ^ te w<Moi^ 
aumgtl — 

What measure is eroplOFOd in estimating the disttnoes of the fixed "tan J Row 
lBttaiiedrWhatiau/aiib«thiuftMuidc«Ued1 YHiat U the greatest macnltode a 
•m annual fMutallaxI 



i 



J 



56 NUMBEH. OrSTANCfc, AND 

micb inconceivable distances in the regions of space, wHh 
what line shall we measure the distance of those which ant 
« thousand or a million of times as much farther from them, 
•s these are from us. 

. If the annual parallax of a star were accurately known, it 
would be easy to compute its distance by the following nile* 
As the sine of the star's parallax : 
Is to radius, or ninety degrees : : 
So is the Earth's distance from the sun 2 
To the star's distance from the sun. 
If we aQdw the annual parallax of tHe neareiti star to be 
1'', the calculation will be, 
As 0.0000048481368=Nat. Sine of l'^ 
Is to 1.0000000000000=Nat. Sine of 90°. 
So is 95,273,868.867748554= Earth's distance from the sun. 
To 19,651,627,683,449=Star's distance from the sun. 

lo this calculation we have supposed the earth to be placed at the mean dl»- 
lance of 21,017 of iu own semi-diaineter& or 96,273,8(>&8^48664 miles from tb« 
sun, which makes the star's distance a^ery little less than twenty billions of 
miles; Dr. Herschel says that Sirius cannot be nearer than lUOidOO times the 
diameter of the earth's orbit, or 19,007,788,800,000 of miles. 

Biot, who either takes the earth's distance greater than he lays it down in bis 
Traiie* Elementaire d* Aatr&nomie Physitiue^ or has made an errour in fii^urcsi 
nakes the distance a0,086,8Ga086,4O4. Dr. Brewster makes H 20,15O,G65sO0O,O00 
Aules. A mean of these computations, is 20 billions ; that ia, 20 millions of miU. 
ions of miles, to a parallax of V 

Astronomers are generally agreed in the opinion that the annual parallax of 
the stars is less than V\ and consequently that the nearest of Uiem is placed at 
a much greater distance from us, titan these calculations make it. It was, how* 
ever, announced during the last year, that M. D'Assas, a French astronomer, 
had satis&ctorily estabfished the annual parallax ofKeid. (a small star 8° N. or 
Oamma Eridani,) to be 2", that of Rigel, m Orion to be 1". 4a and that of Siriu» 
to be 1". 24. If these results may be relied on, Keid is but 10 billions, Rigel but 
14 billions, and Sirius 16 billions of miles from the earth. This latter distance is, 
however, so ffreat that^ if Sirius were to fall towards the earth at the rate of a 
miUion of miles a day, it would take it forty three thousand, three hundred years 
to reach the earth ; or, if the Almighty were now to blot it out of the heavens, iia 
brilliance would continue undiminished in ourliemisphere for the space ofthrp« 
jears. 

The most brilliant stars, till recently, were supposed to be 
ffituated nearest the earth, but later observations prove that 
this opinion is not well rounded, since some of the smaller 
stars appear to have, not only a greater annual parallax, but 
an absolute motion in space, much greater than those of tiie 
brightest class. 

' ' ' ' — — .^■— ^.^ 

What conclusion may be drawn (torn this foct in regard to the distances of the fixed 
?2"-LF U»,annval Pwallax of a star were known, by what simple rule couM 
F<fx compute its jUstance? If we allow the annual paralfax of the nearest sttf tobt 

«VMr», for a paraOav qfV' ? VV?uu reoent obaervaHons indicate a tfreater wtraOm 
B^l^ St*/^ ' ^/^ JMm«ito» of SiHm be I" .ai, what wSl he^dSSSS 
SSL^^y*f!f^.iiIf^^^t.t"'^'i^J^^V*f^^ '*^ dfefonctf, at the rate qf a miBSmif 

ItJ^M^' * to fte 6lo«««/rom the heavens 7 What has been suDposed to be tiM mS 
— tS^SiS to uS'oiffll"' '^ <*«« ^ eart", w£lTlSr**i^!!SdS 



fOONOMT OF THE 8TAR& 157 

It has been computed that the Kffht of Sirius, althou^^b 
twenty thousand miltion times less than tbAt of our Sun, is, 
nevertheless, three hundred and twenty-four nmes greater than 
that of a star of the sixth magnitudei If we suppose the two 
stars to be really of the same size, it is easy to show that th« 
star of the sixth magnitude is fifty-seven and one third times 
farther from us than Sirius is, because light diminishes as the 
square of the distance of the luminous body increases. 

By the same reaaoninf it may b« shown, that if Birius wereplaced where the 
sua is, it would appear to ns to be four times as lari^e as the Sun, and give four 
times as much lignt and heat It is by no means unreasonable to suppose, thai 
many of the fixed stars exceed a million of miles in diameter. 

We may pretty safely afi&rm, then^ that stars of the sixth 
magnitude, are not less than 900 millions of millions of miles 
distant from us ; or a million of times farther from us than the 
planet Saturn, which is scarcely visible to the naked eye. 
But the human mind, in its present state, can no more appre- 
ciate such distances than it can infinity ; for if our earth| 
which moves at more than the inconceivable velocity of a mill* 
Eon and a half of miles a day, were to be hurried from its orbit, 
and to take the same rapid flight over this immense tract, it 
would not traverse it in sixteen hundred thousand years; 
itnd every ray of light, although it moves at the rate of one 
hundred and ninety-three thousand miles in a single second 
of time, is more than one hundred and seventy years in com- 
in^from the star to us. 

IBvlI what is even this, compared with that measureless ex- 
tent which the discoveries of the telescope indicate? Ac- 
cording to Dr. Herschel, the light of some of the nebulie, 
just perceptible through his 40 feet telescope, must have been 
a million of ages in coming to the earth ; and should any of 
them be now destroyed, they would continue to be perceptible 
for a million of ages to come. 

Dr. Herschel informs us, that the ghiss which he asedj, would separate stan 
•t 497 times the distance of Sirius. 

It is one of the wonders of creation that any phenomena 
of bodies at such an immense distance from us should be 
perceptible by human sight ; but it is a part of the Divine 
Maker's plan, that although they do not act physically upon 
us, yet they should so far be objects of our perception, as 

Suppose the light of Sirius to be twenty thousand million times less than that of 
ma sun, bow would It compare with that of a star of the sixtii magnitudei if we 
suppose the two stars to be of the same size, how much farther oft la the star of tht 
•ixu magnitude, than Sirius is? Suppose Sirius to be placed tohere our Sun U, how 
f mW its apparent magnitude, and its light and heat compare with those, of tht tun 7 
What may we generally affirm of the distance of stars rif the sixth magnitude 1 Can 
the human mind wpreciate sucli distances? What illustrations can you give to show 
Ikedr immensity? what is this distance compared with that of the telescopic stars. 
the nehulap i Why ar* we able to see bodies ut so ereat a distance ? 



^r 



1 15^ N0M6ER. DIBTANCIS, AND 

to expand our ideas of the vastness of the unfyerse, and *A 
the stupendous extent and operations of his omnipotence. 

" With these facts before us," says an eminent astronomer 
and divine, "it is most reasonable to conclude, that those ex- 
pressions in the Mosaic history of Creation, which relates to 
the creation of the fixed stars, are not to be understood as 
referrinof to the /tmc when they were brought into existence, 
as if they had been created about the same time with oar 
earth ; but as simply declaring the fact, that, at whatever pe- 
riod in duration they were created, they derived their exist- 
tmcefrom God," 

" That the stars here mentioned," ^Gen. i. 16.) says a dis- 
tinguished commentator,* " were the planets of our system, 
and not the fixed stars, seems a just inference from the fact, 
that after mentioning them, Moses immediately subjoins, 
'And Elohim set them in the firmament of the heaven to 
give light upon the earth, and to rule over the day and oyer 
the night j' evidently alluding to Venus and Jupiter, which 
are alternately our morninfi: and evening stars, and which 
' ^ive light upon the earth,*^ far surpassing in brilliancy any 
of the &ed stars." 

However vast the imiTexve now appears; however numerous the worUi 
which may ejdst within its boundless ransc, the language of Scripture, and 
Scripture alone, is sufficiently comprehensive and sublime, to express aU the 
emotions which naturally arise 4n the mind, when contemplating its structure. 
Tliis shows not only the harmony which subsists between the discoveries of 
the Revelation and the discoveries of Science, but also forms by itself^ a strong 
presumptive evidence, that the records of the Bible are authentic and divine. 

We have hitherto described the stars as being immoveaUe 
and at rest ; but from a series of observations on double stars. 
Dr. Herschel found that a great many of them have changed 
theur situations with regard to each other ; that some perform 
revolutions about others, at known and regular periods^ and 
that the motion of some is direct, while that of others is re- 
trograde ; and that many of them have dark spots upon theii 
surface, and turn on their axes, like the sun. 

A remarkable change appears to be gradually taking place 
in the relative distances of the stars from eacn other in the 
constellation Hercules. The stars in this region appear to 
be spreading farther and farther apart while those in the 
opposit^^point of the heavens seem to close nearer and nearer 
together in the same manner as when walking through & 

* a. Turner, F. 8. A. R. A. S. U, 1888. 

With these facts before us, what may we reasonably conclude with rnard teOtt 
JSP***,'*®?* ^^}^ Mosaic history which relate to the creation of the fixed slant 
Wtet ls»the opinion of Mr. Turner in reganl to the stars here mentioned? To whsft 
Is the expression, "To rule over the day and over the niffht," supposed to alhidi 9 
Give some account of tho real motions of the fixed stars. What lemarkahlo 
Mre taking place In the constellaUon Heivulesi 



£0ON0MT OP THS 8TABS. 109 

direst, the trees towards which we adTioiee. appear to be 
eonstantly separating, while the distance oetween those 
which we leave behind, is gradually contracting. 

From this appearance it is concluded, that the Sun. with 
all its retinue of planetary worlds, is moving through the re- 
gions of the universe, towards some distant centre, or around 
some wide circumference, at the rate of sixty or sevent^f 
thousand miles an hour; and thai it is therefore highly prob 
able, if not absolutely certain, mat we shall never occupy 
that portion of absolute svace^ through which we are at this 
moment passing, during all the succeeding ages of eternity.* 

The author of the Christian Philosopher endeavours to 
convey some idea of the boundless extent of the universe, 
by the following sublime illustration : — 

'' Suppose that one of the highest order of intelligences is 
endowed with a power of rapid motion superior to that of 
light, and with a corresponding degpree of intellectual energy ; 
that he has been flying without intermission, from one pro- 
vince of creation to another, for six thousand years^ and will 
continue the same rapid course for a thousand millions years 
lo come ; it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that, 
at the end of this vast tour, he would have advanced no far- 
ther than the ' suburbs of creation,' — and that all the magnifl- 
sent systems of material and intellectual beings he had sur- 
veyed, during his rapid flight, and for such a length of ages, 
Dear no more proportion to the whole empire of Omnipotence, 
than the emptiest grain of sand does to all the particles ot 
matter conta^ ed in ten thousand worlds." 

Were a se iph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the 
manner nor stated, ever to arrive at a limit beyond which 
no farther plays of the Divinity could be perceived, the 
thought wo < overwhelm his faculties with unutterable emo- 
tions; he w^uld ieel that he had now, in some measure^ 
comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence, 
and that no farther manifestation of the Divine glory remain- 
ed to be explored. But we may rest assured that this can 
never happen in the case of any created intelligence. 

Tbere Is moreorer an argument derlrsble from the laws of the phjaleal 
worlcL that seemfl to strengthen, I had aknost sai<L to confirm, this idea of th« 
h^mtf of the material universe. It is this— If (m number o/etanbeJinUtk 
mid oeeupg onfy apart of space, the outward etareuetUd be eatUimui^ attracted 

* Professor Besael does not lUI in with this isnvaning opiidon. 



What conclusion is drawn trom this appearsKei Shall we Uien probably ever 
occupy that portion of space through which we «re now passing, sgalnf What Ilhie- 
tntion does the author of the Christian Philosopher give in oidet to convey 



of the boundless extent of the universe I Wer6 a seraph ever to arri\'e at a llmil 
beyond which no forther displays of the divine gloiy could be perceived, how would 
the ^dea afl'ect him? Is it probable that such a place exists in the ur J verse, or wUb'm 
Ibe scope of any created intelligence 9 



leO FALUNQ, OR SHOOTING 8TAB8. 

t» tk^MtoitUHf andin time wnddumte m one. But if the number ben^finite, aji4 
$kt^ oeeupff an ii^mte epace^ all part* would be nearly in eqttilUtrio, ana con 
tequentljf each fixed etar^ being equally attracted in every direetton^ would 
keep ita place. 

No wonder, then, that the Psalmist was so affected with 
the idea of tne immensity of the universe, that he ^ seem* 
almost afraid lest he should be overlooked amidst the im- 
mensitv of beings that must needs be under the superintend- 
ence or Gk>d ; or that any finite mortal should exclaimL when 
contemplating the hearens — ''What is man, that THOU an 
mindful of hun !" 



CHAPTER XVII. 



FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS., 



The phenomenon of shooting stars, as it is called, is conoi 
mon to an |)arts of the earth ; but is most frequently seen in 
tropical regions. The unerring aim, the startling velocity, 
«nd vivid brightness with which they seem to dart athwart 
the sky, and as suddenly expire, excite our admiration ; and 
we often ask, "What can they heV^ 

But frequent as they are, this interesting phenomenon is 
not well understood. Some imagine that they are occasioned 
by electricity, and others, that they are nothing but luminous 
pis. Others again have supposed, that some of them are 
luminous bodies which accompany the earth in its revolution 
around the sun, and that their return to certain places might 
be calculated with as much certainty and exactness as mat 
of any of the comets. 

Dr. Bumey, of Gosport, kept a record of all that he ob- 
served in the course of several years. The number which 
he noticed in 18.19, was 121, and in 1820, he saw 131. Pro- 
fessor Green is confident that a much larger number are an- 
nually seen in the United States. 

Signior Baccaria supposed, they were occasioned by elec- 
tricity, and thinks this opinion is confirmed by the following 
observations. About an hour after sunset, he and some 
friends, that were with him, observed a falling star, directing 
its course directly towards them, and apparently growing 
larger and larger, but just before it reached them it disap- 

Where does the phenomenon of felling, or shooting stars occur) What \n then U» 
tzctte our admiration In this uhenomenon 1 ts this interesting phenomenon well vm 
derstond) What are the dlflerent opinions in regard to them? How many shontUur 
■tare did Dr. Bumey observe In the years 1819 and 18201 Is it probable that n muca 
larger numlier is seen every year in the United States? What did Baccaria so|i;mm9 
they were occasioned by, and what observations did he nialM to strengthen* bft 
cpinion? 



FALLIMO, OH 8B00TIN0 STJUM. i6a 

peared. On ranishing, their faces, hands, and clothes, witb 
tnts earth, and all the neighbouring objects, became sudden h 
illuminated with a difiused and lambent light. It was attena- 
ed with no noise. During their surprise at this appearance, 
a servant informed them, that he had seen a light snine sud<^ 
denly^ in the garden, and especially upon the streams which 
he was throwing to water it 

The Signior also observed a quantity of electric matter col- 
lect about his kite, which had very much the appearance of a 
falling star. Sometimes he saw a kind of halo accompany infi 
the kite, as it changed its place, leaving some glinunering of 
light in the place it nad quitted. 

Shooting stars have been supposed by those meteorolo^sts 
who refer them to electricity or luminous ^s, to prognosticate 
changes in the weather, such as rain, wind, ^. ; and there 
b, perhaps, some truth in this opinion. The duration of the 
brilliant tract which they leave behind them, in their motion 
through the air, will probably be found to be longer or shorter, 
according as watery vapour abounds in the atmosphere. 

The notion that this phenomenon betokens high winds^ is 
of great antiquity. Virgil, in the first book of his Georgtcsi 
expresses the same idea : — 

**88epe e:!am Stellas vento Impendente videbifl 
Pnecipites ccelo labi ; oocUmue per umbnun 
Fbunmarum longos a tei^ aloeacere tractua. 

And oft, before tciupestuous winds arise, 
The 9eeming stars tall headlong from the skies, 
And shooting tnroi]|(h the darkness, gild the night 
With sweeping glones and long trails or light" 

The number of shooting stars, observed in a single night, 
though variable, is commonly venr small. There are, how- 
ever, several instances on record or their falling in " showers" 
— wnen every star in the firmament seems loosened from its 
sphere, and moving m lawless flight from one end of the 
heavens to the other. As early as the year 472, in the month 
^f November, a phenomenon of this kind took place near 
Jonstantinople. As Theophanes relates. " The sky appeared 
to be on fiie,'' with the corruscations of tfie flying meteors. 

A shower of stars, exactly siujilar took place in Canada, between the 3d and 
iih of July, 1814. and another at Montreal, in Norember, 1819. In all these caaeS) 
a resMnom, or black cfccsf, was deposited upon the snriace of the waters, and upon 
tlie roofs of boikHnga, and other obiects^ In the year 1810^ *' inflamed sub- 
atiuicea," it is said, fell into and around lake Van, in Armenia, which stained the 
water of a blood colour, and cleft the earth in varioas places. On the 6th of 

What was the appeanmce upon stTsams of waterf What dU he obsetve at tUi 
time about his kite) What connexion are they supposed to have with meteoroloerl 
What circumstance may we probably And to conflnn this idea? Is this notion of ^nai 
snet<mt, or of modem date 1 What is, usually, the number of vhnottng stars obserred 
In » single night) When, and where, occurred the Ihrst Instance, on fecovd, ef their 
fldling in great numbers ) Mention sone other Instances. What nnmrkakU vmt^ft 
Sgiblf lAsse meteoric atovcrv? 

U* 



162 rALLmo, OR shooting sTAita. 

•e|!Cemb«r, 1819^ « tOce phenomenon was seen In Moravia. History ftimtshM 
many more instances of meteoric showers, .depositing a rea duaif in some places 
•0 plentiful as to admit ot chymical analysis. 

The commissioner, (Mr. Andrew EUicott,) who was sen! 
out by our government to fix the boundary between the Spanish 
possessions in North America and the United States, witness 
ed a very extraordinary flight of shooting stars, which filled 
the whole atmosphere from Cape Florida to the West India 
Islands. This grand phenomenon took place the 12th of 
November, 1799, and is thus described ; — " I was called up," 
says Mr. EUicott, " about 3 o'clock in the morning, to see the 
shooting stars, as they are called. The phenomenon was 
grand and awtiil. The whole heavens appeared as if illu- 
minated with skyrockets, which disappeared only by the light 
of the sun, after daybreak. The meteors, which at any oue 
instant of time, appeared as numerous as the stars, flew in 
all possible directions except/ro/7i the earth, towards which 
they all inclined more or less, and some oi them descended 
perpendicularly over the vessel we were in, so that I was in 
constant expectation of their falling on us." 

Mr. EUicott further states that his thermometer which had 
been at 80° Fahr. for the four days preceding, fell to 56^ 
about 4 o'clock, A. M., and that nearly at the same time, the 
wind changed from the south to the northwest, from whea^^e 
It blew with great violence for three days without intermissi* ti. 

These same appearances were observed, the same night, 
at Santa Fe de Bogota, Cumana, Q,uito, and Peru, in Sou;a 
America ; and as far north as Labrador and Greenland, ex- 
tending to Weimar in Grermany, being thus visible over an 
extent on the globe of 64^ of latitude, and 94 <^ of longitude. 

The olebrated Humboldt, accompanied bv M. Bomplaiid, ti.en in S. Aiuerica, 
thusspealcs of the phcnoiaenon: — *' Towards the morning of the 13th of No> 
vember, 1799, we wirjiessed a most extraordinary scene of shooting tiieteurs. 
Tlio'isands or bolides, an(i failing stars succeeded each other during four hours. 
Their direction was very regular from north to soiitii. From the Deginning of 
the phenomenon there was not a space in the finnainent, equal in extent to 
three diameters of the moon, which was not filled, every instant, with boiideg 
or tailing stairs Ail the meteors left luminous traces, or phosphorescent bands 
behind them, which lasted sevf n or eight seconds." 

This phenomenon was witnessed by the Capuchin mii^sionarv at Sai& Fer- 
nando de Afiura, a village situated in lat 7° 53 ' 12' ', auiidsi the savannahs c:f t he 
province of Varinas ; by the Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of 
the Oronoco, and at Marca, on the banks of the Rio Ne^ro, I^ 2^ 40' long. 
70^ 2r, and in the we«t of Brazil, at far as the equator itself; and also st tli« 
eity of Porto Cabeilo, lat. 10"^ 6' 52", in French Guiana, Po|Hiyan, Quiti» vmJ 
Peru- It is somewhat surprising that the same appearances, observed in pl«c«« 
io widely separated, amid the vast and lonely deserts of Sc.tth America, sh^iuld 
have been seen, the same night, in the lhiit€»d States, in Labrador, in Graeukanct, 
and at Itterstadt, near Weimar, in Germany ! 

Recite instances of a similar ktni, in which a red dust has been deposited. Descrlte 
flie phenomenon of shooting stars described by Mr. EUicott, In 1799L Describe th^ 
same phenomenon as seen, in South America, bf/ Humboldt and others. In what athMT 
marts qf the itarti was it witnessed, and hy whom'/ 



PALLIMQ, OR mOOTDIQ ffTAM. 16S 

We Are told that Ihiity ymn before, at the city of Qnito, 
There was seen in one part of the skjr. above the rolcano 
of Cayamburo, so great a number of miling stars, that the 
aionntain was thought to be in flames. This sinffuhir sight 
la.'tted more than an hour. The people assembled in the 
plain of fixida, where a magnificent riew presents itself of 
tlie highest summits of the Cordilleras. A procession was 
already on the point of settin«^ out from the convent of St 
Francis, when it was perceived that the blaze on the horizon 
was caused bv fierjr meteors, which ran alone the tcy in all 
directions, at the altitude of 12 or 13 degrees.'' 

But the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars, of 
which the world has furnished any record, was witnessed 
throughout the United States on the morning of the 13th of 
November, 1833. 

The entire extent of thisT astonishing exhibitioa has not 
been precisely ascertained, but it covert^d no inconsiderable 
portion of the earth's surface. It has been traced from the 
longitude of 61^, in the Atlantic ocean, to longitude lOO^' in 
Central Mexico, and from the North American lakes to the 
West Indies. 

It was not seen, However, any where in Europe, nor in South America, ncr In 
may part of the Pacific ocean jet heard fir om. 

Every where, widiin the limits abovementioned, the first 
appearand was that of fireworks of the most imposing 
grandeur, covering the entire vault of heaven with myriads 
of fireballs, resembling skyrockets. Their corruscations 
were bright, gleaming and mcessant, and they fell thick as 
the flakes in the early snows of December. To the splen- 
dours of this celestial exhibition, the most brilliant skyrockets 
and fireworks of art, bear less relation than the twinxlin^ of 
the most tiny star, to the broad glare of the sun. The whole 
heavens seemed in motion, and suggested to some the awful 
grandeur of the image employed in the apocalypse, upon 
the opening of the sixth seal, when "the stars of heaven 
fell unto the earth, even as a fis-tree casteth her untimely 
figs, when she is shaken of a migbty wind." 

One of the most remarkable circumstances attending this 
display was, that the meteors all seemed to emanate from oue 
and the same point, a little southeast of the zenith. Following 
the arch of the sky, they ran along with immense velocity 

Devprtbe another phenomenon of a almllar kind, leen In South America about thir^ 
jrean before. When oocurred the moet nibltme phenomenon of thootingstan of 
which the worid has any reooidf How extensively was It witnessed? what wai 
tke first a^peazance of the phenomenon 1 What scene In the apoealypw, did It soy* 
•est to somal From what point did the SMteors appear to emanate? Describe then 
gotten. 



164 FALUNO, OB SHOOTINC 8TiUI8. 

describing in some instances, an arc of 30<> or 40^ in a feit 
seconds. 

On more attentive inspection it was seen,' that the meteors 
exhibited three distinct varieties ', the Jirst, consisting of 
phosphai'ic linesy apparently described by a point ; the aecondf 
of large firebdlU^ tnat at intervals darted along the sky, leav- 
ing luminous trains, which occasionally remained in view fov 
a uiunber of minutes, and, in some cases, for half an hour or 
more ; the third, of undefined luminoua bodies^ which remain- 
ed nearly stationary in the heavens for a long time. 

Those of the first variety were the most numerous, and 
resembled a shower of fiery snow driven with inconceivable 
velocity to the north of west. The second kind appeared 
more Xike falling stars — a spectacle which was contemplated 
by the more unenlightened beholders with great amazement 
and terrour. The trains which they left, were coounonly 
white, but sometimes were tinged with various prismatic 
colours, of great beauty. 

These fireballs were occasionally of enormous size. Dr. 
Smith, of North Carolina, describes one which appeared largi- 
er than the full moon rising.* "" I was," says he, '' startled 
by the splendid light in which the surrounding scene was 
ezhibitecL renderincr even small objects quite visible." The 
same ball, or a similar one, seen at New Haven, passed off in a 
northwest direction, and exploded a little north¥|fEird of the 
star Capella, leaving, just behind the place of explosion, a 
train ot peculiar beauty. The line of direction was at first 
nearly straight ; but it soon began to contract in length, to 
dilate in breadth, and to assume the figure of a serpent scrol- 
ling itself up, until it appeared like a luminous cloud of va- 
pour, floating eracefully m the air, where it remained m fiiU 
view for several minutes. 

Of the third variety of mete<Mrs, the following are remark- 
able examples : — At Poland, Ohio, a luminous TOdy was dia- 
tinctlv visible in the northeast for more than an hour. It was 
very Drilliant. in the form of a jnyning-hock^ and apparently 
twenty feet long, and eighteen inches broad. It gradually 

* If this hodj were at the distance of lit mUes, tma the obeerrei. it must have Iia4 
• liameter of one mile ; if at the distance of ti miles, its diameter was ns ibet : ami 
If mily one mile off. it must have been 48 feet in diameter. These copsidonitloM 
wave no doubt, that many of the meteors were bodies of large aize. 



What other appearances were obeenred upon moie attentive inspeetlonf Give a 
motepartlettlar account of the first variety. Of the second. What do we know In 
manf to the sise of these firebalU? How does Dr. Smith describe one seen by him 
'l??®i?!L^^'i'*^Y'*^ V^ *« appearance of the same or a similar hall, as seen 
^New Haven) What was there peculiar in the course, and final disappearance of Ul 

iMiiaflii S€«ne examples ot the tninl variety of meteors 



FALLUfO, OB BBOOTDfO 8TAB8 U6 

settled towaras me horizon, until it disappeared. At Niagara 
Palls, a large, luminoas body, shaped like a square tabUy 
was seen near the zenith, remaining for some time almost 
stationary, emitting lar^e streams of light. 

The point from which the meteors seemed to emanate, 
was observed by those who fixed its position among the stars, 
to be in the constellation Leo ; and, according to their concur* 
rent testimony, this radiant point was stationarv amonj^ the 
stars, during the whole period of observation ; tnat is, it did 
not move along with the earth, in its diurnal revolution easl» 
ward, but accompanied the stars in their apparent progress 
westward. 

A remarkable change of weather from warm to cold, ac- 
companied the meteoric shower, or immediately followed it. 
In all parts of the United States, this change was remarkable 
for its suddenness and intensity. In many places, the day 
preceding had been unusually* warm for the season, but, be- 
Cbre the next morning, a severe frost ensued, unparalleled, for 
the time of year. 

In attempting to explain these mysterious phenomena, it is 
ajTgued. m the first place, that the meteors had their origin 
beyond the Umits of our oJtmosphere ; that they of course 
^id not belong to this earth, but to the regions of space exte- 
rior to it 

Tike reasoD oo wfaieh tMi conclusion is fbimded is tliis:-~All bodies near tlio 
earth, including the atmosptiere itself iuive a cominon motion with tlie eartti 
around its axis from west to east ; but tlte radiant pointy that indicated the 
source firom which tiie meteors emanated, followed Uie course of the stars 
ftom east to west; therefore, it was independent of the earth's rotation, and 
consequently, at a great distance ftom it. and beyond the Umits of the atmos* 
phere. The heigJU of the meteoric clouo, or radiant point, above the earth's 
surface was,accor^m[to the mean average of Professor Olmsted's observa* 
60ns, not less than 223B 1 



. That the meteors were constituted of verjr ^iff^^ combus- 
tible materials, seems to be evident, from their exhibiting the 
actual phenomena of combustion, they being consumed, or 
converted into smoke, with intense light; and the extreme 
tenuity of the substance composing them is inferred from the 
fact that they were stopped by the resistance of the air. Had 
their qpiantity of matter been considerable, with so prodigious 
A velocity, they would have had sufficient momentum to dash 
tnem upon the earth ; where the most disastrous consequences 
might have followed. 

in wliat constellation was the point from which ttie meteors seemed to radiate 
What cluujces we;» ooftirved in tbs weather during or soon after this phenomsnon > 
In attemptuur to account for these phenomena, wliat hypothesis has been advanced 
In regain to tbe place where the meteors had their oiiglnl What 4$ the reasonintr Ay 
wMeh thU fijnotheiiU is tustalnedJ How high toot Jtumieuaric eloudtuppoted to bt 
tjbooe the earth / What do we know in reganl to the substance of which the meteors 
were compoBed T What might have been the consequences, if their quantity of matter 
%Ml been coosl^ rablef 



t66 FALUNiO, OR BBOOltNG 8TAR8. 

Tb« nuMnentttin of even light bodies of such rize, and in such numben, tr«T 
•raing the atmosphere with fiuch astonishing velocity, must have produced ex* 
tensive deraneements in the atmospheric eqnilibriain. CoM air frrnii the nppei 
regmns would be brooghtdown to ttie earth; the pcMrtions of air ineuuincoc 
•ver districts of country remote from each other, being mutiuilly displaced, 
wr.ald ezchance places, (he air of the warm latitudes be transferred to coMei, 
tod that of eold ladtudea, to wanner regions. 

Vanous hypotheses hare been proposed to account for thia 
wonderful phenomena. The asent whkh most readily^ suggests 
itself in this, and kk many other unexplained natural appear- 
ances, is electricity. But no known properties of electricity 
are adequate to account for the production of the meteors, for 
the motions, or for the trains which they, in many instances, 
left behind them. Others, again, have referred their proximate 
cause to magnetism, and to phosphoretted hydrogen ; both 
of which, however, seem to be utterly insufficient, so far as 
their properties are known, to account for so unusual a phe- 
nomenon. ' 

Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, who has taken much 
pains to collect facts, and to establish a permanent theory for 
the periodical recu.i-ence of such phenomena, came to the 
conclusion, that — 

The meteors of November 13th, 1833, emanated from a 
nebuloits body, which was then pursuing its way ahng with 
the earth around the sun ; that this body continues to re- 
volve around the sun, in an elliptical orbit — biU little in- 
clined to the plane of the ecliptic, ami having its aphelion 
near the orbit of the earth; and finaUv^ that the body 
ha^ a period of nearly six months, and that its perihelion 
is a little below the orbit of Mercury, 

This theory, at least accommuuutes itself to the remarkable 
fact, that almost all the phenomena of Ihis descript'on, which 
are known to have happened-, have occurred in the two opposite 
months of April and November. A similar exhibition of 
meteors to that of November, 1833, was observed on the same 
day of the week, April 20th, 1803, at Richmond, in Virginia, 
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and at Halifax, in Brttisn Amer- 
ica. Another was witnessed in the autumn of 1818, in the 
North sea, when, in the language of the observ^ers, " all the 
surrounding atmosphere was enveloped in one expansive sea 
of fire, exhibiting the appearance of another Moscow m 
flames." 

Exactly one year previous to the great phenomenon of 
1 833, namely, on the I2th of November, 1832, a similar me- 

^52!? «?** "?^ '*« mow^nfMm <ifeven Ught bodies qf such size, moving wUh suck 
VMiefry, Aav« naa vfmt the atmosphere 7 Mention some hypotheses which have been 
SK!i^«iP ,»*'«>"'»t tS'^ these meteors. To what conclusion dtJ Professor Oinistad. 
JS?h nlSSLS^^i^E^^/v*^*"®' !]? "^^^ ^ ^^em? To what remarkable facte l5 
!toll£'*n"^SSS'i5 hSn'te;^?^' ^' ^^ ***" cerresponding periods bait« 



PALUNO, OR SUOOTOia BTAMB. 167 

t«onG display was seen near Mocha^ on the Red tea, bf 
CapL Hammond and crew, of the ship Restitution. 

A fAatlctnaa in South CarUina^ thm deaciibes the ethct of the phenomeiioa 
of ISS, upon his ignorant blaeka: — "I was suddenly awakened i»y Uie mntC 
distressing cries that evAr fell on mj ears. Shrieks of honour, and orles of 
iQercy, I could bear from most of the negroes of three plantations, amount- 
ing in, all to abouC six or eight haodred. While earnestly listening fi>r tha 
cadse, I l.eard a feint voice near the door calling mr name; I arose, and 
taking my sword, stood at the door. At this moment, I hesrd the same Tolca 
still be8ee«:hing me to rise, and flaying, .'O! my God, the world Is on irel' 
I then opened the door, and U is dimcolt to say which excited me most^-iha 
awftilneas of the scene, or the distressed cries of the negroes ; «q;»wards o/ 
one hundred lay prostrate on the fn'oond — some speechless, and some with 
ttie bitterest cries, but most with their hands rsised, imploring God to a^r* 
Ae worid and them. The scene was truly awful ; for never did rain iaU mnch 
ihicker, than the meteors fel? towards the earth ; east, west, north, aad aoatJb^ 
k was the same I^ 



Since the preceding went to przsa, the AtUhor hoe been pfh 
litely fumiehedy by Prvfessor Olmsted^ with the accom' 
panying communicatum. 



It 



I am happy to hear that ytm propose to stereotype 
your ' Geography of the Heavens.' It has done much, I 
believe, to diffuse a popular knowledge of astronomy, and 
I am pleased that your efforts are rewarded by an ex- 
tended patronage. 

" Were I now to express my views on the subject (ilfo- 
teoric Showers) in as condensed a form as possible, I should 
state them in some such terms as the following : The mete- 
oric showers which have occurred for several years past on 
or about the 13th of November, are characterised by fou? 
peculiarities, which distinguished them from ordinary 
shooting stars. First, they are far more numerous than 
common, and are larger and brighter. Secondly, they are 
in much greater proportion than usual, accompanied by 
luminous trains. Thirdly, they mostly appear to radiate 
from a common centre, — that is, were their paths in the 
heavens traced backwards, they would meet in the same 
part of the heavens : this point has for three years past, 
at least, been situated in the constellation Leo. Fourthly, 
the greatest display is every where at .nearly the same 
time of night, namely, from three to four o'clock — a time 



VdB PALUNO, OR SHOOTIHQ 8TAS8. 

•iiout half wa/ from midnight to sunrise. The metecr* 
are inferred to consist of combustible matter, because they 
are seen to take fire and burn in the atmosphere. They 
are known to be rery light, because, although they fall 
towards the earth with immense velocity, few, if any, ever 
reach the earth, but are arrested by the air, like a wad 
fired from a piece of artillery. Some of them are inferred 
to be bodies of comparatively great size, amounting in di- 
ameter to several hundred feet, at least, because they are 
seen under so large an angle, while they are at a great dis- 
tance from the spectator. Innumerable small bodies thas, 
consisting of extremely light, thin, combustible matter, 
existing together in space far beyond the limits of the at- 
mosphere, are believed to compose a body of immense 
extent) which has been called ' the nebulour body.' Only 
the skirts or extreme portions of this are brought down to 
the earth, while the entire extent occupies many thousand, 
and perhaps several millions of miles. Th is nebulous bod y 
is inferred to have a revolution around the sun, as well as 
the earth, and to come very near to the latter about the 
13th of November each year. This annual meeting every 
year, for several years in succession, could not take plaee 
unless the periodic time of the nebulous body is either 
nearly a year, or half a year. Various reasons have in- 
duced the belief that half a year is the true period ; but 
this point is considered as somewhat doubtful. The zodi- 
acal light, a faint light that appears at different seasons of 
the year, either immediately preceding the morning or 
following the evening twilight, ascending from the sun in 
a triangular form, is with some degree of probability 
thought to be the nebulour body itself, although the exist- 
ence of such a body, revolving in the solar system, was 
inferred to be the cause of the meteoric showers, before 
any connexion of it with the zodiacal light was even 
thought oV^ 



GBITERAL PHfilfOMENA OP THE SOLAR STlTfiM. t69 



GENERAL PHENOMENA 



OF THB 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 



^ CHAPTER XVIIL 

Our att«;ntioa has hitherto been directed to those bodies 
irhich we see scattered every where throughout the whole 
eelestial concave. These bodies, as has been shown, twinkle 
with a reddish andyariable light, and appear to hare always 
the same position with regard to each other. We know 
hat their number is very great, and that their distance 
from us is immeasurable. We are also acquainted with 
their comparative brightness and their situation. In a 
word, we have before us their few visible appearances, to 
whicn our knowled^j^e of them is well nigh limited ; al- 
most all our reasonings in regard to them being founded 
on comparatively few and uncertain analogies. Accord- 
ingly our chief Uusiness^ thus far, has been to detail their 
number, to descsribe their brightness and positions, and to 
give the names by which they have been designated. 

There now remain to be considered certain other ce- 
lestial bodies, all of which, from their remarkable appear- 
ance and changes, and some of them from their intimate 
connection with the comfort, convenience, and even ex- 
istence of man, must have always attracted especial ob 
aervation, and been objects of the most intense contemplation 
and the deepest interest. Most of these bodies are situ- 
ated within the limits of the Zodiac. The most important 
of them are, the Sun, so superior to all the heavenly bodies 
for its apparent magnitude, for the light and heat which 
it imparts, for the marked effects of its changes of position 
with regard to the Earth ; and the Moon, so conspicuous 
AOjOui: th? fvv1i(>A which ffive lurht by ni^ht, and from 
her soli and silvery brightness, so pleasing to benold ; re- 



To what pwrtieolara it 9ttr knowledge of the fixed tton, thoee heavenljr bo^ ^ 

we have heretofore been conMderiRf . well nirii confined 7 Where are the bodiee whi«% 
■owraiiMuntobeeoiMiderod,«tuKtea9 Whirbof tlMmarethennetunportiiDtf 

U 



no aCT»ElL»PH£llOinBIA 

markable not oi ly for changes of position , but for the 
raried phases or appearances which she presents, as she 
waxes from :ier crescent form through all her diffei^nt 
stages of increase to a full orb, and wanes back again to 
her former diminished figure. 

The partial or total obscuration of these two bodies, which 
sometimes occurs, darkness taking place eren at mid-day, 
and the face of niffht, before lighted ap by the Moon's beams, 
being suddenly shaded by their absence, have always been 
among the most striking astronomical phenomena, and so 
powerful in their influence upon the beholders, as to fill them 
with perplexity and fear. If we observe these two bodies, 
we shall find, that, besides their apparent diurnal motion 
ftcross the heavens, they exhibit other phenomena, which 
must be the effect of motion. The Sun during one part of 
the year, will be seen to rise every day farther and farther 
towards the north, to continue longer and longer above 
the horizon, to be more and more elevated at mid-day, 
until iie arrives at a certain limit; and then, during the other 
part, the order is entirely reversed. The Moon sometimes is 
not seen at all ; and then, when she first becomes visible, 
appears in the west, not far from the setting Sun, with a slen- 
der crescent form; every night she appears at a greater 
distance from the setting Sun, increasing in size, until at 
length she is found in the east, just as the San is sinking 
below the horizon in the west. 

The Sun, if his motions be attentively observed, will be 
found to have another motion, opposite to his a pfMtrent diurnal 
motion from east to west. This may be perceived distinct- 
ly, if we notice, on any clear evening, any bright star, which 
is first visible after sunset, near the place where he sank 
below the horizon. The following evening, the star will 
not be visible on account of the approach of the Sun, and all 
the stars on the east of it will be successively eclipsed by 
his rays, until he shall have made a complete apparent revo- 
lution in the heavens. These are the most obvious pheno- 
mena exhibited by these two bodies. 

There are, also, situated within the limits of the Zodiae. 
certain other bodies, which, at first view, and on a superficial 
examination, are scarcely distinguishable from the fixed 
stars. But observed more attentively, they will be seen to 
shine with a milder and steadier light, and besides being 
carried round with the stars, in the apparent revolution of 
the great celestial concave, they will seem to change their 



or ram solas svvnai* 171 

pluees ID the eoneare itself. Sometimes they are utatioo* 
ary ; sometimes thev appear to be moving from west to east 
and sometimes to oe goin^back afain from east to west; 
being seen at sunset sometimes in the east, and sometimes 
tn the west, and always apparently changing their position 
with regard to the earth, each other, and the other neaven- 
ly bodies. From their wandering as it were, in this man- 
ner, through the heavens, they were called by the Greeks 
rXavtirii, planets, which signifies wanderers. 

There also sometimes appear in the heavens, bodies of a 
very extraordinary aspect, which continue visible for a con- 
siderable period, and then disappear from our view; and noth- 
ing more is seen of them, it may be for years, when they 
again prescst themselves, and take their place among the 
oodies of the celestial sphere. They are distinguished from 
the planets tr a dull and cloudy appearance, and by a train 
of light. As they approach the sun, however, their taint and 
nebulous light becomes more and more brilliant, and their 
train increases in length, until they arrive at their nearest 
point of approximation, when they shine with their greatest 
brilliancy. As they recede from the Sun, they gradually 
lose their splendour, resume their faint and nebulous appear- 
ance, and their train diminishes, until they entirely disap- 
pear. They have no well defisea 6gure ; they seem to move 
in every possible direction, and are found in every part of 
the heavens. From their train, they were called oy the 
Greeks «a;iiir«i, comets, which signifies having long hair. 

The causes of these various phenomena must have early 
constituted a very natural subject of inquiry. Accordingly, 
we shall find, if we examine the history of the science, that 
in very early times there were many speculations upon 
this subject, and that different theories were adopted to ac- 
eount for these celestial appearances. 

The BSTptiaiM, ChaMeuiB, Indians, and ChhieM, early poaaeaaed many aatro* 
nomical mcta, many obaerrationB of important phenomena, and many rulea 
and method! of astronomical calculation; and it has been imagined, thai they 
liad the roinaof a great system of astronomical acience, which* in the earliest 
a^es of the world, had been carried to a great degree of perfection, and that 
while the principles and explanations of the phenomena were lost, the isolated, 
nnconnected facts, rules or calculation, and phenomena themselves, remain* 
ed. Thus, the Chinese, whot ^ ^ generally agreed, possess the oldest authen. 
Ue observations (HI * ' "^ ' *" ~ ' "" "' "' 

fire planets at the 

jears before the fl _ _, 

conjunction really occurred at that time. The first observation of a solar 
•clipse of which the world has any knowledge, was made by the Chinese, 2198 
yeara before Chriat, or 290 years after the delude. It seems, also, that the 
Chineae understood the method of calculating eclipaes ; for, it is said, that tha 




Wbenee do they derive thsir name } Deieiibe the comets. Whoiee is 
derived? WhM»rimuulnati9n»eariMpo$»omedrMinyimportamM$romMmiealfii€l§ 
wkmrw ut imft and miss t WlieHCi(9Utuppo§$dtittuthgv 9^Uiiiudth0Hi 



172 OBHERAL l-HENOMSMA 

empero; wu «o irritated against the great offlceraof Mate for neglecttnf to pn* 
jic: the arilpM, tiiat he caused them to be put to death.* The astronoinicd 
e|K>ch v[ the Chinese, according to Baillv, commenced with Fe)'.i, their firat 
emperor, who flourianed 2962 years before the Christian era, or about 380 
yeai-3 before the deluge. If it be asked how the knowledge of this antediio- 
vian aslronomy was preserved and transmitted, it is said that the columns on 
whicli it was registered have survived the deluge, and that tliose of Egypt are 
only copies which have become originals, now that the (Mhers have been foi^ 
gotten. The Indians, also, profess to have many celestial observations of a 
very early date. The Chaldeans have been justly celebrated in all ages for 
their astronomical observatiiHis. When Alexander look Babyhm, his precep- 
tor, Calliiithenes, found a series of Chaldean observations, made in that city, 
and eziending back with little internipiion, through a period of 1903 Tears pre- 
ceding that event. This would carry us back to at least '2234 years before the 
birth of Christ, or to about the time of the dispersion of mankind by the con- 
fusion of tongues. Though it be conceded, that upon (liis whole period in the 
history of the science, the obscurity of very remote* antiquity must necessari- 
ly rest, still it will remain evident titat the phenomena ofthe heavenly bodies 
had been observed with great attention, ancf bad been a subject of no ordiiutry 
interest. 

But however numerous or important were the observations of oriental- an- 
tiquity, they were never reduced to the sliape and symmetry of a regular 
system. 

The Greeks, in all probability, derived many notions in regard to this ocl 
ence, and many facts and observations, from Egypt, the ^reat fountain i f an* 
cient learning and wisduui, and many were the speculations and hypotheses 
of their philosophers. In the fabulous period of Grecian history, Atlas. Her- 
cules, Liuna, and Orpheus, are mentioned as persons distinguished for their 
knowledge of aistronomy, and for the improvements which tViey made «n tho 
science. But in regard to this period, little is known with certainty, and it 
must be coTuideredj as it is termed, fabulous. 

The first of the Greek philosdphers who taught Astrono 
my, was Thales, of Miletus. He flourished about 64C 
years before the Christian era. Then followed Anaximan 
der, Aoaximenes, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Plato. — Soin« 
of the doct.lnes maintained by these philosophers were, that 
the Earth was round, that it bad two motions, a diurnal mo- 
tion on its axis, and an annual motion around the Sun, that 
the Sun was a globe of fire, that the Moon received her li^ht 
frona the Sun, that she was habitable, contained mountains 
seas, &c. ; that her eclipses were caused by the Earth's 
shadow, that the planets were not designed merely to adorn 
cur heavens, that they were worlds of themselves, and tha' 
the fixed stars were centres of distant systems. Some of 
them, however, maintained, that the Earth was fiat, and 
others, that though round, it was at rest in the centre of the 
universe. 

When that distinguished school of nhilosophy was estab- 
lished at Alexandria, in Egypt, by the munificence of the 

• It is well known that the Chinese liave, from time imoMnioiial, considered Solar 
GeKpses and Coiuuiietions of the planets, as prognostics of impoitanoe to tlie Empire, and 
ihat they have been pvedicted as a riiatter of State policy. 

aire 8orn€ inftances. Were theee factt, however, reduced to a tdenee J Whenee, 
U U priOMhU, that the Greeka derived their Jlrtt notioru of oHronemy ? What is tfM 
name of the nnt of the Greek philosopbera who taught astronooay} At what time dU 

S^!ii??^Z'!SL9^*^PW'?'S^"**^^ him^ taught men tfaesame siil«eet? M«fr 
win aouM or the doclones which they maintained. 



or IBB aoLAB smmL ITS 

MHrereigns to wliom that portion of Alexander's empire had 
fallen, astronomy received a new impulse. Il was now, m 
the second century after Christ, that the first complete sys- 
tern or treatise ot astronomy, of which we have any know- 
ledge, was formed. Ail before had been unconnected and 
incomplete. Ptolemy, with the opinions of all antiquity, 
and of all the philosophers who had preceded him, spread 
out before him, composed a work in thirteen books, called 
the MevaXir Lwra^ts, OT Great System. Rejecting tne doc- 
trine 01 Pythagoras, who taught that the Sun was the centre 
of the. universe, ana that the Earth had a diurnal motion on 
its axis and ao annual motion around the Sun, as contrary 
io the eyidence of the senses, Ptolemy endeavoured to ac- 
count for the celestial phenomena, by supposing the Earth 
to be the centre of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies 
to revolve around it. He seems to have entertained an idea 
in regard to the supposition, that the Earth revolved on its 
axis, similar to one which some entertain even at the pre- 
sent day. " If," says he. " there were any motion of the 
Earth common to it and all other heavenly oodies, it would 
certainly precede them all by the excess of its mass being 
80 great ; and animals and a certain portion of heavy bodies 
would be left behind, riding upon the air, and the Earth 
itself would very soon be completely carried out of the 
heavens." 

In explMDing the celestial phenomeoa, howeTer, upon hia hypotheriai ha 
met with a difficulty in the apparently stationary attitude and retrograde mo 
tions which he saw the planets sometimes have. To explain this, nowever, 
ke supposed the planets to revolve in -small circles which he called 



epi- 
cycles, which were, at the same time, carried around the Earth in larser 
cireles, which he called deferents, or carrying circles. In foUowmg out nia 
t^-sory and applying it to the explanation of different phenomena, it became 
necessary to add new epicycles, and to have recourse to other expedients, 
nntil the system became unwieldy, cumbrous, and complicated. This 
theory, although astronomical observations continued to be made, and some 
distinguished astronomers appeared from time to time, was tlie prevailing 
theory until the middle of the l^th century. It was not^ however, alttawM 
received with implicit cnnfidence; nor were its difficulties tUtcaya entirmy 
nnappreciatod. 
Alp 



Iphonso X., king of Castile, who flourished in the 13th century, when 
templating the doctrine of the epicycles, exclaimed, " Were the universe 
thus constructed, if the deity had called me to his councils at tlie creation 



contemplating the doctrine of the epicycles, exclaimed, " Were the universe 

IS constructed, if the deity had called me to his councils at tlit 
of the world, I could have given him good advice.'* He did not, however, 



mean any impiety or irreverence, except what was dire ted against the system 
of Ptolemy. 

About the middle of the 15th century, Copernicus, a 
native of Thorn in Prussia, conceiving a passionate attach- 
ment to the study of astronomy, quitted the profession of 

When was the first complete system of Aationomy written, and by whom III how 
aaany boolu was it oomprifted. and what vnu the work called 7 What was the 
siitem of Ptolany? How did Ptolemy exj^ain the ateUUnu and retrosnuUUUmM 
V the planets 1 How long toaa the aystem tjf Ptolemy the vrevalHng ayetem ) Wma 
u akaitya reeeioed with implieU eonjldence 1 Wbb established a new System of 
AsCnnoiny about the middle of tba «5th centunrl 

16* 



»74 aOHBttAL rMBtOMBIA 

medicine, and deTOted himself, with the most intense aidoar| 
to the stodjof this science. "His mind," it is said, ^*uaa 
lona: been imbued with the idea that smiplicity and hannony 
should characterize the arrangements of the planetary sys- 
tem. In the complication and disorder which, he saw, 
reigned in the hypothesis of Ptolemy, he perceived insuper- 
able objections to its being considered as a representation of 
nature." 

Id the opinions of the Egyptian sagest, in those of Pytha- 
goras, Phiiolaus, Aristarchus and Nicetas, he recognised his 
own earliest conviction that the Earth was not the centre of 
the universe. His attention was much occupied with the 
speculation of Martinus Capella, who placed the Sun be- 
tween Mars and the Moon, and made Mercury and Venus 
revolve around him as a centre, and with the system of Ap- 
polionius PergiBus, who made all the planets revolve around 
the Sun, while the Sun and Moon were carried around the 
Earth in the centre of the universe.' 

The examination, however, of these hypotheses, gradual- 
ly expelled the difficulties with which the subject was beset, 
and after the labour of more than thirty years, he was per- 
mitted to see the true system of the universe. The Sun he 
considered as immoveable, in the centre of the system^ 
while the earth revolved around him, between the orbits ot 
Venus aud Mars, and produced by its rotation about its axis 
all the diurnal phenomena of the celestial sphere. The 
other planets he considered as revolving about the Sun, in 
orbits exterior to that of the Earth. (See the Relative Po- 
ntion of the Planets* Orbits, Plate /. of the Atlas.) 

Thus, the stations and retrogradations of the planets were 
the necessary consequence of their own motions, combin- 
ed with that of the Earth about the Sun. He said that 
"bv long observation, he discovered, that if the motions 
of the planets be compared with that of the Earth, and be esti- 
mated according to the times in which they perform their 
revolutions, not only their several appearances would fol- 
low from this hypothesis, but that it would so connect the 
order of the planets, their orbits, magnitudes, and distances, 
and even the apparent motion of the nxed stars, that it would 
be impossible to remove one of these bodies out of its place 
without disordering the rest, and eyen the whole of the anir 
rerse also." 

Soon after the death of Copernicus, arose Tycho Brahe, 

■uninaticm ofdiflbrentjiypodieie* belbie lie came to a wSftflloqr rawlt f WbU wm 
IfciSSf *Li£a^.2!l!l ^^l di.tmgu»hed^ Mtranomer. woim\hm tki tiw <r Of 
vmnaniM^ eonaied •atnwainv with bmhj vahmbbifllMNrvatioM I 



«PTmM)LAK0T«mf. 175 

oorn at Kmidfltor|k in Norwa^r, in 1546. Sueh was the 
tfistinetion which he had attained as an astronouer, that 
when dissatisfied with his residence in Denmark, he had re* 
soWed to femove, the king of Denmark, learning his inten- 
tions, detained him in the kingdom, by presenting him with 
the canonry of Rothschild, with an income of 2000 crowns 
per annum. He added to this sum a pension of 1000 crowns, 
gave him the island of Huen, and established for him an ob 
scnratory at an expense of about 200,000 crowns. Here 
Tycho continued, for twenty-one years, to enrich astronomy 
with his observations. His observations upon the Moon 
were important, and upon the planets, numerous and precise, 
and have formed the data of the present generalizations in 
astronomy. He, however, rejected the system of Coperni- 
cus ; considering the £arth as immoveable in the centre of 
the system, while the Sun. with all the planets and. comets 
revolving around him, performed his revolution around the 
earth, and, in the course of twenty-four hours, the stars also 
revolved about the central body. This theory was not as 
simple as that of Copernicus, and involved the absurdity of 
making the Sun, planets, dbc revolve around a body com- 
paratively insignificant. 

Near the close of the 15th century, arose two men, who 
wrought most important changes in the science, Kepler, 
and Galileo, the former a German, the latter an Italian. 
- Previous to Kepler, all investigations proceeded upon the 
aupposition that the planets moved in circular orbits, which 
had been a source of much error. This supposition Kepler 
showed to be false. He discovered that their orbits were 
ellipses. The orbits of their secondaries or moons he also 
found to be the same curve. He next determined the di- 
mensions of the orbits of the planets, and found to what 
their velocities in their motions through their orbits, and the 
times of their revolutions, were proportioned; all truths of 
the greatest importance to the science. 

While Kepler was making these discoveries of facts, very 
essential for the explanation of many phenomena. Galileo 
was discovering wonders in the heavens never before seen 
by the eye of man. Having improved the telescope, and 
applied it to the heavens, he observed mountains and valleys 
upon the surface of our Moon i satellites or secondaries 



WMmdueementodadtliekinffofnamMakolftrUBtoniiidninUiak^^ How 
loofdid be eontmue to make obflenmtioai in MtobteiTatonfiii the alud oTHuen 1 How 
wme the heavenly bodies ananced, hi hie eystem ? What abeuidity did it invdve ? . What 
two illniUioufl aatronomen made leveml wry important discoveriee toon after the time 



oTTyehollnhe? Wlat werathediMoverieaof kispler) What were the diMoveriee of 
OaHeol 



176 OSNBKAL PHBffOMBHA 

were discovered revolving about Jupiter ; and Yenus, ss 
Oopernicus had predicted, was seen exhibiting all the difiei- 
ent phases of the Moon, waxing and waning as she doesj 
through various forms. Many minute stars, not visible to 
the naked eye, were descried in the milky-way ; and the 
largest fixed stars, instead of being magnified, appeared to 
be small brilliant points, an incontrovertible argument in fa- 
vour of their immense distance from us. All bis discoveries 
served to confirm the Copernican theory, and to show the 
absurdity of the hypothesis of Ptolemy. 

Although the general arrangement and motions of the 
planetary bodies, together with the figure of their orbits, 
had been thus determined, the force or power which car- 
ries them around in their orbits, was as yet unknown. 
The discovery of this was reserved for the iDustrioas New- 
ton.* By reflecting on the nature of gravity — that power 
which causes bodies to descend towards the centre of the 
earth — since it does not sensibly diminish at the greatest dis- 
tance from the centre of the earth to which we can attain, be- 
ing as powerful on the loftiest mountains as it is in the deep- 
est caverns, he was led to imagine that it might extend to the 
Moon, and that it might be the power which kept her in her 
orbit, and caused her to revolve around the Earth. He was 
next led to suppose that perhaps the same power carried the 
primary planets around the Sun. By a series of calculations, 
he was enabled at length to establish the fact, that the same 
force which determines the fall of an apple to the Earth, car- 
ries the moons in their orbits around the planets, and the 
planets and comets in their orbits around the Sun. 

To recapitulate briefly : the system, (not hypothesis, for 
much of it has been established by mathematical demonstra* 
tion,) by which we are now enabled to explain with a beauti- 
ful simplicity the different phenomena of^ the Sun, planetii, 
moons, and comets, is, that the Sun is the centrsd body in 
the system ; that the planets and comets move round him in 
elliptical orbits, whose planes are more or less inclined to 
each other, with velocities bearing to each otherf a cer- 
tain ascertained relation, and in times related to their dis- 
tances; that the moons^ or secondaries, revolve in like man> 
ner, about their primaries, and at the same time accompany 

* The discoverF of Newtoo was in some meafura anticipnted bf Copemioiui, Kc ph t 
and Hooke. 

^ f The orfaito or oaths of the planeta were disoo¥eradby tiacitig the oomae of the plaael 
«T ir<*aiis of the fixed stars. 

What was the discovery of Newton 7 How was he led to make it? Becapitnhti 
atiefly the systesa by which we are enabled to explain the difierent oeleslial pheMUPsMb 



or TBB MLAK nrSTBM. 177 

tfcem in their raodon around the San ; all meanidiilereToU 

nnjr on axes of their own ; and that these revolutions in theii 
orbits, are prpduced hy the mysterious power of attraction. 
The particular mode m Y^bich this system is applied to the 
ezplaaation of the different phenomena, will be exhibited 
as we proceed to consider, one by one, the several bodies 
above mentioned. 

These bodies, thus arranged and - thus revolving, consti 
tute what is termed tbe solar system. The planets have 
been divided into two classes, primaries and secondaries. 
The latter are also termed moons, and sometimes satellites. 
The primaries are those wbich revolve about tbe Sun, as 
a centre. The secondaries are those which revolve about 
the primaries. There have been discovered eleven prima- 
ries ; namely. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, 
Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel ; of which, 
Mercury is the nearest to the Sun, and the others follow, 
in the order in which they are named. Vesta, Juno, Ceres, 
and Pallas, were discovered by means of the telescope, and, 
because they are very small, compared with the others, are 
called asteroids. There have been discovered, eighteen 
secondaries. Of these, the Earth has one, Jupiter four, 
Saturn seven, and Herschel six. All th.ese, except our 
Moon, as well as the asteroids, are invisible to the naked 
eye. 

Plate 1, of the Atlas, " exhibits a plan of the Solar System^" comprising the 
relative magnitudes of the Sun and rlanets ; their comparative distances from 
Ihe Sun, and from each other ; the position of their orbits, with respect to 
each other, the Earth, and the Sun ; together with many other particulars 
which are explained on the map. There, the first and most prominent object 
which claims attention, is the representation of the Sun's circumference, witii 
its deep radiations, bounding the upper marcin of the map. It is apparent, 
however, tliat this segmeut is hardly one sixth of the whole circumference of 
which it is a part. Were the man sufficiently large to admit the entire orb 
of the Son, even upon so dimiuutive a scale as there represented, we should 
then see the Sun and Planets in their just proportions — the diameter of the 
former being 112 times the diameter of the Eartn. 

It was intended, originally, to represent the Earth upon a scale of onB inch 
in diameter, and the other bodies m that proportion ; but it was found that it 
would increase the map to 4 times its size ; and hence it became necessary to 
uiBUme a scale of half&n incli for the Earth's diameter, which malccs that of 
jlie Sun 56 inches, and the other bodies, as repressented upon the map. 

The relative position of the Planets' Orbits is also represented, on a scale 
AS large as the sheet would permit. Their relative distances from the Sun as a 
seotre, and from each other, are there shown correctly : But had we wished 
to enHirge the dimensions of these orbits, so that they would exactly corres- 
pond with the scale to which we have drawn the planets, the map must have 
been nearly 4 miles in length. Hence, says Sir John Herschel, "the idea that 

What 19 meant by tbe Solar System ? Into what two classes have the planets been di 
wldeAl Define a primary planet. Define a seeondary planet How many primary plan 
ets have been discovered ? What are thoir names, and wliat the order of their distance 
-from the sun 1 Which of them were discovered by means of the telescope) Why are 
these termed asteroids 7 How many secondaries liave been discovered ? How are the? 
dkAriiiated amon«r the primaries *> Which of the primaries and secondaries are invisible 
totbcnaJcedere? 



179 TBiMm. 

we CM toamy tamtt utAoam on tMa mbjccsti by dnNPfng BtoiMi m 
hi out of the question." 

To fUustrate this.— Let bs suppose ourselves staocBog on an extended ptancs 
or field of ice, and that a globe 4 feet 8 incheein disaetar ia placed in tha 
centre of the plane, lo represent the Bun. Having cot oat of the map, ttM 
dark circles representing the planets, we may proceed to arrapge them in 
tbeir respective orbits, about the Sun, as follows ^ 

First, we shoald take Mercury, about the size of a small currant, and plaea 
ft on the circumference of a circle 194 feet from the Son ; this circle would 
represent the orbit of Mercury, in the proper ratio of its mapiltude. Next, 
we should take Venus, about the size of a rmier small cherry, and place it on 
a circle 362 feet from the Sun, to represent the orbit of Venus : Then would 
c*>me the Earth, about the size of a cherry, revolving in an orbit 800 feet from 
the Sun : — After the Eanh, we should place Mars, alraut the size of acranber* 
ry, on a circle 762 feet from the Son :— Neglecting the Aateroids, some of which 
would not be larger than a pin's head, we shouM place Jupiter, hardly equal 
to a moderate sized melon, on a circle at the distance of half a oule (2S0i feet) 
fh>m the Bun ;— Saturn, somewhat less, on a cirle nearly a mile (47G9 feet) 
fix>m the Sun ; and last of all, we should place Iferschel, about the size of a 

Beach, on the circumference of a circle nearly 2 miles (9B91 feet) from Um 
on. 

To imitate the motkms of the pisnets, in the abovementioned orbits, Mercu- 
ry must describe its own dfameter in 41 seconds ; Venus, in 4 minutes 14 
seconds ; the Earth, In 7 minutes ; Mars, in 4 minutes 48 seconds | Jupiter, 
in 2 hours 66 minutes ; Saturn, in 3 boors 13 minutes ; and Herscbel, m2 iMHirt 
16 minutes. 

Many other interesttog subjects are embraced in Piste 1; bat they art 
either explained on the map, or in the fi^Uowing Chapteri^ to which tbay imk 
pectively relate. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
THE SUN. 



The sun is a vast globe, in the centre of the solar system, 
dispensing light and heat to all the planets, and govern* 
ing all their motions. 

It is the great parent of vegetable life, giving warmth X» 
the seasons, and colour to the landscape. Its rays are th* 
cause of various vicissitudes on the surface of the earth and 
in the atmosphere. By their agency, all winds are pro- 
duced, and the waters of the sea are made to circulate in 
vapour through the air, and irrigate the land, producing 
springs and rivers. 

The Sun is by far the largest of the heavenly bodies 
whose dimensions have been ascertained. Its diameter is ^ 

something more than 887 thousand miles. Conseqnentiv, it 
contains a volume of matter equal to fourteen hundred mou- 
Band globes of the size of the Earth. Of a body so vast in 
its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can 

Mention tome of the eBeeUi produced by the Sun. What is its magniliidB cqn a t n 4 
witb.thiit of the other hea^ponijr hod^ whose dimensicaw have lieen esSnated I Wkit li 
tsdnuDeterl Ilowmueh laiierii the Sun than the Earth? 



TV SUM. 171 

form no adequate coDoeptioo. The whole distance between 
the Earth and the Moon would not suffice to emhrace one 
third of its diameter. 

Mere let the atadent refer to Plate I. where the Relative Magnttudes of th« 
Sua and Planeta are exhibited. Let him eompare the ■egmeat of the Sim's 
e^rcumference, aa there represented, with the entire circumference of the 
Earth. They are both drawn upon the aame acale. The aegment of the flun'a 
circumference, since it is almost a straight line, must be a very small oart of 
what the whole circumference would be, were it represented entire. Let tlui 
student understand this diagram, and he will be in some measure able to con- 
ceive bow like a mere point the Earth is, compared with the fSun, and to form 
in his mind some image of the vast magnitude of the latter. 

Were the Sun a hollow sphere, perforated with a thousand 
openings to admit the twinkling of the luminous atmosphere 
around it — ^and were a globe as large as the Earth placed 
at its centre, with a satellite as large as our Moon, and at 
the same distance from it as she is from the earth, there 
would be present to the eye of a spectator on the interior globC| 
a universe as splendid as that which now appears to theun* 
instructed eye — ^a uni verse as large and extensive as the 
whole creation was conceived to be, in the infancy of astron- 
omy. 

"The next thing which fills the mind with wonder, is the 
distance at which so great a body must be placed, to occupr, 
apparently, so small a space in the firmament. The Sun's 
mean distance from the Earth, is twelve thousand times the 
Earth's diameter, or a little more than 95 millions of miles. 
We may derive some faint conception of such a distance, 
by considering that the swiftest steamboats, which ply our 
waters at the rate of 200 miles a day, would not traverse it 
in thirteen hundred years ; and, that a cannon ball, flying 
night and day, at the rate of 16 miles a minute, would not 
reach it in eleven years. 

The Sun, when viewed through a telescope, presents th/i 
appearance of an enormous gli«be of fire, frequently in a 
state of violent agitation or ebullition; dark spots of irregu- 
lar form, rarely visible to the naked eve, sometimes pass 
over his disc, from east to west, in the period of nearly 
fourteen days. 

These spots are usually surrounded by a penumbra, and 
that, by a margin of light, more brilliant than that of the 
Sun. A spot when first seen on the eastern €dge of the 
Sun, appears like a line which progressively extends in 
breadth, till it reaches the middle, when it begins to contraeti 

WlMkii the whole dfalanee between the Earth and ths Moon, eoaamrad with the di> 

IveorUieii 



^ of the 8uo? Give some OUiftiation to enable us to eonoeive oTUie mngnitude of 

tteSun. What ii the distanneoftho Son flom the Earth 7 Give some ilhutmtion to en- 
able oi to eoneeive of the distance. What is the appoaranee of the Ban irhen vieww 
ttiroofha telosoope ) In what time do the spots seen on the Sun pass aoriss the diw 
tewfcatdireGt'ondstheraMvel DwiRribethsirappeanuMS 



1 



w9^ T8C 80X* 

and ultimately disappears, at the western edse. In somv 
rare instances, the same spots re appear on the east side, 
and are permanent for two or three resolutions. But, a? 
a general thing, the spots oa the Sun are neither permanent 
nor uniform. Sometimes several small ones unite into a 
large one ; and,^ again, a large one separates into numer 
ous small ones. Some continue several days, weeks, and 
eren months, togetlier ; while others appear and disappear 
in the course of a few hours. Those spots tnat are formed 
gradually, are, for the most part, as gradually dissolved * 
whilst those that are suddenly formed, generally vanish a& 
quickly. 

It is the general opinion, that spots on the Sun were 
first discovered by Galileo, in the beginning of the year 
1611; though Scneiner^ Harriot, and Fabricius, observed 
them about the same time. During a period of 18 years 
from this time, the Sun was never found entirely clear of 
spots, excepting a few days in December, 1624 ; at other 
times, there were frequently seen, twenty or thirty at a 
time, and in 1625, upwards of fifty were seen at once. 
From 1650, to 1670, scarcely any spots were to be seen ; 
and, from 1676, to 1684, the orb of the Sun presented anun 
spotted disc. Since the beginning of the eighteenth cen 
tury, scarcely a year has passed, in which spots have noi 
been visible, and frequently in great numbers. In 1799, 
Dr. Herschel observed one nearly 30,000 miles in breadth. 

A single second of angular measure, on the Sun's disc, as seen from the 
earth, corresponds to 462 miles; and a circle of this diameter (containing there- 
fore nearly 220,000 
cerned on the Sun 
have been observed, 
44,000 miles ; and, if some records are to be trusted, of even still greater 
extent 

Dr. Dick, In a letter to the author, says, " I have for many years exanuned 
the solar spots with considerable minuteness, and have several times seen 
spots which were not less than the one twenty-fifth part of the Sun's diameter, 
which would make them about 22,192 miles in diameter, yet they were visible 
neither to the nalced eye, nor through an opera glass, magnifying about three 
times. And, therefore, if any spots have been visible to the naked eye— which 
we must believe, unless we refuse respectable testimony — they could oot 
have been much less than 50,000 miles in diameter." 

The apparent motion of these spots over the Sun's sur- 
face, is continually varying in its direction. Sometimes 
they seem to move across it in straight lines, at others in 
curve lines. These phenomena may be familiarly illustra- 
ted in the following manner. 

Do the some spots ever i«>appear on the east side? Are the spots feiierallyMmancMl 
uid uniff rnn 7 Describe thdr irregularities 7 Who. is it aeneraOy siipposed, first diseover 
«d spu^s on the Run 7 Who else observed them al«ut the sasoe tune } what was tiiS 

CadthofthiDoneseenby Dr. HeiBofacl Jnl7M7 In what direction do the spots on die 
a aoi)ear to move? 




nusuiit in 

flg.i. Wig, 9, 




iDecf 




Lot E E repreft4>nt the eeliptic ; NS^ Its north ano temhk pntoa, M the poUif 
«liere the spot enters, and m ihe point where Jtle«.¥eii tne ann's disc. At the 
end of November, and the beginning of December, toe spot wiU appear ts 
OMyre downwards, across the Sun's disc, from left to right, describmf th« 
Mraight Unea Mm^ Fig. 1 ; soon after this period, these lines begin gra<lualljf 
to be inflected towards the north, till about the end of February, or the bedi^ 
nine of March, when they describe the curve lines represented in Fig. 2. After 
the oeginoing of March, the curvature decreases, tiU the latter end of May, oc 
the beginning of June, when they again describe straight lines tending up> 
wards, as in Fig. 3. By and by these straight lines begin to be inflected ootim- 
wardst till about the beginning of September, when thev take the form of a 
Carrey having iu convex side towards tlie south pole of tne 8cm, as hi Fig. 1 

Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 



As th^stv phenomena are repeated erety year, in the 
same order, and belong to all the spots that have been per- 
ceived upon the San's disc, it is concluded, with good rea- 
son, that those spots adhere to the surface of the Sun, and 
revolve witti it, upon an axis, inclined a little to the plane 
of the ecliptic. The apparent revolution of a spot, from any 
particular point of the Sun's disc, to the same point again, 
IS accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 26 minutes, and 24 &•• 
conds ; but during that time, the spot has, in fact, gone 
through one revolution^ together with an arc, equal to that 
described by the Sun. m his orbit, ip the same time, which 
reduces the time of the Sun's actual rotation on his axis, to 
25 days, 9 hours, and 36 minutes. 

The part of the sun's disc not occupied by spots, is fat 
from being uniformly bright. Its ground is nnely mottled 
with an appearance of minute, dark dots, or poreSj which| 

lUwtrttte thew phmomena by diagram. What eondiisioiis havs beendrawn floii 
*ese phenomena 7 What is the apparent time occupied »>/ » •Po*.» "f^'TO fJjSL 'S 
■aiticnlar point of the Sun's disc to the same point again? What is the actual tune oe 
•vied b» the levolution of the spot, and of course br the Sun on its axis I 



tctentirely watched, are found to be in a constant state ol 
ehanffe. 

Wbat the physical organization of the Sun may be, is c 
<lueBtion which astronomy^ in its present state, cannot S0I7& 
It seems, however, to 1ft surrounded by an ocean of inex- 
haustible flame,.with dark spots of enormous size, now and 
then floating upon its surface. From these phenomena, Sii 
W. Herschel supposed the Sun to be a solid, dark body, sur- 
rounded by a vast atmosphere, almost always filled with 
luminous clouds, occasionally opening and disclosing the 
dark mass within. The speculations of Laplace were dif- 
ferent. He imagined the solar orb to be a mass of fire, and 
the violent effervescences and explosions seen on its surface, 
to be occasioned by the eruption of elastic fluids, formed 
in its interior, and the spots to be enormous caverns, like 
the craters of our volcanoes. Others have conjectured 
that these spots are the tops of solar mountains, which are 
sometimes left uncovered by the luminous fluid in which 
tbev are immersed. 

Among all the conflicting theories that have been ad- 
vanced, respecting the physical constitution of the Sun, there 
is none entirely uee from objection. The prevaUiw one 
seems to be, that the lucid matter of the Sun is neither a 
liquid substance, nor an elastic fluid, but that it consists of 
luminous clouds, floating in the Sun's atmosphere, which 
extends to a great distance, and that these dark spots are the 
opaque body of the Sun, seen through the openings in his 
atmosphere. Herschel supposes that the density of the la- 
minous clouds need not be greater than that of our Aurora 
Borealis, to produce the effects with which we are ac- 
quainted. 

The similarity of the Sun, to the other globes of the sys- 
tem, in its supposed solidity, atmosphere, surface diversined 
with mountains and vallies, and rotation upon its axis, has 
led to the conjecture that it is inhabited, like the planets, by 
beings whose organs are adapted to their peculiar circum- 
stances. Such was the opinion of the late Dr. Herschel, 
who observed it unremittingly, with the most powerful tele* 
scopes, for a period of fifteen years. Such, too, was the 
opinion of Dr. Elliott, who attributes to it the most delight* 
ful scenery ; and, as the light of the Sun is eternal, so, he 



Have we been able to determine vbat the physical organization of the Sun h T WiMt 
wwM the theory of Sir W. Henchel h regard to thia lafaMct } What was that nffarhnr 1 
yKt u the nrvathv ? What, eireunutanoeiihave led to the coqjeotura thai tte 

fanfafahabttedl "«W waa the oinnion of Dr. Heracbel on tUi point? Ttow hmg hii3 



MERCURT. 183 

jnagmed; were its seasons. Hence he infers tnRt this 
luminary offers one of the most blissful habitations for intel- 
hgent beings of Krhich we can conceive. 



MERCURY. 

'Mercurtis the nearest planet to the Sun 'that has yet 
been discovered ; and with the exception of the asteroids, 
is the smallest. Its diameter is only 2984 miles. Its bulk 
therefore is about 18^ times less than that of the Earth. It 
would require more than 20 millions of such globes to com- 
pose a body equal to the Sun. 

Here the student should refer to the diagruns, ezhibithig the relative magm 
tildes and distances of the Bun and j^anets, Plate 1. And whenever this sob- 
ject recurs in the course of this work, the student should recur to the figures 
of this plate, until he is able to form in his mind distinct conceptions of the 
ralative magnitudea and distanees of all the planets. The Bun and planets 
being spheres, or nearly so, their relative bulks are estimated 'by comparing 
Uie cubes of their diameters'! thus, the diameter of Mercury being 2984 miles. 
and that of the earth 7991 ; their bulks are as the cube of 296i, to the cube of 
7901, or as 1 to 1^, nearfy. 

It revolves on its axis from west to east in 24 hours, 5 
minutes, and 28 seconds; which makes its day about 10 
minutes longer than ours. It performs its revolution about 
the Sun in a few minutes less than 88 days, and at a mean 
distance of nearly 37 millions of miles. The length of 
Mercury's year, therefore, is equal to about three of our, 
months. 

Hie rotalkm of a planet on its axis, eonatitates ita day ; its revolation abdiH 
ttie Bun constitutes Its year. 

Mercury is not only the most dense of all the planets, 
but receives from the Sun seven times as much light and 
keat as the Earth. The truth of this estimate, of course, 
depends upon the supposition that the intensity of solar light 
and heat at the planets, varies inversely as the squares of 
their distances from the Sun. 

This law of analogy, did it exist with rigorous identity at 
all the planets, would be no argument against their being 
iahabited ; because we are bound to presume that the All- 

llM ■ II ■ I. 11 I 11 11 , .1 I I ■■ I I l-l I . 

What is the distance of Mereury fiom the Sun 7 What is its magnitude oompered with 
tiMit of the other plaoets? What is its diameter? How many such bodies would it re- 
qaiBB to compose a body equal to the Sun? How are <A« rekMoe buOaafthe planet»e$» 
timated? In what direction does it revolve on its axisi and what time does it occupy in 
tfaaiewolation? in bow king time does it pei&rmitsievolutionabouttheSun? Whatisits 
mean distance fiwn the Sun ? What, then, is the length 4^ its year, compared with oursf 
Wkot meaturet a planeft day 7 What nuature$ if year 1 What w the density of 
Mefemr, eompaied with that of the other plaueU 1 How much light and heat does it re* 
OMTO, compared with the,£arth 7 On what supposition does the troth of this estimatr 
depeml?_ If this were really tba ftct in legard to the pbusts, wouM it be any aigumem 
Stfainst ihsv being inhabited ^ 



1 



164 MSRcnsi; 

wise Creator has attempered every iwellin|f place in fui 
empire to the physical constitution of the beings which he 
has placed in it. 

Ifrom a ▼arietj of facts which have been obseired lb relation to the prfxliie> 
tton t/f etUorir, U does not appear probable, that the degree of heat on the sue- 
fece of the diffeient planets ciepends on their respective distances from tht 
San. It is more prut «ible, thai it depends chiefly on the distribution of the 
Bubstafwe of eaiorie on the surfaces, and throughout the atmospheres of these 
bodies, in different auvitities, according to the different situations which thef 
occupy in trie ?uiar system ; and that these different quantities of caloric are 
put into action oy liie influence of the sohur rays, so as to produce that degree 
•f aenmbU heat requisite to the wants, and to the greatest benefit of each 
of the planets. On this hypothesis, which is corroborated \ty a great variety 
of facts and experiments, there may be no more sensible .heat experienced 
on the planet Mercury, than on the sarface of Herschel, which is fifty times 
(artiier removed from the Sun. 

Owin|r to the dazzling brightness of Mercury, the swift- 
ness of Its motion, and its nearness to the Sun, astronomers 
hare made but comparatively few discoveries respecting 
It. When viewed through a telescope of considerable 
magnifying power, it exhibits at different periods, all the 
various phases of the Moon ; except that it never appears 
quite full, because its enlightened hemisphere is never turned 
directly towards the Earth, only when it is behind the Sun, 
or S(^ near to it, as to be hidden by the splendour of its 
beamfcv. Its enlightened hemisphere bein^ thus always turn- 
ed towards the Sun, and the opposite one being always dark, 
prove that it is an opaque body, similar to the Earth, shining 
only in the light wnich it receives from the Sun. 
^ The rotation of Mercury on its axis, was determined from 
•he daily position of its horns, by M. Schroeter, who not 
only discovered spots upon its surface, but several mountains 
in Its southern nemi sphere, one of which was 101- miles 
high : — nearly three times as high as Chimborazo, in South 
America. 

It Is worthv of observation, that the highest mountains which have been dhh 
covered in Mercury, Venns, the Moon, and perh^wwe may add the Earth, an 
hU situated in their southern hemispheres. 

During a few days in March and April, August and Sep- 
tember, Mercury] may be seen for several mi::intes, in the 
morning or evening twilight, when its greatest elon^';:tion8 
happen in those months ; in all other parts of its orbit, it is 
too near the Sun to be seen by the naked eye. The greatest 



Of* what doet the degree of heat at the different pianets proidbiy depend? 
have astronomen been able to make but compamtively few discoveries lespeeliiit Ma- 
eunr ? Wliat is ite apjwaranoe when viewed tnroui^ a telescope ofcomiderabie mupih' 
ins power? What cireumstaBces prove tliat it is an opaque body, shining onhr wioi tM 
Mmtof Uie sunt Howwas the rotatknof Mercmywi ttsajds detennined, and bywhoml 
Wlwt did he discover on ita sorfiuse? What was the altitude of the )ttkben moontaia 
wMcb he saw > In which hemUphere are the highest movntaine which have leen 
iifcvered in Mercury, Venu»j emd the Moon^ situated 7 Does the eamefaet esUt is 
reftard to tht Earthi Dunns what months uay Meroun be seen for a few days, mw 
SI wliat parts of the day I Wly is it visible at these times, and nol at otheis) 



MBBotrnt • * 18b 

listance that it ever departs from the San, on either side, 
varies from 16° 12', to 28° 48', alternately. 

Tlie distance of a planet from the Sun, as neen from the Earth, (meaaared m 
di^prces,) is called its elongaiioa. The prealest abtohUe distance of a nlanef 
fkr-m the Sun is denoiiiinated its aphelion^ and the least its periheUom. On ch« 
diagraui, exhibiting tiie Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, [Plate I.] these 
points are represented by little dots In the orbits at the extreoiitios of the right 
fines which meet them ; the Perihelion poiou being above the Ecliptic, the 
Aphelion points below it 

The resolution of Mercury about the Sun, like that of ail 
the planetSp is performed from west to east, in an orbit which 
18 nearly circular. Its apparent motion as seen from, the 
earth, is, alternately, from west to east, and from east to west, 
nearly in straight lines ; sometimes, directly across the face 
of the Sun, but at all other times, either a little above, or a 
little below it. 

Being commonly immersed in the Sun's rays in the 
evening, and thus continuing invisible till it emerges from 
them in the morning, it appeared to the ancients like two 
distinct stars. A long series of observations was requisite, 
before they recognised the identity of the star which was 
seen to recede from the Sun in the morning with that which 
approached it in the evening. But as the one was never 
seen until the other disappeared, both were at last found to 
be the same planet, which thus oscillated on each side of 
the Sun. 

Mercury's oscillation from west to east, or from east to 
west, is really accomplished in just half the time of its revo- 
lution, which is about 44 days ; but as the Earth, in the mean- 
time, follows the Sun in the same direction, the apparent 
elongations will be prolonged to between 55 and 65 days. 

The passage of Mercury over the Sun's disc, is deno* 
minated a Transit, This would happen in every revo* 
lution, if the orbit lay in the same plane with the orbit of 
the Earth. But it does not ; it cuts the Earth's orbit in two 
opposite points, as the ecliptic does the equator, but at an 
angle three times less. 

See diagram, Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, and their Inclination 
to the Plane of the Ecliptic. [Plate I.] The dark lines denote sections in the 
planes of the planets' orbits. The dotted lines continued from the dark lines 
denote the inclination of the orbits to the plane of the Ecliptic, which incUna- 
1i(m is marked in figures on them. Let the student ftncy as many circaUur 
^eces of paper, intersecting each other at the several angles of inclination 
- — — - - - - ^ - - -^_- . 

Whatsiethegreatflstdutanees which it departs ftom the Sun, oo cither side 7 Wm 
Uthel^onsrationqfaplarut? What U Us AjOtelUm? What i» if PerifuUon? bi 
what diieetion does Mercury revolve about the Sun 1 What is ths figursof its oifoit 7 Oe* 
seribe its apparent motion, as wen from the Earth. How did it appear to the ancients I 
What was the cauae of this appearance J How were these appanntly two distinct atari 
nt last found to be but one 7 what b the actual period of each ewngatimi of Mercury 7 
What the apparent period 7 What ii the cause of this diflbfenoe 7 What does the expres- 
skw, transit of Mercury, aicnify 7 Why docs it oot make a transit at every levolutkm 7 



ISO 



wnoittT. 



marked oo this diagnm, and he will be enabled to aaoentud more 
what ia loeaiu by the ineiiniulon of the planets' orbita. 

It will be perceived on the diacnm, that the inclination of Bfercurj's oiMl 
10 the phtne of the ecliptic is 7° 9". 

These points of intersection are called the Nodes of the 
orbit. Mercury's ascending node is in the 16th degree of 
Tauras ; its descending node in the 16th degree of Scorpio. 
As the Earth passes these nodes in November and May. 
the transits of Mercury must happen, for many ages to come, 
in one of these months. 

The following is a list of all the Transits of Mercury from the time the firal 
waa observed by Gaaaendi, November 6, 1631, to the end of the present cen> 
»ury. 

1631 Nov. 

1614 Nov. 



7. 

a 

9. 



1836 Nov. 
1845 May 
1848 Nov. 
1861 Nov. 11. 
1868 Nov. 4. 
1878 May 6. 
1881 Nov. 7. 
1891 May 9 
1894 Not. 10. 



1776 Nov. 2. 

1782 Nov. 12. 
1661 Nov. 2. 1723 Nov. 9. 1786 May 3. 

1661 May 3. 1736 Nov. 10. 1789 Nov. 6. 

1664 Nov. 4. 1740 Nov. 2. 1799 May 7. 

>671 May 6. 1743 Nov. 4. 1802 Nov. a 

1677 Nov. 7. 1753 May 5. 1815 Nov. 11. 

1690 Nov. 9. 1766 Nov. 6. 1822 Nov. 4. 

1697 Nov. 2. 1769 Nov. 9. 1832 May 6. 

Bv comparing the mean motion of any of the planets with the mean motimi 
of the Earth, we may, in like manner, determine the periods in which these 
bodies will return to the same points of their orbit, and the same jpoaitiona 
with respect to the Sun. The knowledge of these periods will enable us, to 
determine the hour when the planets rise, set, and pass the meridian, and in 
general, all the phenomena dependent upon the relative position of the Earth, 
the planet, and the Sun ; for at the end of one of these periods they commence 
again, and all recur in the same order. We have only to find a number of 
sidereal years, in which the planet completes exactly, or very nearly, a certain 
number of revolutions ; that is, to find such a number of planetary revolutions^ 
as, when taken together, shaU be ezactlv equal to one, or anv number of re- 
volutions of the Earth. In the case of Mercury, this ratio wtU be, as 87.969 it 
to 365.256. Whence we find, that, 
7 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 29 of Mercury : 
13 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 64 of Mercury : 
33 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equdl to 137 of Mercury : 
46 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 191 of Mercury. 
Therefore, transits ot Mercury, at the same node, may happen at intervals of 
7, 13, 33, 46, &c. years. Transits of Venus, as well as eclipses of the Sun and 
Mooc, are ealeulated upon the same principle. 

The aidereal revolution of a planet respects its obBobtte motion; and if 
measured by the time the planet takes to revolve firom any fixed star to tb« 
•ame star again. 

The synoeUcal revolution of a planet respects its relative motion ; and la 
measured by the Mine that a planet occupies in coining back to the same posi- 
tion with respect to u«e Earth and the Sun. 

The sidereal revolution of Mercury, is S7d. 23h. ISm. 448. Its eynedieoj re- 
volution is founii by dividing the whole circumference of d&P by its relative 
notion in respect to the Earth. Thus, the mean daily motion of Mercury ii 

What are tlio paints where the orbits of the planets inleisect tlie oiiut of tlie Earth eaO- 
ed? Wliere is Mercury's ascending node? where is its descending node? In whit 
BMmtbs must tiie transit (^ Mercury occur fiir many ages to oome 7 Why must they oeew 
in these months ) Hoio can we determine the periods in which the planete will return 
io the tame potnte of their orbittf and the eame poHtione in reaped to the Sun 7 Wk^ 
is U ueefitl to know theee periode 7 State the method of making the eompttfadoM. 
What wiU the ratio be in the caee of Mercury 7 State the ratic between the perioH^ 
qf the Earth and Mercury. At what intervaie Jun 



tal renolutione i 



mcytraneUa^ 



Mercury at the earns node happen 7 Upon what principie are traneita of Fsmtis 
«mI eelipeee qfthe Sun and Moon, calculated 7 What ie the aidereal revotuttam of a 

Elanet 7^ What ia the aynodieal revolution 7 What ia the time of the atdareea rSM- 
aion <f Mercury 7 State the method of computing the time qfthe aynoiML Wfi- 
*ution. Compuu the aynodioal repotution of Mercury. 



▼BKua. 187 

ya^' J65 ; diat of the Earth ia SMS'' ^18 ; uid their (BlTerence is lilM' .987, 
being Mercary's relative motion, or what It gains on the Earth eirery day. Now 
by simple proportion, WVWSSa is to 1 day, as mP is to llfid. 21b. 3', S&'' tbs 
period of a synodical revolution of Mercury. 

The absolute motioo of Mercury in its orbit, is 109,767 
miles an hour; that of the Earth, is 68,288 miles: the 
diiference, 41,469 miles, is the mean relative motion of 
Mercury, with respect to the Earth. 



VENUS. 

There are but few persons who hare not obsenred a beau- 
tifiil star in the west, a little after sunset, called the evening 
star. This star is Venus. It is the second planet from the 
Sun. It is the brightest star in the firmament, and on this 
account easily distinguished from the other planets. 

If we observe this planet for several days, we shall find 
that it does not remain constantly at the same distance from 
the Sun, but that it appears to approach, or recede from him, 
at the rate of about three fifths of a degree every day ; and 
that it is sometimes on the east side of him, and sometimes 
on the west, thus continually oscillating backwards and for- 
wards between certain limits. 

As Venus never departs quite 48® from the Sun^ it ii 
never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to that lummary 
being visible only about three hours after sunset, and as long 
before sunrise, according as its right ascension is greatei 
or less than that of the Sun. At first, we behold it only a 
few minutes after sunset ; the next evening we hardly ait- 
cover any sensible change in its position ; but after a few 
days, we perceive that itnns fallen considerably behind the 
Sun, and that it continues to depart farther and farther from 
him, setting later and later every evening, until the distance 
between it and the Sun, is equal to a little more than half 
the space from the horizon to the zenith, or about 46®. 

It now begins to return towards the Sun, making the same 
daily progress that it did in separating from him, and to set 
earlier and earlier every succeeding evening, until it final- 
ly sets with the Sun, and is lost in the splendour of his 
light. 

A few days after the phenomena we have now described, 

' What is the rate per hour of the abaolute motioo of Mereoqp in its oAit I „Qf tlie Earth I 
What is the mean relative motion of Mercury with respect to the Earth "hi What beautafol 
star sometimes appears in the west a little after sunset? What is the comparative dn 
taiice of Venus from the Sun ? What is its comparaUve biifhtoefls 1. fa wfaia dueotioa » 
ita apparent motion ? Why is it never seen at nudnight. nor m omxMitwn to the Sun'A* 
what times is it viiiible? Huw long after sunset is it when wo fin behold it id the west 
I its ciuQKes of position. 



I8S TB1III8. 

we perceive, in the morniDg, near the eastern hofizim, a 
bright star which was not visible before. This also ia 
/enus, which is now called the morning stear. It departs 
farther ^p^ farther from the Sun, rising a little earlier every 
day, until it is seen about 46^ west of him, where it appears 
stationary for a few days ; then it resumes its course towards 
the Sun. appearing later and later every morning, until it 
rises with the Sun, and we cease to behold it. In a few days, 
the evening star again appears in the west, very near the 
setting'sun, and the same phenomena are again exhibited. 
Such are the visible appearances of Venus. 

Venus revolves ^bout the Sun from west to east in 224f 
days, at the distance of abont 68 millions of miles, moving 
in her orbit at the rate of 80 thousand miles an hour. She 
turns around on her axis once in 23 hours, 21 minutes, and 
7 seconds. Thus her day is about 25 minutes shorter than 
ours, while her year is equal to 7j- of our months, or 32 
weeks. 

The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is estimated 
at 95 millions of miles, and that of Venus being 68 millions, 
the diameter of the Sun, as seen from Venus, will be to his 
diameter as seen from the Earth, as 95 to 68, and the surface 
of his disc as the square of 95 to the square of 68, that is, as 
9025 to 4626, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The intensity of light 
and heat being inversely as the squares of their distances 
from the Sun, Venus receives twice as much light and heat 
as the Earth. 

Her orbit is within the orbit of the Earth ; for if it were 
not, she would be seen as often in opposition to the Sun, as 
in conjunction with him ; but she was never seen rising in 
the east while the Sun was setting in the west. Nor was 
she ever seen m quadrature, or on the meridian, when the 
Sun was either rising or setting. Mercury being about 23^ 
from the Sun, and Venus 46^, the orbit of Venus must be 
outside of the orbit of Mercury. 

The true diameter of Venus is 7621 miles; but her ap* 
parent diameter and brightness are constantly varying, ac- 
cording to her distance from the Earth. When Venus and 
the Earth are on the same side of the Sun, her distance 

In what direction, and in what time, doea Venoa revolve about the ta f . What'ia her 
rfistanee from the Sun? What is the rate per hourof her motkninlMr oitMtl In what 
time does abe revolve on her axia 1 How are the lengfha of her d&r and yMur.eomparad 
with thoaeof the Earth 1 How much larger doea the Sun appearat venoa than he doea ai 
tiie EarUi / How much more light and heat does she receive from himi than the Earth 1 
How much fhrther is Venus nom the Sua than Mercury ) On whichajde of the ofUtoT 
Mercury must her orbit be 7 What is her true diameter i In what fnoportia* At be* ^ 
parent diameter and brightness constantly vary? What ia her diatanoe firoir Ifct GtfW 
wiieD they are both on the same side of the Suu) 



from the Earth is only 26 millions of miles ; when they are 
on opposite sides of the Sun, her distance is 164 millions 
of miles. Were the whole ol her enlightened hemisphere 
tmned towards us, when she is nearest, she would exhibit 
a light and brilliancy twenty-fiye times greater than she 
generally does, and appear like a small brilliant moon ; but, 
at that time, ner dark hemisphere is turned towards the 
Earth. 

When Venus aoproachea nearest to the Earth, her apparent^ or obserre^ 
diaoieter, is 6V^.2; when most remote^ ttis onlf 9'^6 : now6^^2+9''^ -6|, 
hence when nearest the Earth her apparent diameter is 6| times grear*: t than 
*vben most distant, and sur&ce of her disc (6|)*, or nearly 41 times greater. 
D this work, the apparent size of the heavenly ixnliea is estimated fivA the 
Miparent surface or their disc^ which is always proportional to the squares of 
tKeir apparent diameters. 

When Venus' right ascension is less than that of the Sun, 
she rises before him ; when greater, she appears after his 
settioj^. She continues alternately morning and evening 
star, ^r a period of 292 days, each time. 

To those who are but little acquainted with astronomv, 
It will seem strange, at first, that Venus should apparently 
continue longer on the east or west side of the Sun, than 
the whole time of her periodical revolution around him. But 
it will be easily understood, when it is considered, that while 
Venus moves around the Sun, at the rate of about 1^ 36' of 
angular motion per dav, the Earth follows ^at the rate of 59^; 
so that Venus actually gains on the Earth, only 37' in a 
d^. 

Now it is evident that both planets will appear to keep on 
the same side of the Sun, until Venus has gained hall her 
orbit, or 180^ in advance of the Earth; and this, at a mean 
rate, will require 292 days, since 292X37'= 10804', or 180*» 
nearly. 

Mercury and Venus are called Inferior* planets, because 
their orbits are within the Earth's orbit, or between it and 
the Sun. The other planets are denominated Superior, 
because their orbits are without. or beyond the orbit of the 

* In almost aU worics on Aatronomyi Merennr and Venus aie denominated it\ferior 
planets, and tlie oClim, awperior. But as tbeBe terms aie emplofed, not to exness the 
Klative siceof the planets, Irat to indieata tiieir sitiMtfion wiUi nspeot totheEsith,!! 
woold be better to adopt the tenm tattfrior and cxfsrior. 

What is it fidienthef are on opposite sides of the Son) Wbfeh henis^ieffe is tomed 
to w aids the ESarth wlien she is nearest to us? Were her enHilitened hsmispbefe tamed 
towards as at tliat time, how would her tiffht and brilliancy be eompaied with that which 
riM fenemlly ediiUts, and what woald be her appearanee I VFHat U Ute tenfth qf her 

«ar$ntdmneter%ifhen»heUnearmttotluEarth? What U it when 9M U mott 
lOteJ HowUffieamMrenteixetif a heavenly hodyeeilmnted in thU work t In 
lAmi drRumstanees does venoi rise belbre, and in what set after, the Sun l How long 




lio 



VSIiUS. 



Earth. IPlaie /.] As the' orbits of Mercury and Venos 
lie within the £arth's orbit, it is plain, that once in every 
B^nodical revolution, each of these planets will be in con- 
junction on the same side of the Sun. In the former case, 
the planet is said to be in its viiferwr conjunction^ and in the 
latter case, in its superior cor^unction y as in the following 
figure. 

CONJUNCTION AND OPPOSITION OF THE PLANETS. 

Fig. & 



Mmr9^i^^^CS!^»iui^M» 




The period of Voiafl' synodical reyolution Is found in the same manner as 
that 01 Mercnry ; namely, by dividing the whole circumference of her oifoic by 
her mean relative motion in a day. Thus, Venus' iibwiule mean daily motion 
Is P 36^ 7''.8, the Earth's is W &'.3, and their difference dS' G9".5. Diride 360* 
by d& 69".5,and it gives 663.900, or nearl^jr 684 days, for Venus' synodieal rsvo< 
lutiiMD, or ttie period in which she is twice in conjunction with the £arth. 

Venus passes from her inferior to her superior conjunction 
in about 292 days. At her inferior conjunction, she is 26 
millions of miles from the Earth ; at her superior conjunc- 
tion 164 millions of miles. 



How often, in every nrnodieal revolntioD, wiO each of these planets be in oonjuno* 
tioD on the same nide of the Sun tliat the Earth is 7 How often on the opposite side T 
Explain thii. What namei distinguiih these two speciss of oonjunetion 7 Hew it lis 
•ywfdicai revolution ofVemuJbundJ Make the calculation. How kng is she la 
parainf fron her inferior to her luperior conjunction 7 How fiur is ihA fiom the Baifll 
at ner infenor comunetion f How fiur at her •uperior ) 



It might be expected that her brilliancy would be proper 
lonally increasea, in the one case, and diminished, in the 
other ; and so it would be, were it not that her enlighte:«ea 
hemisphere is turned more and more from us, as she ap 
proaches the Earth, and comes more and more into view as 
she recedes from it. It is to this cause alone that we must 
attribute the uniformity of her splendour as it usually ap- 
pears to the naked eye. 

Mercurv and Venus present to us, successirely, the 
various snapes and appearances of the Moon ; waxing and 
waning through different phases^ from the beautiful crescent 
to the full rounded orb. This (act shows, that they revolve 
around the Sun, and between the Sun and the Earth. Let 
the pupil endeavour to explain these phases on any othei 
supposition, and he will be convinced that the system ot 
Ptolemy is erroneous, while that of Copernicus is confirmed. 

It should be remarked, Iiowevcr, that Venus la never teen when she is entire* 
ly full except once or twice in a ccutui'y, when she passes directly over the 
Sun's aisc. At everv other conjunction, alie is either behind the Sun, or so 
near liiiu as to be hidden by tlic snicnduur of liis light * The diagram on the 
next page will better lUustrato the various appearances of VenuSi as sht 
oooves around the Sun,'tlian any description of Uiem could do. 

From her inferior to her superior conjunction, Venus ap- 
pears on the west side of the Sun, and is then our morning 
star ; from her superior to her inferior conjunction she ap- 
oears on the east side of the Sun, and is then our evening 
star. 



* The eminent attrooomer, Thomai Dick, LL. D., well known in tlits eonntiy aa tiM 
autiior of tiie CliriMtan Phiioaopbcr, Ptiilosophy of a Putiira State, ftc.. in a review (rftUk 
remark, olMcrvet— " TIms ouflit not to be laid (hiwn at a peneral tnitlL About the year 
1813, I made a neat variety of oljaervationa on Venus in tho day time, by an equatorial 
instrament, anu found, that aiie could be aoen wiien only, 1* 87 from the Sun's ma]iin» 
and oonseqiientiy may be seen at the moment of iior euporior conjunction, wlien her leo* 
eeiAric latitude, at that time. egueUs or exeeedt l« 48*. 1 have some faint expectations of 
beinf able to see Venus, in the courw of two or thiee days, aft her unpaior eenjunctjoa, 
if the wcether be (kvaoaUki.*'— March 3, 1834. 



Why is not her brUlianey proportionably increased in the former case, and diminishad 
in the latter 7 What appearances do Mercury and Venus present to us at diftrent times 1 
>v|iat supposition is neeessary for the explanation of these pliases V WhiU system da 
they tend to leAite ? What system do tiiey confirm I Hmo qften Is Vernm teen tofun 
the U entvreiy fuU7 Why iethenoteeenattheftUlqftener? In what part of her e^ 
bitdoes Venus appear on the west Sliced the Sun) In what on tiw east I iDwhsipaits 
is file, altemately, mominr and efeninc star ) 



lit 



Like Mercarf , she sometimes seems to be stationaiy. 
IJet apparent motion, like his, is sometimes rapid ; at one 
time, direct, and at another, retrograde ; vibrating alternate- 
ly backwards and forwards, from west to east, and from east 
to west. T hese vibrations appear to extend trom 45^ to 47^, 
on each side of the Sun. 

Consequently she ne^er appears in the eastern horizon, more than three 
hours before sunrise, nor continues longer in the western horizon, after sun- 
set Any star or planet, therefore, however brilliant it may appear, which Is 
seen earlier or later than this, cann<^ be Venus. 

In passing from her western to her eastern elongation^ her 
motion is from west to east, in the order of the signs ; it is 
thence called direct motion. In passing from her eastern 
to her western elongation, her 'motion with respect to the 
Earth, is from east to west, contrary to the order of the 
signs ; it is thence denominated retrograde motion. Her 
motion appears quickest about the time of her conjunctions 
and she seems stationary, at her elongations. She is bright 
est about 36 da3rs before and after hep inferior conjunction, 
when her light is so great as to project a visible shadow in 
the night, and sometimes she is visible even at noon-day. 

In the following fiffare, the outer circle represents the Earth's orbit, and the 
inner circle, that ofvenus, while she moves around the 8nn, in the order of the 
letters Oy b^cd^ dx. When Venus is at a, she is in her inferior conjunction, 
between the E^rth and Siin ; and is in a situation similar to that of the Moon 
at her cliange, being then invisible, because her daric hemisphere is towards 
the Earth. At c, she appears half enlightened to the Earth, like the Moon in 
her first qiArter ; at </, she appears almost full, her enlightened side being 
then almost directly towards the Earth ; at e, she is in her superior conJune< 
lion, and would appear quite full, were she not directly behind the Sun, or 
so near him as to be hidden by the splendour of his light ; at /, she appears 
to be on the decrease; and at g^ only half enlightened, like the Moon in her 
Ust quarter : at a, she jdisappears again between the Elarth and the Sun. bi 
moving from f to e, she seems to go baekwarda in the heavens, because she 
naoves contrary to the order of the signs. In turning the arc of the circle 
from retrograde to direct motion, or from direct to retrograde, she appears 
nearly stationary for a few days ; because, in the former case, she is going 
almost directly /rom the Earth, and in the latter, coming totcarda it. As she 
describes a much larger portion of her orbit in going from c to ^, than from g 
to c, she appears much longer direct than retrograde. At a mean rate, her re* 
Irogradations are accomjilished in 42 days. 

Describe hor apparent motion. How ftr on each side of the Sun do the vibrationa «/ 
Venw extendi What then U the longeet time bt^ere nmriee that ehe appears in the 
eaetem horizon 7 What the longest time after auneet that »he appears in the west- 
em 7 What in the direction of her motion while she passes frmn her western to her east- 
mi elongation ? Why is it called direct motion? What is its direction as Mbe in8M>« 
Warn her eastern to her western elongation 1 Why is it called retrcMprade 1 Wfam is hec 
apparent motion qiiiefcestf When does she appear stationaiy? Wben vj she bngfalestf 
Ifow ffreat is berlicht at thistinoe? 

17 



•pj^l- 



YBNDtt 



DIRECT AND RETROGRADE M0TI01I. 

Fig. 7. 




If tL^ orbit of Venus lay exactly in the plane of tli« 
Barib's orbit, she would pass centrally across the Sun's 
disc, like a dark round spot, at every inferior conjunction ; 
but as one half of her orbit lies about 3^° above the ecliptic, 
and the other half as far below it, she will always pass the 
Sun a very little above or below it, except when her in- 
ferior conjunction happens in, or near, one of her nodes ; 
in which case she Tviil make a transit. [Relative position 
of the Planeth Orbits, Plate l— Plane of Venus — Jnclinor 
Hon 3«» 23'.] 

This phenomenon, therefore, is of very rare occurrence 
it can happen only twice in a century^ because it is only 
twice in that time that any number of complete revolutions 
of Venus, are just or nearly equal to a certain number of 
the Earth's revolutions. 

The principle which was illustrated in predicting the transits of Meicctfy 
applies equally well to those of Venus ; tnat is, we must find such sett o 
Duiiibers, (representing complete revolmions of the Earth and Venus,) m 
shall be to each other in the ratio of tlieir periodical times, or as 365.266 is te 
224.7. Thus; the motion of Venus, in the Julian years, is 2l06501".eS 
Ihat of the Earth for the same period being 129627".45, the rat1<f will b« 

Why does not Venus para centrally acron the Sun's disc at every inierior oonjunction 
m what ciTeuinstancn will she make a transi*. across the sun ? How often can this phs 
nomenon tappen 7 Why ran it not happen oftener 7 State the method of pre^ctint tin 
>wisits or Venus • 



tHfH^''-H' An D>B two urma of Ihki frvslkn euDol ba iMMsd bj ■ 

■malUplaof thaaUier; ucordlniil;, ISUineiilie ilFnotuliuior wlU ba DcarlT 
•qDI]la8Uni«IhennmenUir ; uir)47RlJmei Ihe deanmiiuitor will equl 291 

ThDii 'ESt-8V7^JSfi, UDihfir pirM; aod 9>I-«xa-«^ uiutur'pflnoil, 

a periodlf j1 revuLullinia of theEirlh. are equal lo 13 if Vrnui. 

EK periodical raiolalloDi of Ihe Earth, ara equal le'Mlot VenuA 

SUperiodlealraTnliiiUHiior iheKanh,aia equal UiSse of Venus. 

Sbl parinUcal lonlulloiia of tlie Earth, are equal lo 4<B of Venui. 

S91 peiiodlral reTDluIloni or the Earth, aro nguil lo 476 of Veona. 

IteoCB a traaadt of Veuua maj happen ai the aame node, aftar an loE^rnl 

^UOD of tit-T bodea. AI p^EaeD^ beraKondinf nudo lam the l3Lh defree of 
Semini, and her descroding node, in iho Haraa defree of SagHlariqa, 

The Earth passes ber ascending node in the beginning of 
December, and her descendiog node, in (be beginning of 
/line. Hence, tbe transits of Venus, for ages to come, will 
happen in Decembec and June. Tbe first transit evei 
<DOWD to haTe been seen by any human being, took place 
•I the ascending node, December 4th, 1639.* If to this 
date, we add 23S years, we shall ha»e the time of the next 
'raasit ai the same node, which will accordingly happen in 
1874. There will be another at the same node iu ISSS, 




nWndvUieenat' 
BScdawklHiaftlg 

easSSs 






^if^t ye«n aiterwards. It is not more certain timt this pbi^ 
uomenon will recur, than that the event itself will engross 
the attention of all the astronomers then living upon the 
Earth. It will be anticipated, and provided for, and observ- 
ed, in every inhabited quarter of the globe, with an inten- 
sity of solicitude .which no natural phenomena, since the 
creation, has ever excited. 

The reason why a transit of Venus should excite so great 
an interest, is, because it may be expected to solve an im- 
portant problem in astronomy, which has never yet been 
satisfactorily done : — a problem whose solution will make 
known to us the nuignitudes and masses of all the planets, 
the true dimensions of their orbits, their rates of motion 
-around the Sun, and their respective distances from the Sun, 
and from each other. It may be expected, in short, to furnish 
a universal standard of astronomical measure. Another 
consideration will render the observation of this transit pe- 
culiarly favourable ; and that is, astronomers will be supplied 
with better instruments, and more accurate means of obser* 
vation, than on any former occasion. 

So important, says Sir John HerscheL have these observations appeared to 
astronomers, that at the last transit of venus^ in 1769, expeditions were fitted 
out, on the most efficient s^ale, by the British, French, Russian, and other 
governments, to the remotest corners of the globe, for the eororess purpose 
of making them The celebrated expedition of Captain Cook to Otaheite, 
was one of them. The general result of all thcr obsorvations made on this 
most memorable occasion, gives 8".5776 for the Sun's horizontal parallax. ' 

The phenomena of the seasons, of each of the planets, 
like those of the Earth, depend upon the inclination of the 
axis of the planet, to the plane of its orbit. The inclination 
of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit, though not 
precisely known, is commonly estimated at 75^ ; which is 
more than three times as great as the inclination of the 
Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic. The north pole of 
Venus' axis inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius; 
the Earth's towards the beginning of Cancer ; consequently, 
the northern parts of Venus have summer in the signs where 
those of the Earth have winter, and vice versa. 

The declination of the Sun on each side of her equator, 
must be equal to the inclination of her axis ; and if this ex 
tends to 75*^, her tropics are only 15° from her poles, and 
her polar circles 15^^ Irom hei equator. It follows, also, that 

Wliy will the next trenait excite a veiy great and oniveisal interest? Upon what do the 
cdhenomona of the aeaaons oTeach of the planets depend } What is the estimated ineiiM,* 
tion of the axis of Veiun to the plane of her ortxt l How does this inclination r , nmB>n i 
with that of the Fdirth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic} What seasons have the aoMt> 

a parts of Venus, when those of the Earth have winter 7 How do wf know thisl Tb 
It must the decltnatioD of thn Sun on each side of her equator be equa' } How &r aM 
osr tropics from her polM, and her nolar cireles from iicr dQuator ) 



\h% Sua must change his declination more in one day at 

Venus, than ia Ave daysf on the Earth; and consequently, 
that he never shines vertically on the same places for two 
days in succession. This may perhaps be providentially 
ordered, to prevent the too great effect of the Sun's heat, 
which, on the supposition that it is in inverse proportion to 
the square of the distance, is twice as gfeat on this planet 
as it is on the Earth. 

At each pole, the Sun continues half a year* without set- 
ting in summer, and as long without rising in winter ; con- 
sequently, the polar inhabitants of Venus, like those of the 
earth, have only one day and one niffht in the year; with 
this difference, that the polar days and nights of Venus are 
not quite two thirds as long as ours. 

Between her polar circles, which are but 15^ from her 
equator, there are two winters, two summers, two springs, 
and two autumns, every year. But because the Sun stays 
for some time near the tropics, and passes so quickly over 
the equator, the winters in that zone will be almost twice as 
long as the summers. 

TELaSCOPIC APPEARANCES OF VENUS. 

Fig. a 




When viewed through a good telescope, Venus exhibits 
not only all the moon- like phases of Mercury, but also a va- 
riety ofinequalities on her surface ; dark spots, and brilliant 
shades, hills, and valleys, and elevated mountains. But 
on account of the great density of her atmosphere, these in* 

* Tliatiii haifqfVwu^ ytatt or if wedn. 



How much more muit the Son change Us declination in one day at Venoi than on te 
emtbl Why. perhaps, is this so ordered ? How many davn and nights hare her nolii 
fiiMUtants durinir the year 7 How long are these days and nighto, compared with Uio|i 
ofoor polar inhabitants 1 How many, and what seasons, has Venus between Iter poft. 

flireka ) What is the length of the wmteis in this zone, compared with that of the i 

men ? What appearances, besides her mooo-ldra phases> does Venus aihibit when 
tlBoq^ agoodtelesoopcl 



eqaalhiea are pereeived with more difficokf than tlicwe flf • 
on the other puuiets. 

The mountains of Venus, like those of Mercury and the 
Moon, are highest in the southern hemisphere. According 
to M. Schroeter, a ctlehrated Gkroaan astronomer, who 
•pent more than ten years in dbseryations upon this planet, 
some of her mountains rise to the enormous height of from 
10 to 22 miles.* The observations of Dr. Herschel do not 
indicate so great an altitude ; and he thinks, that in general 
they are considerably overrated. He estimates the diame 
ter of Venus at 8,649 miles ; making her bulk more than 
one sixth larger than that of the Earth. Several eminent 
astronomers affirm, that tl^y have repeatedl3r seen Venus 
attended by k satellite, and tney have given circumstantial 
details of its size and appearance, its periodical revolution, 
\nd its distance from her It, is said to resemble our Moon 
in its phases, its distance, and its magnitude. Other astro- 
nomers deny the existence of such a body, because it was 
not seen with Venus on the Sun's disc, at the transits of 
1761, and 1769. 



THE EARTH. 

The Earth is the place from which all our observations 
of the heavenly bodies must 4iecessarily be made. The ap 
parent motions of these bodies being very considerably af- 
fected by her figure, motions, and dimensions, these hold 
an important place in astronomical science. It will there- 
fore be proper to consider, first, some of the methods by 
which they have been determined. 

If, standing on the sea-shore, in a clear day, we view a 
ship leaving the coast, in any direction^ the hull or body of 
the vessel first disappears ; afterwards the rigging, and lastly, 
the top of the mast vanishes from our sight. Those on board 
the ship, observe that the coast first sinks below the horizon, 
then the buildings, and lastly the tallest spires of the city 

• lit, SS.OB milei { 9d, 18.97 milM ; 8d. 11.44 milei { Ith, IMi BiBeiL 

W]qr» it more di'fllcuh to perceive ^inequalitiet on her lorihoB than thow oa Um 
•dier pbnets ? In which hemisphere are her mountains higliest } Whatdoes M. SchnM- 
ter make tlie altitude of tome of the faigliest } It tliia estimate ooannned \a the obeenm 
tiona of Dr. Hendiel 7 How long is the diameter of Venus, aeeordinff to Hi 
thnatel How much laiier, then, must she be than the Earth ? Someastm 
Ihat they have seen Venus attended by a satellite, why do others deny the , 
auoh a body ) Why is, it important, m an astronomical new, to be acquaint 
■sure, dimonsions, and motkws of the Earth} MentioaMme of the proolki 
svaityofitssutftoe} 




IW 

* 

mk»h thtf are leavuig. Now tbese phenomeum «re evi- 
dently caused by the coovezity of the water which it be- 
tween the eye and the object ; for, were the surface of the 
sea merely an .extended plain, the largest objects would be 
risible the .ongest, and the smallest disappear first. 

OONTBXITT OP THB BARTS* 




Again : navigators have sailed quite around the Earth, 
and thus proved its convexity. 

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portug:iiese, was the first who carried this witerprtoo 
into execation. Ue etnliarked from SevU>e| In Spain, and directed his course 
towat Js the west. After a k»g voyage, he descried the continent of America. 
Not fiiuiing an opening to enable him to continue his course in a westerly 
direction, he sailed aloog the coast towards the south, till, coming to its sou- 
ihern extremity, he sailed around it, and found himselr in the great Southern 
Ocean. He then resumed his course towards the west After some time he 
arrived at the Molucca Islands, in the Eastern Bemiaphert \ and sailing con- 
tinually towards the west, he made Europe from the east ; uriving at the plae« 
from which he set out.* 

The next who circumnavigated the Eftrth, was Sir Francis Dndce, who sail- 
ed from Plymouth, December 13|1577, with five small vessel uid arrived at 
the same place, September 28, 1680. Since that time, the circumnavigation o( 
the Earth has been performed by Cavendish, Cordes, Noort, Bharten. Here* 
mites, Dampier, Woodes, Rogers, Bcbovten, Ronewin, Ijord Anson, Bjron, 
Carteret, Wallis, Bougainville, Cook, King, Cleric, Vancouver, and many odiers. 

These navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, al- 
lowance being made tor promontories, &c. arrived at the 
country they sailed from. Hence, the karth must be either 
cylindrical or globular. It cannot be cylindrical, because, 
ii so, the meridian distances would all be equal to each other, 
which is contrary to observation. The figure of the Earth 
is, therefore, spherical. 

The convexity of the Earth, north and south, is provf d 
by the altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, 

a.^— 1 iiii^iiiiiij ■ II ■! 111! I m 

• Mafellan sailed Ihmi Seville, in Spain, Aonst 10, ISlt, in the ship called tin Vido- 
nr, acoomiMnicd b/ fcur other vessels. In April, ISSI, ne was kilted in a skimiish with 
tM natives, at the island of SAu, or ZOm, sometimes called Matan, one of tte PhiHp* 
One of his veiseb, kmever, anived at St. Lucar, near SeviUejSoptember 7, ItWL 



ainsB. ' 



„ .J^JlTit •ttUed around the Earth t Describe briejly hU voyage. Who next eir- 
tummavigateithe Earth? Describe ht» voyage^ Mention the names qf some of those 
Vfho haite since aceomfUshed this enterprise. What may we infer from tiiese tacts in 
Mcsrd to the figure of tlM Ear(hl How is the eonvexitar of ta: sur&ee proved} 




300 TjusAsnL 

whicb is foond anifonnly to increase as we approach them. 
while the inclination to the horizon, of the circles described 
by all the stars, ^dually diminishes. While proceeding 
in a southerly direction, the reverse of this takes place. 
The altitude of the pole, a ad of the circumpolar stars, con- 
tinually decreases ; and all the stars describe circles whose 
inclination to the horizon increases with the distance. 
Whence we derive this geaerai truth : The altitude of one 
pole, and the depression of the other, at any place on the 
Earth^s surface, is equal to the latitude of 6uit place. 

Another proof of the convexity of the earth's surface is, 
that the higher the eye is raised, the farther is the view ex- 
tended. An observer may,|See the setting sun from the top 
of a honse^ or any considerable eminence, after he has ceaa 
ed to be visible to those below. 

The currature of the Earth for one miie is 8 kiehea ; and tbia cunratitra 
Inereaaes with the square of the distance. From this general law, it will be 
easj to calculate the distance at which any object whose height is given, may 
be feen, or to determine the height of an object when the distance is knowit 

1st. To find the. height of the object when the distance is given. 

Rnu. Find the square of the dutanee in rmte*, and takt two thirds of thta 
number /or the height in feet. 

Ex. I.— How high mnst the e^e of an observer be raised, to see the sorlbee 
of the ocean, at the distance of three miles 1 Ana. The square oi' 3 ft, is 9 
ft, and I of 9 it is 6 it. Ex. 2. Sup^yose a person can jnel see the top of a 
spire oTer an ejctended plain often miles, how high is the steeple 1 Ane. The 
square of 10 is 100, and { of 100^ is 661, feet. 

2. To find the distance, when the height is gpren. 

Ruui. Increaee the height in feet one haif^ and extract the square rootfjm 
the distance, in miles. 

Ex 1.— How &r can a person see the sor&ce of a plain, whose eye is ele* 
▼ated six feet above it 1 Ans. 6s increased by its half, is 9, and the square 
root of 9 is 3 ; the distance ia then 3 miles. Ex. 2.— To what distance can • 
person see a light-house whose height is 96 feet from the leyel of the oceaa 1 
Ans. 96 increased by its half; is 144, and the square root of 144 is 12; the 
distance is therefore 12 milea. 

3. To find the curvature of the Earth when it exceeds a mile. 
RvLB. Muttipfy the square <if the distance bjf .OOOV!^. 

Although it appears from thi- preceding facts, that tht 
Earth is spherical, yet it is not a perfect sphere. If it were, 
the length of the deerees of latitude, from the equator to tha 

Eoles, would be uniformly the same ; but it has been found, 
y the most careful measurement, that as we go from the 
equator towards the poles, the length increases with the lati^ 
hide. 

These measaremenui have been made by the most eminent raathematieiani 
K different coantrie% and in various places, from (he equator to the aretlQ 

To what is the eenvesitv proportional 7 State the ruUt deduced from this JkM, 
foTjlnding the height of on oiiect, tehen its distance from us is given. 8U0tLm§ 
ruU for finding the distant^ when the height ia given. State the rvle f»rJSmmt 
IM curvature qf the Earth when the diatahee exceeds a mile. Is the fiivre of tSsBMu 
SiSS^ti!?* ' ^^ the Earth a perfect sphere, how would the leDgUiof tl« ■ 
oflatitodtt be, compared with each oth« 7 How aie ther. in iaetl 



TBS BARTtt 



SOI 



fiiele. Tliey bare found that a degree of lalttude at Che arctic circle wm 
MMie nsteentks ofa mile longer than a degree at the equator, and that the ratio 
of increase for the intermediate degrees was nearly as the squares of the 
sines of the latitude. Thus the theory of Sir Isaac Newton was conflimeiii 
that the body of the Sarth was utore rounded and convex becween the tropiei^ 
but considerably flattened towards the poles. 



Place* ^ 

Oba&natiim. 


m 


Length 9fa degree 
in jEngU§h mUe». 


Ob9&rver». 


Peru 

Pennsylvania 

Italy 

Pran<r« 

Englaitd 

Sweden 


Equator. 
390 12' N. 
43 01 
46 

51 29' 544" 
66 20 10 


68.732 
66.896 
68.998 
69.054 
69.146 
69.292 


Bouguer. 

Mason and Dixon. 

Bosoovich andX.emairflb 

Delambre and Mechaia. 

Mudge. . 

Swamberg. 




These measurements prove tne Earth to be an oblate 
spheroid^ whose longest or equatorial diameter is 7924 miles, 
and polar diameter, 7898 miles. The mean diameter is, 
therefore, about 7912, and their difference 26 miles. The 
French Academy have determined that the mean diameter 
of the Earth, from the 45th decree of north latitude, to the 
opposite degree of south latitude, is accurately 7912 miles 

If the E9rth were an exact sphere, its diameter Fig. 10. 

might be deteruiiaed by its curvature, from a-stngle 
measurement. Thus, in the adjoining figure, we have 
A B equal to I mile, and B D equu to 8 inches, to 
find A Ei, or B E, which does not sensibly differ from 
▲ E, since B D is only 8 inches. Now it is a propo- 
sition of Euchd, (B. 3, prop. 36.) that, when from a 
point without a circle, two lines be drawn, one cutting 
•ad the other touching it, the touching line (B A) is a 
mean proportional between the cutting line (B E) and 
ttiat part of it (B D) without the circle. 

BD: BA:: BA:BEorAE very nearly. 

That is, 1 mile being equal to 63360 inches, 

8 : 63360: : 633e0 : 50181120 inches, or 7920 miles. 

This is very nearly what the most el^orate calculations make the Earth's 
squatodal diameter. 

The Earth, considered as a planet, occupies a favoured 
rank in the Solar System. ^ It pleased the All-wise Crea- 
tor to assign its position among the heavenly bodies, where 
nearly all the sister planets are visible to the naked eye. 
It is situated next to Venus, and is the third planet from the 
Sun. . 

To the scholar who for the first time talces up a book oa astronomy, it will 
BO doubt seem strange to find the Earth classed with the heavenly bodies. 

W^uit is ^he length of a degree at the Arctic circle, compared vfith a degree at the 
muator, a, found bp the meaeurements qf different mathematicianel What haoe 
wv found to be the ratio of inereaee for the intermediate d^rreee ? What theorv 
So thete fadts confirm 7 whtt is the iengtk of the Earth's e^uatoriai diameter, as SmumI 
bf these meaflurements I What, her pdar diameter ? What is the diiftrenoe between the 
two? What is her moan diameter? What have the French academy determined to be 
llie exact mean diameter from the 45th dMree of north latitude to the opposite degree of 
sooth latitude T lUuetrate the method of finding the AUmteUrqfthe Earth from her 
tmrvature, on the euppoaition that her figure is an exact ephere. What i$ the length 
gftur diameter a$ thu* found t How U this, compared toiththe equatorial diameter% 
as ^mdhp the most elaborate eaieukuienef What is the position of the Earth in tks 
Salar System! 



THE CARTB. 

For what can appear more anlike, than the Earth, with her vast and ■e^minglv 
immeasurable extent, and tho stars, which appear but as points 1 The Earta 
li dark and opaque, the celestial bodies are brilliant. We perceive in it iw 
motion ; while in them we observe a continual change of place, as we view 
Ibem at different hours of the day or night, or at different seasons of the jrear 

It moves round the Sun, from west to east, in 365 days 
5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds; and turns, the samt 
way, on its axis, in 23 hours, 56 minutes, afid 4 seconds 
The former is called its annual motion, and causes the 
vicissitudes of the seasons. The latter is called its diurnal 
motion, and produces the succession of day and night. 

The Earth's mean distance from the Sun is ahout 95 
millions of miles. It consequently moves in its orbit at the 
mean rate of 68 thousand miles an hour. Its equatonal di- 
ameter being 7924 miles, it turns on its axis at the late of 
1040 miles an hour. « 

Thus, the earth on which we stand, and which has serv • 
ed for ages as the Unshaken foundation of the firmest struc- 
tures, is every moment turning swiftly on its centre, and, at 
the same time, moving onwards with great rapidity through 
the empty space. 

This compound motion is to be understood of the whole 
earthy with all that it holds within its substance, or sustains 
upon its surface — of the solid mass beneath, of the ocean 
which flows around it, of the air that rests upon it, and of 
the clouds which float above it in the air. 

That the Earth, in common with all the planets, revolves 
around the Sun as a centre, is a fact which rests upon the 
clearest demonstrations of philosophy. I'hat it revolves, 
like them, upon its own axis, is a truth which every rising 
and setting sun illustrates, and which very many phenomena 
concur to establish. 

Either the Earth moves around its axis every day. or the 
Vihole universe moves around it in the same time. There 
is no third opinio *hat can be formed on this point. Either 
the Earth must resolve on its axis every 24 hours, to pro- 
duce the alternate succession of day and night, or the Suii, 
Moon, planets, comets, fixed stars, and the whole frame of 
the universe itself, must move around the Earth, in the same 
time. To suppose the* latter case to be the fact, would be 
to cast a reflection on the wisdom of the Supreme Architect, 
whose laws are universal harmony. As well might the 
beetle, that in a moment turns on its ball, imagine the heav* 

What revohitioni does H perform, and in what dvection T What is the time oecupied is 
«aeh of these revolutioM 7 B/ what terms are these revohitions distimrniihed, ana what 
nnporlanteflects do they produce) What is the Earth's mean distance froRAtbeSuQl 
wnat u the mean rate <^it« motion in ita ortiit per hour I What is the mte of its revolt 
IMD on Its a»8 oer bourl What are the pioofs, that it perfoinw these two levoliitknat 



THE EARTH. 203 

eiici and the Earth had made a revolution in the same instant. 
It is evident, that in proportion to the distance of the ce- 
. estial bodies from the Earth, must, on this supposition, be 
the rapidity of tiieir movements. The Sun, then, would 
move at the rate of more than four hundred thousand miles 
in a minute ; the nearest stars, at the inconceivable velocity 
of 1400 millions of miles in a second; and the most distant 
luminaries, with a degree of swiftness which no numbers 
could express, — and all this, to save the little globe we tread 
upon, from turning safely on its axis once in 24 hours. 

The idea of the heavens revolving about the Earth, is en- 
cumbered with innumerable other difficulties. We will 
mention only one more. It is estimated on good authority, 
that there are visible, by means of glasses, no less than one 
hundred millions of stars^ scattered at all possible distances 
in the heavens above, beneath, and around us. Now. is it 
in the least degree probable, that the ve]pciiies of all these 
bodies should be so regulated, that, though describing circles 
so very different in dimensions, they should complete their 
revolutions in exactly the same time. 

In short, there is no more reason to suppose that the heav 
ens revolve around the Earth, than there is to suppose that 
they revolve around each of the other planets, separately, 
and at the same time ; since the same apparent revolution is 
common to them all, for they all appear to revolve upon 
their axis, in different periods. 

The rotation of the Earth determines the length of the 
day, and may be regarded as one of the most important el- 
ements in astronomical science. It serves as a universal 
measure of time, and forms the standard of comparison for 
the revolutions of the celestial bodies, for all ages, past and 
to come. Theory and observation concur in proving, that 
among the innumerable vicissitudes that prevail throughout 
creation, the period of the Earth's diurnal rotation is immu • 
table. 

The Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis 
in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds, of solar time 
This is called a sidereal day, because, in that time, the 
stars appear to complete one revolution around the Earth.^ 

But, as the Earth advances almost a degree eastward in 
.ts orbit, in the time that it turns eastward around its axis, 
it is plain that just one rotation never brings the same me- 
ridian around from the Sun to the Sun again ; so that the 
Earth requires as much more than one complete revolution 
t ' ' '■ " I ' ' 

W^t inn^mnnt pirrposes dops fhp i*rlod of the Earth'i rotation serve 1 What if t rf 
' dujr i Wliat iu a Mtiar «!uy 7 



f04 TBE EARTB. 

on its axis to complete a solar day^ as t has gone forward 
in that time. Hence in every natural or solar day, the 
Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis, and the 
365th part of another revolution. Consequently, in 365 
lays, the Earth turns 366 times around its axis. And as 
every revolution of the Earth on its axis completes a side* 
real day, there must be 366 sidereal days in a year. And, 
generally, since the rotation of any planet about its axis is 
the length of a sidereal day at that planet, the number of 
sidereal days will always exceed the number of solar days, 
by one, let that number be what it may, one revolution be- 
mg always lost in the course of an annual revolution. This 
difference between the sidereal and solar days may be il- 
ustrated by referring to a watch or clock. When both 
nands set out together, at 12 o'clock for instance, the minute 
hand must travel more than a whole circle before it will 
overtake the hour hand, that is, before they will come into 
•onjunction. again. 

In the same manner^ if a man travel around the Earth 
eastwarcUy, no matter m what time, he will reckon one day 
more, on his arrival at the place whence he set out, thap 
they do who remain at rest; while the man who traveh 
arround the Earth westwardly will have oneday less. From 
which it is manifest, that, if two persons start from the same 
place at the same time, but go in contrary directions, the 
one travelling eastirnrd and the other westward, and each 
goes completely around the globe, although they should both 
arrive again at the very same hour at the same place from 
which they set out, yet they will disagree two whole days 
m their reckoning. Shoula the day of their return, to the 
man who travelled westwardly, be Monday, to the man who 
travelled eastwardly, it would be Wednesday; while to 
those who remained at the place itself, it would be Tuesday. 
Nor is it necessary, in order to produce the gam or loss 
of a day, that the journey be performed either on the equa- 
tor, or on any parallel of latitude ; it is sufficient for the 
purpose, that all the meridians of the Earth be passed 
through, eastward or westward. The time, also, occupied 
in the journey, is equally unimportant ; the gain or loss of 
a day being the same, whether the Earth be travelled 
around in 24 years, or in as many hours. 



-.2!i^LP"*.?L* 5«»«>d revolution does the Earth oomplote in ercry ■ohur day I Bam 
£^lil?l^V?*"' ^ It turn on its axis in 365 days J How nuuiy iktereal dtya afe tlMi* 
S.«C?^r#»2?*i*'^P'^i.^***."'K,n"™**fo^ »*»e sMlereal days comiiart-a with Ua 
frSS^?-^??K*" i"''i?*^*,? ^^ fi^'r^incv l>ntwo.«n die smIokhI and solar dayi» by m- 



TOM BAinv. MS 

It 18 also evident) that if the Earth turned around its axis 
but once in a year, and if the reyolution was performed the 
same way as its revolution around the Sun, there would he 
perpetual day on one side of it, ahd perpetual night on the 
other. 

From these facta Che papil win readily comprehend the principle! involved 
In a curious problem wlUch appeared a few years ago . It was gravely reporv 
ed by ao American ship, that, in sailing over the ocean, it chanced to find gis 
Sunday* in February. The fa^t was insisted on, and a solution demanded, 
niere is nothing absurd in this.— The man who travels around the Earth eaaU 
wardljff will see the Sun go down a little earlier every succeeding day, than 
a he had remained at rest ; or earlier than they do who live at the place from 
which he set out. The faster he travels towards the rising sun, the sooner 
will it appear above the horizon in the morning, and so much sooner will it set 
in the evening. What he thus gains in timet will bear the same proportion to 
a solar day, as the distance travelled does to the circumference of tne EartlL 
— Aa the globe is 360 degrees in circumference, the Sun will appear to move 
•ver one twenty-fourth part of its surface, or 14°, every hour, which is 4 
minutes to one cle^ree.— Consequently, the San will rise, come to the merl* 
dian, and set, 4 minutes sooner, at a place 1° east of us, tlian it will with us ; 
at the distance of 2° the Sun will rise and set 8 minutes sooner ; at the duh 
tacce of 3°, 12 minutes sooner, and so on. * 

Now the man who travels one degree to the east, the first day, wiU have th« 
Sun on his meridian 4 minutes sooner than we do who are at rest ; and the 
second day, 8 minutes sooner, and on the third day, 12 minutes sooner, and ao 
on i each successive day being completed 4 minutes earlier than the preced* 
big, until he arrives again at the place from which he started ; when this con* 
tioual gain of 4 minutes a day wiD have amounted lo a whole day in cuivanee 
of our time ; he having seen the Sun rise and set once more than we have. 
Cons«auently, the day on which he arrives at home, whatever day of the weetc 
it may be, is one day m advance of ours, and he must needs live that day over 
again, by calling the next day by the same name, in order to malce the accounts 
harmonize. 

If this should be the last day of February in a bissextile year, it would alM 
be the same day of the week that the ftrat was, and be six times repeated 
and if it should happen on Sunday, he would, under these circuuimancea. 
have six Sundays in February. 

Again : — Whereas the man who travels at the rate of one degree to the east 
will have all bis days 4 minutes ahorter than ours, so, on the contrary, the 
man who travels at the same rate towards the west, will have all his days < 
minutes longer than ours. When he has finished the circuit of the Earth 
and arrived at the place from which he first set out, he will have seen tht 
Bun rise and set once lese than we have. C.'>n8equentiy, the day he gets home 
will be one day u^er the time at that place : for which reason, if be arrives at 
home on Saturday, according to his own account, he will have to call the next 
day Monday ; Sunday having gone by before he reached home. Thus, on 
whatever day of the weetc January should end, in common vears, he would 
find the same day repeated only three times in February. Ir January ended 
en Sunday, he would, under these circumstances, find only three Sundaya in 
f)ebruary. 

The Earth's motion about its axis heins perfectly equa- 
Die and uniform in every part of its annual revolution, the 
sidereal days are always ot the same length, but the solar or 
natural days vary very considerably at different times of the 
year. This variation is owing to two distinct causes: the 

If the Eaithievolved on its axis but onoe ayear, and in the same diieetioa as it revdves 
■round the Bun, what would be the oonsequenoe as it renids day and nifht? It uhu 
gnmety reported aome years ago by an American ahip, that in aailinff over the ooMn, 
it found atJB Sundays in February ; pUaae explain thia. Why aie the ndereal days 
■iwajrs of the same leofth ? What are the causes of the difierenee in the kngth of iks 
■olar days? 

18 



iDolinatiop of the Earth's azi« to its orbit, and the inequaaij 
of its motion around the Sun. From these two causes it 
is. that the time shown by a well regulated clock and tnat 
ol a true sun-dial are scarcely ever the same. The difference 
between them, which sometimes amounts to 16)- minutes 
is called the Equation of TYme, or the equation of solar 
days. 

Th« diflbrenice between mean and apparent Ume, or, in other words, h% 
Iween Equinoctial and Ecliptic time, may be further shown bj Figure 11, 
which represents the circles of the sphere. Let it be first premised, that 
9quinoctical time is dock time ; and that edtptie tiiAe is solar or apparent 
lime. It appears, that from Aries to Cancer, the sun in the ecliptic c-omes lo 
the meridian b^ore the equinoctial sun ; from Cancer to Libra, after it ; from 
Libra to Capricorn, before it ; and from Capricorn to Aries, i^er it If w« 
notice what months the Sun is in these several quarters, we shall find, that 
firom the 26th of December to the ICkh of April, and from the 16th of June tm 
tlie 1st of September, the clock ie footer than the sun-dial ; and that, from tht 
t6th of April to the 16th of June, and from the 1st of September lo the 26th 
•f December, the nmrduU is faster than the clock. 

EQUATION OP TIMS. 
Fig. lU 




It is a uniyersal fact, that, while none of the planets are 
perfect spheres, none or iheir orbits are perfect circles. The 
planets all revolre about the Sun, in ellipses of difierent 
degrees of eccentricity ; havin&[ the Sun, not in the centra 
of the ellipse, but in one of its foci. 



Wlnt ta neant by the «nH«ssfon« equation of time I mumrate the difference letmem 
tat In what point of tiisuriMts is the Sim situated 7 




The figure A.D BE ii an tffilpM. llietoe 
A B if called tbe tranivene azia, and the line 
drewn throof h the middle oCxhie lloe, and per- 
pendicular to it, ia the conjugate azia. The 
point C, the middle of the trana^erse axia, la 
_ the centre of the elllpee. The pointa P and £ 
'i^ equally diatant from C, are called the/oei. O 
F, the diatance from the centre to one of the 
IdcI, ia called the eccentrieltj . The orbita ol 
the planeta being eliipaea, having tbe Bun in 
one of the foci, if A I) B E be the orbit of a 
planet, with the Bun in the focua F, when the 
planet ia at the point A, it will be in ita peri- 
AetfoN, or neareat the Bun ; and when at the pomt B in ita opAetion, or at iU 
freateat diatance from the San. The difference in theae diatancea ia evident 
Ij equal to F f, that la, equal to twice the eccentricity of ita orbiL In everj pa- 
volution, a ^jmet paaaea through ita perihelion and aphelion. The eceentii- 
city of the Earth'a orbit ia about one and a half milliona of milea ; hence ahe 
ia three milliona of milea nearer the Bun in her perihelion, than in her aphe- 
lion. 

Now aa the Sun remaina fixed in the lower focua of the Earth'a orbit, it ia 
eaay to perceive that a line, pasaing centrally through the Bun at right aoglea 
with the longer axia of the orbit, will divide it into two unequal aegmenta. 
PredMljf thua it U divided by the equinocHoL 

That portion of the Earth's orbit which lies above the 
SuD. ornorth of the equinoctial, contains about 184 degrees ; 
while that portion of it which lies below the Sun, or south 
of the equinoctial, contains only 176 degrees. This fact 
shows why the Sun continues about 8 days longer on the 
north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the 
south side in winter. The exact calculation, for the year 
1830, is as follows : 

d. h. m. 
From the vernal equinox to the aummer aolatice, —93 21 19 P d. h. m. 
From the aummer aolatice to the autumnal equinox, —93 14 1 s 183; 11, 19. 
From the autumnal equinox to the winter aolatice, —89 17 17 ( d. h. m. 
From the winter oolaUce to the venial equlnoxi —89 1 18 ^ 17b^ 16; 3a 

Difference in fiivour of the north aide, — 7, 16, 49. 

The pointa of the Earth'a orbit which eorreapond to it* greateat and leaat 
<fiatancea from the Bun, are called, the former the Apogee^ and the latter the 
Perigee ; two Greek wordiL the former of which aignifiea /rotn the Earth, 
and the latter about the Earth. Theae pointa are alao deaignated by the 
eommon name of Apeidet, {See these pointa r^reoented, Plate /.] 

The Earth being in its perihelion about the the 1st of JanU" 
ary, and in its aphelion the 1st of July, we are three millions 
of miles nearer the Sun in winter than in midsummer. The 
reason why we hare not, as might be expected, the hottest 
weather wnen the Barth is nearest the Sun, is, because the 

WkeiUtheeeeentricUy^an erblt? How numy timee ie apUmet in Ueapht' 
Hon, and how many in it» ieriketien, in every revohuUm ? Bow mueh Jmrther 



loitfrom the Shm in theJbhner one than in the latter ? Inwhieh Jbeue eftha 
MarWe orbit it the 9unf How doee the eguinociiai divide the Earth'e orbit 7 
Why does tlie Son remain lonfer on the north aide of the equator in •nmroer, than it doca 
on the aouth aide in winter ? WuU are Vie Earth's Apogee and Perigee 1 Bu whai 
eommon name are theee two pointe deeignated ? When ia the Earth in ita PenhelianT 
When in iti Aphelion? Are we nearer the Son in simuner than in wtntor? How araeb 

> are we in winterthan in rammer} Why do we not have the bottaat waatliar 

we aie neareit theBonl 



M6 TBIMOOH. 

Sun, at that time, haying retreated to the soatheni tropw, 
shines so ohliqaely on the northern hemisphere, that its rays 
have scarcely half the effect of the summer Sun ; and con- 
tinuing but a short time above the horizon, less heat is ac- 
cumulated by day than is dissipated by night. 

As the Earth performs its annual, revolution around the 
Sun, the position of its axis remains invariably the same ; 
always pointing to the North Pole of the heavens, and al- 
ways maintaining the same inclination to its orbit. This 
seems to be providentially ordered for the benefit of man- 
kind. If the axis of the Earth always pointed to the centre 
of its orbit^ all external objects would appear to whirl about 
our heads in an inexplicable maze. Nothing would appear 
permanent. The mariner could no longer direct his course 
by the stars, and every index in nature would mislead us. 



THBHOON. 



There is no object within the scope of astronomical ob- 
servation which afibrds greater variety of interesting inves- 
tigation than the various phases and motions of the Moon. 
From them the astronomer ascertains the form of the Earth, 
the vicissitudes of the tides, the causes of eclipses and oc- 
cultations, the distance of the Sun, and, consequently, the 
magnitude of the solar system. These phenomena, which 
are perfectly obvious to the unassisted eye, served as a stand- 
ard of measurement to all nations, until the advancement 
of science taught them the advantages of solar time. It ia 
to these phenomena that the navigator is indebted for that 
precision of knowledge which guides him with well grounded 
zqnfidence through the pathless ocean. 

The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, in general. 
all the ancients, used to assemble at the time of new or full 
Moon, to discharge the duties of piety and gratitude for her 
unwearied attendance on the Earth, and all her manifold 
uses. . 

When the Moon, after having been in conjunction with 
the Sun, emerges froitn his rays, she first appears in the 
evening, a little after sun-set, like a fine luminous crescent, 
with its convex side towards the Sun. If we observe her 



K» the Earth revolves about the Sud, what is the position of its axis 7 ShoaU tls 

•tlways point to the centre of its oriiit, how would external objects appear to as 7 Wtet 
important purposes does the Moon serve to the astronomer 7 Of wlnt importanoe are km 
raenomena to the navigator 7 What nations used to assend^ at the time of the new m 
^^ VV' Moon> to express their gratitude Ibr her benefito 7 Oawsdbe tbe awUMt 
«r the Moon, and her phases. 



TUB Moon* W9 

tbe neirt eT^niag, we find her about 13^ farther east of il|^ 
Sun than on the preceding evening, and her crescent of light 
sensiblv augmented. Repeating these observations, we per- 
ceive that she departs farther and farther from the Sun, as 
her entightened surface comes more and more into view, un- 
til she arrives at her^rtf^ quarter, and comes to the meridian 
at sun-set. She has then finished half her course from the 
new to the full, and half her enlightened hemisphere is turn-t 
ed towards the Earth. 

After her first quarter, she . appears more and more gith 
bous, as she recedes farther and farther from the Sun, until 
she has completed just half her revolution around the Earth, 
and is seen rising in the east when the Sun is setting in the 
west. She then presents her enlightened orb Jtdl to out 
view, and Is said to be in opposition j because she is then 
uu the opposite side of the Earth with respect to the Sun. 

In the nrst half of ber orbit she appears to pass over oui 
heads through the upper hemisphere ; she now descends be- 
low the eastern horizon to pass through that part of her or- 
bit which lies in the lower hemisphere. 

After her full she wanes through the same changes of ap- 
pearance as before, but in an inverted order ; and we see hei 
m the morning like a fine thread c^ light, a little west of the 
rising-sun. For the next two or three days she is lost to 
our view, rising and setting in conjunction with the Sun \ 
after which, she passes over, by reason of her daily motion, 
to the east side of the Sun, and we behold her again a new 
Moon, as before. In changing sides with the Sun, she 
changes also the direction of her crescent. Before her con- 
junction, it was turned to the east; it is now turned towards 
the west. These different appearances of the Moon are 
called her phases. They prove that she shines not by any 
light of her own ; if she did. being globular, we should al- 
ways see hc^r a round full oro like the Sun. 

The Moon is a satellite to the Earth, about which she re- 
volves in an elliptical orbit, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min- 
utes, and 3 seconds: the time which elaoses between one 
new moon and another. This is called her synodic revo- 
lution. Her revolution from any fixed star to the same stai 
again, is called her 'periodic or siderial revolution. It ib 
accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 31 j- sec- 
onds ; but in this time, the Earth has advanced nearly as 
many degrees in her orbit ; consequently the Moon, at the 

HoTM is it known that the Moon dooi not shine by her own light ? About what does the 
Moon revolve, and what is the fijrore of ber ortrit l What is the time of her revolution 
wrem one new Moon to another ? What is this revolution denominated 1 What is hnr pe- 
Bodic or ndereal revolution } In what time in this accomplished I 

18* 



»I0 



TBBMOOII. 



rad of oBe complete revolution, must go as many de^preet 

farther, before ske will come agam into the same position 

with respect to the Sun and the Earth. 

The Moon is the nearest of all the heavenly bodies, being 

about 30 times the diameter of the Earth, or 240^000 miles, 

distant from us. Her mean daily motion, in her orbit, i« 

nearly 14 times as great as the Earth's ; since she not only 

accompanies the Earth around the Sun every year, but, in 

the meantime, performs nearly 13 revolutions about the 

Earth. 

although th« Apparent motien of the Moon, in her orbit, w gretter thaa 
UAt of any other neavonly body, since she passes over, at a mean rate, no 
leas than 13° 1(K 35" in a day ; yet this is to be nnderstooa as angular motion 
—motion in a small orbit, and therefore embracing a great number oftUgremi 
and but comparatively few miles. 

As the Moon, while revolving about the Earth, is carried 
with it at the same time around the Sun, her path is ex- 
tremely irregular, and very different from what it seems *to 
be. Like a point in the wheel of a carriage, moving 
over a convex road, the Moon will describe a succession oi 
epicycloidal curves, which are always concave towards the 
Sun; not veiy unlike their presentation in the following 
figure. 

THE moon's motion. 



Fig. 12. 




To what is the diflbrcnoe of time in these two revolutions owinf f How |ie«t islks 
Artance of the Moon fifom the Earth, compared with that of the other heavenly boitteaf 
what is her distaoee from us 7 What is her motion in her oifoit, eompared with taa 
Earth's I How many times does she revolve around the Earth, eveiy year 1 Tho mppm 
rent meoion of the Moon U greater in her orlUthan that qfany other heaveni^ hedafs 
laSLS ^g;" ^^^'*^^ f^^ •^ pauee through a correspondent epaot J Dcserite Om 



VBI Moon. Sll 

J^et Ad b B represent • portion of the EMth'e orbit ; and a & e tf « tbe 

hmar orbit. When the Earth Is at 6, the new Moon is at a ; and whiTe the 
Earth is moving from 6 to its position ae represented in the figure, the Moon 
has moved through half her orbit, from a to c, where she is full ; so whUe 
the Earth is moving from its present position to d, the Moon describes the 
Ah«r half of her orbit from c to e; where she is agidn in eonjonction. 

The Moon, though apparently as large. as the Sun, is the 
smallest of all the heavenly bodies that are visible to the 
naked eye. Her diameter is but 2162 miles ; consequently 
her surface is 13 times less than that of the Earth, and her 
bulk 49 times less. It would require 70 millions of such 
bodies to equal the volume of the Sun. The reason why 
she appears as large as the Sun, when, in truth, she is so 
much less, is because she is 400 times nearer to us than the 
Sun. 

The Moon revolves once on her axis exactly in the time 
that she performs her revolution around the Earth. This 
is evident from her always presenting the same side to the 
Earth ; for if she had no rotation upon an axis, every part 
of her surface would be presented to a spectator on the 
Earth, in the course of her synodical revolution. It follows, 
then, that there is but one day and night in her year, con- 
taining, both together, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 
seconds. 

As the Moon turns on her axis only as she moves around 
the Earth, it is plain that the inhabitants of pne half of the 
lunar world are totally deprived of the sight of the Earth, 
unless they travel to the opposite hemisphere. This we 
may presume they will do^ were it only to view so sublime 
a spectacle ; for it is certam that from the Moon the Earth 
appears ten times larger than any other body in the universe. 

As the Moon enlightens the Elarth, by reflecting the light 
of the Sun, so likewise the Earth illuminates the Moon, ex- 
hibiting to her the same phases that she does to us, only in 
a contrary order. And, as the surface of the Earth is 13 
times as large as the surface of the Moon, the Earth, when 
full to the Moon, will appear 13 times as large as the full 
moon does to us. That side of the Moon, therefore, which 
is towards the Earth, may be said to have no darkness at all 
the Earth constantly shining upon it with extraordinary 
splendour when the Sun is absent ; it therefore enjoys suc- 
cessively two weeks of illumination from the Sun, and two 

WlMliahermagnitude, eompaied with that oftfie other heavenly bodies 1 Whatiahar 
diameter? How great are her sur&oe and her bulk, compaied with those of tlie Eardif 
How many each liodtee would it require to equal the Tohnne of the Sun 7 Why does aha 
appear at laree as the Bun, when in reality ahe is so much leai 1 What is the time of her 
levolulioo on ner axis, oomoared with that of her revolution around the Earth } How ia 
this proved 7 How many aavs and nichts then hai eiie in the course of her eimodical re- 
volution) Wliat is the lenath of both united? .::^scribe the phenomena of the Earth as 
1 by ths infaabitaotsoftbe Mooik 



i 



JII9 THE IfOOR. 

<?eeks of earth-Jght from the Earth. The other side of tlit 
Moon has alternately a fortnight's light, and a fortnight's 
darkness. 

As the Earth r^yolres on its axis, the several continents, 
seas, and islands, appear to the lunar inhabitants like so 
many spots, of difierent forms and brightness, alternately 
moving over its surface, being more or iess brilliant, as they 
are seen through intervening clouds. By these spots, the 
lunarians can not only determine the period of the Earth's 
rotation, just as we do that of the Sun, but they may also 
find the longitude of their places, as we find the latitude ot 
ours. 

As the full Moon always happens when the Moon is di- 
rectly opposite the Sun, all tbe full Moons in our winter^ 
must happen when the Moon is on the north side of the equi- 
noctial, because then the Sun is on the south side of it ; con- 
sequently, at the north pole of the Earth, there will be a 
fortnight's moon-light and a fortnight's darkness by turns, 
for a period of six months, and the same will be the Act du^ 
xing the Sun's absence the other six months, at the south 
pole. 

The Moon's axis being inclined only about 1^^ to hei 
orbit, she can have no. sensible diversity of seasons ; from 
which we mav infer, that her atmosphere is mild and uni- 
form. The quantity of light which we derive from the Moon 
when full, is at least 300 thousand times less than that of 
the Sun.* 

When viewed through a good telescope, the Moon pre- 
sents a most wonderful and interesting aspect. Besides the 
large dark spots, which are visible, to tne naked eye, we 
perceive extensive valleys, shelving rocks, and long ridges 
of elevated mountains, projecting their shadows on the 
plains below. Single mountains occasionally rise to a great 
height, while circular hollows, more than three miles deep, 
<reem excavated in the plains. 

Her mountain scenery bears a striking resemblance to the 
towering sublimity and terrific rugged ness of the Alpine re- 

* This is Mons. Bouquer's inlerence, fitrni hia experiments, ai stated bjr La Ptaoe, m 
Us work, p. 49. Tbe result of Dr. Wellast^'s eomftutatkna was difleraut ProfeMoc 
Leslie mafces the light (^ the Moon 1QU,000 tunes Ims than that of the Sun : it was fimner- 
y redcooed 100,000 times less. 

As the Earth revolves on its axis, bow do its oontineats, seas, and islands, appear to 
the lunar inhabitants ? For what purposes may these spots serve to the lunarians } What 
ue the periods of the Moon's presence and absence to the polar inhabitants I Explain 
ttds. why cannot tlie Moon have any sensible diversity of seasons ? What then mn 
we infer to be the character of her atmosphere? What is the quantity of lirht wld^ 
^ aftbrds when full, compared with that of the Sun I Describe the appearance of the 
Moon when seen tfaioiuth a good telescope. What mountains of the Earth does 1«bi 
moQP'am scenery resenuue f 



TBI MOON. %V% 

gfloBs, or of the Appenines, after which some of her moan- 
tains have been named, and of the Cordilleras of oar own 
continent. Huse masses of rock rising precipitoaslv from 
the plains, lift their peaked summits to an immense nei^ht 
in the air, while shapeless cra^s hang over their projecting 
sides, and seem on the eve of being precipitated into the ^ 
tremendous chasm below. 

Around the base of these frightful eminences, are strewed 
numerous loose and unconnected fragments, which time 
seems to have detached from their parent mass ; and when 
we examine the rents and ravines which accompany the 
overhanging cliffs, the beholder expects every moment that 
they are to be torn from their base, and that the process of 
destructive separation which he had only contemplated in 
its effects, is about to be exhibited before him in all its 
•reality. 

The range of mountains called the Appenines, which tra- 
yerses a portion of the Moon's disc from north-east to south- 
west, and of which some parts are visible to the naked eye. 
rise with a precipitous and craggy front from the level ot 
.the Mare Irnbrium, or Sea of showers.* In this extensive 
range are several ridges whose summits have a perpendicu- 
lar elevation of four miles, and more ; and though they 
often descend to a much lower level, they" present an inac- 
cessible barrier on -the north-east, while on the south-west 
they sink in gentle declivity to the plains. 

There is one remarkable feature in the Moon's surface 
which bears no analogy to an^ thing observable on the 
Earth. This is the circular cavities i^ich appear in every 
part of her disc. Some of these immense caverns are nearly 
four miles deep^ and* forty miles in diameter. They are 
most numerous m the south-western part. As they reflect 
the Sun's rays more copiously, they render this part of her 
surface more brilliant than any other. They present to 
'as nearly the same appearance as our Earth might be sup- 
posed to present to the Moon, if all our great lakes and seas 
were dried up. 

The number of remarkable spots on the Moon, whc'^e 
latitude and longitude have been accurately determined, 
exceeds 200. The number of seas and lakes, as they were 
formerly considered, whose length and breadth are known, 

* The name of a lunar spot 

Deaeribe the appearance of her moantains. On what part of her disc if that range of 
■ountanu called the Appenines, situated 1 Describe it What remarkable, feature in tht 
Moon's surface^beara no analosry to any thing observableon the Earth's suiface? Detcrflia 
their at>pearanc^. What is the num!>er of mmarkable spots in the Moon'^ lurftce* whoaa 
laUtadiBand longitude have been accurately determined # What is the number of seas sm 
kakeB, aa they were fiia»ei^<r eoDsadeiedi vhoaediinaaskMa are knovm) 



114 Tire Moon. 

is between 20 and 30 ; while the number of peaks and 
mountains, whose perpendicular elevation vanes from a 
fourth of a mile to five miles in heiffh^ and whose bases 
are from one to seventy miles in length, is not less than one 
hundred and fifty.* 

Oniphlcal views of these nataral appearances, accompanied with minute 
and amiliar descriptions, constitute what is called EMemography^ from two 
GreAii words, which mean the same thing in regard to the Hoon, as Chog* 
T€iphjf does in regard to the Earth. 

An idea of some of these scenes may be formed hy con- 
ceiving a plain of about 100 miles in circumference, encircled 
by a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in 
perpendicular height, and having a mountain near the 
centre, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level 
of the plain. From the top of this central mountain, the 
whole plain, with all its scenerv, would be distinctly visible, 
and the view would be boundea only by a lofty ampnitheatre 
of mountains, rearing their summits to the slry. 

The bright spots of the Moon are the mountainous 
regions ; while the dark spots are the plains, or more 
level parts 9f her surface. There may be rivers or small 
lakes on this planet ; bat it is generally thought, by astrono- 
mers of the present day, that there are no seas or large col- 
lectioc^ of water, as was formerly supposed. Some of 
these mountains and deep valleys are visible to the naked 
eye ; and m ny more are visible through a telescope of but 
moderate powors. 

A telescope which magnifies only 100 times, will show a 
spot on the Moon's surface, whose diameter is 1223 yards ; 
and one which magnifies a thousand times, will enable us 
to perceive any enlightened object on her surface whose di- 
mensions are only 122 yards, which does not much exceed 
the dimensions ot some of our public edifices, as for instance, 
the Capitol at Waehiuffton, or St. Paul's Cathedral. Pro- 
fessor Frauenhofer, of Munich, recently announced that he 
had discovered a lunar edifice, resembling a fortification^ 
together with several lines of voatL The celebrated as- 
tronomer Schroeter, conjectures the existence of a great 

• Brawiler's firlcMgTQfi^. The Imt raana of the Moon hitherto publUwd. an Ihaaa 
vf Bcliroeter ; but the roost ennous andeomplete repretentation oftlie teJeacontc ana nn- 

taialappewafic(w/)ftheBfoon,i8tolMseenonRaisei*SLti«MrOfo6s. BeeaSogsfsiM 
travhia, by C. Blunt. 

What is the number of pealu and moontaim whose perpendicular elevation Taries flom 
afourth (^a mde to five miiM, and whose bsMs are fhmi one to seventy miles in leMttii 
Whtu U Belen^afOty ? Give an illustration to enable us toibrm some ideaof smmoT 
Ifceseseen es. Which spots are die moontainous rodons, and which the plains ? Oo w- 
liODoiDerB nowsuppose. ai they did formerly, that then are hneooUectioDS of wateoa 
nUl^S^tt T^^JL ,i^"Vof her mountwns and^ valleys visible to the naked «y«l 
How smsll a spot on the Moon's surikce can be seen by a telescope which manifiee i« 



ECLIP8E8. 21fr 

nty on the east side of the Moon, a little north ofher equator, 
Ml extensive canal in another place, and fields of regeta- 
ion in another. 



SOLAR AND LUNAK ECLIPSES. 

Of all the phenomena of the hearens, there are none 
rhich engage the attention of mankind more than eclipses 
if the Sua and Moon ; and to those who are unacquainted 
mth astronomy, nothing appears more wonderful than the 
accuracy with which they can be predicted. In the early 
iges of antiquity they were regarded as alarminp^ deria- 
dons from the established laws of nature, presagmg great 
public calamities, and other tokens of the divme displeasure. 

In China, the prediction and observance of ecDiwes ar« made a matter of 
«titfe policy, in order to operate npon the fears of the ignorant, and impose on 
(hem a superstiUous tegird for the occult wisdom of their ralera. In Mexico^ 
the natives fast and aiffict themselves, during eclipses, under an apprehen- 
sion tliat the great spirit is in deep sufferance. Some of the northern tribes 
of Indians iiave imagined that tlie Moon had been wounded in a quarrel ; and 
others, that she was about to be swallowed by a huge fish. 

It vTas by availing himself of these superstitious notions, that Columbus, 
when shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica, extricated mmself and crew 
from a most embarrassing condition. Being driven to great distress for want 
of provisions, and the natives refusing him any assistance, when all.hope seem- 
ed to be cut off, he bethought himself of their snpersthion in regard to 
eclipses. Having assembled the princiiMtl men of the island, he remonstrated 
against their Inhumanity, as being offensive to the Great Spiiit ; and told them 
that a^eat plague was even ready to fall upon them, and as a token of it, they 
would that night see the Moon hide her face in anger, and put on a dreadfully 
dark and theatening aspect. This artifice had the desired effect ; for the 
eclipse had no sooner begun, than the frightened barbarians came running 
with all kinds of provisions, and throwing themselves at the feet of Columbus, 
implored his forgiveness. — Almageat^ YoL /. 66 e. v. 2. 

An eclipse of the Sun takes place, when*the dark body, 
of the Moon, passing directly oet ween the Earth and the 
8on, intercepts his light. This can happen only at the in- 
stant oinew Moon, or when the Moon is in conjunction \ for 
It is only then that she passes between us and the Sun. 

An eclipse of the Moon takes place when the dark body of 
the Earth, coming between her and the Sun, intercepts his 
light, and throws a shadow on the Moon. This pan happen 
only at the time of full Moon, or when the Moon is in oppo- 
sition ; for it is only then tnat the Earth is between her 
and the Sun. 

As e7ery planet belonging to the solar system, both prl- 

How weieeelipsesregafded in the early affBs of antiquity) To what ifurmtt io th4 
"uUrt cf CMna meOu their prediction and obiervance tubservient J How do tht 
mmtivetqf Mexico demean themaetcee during an eelipee? Why do they do thief 
What notiona have eeme of the northern tribee oflndiano entertained with regard 
lo eeiipeee of the Moon 1 Relate the anecdote of Oo2umMi* eaXricating Ali ••elf and 
kit eretofrom distrees, by awt^'ing himeelf of t/u eufferttitioue notione '» 'the net 
Oveoi^ Jamaica inregiu-d to eUipeee. Wiutt causes ecnpses of the Sun ) ¥nttcausei 
lof ihe Moua) 




tU BCUFflBS. 

uuury and secondary, derives its light from the Sun, it moat 
east a shadow towards that part of the heavens which is op- 
posite to the Sun. This snadow is of course nothing but 
a privation of light in the space hid from the Sun by the 
opaque body, and will always be proportioned to the n^ag 
nitude of the Sun and planet 

If the Sun and planet were both of the same magnitude, 
the form oi the shadow cast by the planet, would be that of 
a cylinder, and of the same diameter as the Sun or planet. 
If the planet were larger than the Sun, the shadow would 
continually diverge, and grow larger and larger ; but as the 
Sun is much larger than any of the planets, the shadows 
which they cast must converge to a point in the form of a 
cone ; the length of which will be proportional to the size 
and distance of the planet from the Sun. 

The magnitode of the San is sach, that the shadow cast by each of tb« 
primary planets always eoDverges to a point before it reaches any other 
planet ; so that not one of the primary planets can eclipse another. The 
diadow of 
oecasions, 
ether body, 
alons, fall on the primary, and eclipse it 

When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth, 
and the Moon at her lea^t distance, her shadow is suffir 
clently long to reach the Earth, and extend 19,000 miles 
beyond. When the Sun is at his leaat distance from the 
Earth, and the Moon at her greatest^ her shadow will not 
reach the Earth's surface by 20,000 miles. So that when 
the Sun and Moon are at their mean distances, the cone oj 
the Moon's shadow will terminate a little before it reaches 
the Earth's surfece. 

In the former case, if a conjunction take place when the 
centre of the Moon comes in a direct line between the 
centres of the Sun and Earth, the dark shadow of the Moon 
will fall centrally upon the Earth, and cover a circular ares 
of 175 miles in diameter. To all places lying within this dark 
spot, the Sun will be totally eclipsed, as illustrated by Fig. 13. 



In what direction does everr i^anet of the lolar system cast a shadow Y What is Urii 
shadow, and to what is it proportional } If the Sun and planet were both of the same 
■Mgnitude, what would be the form of tfa^ shadow, and its diametn ) If die planet wero 
larger than the Sun, what would be the nmn of the shadow ? But as the Sun is moek 
larger than any of the planets, what must be the fbnn of their shadows, and to what are 
they proportional } Why can no one qf the primary pUmeu ecHpte another i Ss^ 
plain hmo, on certain oeeaHontt they may eeiipte their oatelliteo, and en othero is 
oelipeed by them. When the Sun is at his greateat distanoe from the Earth, and the 
Moon at her least distance, how far will her shadow extend I When the Sun is at his 
lsM< distance, and the Moon at her greateat? When the Sun and Moon are both at tfaek 
mean distances ? In the firat case, <n what cireumetaneee will the Moont shsdow JU 
eMtmlly on the Earth, and what will be its figure and diameterl How wilt the Sun s» 
oMr to ail places lynw within this dark spot? Deeeriiethe^e€tqftheMmrtk^»\ 
during the ectipee. upon thie ciretOar area. 



80LAE AND LUNAE ECLIPSES. 



9tr 



ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 




In eonfleqaenee of the Earth's inoti<m during the eclipse, this ciicalar tmm 
Decomes a continued belt over the Earth's surface ; being, at the broadest, 176 
miles wide. This belt is, however, rarely so broad, and often dwindles to • 
mere nominal line, without total darkness. 

In March, this line extends itself from S. W. to N. E., and in September, from 
N. W. to S. E. In June, the central line is a curve, going first to the N. E, 
and then to the S. E. ; in December, on the contranr, first to the 8. E., and tbea 
to the N. E. To all places within 2000 miles at least of the central line, tlw 
eeUpee will be vinble ; and the nearer the place of observation is to the Une, the 
laixer will be the eclipse. In winter, if the central trace be bat a little northward 
of the eouator, uid in summer, if it be 26 degrees N. latitude, the eclipse will be 
▼inble all over the northern hemisphere. As a general ruj^, thougn liable Is 
many modifications, w« may observe, that places firom 200 to 2B0 miras from the 
e«!iitral line, will be II digits eclipsed ; from thence to GOO miles, 10 digits ; and 
•o on, diminishing oae digit in about 250 miles. 

If, in either of the other cases, a conjunction take place 
when the Moon^s center is directly between the centers of the 
8un and Safrili, as before, the Moon will then be too distant 
to coverthe' entire face of the Sun, and there will be seen, all 
aut>uiid her dark body, a slender ring of dazzling light 




This may be illustrated by the above figure. Suppose C D to represent a part 
of the Earth's orbit, and the Moon's shadow to terminate at the vertex V ; the 
small space between e/will represent the breadth of the luminous ring which 
will be visible all around the dark body of the Moon. 

Such was the eclipse of February, 12, 1831, which passed over the southers 
states, from S. W. to N. E. It was the first annular eclipse ever visible in the 
United Slates. Along the path of this eclipse, the luminous ring remained perfiMSl 
and unbroken for the space of two minutes. The last annular eclipse visible t» 
•ay eoDslderable portion of the United States, took place Sept 18tb, 1838. 



In either of the other caMs, the Hune circumstaneei occumng as befoie. what «ril 
be the appearance of the Sun? Why does not the Moon, in this caM, eauM a Mai 
•dipse ? When did thejtni ecUpte cftMa kind, ever vtaibfB in the Untied auoet^hap- 
penf How long did the tf$mlnom ring, along iu ftath, ronuOn wO^nfun ? Whe^ 
Sd thOinest mnmilm- •cUfte, vlribU to mv conaiderabU portion cf the United Statee, 

ID 



218 



80LAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSES. 



From the moat elaborate calculations, compared with a long series of observB 
tiona, the length of the Moon's shadow in eclipses, and her distance firom the 
Sun at the same time, vary within the limits of the following table. 



Length of Shadow, 
Dist of Moon. 



Least 

Mean 

Greatest 



Length of Shadow in 
Semidiameters. 




length 
in miles. 

"228,499 
232,328 
236.292 



Distance in 
Semidiameters. 




Distance 
in miles. 

221.148 
238,300 
262.648 



Thus it appears that the length of the cone of the Moon's shadow, in eclipses, 
varies from 228,499 to 236,292 miles ; being 7.793 miles longer in the one case, 
than in the other. The inequality of her distances from the Earth is much 
greater ; they Tary from 221,148 to 282,638 miles, making a difference of 31,490 
miles. 

Although a central eclipse of the Sun can never be total 
to any spot on the Earth more than 175 miles broad ; yet 
iie space over which the Sun will be more or less partially 
eclipsed, is nearly 5000 miles broad. 

The secti<Mi of the Moon's shadow, or her penumbra, at the Earth's surface, 
tn eetipses, is htx frtna being always circular. If the conjunction happen when 
the center of the Moon is a little above or a little fre/oto tlie center of the line 
Joining the centers of the Earth and Sun, as is most frequentlv the case, the 
shadow will be projected obliquely over the Earth's sur&ce, and thus cover n 
much larger space. 

To produce a partial eclipse, it is not necessary tliat the shadow should reach 
the Earth : it is snfflcient tnat the apparent distance between the Sun and Moon 
be not greater than the sum of their semidiameters. 

If the Moon performed her revolution in the same path in 
which the Sun appears to move ; in other words, if her orbit 
lay exactly in the plane of the Earth's orbit, the Sun would 
be eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon 
at the time of every full. But one half of the Moon's orbit 
lies about 5^ on the north side of the ecliptic, and the other 
half as far on the south side of it ; andC consequently, the 
Moon's orbit only crosses the Earth's orbit in two opposite 
points, called the Moon's nodes. 

When the Moon is in one of these points, or nearly so, at 
the time of neiD Moon, the Sun will be eclipsed. When she 
is in one of them, or nearly so, at the time orfuU Moon, the 
Moon will be eclipsed. But at all other new Moons, the 
Moon either passes above or below the Sun, as seen from 
the Earth ; and, at all other full Moons, she either passes 
above or below the Earth's shadow ; and consequently there 
can be no eclipse. 

WJM are the Umita between which the Moon'e»fiadowvarie$ in eelipteti What it 
4he iiff^ence between thete two Umitn i What are the limite qfher dktaneee from thm 
Earth} What U the differerue between them J Whatis the createst breadUi of aav 
spot on the Earth's aurface, to which a central eclipse of the Sun can be total ? What 
H the breadth of tbe greatest space over which the Sun can be more or less Mrtialir 
eclipsed J Jethe penumbra qf the Moon at the Earth's surface in ectimea aiiomnatr- 
eutar 7 In what eircumatancee will the shadow be projected obliouely om- /JksJ&th^ 
•wfaeei Must the shadow reach the Earth, to proiuS^w^^^iviiT Whatfeoi 

UOee p'a<^\ Why is not the Sun ec psed at the timeof everv now Mtmn *iwl SjTiLb^ 



•«w«^ 



SOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSES. 2i9 

If the Moon be exajctly in one of her nodes at the time of 
her change, the Sun will be centrally eclipeed. If she be 
li^ from her node at the time of her change, the Sun will 
appear at the equator to be about ^1 digits eclipsed. If 
she be 3^ from her node at the time of her change, the Sun 
will be 10 digits eclipsed, and so on ; a digit being the twelfth 
part of the Sun's diameter. But when the Moon is about 
18° from her node, she will iust touch the outer edge of the 
Sun, at the time of her cnanpe, without producing any 
eclipse. These are the ecliptic hmita. Between these limits, 
an eclipse is doubtful, and requires a more exact calculation. 

The mean eclipdc limit for the Sun is 161^ on each side of the node ; the 
mean ecliptic lin^it for the moon is 10j^<> on each side of the node. In the former 
case, then, there are 33 degrees about each node, making, in alt, ^^ out of 360*^, 
in which eclipec» of the Sun may happen : in the latter case, there are 2\^ about 
each node, maicing, in all, 420 out of 360° in which eclipses of the Moon usuallr 
occar. The proportion of ihe solar to the lunar eclijises, therefore, is as 66 to 42, 
or 88 II to 7. Yet there are more visible eclipses of the Moon, at any given 
place, than of the Sun ; because a lunar eclip^ is visible to a whole hemisphere, 
a solar eclipse only to a small portion of it. 

The greatest possible duration of the annular appearance 
of a solar eclipse, is 12 minutes and 24 seconds ; and the 
greatest possible time during which the Sun can be totally 
eclipsed, to any part of the world, is 7 minutes and 58 sec* 
ends. The Moon may continue totally eclipsed for 1| hours. 

Eclipses of the Sun always begin on his western edge, 
and end on his eastern ; but all eclipses of the Moon com- 
mence on her eastern edge, and end on her western. 

If the Moon, at the time of her opposition, be exactly in 
her node, she will pass through the center of the Earth'' 
shadow, and be totally eclipsed. If. at the time of her oppo 
sition, she be within 6° of her node, she will still pass through 
the Earth's shadow, though not centrally, and be totally 
eclipsed : but if she be 12^ from her node, she will only just 
touch the Earth's shadow, and pass it without being eclipsed. 

The duration of lunar eclipses, therefore, depends upon the difference be- 
tween the diameter of the Moon and that section of the Earth's shadow through 
which she passes. When an eclipse of the Moon is both total and central. Its 
donttioQ is the longest possible, amounting nearly to 4 hours ; bat the duration 
of all eclipses not central, varies with her distance from the node. 



In what circumstances is the Sud centrally ecUpied 1 What is the ratio between the 
Moon's distance from her node, and the number of digits that the Sun is eclipsed 1 
What are these limits called ) Will there always be eclipses when the Moon is within 
these limits? WJuu U the ecliptic limU for the Sunf Whatisitfcr thetiooni What 
nunAer (if degrees, then, are there about each node, and haw many out ofaso*, In which 
toiar eclipeee can happen! Hoto many in which Ivnar eel^tees unuUly happeni 
What then it the proportion qf the eolar to the lunar ecHpteei Why then are there 
more eclipeea of the Moon visible at any given place than qf the Sunt What is the 
greatest possible duration of the annular appearance of a solar eclipse 7 What is the 
gieatest possible duration of a total solar eclipse to any part of the world ? What is the 
greatest duration of a total lunar eclipse I On which side of the Sun do solar eclipses 
always begin, and on which do they end 7 On which side of the Moon do lunar eclipses 
always begin, and on which do they end ? In what circumstances is the Moon totally 
eclipsed? Beyond what distance from her node, if she be, will she only touch the 
Earth's shadow, and not be eclipsed 7 On what then doe» the duration qf lunar 
eelirena depend 7 In what circumstances is the duration qf the lunar eclipse the longest 
possible 7 What is the length qfthe greatest duratitui of a lunar eclipse l With wJiat 
does the duration qfetiipsest not cenlral, vary} 



220 



•OI.AE IHB LUNAR ECLIPSES. 



■0UP8E8 OF THE MOON. 
Plf . 16. 




The diameter of the Earth's shadow, at the distance of 
the Moon, is nearly three times as large as the diameter of 
the Moon ; and the length of the Earth's shadow is nearly foor 
tiroes as great as the distance of the Moon ; exceeding it in 
the same ratio that the diameter of the Earth does the dia- 
meter of the Moon, which is as 3.663 to 1. 



The lensth of the Earth's shadow, and its diameter 
•t the distance of the Moon, are subject to the varia- 
tions exhibited in ttie following table : 



Diameter 

of the 

shadow. 



Lenffthof 
the shadow 
in miles. 



8an at the perigee 



Sob at his mean distance 



Sun at the apogee 



Moon at the apogee 

Moon at her mean distance 

Moon at the perigee 

Moon at the apogee 

Moon at her mean distance 

Moon at the perigee 

Moon at the apogee 

' Moon at her mean distance 

Moon at the perigee 



5,232 
6,762 
6,292 
6,270 
5.799 
6,329 
5,306 
5.836 
6,366 



812,217 
aBRJBW 
871,262 



The first column of figures expresses the diameter of the'Earth's sliadow at 
die Moon : and as the diameter of the Moon is only 2162 miles, it is CTident that 
U can always be comprehended by ttte shadow, which is more than twice as 
broad as the disc of the Moon. 

The time which elapses between two successive changes 
of the Moon is called a Lunation, which, at a mean rate, ia 
about 29i days. If 1 2 lunar months were exactly equal to 
the 12 solar months, the Moon's nodes would always occupy 
the same points in the ecliptic, and all eclipses would hap- 
pen in the same months or the year, as is the case with 
the transits of Mercury and Venus : but, in 12 lunations, or 
lunar months, there are only 354 days ; and in this time the 
Moon has passed through both her nodes, but has not quite 
accomplished her revolution around* the Sun: the conse- 

Suence is, that the Moon's nodes fall back in the ecliptic at 
le rate ol* about 19P annually; so that the eclipses happen 
sooner every year by about 19 days. 

What is the diameter of the Earth's shadow at the distance of the Mood? What is 
the leofth of the Earth's shadow i What ia their ratio to each other ) JBsftMSis toihal 
muta doe» the length et the Earth'e ehadow, and UaHameter tUthe tfiiMMS ^ths 
JffMm, vary? What ietfu breadth qf the En-th'tthaiow compared toUhthtit if tf^^t»c 
wJf»eMooni What is a lunation 7 How many days does a lunation embrace ? Why do 
Xu i!!:.1r"^ happen in the same months of the year! How lar dotheMoou's nod«;s 
MiiMAkuitheechptieaanuaUy, and how much sooner do the ecfipsM happen every 



Mail 
tbei 



80LAK AND LUNAR ECLIF8E8. 021 

As the Moon passes from one of her nodes to the other in 
173 days, there is just this period between two successive 
eclipses of the Sun, or of the Moon. In whatever time of 
the year, then, we have eclipses at either node, we may be 
Bure' that in 173 days afterwards, we shall have eclipses at 
the other node. 

As the Moon's nodes fall back, or retrograde in the ecliptic, at the rate of ]9i* 
erery year, they will complete a backward reTolution entirely around 'the 
ecliptic to the same point again, in 18 yeare, 225 days ; in which time there 
would always be a regular period of eclipses, if any complete number of 
lunations were finished without a remainder. But this never hapiwns ; for if 
both the Sun and Moon should start from a line of conjunction with either of the 
nodes in any point of the ecliptic, the Sun would perform iS annual revolutions 
and 222^ of another, while the Moon would perform S90 lunations, and 85^ of an- 
ottier, before the node would come around to the same point of the eclipde 
n ; so that the Sun would then be 138^ from the node, and the Moon 85^ from 
Sun. 

But after 223 lunations, or 18 years, 11 days,* 7 hours, 42 minutes, and 31 
seconds, the Sun, Moon, and Earth, will return so nearly in the same position 
with respect to each other, that there will be a regular return of the wane eelip' 
wea /or many age». This grand period was discovered by the Chaldeiuis, and 
by them called Sara*. If therefore, to the mean time of any eclipse, either of 
the Sun or Moon, we add the Chaldean period of 18 years and 11 days, we 
■hall have the return of the same eclipse. This mode of predicting eclipses 
will hold good for a thousand years. In this period there are usually- 70 eclip- 
aes ; 41 of the Sun and 29 of the Moon. 

The number of eclipses in any one year, cannot be less 
than two, nor more than seven. In the former case, they 
will both be of tlie Sun ; and in the latter, there will be five 
of the Sun, and two of the Moon — those of the Moon will be 
total. There are sometimes six; but the usual number is 
jour : two of the Sun, and two of the Moon. 

The cause of this variety is thus accounted for. Although the Sun usually 
peases bv both nodes only once in a year, he may pass the same node a^i n a 
little before the end of the year. In consequence of tfie retrograde motion of 
the Moon's nodes, he will come to either of them 173 days after passing the 
other. He may, therefore, return to the same node in about 346 days, having 
thus passed one node twice and the other once^ making each time, at each, an 
eclipse of both the Sun and the Moon, or, ais in all. And since 12 lunations, or 
864 days from the Jirat eclipse, in the beginning of the year, leave room for 
another new Moon before the close of the year, and since this new Moon may 
All within the ecliptic limit, it is possible for the Sun to be eclipsed again. Thus 
there may be seven eclipses in the same year. 

* If there are ./bur leap yean in this interval, add 11 days; but if there are Jti^e, and 
only ten days. 

In what time does the Moon pass liom one of her nodes to the other? What is 
the leni;th of the time which elapses between two successive eclipses of the Sun or 
the Bfoon ? After there have been eclipses at one node, in what time may we be sura 
that there will be eclipses at the other? In what time do the Moon' 8 nodes com" 
ptete a haektoard revolution around the ecliptie 7 Why is there not always a regular 
period of eeliptet in thU timet If the Bun and Moon should both start from a line 
of conjunction with either node, haio many revolutions wot/Ud the Sun perform, and 
now many lunations the Moon, before the node would come around to the same 'point 
agatnl After how many lunations will the Sun, Moon, and Earth, return so nearly 
to Vht same position with respect to each other, that there will be a regular return tf 
tite same eclipses far many ages 7 Whai nation discovered this grand period, and 
what did they caU it? What is the mode of predicting eclipses, loith which this fact 
furnishes ust How many eclipses are there usually in this period) What is the 
feast, and what the greatest number of eclipses, in any one year? In the Ibnner case, 
what eclipses will they be? What, in the latter? What is the usual number of 
eclipses in the year, and what eclipses are they? Please explain the eatm nf /Mf 
xatrUtg' jg# 



222 



Aflila : iHwb the Hooa ehanfet In either of her nodee, the canaot 
whHIn the lunar ecliptic limit at the next full, (tliouf b if she hefuU in one of hoc 
nodea, abe may come into the »iUar ecliptic limit at her next ekange,} and six 
mootha afterwarda, she will chanfe near the other node ; thua making onlj two 
acUpaea. 

The following is a list of all the solar eclipses that will be Tisible in Europe 
and America during the remainder of the present century. To those which 
will be visible in New England, the number of digits is annexed. 



Tear. 


Month 


Day and hour. 


Digits 


Tear. 


Month. 


Day and hour. 


Digits 


1^1, 


July 


28 7 48 A. M. 


3i 


1876, 


Mar. 


26 4 11 P. M. 


31 


1864, 


May 


26 4 26 P. M. 


IH 


1878, 


July 


29 4 56 P. M. 


7* 


1858, 


Mar. 


15 6 14 A. M. 


1} 


1879, 


July 


19 2 A. M. 




1859, 


July 


29 6 32P. M. 


^ 


1880, 


Dec. 


31 7 30 A. M. 


H 


I860, 


July 


18 7 23 A. M. 


6 


1882, 


May 


17 1 A. M 




1861, 


Dec. 


31 7 30 A. M. 


4 


1886, 


Mar. 


16 85 A. M. 


U 


1863, 


May 


17 1 OP. M. 




1886, 


Aug. 


29 6 30 A. M. 


1866, 


Oct. 


19 9 10 A. M. 


3} 


1887, 


Aug. 


18 10 P. M. 




1866, 


Oct. 


8 11 12 A. M. 





1890, 


June 


17 3 A. M. 




1867, 


Mar. 


6 3 A. M. 




1891, 


June 


6 Mer. 




1868, 


Feb. 


23 10 A. M. 




1892, 


Oct. 


20 19 P. M. 


^ 


1869, 


Aug. 


7 6 21 A. M. 


10* 


1895, 


Mar. 


26 4 A. M. 




1S70, 


Dec. 


22 6 A. M. 




1896, 


Aug. 


9 Mer. 




1873, 


May 


26 3 A. M. 


1897, 


July 


29 9 8 A. M. 


4 


1874, 


Oct. 


10 4 A. M. 


189»i 


June 


8 Mer. 




1875, 


Sept. 


29 6 56 A. M. lU 


1900, 


May 


28 8 9 A. M. 


11 



The eclipses of 1864, 1869, 1875, and 1900, will be very large. In thoee of 
1868, 1861, 1873, 1876, and 1880, the Sun will rise eclipted. 

Those of 1864 and 1876, will be aunular. The scholar can continue this table, 
or extend it baclcwards, hj adding or subtracting the Chaldean period of 18 
years, 11 days, 7 hours, 64 minutes, and 31 seconds. 



MARS. 

Mars is the first of the exterior planets, its orbit lying 
immediately without, or beyond^ that of the Earth, while 
those of Mercury and Venus are within. 

Mars appears, to the naked eye, of a fine raddv complex- 
ion ; resemoling, in color, and apparent magnitude, the star 
Antares, or Aldebaran, near which it frequently passes. It 
exhibits its greatest briUiancy about the time that it rises 
when the Sun sets,' and sets when the Sun rises ; because it 
is then nearest the Earth. It is least brilliant when it rises 
and sets with the Sun ; for then it is five times farther re- 
moved from us than in the former case. 

Its distance from the Earth at its nearest approach is about 
50 millions of miles. Its greatest distance from us is about 
240 millions of miles. In the former case, it appears nearly 



What is the pnsition of Mara in the solar ayatem 7 Describe ita appearance to the 
najted eye. When doea it exhibit ita greatest brilliancy} Why ia it most brilliant at 

it liiSSt L X?1"" '** »e^ ««M«.fw?te»t diatanoes from ua 7 How much kiier doss 
K aopear in the fiumer caae than in the latter « 



XA&a. 223 

25 times larger than in the latter. When it rises before the 
Sun, it is our morning star ; when it sets afler the Sun, it is 
our evening star. 

The distaace of all the i^lanets from the Earth, whether they be interior or 
exterior planeta, Taries within the limits of the diameters of their orbits ; for 
when a planet is in that point of its orbit which is nearest tlie Earth, it is evi* 
dently nearer by the wbole diameter of its orbit, than when it is in the opponte 
point, on the other side of its orbit. The apparent diameter of the planet wUl 
also vary for the same reason, and to the same degree. 

Mars is sometimes seen in opposition to the Sun, and 
sometimes in superior conjunction with him; sometimes 
gibbous, but never horned. In conjunction, it is never seen 
to pass over the Sun's disc, like Mercury and Venus. This 

E roves not only that its orbit is exterior to the Earth's orbit, 
ut that it is an opaque body, shining only by the reflection 
of the Sun. 

The motion of Mars through the consteiialions of the 
zodiac is but little more than half as great as diat of the 
Earth; it being generally about 57 days in passing over 
one sign, which is at the rate of a little more than half a 
degree each day. Thus, if we know what constellation 
Mars enters to-day, we may conclude that two months hence 
it will be in the next constellation ; four months hence, in the 
next ; six months, in the next, and so on. ' 

Mars performs his revolution around the Sun in one year 
and 10| months, at the distance of 145 millions of miles ; 
moving in its orbit at the mean rate of 55 thousand miles 
an hour. Its diurnal rotation on its axis is performed in 24 
hours, 39 minutes, and 2U seconds; which makes its day 
about 44 minutes longer thsui ours. 



Its mean sidereal revolution is performed in 686.9796468 solar da^s; or in 
da^, 23 hoars, 30 minutes, 41.4 seconds. Its synodical revolution is performed 
in 779.936 sobur days ; or in 779 days, 22 hours, 27 minutes, and 60 seconds. 

Its form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame- 
ter is to its equatorial, as 15 is to 16, nearly. Its mean diame- 
ter is 4222 miles. Its bulk, therefore, is 7 times less than 
that of the Earth; and being 50 millions of miles farther 
from the Sun, it receives from him only half as much light 
and heat. 

The inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, is about 

WitMn iohat limUa does the distance of all the planets from the Earth vary 1 With 
what does the apparent diameter qf a planet vary ? What moon-like phases has 
Man 7 What does the &ct, that it never assumes the crescent form at its conjunction, 
prove, in regard to its situation? How do we know it to t>e opaque? What is the 
rate of iu motion through the constellations of the zodiac, compared with that of the 
Earth? How Ions is it in passing over one sign? At what rate per day is this? 
How, then, if we know in what constellation it is at any one time, may we determine 
u what constellation it will be at any sulisequent time? In what time does it per- 
form its revolution around the Sun? What is its distance from the Sun? What is 
the mean rate of its motion in its orbit per hour? In what time does it perform its 
revolution on its axis? What, then, is the length of its day, compared with that or 
the Earth ? In what time does it "perform its 7nean sidereal revolutioni In what tim$t 
Us synodical revolution ) What are its form and dimensioos 7 



«24 MARS. 

28|^. Consequently, its seasons must be very similar to 
those of the Earth. Indeed, the analogy between Mars and 
the Earth is greater than the analogy between the Earth 
and any other planet of the solar system. Their diurnal 
motion, and of course the length of their days and nights, are 
nearly the same ; the obliquity of their ecliptics, on wiuch 
the seasons depend, are not very different ; and, of all the 
superior planets, the distance of Mars from the Sun is by far 
the nearest to that of the Earth ; no^ is the length of its 
year greally different from ours, when compared with the 
years of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. 

To a spectator on this planet, the Earth will appear al- 
ternately, as a morning and evening star ; and will exhibit 
all the phases of the Moon, just as Mercury and Venus do 
to us ; and sometimes like tnem, will appear to pass over 
the Sun's disc like a dark round spot Our Moon will never 
appear more than a quarter of a degree from the Earth, al- 
though her distance from it is 240.000 miles. If Mars be 
attended by a satellite, it is too small to be seen by the most 
powerful telescopes. 

When it to considered that Vesta, the smallest of the astercrfds, which is one* 
md a half times the distance of Mara fh>m us, and only 269 miles in diameter. 
Is perceivable in the open space, and that without the presence of a moreconqii* 
eaous body to point it out, we may resaonably conclude that Bfan is without • 
■Kwn. 

The prosresB of Man in the heavens, and indeed (^ all the superior planet^ 
will, like Mercury and Venus, sometimes eppear direct, sometimes retrograde, 
and sometimes he will seem stationary. Wnen a supenor planet first becomes 
visible in the morning, west of the Sun, a little afto* its cmijunction, its motion 
Is direett and also most rapid. When it is first seen eaat of the Sun, in the 
evening, soon after its opposition, its motion is retrograde. These retrograde 
movements and stations, as they appear to a spectator from the Earth, are com- 
mon to all the planets^ and demonstrate the truth of the Ck>pemican system. 

The telescopic phenomena of Mars afford peculiar interest 
to astronomers. They behold its disc diveraified with nu- 
merous irregular and variable spots, and ornamented with 
zones and belts of varying brillianc^r, that form, and disap- 
pear, by turns. Zones of intense brightness are to be seen 
m its polar regions, subject, however, to gradual changes. 
That of the southern pole is much the most brilliant Dr. 
Herschel supposes that thev are produced by tilie reflection 
of the Sun's light from the frozen regions, and that the melt- 
ing of these masses of polar ice is the cause of the variation 
in their magnitude and appearance. 

, What, then, is ita bulk, compared with the Earth's, and how much lew fa'fht and heat 
does It receiye from the Sun 7 What it the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbiti 
How are its seasons, compared with those of the Earth? In what particulars is thera 
a greater analogy between Mars and the Earth, than between the Earth and any other 
planet in the solar system ? What must l>e the appearance of the Bsrtfa to a speetatsr 
atMuv7 What IS thejrreatest distance from the Earth at which our Moon will ap- 
K2I^L/}2*^«2Si-^l^*"*K.*"* reatpnablv eondude that Mart ha$ nomteiUUt 
SSSJf • Jr-S^*^*!? ^ "'^ /^'^MS'A the heaven*. What eyatem do these retrogrmd» 



He. was the more eooBrmed in these opinions by observing, 
that alter the expoiure of the luminoaa zone about the north 
pole to a Bummer of eisht months, it wa« coniiderably de- 
creased, while that on the south pole, which had been in 
total darkness during eight months, had Considerably in- 
creased. 

He observed, fsrlher, thai when this spot was mod lumi- i 
nous, the disc of Mars did not appear exactly roanrf, and 
that the bright part of its southern limb seemed to be swoUen 
or arched out be^nd the proper curve. 

TELBaCOPIO 



The extraordinary height and density of the atmosphere 
of Mara, are supposed to be the cause of the remarkable 
redness of its light 

It has been found by erperiment, that when a beam of 
white tigbt passes through any colorless transparent medium, 
its color inclines to red. in proportion to the density of the 
medium, and the space tnrough which it has traveled. Thus 
the Sun, Moon, and stars, appear of a reddish color when 
near the horizon; and every luminous object, seen through 
a mist, is of a ruddy hue. 

IMM rMhmgttik art, betut (nuar thin Uu'l of tba ilalet, or tnaml n&anfi^ ' 
IBTK, Ihe Ibnna wiU make lliair wit Ihnnif b Uw nilHiii( medium, wbile tba 
toner ■rsMlherrelleGUd or ibw^beX Tbe color df Iba Aain. ttaenfore, whan 
hrcaeheatbeaj^, ndat puuke of Ihe color of the lean rafiuwitite nf >, and 
Od* color snat iBcnsM with thedManca. nwdtmHihl, Iberefon. b; which 
lltnlal11uiiiiiuted>ta«lD(tapu((tiii<»tbrou(h Ha UBuubere befon Itinchs 
the Earth, mnei be deoiiTed oT ■ freat proportloD of Ha vkilal nyw, tad e^^aab^ 
qnentty theo be red. Dr, Brewatar luppoaci that tba dlflbrance of color amouf 
Iba other pluMti, UHleTen UHllied (tan, taowtnglaltiadmniilhBighuuid 



l(hl of Uan beaouMad tut 



226 THE ASTEEOroS 



THE ASTEROIDS, OR TELESCOPIC PLANETS. 

• 

Ascending higher in the solar eystem, we find, between 
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, a cluster of small planets, 
which present a variety of anomalies that distinguish them 
from all the older planets of the system. Their names are 
Vesia^ Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, These have all been dis- 
covered during the present century. 

The dates of their diacoverj, and the names of their discoYerera, are as fol- 
lows: 

Ceres, Jan. 1, 1801, by M. Piaxsi, of Palermo. 
Pallas, March 28, 1802, by M, Olbers. of Bremen. 
Judo, September 1, 1804, by M. Hardin;;, of Bremen 
Vesta, March 29, 1807, by M. Olbers, of Bremen. 

The scientific Bode'^'entertaiited the opinion, that the plane- 
tary distances, above Mercury, formed a geometrical series, 
each exterior orbit beipg double the distance of the next in- 
terior one, i'rom the Sun ; a fact which obtains with remark- 
able exactness between Jupiter. Saturn, and Herschel. But 
this law seemed to be interrupted between Mars and Jupi- 
ter. Hence he inferred, tliat there was a planet wanting in 
that interval ; which is now happily supplied by the discov- 
ery of the four star-form planets, occupying the very space 
where the unexplained vacancy presented a stiwng objection 
to his theory. 

These bodies are much smaller in size than the older 
planets — thev all revolve at nearly the same distances from 
the Sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the saine 
periods — their orbits are much more eccentric, and have a 
much greater inclination to the ecliptic — and what is alto- 
gether singular, except in the case or comets — all cross each 
otiier ; so that there is even a possibility that two of these 

* Aoourdinf to him. the diitanoea of the planets may be expiswed nearly as fiiHows : 
the Earth's distance from the Sun beioff la 

Asteroids 4+^C^ "■ % 

Jupiter . 4-f-3X2* » 82 

Saturn 4+3x2P » 100 

Herechel 4+3X2* - 196 



Mercury 4 a 4 

Venus 4+3X1 " 7 

The Earth 4+3>^ « 10 

Mars 4+3S^ - 16 



Comparing these valuei with the actual mean diitancea of the planets from the Sun, 
we cannot but remarlL the near agreement, and can scarcely heiilate to pronounce that 
the respective distance! of the planets Irom the Sun, were assigned according to a law, 
although we are entirely ignorant of the exact law, and of the reason ftr that kw.— 
SntUUeif*9 ElementB, p. 8S. 

What new planeto have been discovered within the present century 7 Whei« ai« they 
tttuated; Ifita/ oTf the datet qf their diecovery, and the namea ^ their dUcoverani 
why did Bode ufer that there was a planet wanung between Mars and Jupiter. 



THE ASTEROIDS. f^ 

bodies may, some time, in the coarse of their revolutions, 
come into collision. 

The orbit of Vesta is so eccentric, that she is sometimes 
farther from the Sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, 
although her mean distance is many millions of miles less 
than theirs. The orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the 
other three, in two opposite points. 

The student shouid here refer to the FHgurea^ Plate I qf the Atlae^ and ver- 
ify auch of these particulars (w are there represented. It teotUd be teett for 
the teacher to re^re him to observe pariieularly thepoeUions of their orbits^ 
and to state their different degrees tf tnelination to the plane of the ecliptic. 

From these and other circumstances, many eminent as- 
tronomers are of opinion, that these four planets are the frag- 
ments of a large celestial body which once revolved between 
Mars and Jujiiter, and which burst asunder by some tremen- 
dous convulsion, or some external violence. The discovery 
of Ceres by Piazzi, on the first day of the nresent century, 
drew the attention of all the astronomers or the age to that 
region of the sky, and every inch of it was minutely explored. 
The consequence was, that, in the year following. Dr. Gibers, 
of Bremen, announced to tne world the discovery of Pallas, 
situated not many degrees from Ceres, and very much re- 
sembling it in size. 

From this discovery. Dr. Olbers first conceived the idea 
ihat these bodies might be the fragments of a former world ; 
and if so^ that other portions of it might be found either in the 
same neighborhood, or else, having diverged from the same 
point, *^ they ought to have two common points of reunion, or 
two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens through which 
ail the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass." 

One of these nodes he found to he in the constellation 
Virgo, and the opposite one, in the Whale ; and it is a re- 
markable coincidence that it was in the neighborhood of 
the latter constellation that Mr. Harding discovered the 
nlanet Juno. In order therefore to detect the remaining 
fragments, if any existed. Dr. Olbers examined, three times 
every year, ail the small stars in Virgo and the Whale; 
and it was actually in the constellation Virgo, that he dis- 
covered the planet Vesta. Some astronomers think it not 
unlikely that still additional fragments of a similar descrip- 
tion may hereaf1;pr be discovered. Dr. Brewster attributes 

Id what paxticuJan do Oie«e new planeta differ ftom the older planets? How ia it 
poisible that two of them fhould ever come into collision 7 How ia it that Veata n 
lometimea &rthei fiom the Sun than either Cerea, Pallas, or Juno, when her inean (ba- 
lanoe ia many milliona ofmilea leaa than theira ) What la the position of her orbit with 
legaid to their orbita ? What the<H7 in regard to the orifin of theae planeta have aome 
aatronomera derived from theae and aome other circumatances ? Who fint conceived 
thia idea) How came he to have thia ideal Where did he imagine other frag 
ments might be found? In what oonatellattona did he find theae nodes to beT 
Where were the pkneta Juno and Tetta actuaJljr found I Bow did Dr. Olben din> 
eov«r Veatai 



228 THE ASTEROIDS. 

the fall of meteoric stones to the vmaller fragments of these 
bodies happening to come within the sphere of the Earth's 
attraction. 

Meteoric ■tones, or what are geoerally termed aeroliua^ are stonee which 
■omeUmea All from the apper regiona of the atmosphere ap(Mi the Earth. 
The substance of which they are composed, is, for the most part, metallic; but 
the ore of which it consists is not to be found in the eame oonetituent proportiome 
in any known substance upon the EUuth. Their lall is geneniU j preceded by a 
luminous appearance, a hissing noise, and a loud explosion ; and when fomid 
Immediately after th^r descent, they are always hot, and usually coYcred wfdi 
a black crust, indicating a state of exterior fhsi<m. 

Their rixeTarica firom that of small fngmeots of inconeidersble weight, to 
that of the most ponderous messes. They have been found to weigh from 360 
pounda to sereral tons ; and they have descended to the earth with a Ibiee 
•ufflcient to bury them many feet under the surfoce. 

Some have supposed that they are projected from volcanoes in the Moon ; 
others that they proceed from volcanoes on the Earth ; while others imagine 
that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphere ; but the truth proba- 
bly is not yet ascertained. In some instances, these stones have penetrated 
through the roofs of houses, and proved destructive to the inhabitants. 

If we carefiiUy compote the force of gravity in the Moon, we shall find that 
If a body were projected from her surface with a momentum that would causa 
It to move at the rate of 8,200 feet in the first second of time, and in the direc- 
tion of a line joining the centers of the Earth and Moon, it would not lall again 
to the snrftce of the Moon ; but would become a satellite to the Earth. Such an 
Impulse might, indeed, cause it,. even after many revolutions, to fi^Q to the 
Earth. Tlie ftU, therefore, of these stones from the air, may be accounted 
far In this manner. 

Mr. Harte calculates, that even a velocity of 6000 feet In a second, would be 
sufficient to carry a body prqjocted from the sur&ce of the Moon beyond th* 
power of her attraction. If so, a projectile force three times greater than that 
of a cannon, would carry a body fnm the Moon, beyond the point of equal at- 
taction, and cause it to reach the Earth. A force equal to this is often exerted 
by our volcanoes, and by subterranean steam. Hence, there is no impossibil- 
ity in the supposition of their coming from the Moon ; but yet I think the 
theory of aerial consolidation the more plausible. 

Vesta appears like a star of the 5th or 6th magnitude, 
shining witn a pure, steady radiance, and is the only one or 
the asteroids which can be discerned by the naked eye. 

To what does Dr. Brewster attribute the flJl of meteoric stones? V^uU i» ntetaU tM 
the esprea$ion,fneteorie atones 7 Qf what ntbetance are they oompoHd l bt what r»- 
epeet do they mfferfmm any metcullc ntbetancee known on the Earth J What indteth 
tUme generally precede their fall 7 In what etate are tfiey jhund to be after their df- 
eeenti What U their magnitude! What theoriea have been adopted to account Jkr 
their qrigini Explain how it U not impoeeible tftat they may come jfom the Mom. 
Describe the appearance of Vesta. «"*-* 



Jdmo, th« next plmnet in order kfter Tesu, rerolres 
MOnnd the Siin in 4 yearg, 4inii>nrbs, at the mean distnous 
of 364 millioDe of miles, moving in her orbit al the rate of 
41 thousand miles an hour. Her dismeler is estimated al 
1393 miles. This would make her magaiiude 183 limes less 
than the Earth's. The light and heat which she receires 
from the Sua is seven times less than that received by tlie 
Earth. 

The eccentricity o[ her orhil is to sreBt, that her great- 
eat distance from the Sun is nearly double her least distance ; 
BO ihat, when she is in her pertAe^ton, she is nearer the Sun 
bv 130 millions of miles, than when she is in her apkelion. 
This great eccentricity has a corresponding; effect upon 
her tate of motion ; for being go much nearer, and there- 
fore BO much more powerfully attracted by the Sun at one 
time than at another, she moves through that batf of her 
orbit which is nearest the Sun, in one half of the lime that 
■he occupies in completing the other half. 

AccDrdlni ID Schroeter, t)ie diHieler of Judd la liSS mllei; uid ilie ti 

phuiru. Bchnwler (Ih remu-ta, thu Ihe oriuioii In her hrtlltancj li 
BhlBaT owing In csnun cbufei io Ihc denall; of Iwr wmnqibeni u Iha 

Cbres, the planet next in order af^er Judo, revolves about 
the Sun in 4 years, 7^^ months, at the mean distance of 363^ 
millions of miles, moving in her orhil at the rate of 41 
thousand miles an hour. Herdiameiet is estimated at 1583 
miles, which makes bet magnitude 1S5 limes less than tha 
Earth's. The intensity of the li^hi and heat which she re- 
ceives from the Sun, is about 7^ times less than that of tbos* 
received by the Earth. 

Ceres shines with a ruddy colour, and appears to be only 
•bout the size of a star of (he 8lb magnitude. Consequent>- 
iy she is never seen by the naked eye. She is surrounded 
by a species of cloudy or nebulous light, which gives her 



somewhml the tppeannce of a comet, fonniag, accoTfting ta 
Schroeter, in atmosphere 675 mites in height. 

Cersa, u bu b*«i Bid, wu tba fim dlicimreil at Ihs (ileniitb. Al 
hflrdlvcorerr, uln»oinFrB courmtnuied (h«mBrlvei apoD tbc humoDj of 

KftU void belvesD Van aod Jupller, la Drd«T ro mah«ine tjMem cooipleiv 
their DWQ eyes ; bul the luceeujf d dkBcorerleB of PbJFu and Juna uvd 
tatroducKl confualon, ind pieMnled ■ dllBKuLij which Ihej were umhfe Id 
■slTe, UQ Dr. Otben mj^ciinl the lilei Ihu ihese imell uoomlain bodiea 
were merelv tbe frvgnienEB of e larger planet, which hed beeo exploded bj 
•DOIH ulchtj conTuWon. AiDonf the nHiI able and deckled adrucuea of 
Ihiahypoiheiia, <■ Dr. Brewner, of Edinburgh. 

Pallas, the next planet in order af^er Ceres, perTorma het 
revolution around the Sun in 4 years, 74 months, at the 
mean distance of 2&4 millions of miles, moving in her orbit 
at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter 
is estimated at 2025 miles, which is but litrle less than that 
of om- Moon. It is a singular and very remarkable pheno- 
menou in the solar system, that two planets, (Ceres and 
PallaaJ nearly of the same size, ahonld he situated at equa. 
distances from the Sun, revolve about him in the same 
period, and in orbits that intersect each other. The dif- 
ference in the respective -distances of Ceres and Pallas ia 
less than a million of miles. The difference in their side< 
real revolutions, according to some astronomers, is bat a 
■ingle day 1 

The calculallon of Ibe tatitode and ktnslliide of the aaleioldi, la a [sbani 

kuilliirj lablea, and ftDm the fact thai the rtemenls of^ atu-lbrm pbnaliv 
>re Terj Imperfectly detennlnod Whether anj of the aalervldi bu a lb 



Jdpitgs ia the largest of all the planets belonging to th< 
lolar system. It may be readily distinguished from Iht 
fixed stars, by its peculiar splendour and magnitude; ap 
peering to the naked eye almost as resplendent as Yenus, 
although it js more than seven times her distance from the 
Sun. 



JUnTUL 



Ml 



When his ngiit ascension is less than that of the Bun, he 
IS our morning star, and appears in the eastern hemi- 
sphere before the Sun rises ; when greater, he is our 
eyeniDg star, and lingers in the western hemisphere after 
the Sun sets. 

Nothing can be easier than to trace Jupiter amonff the 
eonstellations of the zodiac ; for in whatever constellation 
he is seen to>day, one year hence he will be seen equally 
advanced in the next constellation ; two years hence, in the 
next ; three years hence, in the next, and so on ; beins 

{'ust a year, at a mean rate, in paissing over one constef 
ation. 

The exact mean motion of Jupiter in its orbit, is about one twelfth of t 
degree in a clay ; which amounts to only 30^ 2(K 32" in a year. 

For 12 years to come, he will, at a mean rate, pass 
through the constellations of the zodiac, as follows : 



1834 


Aries. 


1838 


Leo. 


1842 


Sagittarius. 


1835 


Taurus. 


1839 


Virgo. 


1843 


Capricornus. 


1836 


Gemini. 


1840 


Libra. 


1844 


Aquarius. 


1837 


Cancer. 


1841 


Scorpio. 


1845 


Pisces. 



Jupiter is the next planet in the solar system above the 
asteroids, and performs his annual revolution around the 
Sun in nearly 12 of our years, at the mean distance of 495 
millions of miles ; moving in his orbit at the rate of 30,000 
miles an hour. 

The ejcact period of Jupiter's sidereal reyointion is 11 years, lO' months, 
17 days, 14 hours, 21 mimites, 251 seconds. His exact mean distance from 
the Sun is 496,533,837 miles ; consequently, the exact rate of his motion in 
his orbit, is 29,943 utiles per hour. 

He revolves on an axis, which is. perpendicular to the 
plane of his orbit, in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 50 seconds ; 
so that his year contains 10,471 days and nights; each 
about 5 hours long. 

His form /s that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame 
ter is to its equatorial, as 13 to 14. He is therefore consid- 
erably more flattened at the poles, than any of the othet 
planets, except Saturn. This is caused by his rapid rotation 
on hie axis ; for it is a universal law that the equatorial 
parts of every body, revolving on an axis, will be swollen 

In wliatcaae is he our moniin|iitar, and in what our evening} How may he be traced 
among the ooiMteUations of U« Zodiac 7 In what oonstellatioo will lie be. each year, fix 
tMfetve yean to eome T Wliat is tiia ptisitjon in tlie solar system 7 Wliat is liis mean dis- 
tance from the San 7 What is the mte per hour of his motion in his orbit 7 What U t/u 
ettact period of hU afdereat revolution ? What is hit exact mean distance firom the 
Btsn 7 What the eautct rate per hour of his motion in hit orbit 7 What is the posi- 
tiua at his axis with raspect to the plane of his orbit 7 How many days and nights does 
his year contain 7 How lon^ are they, each 7 What is his fimii 7 Wfaiat is the ratio be- 
tween liis polar and equatorial diameten 7 What is the cause of Us being more f^*tfmt^ 
at She poles than any of the other pianets ] 



oat, in proportion to the density of the body, and the rapidi- 
ty of its motion. 

The difference between the polar and equatorial dlametera of Joptter, 
•zceeda 6000 milea. The difference between the polar and equatorial dl« 
aineters of the Earth, ia only 26 oiilea. Jupiter, even on the most careleaa 
▼few throQgh a good telescope, appears to be oval ; the longer diameCar 
being parallel to the direction or his belts, which are also parallel to the eclipde. 

By this rapid whirl on his axis, his equatorial inhabitants 
are carried around at the rate of 26,554 miles an hoar ; 
which IS 1600 miles farther than the equatorial mhabitants 
of the Earth are carried, by its diurnal motion, in twenty^ 
four hours. 

The true mean diameter of Jupiter is 86,255 miles ; which 
is nearly 11 times greater than the Earth's. His volume 
is there^re about thirteen hundred miles larger than that 
of the Earth. (Conware his magnitude v)ith that of the 
Earth. Plate /.) On account of his great distance from 
the Sun^ the degree of light and heat which he receiyes 
from it, IS 27 times leas than that received by the Earth. 

When Jupiter is in conjunction, he rises, sets, and comes to the meri<fiaa 
with the Sun ; but is never observed to make a transit, or pass over the 
Bun's disc; when in opposition, he rises when the Sun sets, sets when the 
Bun rises, and comes 'to the meridian at midnight, which never happens in 
Uie case of an interior planet. This proves that Jupiter revolves in an orbit 
which is exterior to that of the Earth. 

As the variety in the seasons of a planet, and in the length 
of its days and nights, depends upon the inclination of its axis 
to the plane of its orbit, and as the axis of Jupiter has no 
mclination, there can be no difference in his seasons, on 
the same p^arallels of latitude, nor any variation in the 
length of his days and nights. It is not to be understood, 
however, that, one uniform season prevails from his equator 
to his poles ; but that the same parallels of latitude on each 
side of his equator, uniformly enjoy the same season, what- 
ever season it may be. 

About his equatorial regions there is perpetual summer ; 
and at his poles everlasting winter ; but yet equal day and 
equal night at each. This arrangement seems to have been 
kindly ordered by the beneficent Creator ; for had his axis 
been inclined to his orbit, like that of the Earth, his polar 
winters would have been alternately a dreadful night of 
six ye ars darkness, 

What i* the difference between hit poUtr and eguatorial Aiameteret VFhai Som 
Afe jfbrm appear to bet through a good telescope? What i» the dtreetMm of Ms 
longer diameter ? At what rate per iiour are his equatorial inhabitants ranied tf Ms 
Diotion on hia axis 7 How much fiuther is thii than the equatorial jahabttants at As 
Earth aie canned in 94 IwurB? Wliat is Jupiter's true mean diameter? How much 
neater is it than the Earth's 7 Wliat is his volume, compared with the Earth's 7 What 
Mthe degree of lieht and heat which be receives fiom the sun, compared with that ro> 
wived by Uie Earth 7 How do toe know that Supiter*» orbit i» exterior to that qf tim 
Sf^uL ^'^^ *■.**»£ anangement of Jupiter's seasons, and of his days and ntghlst 
Elpo&'nShuha*'**£!^i** plane of his oriiit, Itke that of our Earth, hvw long woM 



JUPiTUU 833 



nLMOOPlC APPSABANCB4 OP JUPrnOL 

Fig. 17. 





. Jupiter when viewed through a telescope, appears to be 
surrounded by a number of luminous zone's, usually termed 
beltSy that frequently extend quite around him. These beltt 
are parallel not only to each other, but, in general, to his 
equator, which is also nearly parallel to the ecliptic. They 
are subject, however, to considerable variation, both in 
breadth ana number. Sometimes eight have been seen at 
once; sometimes only one, but more usually three. Dr. 
Herschel once perceived his whole disc covered with small 
belts. 

Sometimes these belts continue for months at a time With 
little or no variation, and sometimes a new belt has been seen 
to form in a few hours. Sometimes they are interrupted in 
their length ; and at other times, they appear to spread in 
width, and run into each other, until their breadth exceeds 
5,000 miles. 

Bright and dark spots are also frequently to be seen in 
the belts, which usually disappear with the belts themselves, 
though not always, for Cassini observed that one occupied 
the same position more than 40 years. Of the rmise ot 
these variable appearances, but little is known. They are 
generally supposed to be nothing more than atmospherical 
phenomena, resulting from, or combined with, the rapid mo- 
tion of the planet upon its axis. 

DifTerent opinions have been entertained hy astronomers respecting Uie 
eauae of these belts and spots. By some thev have been regardea as cloads, 
or as openings in the atmosphere of the pianet, while others imagine that 
ihey are of a more permanent nature, and are the marks of great physical 
revolutions, which are nerpetuallv agitating and changing the surface of 
the planet The first or these opmions suJRciently explams the varii^iona 
!n the form and magnitude of the jpola, and the paraUelum of the belts. 
The spot first observed by Cassini, in 166&, whicn has both disappeared 
and re-appeared in the same form and position for the space of 43 years, 
could not possibly be occasioned by any atmosuherical variations, but seema 
evidently to be connected with the surface of the planet The form of th« 



Oetciibe Japiie^B appeanoee, as aefeu tbrooilh a telescope. What is supposed to be 
the ranse of these frtwDomenal JKelflM mum or <A0 44^^rMrt spMofW «M«rlainetf ty 

20* 



bah, uecordhig to mne sttroiKiiDer^ may b« •ceoontod l«r by rappMhH 
that the atnuipkere reflects more fight than the bitdy of the plaoet, ana 
that the donds which float in it, being thrown into parallel strata by the 
lapiility of its diamal nMition, form regular ifUertlftcet, through whieh are 
•een its opaque body, or any of the permanent spots which may come within 
Uie range or the opening. 

Jupiter is also attendel^ by four satellites or moons, some 
of which are visible to him every hour of the nig^ht ; exhib- 
iting, on a small scale and in short periods, most of the phe- 
nomena of the solar system. When viewed through a tele- 
scope, these satellites present a most interesting and beau- 
tiful appearance. The first satellite, or that nearest the 
planet, is 259,000 miles distant from its centre, and revolves 
around it in 42i hours ; and appears, at the surface of Jup'- 
ter, four times larger than our Moon does to us. His second 
satellite, being ^th smaller and farther distant, appears 
about the size of ours; the third, somewhat less; and the 
fourth, which is more than a million of miles from him, and 
takes 16i days to revolve around him, appears only about one 
third the diameter of our Moon. 

These satellites suffer frequent eclipses from passing 
through Jupiter's shadow, in the same manner as our Moon 
is eclipsed in passing through the Earth's shadow. The 
three nearest satellites fall into his shadow, and are eclips- 
ed, in every revolution ; but the orbit of the fourth is so 
much inclined, that it passes by its opposition to him, two 
years in six, without falling into his shadow. By means ot 
these eclipses, astronomers have not only discovered that 
light is 8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the 
Sun, but are also enabled to determine the longitude of pla- 
ces on the Earth with greatei facility and exactness than 
by any other methods yet known. 

It was long since foun<j, by the most rarefol obsenrations, that when tlie 
Earth is in that pan of her orbit wliich is nearest to Jti^iiter, the eclipses 
appear to happen 8^ 13'' tooner than the tables predict; and when in 
tlurt part of her orbit which is farthest from him, 8' 13'' later than the 
tables predict; making a total difference in time, of 16' 26". FVom tlie 
mean of 6000 eclipses observed by Delambre, this dlssjrreement between 
observation and calculation^ was satisfactorily settled at S' 13", while both 
were considered equally correct. Now when the eclipses happen sooner 
than the tables, Jupiter is at his nearest approach to the Rarth — when later^ 
at his greatest distance ; so that the difference in his distances from the 
Eartli, in the two cases, is the whole diameter of the Earth's orbit, or about 
190 millions of miles. Hence, it is concluded that light ts noi inolantane- 

How many satpllites has Japfter? How often are they visible to Una f What It ths 
dBabuiee from him of hit fint or ncareat satellite ? What ia tlte timd of its revolutioii I 
What H iu apparent macnitttde at the aurface of Jupiter, oomparea with the magnitads 
«f Ine Moon, as aeeo oy u>? What are the apparent magnitudes of his other satellites, 
aa seen at his aurftce, onnpared with that of tlie Moon as seen at the Earth 1 What is 
the distanoe of his fi>urth satellite from him 7 What is the time (rf* its revolution 7 How 
often are his three nearest satellites eclipsebl How often his fourth? Why is it not 
•chpwd aa often aa the others 7 What imporw^nt purposes have these eclipses served *o 
?S™**'?/^';!.. ®""* the method by which the prof restive miOtUm of RfA^ «»d lAs 
time w \ich it oeeuptr^ in comirur to ^tsfrvm the Shtn, were Mseoverei, 



ULttom. 



235 



mmt Inalhit It oecuj^M WW In pusinc aeroM the Swl^i't orbit, or ^ Vy 
In comiDf from the Sun to the Eiurth ; beiiif nearlj 12 mlllloiM of miles • 
•ioute. 

The revolutions of the satellites about Jupiter are pre- 
cisely similar to the revolutions flf the planets about the 
Sun. In this respect they are an^pitome of the solar sys- 
tem, exhibiting, on a smaller scale, the various changes tuat 
take place amon; the planetary worlds. 

Jupiter, when seen from his nearest satellite, appears a 
thousand times larger than our Moon does to us, exmbiting 
on a scale of inconceivable magnificence, the varyins^ forms 
of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon, 
every 42 hours. 

Tte apparent diametera of Jupiter's aatellitea, their mean (Sataneea from 
Mm, and uieir periodical revolutions, are exhibited in the foUowing table. 



Satellites. 



Revolution. 



App. 

DiauL 



Mean Diet 



First, 
Second, 
Thir 
FourtI 



X 



Id. 18h. 28ai. 

3 13 14 

7 3 43 

16 16 32 



1. 189 
I 1.060 
I Q. 6BQ 



959,000 

414,000 

647,000 

1,164,000 



SATURN, 

Saturn is situated between the orbits of Jupiter and Her- 
tchel, and is the most remote planet from the Earth of any 
that are visible to the naked eye. It may be easily distin- 
euished from the fixed stars by its pale, feeble, and steady 
light. It resembles the star Fomalhaut, both in colour and 
size, differing from it only in the steadiness and uniformity 
of its light. 

From the slowness of its motion in its orbit, th^ pupil, 
throughout the period of his whole life, may trace its appa- 
rent course aniong the stars, without any danger of mistake. 
Having once found when it enters a particular constella- 
tion, he may easily remember where he is to look for it in 
any subsequent year ; because, at a mean rate, it is just 2\ 
years in passing over a single sign or constellation. 

Saturn's mean daily motion among the stars is only about 
^, the thirtieth part of a degree. 

Saturn entered the constellation Virgo about the beginning of 1833, and 
continued in it until the middle of the year 1836^ when he passed into Ii> 

fo wiiat respect are JiqMter'a satellites an epitome of tlie solar ayitecn 7 What is Juoih 
ter's appearance, as seen from his nearest satellite 7 What are the diameterat mean <i2s>. 
tancee, and tinu$ oftht revolution tfhia aatellUee 7 Where, in tlie solar sfstem, b 
8atura situated 7 How may it be disttoguished from the fixed stars 7 Wliat star does tt 
iesemble7 In wliatiespeetsiBittikeit,andin wliatisitdiflerentfiomit7 How may his 
■hoe among the stars be raadilr found 7 What is about tlw rate of his mean daily mo- 
tton among the stars 7 When did Saturn enter the conateUation Virgo, and how long 
iidheeon:inueinit7 What eonetsUation did he anur Hest» andhowUmfwiUha 
§entinut in it J 



KM UTun. 

on. B< win naOsM h tKH MPoKcUiiioD imia I838{ ukI w on) ou» 
nlng abootl^ jan In «cb couKellUloD, oi Dearly 3D jeua la oas rcTk. 

Th« meiD distance of Saiurn from the Sud is Dearly 
double that of Jnpiler, being about 909 millions of miles. 
His diameter ia abour 48,000 miles ; his volume therefore 
is eleven hundred time* greater than the Earth's. Moving 
in his orbit at the rate of 23,000 mile^ an hour, he requires 
29f years to complete bis circuit around the Sun : but hia 
ditimal rotation oo his axis is accomplished in lO^ hours. 
His year, therefore, is nearly ibirtv lime)! as long as ours, 
while his day is shorter by more than one half. His yeai 
coDtains about 26,150 of its own days, which are equal to 
10J59 of our days. 

The surface of Satam, like that of Jupiter, is diversified 
with belts and dark spots. Qc. Hersi^bel sometimes per- 
ceived five belts od tits surface ; three of which were dark, 
and two bright The dark belts have a yellowish tinge, and 
eenerally eorer a broader zone of the planet than those ol 
Jupiter. 

Tp the inhabitants of Saturn, the Son appears 90 times 
less than he appears to the Earth ; and they receive from 
him only one ninetieth part as much light and heat. Bui 
it is computed that even the ninetielh part of the Sun's li^hi 
exceeds the illuminating power of ^000 full moons, which 
would be abuadantly sufficient for all the purposes of life. 
tlK. 18, 

elesGopic appearance 
H is unparalleled. It 
oaore interesting than 
with all his moons 
:a. That which emi- 
distioguishes this 
From every other id 
em, is a magnificent 
■ riuff, encircling il 
rpetual light, 
light of the ring is 
illiant than the pla- 



£r».n>MHriaibiihiE^un><iraatiiiDlliiuitsu) wtMldHrHor iHht (md bMt 
■» M •''^ Ai™ "<• ^<- axnnred ivilli IbU mind IvUk EMthl 1^ ttjBiMof 



tft 



aet Itself. It tarns around its centre of motion in the same 
time tnat Saturn turns on it^ axis. When viewed with a 
good -telescope, it is found to consist of two concentric rings, 
divided bjr a dark band. 

By tke lawa of oMchaaicA, it It ImpoHiUe that the body of tuo rivga 
•hoald retain its position by the adhesion of the particles akme : it mast ne« 
eessarily revolve with a velocity that wid |eoerate centrifugal force saiB* 
cient to balance the attraction of datum. Observatioa eonnrms the troth 
of these principles, showing that the rings rotate about the planet in 10| 
flours, which is considerably less than the time a satellite would take to re* 
votve about it at the same distance. Their plane is inclined to Che eeUptlc 
in an angle of Zl°. In consequence of this obliquity of position, tfaey al- 
ways appear elliptical to us, but with an eccentricity so variable as to ap« 
pear, occasionally, Ulce a straight line drawn across the planet ; in which 
ctme the^ are visible only by the aid of superior iastruoients. Sueh was 
their position in April, 1833 ; for the Sun was then passing from their south 
io their north side. The rings intersect the ecliptic in two op|X)aite pointl^ 

Saturn's rinosl 






Why 9hmM wt judre, preoi»%m to ott erv ation, Vmt thme rinn •»»» rcvelM 
fsnund him I Doea oUervation cot^lrm tkU opinion t fh totar thne do cft« rinn 
revolve about the plana ? UthU a greater or leet timetfian u eatetttteat the $amedi9- 
mnee toould require to revolve about it t Whp do the ringeaUoaye mpeer etUptimt 
§oue? To what extent dou the eccentricity tf the Tinge vetnf 9 ¥mt ie the fotd' 
Uonef the Tinge viUhrt9»d to the eeU^tici 



wMeli WKf be eaHed their nodes. Thesn faints are In longitude 17uP, and 
860 dejrreea. When, therefore, Satarn is in either of these points, his rinn 
will be invisible to us. On liie contrary, when his longitude is 89**, or iUr*, 
the rings may be seen to the greatest sidvantage. As the edges of the rioga 
wiU present themselves to the Sun twice in each revolution of the planet, itla 
obvious that tlie disappearance of them will occur once in about 15 years ; 
wbject, however, to the variation dependent on the position of ibe JBiuth at 
that time. 

The preceding diagrams are a very good representation of the form and 
pomlion of the rings as they appear to a s|>eetator during one complete revolo> 
Hon of Saturn through the si^s of the ecliptic. 

By reference to the figure, it will be seen, that when Saturn is in either of 
the first six si^ns, the Sun shines on the aouth aide of the rings ; and that 
while he is in eitl^er of the last six sign% upon their north side. 

The following are the dates during the ensuing revolutions of the planet, 
when its mean kdioeentrie longitude is such that the rings will (if the Earth 
be Avoarably situated) either be invisible, or seen to the greatest advaa> 
tage. 



1833 April. 
1838 July. 
1847 Dec. 
1866 AoriL 
1863 Nov. 



<»» of Vligo. 
20° of Scorpio. 
2(K> of Aquarius. 
20O of Gemini. 
20O of Virga 



Invisible. 

North side illuminated. 

Invisible. 

South side illuminated. 

Invisible. 



The distauRc between Saturn and his inner ring, is only 
21,000 miles ; being less than a tenth part of the distance of 
our Moon from the Earth. The breadth of the dark band, 
or the interval between the rings, is hardly 3,000 miles.-^ 
The breadth of the inner ring is 20,000 miles. Being only 
about the same distance from Saturn, it will present to his 
inhabitants a luminous zone, arching the whole concave 
vault from one hemisphere to the other with a broad girdle 
of light. 

The most obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect 
light upon the planet in the absence of the Sun ; what other 
purposes it may be intended to subserve, is to us unknown. 
The sun, as has been shown, illuminates one side of it during 
15 years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution ; 
and, during the next 15 years, the other side is enlightened 
in its turn. 

Twice in the course of 30 years, there is a short interval 
of time whe!i neither side is enlightened, and when, of course 
it ceases to be visible ; — namely, at the time when the Sun 
eeases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the 



-.aF**/*? ^ 5??«***<** qfthemnoOee? In tofuu potUian ^f Somni, Hum, wittitu 
rhtge be invtaWe to w, and in what poeUion wiU they he »em to thebeatad9antag« t 
How often wiUthedisappearaneeqfthe ringe occur ? Explain thle. Jn what ettne 

*^"' t*«.5'^WSl'**!^f**,®*'» «*'»^ ^ **« «^* »'<*« <{r'^ nng9, and in what on the 
uortheideJ What w the distanee between Saturn and his inner ring) How gn»t is 
ttM^oompaied with the dtttance of our Moon from the Earthi Whatu the dittaiice be- 
twaen t^ two nnn? What n the brea^hii of the inner rinc ? What nMWt be its ai>peai^ 
ame at Saturn ) ,. What la Uie .roait obviotts use of thin douLle rinff I How loiw a ttea 
does tlie Shin enhchtea each aide of it alternately } How often, aid in what moMtiZ 
•es. IS neither aide enlightened, and the tum» of ooane, •-""•-"*" "* """ «■««»•» 



other.* It revolves around its axis, and eonseqae&tlyi 
around Saturn, in lOJ-^ hours, which is at the rate ofa thou- 
sand miles in a minute, or «58 times swifter than the revolo* 
tion of the Earth's equator. 

When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in th« 
absence of the Sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous 
arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from the 
eastern to the western horizon, exceeding in breadth a hun- 
dred times the apparent diameter of our Moon. 

Besides the rings, Saturn is attended by seven satellites, 
which revolve about him at different periods and distances, 
and reciprocally reflect the Sun's rays on each other and 
on the planet. The rings and moons illuminate the nighta 
of Saturn ; the moons and Saturn enlighten the rings, and 
the planet and rings reflect the Sun's beams on the satel- 
lites. 

The fourth of these satellites On the order of their distance) was lint 
discovered by Huygens, on the 25th of Marcli, 16662jand, in honour of th« 
discoverer, was caiied the Huigenian Satellite. This satellite, being tb« 
largest of all, is seen without much difficulty. Caasini discovered the Ist, 
Sd, 3d, and 5th satellites, between October, 1671, and March, 1681 Dr. 
Hersehal discovered the 6th and 7th in 1789. These are nearer to Batum than 
toy of the rest, though, to avoid confusion, they are named in the order of 
their discovery. 

The sixth and seventh are the smallest of the whole ; the 
first and second are the next smallest ; the third is spreateT 
than the first and second ; the fourth is the^argest of them 
all ; and the fifth surpasses the rest in brightness. 

Their respective distances from their primary, vary from 
half the distance of our Moon, to two millions of miles. 
Their periodic revolutions vary from 1 day to 79 days. 
The orbits of the six inner satellites, that is, the 1st, 2d, 3d. 
ith, 6th, and 7th, all lie in the plane of Saturn's rinss, ana 
revolve around their outer edge; while the 5th satellite de- 
viates so far from the plane of the rings, as sometimes to be 
seen through the opening between them and the planet. 

Laplace imagines that the accumulation of matter at Saturn's equator re- 
tains the orbits of the first six satellites in the plane of the equator, in the 
same manner as it retains the rings in that plane. It has been satisfactorily 
ascertained, that Saturn has a greater accumulation of matter about his 

* This happens, as we have already shown, when Saturn is either in the 90th degree of 
Pisces, or tho 90th degree of Viigo. wThen he is lietween these points, or in the 80th de> 
nee either of Gomini or of Sa«ittariui, his ring uipeari most open to us, and more in tlis 
Ibrm of ao oval, whose longest diameter is to Uie shortest as 9 to 4, 

In what tfane does the ring complete its revolution on its axis, and, of oouise, around 
the planet 7 What is the rate per minute of itrmotjon? How rapid is tiwh company 
with the motioo of the Earth's equator ) What would be tiie appearance of the nngs, tt 
riewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the alwenoe of the Sun } How many moooi 
baa Saturn 7 How are Saturn, his rmgs and satellites, sevemlly, enligfaU»ed 1 What an 
Vu dates qT their diseavay, and the namse ef their diecoverere? What are the| 
•ompavaitive magnitudes, distaAees, and times of revohition? What is the pontion of 
their orbits with respect to the rings of r^atum 7 What doe* Laplace imagine retaim 
the orbit* if Saturn'* Jlr*t *ix eauUiiet in the plane of ftie egtiMor 7 



MO AATom. 



r, and etmmqumaOf tint he to more flattened at the poteiy thaa Jvy^ 
ter, thoof h the relocitf of the eqaatorial muru of the fonner to inoch Im8 
than that of the tetrer. Thto to suAeiently accounted for by the &ct, that 
the rimga of Satnrn lie in the plane of hto equator, and act more powerfully 
upon thoae parte of hto aurface than upon any other ; and thua, while they 
aktin dimintohing the aravity of theae parta, alao aid the eentrifafal f»ree in 
flattentag the poleaof the planet. Indeed, had Saturn never revolved D|>on 
hto azia, the action of the rings would, of itself have been aufllcient to give 
him the form of an oblate spheroid. 

The theory of the satellites of Ss(aturn is less perfect thaa 
that of the satellites of Jupiter. The difScuIty of ohserring 
their eclipses, and of measuring their elongations from their 
primary, have prevented astronomers from determining, 
with their usual precision, their mean distances and revo- 
lations. 

We may remark, with the Christian Philosopher, that 
Chere is no planet in the solar svstem, whose firmament 
presents such a variety of splendia and magnificent ohjects 
aa that of Saturn. 

The various aspects of the seven moons, one rising above 
the horizon, while another is setting, and a third approach 
mg to the meridian ; one entering into an eclipse, and an 
(Jther emerging from one ; one appearing as a crescent, and 
another with a gibbous phase ; and sometimes the whole 
of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright as- 
semblage ! The majestic motion of the rings, — at one time 
illuminating the sky with their splendour, and eclipsing the 
stars ; at another, casting^ a deep shade over certain regions 
of the planet, and unveiling to view the wonders of the 
starry firmament, are scenes worthy of the majesty of the 
Divine Being to unfold,^ and of rational creatures to con 
template. 

Such displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence, lead us to 
conclude that the numerous splendid objects connected with 
this planet, were not created merely to shed their lustre on 
naked rocks and barren sands ; but that an immense popu- 
lation of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to 
enjoy the bounty, and adore the goodness, of their great 
Creator. 

The following table exhibits the apparent and mean distanoeaof the asteUkoa 
from their primary, and the times of their periodical rev<4ution. Their dto> 
tsncea innUtetwere computed from their observed micrometer distancea; 
the diameter of Saturn's equator being considered equal to 80^000 milea. 



"WliF are esferanMnen less aeqmjnted with the mean dhtsnees snd l erdaltoas of a» 
!S?!^fl?^'.''^^^<^<^Jui>it«> I)eBenbetheilnnaaMntorait«ni.MS 



nfaated hf his rings and satellites. 



BUSCHBU 



t4l 



Bitfel- 


Feriodio 
rerolation. 


IMatancehi 
diamecen. 


Difuuietla 
milea 




Od. 2Zh. 
1 8 

1 21 

2 17 
4 12 

16 22 
79 7 


88m. 

63 

18— 

46 

26 

41 

66 


1.640 
1.978 
2.447 
a 134 
4.377 
10.143 
29.677 


123,200 
158^080 

196,720 
250,720 
360,160 
811,400 
2,366,160 



HERSCHEL. 

Herschel is the most distant planet from the Sun that ha$ 
f et been discoTered^ To the naked eye, it appears like a 
star of only the 6th or 7th magnitude, and of a pale, bluish 
white ; but it can seldom be seen, except in a very fine, 
clear night, and in the absence of the Moon. 

As it moves over but one degree of its orbit in 85 days, 
It will be seven years in passing over one sign or constella- 
tion. At j)resent,* its mean right ascension is 332 j-^, and 
its declination 15^-° S. It is therefore in the tail of Capri- 
corn, making a small triangle with Deneb and Delta Algedi, 

When first ^een by Dr. Herschel, in 1781, it was in the 
foot of Gemini ; so that it Juis not yet completed two thirds 
of a revolution since it voasjirst discovered to be a planeL 

it is remarkable that this body was obserred as far back as 1690. It was 
wen three times by Flamstead, once by Bradley, once br Mayer, and eleven 
tiffies by Lemonnier, who registered it among the stars; out not one of them 
snspected It to be a planet. 

The inequalities in the motions of Janiter and Saturn, 
which could not be accounted for from the mutual attrac- 
tions of these planets, led astronomers to suppose that there 
existed another planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, by whose 
action these irregularities were produced. This conjecture 
was confirmed March 13th, 1781; when Dr. Herschel di»- 
corered the motions of this body, and thus prored it to be a 
planet. 

Herschel is attended by six moons or satellites, which 
reyolre about him in difierent periods, and at various dis- 

oTthBywrini! ^ 



Wlnt is tlie relativv dirtanee of the planet Hendid Aom tliB Soif What is its . 

anee to the naked eye 7 In whateiiciiinstanoeB eaaitbe sssnl What is the late 

saolaDninitsoiUtf What to its present poatkn 9 What was its position when lbstdi» 
•ofveiedtobe aplanet) liowniiidi,tlien, of itsifvolataQn Insbeen eoiapleted,sineall 
was fint discovered 1 At How eariy a date wom thU hodiy obterved in the fuavenet 
Wkt aheerved it, hefwe it toot diecovered to be a planet 7 How nuuuf timee too* # 
teenby them,re»peetiTeiy1 WhatdidtheueoneiaerUtobel What M aslronomsit 
|p sopipose that there existed another ^anet beyond Saturn? When and by wbon 
diioweredtobe aplanet? Hew many noons las it? 

21 



tances. Four of them were discovered by Dr. Hersclkel, 
and two by his sister^ Misft Caroline Herschel. It is possi- 
ble that others remain yet to be discovered. 

Herschel's mean distance from the Sun is 1828 millions of 
miles ; more than twice the mean distance of Saturn. His 
sidereal revolution is petformed in 84 years and 1 month, 
and his motion in his orbit is 15.600 miles an hour. He is 
supposed to have a rotation on his axis, in common with the 
other planets ; but astronomers have not yet been aole to 
obtain any occular proof of such a motion. 

His diameter is estimated at 34,000 miles ; which would 
make his volume more than 80 times larger than the Earth's. 
To his inhabitants, the Sun appears only the xJrrpai^ sis \aige 
as he does to us ; and of course they receive from him 
only that small proportion of light and heat. It may be 
shown, however, that the y+rPart of the Sun's light ex- 
ceeds the illuminating power ot 800 full Moons. This add- 
ed to the light they must receive from their six satellites, 
will render their days and nights far from cheerless. 

Such was the celestial system with which our Earth was 
associated at its creation, distinct from the rest of the starry 
hosts. Whatever may oe the comparative antiquity of our 
globe, and the mvriads of radiant bodies which nightly gem 
the immense vault above us. it is most reasonable to conclude, 
that the Sun, Earth, and planets, differ little in the date of 
their origin. 

This fact, at least, seems to be philosophically certain, 
that all the bodies which compose our solar system must 
have been placed at one and the same time in that arrange- 
ment, and in those positions in which we now behold them ; 
because all maintain their present stations, and motions, and 
distances, by their mutual action on each other. Neither 
could be where it is, nor move as it does, nor appear as 
we see it, unless they were all coexistent. The presenee 
of each is essential to the system — the Sun to them, they 
to the Sun, and all to each other. This fact is a strong 
indication that their formation was simultaneous. 

E^ whom were Herachel'a satellttes discovered? What k the distance of Henebdli 
oriMt from the Sun 1 How much greater is this distance than that of Saturn ) In what 
time is his sidereal revolution peiformed I What is the rate per hour of his motimi in hsi 
flfbit 7 Has be a mtation on his axis? What is his diameter estimated to be I How 
■auchlargerwould this make his volume than the Earth? How much less does the Sun 
vppear to be to the inhabitants of Herschel, than he does to us 7 What detree of licht and 
keat do they receive from him, compared with that received by the Earth } To ue !i|hl 
«f how many full moons is this degree of lifht equal 7 What reason hav« w« to auppon 
fhaltfaedifierent bodies of the solar szatem were created at the saoMtiaiBl 



m ■■ iif V 



COMETS 

Comets, whether viewed as ephemeral meteors, or as 
jiiibstaDtial bodies, forming a part of the Solar system, are 
objects of no ordinary interest. 

When, with uninstructed gaze, we look upwards, to the 
clear sky of evening, and behold, among the multitudes oi 
heavenly bodies, one, blazing with its long train of light, 
and rushing onward towards the centre of our system, we 
insensibly shrink back as if in the presence of a supernatu- 
ral being. 

But when, with the eye of astronomy, we follow it through 
its perihelion, and trace it far ofi^ beyond the utmost verge 
of the solar system, till it is lost in the infinity of space, not 
to return for centuries, we are deeply impressed with a 
sence of that power which could create and set in motion 
such bodies. 

Coniets are distinguished from the other heavenly bodies, 
bv their appearance and motion. The appearance of the 
planets is globular, and their motion around the Sun is near- 
ly in the same plane, and from west to east -, but the comets 
have a variety of forms, and their orbits are not confined to 
any particular part of the heavens i nor do they observe any 
one general direction. 

The orbits of the planets approach nearly to circles, 
while those of the comets are very elongated ellipses. A 
wire hoop, for example^ will represent the orbit of a planet. 
If two opposite sides of the same hoop, be extended, so that 
js shall be long and narrow, it will then represent the orbit 
of a comet. The Sun is always in one of the foci of the 
comet's orbit. 

There is, however, a practical difficnUy of a peculiar nature which em 
barraases the aolution or the question as to the form of the cometary orbits- 
It so happens that the only part of the coarse of a comet which can evei 
be Tisible, is a portion throughout which the ellipse, the parabola, and hy> 
(erbola, so closely resemble each other, that no obaeryations can be obtain- 
ed with sufficient accuracy to enable us to distinguish them. In fact, the ob- 
served path of any comet, while Tisible^ may belong either to an ellipse, pti* 
rabola, or hyperiwIiL 

That part which is usually brighter^ or more opaque^ 
Ihan the other portions of the comet, is called the nucleua* 
This is surrounded by an envelope^ which has a cloudy, of 
hairy appearance. These two parts constitute the body, 
and, in many instances, the whole of the comet. 

Wbat feefiDn does the eontemplatioo of comets nataiallf soteiteT How are eonoeli 
distininiished nom the other heavenly Iwdies 7 Describe their appearance and motion. 
Of wbat tfane parts may eamets i» eoosidered to be oomposed } Desciilw these paili 



til OOKBVa 

Must of them, however, are attended by a lon^' traiiig 
eaJled the tail ; though some are without this appendage, 
and as seen by the naked eye, are not easily distinguishea 
from the planets. Others, again, have no apparent nucleus, 
and seem to be only globular masses of vapour. 

Nothing is known with certainty of the composition of 
these bodies. The envelope appears to be nothing more 
than vapour, becoming more luminous and transparent when 
approaching the Sun. As the comets pass between us and 
the fixed stars, their envelopes and tails are so thin, that 
stars of very small magnitudes may be seen through them. 
Some comets, having no nucleus, are transparent throughout 
their whole extent. 

The nucleus of a comet sometimes appears opaque, and it 
then resembles a planet. Astronomers, however, are not 
agreed upon this point. Some affirm that the nucleus is 
always transparent, and that comets are in fact nothing 
but a mass of vapour, or less condensed at the centre. 
By others it is maintained that the nucleus is sometimes 
solid and opaque. It seems probable, however, that there 
are three classes of comets ; viz. : 1st. Those which hav« 
no nucleus, being transparent throughout their whole ex- 
tent; 2d. Those whicn nave a transparent nucleus ; and, 
3d. Those having a nucleus which is solid and opaque. 

A comet, when at a distance from the Sun. viewed 
through a good telescope, has the appearance or a dense 
vapour surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes flowing far 
into the regions of space. As it approaches the Sun^ ita 
light becomes more bntiiant, till if reaches its perihelion, 
when its light is more dazzling than that of any other celes- 
tial bodv, the Sun excepted. In this part ot its orbit are 
seen to the best advantage the phenomena of this wonderful 
body, which has, from remote antiquity, been the spectre 
of alarm and terrour. 

The luminous train of a comet usually follows it^ as it 
approaches the Sun, and ^oes before ity when the comet 
recedes from the Sun ; sometimes the tail is considerably 
curved towards the re|;ion to which the comet is tending, 
and in some instances, it has been observed to form a right 
angle with a line drawn from the Smn through the cenire 
of the comet. The tail of the comet of 1744, formed near- 
ly a quarter of a circle ; that of 1689 was curved like a 

Have all .comeU these three parts? What apparent differences noay be peieei^ed ii 
tteeomposiUonofdiflerentoometa} Into vhat classes, with reftrenoe to their c 
■M, may eometo be divided } , Describe the difiereot appc«rances of comets at « 
tttenees from the Sun. fa what part of tneir oifoit are their phenomena seen to V» 
8&2nJC'..»yite»^ usually the diKctjoQ cf the luminous train 1 WtaU wu tlw i 
ttOBolthetailoftheeometofirM} Ofthatof li8»? 




Turkish sabre.* Sometimes the same comet has sereral 
tails. That of 1744 had, at one time, do less than six^ 
which appeared and disappeared in a few days. Th« 
<*omet of 1823 had, for several days, two tails ; one ex- 
tending towards the Sun, and the other in the opposite 
direction. 

Comets, in passing among and near the planets, are 
materially drawn aside from their courses, and in some 
cases have their orbits entirely changed. This is remarka- 
bly true in regard to Jupiter, which seems by some strange 
fatality to be constantly in their way, and to serve as a per- 
petual stumbling block to them. 

*< The remarkable comet of 1770, which was found by Lexell to revolve in 
a moderate ellipse, in a period of about five years, actoally got entangled 
among the sateilUes of Jupiter, and thrown out of its orbit l>y the attrac- 
tions of that planetf" and has not been heard of since. — HeracKel^ p. 310. 
By this extraordinary rencontre, the motions of Jupiter's satellites suffer* 
ed not the least perceptible derangement ;— a sufficient proof of the aeriform 
nature of the comet's mass. 

It is clear from observation that comets contain very 
little nuitter. For they produce little or no effect on the 
motion of the planets wnen passing near those bodies ; it is 
said that a comet, in 1454, eclipsed the moon ; so that it 
must bare been very near the Earth ; yet no sensible effect 
was observed to be produced by this cause, upon the mo« 
tioii of the Earth or the Moon. 

l^he observations of philosophers upon comets, have as 
yet detected nothing of their nature. Tycho Brahe and 
Appian supposed their tails to be produced by the rays of 
the Sun, transmitted through the nucleus, which they sup- 
posed to be transparent, and to operate as a lens. Kepler 
thought, they were occasioned by the atmosphere of the 
comet, driven off by the impulse of the Sun's rays. This 
opinion, with some modification, was also maintained by 
Euler. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured, that they were « 
thin vapour, rising from the heated nucleus, as smoke as- 
cends from the Earth ; while Dr. Hamilton supposed them 
to be streams of electricity. 

"That the luminous part of a comet," says Sir John Herschel, *'is some 
thing in the nature of a smoke, fog, or cloud, suspended in a transpareul 
itoiosphere, is evident from a fact which has been cften noticed, viz. that 



How many tails had the comet of 1744 at one time, and how kmg did ttiey ooDtimie ts 
appear ? How many had that of 1833, and what was their direction 1 When comets pms 
I ear planets, how does the attraction of the planets affect them 1 In regard to what pla> 
net is this remarkably troe? Mention an example of comets being so affected, wluu 
fact connected with this case proves the aeriform nature cf the cameVs mass? How 
IS it dear from observation that comets contain very little matter J What weie tiie opi 
nions of Tycho Braiie, A.r»pian, Kepler, Euler, Sir Isaac Newton, and Dr. Hamiltmi, a 
recard to the tails of comets ? What tea* the opinion nf Sir John Herschel, «n* m 
wua founded 7 

21* 



M6 coin^ 

the portion of tho tefl where it eomea up to, uid •ommidi tiie head, la yec 
•ep&rmted from it bj ao interval less luminoua ; as we often see one layer 
of clouds laid over another with li considerable clear space between them.'* 
And again—" It foUowa that these can onlj be regarded aa fpreat masses of 
thin vapour, susceptible of being penetrated through their whole aubatanca 
bj the sunbeams.*' 

Comets have always been considered by the ignorant and 
superstitious, as the narbin^ers of war, pestilence, and fam- 
ine. Nor has this 6piQion l>een, ev^n to this day, confined 
to the unlearned. It was once universal. And when we 
examine the dimensions and appearances of some of these 
bodies, we cease to wonder that they produced universal 
alarm. 

According to the testimony of the early writers, a comet 
which could be seen in day light with the naked eye, made 
its appearance 43 years before the birth of our Saviour. 
This date was just after the death of Caesar, and by the Ro- 
mans, the comet was believed to be his metamorphosed 
soul, arn>ed with fire and vengeance. This comet is again 
mentioned as appearing in 1106, and then resembling the 
Sun in brightness, being of a great size, and having an im- 
mense tail. 

In the ytar 1402, a comet was seen, so ^rilliant as to be 
discerned at noon-day. 

In 1456 a large comet made its appearance. It spread 
a wider terrour than was ever known before. The be- 
lief was very general, among all classes, that the comet 
would destroy the Earth, and that the Day of Judgment was 
at hand ! 



This comet appeared again in the years 1531, 1607, 1682; 1758, and is now 
approaching the Sun with accelerated velocity. It wiU pass its perihelion in 
November, 1835, and every 76]^ years thereafter. We now [October, 1836,] aea 
this self same comet, so often expelled the Church of Rome, returning to re- 
assert his claim to a fellowship with the solar family. 

At the time of the appearance of this comet, the Turks 
extended their victorious arms across the Hellespont, and 
seemed destined to overrun all Europe. This added not a 
little to the general gloom. Under all these impressions^ 
the people seemed totally regardless of the present, ana 
anxious only for the future. The Romish Church held at 
this time unbounded sway over the lives, and fortunes, and 
consciences of men. To prepare the world for its expected 
doom. Pope Calixtus III. ordered the Ave Maria to be re- 
peated three times a day, instead of two. He ordered the 
church bells to be rung at noon, which was the origin of 

How have oometa been regarded bj the Ignonnt and Bopentitjoasf Mention soaw of 
toe moat remarkable comets which nave appeared. Deacribe tliem severally, and ra!alt 
aiwbat maimer they were aevenlljr K«aided7 What U the periodic Hnu oftkk 






M7 

thst practice, so universal in Christian churches. To the 
Ave Maria, the prayer was abided — " Lord, save us from 
tne Devil, the Turk, and the Comet :" and once, each day, 
these three obnoxious personages suffered a regular ez(om* 
munication. 

The pope and clergy, exhibiting such fear, it is not a 
matter of wonder that it became the ruling passion of the 
multitude. The churches and convents were crowded for 
confession of sins ; and treasures uncounted were poured 
into the Apostolic chamber. 

The comet, after suffering some months of daily cursing 
and excommunication, began to show signs of retreat, and 
soon disappeared from those eyes in which it found no fa- 
vour. Joy and tranquillity soon returned to the faithful sub- 
jects of the pope, but not so their money and lands. 
The people, however, became satisfied that their lives, and 
the safety of the world, had been cheaply purchased. The 
pope, who had achieved so signal a victory oven the mon- 
ster of the sky, had checked the progress of the Turk, and 
kept, for the present, his Satanic majesty at a safe distance; 
whilp the Church ot Hor«e. retaining her unbounded wealth, 
was enabled to continue tnat influence over her followers, 
which she retains, in part, to this dav. 

The comet of 1680 would have been still more alarm- 
ing than that of 1456, had not science robbed it of its ter- 
rours, and history pointed to the signal failure of its prede- 
cessor. This comet was of the largest size, and had a 
tail whose enormous length was mote than ninety-six mil- 
lions of miles. 

At its greatest distance, it is 13,000 millions of miles 
from the Sun ; and at its nearest approach, only 574,000 miles 
from his centre ;* or about 130,000 miles from his suHTace. 
In that part of its orbit which is nearest the Sun, it flies 

* In Brewiter'a edition of Ferguson, this distance is stated as only 49,000 miles. TUi 
is evidently a mistaJce ; for if the comet annoaciied Uie Sun's centre within 40,OO|iiiiles, 
it would penetrate 300,000 miles below tlie sur&ce I Takinc Fmuson's own elemenls 
Ibr computing the perihelion distance, the result will be 494,460 miles. The mistake may 
be acoountetTfbr foy supposingthat the cipher had been omitted in the copy, and the period 
pointed off one figure mrther to the left. Vet, with this alteration, it would still be incor- 

Eet ; because the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, which is the intei^r of Uiis caleu- 
tion, is assumed at 89,000,000 of milee. The latioof the comet's perihelion dislanea 
from the Sun, to the Earth's mean distance, as given by M. Fingr^, is as 0.00603 to l. TUs 
multiplied into 95,273,869, gives 574,500 miles fot the comet's perihelifm distance from the 
Son's centre; from which, if we substraet his semi-diameter. 443340 miles, we siiall haw 
180,660 miles, the distance of the comet from the surface of the Sun. 

Again, if we divide the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, by the comet's periheliim 
diaiance, we shall find that the latter is only the 1-I66th part of the Earth's distance. Now 
the square of 166 is ig7fio6 ; and this expresses tlie number of times that the Sun api>eaa 
larger to the comet, in tlie above situation, than it does to the Earth. S^niRB makci it 
tUfiBS times larger. 

According to Newton, the velocity is 880.000 miles per hour. Mora recent discovcnM 
iklicate a velocity of 1,944,108 miles per hoiu. 



with the amaiing swiftness of l,tibO,000 nules in an hour, 
and the Sun, as seen from it, appears 27,000 times larger than 
It appears to us ; consequently, it is then exposed to a heat 
87,000 times greater than the solar heat at the Earth. This 
intensity of heat exceeds, several thousand times, that of 
red-hot iron, and indeed ail the degrees of heat that we are 
able to produce. A simple mass of vapour, exposed to a 
thousandth part of such a heat, would be at once dissipated 
in space— a pretty strong indication that, however volatile 
are the elements of which comets are composed, they are, 
nevertheless, capable of enduring an inconceivable intensity 
of both heat and cold. 

This is the comet which, according to the reveries ot 
Dr. Whiston and others, deluged the world in the time of 
Noah. Whiston was the friend and successor of Newton : 
but, anxious to know more than is revealed, he passed the 
bounds of sober philosophy, and presumed not only to fix 
the resid^ce of the damned, but also the nature of their 
punishment. According to his theory, a comet was the 
awful prison-house in which, as it wheeled from the remotest 
regions of darkness and cold into the very vicinity of the 
Sun, hurrying its wretched tenants to the extremes of per- 
ishing cold and devouring fire, the Almighty was to dispense 
the severities of his justice. 

Such theories ma^ be ingenious, but they have no basis 
of facts to rest upon. They more properly belong to the 
chimeras of Astrology, than to the science of Astronomy. 

When we are told by philosophers of great caution and 
high reputation, that the fiery train of the comet, just allud- 
ed to, extended from the horizon to the zenith ; and that 
that of 1744 had, at one time, six tails, each 6,000,000 of 
miles long, and that another, which appeared soon after, 
had one 40,000,000 of miles long, and when we consider 
also the inconceivable velocity with which they speed their 
flight through the solar system, we may cease to wonder if, 
in ttie darker afi;es, they have been regarded as evil omens 

But these idle phantasies are not peculiar to any age or 
country. Even in our own times, the beautiful comet of 
ISllvthe most splendid one of modern times, was generally 
considered among the superstitious, as the dread harbinger 

What to the ^legraeofheat towhich the eomet of 1680 to expoMd, when in iti periheliaB^ 
eomiHuied to that experienced at the Earth ? What to the intennty of auoh a defroe or 
beat, compared with that of red-hot iron, or with any degree of heat which we are able to 
produce ? What inference may be derived iVom this fiict in regard to the eompositioo of 
comets f Whqt were the reverie* of Dr. WhtBton and others in regard to tb« oometl 
What &^ ought to make us eeaae to wonder diat comets wen in darlcer age« oonsudv 
ed as haitancersof evil? Have these phantasies, however, been confined to the during 
■MM Ofwhat event was the comet of 1811 considered, in our eountiy, to be Uw hu- 



of the war which was declared in the following upring. It 
is well known that an indefinite apprehension of a mom 
dreadful catastrophe lately pervaded both continents, m an* 
ticipation of Biela's compt of 1832. 

The nucl^os of the comet of 1811, acaordin^ to obsenra* 
tions made near Boston, was 3^617 miles in diameter^ cor- 
responding nearly to the size of the Moon. The brilliancy 
with which it shone, was equal to one tenth of that of the 
Moon. The envelope, or aeriform covering, surrounding 
the nucleus, was 24,000 miles thick, about five hundred 
times as thick as the atmosphere which encircles the Earth; 
making the diameter of the comet, including its envelope, 
50,617 miles. It had a very luminous tail, whose greates 
length was one hundred miUian of miles. 

This comet moved, in ks perihelion, with an almost inconceiyable ▼elocity- 
fifteen hundred times greater than thiit of a ball barating from the mouth of a 
Cftonon. According to Regiomontanus, the comet of 1472 movied over an ai > 
of 120^ in one day. Brjdone observed a comet at Paienno in ^0, which pass- 
ed through 50*^ of a great circle in the heavens in 24 hours. Another comet, 
which appeared in 1/59^ passed over 41^ in the same time. The conjecture of 
Dr. Halley therefore seems highly probable, that if a body of such a sizik 
having any considerable density, and moving with such a velocity, were to 
■trike our Earth, it would instantly rettoce it to chaos, mingling iu elements 
in ruin. 

The transient effect of a eomet passing near the Earth, could scarcely 
•mount to any great conwWoo, says Dr. Brewster : but if the Eaith were 
■ctuallv to receive a shoclE from one of these bodies, the consequences 
would oe awfuL A new direction would be given to its rotary motion, and 
It would revolve around a new axis. The seas, forsaking their beds, would 
l>e hurried, by their centrifugal force, to the. new equatorial regions : islands 
and continents, the abodes of men and animals, would be covered by tha 
universal rush of the waters to the new equator, and every vestige of hu* 
man industry uad genius would be at once destroyed. 

The chances against such an event, however, are so very 
numerous, that there is no reason to dread its occurrence. 
The French government, not long since, called the atten- 
tion of some of her ablest mathematicians and astronomers 
to the solution of this problem ; that is, to determine, upon 
mcUhematical principles, how many chances of collision the 
Earth was exposed to. After a mature examination, they re- 
ported,— "We have found that, of 281,000,000 of chances, 
there is only one unfavourable, — there exists but one which 
can produce a collision between the two bodies." 

** Admitting, then," say they, " for a moment, that the comets which n»y 
strike the Earth with their nucleuses, would annihilate the whole human 
race; the danger of death to each individual, resulting from the ai> 

Describe this ecmiet (Hve tome acamjOM cf the velocity of comete. What wouM 
probably be the effect upon the Earth, ahould a comet strike it 7 What does Dr. Bre»- 
otereaytoould be the iffect qfacometpaeeini ruar the EarthJ But if the Earth 
were acirjuUiyto receive a ahoekfirom a comet, whatdoee he eay wottid be the reauUet 
Bow did the Trench mathematieians and astnMMHnen find the dumces of a eotUaion ba> 
tween the Earth and c<nnpts to stand ? Whiu, then, on the eupposUion that a ttroke of 
m eomet toould annihilate the tehote human race, i» the danger of death to each m- 
M9idiua,r§eiiltinsfirem the appearance^ an wtlmown eomet f 



2bO COMETS. 

peftniMs« of an wmkmawn comet^ woald he ezaetlf eqaal to the ride he 
run, if io an urn there was onlj one single wtUte oall among a cotal nuoi- 
ber of 281,000,000 balls, and that his cnodemnation to death would be the 
faievfiable consequence of the white ball being produced at the first draw- 
ing." 

We have b<!fore stated that comets, unlike che planets, 
observe no one direction in their orbits, but approacn to, ana 
tecede from their great centre of attraction, in every possi- 
ble direction. Nothing can be more sublime, or bettei 
calculated to fill the mind with profound astonishment, than 
to contemplate the revolution of comets, while in that part 
of their orbits which comes within the sphere of the tele- 
scope. Some seem to come up from the immeasurable 
depths below the ecliptic, and, having doubled the heavens' 
mighty cape, again plunge downward with their fiery trains, 

" On the kmg travel of a thousand years." 

Others appear to come down from the zenith of the uni 
verse to double their perihelion about the Sun, and then re- 
ascend far above all human vision. 

Others are dashing through the solar system in all possi- 
ble directions, and apparently without any undisturbed or 
und is curbing path prescribed by him who guides and sus- 
tains them all. 

Until within a few years, it was universally believed that 
the periods of their revolutions must necessarily be of prodi* 
gious length; but within a few years, two comets have 
been discovered, whose revolutions are performed, compa- 
ratively, within our own neighbourhood. To distinguish them 
from the more remote, they are denominated the comets of 
a short period. The first was discovered in the constella- 
tion Aquarius, by two French astronomers, in the year 
1786. The same comet was again observed by Miss Caro- 
hne Herschel, in the constellation Cygnus, m 1795, and 
a^ain in 1805. In 1818, Professor Bncke determined the 
dimensions of its orbit, and the period of its sidereal revolu- 
tion ; for which reason it has been called " Encke^s Comet J*^ 

This comet performs its revolution around the Sun in about 
d years and 4 months,* in an elliptical orbit which lies wholly 
within the orbit of Jupiter. Its mean distance from the Sun 
is S12 millions of miles; the ecceutricity of its orbit is 179 

* Owing to the diaturbitiff influences of the surrounding i^aneti, the periodic retnm of 
hu eoinet, like that of all others, is liable to be hastened or retarded seveial days. Its 
.leriod varies aom about 1308 to I3l'j days. 

What is ihe direction of comets in their oibits 7 What has been, until within a fcm 
years, the universal opinion in rceard to the length of the times of their revolution 7 Why 
does not the same opinion prevail now 7 What aw these two comets denominated 1 R*«- 
lato tiie history of the discovery of the firrt. Why is it called Encke's comet ? What is 
•he time of the revolution of Encke's comet J What is the form ^f iU oihit. and what its 

8u^S,'"wi!r?^"li**'**°'!li??'^''HP?*«''. What is this oome?s mean distaDcu fi^joi 
bmi »un ) What is the ec« ?ntncity of its orbit J 



OOMBTS. 251 

millions of miles ; consequently it is 358 millions of miles 
nearer the San in its perihelion, than it is in its aphelion. 
It was visible throughout the United States in 1825, when 
It presented a fine appearance. It was also observed at its 
next return in 1828; but its last return to its perihelion, on 
the 6th of May, 1832, was invisible in the United States, 
on account of its great southern declination. 

The second " Comet of a short period," was observed 
in 1772; and was seen again in 1805. It was not until 
its re-appearance in 1826, that astronomers "Were able to 
determine the elements of its orbit, and the exact period of 
its revolution. This was successfully accomplished by M. 
Biela of Josephstadt ; hence it is called BitWs Comet. 
According to observations made upon it in 1805, by the cele- 
brated Dr. Olbers, its diameter, including its envelope, is 
42,280 miles. It is a curious fact, that the path oi Bie- 
la's comet passes verV near to that of the Earth ; so near, 
that at the moment tne centre of the comet is at the point 
nearest to the Earth's path, the matter of the comet extends 
beyond that path, and includes a portion within it. Thus, if 
the Earth were at that point of its orbit which is nearest to 
the path of the comet, at the same moment that the comet 
should be at that point of its orbit which is nearest to the 
path of the Earth, the Earth would be enveloped in the ne- 
bulous atmosphere of the comet. 

With respect to the effect which might be produced upon 
our atmosphere by such a circumstance, it is impossible to 
offer any thing but the most vague conjecture. Sir John 
Herschel was able to distinguish stars as minute as the 16th 
or 17th magnitude through the body of the comet! Hence it 
seems reasonable to infer, that the nebulous matter of which 
it is composed, must be infinitely more attenuated than our 
atmosphere ; so that for every particle of cometarv matter 
which we should inhale, we should inspire millions of par- 
ticles of atmospheric air. 

This is the comet which was to come into collision with 
the Earth, and to blot it out from the Solar System. In re- 
turning to its perihelion, November 26th, 1832, it was com- 
puted that it would cross the Earth's orbit at a distance of 

How maeh nearer the Sun, then, ia the comet, when hi iti perihelion than when in iti 
■pheKon ? In what yean baa thiscomet been aeen in the United Statea; Why wu if 
not viaible in the United Statea at the time of ita return m 1833 7 Rehte the hiatory of th» 
SaoDveryoftlieaecondoometofaahortperiod? Why kit called Biela'a comet I What 
accotdjnr to theobaervationaof Dr. Olbera in 1805. waa the diameter of Biela'a comet, in- 
ttuUing the envelope ? How near doea the path of Biela'a comet lie to that of the Earth i 
'^^'llat would l>c the ef&et upon our atmoaphere ahouid the nebuloua atmosphere of the 
nomet envelo^ie it ? What reason have we to auppoee that it ia more attenuated than tm 
%lin<>8phcre 7 It wnj predicted that thia comet would come into collision mlh the 
Earth - what %veFe tiie icroiinda of probability that auch an event w lid take place, «ud 
vhydiditnut? 



)83 coium. 

only 18,500 miles. It is evident that if the EarfU had been 
in that part .of her orbit at the same time with the comet, 
oar atmosphere would have mingled with the atmosphere oi 
the comet, and the two bodies, perhaps, have come in contact. 
But the comet passed the Earth's orbit on the 29th of Oc- 
tober, in th^ 8th de^ee of Sagittarius, and the Earth did 
not arrive at that point until the 30th of November, which 
was 32 days afterwards. 

If we multiplv the number of hours in 32 days, by 68,000 
(the velocity oi the Earth per hour,) we shall find that 
the Earth was more than 52,000,000 miles behind the comet 
when it crossed her orbit. Its nearest approach to the 
S«arth, at any time, was about 51 millions of miles ; its near- 
est approach to the Sun, was. about 83 millions of miles. Its 
mean distance from the Sun, or half the lon^st axis of its 
orbit, is 337 millions of miles. Its eccentricity is 253 mil- 
lions of miles ; consequently, it is 507 millions of miles 
nearer the Sun in its perihelion than it is in its aphelion. 
The period of its sidereal revolution is 2,460 days, or about 
6f years. 

Although the cometn of Eocke and ffiela are objects of very creat Inter* 
•at, yet tneir short periods, the limited space within which their motion is 
eircumscribed. and consequently the very slight disturbance which they 
sustain from the attraction of the planets, render them of less interest to 
physical astronomy than those of longer periods. 

They do not, like them, rush from the invisible and inaccessible depths 
of space, and, after sweeping our system, depart to distances with the coik- 
eeption of which the imagination' itself is confounded. They possess none 
of that grandeur which is connected with whatever impears to break 
through the fixed order of the universe. It is reserved lor the comet ot 
Halley alone to afford the proudest triumph to those powers of calculation 
bj which we are enabled to follow It in the depths of space, two thousand 
millions of miles beyond the extreme verge of the solar system ; and, noC> 
withstanding disturbances which render each succeeding period of i^ return 
different from the last, to foretel that return with precision. 

The following representatioh of the entire orbit of Biela'a 
comet, was obtained from the Astronomer Royal of the 
Greenwich Observatory. It shows not only the space and 
position it occupies in the solar system, but the points where 
Its orbit intersects all the planetary orbits through which it 
passes. By this, it is seen that its perihelion lies between 
the orbits of the Earth and Venus, while its aphelion extends 
a little beyond that of Jupiter. 

What was its neatest appioacb to the Earth at any time ) What its neaiest sp wuMJ 
fo the Sum What ita mean distance liom the Sun T What its eeeentridty 1 Whsi 
tlien, it tliG difieience lietween its periiielion and apheGon distances ? What is ttejwriotf 
sf its sidereal revolution ? Why are Lts cometa QJ Encke and BUta oUeeU ^iem tnt* 
reat tojthytical astronomy than those qfion^er perioia 1 What is the i" 
aWt or Biela's comet m the solar system Y 



COMfiTS. 



Fig. 20. 




«2 



tSi oommi 

This diagram not only exhibits the course #/ the comet 
At its last retam, but also denotes its future positions on the 
first day of every year during its next revolution. It is also 
apparent that it will return to its perihelion again in the 
autumn of 1839, but not so immediately in our vicinity as 
to be the proper cause of alarm. To be able to predict the 
very day and circumstances of the return of such a bodi- 
less ana eccentric wanderer, after the lapse of so many 
yearsj evinces a perfection of the astronomical calctdus that 
may justly challenge our admiration. 

"The re-appearance of this comet," says Herschel, 
^ whose return in 1832 was made the subject of elaborate 
calculations by mathematicians of the first eminence, did 
not disappoint the expectation of astronomers. It is hardly 
possible to imagine any thing more striking than the ap- 
^>earanee, after the lapse of nearly seven years, of such an 
all but imperceptible cloud or wisp .of vapour, true, however 
to its predicted time and place, and obeying laws like those 
which regulate the planets." 

HertebeL wboae Obsenratorjr is at Slmigh^ Eogland, obsenred tbe daily 
profresa oi ihia comet from tbe 21ih of September, until its ilimppearaQce, 
eompared its octuoj position from day to day with its calculated pusitioo, 
and fottod them to agree within four or five minutes of time in right ascei^ 
sion, and within a ftw tecondt of declination. Its position, then, as repre- 
sented on a planisphere which the author prepared for his pupils, and af- 
terwards pubusbea, was true to within a less spece tlian one tturd of its 
brojeeted diameter. Lilie some others that have.been oltserved, this comet 
bas no luminous train by which it can be easily recognised by the naiced eye, 
except when it is Tery near the Sun. This is the reason why it was not more 
generally observed at its late return. 

Although this comet is usually denominated " Biela's comet," yet it seems 
that M. Garobul, director of the Observatory at Marseilles, is equally en- 
titleil to the honour of identiQring it with the comet of 17?2, and of IStlG. 
He discovered it only 10 days after Biela, and immediately set about calcu- 
lating its elements from hij own observations, witich are thought to equal, 
if they do not surpass, tai point of accuracy, those of every othes- a» 
tronomer. 

Up to the beginning of the 17th century, no correct no 
tions had been entertained in respect to the paths of comets* 
Kepler's first conjecture was that they moved in straight 
lines ; but as that did not agree with observation, he next 
concluded that they were parabolic curves, having the Sun 
near the vertex, and running indefinitely into the regions of 
space at both extremities. There was nothing in the ob- 
servations of the earlier astronomers to fix their identity, or 
to lead him to suspect that any one of them had ever oeen 
seen before ; much less that they formed a part of the solar 

^1ien will Uiii eomet letutnacaJn 7 How much did its actual po$UioH from day ta 
day, OB observed ty Henchsl, diffitr from itt calculated poeitton 1 \VIm ioa» it not 
V^T^.f^I"^ o6wr»«d at Us tats return 7 What astronomer%»ldes Biela id^nui- 
MsdUtatihtheeometqfnnandiSKJ What wore the opiniom of astvmomen ki i«- 
fard t» the pathi ofooineto, up to the becinning of the ITtb eentivy J WhatAVAre Kepier^ 
'^Miuous (Ml 'dm Mibject 1 



8f stem, revolving about tne Sun in elliptical orbits that re- 
tnriied into tbemselres* 

This grand discovery was reserved for one of the most 
industrious and sagacious astronomers that ever lived — tJiis 
was Dr. Haliey, the contemporary and friend of Newton. 
When the comet of 1682 made its appearance, he set him- 
self about observing^ it with great care, and found there wa^ 
a wonderful resemblance between it and three other comets 
that be found recorded, the comets of 1456, of 1531, and 
1607. The times of their appearance had been nearly at 
equal and regular intervals ; their perihelion distances were 
nearly the same ; and he finally proved them to be one and 
tbe same comet, performing its circuit around the Sun in a 
period varying a little from 76 years. This is therefore 
called Halley^s comet. It is the very same comet that filled 
the eastern world with so much consternation in 1456, and 
became an object of such abhorrence to the church of 
Rome. 

Of all the comets which have been observed since the 
Christian era, only three have had theii elements so well 
determined that astronomers are able to fix the period of 
their revolution, and to predict the time and circumstances 
of their appearance. These three are, Encke's, whose last 
revolution about the Sun was performed in 1212 davs; 
Biela's, whose period was 2461 days; andHalley's, which is 
now accomplishing its broad circuit in about 28,000 days. 
Encke's and Halley's will return to their perihelion the 
present year (1835), and Biela's in 1839. 

Halle^'8 comet, true to its predicted time and place, is now (Oct. 183B,) 
visible in the evening sky. But we behold none of those phenomena which 
threw our ancestors of the middle ages into agonies of superstitious terrour. 
We see not the cometa horrendcb magnUudinis, as it appeared in 1906, nor 
that tail of enormous length which, in 1456, extended over two thirds of 
the interval between th^ borisoR and the zenith, nor even a star as brilliant 
M was the same comet in 168^ with its tail of 30°. 

Its mean distance from the Bun Is 1,713,700,000 miles: the eccentricity of 
Its orbit is 1,666,000,000 miles ; consequently it is 3,31&OQO,000 miles iar- 
dier from the Sun in its aphelion than it is in its perihelion. In the latter 
ease, its distance from him is only 65,700,000 miles ; but in the former, h is 
8;371,700l000 miles Therefore, though its aphelion distance be great, its 
mean distance is leas than that of Herschel ; and great as is the aphelion 
distance, it is but a very small fraction less than one five'tknusandth part of 
ttiat distance from the Sun, beyond which the very nearest of the fixed 
Mars must be situated; and, as 'the determination of Jbeir distance is neg&> 

Who fint discovered tlie identity of comets 1 Relate the manner by whinii he eame to 
this discovery. How many (^all the eomets observed since tbe Christian era, h%ve !md 
their elements so well determined, tlmt astronomers are able to fix the period of fheir ie> 
vu^t'ons, and to predict the time and circumstances of tlieir appearance 7 Wliat comets 
are tnesel In what time do they accom];rfish their revoluticms? When will Jipy, seve* 
rally, return to tlieir perilieiionl What comet U noto (Oct. 1836) viathlel Whnx arc 
tfu! TMon, and the tmrulion andperihelUm distances of Haltey^s comet from the i^:**fn 7 
What part qf ike dUtanee beyond tohieh the nearest qf the fixed stars must l\. fia 
c«d, is its aj^eUon distance t 



IM LAW OP CNIYBRaAL OKAVITATIOli 

ore Mid WM potithre, tb« ne«re«c of them may be at twice or ten dm«i tiMl 
dtaanee. 

The number of eomeCe which heve been obeerred thiee the ChiMeB 
era, eoiouiiui to 700 Bcarcely a year baa paaaed withoot the obeerratkNi 
•I one or two. And ainee muUltudee of them most eae&pe obaenraCkNi, by 
feaeon of their traversing that oart of the heavena whkh la above the hoff»> 
son in the day time, their wnole nomber la probably many thonwnd*. 
Ciometa ao circumstanced, can only become Tisibte by the rare coincidenoa 
of a total eclipae of the Bun— a coincidence which happened, as related bj 
Beneca, 60 yeara before Christ, when a large comet waa actually obaerrea 
very near the Bun. 

But M. Arago reaaona In the following manner, with respect to the num- 
ber of comets :— The number of ascertained comets, which, at their laaat 
distances, peas within the orbit of Mercury, is thirty. Assuming that tha 
comets are uniformly distributed throughout the solar system, there wi9 
be 117,649 times aa many cometa included within the orbit of Herschel, aa 
there are within the orbit of Mercury. But aa there are 3D within the orbit 
of Mercury, there must be 3,609,470 within the orbit of Herschel ! 

Of 97 comets whose elements have been calculated by astronpOMra, 91 

Biaeeii between the Sun and the orbit of Mercury ; 33 between th^orbita of 
ercury and Venus: 2i between the orbits or Venus and the Earth; 15 
between the orbits of Ceres and Jupiter. Forty-nine of these oometa mawm 
from east lo went, and 48 In the oppoatte direction. 

The total number of distinct comets, whose patha during the visible part of 
Clieir course had been aacertained, up to the year VSQSi, waa one hundred and 
thirty-seven. 

What resioDs these bodies visit, when they pass beyond 
the limits oi our view ; upon what errands they come, when 
thev again revisit the central parts of our system ; what 
is tne difference between their physical constitution and that 
of the Sun and planets ; and what important ends they are 
destined to accomplish, in the economy of the universe, an 
inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which sur- 
pass the limited powers of the human understanding at pie* 
sent to determine. 



CHAPTER XX. 



OF THE FORCES BY WHICH THE^ PLANETS ARK 
RETAINED IN THEIR ORBITS. 

Having described the real and apparent motions cf the 
bodies which compose the solar system, it may be interest- 
ing next to show, that these motions, however varied or com- 
f>lex they may seem, all result from one simple principle, or 
aw, namely, the 

What U the number qfeomeu tohieh haw been obtervei einee the Gkrhtt m n ant 
IITqr muet enme of them eecape obeervatUm 7 Hew great ie prebabiif tkatr < 



number? In toast eaee aUme can eomete which traveree the herUen ta tka 4em 

Hme become vieibie? Mention an Hutanee t^ a eamet thue htca mt t ^ t vMMs? 

What i$ the ronoming ofM. Arago in regard to the number of w mttai t Pascrtje 

the track among the orbUe of the pianeta^ ^fthe 97 cameto wheee tiemente ha9a Ism 

caieuiuted by astronomere. In what direction do they move I What, uptotibe year 

im waa the whoU number ef distinct ntmeta, whoae path, during the vteibia pott 

<r/*f^ r_gffl»:*g» fty ^«^ determined ? By what principle, or law. are tin planeH m^ 
mnoa m tnsir onNtB I 



L4W OF milTfiBSAL OSAVITATIOM. IfM 



LAW OF'ONIVBRftAL GJlA CITATION. 

It IS said, that Sir Isaac Newton, when he was diawinf 
Co a close the deraonstration of the great truth, that gravity 
is the cause which keeps the heavenly bodies in their orbits, 
was so much agitated with the magnitude and importance or 
the discovery he was about to make, that he was unable to 

1 proceed, and desired a friend to finish what the intensity of 
lis feelings did not allow him to do. By gravitation is meant 
that universal law of attraction, by which every particle oi 
matter in the system has a tendency to every other particle. 
This attraction, or tendency of bodies towards each other, 
is in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. The 
Earth, being immensely large in comparison with all other 
substances in its vicinity, destroys the eflTect of this attrac- 
tion between smaller bodies, by bringing them all to itself. 
The attraction of gravitation is reciprocal. All bodies not 
only attract other bodies, but are themselves attracted, and 
both according to their respective quantities of matter 
The Sun, the largest body in our system, attracts the Earth 
and ail the other planets, while they in turn attract the Sun. 
The Earth, also, attracts the Moon, and she in turn at 
tracts the Earth. A ball, thrown upwards from the 
Earth, is brought a^ain to its surface ; the Earth's attractioi 
not only counterbalancing that of the ball, but also producins 
a motion of the ball towards itself. 

This disposition, or tendency towards the Earth, is mani- 
fested in whatever falls, whether it be a pebble from the 
hand, an apple from a tree, or an Avalanche from a moun- 
tain. All terrestrial bodies, not excepting the waters of th« 
ocean, gravitate towards the centre of the Earth, and it is 
by the same power that animals on all parts of the globe 
fttand with their feet pointing to its centre. 

The power of terrestrial gravitation is greatest at the earth's 
surface, whence it decreases both upwards and downwards ; 
but not both ways in the same proportion. It decreases 
upwards as the square of the distatice irom the Earth's centre 
ncreases ; so that at a distance from the centre equal to 
twice the semi-diameter of the Earth, the gravitating force 
would be only one fourth of what it is at the surface. But 
below the surface, it decreases in the direct ratio of the dis 



Who discovered thia great truth, and how waa he affected in view of it? What ii 
aoeant hr gruvitatioo ? To what it it proportioned 1 Give tome example. How '» H 
known that the attraction of gravitation is reciprocal "> Give some examples to illuslraUt 
this principle. Where Is the power of terrustrial gravitation the greut<>st? From thii 

C»int, does the power decrease eqttaUy, both upwards and doMmwan^ 1 What v iht 
w rif decrease upuMird$ 7 Give an example, what is the law of de<*rcasi iownioariai 
Give an axainple. 



fM liAW OP UHlTfiBSAL fUUTITATiaiL 

tance from the centre ; so that at a distance of half a semi 
diameter from the centre, the gravitating force is but half 
what it is at the surface. 

Weight and Gravity, in this case, are synonymous terms. 
We say a piece of lead weighs a pound^ or 16 ounces ; but ii* 
by any means it could be raised 4000 miles above the surface 
of the Earth, which is about the distance of the surface from 
the centre, and consequently equal to two semi-diameters oi 
the Earth above its centre, it would weigh only one fourth of 
a pound, or four ounces ; and if the same weight could be 
raised to an elevation of 12,000 miles above the surface, or 
four semi-diameters above the centre of the Earth, it would 
there weigh only one sixteenth of a pound, or one ounce. 

The same body, at the centre of the Earth, being equally 
attracted in every direction, would be without weight ; at 
1000 miles from the centre it would weigh one fourth of a 
pound ; at 2000 miles, one half of a pound ; at 3000 miles, 
three fourths of a pound ; and at 4000 miles, or at the sur- 
face, one pound. 

It is a uaiversal law of attraction, that itt power decreasea aa the square aj 
ihe distance inereasee. The converse of this is also true, viz. 7^ power 
inereaeeat me the equate o^ the distance decreases. Giving to ttiis law the fom 
of a practical rule, it wiltstand tiius : • 

7%e gravity ofboditts above the surface of the Earth, decreases in a dupU 
tote ratio, ior as the squares qf their distances) in semi-diameters of the eartkf 
from the earth's centre. That is, when the gravity is increasing^ nuiUiplj/ 
the weight by the square of the distance : but when the gravity is decreasing, 
divide the weight by the square of the distance. 

Suppose a bod^ weighs 40 pounds at 2000 miles above the Earth's vir- 
foce, what would it weigh at the surface, estimating the Earth's semi-diameter 
at 4000 miles 1 From the centre to the given height, is 1^ semi-diameters : 
the square of 1|, or i.5is 2.2S, which, muUipUed into the weight, (40^) gives 90 
pounds, the answer. 

Suppose a body which weighs 256 pounds upon the surfece of the Sarth, 
be rai«ed to the distance oi the Moon, (240,000 miles,) what would be its 
weight. Thus, 4000)^0,000(60 semi diameters, the square of which is 3600. 
As the gravity, in this case, is decreasing, divide the weight by the square of 
the dii>tance, and it wiU give a600)aG6(M6th of apound, or 1 ounce. 

2. To find to what height a given weight must be raised to lose a eertaia 
portion of its weight. 

RvLM.— Divide the iteight at the surface, Ay the required weight, and exr 
tract the square root of the quotient. Ex. A. boy weighs 100 pounds, how bi^ 
must he be carried to weigh but 4 pounds 1 Tims, 100 divided by 4, give* 
SB, the square root of which is 6 semi-diameters, or 20^000 miles above the 
MQtre. 

Bodies of equal magnitude do not always contain equal 

Witat is the lelatioa between weight and gravitjrf Illjstmte it by sonne examples. 
fVhat, then, is the general law in regard to the increase and decrease qfattraetum7 
How may this law be expreased^n the form qf a practical rule 7 Supp-^se^ for ear 
rnnvlci .he semi^iameter qf the Earth be estimated^ in round nuniberst at 4000 miles, 
and thaa body, elevated 9000 miles abwe its surface^ shouid weUh 40 pounds, what 
would the same body weight if brought to the Earth't surjheel Suppose a bedm 
which weighs fiSI pounds upon the surface of the Earth, be raised to the distance ^ 
the Moon, what wotUd be He weight at such an eleoatlon 7 [The pupil rinuld be w- 

Sited to give the calculation, as well as the answer.] B// what rule can we determine 
s height to which a body must be raised, in order to Us losing a certain portion «/ 
Usiojttght? Give an example. Do bodiesoftfae same magnitude always contain eqpw 
tpianuiu.-* of matter) ^^ ^^ 



L4W or UNIT£RSAL GRAVITATION. 2SSt 

■quantities of matter ; a ball of cork, of equal bulk with one 
of lead, contains less matter, because it is more porous. The 
Sun, though fourteen hundred thousand times larger than 
the Earth, being much less dense, contains a quantity of 
matter only 355,000 times as great, and hence attracts the 
Earth with a force only 355,000 times greater than that 
with which the Earth attracts the Sun. 

The quantity of matter in the Sun is 780 times greater 
than that of all the planets and satellites belonging to the 
Solar System ; consequently their whole united lorce of at- 
traction is 780 times less upon the Sun, than that of the 
Sun upon them. 

The Centre of Gravity of a body, is that point in which 
Its whole weight is concentrated, and upon which it would 
rest, if freely suspended. If two weights, one of ten pounds, 
the other of one^ pound, be connected together by a roo 
eleven feet long, nicelyr poised on a centre, and then be thrown 
into a free rotary motion, the heaviest will move in a circle 
with a radius of one foot, and the lightest will describe a cir- 
cle with a radius of ten feet : the centre around which they 
move is their common centre of gravity. See the Figure. 

Thus the Sun and planets move around an imaginarv 
point as a centre, always preserving an equilibrium. 

CENTRE OF ORAVITT. 
Fig. 21. 





If there were but one body in the universe, provided it 
were of uniform density, the centre of it would be the centre 
of gravity towards whicn all the surrounding portions would 
uniformly tend, and they would thereby balance each other. 
Thus the centre of gravity, and the body itself, would for- 
ever remain at rest It would neither move up nor down ; 
there being no other body to draw it in any direction. 
In this case, the terms up and down would have no meaning, 



What are the comparative bulks and densitioiof the Sun and the Baithf How great ii 
the quantity of matter in the Sun, compared willi that of all the planeta bekngiag to the 
•otar aystera 7 What is the centre of gravity of a body? Give an example. How dnet 
this illustration apply to planetary motion 7 If there were but one single body in the uni- 
verse, where would tht^ centre of gravity he? What motion would the oody havel Whe< 
iffbuki the tenm up and drton^ in such case* mean ? 



too ATnMCTtfM AMU FBOISOTILB ItMUSlL 

«xcept ini applied to the body itself^ to ezptess the duectkni 
of the Mirface from the centre. 

Were the Earth the only body rerolnn|[ about the Bun^ 
as the Son's quantity of matter is 355,000 times as sreat as 
that ot the Earth, the San would reTol?e in a circle equal 
only to the three hundred and fifty-five thousandth part of 
the Earth's distance from it : but as the planets in their seve* 
ral orbits rary their positions, the centre of gravity is not 
always at the same distance from the Sun. 

The quantity of matter in the Sun so far exceeds that of 
all the planets together, that were they all on one side of him 
he would never be more than his own diameter ftom tha 
common centre of gravity ; the Sun is therefore justly con 
•idered as the centre of the system. 

The quantity of matter in the Earth being about 80 times 
as great as that of the Moon, their common centre of gravity 
b 80 times nearer the former than the latter, which is about 
3000 miles from the Earth's centre. 

The secondary planets are governed by the same laws 
as their primaries, and both together move around a com* 
mon centre of gravity. 

Every system in toe universe is supposed to revolve, ia 
like manner, around one common centre. 



ATTBACnVE ANO PR0JEC1<LE FORCBS. 

All simple motion is naturally rectilinear; that is, a. 
bodies put in motion would continue to go forward in straif^ht 
lines, as long as they met with no resistance or diverting 
force. 

On the other band, the Sun. from his immense size, would* 
by the power of attraction, uraw all the planets to him, it 
his attractive force were not counterbalanced by the primi 
tive impulse of the planetary bodies to move in straight lines. 

The attractive power of a body drawing another body 
towards the centre, is denominated Centripetal force ; and 
the tendency of a revolving body to fiy from the centre in 
a tan|;ent line, is called the Projectile or Centrifugal force. 
The joint action of these two central ybrcM gives the planets 



If dw Earth w«ra the only body rerolrinff abiiut the Srni, what w<mU ba their i 
diatanoet from their oommon centre of gravity 7 l€ inatead of the Earth alone, the Ew^ 
with all the p!aneta and aatellitea of the ayatein were on one aide, and the Sun alone «■ 
the other, at what distance from their oommun centre of cmvity ronat the Sun be. lo b«l- 
anoe them aU7 Where is the centre of gravity between the Earth and Mooo? How da 
you know this 7 Bv what laws are the secondary planets governed, and the other syatems 
?if ^ "■^•T^nt^ ' ^hat IS meant by all simple nation being reetilinear 1 Why does po 
k ^i?."«^ 'i' *?*' attractioo. bring all bodies to its surface 7 Explain what is meant 
jg w^nt-ipetal and ceoU:ifu*al forr<«. What results fiom the joiut action of Uiete twc 



iflrmAonyi amd fwuiotiu womuk . S51 

t circular motion, and retains them in their orbits as they 
reYolye, the primaries about the Sun, and the secondaries 
about their primaries. 

The degree of the Sun's attractive power at each particu- 
lar planet, whatever be its distance, is uniformly equal to 
die centrimgal force of the planet. The nearer any plan- 
et is to the Sun, the more strong^ly is it attracted by nim ; 
the farther any planet is from the Sun, the less is it at- 
tracted by him ; therefore, those planets which are the near- 
er to the Sun must move the faster in their orbits, in order 
thereby to acouire centrifugal forces equal to the power of 
the Sun's attraction ; and those which are the farther from 
the Sun must move the slower, in order that thev may no* 
have too great a degree of centrifugal force, for the weakei 
attraction of the Sun at those distances. 

The discovery of these great truths, by Kepler and New- 
ton, established the universal law of plamstary motion ; 
which may be stated as follows : 

1. Every planet moves in its orbit with a velocity vary- 
ing every instant, in consequence of two forces ; one tending 
to the centre of the Sun, and the other in the direction of a 
tangent to its orbit, arising from the primitive impulse given 
at the time it was launched into space. The former is call- 
ed its Centripetal, the latter, its Centrifuga^ force. Should 
the centrifugal force cease, the planet would uill to the Sun 
by its gravity ; were the Sun not to attract it, it would flv 
<m from its orbit in a straight line. 

2. By the time a planet has reached its aphelion, or that 
point 01 its orbit which is farthest from the Sun, his attrac- 
tion has overcome its velocity, and draws it towards him 
with such an accelerated motion, that it at last overcomes 
the Sun's attraction, and shoots past him; then gradually 
decreasing in velocity, it arrives at the perihelion, when the 
Sun's attraction again prevails. 

3. However ponderous or light, large or small, near or 
remote, the planets may be, their. motion is always such 
that imaginary lines joining their centres to the Sun, pass 
over equal areas in equal times : and this is true not only 
with respect to the areas described every hour by the same 
planet, but the agreement holds, with rigid exactness, be- 
tween the areas described in the same time, by all the plan- 
ets and comets belonging to the Solar System. 

From the foregolof prtnclpteflt ^ follows, that the force of gmvitjr, and 
Iha eentriAigal force, are mutoal opposing potoer*— ea^^h continiially acting 

To what if the Suo*b attractive rower at each rarticalar planet ecfaal 1 Exi4^n ttm 
more niQ^. B7 friMm waa the univem. %w of planetary moticHi estabUshed } llepeet 
iwlaw. 



d62 nBCAMUON OF THE SQVmOXJS^ «TC. 

■f^nst the other. Tbxm, tbe weight of bodies on the Earth's equator is dimm- 
Uhed bj the centrifugal rorce of her diurnal rotation, in the proportion of one 

Kund lor every 990 pounds : tliat is, had the Eartli bo moii»n on her axis, ail 
dies on the equator would weigh one 289th part more than tiiey now do. 

On the contrary, if her diurnal motion were accelerated, the centrifugal fores 
would be proportionally increased, and tlie weight of bodies at the equator 
would be, in the bame ratio, dioiiuished. Should tine Earth revolve upoo its 
axis with a velocity which would make the day but 84 minutes long, instead of 
M hours, the centrifUptl force would counterbalance that of gravity, aud all 
bodies at the equator would then be absolutely destitute of weight ; and if the 
cenirifugnl force were farther augmented (the Earth revolving in less tlian 84 mio- 
Qtes), graviration would be completely overpowered, and all fluids and loose sab- 
■tances near the equator would lly off from the surfiice. 

The weight of bodies, either upon the Earth, or on any other planet having 
m motion around its axis, depends jointly on the mass of the planet, and its 
diurnal velocity. A body weighing one pound on the equator of the Earth, woald 
weiffh, on that of the Sun, 27.9lb8. ; of Mercurv, l.OSltM. ; of Wenus. O.SBlbs. ; of 
tikeMoon,l-6thofaIb.; ofMars,| lb. ; of Jupiter, 2.7161b8. ; of Saturn, l.Ollba. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



PRBGBSSION OF THE £ClUINOXES--OBLiaUITY OF 

THE ECLIPTIC. 

Op all the motions which are going forward in the Solar 
System, there is none, which it 4s important to notice, more 
difficult to comprehend, or to explain, than what is called 

the PRECESSION OF THE EaUINOXES. 

The equinoxes, as we have learned, are the two opposite 
points in the Earth's orbit, where it crosses the equator. 
The first is in Aries ; the other, in Libra. By the preces- 
non of the equinoxes is meant, that the intersection of the 
equator with the ecliptic is not always in the same point : — 
in other words, that the Sun, in its apparent annual course, 
does not cross the equinoctial, spring and autumn, exactly 
in the same points, but every year a little behind those of 
the preceding year. * 

This annual falling back of the equinoctial points, is called 
by astronomers, with reference to the motion of the heavens, 
the PreceSi^um of ihjt Equinoxes ; but it would better accord 
with fact as well as the apprehension of the learner, to call 
it, as it is, the Recession ol the Equinoxes : for the eqoinoe- 
tial points do actually recede upon the ecliptic, at the rate 
of aoout 50i'' of a degree every ^ar. It is the name only, 
and not the position, of the equinoxes which remains per- 
manent. Wherever the Sun crosses the equinoctial in the 
spring, there is the vernal equinox ; and wheren^er he crofises 
it in the avtumn, there is the autumnal equiaox, and theae 
points are constantly moving to the west 

Bow la the weight of bodiet on the Earth'»'wruator affected by m dittmai rotation! 
whai would be the effect if the diwnal motion qf the Earth toer^ accelerated 1 Wftm 
*eould be theconeequence if the Earth revolved about Ue axU in 84 tninutee, or lemi 
«ri.1-i?''2 **® equinoxea ? What is meant by the preceaeion of the equtnoxes ? "Whr 
J^*!^^- P/^c^^^on of the equinoxes, and what would be a better term 7 The eoS^ 
Doctial poinu are conunualJy moving ; how. then, u their pouUoA defined ? 



PftSOBWIOir 0|P TBB BQumoxis, &0. 



268 




Sgruin^ciM 



To render this subject fa* 
miliar, we will suppoee two 
earriafe roads, extendiof 
quite around the Earth : one, 
representinf the equator, 
running due east and west ; 
•nd the other representing 
the ecliptic, running nearly 
in the same direction as the 
Ibrmer, yet so as to cross it 
with a small angle (say of 
SUo), both at the point 
where we now stand, for in« 
stance, and in the nadir, ex- 
actly opposite ; let there also 
be another road, lo repre- 
sent the prime meridian, 
nmning north and soutli, and 
crossing the first at right 
angles, in the common point 
of intersection, as in the an- 
■ezed figure. 

Let a carriage now start 
from this point of intersec- 
tion, not in the road leading 
directly east, but along that of the ecliptic, which leaTei the foniMBr a little to 
the north, and let a person be placed to watch when the carriage comes around 
a|[ain, after having made the circuit of the Earth, and see whether the carriage 
will cross the equinoctial road again precisely in the tame track as when it left 
the goal. Though the person stood exactly in the former track, he need not 
fear beingrun over, for the carriage will cross the road 100 rods west of him, 
that is, 100 rods west of the meridian on which he stood. It is to be obserred, 
that 100 rods on the equator is equal to 50]^ seconds of a degree. 

If the carriage still continue to ko around the Earth, it will, on completing its 
second circuit, cross the equinoctial path 200 rods west of the meridian whence 
it first set out ; on the third circuit, 300 rods west ; on the fourth circuit, 400 
roda, and so on, continually. After 71} circuits, the point of intersection would 
be one degree west of its place at the commencement of the route. At this rata 
it would be easy to determine how many complete circuits the carriage must 
perform before this continual ialllog back of the intersecting point would bara 
retreated over every degree of the orbit, until it reached agaJn the point from 
whence it first departed. The application of this illustration will be manifisat, 
when we consitter, further, that 

The Sun revolves from one equinox to the same equinox 
again, in 365d. 5h. 48' 47'' .ai. This constitutes the natural. 
or tropiceU year, because, in this period^ one revolution or 
the seasons is exactly completed. But it is^ meanwhile^ to 
be borne in mind, that the equinox itself, durine this period, 
has not kept its position among the stars, but nas deserted 
its place, and fidlen hack a little way to meet the Sun ; 
whereby the Sun has arrived at the equinox before he has 
arrived at the same position among the stars from which he 
departed the year before ; and consequently, must perform 
as much more than barely a tropical revolution, to reach 
that point again. 

Qive at length afamUiar UHMration ky which this subject may he tmderstood. Aw- 
pose the carriage continues its circuU around the Earth, where would itarossthe ««#• 
noaial the sd, ai, and Ath Hints, ^c. ? After how many circuits would thUfaimg 
haOc <^ the equinoctial potnis amount to one degree on the ecliptic ? In what time dgea 
the Sun revolve from one equinox to the aam« equtnox agaia? what m this perm 
ealledi Why is it so called ) Does tba equinox remaifl stationary dunng this pacisa ) 
What lesults finm this } 



264 



nacMBKMi OF ram wqpnnoxaB^ &c. 



To pttM over this interval, which computet the Sun^M side- 
real revobaian, takes (2(y 22''.94) about 22 minutes and 23 
seconds longer. By aading 22 minutes and 23 seconds to 
the time of a tropical revolutioiv we obtain 365d. 6h. 9m.l0}s. . 
ibr the length of a sidereal reoolvJtum; or the time in which 
the Sun revolves from one fixed star to the same star again. 

As the Son describes the whole ecliptic, or 36(K>, in a trop- 
ical year, he moves over 59' 8i" of a degree every da)^, at a 
mean rate, which is equal to 50i" of a degree in 20 minutes 
and 23 seconds of time ; consequently he will arrive at the 
same equinox or solstice when he is 60k" of a degree short 
of the same star or fixed point in the heavens, from which 
he set out the year before. So that, with respect to the 
fixed stars, the Sun and equinoctial points fail back, as it 
.were, 1^ in 711 years. This will make the stars appear to 
haoe gonefofrward 1°, with respect to the signs in the eclip- 
tic, in that time: for it must be observed, that the sams signs 
alxoaifs keep in the same points of the ecliptic^ uithotU re- 
gard to the place of the constellations. Hence it becomes 
necessary to have new plates engraved for celestial globes 
and maps, at least once m 50 years, in order to exhibit truly 
the altered position of the stars. At the present rate (m 
notion, the recession of the equinoxes, as it should be called, 
or the precession of the stars, amounts to 30% or one whole 
sign, in 2140 years. 

MOTION OF THE STARSr 

TTTT 




To explain this hj a ficure : Sappoee the Sun to hare been In c<mjniictkNi 
with a fixed star at S, in the first degree of Taurus, (the second sign of the 
•ellptic,) 340 years before the birth of our Saviour, or about the 17tfi year of 
Alexander the Areat; then having made 2140 revolutions throuxh the ecUpti«t 
he would be foand sgain at the end of so many sidereal ware at S ; but at th« 
•nd of so many Jtdian yearB^ be would be found at J, and at the end of so 
woMDj irvpiealyeare, which would bring it down to the beginning of the pre* 
!SiJ?f!?^£!7' ^ '^^^^^ be found at T, in the first degree of Aries, which has 
T5J2t!J?^^^«I '" **IfL""" *»y'*»« precession of the equinoctial pointi 
AIMS and Libra. Theaic 8 T would be equal to the amoiuit of the nmrSiioa 



ncOBMioM OF ton EQuraoxBi, dta 365 

IfK/nemin wamuMMil] uH lt)ar Ih* F^qlnoi hi 3140 jean, ulhcnUsT 

Sy.JBtraaf ■(lt(ne,ora)DilDuH uid 23 Hcoudi of Um* uuiuJl^, u abor* 

From the coiMlant retrogradcttion of the equinoctial points, 
•nd with them of all the BLgn» of the eclipiin, it follows that 
the longitude of the ttart miMf contimialty increatc. The 
BSQie cause affecta alfo their right atcension and declination. 
Hence, (hose etare which, in (he infancy of aalionomy were 
in the eigo Aries, we now find in Taurut; and those which 
were in Taurut, we now find in Gemim, and so on. Hence 
likewise it is, that the star which rose or set at any particu- 
lar time of the year, in the time of Hesiod, Eudoxus, Virgil, 
Pliny, and othet^ by no tueane answers at thia time to their 
descnptions. 

Hsiad, In hia Optra el Dia, lib. II. twm I9B, m;i; 
Wbm rnm tbf Bbilu aliiy m\iury dur* 
rb^r uirna h»t BbMihI, mMxt, wilb (illt'r<ii( n^ 
From Ocstn'i Hcml Hooit, Areturu rlH, 
Ttaen flm » g\U lbs duAr etuiu Alt*. 
Bat AreUiw bw riw tmofoilj Id ImlluU* 37° 4G' N. the lillludc of Hs- 
•iDd, uid iKirlj Uwl of Richmoiid. in vlriiDli, U>«il 100 <]>ja aHer the viDter 
nlillu. SoppoalngHoJoJ to be correct. Ihem la idiOcreDce orMdaTa arialnf 
CroBi the preceaaion of the equinoiea aince ihe dan of Heeiod. Now aa [here 

As lite Sun movea Lhroiuh about 39^ of Ihe ecliptic 111 40 dajrif Ihe vlnleraol- 
bUc«> In Ihc dniE of HeBlod, waa lu Ihe ^Lh degree of Aqoariiia. Now eatimal- 

iH Ihe precewioo of the equtnnxea at SOi" I — '^-" ' """ 

Tear; -.■Ha': ll!9i jm.n aioce the time of Hi 

our present era, 1&, li will fiie Me jcaril . ..._ 

ClaHUl DictianirT. aaja Uraiori liveil 907 jcmzw HelorC ChlM. 
wIculuiuD tai the uma of TUalea, page H. 

The retrograde movement of the equinoxes, and (he aa- 
nnal extent of it, were determinsd by comparing the longi- 
tude of the Bame eiara, at different intervals of lime. The 
moat careful and unwearied attention was requisite in order 
to determine the cause and extent of this motion; a motion 
•o very stow aa scarcely ti> be pierceived in an age, and oc- 
cupying not less than ^,000 yeara in a single revolution. 
It naa not yet completed one qaarter of itt frit circuit in 
the heavens since Uie creation. 
Thus observation has not only determined the absolute 



lielorc Chrial. Leinprierc, in hla 




266 FRECESSION OF THE EQUEETOXES, ^, 

motion of the equinoctial points, but measured its limit ; it 
has also shown that this motion, like the causes which pro- 
duce it, is not uniform in itself: but that it is constantly ac- 
celerated by a slow arithmetical increase of 1" of a degrree 
in 4,100 years. A quanti^ which, though totally inappre- 
ciable for short periods of time, becomes sensible after a 
lapse of ages. For example: The retrogradation of the 
equinoctial points is now greater by nearly h" than it was 
in the time of RipparchuSj the first who observed this mo- 
tion ; consequently, the mean tropical year is shorter now 
by about 12 seconds than it was then. For, since the retro- 
gradation of the equinoxes is now every year greater than 
it was then, the Sun has. each year, a space of nearly k" 
less to pass through in tne ecliptic, in order to reach the 
plane of the equator. Now the Sun is 12 seconds of time in 
passing over I" oC space. 

At present, the equinoctial points move hachwards^ or 
from east to west along tiie path of the ecliptic at the rate 
of \° in 71} years, or one whole sign, in 2140 years. Con- 
tinuing at this rate, they will fall back through 'the whole 
of the 12 signs of the ecliptic in 25,680 years, and thus return 
to the saTiie position among the starsy as in the beginning. 

But in determining the period of a complete revolution of 
. the equinoctial points, it must be borne in mind that the 
motion itself is continitally increasing ; so that the last quar- 
ter of the revolution is accomplished several hundred years 
sooner than the first quarter. Making due allowance for this 
accelerated progress, the revolution of the equinoxes is com- 
pleted in 25,000 years ; or, more exactly, in 24,992 years. 

Were the motion of the equinoctial points uniform ; thai 
is, did they pass through equal portions of the ecliptic in 
equal times, tney would accomplish their first quarter, or pass 
through the first three signs of the ecliptic, in 6,250 years. 
But they are 6,575 years in passing through the first quar- 
ter; about 218 years less in passing through the second 
quarter ; 218 less in passing through the third, and so on. 

The immediate consequence of the precession of the equi- 
noxee^ as we have already^ observed, is a continually pro- 
greasive increase ojf longitude in all the heavenly bodies. 
For the vernal equinox being the initial point of longitude, 

Give an example. Why shotild the tropica] year, on thii account be ahorter now 
than it was then? What is the present rate of motion of the equinoctial points 1 
In what time, continuing at the same rate, will they &11 back through the twelve rigns 
of the ecliptic 7 In determining the exact period of a complete revoluti<» of the equt> 
noctiaJ points, what important circumstance must be borne in mind ? Making avt 
allowance for their accelerated progrera, in what time is a revolution of the equinoxet 
completed ? Is this naotion as quick in the firat quarter of their revolution as in the taat? 
What 18 the (^and difference of describing each quarter? What is the immediate 
^i^f^^^'^ .**^I**® precession of the equinoxes upon the position of the heavenly bo- 
dies? Explain how this takes pkce. How does this resemble the annual Ion of & 
sidereal day by the Sun? What is the eause of this motion? «""!"« «» « » 



f&IOBSMOM OF THS BQI7INOXE8, &a £67 

fts well as of right ascenaion) a retreat of this point on the 
eciipiic, tells apon the longitudes of all alike, whether at rest 
or in motion, and produces, so far as its amount extends, the 
appearance of a motion in longitude common to them all, 
€t8 if the whole heavens had a slow rotation around the poles 
of the ecliptic in the long period above mentioned, similar to 
-what they have in every twenty-four hours around the poles 
of the equinoctial. As the Sun loses one day in the year 
on the stars, by his direct motion in longitude ; so the equi- 
nox gains one day on them, in 25,000 years, by its retro- 
grade motion. 

The cause of this motion was unknown, until Newton 
proved that it was a necessary consequence of the rotation 
of the Earth, combined with its elliptical figure, and the 
unequal attraction of the Sun and Moon on its polar and 
equatorial regions. There being more matter about the 
Earth's equator than at the poles, the former is more strongly 
attracted than the latter, which causes a slight gyratory or 
wabbling' motion of the poles of the Earth around those of 
the ecliptic, like the pin of a top about its center of motion, 
when it spins a little obliquely to the base. 

The precession of the equinoxes, thus explained, consists 
in a real motion of the pole of the heavens among the stars, 
in a small circle around the pole of the ecliptic as a center, 
keeping constantly at its present distance of nearly 23i° 
from it, in a direction from east to west, and with a progress 
so very slow, as to require 25,000 years to complete the cir- 
cle. During this revolution, it is evident that the pole will 
point successively to every part of the small circle in the 
heavens which it thus describes. Now this can not happen 
without producing corresponding changes in the apparent 
diurnal motion of the sphere, and in the aspect which the 
heavens must present at remote periods of tiihe. 

The effect of such a motion on the aspect of the heavens, 
Is seen in the apparent approach of some stars and constel- 
lations to the celestial pole, and the recession of others. 
■^ The bright star of the Lesser Bear, which we call the pole 
star J has not always been, nor will always continue to be, 
our polar star. At the time of the construction of the earliest 
catalogues, this star was 12^ from the pole ; it is now only 
1° 34' from it, and it will approach to within half a decree 
of it ; after which it will agam recede, and slowly give place 
to others, which will succeed it in its proximity to the pole. 



Admitting this explanation, in what does the precession of the equinoxes really con- 
list 7 To what point in the henvens will the pole of the Earth be directed, during the 
revolution ? How must this effect the diurnal motion and aspect of the heavens, in re- 
mote a^s? Wherein will the eflects of such a motion be partieularly visible? Give 
ftnuutanoe. 



fi66 PRE0E88IOH OP THE EQUIHOXE8, A^. 



Th« poky as above eonaidered, ia to be nndenfood, aerelj, aa (he vmmwkinff 
paint of the Earth'a axia ; or that poixat in tiie concave sphere which ia alurayt 
tjppotite the terrestrial pole, and which consequently must move aa that moves. 

The precession of the stars in respect to the equinoxes, is 
less apparent the greater their distance from the ecliptic ; 
for whereas a star in the zodiac will appear to sweep the 
whole circumference of the heavens in an equinoctial year, 
a star situated within the polar circle will describe only a 
very small circle in that period, and by so much the less, as 
it approaches the pole. The north pole of the earth being 
elevated 23° 21^' towards the tropic of Cancer, the circum* 
polar stars will be successively at the least distance from it^ 
when their longitude is 3 signs, or 90° The position of the 
north polar star in 1836, was in the 17° of Taurus ; when 
it arrives at the first degree of Cancer, which it will do in 
about 250 years, it will be'at its nearest possible approach 
to the pole — namely, 29' 55". About 2900 years before 
the commencement of the Christian era, Alpha Drax:onis, 
the third star in the Dragon's tail, was in the first degree of 
Cancer, and only 10' from the pole ; consequently it was 
then the pole star. After the lapse of 1 1,600 years, the star 
Jjyra^ the brightest in the northern hemisphere, will occu- 
py the position of a pole star, being tlien about 5 decrees 
from the pole ; whereas myw its north polar distance is up- 
wards of ol°. 

The mean average precession firom the creation (40(H B. C.) to the year 1800, 
is 49".51455 ; consequently the equinoctial points have receded since the creation, 
2 s. 140 8^ 27". The longitude ofthe star Btta Arietis, was. in ISsM, 31° 27' 26^' : 
Meton, a &mous mathematician of Athens, who flourished 430 years before Christ, 
says, this star, in his time, was in the vernal equinox. If he is correct, then 
810 271 2af*, divided by 2260 yean, the elapsed time, will give 60^' for the preces- 
sion. Somethiug, however, must be allowed for the imperfection of the mstru- 
ments used at that day, and even until the sixteenth century. 

Since all the stars complete half a revolution about the 
axis of the ecliptic in about 12,50t) years, if the North Star 
be at its nearest approach to the pole 250 years hence, it 
will, 12,500 years afterwards, be at its greatest possible dis- 
tance from i^ or about 47° above it : — That is, the star itself 
will remain immovable in its present position, but the pole 
of the Earth will then point as much below the pole of the 
ecliptic, as now it points above. This will have the effect, 

When you tpeak qf the POLE aa in motion, what U to heundkntood by that term9 
Is theprecession of the stars, with reapect to the equinoxes, equally apparent in every 
part oithe heavens i At what longitude do the circumpolar stars approach nearedt ihe 
Mile 7 What is the position, at present, of the north polar star, and when will it make 
its nearest possible approach to the true pole of the heavens ? At what period has any 
other star been the polar star ? When will the star Lyra, which is more than SCP from 
It. be the nori h polar star 7 What toaa the mean UnntuU precession from the creation 
to the year I800, and how mueh dU it amount to in that period ? When teas Beta Ari- 
•Ms in the eqmnox, and what ia its lonritude now ? When will our present north star 
2f.* -L^ . ^'"ir ^'if " *' '*■ KtwAosi distance from the pole ? In this case, ia it meant 
■wLren t'Se'al ™"**' ****>***»*« ^ ^ w***' manner ? What, then, must be tlsa 



oKjQmTT ov m BouPTia 269 

'OippwreifAy^ oC eSeyating the present polar star to twice iti 

E resent altitude, or 47<>. Wherefore, at the expiration of 
alf the equinoctial year, that point of the heavens whicli is 
now 1® 18' north of the zenith of Hartford, will be the place 
of the north pole, and all those places which are situated 1^ 
18' north of Hartford, will then nave the present pole of the 
heaveiffi in their zenith. 

OBLiaUITT OF THE ECLIPTIC. 

The distance between the equinoctial and either tropic, 
measured on the meridian, is called the Obliquity of the 
Ecliptic : or, this obn<][uity may be defined as the angle 
formed by the intersection of the celestial equator with Uie 
ecliptic. Hitherto, we have considered these great primary 
circles in the heavens, as never vaiying their position in 
space, nor with respect to each other. But it is a remarkable 
and well-ascertained fact, that both are in a state of constant 
change. We have seen that the plaii^ of the Earth's equa- 
tor is constantly drawn out of place by the unequal attraction 
of the Sun and: Moon acting in different directions upon the 
unequal masses of matter at the equator and the poles; 
whereby the intersection of the equator with the ecliptic is 
constantly retrograding — ^tbus producing the precession of 
the equinoxes. 

The displacement of the ecliptic^ on the contrary, is pro- 
duced chiefly by the action ol the planets, particularly of 
Jupiter and Venus, on the Earth ; by virtue of which the 
plane of the Earth's orbit is drawn nearer to those of these 
two planets, and consequently, nearer to the plane of the 
equinoctial. The tendency of this attraction of the planets, 
therefore, is to diminish the angle which the plane of the 
equator makes with that of the ecliptic, bringing the two 
planes nearer together; and if the Earth had no motion of 
rotation, it would, in time, cause the two planes to coincide. 
But in consequence of the rotary motion of the Earth, the 
inclination of these planes to each other remains very nearly 
the same ; its annual diminution being scarcely more than 
three fourths of one second of a degree in a year. 

The obliqnitj of the eelij^ic^ at the eommencenieiit of the preaent ceni 

was, aceorai 

Accoxding 



Snitj of the eelmtic, at the eommencenieiK of the p r ea c nt centvy, 
ling to Sa%, 23^ 27' S^i"^ subjeel to a yearly diminution of V .47». 
to Besset, it was 23^ 27' 54" .32, with an annual diminution of (K' .46. 



Bhutrata thae ^^fiaumuma bp c dtag nu H . What is the eMiqnitr of the ediplie? 
la what lifht have we hitherto oontAdeied the rreat cirdesof the heavens? But what 
is the ftet? By what cause is the displacement of the equinoctia], or the plane of the 
Earth's equator, effected > How is the displacement of the plane of the ecliptic effect- 
ed 1 If the planetary attraction tends constantly to draw the planes of the equinoctial 
and ediptie nearer together, what is to prevent them from ooineidinc in one and tiM 
same plane } How much is the distance or angle between them diminished evefy year/ 
What woB the obUguity qfthe ecliptic, or the quantity qftMe angle, at the oommenM- 



mentafthepraentofinttary} JetheanmuiAnlmmonqfthtobUgwyeuitfeettoany 
vartttuemi 23** 



270 oBUQuiTr or tbb ecuptio. 

This dimlinitk»f howrrer, h tabfeet to s slight •emi-«BDiiml wrtaboo, firaa tte 
Mine caoMt which prodttBe the displacement of the plane of the ecliptic, in 



The attraction of the Sun and Moon, also, unites with that 
of the planetfl, at certain seasons, to augment the diminution 
of the obliquity, and at other times, to lessen it On this . 
account the obliquity itself is subject to a periodical varia- 
tion ; for the attractive power of the Moon, which tends to 
produce a change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, is varia>ble, 
while the diurnal motion of the Earth, which tends to pre- 
vent the change from taking place, is constant. Hence the 
Earth, which is so nicely poised on her center, bows a little 
to the influence of the Moon, and rises again, alternately, 
like the gentle oscillations of a balance. This curious phe- 
nomenon, is called Nutation. 

In consequence of the yearly diminution of the obliquity 
of the ecliptic, the tropics are slowly and steadily approach- 
ing the equinoctial, at the rate of little more than three 
fourths of a second every year ; so that the Sun does not 
now come so far north of the equator in summer, nor decline 
80 far south in winter, by nearly a degree, as it must have 
done at the creation. 

The most obvious effect of this diminution of the obliquity 
of the ecliptic, is to equalize the length of our days and 
nights ; but it has an effect also to change the position of 
the stars near the tropins. Those which were formerly 
situated north of the ecliptic^ near the summer solstice, are 
now found to be still farther north, and farther from the 
plane of the ecliptic. On the contrary, those which, accord- 
ing to the testimony of the ancient astronomers, were situ- 
ated south of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, have 
approached this plane, insomuch that some are now either 
situated within it, or just on the north side of it Similar 
changes have taken place with respect to those stars situ- 
ated near the winter solstice. Ail the stars, indeed, partici- 
pate more or less in this motion, but less, in proportion to 
their proximity to the equinoctial. 

It is important, however, to observe, that this diminution 
will not always continue. A time will arrive when this 
motion, growing less and less, will at length entirely cease, 
and the obliquity will, apparently, remain constant for a 
time ; afler which it will gradually increase again, and con- 

From what eauae i What effect has the attraction of the Sun and Moon on this ob- 
liqttitF 7 What results from this alternate and opr>osite influence ? By what token doe* 
igS. Earth show respect to this influence of the Mooii ? What is this phenonoenon called » 
2?*/.'* !w «>n?«Que"ce of the yearly diminution of the obliquity of the eeliptic in n- 
^iiSJ^M^i^?'^' '*VJ'® iroP.>c8. Md the deefinatfon Af the Sun ? What other ^bri 
SSr tK? iSt^iVr*TU%te'","*'*'° ' J^^'^ •*<>«■ '« afffecM»»« declination of the «tara 



THB Tim 



fSfi 



tmoe to diverge by the oame yearly increment as it before 
had diminiehed. This alternate decrease and increase will 
constitute an endless osciiiation, comprehended between cer- 
^ tain fixed limits. Theory has not yet enabled us to deter- 
mine precisely what these limits are, but it may be demon- 
strated from the constitution of our globe, that such limits 
exist, and that they are very restricted, probably not exceed- 
ing 29 42^. If we consider the effect of this ever-varying 
attribute in the eystem of the universe, it may be affirmed 
that the plane of the ecliptic never has coincided with the 
plane of the equator, and never will coincide with it Such 
a coincidence, could it happen, would produce upon the 
Earth perpetual spring. 

The method used by astronomers to determine the obli- 
quity of the ecliptic is, to take half the difference of the 
greatest and least meridian altitudes of the Sun. 

The fbllowtng table exhibits the mean obliquity of the 
ecliptic for every ten years during the present century. 



1800 \ 


239 2T 64'' .7fi 


1860 j 


23^ 27' 27" .36 


1810 


VS^ ^ ffi .21 


1870 


23 27 22 .79 


1830 


23 27 45 .64 


1880 


23 27 18 .22 


1830 


23 27 41 .07 


1890 


23 27 13 .65 


1840 


23 27 36 .50 


1900 


23 27 09 .08 


1850 


23 27 31 .93 


1910 


23 27 04 .52 



CHAPTER XXn, 

THE TIDES. 

The oceans, and all the seas, are observed to be incessant- 
ly agitated for certain periods of time, first from the east 
towards the west, and then a^in from the west towards the 
east In this motion, which lasts about six hours, the sea 
gradually swells ; so that entering the mouth of rivers, it 
drives back the waters towards their source. After a con- 
tinual flow of six hours, the seas seem to rest for about a 
quarter of an hour ; they then begin to ebb, or retire back 
again from west to east for six hours more ; and the rivers 
again resume their natural courses. Then after a seeming 
pause of a quarter of an hour, the seas again begin to flow, 

as before, and thus alternately. This regular alternate mo- 

I ' ■■ I .. .- .f.. ■ . —____— 

Wlmt are tbe Vkmiu of ita alternate variation ? What M-ouid be the consequence, ia 
respect to the seasons, shonld the pinne of the ecliptic ever coincide with the plane of 
the equator 7 Whati« the method used by astronomers for determinmc the obliquity of 
the ecliptic f What regular motion is observed in the great body of waters umm the 
globe} In what periods of time is this alternate ebbing and flcmtnc aocompbshbd) 



272 THE TUrBS. 

tion of the sea eoDatituteB Ute tidea, of which there are two m 
something less than tweoty-five hours. 

Tbe MiciMit* coBiidcrad the ebbing and flowing of the tide» ■■ one of the 
createet lOTateriee in nature, and were utterly at a k)es to account for them. 
Ciaiileo and Deecartes, and puticnlarlj Kepler, made some sncceflsful adYancee 
towanie aecertuniof tbe cauee; but Sir Isaac Newton was the ftrst wli9 
clearly showed what were tlie chief agents in producing these moCkMie. 

The cause of the tides, is the attraction ai tbe Sua and 
Moon, but chiefly of the Moon, upon the waters of the 
ocean. In virtue of gravitation, the. Moon, by her attrac- 
tion, draws, or raises the water towards her ; but because 
the power of attraction diminishes as the sq^uares of the dis- 
tance increase, the waters on the opposite side of the Earth 
are not so much attracted as they are on the side nearest 
the Moon. 

That the Moon, says Sir John Hersehel, shonid, by her attractioB, bean up 
the waters of the ocean under her, seems to most persons very natural [ but 
that the same eaoee, should, at the same time, heap them up on the opposite 
■Ide, seems, to many, palpablr absurd. Yet noUiing is more true, nor indeed 
more evident, when we consider tliat it is not by her toAote attraction, but by 
the dill^rences of her attractions at the opposite sur&ces and at tbe center, that 
the waters are raised. 

That the tides ars dependent opon some known and determinate laws, is erU 
dent firom the exact time of high water being previously given in every ephe* 
Bieris, and in many of the common almanacs. 

The Moon oemes every day later to the meridian than on tbe day preceding, 
and her ezaet time is luiown by calculation ; and the tides In any and every 
place, will be found to ibllow the same rule ; haf^ning exactly so much later 
•very day as the Moon comes later to the meridian. From this exact conform- 
ity to the motions of the Moon, we are induced to look to her as the cause ; and la 
luer that these phenomena are occasioned principally by the Moon's attraction. 



CAUSE OF THE TIDES. 





® 




If the Earth were at rest, and there were no attractive in- 
fluence from either the Sun or Moon, it is obvious from tbe 
principles of gravitation, that the waters in the ocean would 
be truly spherical, as represented at A ; but daily observation 
proves that they are in a state of continual agitation. 

What it it called? Hew were thtte pfienomena regarded by the mndenta^ Wha 

¥KS&«r'S3.J?2S2i*I°?.** ^""l »P«» *»"» "^Je" of tbe EarthattheSStSel 
SS^JtS^*^ ifer»efter» renwrk umm thU theory 7 How U U known t^titeSSm 



THB TIDES. 



273 



If the Earth and Moon were without motion, and the 
Earth covered all over with water, the attraction of the Moon 
would raise it up in a heap, in that part of the ocean under 
the Moon, as represented at B, and there it would, probably, 
always continue ; but by the rotation of the Earth upon its 
axis, each part of its surface to which the Moon is vertical 
is presented to the action of the Moon ; wherefore, as the 
quantity of water on the whole Earth remains the same, 
when the waters are elevated on the side of the Earth under 
the Moon, and on the opposite side also, it is evident they 
nufit recede from the intermediate points, and thus the at- 
traction of the Moon produce high water at two opposite 
places, and low water at two opposite places, on the Karth, 
at the same time. 

This Is erident from the followiiiff figure. The waters canaot rise in one 

Iitaee without Atiiins in Miother ; and titeneforo ther mast firil as low in tlM liar- 
soa, at C and D, as thejr rise in the cenitli sad nadir, at A and B. 





It has already been shown, under the article ffravitation 
that the Earth and Moon would fall towards each other, b^ 
the power of their mutual attraction, if there were no centri- 
fugal force to prevent them ; and that the Moon would fall 
as much faster towards the Earth than the Earth would fall 
towards the Moon, as the quantity of matter in the Earth is 
greater than the quantity of matter in the Moon. The same 
law determines also the size of their respective orbits around 
their common center of gravity. 

It follows then, as we have seen, that the Moon does not revolve, strictlj 
sipeaking, around the Earth as a center, but aroond a point between <Ae«»>, 

floppose tin attmetive power of the Moon upon Am fiarth 4a se as it w, and oeifter 
ttie Earth nor Moon to have any motion, what would be the reiuk? How would this 
condition of ttainc* be a%cted by the Bartti's rotatioa i If flie Gaiiiai and Moon mu- 
tually attract each other with m mudi force, what prevents their oominc together i But 
eentrifoffal foree lesulta only from circular motion, does the Earth tlien circulate amund 
the Moon to acquire the centrifugal force by which U is Icept from Jailing upon the 
Moon ? lAna. The Earth does not circulate around the Moon, but around the com- 
mon center of cmvity between it and the Moon] Where ia this center vituated, aod 
in what time Mies the Earth revolve about it > lAn». The center of gravity, between 
the Earth and the Moon, ia aboat 80U0 miles fiom the Earth's center, around which it 
fevolves every lunar month, or as often as ttie Moon revolves around the Earth.] From 
tht fact qfthe Earth't motion, at in the cote deteribed, how do a/me pkUo»«pher$ ae- 
€owit far high water on the Hde nf the Earth, oi^posite to the ihonf How ia this 
phenomenon otherwiM explained, by the laws of giavity, merely ? Are the Enrthand 
waaten tffiha ftiobe affected equallg. by the Moon'e attraction l Wh^ mat ) 



274 nOB TIDE8. 

wliieta ta 80 tlm€i iMsrer the Banh than the-Motw, and conaequaDtlj is ritnated 
aboat 3000 milea (rom the Earth'a center. It has also beeA shown, that all 
bodies moTing in circles •cquire a ceatrifugal force proportioned to their le- 
qpeciive masses and Telocitv. From these facts, some philotsophers account 
for hi^h water on the side or the Earth opposite to the Moon, in the foUowinf 



As the Earth and Moon move around their common center of gravity, that 
part tf the Earth which Is at any time turned from the Moon, being about 
7000 miles fiuther from the center of grsTity, than the side next the Moon, would 
)wr« m greater centrtfugat Jbrce than the aide nest her. At the Earth's cen- 
ter, the centrifugal force will balance the attracti-ve force: therefore as mucb 
water Is thrown ^ by the centrifugal force on the side which is turned from 
the Moon, as is raised on the side next her by her attraction. 

From the universal law, that the force of gravity dimin- 
ishes as the square of the distance increases, it results, that 
the attractive power of the Moon decreases in intensity at 
every step of the descent from the zenith to the nadir ; and 
consequently that the waters on the zenith, being more 
attracted by the Moon than the Earth is at its center, move 
faster towards the Moon than the Earth's center does : and 
as the center of the Earth moves faster towards the Moon 
than the waters about the nadir do, the waters will be, as it 
were, left behind, and thus, with respect to the center, they 
will be raised. 

The reason why the Earth and waters of our globe do not seem to be affected 
eguailv by the Moon's attraction, is, that the earthy substsnce of the gM>9, 
being firmly united, does not yield to any difference of the Moon's attiactiTe 
force; insomuch that lis upper and lower surface must move equally faaH 
towards the Moon ; whereas the waters, cohering together but very lightly, 
yield to the different degrees of the Moon's attractive force, at different d»- 
tances from hsr. 

The length of a lunar day, that is, of the interval from 
one meridian passage of the Moon to another, being, at a 
mean rate, 24 hours, 48 minutes and 44 seconds, the inter- 
val between the flux and the reflux of the sea is not, at a 
mean rate, precisely six hours, but twelve minutes and 
eleven seconds more, so' that the time of high water does 
not happen at the same hour, but is about 49 minutes later 
every day. 

The Earth revolves on its axis in about twenty-four hours ; 
if the Moon, therefore, were stationary, the same part of our 
globe would return beneath it, and tliere would be two tides 
every twenty-four hours; but while the Earth is turning once 
upon its axis, the Moon has gone forward 13° in her orbit — 
which takes forty-nine minutes more before the same meri- 
dian is brought again directly under the Moon. And hence 
every succeeding day the time of high water will be forty- 
nine minutes later than the preceding. 

For example :— Suppose at any place it be high water at S o'clock hi the %f- 
lemoon, upon the day of new Moon, the followmg day it will be high water 
about 49 minutes after 3 ; the day after, about 38 minutes after 4 ; and so on tin 

i-]S3lf* ? ^ averafs interybl between the flux and reflux of the Ma} What is tte 
lenffUi of a lunar dajr. and ai the mtervai of the flux anJ reflux of the sea7 HowS 
thu daily retardation ofthetUesaoGowMed for? Qiviin esSSSf^ «owib 



THE TIDES. 



275 



the next new Moon. The eaact daily mean retardation of the tidet is thm 

determined : — 
Tbe mean moiion of the Moon, in a aolar day, !• IS**. 17639639 
The mean.motion of the Sun, in a solar day, is .99664722 

Now, as Ifio 18 to 60 minates, so is 12°.19074917 to 48' 44". 

It is obvious that the attraction of the' Sun must produee 
upon the waters^ of the ocean a like effect to that of the 
Moon, though in a less degree ; for the great mass of the 
Sun is more than compensated by its immense distance. 
Nevertheless, its effect is considerable, and it can be shown, 
that the height of the solar tide is to the height of the Lunar 
tide as 2 to 5. Hence the tides, though constant, are not 
equal. They are greatest when the Moon is in conjuncticm 
wkh. or in opposition to, the Sun, and least when in quad- 
rature. For in the former case, the Sun and Moon set to- 
gether, and the tide will equal the sum of the solar and lunar 
tides, and in the latter they act against each other, and the 
tide will be the difference. 

The former are called Spring Tides ; the latter, Neap 
Tides. 

SPRING AND NEAP TIDBS. 



/ Sprinjj ti4e\ 




f" $^ui^tUk 



6 



\^£y»/p#fi^>ft ^. 




*--v--.^ 



Are the tides mifimnly hifh? 
are theae extreme tides called? 
tides lowest} 



When, and on what aeeoont, do they di0br7 .What 
When are the sprinc tides highest} WhMt aie thr 



276 THE TIDES. 

The spring tides are highest, when the Son and Moon 
are near the equator, and the Moon at her least distance 
from the Earth. The neap tides are lowest, when the Moon 
in her first and second quarters is at her greatest distance 
fVom the Earth. The general theory of Sie tides is this ; 
When the Moon is nearest the Earth, her attraction is 
strongest^ and the tides are the highest ; when she is farthest 
from the Earth, her attraction is least, and the tides are the 
lowest 

From the above theory, it might be supposed that the tides 
would be the highest when the Moon was on the meridian. 
But it is found that in open seas, where the water flows 
freely, the Moon has generally passed the north 4tr south 
meridian abozU three fSmrs^ when it is high water. This k 
called the 

LAQGINO OP THE TIDES IN LONOrTUDB. 



\ 



This lagging of the tide behind the Moon is illustrated by 
the above cut, in which the Moon is seen on the meridian, 
and the vertex of the tide>wave A, about three hoars, or 
22i^ east of that meridian. The opposite wave is also in 
its corresponding position, as shown at B. 

The reason of this delay of the tide is, that the force by 
which the Moon raises the tide continues to act^ and conse- 
quently the waters continue to rise, af\er she hew passed the 
meridian. 

For the same reason, the highest tides, which are pro- 
duced by the conjunction and opposition of the Sun and 
Moon, do not happen on the days of th& full and change ; 
neither do the lowest tides happen on the days of their 
quadratures. But the greatest spring tides commonly hap- 
pen 1* days after the new and full Moons ; and the least 
neap tides 1* day9 after the first and third quarters. 

eh22?^hal^hA•?iI?u"iL't®T' ^^l this subject? Does it necessarilf i««uU fiwn tbis 
■^i^»d £ ftt ,"^\Jt ^*?"wf when the Moon is on the meridian j What Immb m 
awifiMd Air due } ^A* hat Hmiiar liiet is accounted far upon the MmftRrinoiptol 



THE TIDES. 277 

TIm Son and Moon, by leaaon of the elliplieal form of their ortrite, aronltemately 
nearer to and farther from the Earth, than their mean dfatances. In consequence 
of this, the efficacy of the Sun will fluctuate between the extremes 19 and 21, tak- 
inf 20 for ita mean Taloe, and between 43 and 69 for tliat of the Moon. Taking 
into accoont this canse of difference, the hichest spring tide will be te the lowest 
neap as 69+21 is to 43—19, or as 80 to 24, or 10 to 3. The relative mean influence 
la as 61 to 20, or u 6 to 2, nearly.^ HenehePa Aatr. p. 339. 

Though the tides, in open seas, are at the highest about 
three hours after the Moon has passed the meridian, yet the 
waters in their passage through shoals and channels, and by 
striking against capes and headlands, are so retarded that, 
to different places, the tides happen at all distances of the 
Moon from the meridian ; consequently at all hours of the 
lunar day. 

In small collections of water, the Moon acts at the same 
time on every part, -diminishing yie gravity of the whole 
mass. On this account there are no sensible tides in lakes, 
they being generally so small that when the Moon is verti- 
cal, it attracts every part alike ; and by rendering all the 
waters equally light, no part of them can be raised higher 
than another. The Mediterranean and Baltic seas have 
very small elevations, partly for this reason, and partly be- 
cause the inlets by which they communicate with the ocean 
are so narrow, that they cannot, in so short a time, either 
receive or discharge enough, sensibly to raise or sink their 
surfaces. 

Of all the causes of difference in the height of tides at 
different places, by far the greatest is local situation. In 
wide-mouthed rivers, opening in the direction of the stream 
of the tides, and whose channels are growing gradually 
narrower, the water is accumulated by the contracting 
banks, until in some instances it rises to the height of 30, 30, 
and even 50 feet 

Air being lighter than water and the surface of the at- 
mosphere being nearer to the Moon than the surface of the 
sea. it cannot be doubted but that the Moon raises much 
higner tides in the atmosphere than in the sea. According 
to Sir John Herschel these tides are. by very delicate obser- 
vations, rendered not only sensible, but measurable. 

Upon the supposition that there is water on the surface of the Moon, of the 
•une specific gravity as our own^ we might easily determine the height to which 
the Earth would raise a lunar tide, by the known principle, that the attraction 
CMf one of these loose bodies on the other's surface is direeUu as its quantity of 
natter, and inversely as its diameter. By making the calculation, we shall find 
Uie attractive power of the Earth upon the Moon to be 21.777 times greater than 
that of the Moon upon the Earth. 

What ig the eompantive forte efthe eoUar and Hinar attnutione upon the Earthi 
TO what is owitif the diflTerence in the time of htah water at niaees Ijring under the 
same meridian? Why are there no tides upon lakes, and small collections of water? 
Tn what cause more than all others, is the different beiffht of tides owing? Explain 
this. Is it probable that the Moon exerts any influence of attraction on the atmos 
phere i Why is it probable 7 Are the atmospheric tides sufficiently sensible to be ap 
preciated? g^m 



t278 1SB 8SA801M. 

CHAPTER XKOL 

TBI SEASONS — DIFFEBENT LENGTHS OF THE DATS AND NIGHTS. 

The vicissitudes of the seasons and the unequal lengths 
of the days and nights, are occasioned by the annual revo- 
lution of the Elarth around the Sun, with its axis inclined to 
the plane of its orbit 

The temperature of any part of the Earth's surface de- 
pends mainly, if not entirely, upon its exposure to the Sun's 
rays. Whenever the Sun is above the horizon of any place, 
that place is receiving' heat ; when the Sun is below the 
horizon it id parting with it, bv a process which is called 
radiation. The quantities of heat thus received and im- 
parted in the course of the year, must balance each other at 
every place, or the equilibrium of temperature would not be 
supported. 

Whenever, then, the Sun remains more than twelve hours 
above the horizon of any place, and less beneath, the gen- 
eral temperature of that place will be above the mean state ; 
when the reverse takes place, the temperature, for the same 
reason, will be below the mean state. Now the continuance 
of the Sun above the horizon of any place, depends entirely 
upon his declination, or altitude at noon. About the 20tn 
of March, when the Snn is in the vernal equinox, and con- 
sequently has no declination, he rises at six in the morning 
and sets at six in the evening ; the day and night are then 
equal, and as the Sun continues as long above our horizon 
as below it, his influence must be nearly the same at the 
same latitudes, in both hemispheres. 

From the 20th of March to the 21st of June, the da^rs 
grow longer, and the nights shorter, in the northern hemi- 
sphere the temperature increases, and we pass from spring 
to mid-summer ; while the reverse of this takes place in the 
southern hemisphere. From the 21st of June to the 23d of 
September, the days and nights again approach to equality, 
and the excess of temperature in the northern hemisphere 
above the mean state, grows less, as also its defect in the 

southern ; so that, when the Sun arrives at the autumnal 

.» " — - 

Hoto much greater it the attractive power of the Earth upon the Moon, than that ^ 
the Moon upon the Earthi What occasions the vicissitaoes of the seasons, and the 
unequal lengths of the days and nights ? Upon what does the temperature at diiiientit 
places depend ? Under what circumstances do the same places chanfe their tempera- 
ture ) Are the quantities of heat received and imparted, every year always equal at the 
name places 7 Why is it so) When is the temperature of a plaee oteve, and when ia it 
beloio its mean state ) Upon what does the continuance of the Sun above the hoiison ef 
any place, depend 7 When is the Sun as long above our horizon as below it ? Duriaf 
what season of the year is the tepapemture increasing? What, at the same time, takM 
fj^ rlw^*^^ ^ ^\^ temperature, in the southern hemiapliere? Ouiing what p«> 
Uon of the year is the temperature decreasing? ^^ 



m BBMsamk 279 

equinox, the mean temperature is again restored. From 
the 23d of September until the 2l8t of December, our nights 

frow longer and the days shorter, and the cold increases as 
efore it diminished, while we pass from autumn to mid- 
winter, in the northern hemisphere, and the inhabitants of 
the southern hemisphere from spring to mid-summer. From 
the 21st of December to the 20tn of March, the cold relaxes 
as the days grow longer, and we pass from the dreariness 
of winter to the mildness of spring, when the seasons are 
completed, and the mean temperature is again restored. 
The same vicissitudes transpire, at the same time, in the 
southern hemisphere, but in a contrary order. Thus are 
produced the four seasons of the year. 

But I have stated not the only, nor, perhaps, the most 
efficient cause in producing the heat of summer and the cold 
of winter. If, to the inhabitants of the equator, the Sun 
were to remain 16 hours below their horizon, and only 8 
hours above it, for every day of the year, it is certain they 
would never experience the rigors of our winter ; since it 
ean be demonstrated, that as much heat falls upon the same 
area from a vertical Sun in 8 hours, as would tall from him, 
at an angle of 60^, in 16 hours. 

Now as the Sun's rays fall moat obliquely when the dayt 
are shortest^ and most directly when the daya are Umgest. 
these two causes, namely, the duration and intensity of 
the solar heat, together, produce the temperature of the dif- 
fiyrent seasons. The reason why we have not the hottest 
temperature when the days are longest, and the coldest 
temperature when the days are shortest, but in each case 
about a month aAerwards, appears to be, that a body once 
heated, does not grow cold mstantaneously, but gradually, 
and so of the contrary. Hence, as long as more heat comes 
from the Sun by day than is lost by night, the heat will in- 
crease, and vice versa, 

BEOINNINO Ain> LENGTH OF TBB SEASONS. 

San enteis VJ (Winter begins) 1849, Dec. 21, 7 ^46 M.T.Waah. 
« " Of (Spring " ) 1850, March 20,8 56 38 " « 
" " 52 (Summer " ) " June 21st, 6 3 9 « " • 
" " ;£^ (Autumn " ) " Sept. 22d, 19 58 21 « « 
" " VJ (Winter " ) " Dec. 21, 132157 " " 

For what rMson ? Durinc what portion of the roar n th« oold increafinr 7 Why u it aot 
WlMt chance ofwaaoni, then, taket plaoo, in the northern and southern hemiapheren} 
What other changes complete the seasons of the year ) Whence is it evident that the 
unequal lei^ths (if the days and niffhls are not the only, nor perhaps the ntost efficient 
eaose of the heat of Rummer, and the oold of winter? What tvlro causes produce the 
greatest yieisaitudes of heat and cold 7 Why, then, do we not have the hottest weatkfr 
when the dajs are loogeBt, and the contrary 7 



280 

Bub hi fhe Winler SffM . .89 1SI62 

** " Sprier . 98 21 6 31 

M w SomiDer . 93 13 56 22 

« •• Autonu . 89 17 23 96 

" north of Equator <8piinf aad SmBinor) 186 11 1 63 

** aonlh •* ( Wtiiter and Aotunui) 178 18 64 18 



LoofBitiKMtli of Clio Equator, . . 7 16 7 36 

Leoglhof the tropical year, beginoingat ) 
the wiDler aolatice 1819, and ending at > 366 6 66 11 
the winler aolatiee 1860, S - 

Mean or arerage length of the tropical year, 366 6 48 48 

The north pole of the Earth is denominated the elevated 
pole, because it is always about 23i° above a perpendicular 
to the plane of the equator, and the south pole is denomi- 
nated tne depressed pole, because it is about the same dis- 
tance below such perpendicular. 

As the Sun cannot shine on more than one half the Earth's 
snrface at a time, it is plain, that when the Earth is moving 
through that portion of its orbit which lies above the Sun, the 
elevated pole is in the dark. This requires six months, that 
is, until the Earth arrives at the equinox, when the elevated 
pole emerges into the light, and the depressed pole is turned 
away from the Sun for the same period. Consequently, 
there are six months day and six months night, alternately, 
at the poles. 

When the Sun appears to us to be in one part of the eclip- 
tic, the Earth, as seen from the Sun, appears in the point 
diametrically opposite. Thus, when the oun appears in the 
vernal equinox at the first point of Aries, the Earth is actu* 
ally in the opposite equinox at Libra. The days and nights 
are then equal all over the world. 

As the Sun appears to move up from the vernal equinox 
to the summer solstice, the Earth actually moves from the 
autumnal equinox down to the winter solstice. The days 
now lengthen in the northern hemisphere, ai^d shorten in tne 
southern. The Sun is now over the norm pole, where it is 
mid-day, and opposite the south pole, where it is midnight. 

As the Sun descends from the summer solstice towards 
the autumnal equinox, the Earth ascends from the winter 
solstice towards the vernal equinox. The summer days in 
the northern hemisphere having waxed shorter and shorter, 
now become again of equal length in both hemispheres. 

While the Sun appears to move from the autumnal equi- 
nox down to the winter solstice, the' Earth passes up from 

Why M the north pole denomiaaled the ^valed pole f Why » the aoath pole de- 
opminated the depreaaed polA? Why are there six montlM day and six months nkht. 
alternately at ttib poles 7 What is always the reJative position of the Sun and -Garth ia 
the ecliphc} Give an example. When do the days lencthen in the northern hemi* 
sphere, and shorten in the southern? When is it mid-day at the north pole, aod mid- 
•iSte* ^\lMfttf} ^*"" "*' •ummer days in the northern hemisphaxe fww 



TBBJIBASOlfS. 281 

the veraal equinox to the sammer solstice ; the south pde 
comes into the light the winter days continually shorten in 
the northern hemisphere, and the summer days as rcjo^ularly 
increase in length m the southern hemisphere. 

While the Sun appears again to ascend from its winter 
solstice to the vernal equinox, the Earth descends from the 
summer solstice to the autumnal equinox. The summer 
days now shorten in the southern hemisphere, and the win- 
ter days lengthen in the northern hemisphere. 

When the Sun passes the vernal equinox, it rises to the 
arctic or elevated pole, and sets to the antarctic pole. When 
the Sun arrives at the summer solstice, it is noon at the 
north pole, and midnight at the south pole. When the Sun 
passes the autumnal equinox, it sets to the north pole, and 
rises to the south pole. When the Sun arrives 'at the win- 
ter solstice, it is midnight at the north pole and noon at the 
south pole ; and when the Sun comes again to the vernal 
equinox, it closes the day at the south pole, and lights up 
the morning at the north pole. 

There would, therefore, be 1861 days during which the 
Sun would not set at the north pole, and an equal time 
during which he would not rise at the south pole ; and 178| 
days in which he would not set at the south pole, nor rise 
at the north pole. 

At the arctic circle, 23^ 27|' from the pole, the longest 
day is 24 hours, and goes on increasing as you approach the 
pole. In latitude 67° 18' it is 30 days ; in lat. 69° 30' it is 
60 days, dbc. *The same takes place between the antarctic 
circle and the south pole, with the exception, that the day in 
the same latitude south is a little shorter, since the Sun is 
not so long south of the equator, as at the north of it. In 
this estimate no account is taken of the refraction of the 
atmosphere, which, as we shall see hereafter, increases the 
length of the day, by making the Sun appear more elevated 
above the horizon than it really is. 

When do they beomne of equal lenffth in both hemiipherea 7 When do the winter dajv 
■hoften in the northarn hemuphere. and the aummer days lengthen in the aoiithern 1 
When do the aammer daya ahorten in the aouthern hemiaphere, and the winter dajra 
leBgthen in the northern 7 When doea the Sun riae to the north pole, and aet to the 
aottth ) When ia it noon at the north pole, and midnight at the aonth pole 7 When 
doea the Sun aet to the north pole, and rise to the louth 7 When ia it midnif ht at the 
north pole, and noon at the aouth} What ia the length of the day at the north polef 
]W^ at the aoath pole? At the aietae circle? Between the antarctic circle and th« 

*SeeTibIeXIL 

24* 



282 



TBB SBASOMS. 



m BBASONfl — UHIQUAL LK1I0TH8 OF DATS AHD HIGHTS. 

Fif.aeL 


















The aboTe eat reprawnts the inclination of the earth's axis to its orbit in enravj 
one of the twelve slcns of the ecliptic, and conseqaently for each month in the 
year. It is snch a view as a beholder would havCf situated in the north note of 
the ecliptic^ at some distance from it, and consequentij, is a perpenaicnlar 
view, the north pole of the Earth being towards us. Ttie Son enters the s^ 
Aries, or ttie Temal eqahiox, on the 20th of March, when the Earth's axis in- 
clines neither towards the Sun, nor Jrom it, but stands exactly 9ufetr<^« to it ; 
so that the Sun then shines equally upon thp Earth from pole to pole, and the 
days and nights are every where equal. This is the begimunff of the astronomic 
cat year ; it is also the beginning of day at the north pole, which is just coming 
into light, and the end of day at the south pole, which is just going into darkness. 

By the Earth's orbitual progress, the Sun appears to enter the second sign, 
Taurus, on ine 20th of April, when the north pole has sensibly advanced into 
the liglit, while the south pole has been declining from it ; whereby the d»« 
become longer than the nights in the northern hemisphere, and slwrler in toe 
southern. 

On the 2lst of May, the Sun appears to enter the sign Cttmini, when ttie 
north pole has advanced considerably further into the light, while the sontli 
pole has proporticmally declined from it ; the summer days are now wftinf 
longer in the northern hemisphere, and the nights shorter. 

The 2l8t of June, when the Sun enters the sign Cancer, is the first day of 
summer in the astronomical year, and the longest day in toe northern hemi- 
sphere. The north pole nownas its greateot inclination to the Son, the light of 
which, as is shown by the boundarjr of light and darlcness, in the fi^re, ez> 
tends to I he utmost verge of the Arctic Circie : the whole of which is mcluded 
in the enlightened hemisphere of the Earth, and enjoys, at this season, constant 
day during the complete revolution of the Earth on its axis. The whole of tlie 
Northern Frigid Zone is now in the circle of perpetual illumination. 

On the 23d of July, the Sun enters the sign Lso, and as the line of tlks 



UNEQUAL LENGTHS OF DAT8 AND NIGHTS. 283 

Barth*8 axis always continues parallel to itself, the boundary of lifht and daiic- 
ness begins to approach nearer to the poles, and the lengui of the day in the 
northern hemisphere, which had arriTed at its maximam, befdns gradually to 
decrease. On the 23d of August, the Sun enters the sign VirgOf increasing 
the appearances mentioned in Leo. 

On the 23d of September, tlie Sun enters Libra, the first of the autumnal 
signs, when the Earth's axis having the same inclination as it had in the oppo- 
site sign, Arses, is turned neither /rom the Son, nor /otMiftl« it, bur obliquely 
to it, so that the Sun again now shines equally upon the whole of the Barth^ 
surface from pole to pole. The days and nights are once more of equal length, 
throughout the world. 

On the 23d of October, the Sun enters the sign Scorpio ; the days visibly 
deciease in length in the northern hemisphere, and increase in the southern. 

On the 22d of November, the Sun enters the sign Sagittarius, ttie last of 
the autumnal signs, at which time the boundary of light and dartcness is at- a 
considerable distance from tlie north pole, while the south pole has proportion- 
ally advanced into the light ; the length of the day continues to increase in the 
southern hemisphere, and to decrease in the northern. 

On tne 21st of December, which is the period of the winter solstice, the Son 
enters the sign Capricorn. At this time, the north pole of the Earth's axis is 
turned from the Sun, into perpetual darkness ; while the south {wle, in its turn, 
is brought into the light of die Sun, whereby the whole Antarctic region comes 
Into the circle of perpetual illumination. It is now that the southern hemi- 
sphere enjoys all those advantages with which the northern hemisphere was &• 
vored on the 21i^ of June ; while the northern hemisphere, in its turn, under- 
goes the dreariness of wmier, with short days and long nights. By carefully 
observing the figure, it will be seen that the orbit of the Earth is slightly ellip 
tical, that the Sua is to the right of the center, and that consequently, the Earth 
is neanez the Sun on the 2l8t of December, than on the opposite side of the 
ecliptic, on the 21st of June. This may seem strange to the learner, that 
we should have our winter when nearest the Sun, and our summer when most 
distant ; but it must be remembered, that ttie temperature of any particular 
part of the Earth is not so much affected by the distance of the Sun, as by the 
directness or obliquity of his rays. Hence, though we are forther from the Sun 
on the 21st of June than on the 21st of December, yet, as the north pole of the 
Earth is turned more directly into the light, at that time, so that the sun's rays 
strike her surfiu^e less obliquely than in. December, we have a higher tempera- 
ture at that period, though at a greater distance from the Sun. 

The difference, however, l>etween the aphelion and perihelion distances of 
the Earth, is so sUght, in comparison with the whole distance, as scarcely to 
cause a perceptible difference in the amount of light received at her respective 
positions. The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit, or the distance of the Sun from 
Its center, is only about 1,618,000 miles, so that the variation is only 3,296,000 
miles, or about one-thirtieth of the mean distance. In the preceding cut 
the eccentricity is exaggerated to one-eighth the mean distance, making the 
difference between the Earth's perihelion and aphelion distance to amount (o 
one quarter, or 23,777,777 miles. This is more than seven times its real 
amount, ana yet the ellipticity is scarcely perceptible. The true orbit of the 
Earth could not be distinguished firom a circle. 

The only effect of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit 
upon her temperature is, that she has probably a greater 
degree of hea^ during summer in the southern hemfsphere, 
when the Earth is at her perihelion, than we ever have at 
the north in the same latitude. But this difference must be 
very slight, if indeed it is at all perceptible. 



884 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

BABTEflT MOOH — ^HORIZORTAJL MOOH. 

Tbe duly fogitta of the Moon io her orbit from we«t 
to east causes her to rise, at a mean rate, 48 minates and 
44 seconds later every day than on the preceding. Bot 
in places of consideraole fatitade, a remarkable deviation 
from this rale takes place, especially about the time c^ 
harveat, when the full Moon rises to us for several nights 
together, cNily irom 18 to 25 minutes later in one day, than 
on that immediately preceding. Prom the benefit which 
her light affords, in lengthening out the day, when the hus- 
bandmen are gathering in the fruits of the Earth, the full 
moon, under these circumstances, has acquired the name of 
HarveMl Moon. 



It kbeiiered that this ftct wa* obaorred bj pexBoos enp^ed hi acricttltore, 
at a ■lacfa earlier period than that in which it waa noticed bj astronoinefa. 
Itke former ascribed it to the goodneaa of the Deitj ; not donbting bat that he 
had ao ordered it fx their advantase. 

About the equator, the Moon rises throughout the year 
with nearly the equal intervals of 481 minutes ; and there 
the harvest Moon is unknown. 

At the polar drcles, the autumnal full Moon, from her first 
to her third quarter, rises as the Sun sets ; and at the poles, 
where the Sim is absent during one half of the year, the 
winter full Moons, from the first to the third quarter, shine 
constantly without setting. 

B7 this, it is not meant that tlie Moon continues fuB from her first to her 
third quarter ; but that she never sets to the North Polar reffioos, when, at thia 
season of the year, she is within 90<^ of that point io her dirbit where she is at 
her full. In otiier woids : as tbe Sun illumines the south oole during one half 
of its Tearlj revolution, so the Moon, beioff opposite to the Sun at her foil, 
nost illumine the opposite po/e, during half or ner revolution aboo' the Earth. 
The phenomenon m tbe harvest Moon maj be thus exemplified by means of 
the f lobe : 

Rectify the globe to tbe latitude of the place, put a patch or piece of wafer in 
the ecliptic, on the point Aries, and mark every 12V preceding and following 
that point, to the numl)er of ten or twelve marks cm each side of it ; bring the 
equiuoclial point marked by the wafer to tbe eastern edge of the horizon, uid 
set the index to 12 ; turn the globe westward till the other marks successively 
eome to the horison, and observe the hours passed over b;^ the index ; the in- 
tervals of time between the marks coming to tlie horizon, will show the diurnal 
dflTerence of time between the Moon's rising. If these marks be brought to 
the western edge of the horizon in tbe same manner> It will show the diur- 
nal difference between the Moon's setting. 

From this problem it will also appear, that, when there is the least difference 
between the times of tbe Moon's rt«tng, there will be the greatest difference 
between the times of her settings and the contrary. 

■ » 

What is the mean difference of time in the daily rising of ihe MoonT Under what cir- 
eumstances i? there a material deviation from this rule > Whence the name of Harvest 
Mooni By xohoni was tMt phenomenon Jtrst observed, and to tphat did they attriJbuis 
U 1 Why IB the harvest Moon unknown at the equator? How is it at the pomr circles, 
and the poles i What ft meant by the full Moon's aMningfrom the first to the third 
tfMorf^- 7 How may the phenomenon be exemplified by means cS tt» W^ifickU globef 
Why do you mark every 13" qf the scUptic in this pnblemt 



HARVWT MOCNN. 285 



*th6 reason irhj jon mark every VP is, that the Mdoo gains 12^ 11' on the 
tppareiit coarse of the Sun every (^Tt and these marks serve to denote the 
place of the Moon from day to day. It is true, this process supposes that the 
Moon revolves in the plane of the ecliptic^ which is not the case ; yet her orbit 
so nearly coincide^ with the ecliptic, (differing only 6° 9^ frofai it,) that they 
may, ibr the convenience df illustration, be coDsridered as coinciding ; that is, 
we may take the ecliptic for the representative of the Moon's orbit. 

The different lengths of the lunar night, at different lati* 
tudes, is owine to the different angles made by the horizon 
and different parts of the Moon's orbit; or in other words, 
by the Moon's orbit lying sometimes more obljque to the 
horizon than at others. In the latitude of London, for ex- 
ample, as much of the ecliptic rises about Pisces and Aries 
in two hours as the Moon goes through in six days ; there> 
fore while the Moon is in these signs, she differs but two 
hours in rising for six days together; that is, one day with 
another, she rises about 20 minutes later every day than on 
the preceding. 

The parts or signs of the ecliptic which rise with the 
MmaUest angles, set with the greatest; and those which rise 
. with the greatest, set with the least. And whenever this 
angle is least, a greater portion of the ecliptic rises in equal 
times than when the angle is larger. Therefore, when the 
Moon is in those signs which rise or set with the smallest 
angles, she rises or sets with the least difference of time ; 
but when she is in those signs which rise or set with the 
greatest angles, she rises or sets with the greatest difference 
of time. 

Let the globe, for example, be rectified to the latitude of New York, 40^ 4Sf 
iO", with Cancer on the meridian, and Libra rising in the east. In thisposi* 
tion, the ecliptic has a high elevation, making an angle with the horizon of 72^^. 

But let the globe be turned half round on its axis, till Capricorn comes to 
the meridian, and Aries rises in the east, then the ecliptic will have a low ele- 
vation above the horizon, making an angle with it of only 25 j". This angle is 
47^ less than the former angle, and is equal to the distance between the tropics. 

In northern latitudes, the smallest angle made by the 
ecliptic and horizon is when Aries rises ; at which time Li- 
bra sets ; the greatest is, when Libra rises and Aries sets. 
The ecliptic rises fastest about Aries, and slowest about 
Libra. Though Pisces and Aries make an angle of only 
25|° with the norizon when they rise, to those who live in 
the latitude of New York, yet the same signs, when they sety 
make an angle of 72|^. The daily difference of the Moon's 
rising, when in these signs, is, in New England, about 22 

What doea thi* procen cf illuetration suppoM, which ia not tnte^ and whif i* it 
mdoptedl To what is the different lengths of the lunar night, in different latitudes, ow- 
mg 1 Give an example. How do those parts of the ecliptic mi, which rtes with the 
saaallest angles, and the contniiy ? 

Wbat Insults from this in regard to the Moon 1 Hou> may this be iUtutrated on the 
globe } In noitbern latitudej, what signs rise and set with the least angles } What with 
the greatest? Which parts o' the ecliptic rise /astest, and which Klowest? Give an ex< 
sBBpie. What is the daily diflbrenoe of the Moon's rising and setting, in ttwse signs, m 
itetalitadeofNsirTsdKl 



236 HABVBBT VOOtf. 

minutes ; bat when she is in the oj>po8ite signs, Virgo and 
Libra, the daily difference of her rising is almost four times 
as great, being about one hour and a quarter. 

As the Moon can never be full but when she is opposite 
to the Sun, and the Sun is never in Virgo or Libra excejpt in 
our autumnal months, September and October, it is evident 
that the Moon is never full in the opposite signs, Pisces and 
Aries, except in those two months. We can therefore have 
only two full Moons in a year, which rise, for a week togeth- 
er, very near the time of Sun-set — The former of these is 
called the Harvest Moorij and the latter, the Hwnter*8 Moon. 

Although there can be but two fidl Moons in the year that 
rise with so little variation of time, yet the phenomenon of 
the Moon's rising for a week together so nearly at the same 
time, occurs every month, in some part of her course or the 
other. 

In Winter^ the eigns Pisces and Aries rise aboutnoon; hence therimngof 
the Moon is not then regarded nor- perceiTed. 

In Sprinr, these signs rise with the Sun^ because he is then in them ; and as 
the Moon cTianje^es while passing through the same sign with the Sun, it most 
then be the chan^e^ and hence mvisible. 

In Summer^ they rise about midnight, when the Moon is in her ihird quar^ 
ter. On account of her rising so late, and giving but little light, her rmng 
passes unobserved. 

To the inhabitants at the equator, the north and south 
poles appear in the horizon ; and therefore the ecliptic makes 
the same angle southward with the horizon when Aries rises, 
as it does northward when Libra rises; consequently the 
Moon rises and sets not only with angles nearly equal, but 
at equal intervals of time, all the year round ; hence, there 
is no harvest Moon at the equator. The farther any place 
is from the equator, if it be not beyond the polar circles, the 
angle which the ecliptic makes vwith the horizon gradually 
diminishes when Pisces and Aries rise. 

Although in northern latitudes, the autumnal fuU Moons 
are in Pisces and Aries ; yet in southern latitudes it is just 
the reverse, because the seasons are so : — for Virgo and Li- 
bra rise at as small angles with the horizon in southern lati- 
tudes, as Pisces and Aries do in the northern ; and therefore 
the harvest Moons are just as reguliar on one side of the 
equator as on the other. 

At the polar circles, the full Moon neither rises in summer, 
nor sets in winter. For the winter full Moon being as high 
in the ecliptic as the summer Sun, she must continue, while 

How many full Moons in a year, which rise with m little difference of time? Whff 
m'enot theae phenomena obaerved inthe mme aigrta, in winter^ wrings anA9%mmer'i 
Explain why there m no Harvest Moon at the equator, llie (aAhereny place is fiaa 
the equator how IS the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon, when Biao»vaA 
rt!^^I?2' jP® ^he Harvest Moons happen as ref ularly, and in the same months, oa 
Sit,™ -J*"®*®*^ ^^ equator, as on the norths Why does not the ftdl Moon " " 
■unomer. or set in winter, to the inhabaants of the polar ciidea ) ^^ 



KEFRACnON. 287 

passing through the northern eigne, above the horizon ; and 
the summer full Moon being as low in the ecliptic as the ¥nn- 
ter Sun, can no more rise, when passing through the south- 
em signs, than he does. 

THE HOBIZONTAL MOON. 

The great apparent magnitude of the Moon, and indeed 
of the Sun, at rismg and setting, is a phenomenon which has 
greatly embarrassed almost all who have endeavored to ac- 
count for it According to the ordinary laws of vision, they 
should appear to be least when nearest the horizon, being 
then farthest from the eye ; and yet the reverse of this is 
found to be true. The apparent diameter of the Moon, when 
viewed in the horizon by the naked eye, is two or three times 
larger than when at the altitude of thirty or forty degrees ; 
and yet when measured by an instrument her diameter is 
not increased at all. 

Both the Sun and the Moon subtend a greater angle when on the meridian, 
than they do in the horizon, because they are then ActoaUy nearer the place (N 
the spectator, by the whole semi-diameter of the Earth. 

This apparent increase of magnitude in the horizontal 
Moon, is chiefly an optical illusion, produced by the concav- 
ity of the heavens appearing to the eve to be a less portion 
of a spherical surface than a hemisphere. The eye is ac- 
customed to estimate the distance between any two objects 
in the heavens by the quantity of sky that appears to lie be- 
tween them ; as upon the Earth we estimate it by the quan- 
tity of ground that lies between them. Now when the Sun 
or Moon is iust emerging above the eastern horizon, or sink- 
ii^ beneatn the western, the distance of the intervening 
landscape over which they are seen, contributes, together 
with the refrcu^tion of the atmosphere to exaggerate our 
estimate of their real magnitudes. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

REFRACTION— TWILIGHT. 

The rays of light in passing out of one medium into ano^ 
ther of a greater density, deviate from a straight course, 
and are bent towards a perpendicular to that course ; and 

Aceordiiier to the ordinary laws of vision, how ought the ma^itudes of the Sun vti 
Moon to appear when they are nearest the horizon 7 What is the fact 7 How much 
larger does the Moon appear to the naked eye, when in the horizon, than when at the 
altitude of thirty or forty degrees .) Where, in rtoMty, do thf. Sun and Moon mbtend 
th« largest angle 7 Why is it so 7 How is the apparent increase of fioasnitude in tlia 
borizootal Moon accounted tafi 



288 HEFJIACTION. 

if the density of the latter medium contioually iacretuse, the 
rays of light in passing through it, will deviate more and 
more from a rignt line as they pass downwards, or towards 
the eye of the observer. From this cause all the heavenly 
bodies, except when in the zenith, appear higher than they 
really are. This bending of the rays of light, giving to the 
heavenly bodies an apparent elevation aboye their true 
places, IS called Refraction, 

It is in conaequence of the refiractinc power of the atmoophere that all Aeoo- 
en/y bodies are aeenfor a short time before they rise in tne tiorizon, and also 
itfter theu have sunk beloto it. At some periods of the year the Sun appears 6 
minutes longer, morning and evening, and about 3^ minutes longer ererj day, 
at a mean rate, than he would do were there no refraction. The averaxe 
amount of refraction for an object halfway between the hcrison and the zeniu, 
or at an apparent altitude of io*', is but one sixtieth of a de^rae, a quantltyhard- 

X sensible to the naked eye; but at the visible horizon it amounts to 33' of a 
,>gree, which is rather more than the greatest apparent- diameter of either the 
Sun or the Moon. 

The following general notions of Its amount and law of variations should be 
borne in mind : 

1. In the xfnith there is no refraction: a celestial object, situi^ed directly 
over tiead, is seen in its true position, as if there were no atmosphere. 

2. In descending from the zenith to the horizon, the refraction continually 
Increases ; objects near the horiason appearing more elevated by it than those or 
a higher altitude. 

3. The raie of its increase is nearly in proportion to the apparent angular dis- 
tance of the object from the zenith. But this rule, which is not far from the 
truth, at moderate zenith distances^ ceases to give correct results in the vicinity 
of the horizon, where the law becomes much more complicated in its expression. 

The effects of refraction mu^ be fiimiliar to every person who has seen a 
walking stick partially plunged into a river, or other collectlbn of water. While 
the Slick is held upright, it appears straight, because there is no refraction in this 
position ; but if it be ever so uttle inclined, the refraction takes ftlace, and the stick 
appears bent ; if tlie inclination be increued, the refraction is also increased. 

Another easy and familiar illustration of the eflfect of refraction may be thus ob- 
tained : — Put anjr small object, as a piece of money, into an empty basin, as near 
the center as possible, and retire to such a distance as just to lose sight of the ob- 
ject Let an assistant then pour water in the basin, and the object will sooa 
appear. Retire again till it is no longer seen ; let more water be added, and it 
will again appear. The experiment may be repeated till the basin is full. The 
edge of tlie basin may be supposed to represent the horizon ; the water, the at> 
mosphere ; and the piece of money, the Sun, or other object which is thus made 
to appear by the power of refraction, when otherwise it would be invisible. 

One obvious effect of refraction must be to shorten the du- 
ration of night and darkness, by prolonging the apparent 
stay of the Sun and Moon above trie horizon. Even afler 
they appear to have set, the influence of the atmosphere sends 
us a portion of their light ; not by direct transmission, but by 
reflection : — for as long as the Sun continues to illuminate 

How are the rare of lifht affected in pasuof out of one medium into anotheT.af a 
different densitr 7 How. if the densitjr of the latter medium'continually increase ? What 
astronomical phenomenon reitulls from this cause } What is this bendinv <rf the rays 
of light out of their course called I What effect does refraction have upon the apparent 
rising and setting of the heavenly bwlies? How much longer do we see the Sun 
morning and evening than we should, if there were no refraction 7 What is the aver- 
age amount of refmction for an object half way between the hortson and the lenith? 
what in it in the- horizon 7 What is the first general law of atmospheric refratiioa? 
What IS the second } What is the third } Mention a familiar instance of refraatkm 
qf ten seen in water. Mention somefamiliar expertment, to iHtutrate r^actton^ and 
shmo its application to astronomj/7 How does this principle aflfect the duration of 
?il^ ilTir* I- Y. -?" * ^' what principle is it that the atmosphere sends ns a portiSB of 
the solar li«ht. fior a oonffiJorable time before the Sun rises, and alter it has set t 



ABftU^TIOH. iU9 

Jinjr portion of the acmosphere which is above the horison 
the liffht from this portion is reflected to the Earth, and it is 
this that causes twilight. 

In the morning, when the Sun arrives at 18^ below the 
horizon, his rays pass over our heads^into the higher region 
of the atmosphere, and are thence reflect ed^ or as it were, 
bent down to the Earth. The da^ is then said to dawn^and 
ihe light gradually increases until the Sun appears above 
the horizon : this is called Morning, Twilight, or Aurora, 
which the heathens personified as a goddess. They assigned 
CO her the office of opening the Gates of the East, to intro- 
duce the chariot of Apolh or Phcebua, 

In the evening, after sunset, the rays of the Sun continue 

, to illuminate the atmosphere, till he sinks 18^ below the 

horizon, and a similar effect, called the Evening Twilight^ 

is produced, only in an inverse progression, for the twilight 

now gradually becomes fainter till it is lost in dark night. 

The quantity of reflection and the duration of twilight are 
much influenced by the changes which are perpetually tak- 
ing place with respect to the heat and cold, the dryness or 
moisture, dbc. of the atmosphere. The height of the atmos- 
phere, also, has an influence in determining the dun&tion of 
twilight : Thus in winter, when the air is condensed with 
cold, and the atmosphere upon that account lower, the twi- 
light will h^thorter ; and in summer^ when the limits of the 
atmosphere are extended by the rarefaction and dilation of 
the air of which it consists, the duration of the twilight will 
be longer. And for the same reason, the morning twilight, 
(the air being at that time condensed and contracted by the 
cold of the preceding ni^ht.) will be shorter than the even- 
ing twilight, when the air is more dilated and expanded. 

It is entirely owing to the reflecting power of the atmos- 
phere that the heavens appear oright in the day time. Fot 
without such a power, only that part of the heavens would 
be luminous in which the Sun is placed; and, if we should 
turn our backs tothe Sun, the whole heavens would appeal 
as dark as in the night, and the stars, even at noon day, 
would be seen as clear as in the nocturnal sky. 

In regions of the Earth situated towards tne poles, tba 
Sun, during theii summer months, is never more than 18^ 
below the horizon ; consequently their twilight continoM 



What w Twttight 7 How is ft oeeaaioned 7 Hour ia the Evening Twfliffh* n»«w!aeedt 
Br what are the quantity of reOoclion. and the duratirjn of twilight, oonsidmioir infl» 
1 1 Why is twilight shorter in winter? Why loofcnr ia Munmer 1 Why is the mcini- 



& twilight ahorter than the evening twUttfhU To what in it untirely owii^. thot th« 
vena appear biuht in Uie day ftaie) How would th.- hMveiw appear, if it w; '• nwl 
Sir tlM powari what am tho duimtina and advantagen of twilight in faish latitittieA .- 



Cw thia powari 



196 AUR(»A Bt BSAUB. 

fating the whole night The same cause has a tendency 
to diminish the gloom of the long polar nights ; for as far 
north as in lat. 84? 32j-' the Sun even when at the winter 
scHstice approaches to within 18^ of the horizon, and affords 
a short twuight once in 24 hours, and the pole itself b left 
in total darkness not more than 80 days. 

There is still another cause which has a tendency to di- 
minish the length of the polar nights, the extraordinary 
refraction occasioned hy the extreme density of the air in 
those regions. This is so great, as to bring the Sun above the 
horizon some days before it should appear, according to 
calculation. 

A remarkable phenomenon ot this kmd was obserred by the Dutch navi- 
gators who wintered in Nova Zembla, in the year 1696. After endorinff a 
continual night of three tnonthe^ they were acreeably mrprised to find that 
the Sun began to rise eeventeen days tooner than accordinj to coroputatton ! 
The observed altitude of the pole, at the place, (says Dr. &uth») being only 
Td^'. tt is impossible to account for the phenomenon, otherwise, than by sup- 
posing an eztntordinary refraction of the Sun's r&ys. Kepler couiputea that 
the Sun was almost S*' below the horizcm when he first aopeared ; and con- 
sequently, that the refiraetioa of his rays was about V) times greater thaB 
ran us. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

AURORA BOREALIS. 

The sublime and beautiful phenomena presented by tne 
Aurora BorealU^ or Northern Lights^ as they are called, 
have been in all ages a source of admiration and wonder 
alike to the peasant and the philosopher. In the regions of 
the north, they are regarded by the ignorant with supersti- 
rious dread, as harbingers of evil ; while all agree in placing 
ihem among the unexplained wonders of nature. 

These lights, or meteoric coruscations, are more brilliant 
in the arctic regions, appearing mostly in Ihe winter season 
and in frostyr weather. They commonly appear at twilight 
near the horiz<m, and sometimes continue in that state for 
several hours without any sensible motion; after which 
they send forth streams of stronger light, shooting with 

Seat velocity^ up to the zenith, emulating, not infrequently, 
e lightning in vividness, and the rainbow in colouring ; and 
again, silently rising in a compact majestic arch of steady 

■i»25iTfS£¥l?if?^*~«.*«^f^ HowaiethephemiinenaoftkaA» 

!?J*i~''!'*'°^ ''^tlieicnofaiit? In what do afi asiee, resneetmc them f Wkaa 
•^Ms-e^jwj^^ DeSte tTSmssr^En^lBnMr? 



AURORA B0REALI8. 891 

white light, apparently durable and immoveable, and yet so 
evanescent, that while the beholder logics upon it, it is gone 

At other times, they cover the whole hemisphere with 
their flickering and fantastic coruscations. On these oc- 
c£(sions their motions are amazingly quick, and they aston- 
ish the spectator with rapid changes of form. They break 
out in places where none were seen before, skimming brisk- 
ly along the heavens ; then they are suddenly extinguished, 
leaving behind a uniform dusky track, which, again, is bril- 
liantly illuminated in the same manner, and as suddenly left 
a dull blank. Some nights they assume the appearance of 
vast columns ; exhibiting on one side tints of the deepest 
yellow, and on the other, melting away till they become un- 
distinguishable from the surrounding sky. They have gen- 
erally a strong tremulous motion from end to end, which 
continues till the whole vanishes. 

Mawpertuis relates, that in Lapland, " the sky was some- 
times tinged with so deep a red that the constellation Orion 
looked as though it were dipped in blood, and that the peo- 
ple fancied they saw armies engaged, fiery chariots, and a 
thousand prodigies." Gmelin relates, that, '* in Siberia, on 
the confines of the icy sea, the spectral forms appear like 
rushing armies ; and that the hissing crackling noises of 
those aerial fire-works so terrify the dogs and the hunters, 
that they fall prostrate on the ground, and will not move 
while the raging host is passing." 

Kerguelen describes " the night, between Iceland afid the 
Ferro Islands, as brilliant as the day," — the heavens being 
on fire with flames of red and white light, changing to col- 
umns and arches, and at length confounded in a brilliant 
chaos of cones, pyramids, radii, sheaves, arrows, and globes 
of fire. 

But the evidence of Capt Parry is of more value than 
that of the earlier travellers, as he examined the pheno- 
mena under the most favourable circumstances, during a 
period of twenty-seven consecutive months, and because his 
observations are uninfluenced by imagination. He speaks 
of the shifting figures, the spires and pyramids, the majestic 
arches, and the spaiKling bands and stars which appeared 
within the arctic circle, as surpassing his powers of descrip- 
tion. They are indeed sufficient to enlist the superstitious 
feelings of any people not fortified by*religion and philosophy. 



P e we t i be their mMtumnoe in Laphmd t ndated Iqr Manpertab, and itedftotiipontk* 
kitiabitaiits. Pc te n be its appMianoe between leeland and the Ferro lalandi, ai related bf 
K cririiclen. Whoae testimony on this subject is of gtam value tlian tJnt of fatmer tmve^ 
Jwsi Wlkjr) How does be describe the scenes ne witneved durioff the polar m^dnsV 



S3)t AURORA BORSAUB. 

The coUmrn of the polar lights, are of yanons tints. The 
raw or beams are steel gray, yellowish gray, pea green, 
eewndine greeD, gold yellow, violet hlue, purple, sometimes 
rose red, crimson red, blood red, greenish red, orange red, 
and lake red. The arches are sometimes nearly black, pass> 
ing into violet blue, gray, gold yellow, or white bounded 
by an edge of yellow. The lustre of these lights varies in 
kind as well as intensity. Sometimes it is pearly, some- 
times imperfectly vitreous, sometimes metallic. Its degree 
of intensity varies from a very faint radiance to a light near- 
ly equalling that of the Moon. 

Many theories have been proposed to account for this 
wonderful phenomenon, but theie seems to be none which 
is entirely satisfactory. One of the first conjectures on record 
attributes it to inflammable vapours ascending from the Earth 
Hnto the polar atmosphere, and there ignited by electricity. 
Dr. Halley objects to rhis hypothesis, that the cause was in- 
adequate to produce the effect. He was of opinion that the 
poles of the Earth were in some way connected with the au- 
rora ; that the Earth was hollow, having within it a mag- 
netic sphere, and that the magnetic effluvia, in passing from 
the north to the south, might become visible in the northern 
hemisphere. 

That the aurora borealis is, to some extent, a magnetical 
phenomenon, is thought, even by others^ to be pretty clearly 
established by the following considerations. 

1. Ii has been observed, that when the aurora appears 
near the northern horizon in the form of an arch, the middle 
of it is not in the direction of the true north, but in that of 
the magnetic needle at the place of observation ; and that 
when the arch rises towards the zenith, it constantly crosses 
Che heavens at right angles, not to the true magnetic meri- 
dian. 

2. When the beams of the aurora shoot up so as to pass 
the zenith, which is sometimes the case, the point of their 
convergence is in the direction of the prolongation of the 
dipping needle at the place of observation. 

3. It has also been observed, that during the appearance 
of an active and brilliant aurora, the magnetic needle of- 
ten becomes restless, varies sometimes several degree^ 
and does not resume its former position until after several 
hours. 

From these facts, it has been generally inferred that the 



^Ji^^SS^.^ eo/0tiraortliQ Aurora.Hcht What ii ooeortiie niliMt tiaoiia wi—yn. 
£jSJ?fe!l ftf* Phe-nomenon ? How dij Dr. Halter propoae to aoooont ftr it I Wlait 6b 



.r\r 



PAAALLiLX OP THB BEATENLT SOINBi. 893 

turoik IS in some way connected with the magnetism of 
the Earth ; and that the simultaneous appearance of tn« 
meteor, and the disturbance of the needle, are either rela- 
ted as cause and effect, or as the common result of some 
more general and unknown cause. Dr. Young, in his lee- 
iures, is rery certain that the phenomenon in question is in- 
timately connected with electro-magnetism, and ascriries 
the light of the aurora to the illuminated agency of electri- 
city upon the magnetical substance. 

It may b« remarked, in support of. the electro-magnetic theory, that In 
ma^ietism, the agency of electricity ia now clearly established ; and it can 
baraly be doubted tijat the phenomena both of electricity and magnettsoi 
are produced by one and the same cause ; inasmuch as maj^etism may be 
induced ty electricity, and the electric aparic has been drawn from the 
magnet. . 

Sir John Herschel also attributes the appearance of the 
aurora to the agency of electricity. This wonderful agent, 
says he, which we see in intense activity in lightning, ana 
m a feebler and more disused form traversing the upper 
regions of the atmosphere in the northern lights, is present, 
probably, in immense abundance in every form oi mattei 
which surroun''-' us, but becomes sensible, only when dis 
tarbed by exci* . ents of peculiar kinds. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

PARALLAX OP THE HEAVENLY BODIEtf. 

Parallax is the difference between the altitude of anj 
celestial object, seen from the Earth's surface, and the alti- 
tude of the same object, seen at the same time from the 
Earth's centre; or, it is the angle under which the semi- 
diameter of the Earth would appear, as seen from the object. 

The true plajce of a celestial body, is that point of the 
heavens in which it would be seen by an eye placed at the 
eentre of the Earth. The apparent place is that point of 
the heavens where the body is seen from the surface of 
the Earth. The parallax of a heavenly body is greatest, 
when in the horizon ; and is called the horizontal parallax. 
Parallax decreases, as the body ascends toward the zenith 
at which place it is nothing. 

The nearer a heavenly body is to the Earth, the greatm 

WliatiitheopinionofDr.Yotmf in regard to their cauae? Whatcomidert'tiontntaf 
m adduced In foLTther tupport of the electro-mt^nettc theorvT t#» -*•/. ..„^ s? 
Juim Henclial aaciflie the aurora} What are Ims of -;r...Uu<M upuo tne a-'tvect T ^r^M 
fi parallax 3 What is the true place of a celestial booy 7 What is the apvartntjAvoe} 
Wlmeis the parallax of a heatenlj body the Rieatest? What is this nanUiax cailhi)} 

25* 



tM PARALLAX OP THfi BAATOfLT BOmam» 

!» If • panllax ; hence the Moon has the greatest t^i*ll«> 
of all the heayenly bodies, while the fixed stars, from then 
immense distance, hare no parallax ;* the serai-diameter of 
the Earth, at suci a distance, being no more than a point 
As the effect of parallax on a heavenly body, is to depress 
it behw iU true plcu:e^ it mast necessarily affect its right 
ascension and declination, its latitude and longitude. On 
this account, the parallax of the Sun and Moon must be 
added to their apparent altitude, in order to obtain theii 
true altitude. 

Th^rue altitude of the Sun and Moon, except when in tlie senith, ia al- 
waya affected, more or leas, both by parallax and refraction, but alwaya 
la a contrary manner. Hence the mariner, in finding the latitude at sea, 
always tuida the parallax, and ntbstraeU the refraction, to and from the 
Bun's obterved altitude, in order to obtain the true altitude, and thence tli« 
latitude. 



The principles <^ parallax are of great importance to 
tronomy, as they enable us to determine the distances of 
the heavenly booies from the Earth, the magnitudes of the 
planets, and the dimessions of their orbits. 

The Sun's horizontal parallax being accurately known, 
the Baith's distance from the Sun becomes known; and the 
Elarth's distance from the Sun bemg known, that of all the 
planets may be known also, because we Know the exact 
periods of their sidereal revolutions, and according to the 
third law of Kepler, the squares of the times of their reyolu- 
tions are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances. 
Hence, the first ^eat desideratum in astronomy, where 
measure and magnitude are concerned, is the determination 
of the true parallax. 

At the late council of astronomers, assembled in Lon- 
don, from the most learned nations in Europe, the Sun's 
mean horizontal parallax was settled, as the result of their 
united observations, at 0^ 0' 8".5T76. — Now the value of 
radius, expressed likewise in seconds, is 206264^.8; and 
this divided by 8".5776, gives 24047 for the distance of the 
Sun from the Earth, in semidiameters of the latter. If we 
take the equatorial semidiameter of the Earth as sanction- 
ed by the same tribunal, at (7924-»-2») 3962 miles, we 
shall have 24047X3962=» 95,273,869 miles for the Son's 
true distance. 

* See Chapler XIV., on the number and distanee ofUnStaia. 



Ims the pamllaxofabody vary, with iti ahitn^t How b ft eIRetid W 4i^ 
tmueJ Give an example. Vhat. then, are the neeesran eflects of paiaUax on Oa ar 
Bcaranoe ofa heavenlf body } How. then, can we obtain the true altitude or Iha ^ 
Moon? Do parmUas and refraction qffleet the aUltvds alike t Qtve m 
Why on the principleaorniranax of irreat importance to astroflomy I If the _ 
»**.•* --J- . J> '• 1^ (he distances of all the planets lie known aW What i 
may be deni-od flom thM inrefonltotheioioortanceofparaJiaz 



Both the principle and the ealcolation of this element mav 
be illustrated by a reference to the diagram on Plate I, of 
the Atlas: Thus^the parallactic angle AES => 8'^5776: 
is to the Earth's semidiameter as « 3962 miles : : as radius 
-s206364.''8: is to the distance ES » 95,273,869 miles, as 
before. 

Again : The mean horizontal parallax of the Moon is 
0** 57' 11", or 3431". In this problem, the parallactic angle 
AMS is 0*^ 57' 11" = 3431"; and 343r : is to 3962 miles : : 
as 206264".8: is 238,161 miles, for the Moon's mean dis- 
tance from the Earth MS.-^See Chapter on the Number 
and Distance of the Stars, 



CHAPTER XI. 

PROBLEMS AND TABLES. 

PROBLEM L 
TO CONVERT DEGREES, *C. INTO TIHB. 

Rule 1. — Divide the degrees by 15, for hours ; and mul* 
tiply the remainder, if any, by 4, for minutes. 

2. Divide the odd minutes and seconds in the same man- 
ner by 15 for minutes, seconds, &c. and multiply each re* 
mainder by 4, for the next lower denomination. 

Example 1.— Convert 32"^ 34^ 45" into time. 
Thus, 32*> -»- 15 := 2h. 8^ 

34-^15= 2 16" 

45 + 15 » 3 



Ans. 32°34'45"== 2h. IC 19' the time. 

Example 2. — If it is 12 o'clock at this place, v^hat is the 
time 20^ east of us ? 

Thus, fifteen in 20^, once, and ^ve over ; the once is 1 
hour, and the 5 multiplied by 4, gives 20 minutes : the time 
i^ then 1 hour and 20 minutes past 12. 

Example 3.— The longitude of Hartford is 72^ 50^ west 
of Greenwich ; what time is it at Greenwich when it is 12 
o?clock at Hartford ? 

Ans. 4 h. 51 min. 20 sec. 

Example 4.— When it is 12 o'clock at Greenwich, what 
IB the time at Hartford ? Ans. 7h. 8m. 40 sec. A. M. 

Kon.->Table VUL is deilgned to ftcfiitate calculations of this kind. Hit 
dbgreea being placed in oie column, and Uie correapondinf time in another 



ft m—tia M Antanatloii, MMpl to obaerve iktu ^kgnm bi Um lot 

eoluoms may be cMiiridered u to manir mintilec, uutead of decrees; in 
vtiich case, the eorrespondlaf time In the adjeiidiif colamo. muat be rend 
M wumuim and ae c e wde , iosteed of boon mmI mi^wfAT in like manner, the 
imrewi in the left hand column maj be read aa aeconds, and the eorreapoiM^ 
'ng time, aa mcmk<» and third*, 

■kAMnoL— nnd bj the table, the time rorremondlnf to 88^ 8^ 4B^'. 
Thw: Afain8t320 ia8h.8min.^ 

« W « 2 16 

« 46" •• 3 



▲ntwer as abore, 2h. IOol 19 a. 

PROBLEM n. 
TO CONVERT TIME INTO DEGREES, Sx, 

Rule. — ^Multiply the hours by 15, and to the product add 
•oe fourth of the minuter, seconds, d&c^ observing that eve- 
ly minute of time makes -}-^, and every second of time, -p. 

Example 1. — In 2 hours, 10 minutes, and 19 secoBdti 
how many degrees ? 

Thus: 2h. 10 m. 19 s 

16 




Add 10 quarters, or -]• of the mm. 8 SO' 

Add 19 quarters, or ^ of the sec. ~ 4 



4^ 



Ans. ZS^ '34' 45^ 

This problem la readily aohred by meana of Table DL utthont the kboar mi 
ealenteuon: 

Thus : 2 hours -^90^ 

10 minutes « 2 8(K 

19 acconda - 4 46^' 



Ana. 320 34' 46^' 

Ex. 2. — When it is 12 o'clock at Hartford, it is 4. hours 
51 minutes, and 20 seconds past noon at Greenwich ; how 
many degrees is Hartford west of Greenwich ? 

Thus : 15 times 4 is 60— added to ^ of 51, is 72^ 45" 
and this increased by ^ of 20, is 72^ 50/ Ans. 

Ex. 3. — A Liverpool packet, after sailing several days 
from New York, finds the time by the Sun § hours and 4( 
minutes later than by the ship's chronometer : how far has 
the ship progressed on her way ? 

Ex. 4. — A vessel leaves Boston, and having been tossed 
about in foul weather for some days, finds, that when it is 
12 o'clock bv the Sun, it is only 11 o'clock and 50 minutes 
by the watcn ; is the vessel east or west of Boston ; mnd 
aow many degrees ? 

Ex 5. — The moment of greatest d^rkne ss during the «ii 



Bvlar eeliDse of 1831, took place at New Haven, IC minutes 
after 1 o'clock. A gentleman reports that it happened pre- 
cisely at 1, where he -observed it; and another, that it was 
5 mmutes after 1 where he saw it : Quere, Iiow far east 
or west were these sentlemen from each other, and how 
many degrees from New Haven ? 

PROBLEM m. 

TO FIND WBAT STARS ARE ON THE MERIDIAN AT NINE o'CLOCK 
IN THE EVENING OF ANT GIVEN DAY. 

Rule. — Look for the given day of the month, at the bot- 
tom of the maps, and sul the stars having the same degree 
of right ascension will be on the meridian at that time. 

Example 1. — What stars will be on the meridian at 9 
o'clock, the 19th of January ? 

Solution, — On Plate III. I find that the principal stars 
standing over against the 19th of January, are Rigel and 
Capella. 

Ex. 2. — What stars are on the meridian the 20th of De- 
cember ? Ans. Menkar and Algol. 

PROBLEM IV. 
ANY STAR BEING GIVEN, TO FIND WHEN IT CULMINATES. 

Rule. — Find the star's right ascension in the table, oi by 
the map, (on the equinoctial,) and the day of the month at 
the top or bottom of the map will be the day on which it 
eolmi nates at 9 o'clock. 

Example 1.— At what lime is the bright star Sirius on the 
meridian? 

SolvXion.^1 find by the table, and by the map, that the 
right ascension of Sirius is 6 hours and about 38 minutes ; 
and the time corresponding to this, at the Dottom of the 
map, is the 11th of February. 

Ex. 2. — At what time is Alpheratz, in the head of Audio* 
meda, on the meridian ? Ans. The 9th of November. 

PROBLEOH y. 

THE RIOBT AflOminON AND DECLINATION OP A PLANET BEnNI 
OI\3N, TO FIND ITB PLACE ON THE MAP. 

Rule. — Find the riffht ascension and declination of the 
planet on the map, and that will be its place for the gives 



RjuMPUB 1. — VeDiM'ft rigkt ascensiOQ oo the l&t of JaB> 
nary, 1833, was 21 hours, 30 miDutes, aod her declinaUoa 
I6i^ sooth ; required her situatioa od the map ? 

SoltUion. — Od the light hand of the Plate 11. I count off 
16f^ from the equiooctial, od the margiaal scale south, aDd 
from that point, 30 minutes to the left, or just half the dis- 
tance between the XXL aad XXII. meridiao of right as- 
cension, and find that Venus, that dav, is within two degrees 
of Delta Capricorni, near the constellation Aquarius, in the 
zodiac. 

NOTB.— Il li to be remembered, that the planets will ^^my* be found 
within the limits of the zodiac, as represented in the maps. By meacs of 
Table VIL the pupil can find at anj time the situations of all the visible 
pboets, on the maps; and this will enable him to determine their positioB 
m the heavsns, without a chance of mistake. Bj this means, too, ne caa 
draw for himself the path of the planets from month to month, and trace 
* their course amon^ the stars. This is a pleasant and useful exerciaei end 
is practised extensirehr in some academies. The pupil draws the map ia 
the first place, or such a portion of it as to include toe xodiacal constelbi* 
ttOBS ; then, havinf dotted the portion of the plaeets from day to day, ae 
indicated in Table VII., their path is easily traced with a pen or pencil. 

Ex. 2. — Mars' right ascension on the Kith of March, 1833. 
is 5 hours, 1 minute, and his declination 24^^ north ; requir- 
ed his situation on the map ? 

Solution, — 1 find the fifth hour line or meridian of right 
ascension on Plate III. and counting upwards from the equi- 
noctial 24f ^, I find that Mars is between the horns of 
Taurus, and about 5^ S. W. of Beta Aurigoe. 

Ex. 3. — Required the position of Jupiter and Saturn on 
the 13th of February and the 25th of May ? 

When the right ascension and declination of the pbneti are not ^v«m 
Ihey are to be soug ht in Table VIL 

PROBLEM VL 

rO FIND AT WHAT MOMENT ANY STAR WILL PASS TBB MBBIDUll 

ON A GIVEN DAT. 

Role. — Abstract the right ascension of the Sun from the 
star's right ascension, found in the tables; observing to add 
24 hours to the star's right ascension, if less than the Sun's, 
and the diierenoc will show how may hours the star eulmi- 
uaies after the Sun. 

Example 1. — At what time will Procyon pass themeridi 
an the 24th of February ? 

SolutwtL^R. A. of Procyon 7h« 3Qiii. 33a.4-84h« 

31 30^ 33^ 
sR. A. of Sun, 24th of Feb. 22 29 1 

Ans. 9 ] 

That is, Im. 32s. past 9 o'clock in the evening. 



1 



BOBLSm. SOi 

Bs. & — ^At what time wUl Denebola pass the meridian on 
^h» first of April ? 

flb;ti<t<m.—R. A. of Denebola is llh. 40" 33"^ 

R. A. of Sun, April 1, 41 25 

Ans. 10 59 7 , 

That is, at 59 minutes, 7 seconds, past 10 in the evening. 

Ex. 3. — At what time on the first day of each month, from 
Januaiy to July, will Alcyone, or the Pleiades, pass the me- 
ridian 1 

Ex. 4. — At what Ume will the Doe Star, or Sirius, culmi- 
nate on the first day of January, February, and March ? 

Ex. 5. — How much earlier will Spica Virginis pass the 
meridian on the 4th of July, than on the 15Ui of May ? — 
Ans. 3 hours, 25 minutes. 

PEOBLEM VQ. 

TO nND WHAT STARS WILL BE ON OR NEAREST THE MERIDIAN 

AT ANT GIVEN TIME. 

Role. — Add the given hour to the Sun's ri|^ht ascension, 
found in Table III., and the sum will be the risht ascension 
of the meridian, or mid-heaven ; and then fina in Table II. 
^hat star's right ascension corresponds with, or comes near- 
est to it, and that will be the star required. 

Example 1. — What star will be nearest the meridian at 
9 o'clock in the evening of the 1st of September? • 
Solution. — Sun's right ascension 1st. September, 

lOh 40^ 30^' 
Add the time from noon 9 

Right ascension of the meridian 19h 4CK 30^' 

Now all the stars in the heavens which hare this right as- 
cension, will be on the meridian at that time : On looking 
into Table II. the right ascension of Altair, in the Eagle, 
will be found to be 19h. 40m. ; consequently Altair is on 
the meridian at the time proposed ; and Delta^ in the Swan^ 
is less than two minutes past the meridian. 

Ex. 2. — Walking out m a bright evening on the 4 th of Sep 
tember, I saw a rery brilliant star almost directly over 
head; I looked on m/ watch, audit wanted 20 minutes of 
8 ; required the nam a of the star ? 

Solution, — Sun's declination 4th of September, 

lOh 5r 89^ 

Add the time from noon 7 40 

Gires R. A. of Lyra, nearly IS 31 » 



JOO mOBLEltt. 

Ex. 3. — About 8^ minutes after 8 in the evening of the 
11th of February, I observed a bright star on the meridiaB? 
t little north of the equinoctial, and 1 minute beforie 9 a still 
^righter one, furthei south; required the names of the stars? 

PROBLEM VIII. 

TO PINO WHAT STARS WILL CULMINATE AT 9 o'cUkCK IM TUH 
BVEMINO OF ANY DAT IN THE YEAR. 

Rule. — Against the day of the month in Table IV., find 
the right ascension of the mid-heaven, and all those stars in 
Table II. which have the same, or neatly the same right as- 
sension, will culminate at 9 P. M. of the given day. 

Example 1. — What star will culminate at 9 in the even- 
ing of the 26th of March ? 

Solution. — I find the right ascension of the meridian, at 9 
o'clock in the evening of the 26th of March, is 9h 19' 37"; 
and on looking into Table II., I find the rigfht ascension of 
Alphard, in the heart of Hydra, is 9h 19^ 23'\ The star is 
Alphard^ 

Ex. 2. — What star will culminate at 9 in the evening ot 
the 28th of June ? Ans. Aphacca. 

PROBLEM IX. 

ro nND THE sun's LONGITUDE OR PLACE IN THE ECLIPTIC, ON 

ANY GIVEN DAY. 

Rule.— On the lower scale, at the bottom of the Han- 
isphere, (Plate VIII.) look for the given day of the month . 
then the sign and de^^ree corresponding to it on the scale 
immediately above it, will show the Sun's place in the 
ecliptic. 

Example 1. — Required the Sun's longitude, or place in 
the ecliptic, the 16th of September. 

Solution. — Over the given day of the month, September 
16th, stands 5 signs and 23 degrees, nearly, which is the 
Sun's place m the ecliptic at noon on that day; that is, the 
Sun is about 23 degrees in the sign V.rgo. 

N. B. If the 5 sicns be raultiplied bv 30^ and the Sdogrtes h» aifcled In IL 
t will give the longitude in degroee, 173. 

Bxi 2. — Required the Sun's place in the ecliptic at Hjooii, 
on the 10th of March. 



fROBLcm. aO) 



PROBLEM X. 

QITBN THE SUN's LONGITUDE, OR PLACE IN THE ECl IPTP), TO 
PIND HIS BIGHT ASCENSION ANl> DECLINATION. 

Rule. — Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic^ (the cur7ed 
line which runs through the hody of the planisphere,) and 
with a pair of compasses take the nearest distance between 
it and the nearest meridian, or hour circle, which being ap 
p<ied to the sTaUuated scales at the top or bottom of the 
planispher*-, (measuring from th6 same hour circle,) wiH 
show tue Sun's ri^ht ascension. Then take the shortest 
distance between the Sun's place in the ecliptic and the 
nearest part of the equinoctial, and apply it to either the 
east or west marginal scales, and it will give the Sun's de- 
clination. 

Example 1.— The Sun's longitude, Septeinber 16th, 1833, 
is 5 signs, 23 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension, 
and declination. 

Solution. — The distance between the Sun's place in the 
ecliptic and the nearest hour circle being taken in the com- 
passes, and applied to either the top or bottom graduated 
scailes, shows the right ascension to be about 11 hours 35 
minutes ; and the distance between the Sun's place in the 
ecliptic, and the nearest part of the equinoctial, beinff applied 
to either the east or west marginal scales, shows the decli- 
nation to be about 2® 45', which is to be called north, because 
the Sun is to the northward of the equinoctial : hence the 
Sun's right ascension, on the ^iven day, at noon, is about 11 
hours 35 minutes, and his declination 20 45' N. 

Ex. 2.— The Sun's longitude March 10th, 1833, is 11 
signs, 19 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension and 
declination ? 

Ans. R. A. 23 h. 21 min. Decl. 4° IV nearly. 

PROBLEM XL 

TO FIND THE RIGHT ASCENSION OF THE MERIDIAN AT ANT 

GIVEN TIME. 

Rule.— Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic by Problem IX. 
and his right ascension by Problem X., to the eastward of 
which, count off the given time from noon, and it will show 
the right ascension of the meridian, or mid- heaven. 

Example 1. — Required the right ascension of the meridi- 
an 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, September 16th, 1833. 
SoliUion, — By Problems IX. and X , the Sun's right ascen- 
2a 



tion at noon of the ^ven day, is 11 hoars 35 minutes ; to 
the eastward of which, 9 hours and 25 minutes (the gnren 
time) being counted ofi| shows the right ascension of the 
meridian to be about 21 hours. 

Ex. 2. — Required the right ascension of the meridian at 
6 hours past noon, March lOth, 1833 1 
^ SohUton. — By Problems IX. and X. tbe Sun's right ascen- 
sion at noon of the given aay. '<* 23 hours and 21 minutes; 
to the eastward of which, tne given time, 6 hours being 
counted ofi^ shows the right ascension of the meridian to 
be about 5 hours 21 minutes. 

*■***■« — ^In this eztmple, it may be necessary to obseire, that where 
the eaaiern, 4>r left hand extremity of the planisphere leaves otL the west* 
em, or right hand extremity, begins ; therefore, in counting on the givwa 
time on the top or bottom graduated scales, the reckoning is to be tnos* 
ferred from the left, and completed on the right, as if the two outside e<|gee 
ef the planisphere were Joined together. 

PBOBLSM Xn. 

TO PINB WHAT STABS WILL BB ON OE NEAR THB MEUniAN AT 

ANY GIVEN TIHE. 

Rm«E.7-Find the riffht ascension of the meridian by 
Problem XI. over which lay a ruler, and draw a pencil line 
aIon|f its edse from the top to the bottom of the planisphere^ 
and It will show all the stars that are on or near the meridian. 

Example 1. — Required what stars will be on or near the 
meridian at 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, Sept. 16th, 1833? 

Solution. — The right ascension of the meridian by Prob- 
lem XI. is 21 hours : this hour circle, or the line which passes 
u|> and down through the planisphere, shows that no star 
will be directly on the meridian at the given time ; but that 
Alderamin will be a little to the east, and Deneb Cygni. 
a little to the west of it ; also Zeta Cygni, and Gramma ana 
Alpha in the Little Horse, very near it on the east. 

PROBLEM xm. 

TO Fmn THE earth's mean niSTANCE FROM THB SUN. 

RiTLB. — ^As the Sun's horizontal parallax is to radiosi so 
ib the semi-diameter of the Barth to its distance from thA 
Sun. 

By LogartthmM. — ^As tangent of the Sun's horisontal per* 
allax is to radius, so is the Earth's semi-diameter to hm 
mean distance from the Sun, 



Bv LogaritkmB. 
hu tugent of Son*! honzonua punBlfaut, 9r'.6f7B — 6.6U«40r 
In to rmdius, or 90^, - 10.<JOOOOOO 

80 is the Earth's semi-diameter, 3962L - 3.6979146 

To the Earth's distance, 96.273,869- Z.9780738 

PROBLEM XIV. 

ro FIND THE DISTANCE OF ANT PLANET PROM THE SUN, TBAT 

OP THE EARTH BEING KNOWN. 

Rule. — Divide the sqaare of the planet's sidereal revolu- 
tion round the Sun^ by the square 01 the Earth's sidereal re- 
volution, and multiply the cube root of the quotient by the 
Earth's mean distance from the Sun. 

By Logarithms. — From twice the logarithm t>f the plan- 
et's sidereal revolution, substract twice the logarithm of th« 
Earth's sidereal revolution, and to one third of the remain- 
der, add the logarithm of the Earth's mean distance from 
the Sun. 

BzAMPLB.— Reqalred Mercury's mean distance^from the San, that of tbt 
Earth being 96,273,869 miles. 

Mercury's sidereal revolution is 87.969268 days, or 76006«3".89ia : The 
Earth's sidereal revolation is 366.266374417 days, or 

3156815r^6 7600643.9 

3156616r'.6 76O0645.9 



99691696^096962.26 by which divide 67768267676827.21 
and the quotient will be .05800610671329^ the cube root of which in 0.3870977, 
and this multiplied by 94,881,891, gives 36,727,607 miles, ibr Mercury's disumce 
from the Sun. This problem may be performed by logarilhms is as many 
minutet as the former method requires hours. 

Mercury's Sid. Rev. 760U643''.9 log. ^ 6.8808447X2 13.7616694 

BMTCh'a Sid. Rev. 31668161^'. log. > 7.4991302X2 14.9982604 

|>-2.7631290 

1.6678097 
Add. log. of the Earth's mean distance, 7 J780738 

Mercury's distance, 36,880422. Ana. 7.6667836 

If the pupil have not already learned the use of k«arithms, this problem 
will satisfy him of their unspealtable advantage over all other modes of com* 
putation. By reviewing the above calculation, he will perceive that instead of 
multiplying 31868161' .6l>y itself, he need only multiply its logarithms by (wot 
and, instead of extracting the cube root or 0.068005106713^ he need only 
divide ito logarithm by three ! and, instead of multiplying 0.3870977, by 93,27^ 
6G0, he need onlv ada their logarithms together. He need not thinlc himself a 
iiuU scholar, if by ttie former method he come to the true result in fitt 
hmr* , nor remarkably qulcic, If by the latter he come to it In Jl«e mimuim. 

PKOBLBM ZV. 
TO PIND THE HOUHLT MOTION OF A PLANBT HI ITS OBBIT. 

Rule. — ^Multiply the planet's mean distance from the 
Sun by 6,2831853, and divide the product bv the time 01 
^e planet's sidereal revolution, expressed in hours, and the 
ecimals of an hour. 



iOi noBLBiia 

By lagariihms.^Add 0,7981799 to the logarithm of the 
plaDet's meaD distance ^rom the Sun, and From the sum 
substract the logarithm of the planet's revolution expressed 
in hours. 

EzAMVLB.— Required the Earth|shoiirl7 molkm In HsoriHt. 
Lm. of Earth** di«t«nc« — 7.978973BiH>.7B817M m, 8.7771637 

Bubttract log. of Earth's revolutioD &94aBU90 

GivM Earth'^ horary inoUoo, m^BB miles, - 4.8M9lft7 

PROBLEM XVL 
TO RND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET ON ITS AXIS. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the given planet by 
3. U 159, and divide the product by the period of its diurnaJ 
rotation. 

By LogaHthtM.—Add 4.0534524 to the logarithm of th^ 
planet's diameter, and from the sum substract the logarithm 
of its diurnal rotation, expressed in seconds. 

Earth's diainef er, 7991 kl|. - 8.89eM46 

Addlof. of 8li00"H->og- of 3.14169 - 4.0G34Bil 

7.98B9969 
Bobstractkic. diufal roCadton, 88 h. 60 4"j09 - 4.9363263 

Abs. 1040.00 mUss- 8.0170700 

PROBLrai xvn. 

TO FIND THE RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE PLANETS. 

Rule. — Divide the cube of the diameter of the larger 
planet, by the cube of the diameter of the less. 

By Logariihma. — From three times the logarithm of the 

larger, suhstract three times the logarithm of the less. 

ExAifPU.~IIow much, does the size of the Earth exeeed that of the 

Mooni • 

Earth's diameter, 7912 lof. 8.8968063X3 - 1 1.09486B9 

Moon's diameter, 2160 loc. 3.3343376X3 - 10.0Q3019B 

The Earth exceeds the Moon, ^.1866 times. Ana. 1.0BI8I01 

In this example, 7912 miles is assumed as the meirn between the EaiWf 
Muatorial and polar diameter : the former being 79M, and the litter 78B8 

PROBLEM XVm. 

TO rare THE PROPORTION OF SOLAR UOBT AMD HEAT AT lACM 

OP THE PLANET& 

Rule. — Divide the square of the planet's greater distanee 
from the Sun,1)y the square of the less. — Or, substract twice 
the logarithm of the greater distance, from twice the lugm- 
rithm of the ^ess. 



PROBLEMS. 



309 



Example. — How much greater is the Sun's lignt 
eat at Mercury, than at the Earth ? 



an4 



Log. of Earth's diBtaoce 

— of Mercury's 

Ana 6.6736 times creatar — 



7.9780738X3 - .5.969M7S 

7ie679S0X2 - 16 133G918 

0.adl3G6B 



PROBLEM XDL 

TO FUf D THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETS. 

RcLE. — Multiply the diameter of the planet hy 3.14159 
nr, add the logaritnm of the planet's diameter to 0.4971 I9C 

PROBLEM XX. 
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETARY ORBITSL 

Rule.— ^Multiply the planet's mean distance from thf 
Sun, b)r 6.2831853 : or, to th^ logarithm of the planet'k 
mean distance, add 0.7981799, and the sum williie the lo- 
garithm of the answer. 

PROBLEM XXL 

TO FIND IN WHAT TIME ANT OF THE PLANETS WOULD FALL Tt 
THE SUN IF LEFT TO THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION ALONE. 

Rule. — Multiply the time of the planet's, sidereal reTolo- 
don, by 0.176776 ; the result will be the answer. 

By Logarithms, — From the logarithm of the planet's si' 

dereal revolution, substract 0.7525750, and the remainder 

will be the logarithm of the answer, in the same denomina • 

tion as the sidereal revolution. 

Required the times, respectively, in whieh the sevaral planets would Al 
10 the San bj the force of gravity. 



Planets woald &n to 


Days. H M. & 


Logarithms. 


the Son. 






Mercury, 


16 13 18 16 


6.1282686 


Veans. 


39 17 19 22 


6.6356424 


EartiL 


64 13 38 66 


6i7466367 


MarsT 


121 10 36 3 


7.0206817 


iVOMT, 


766 21 33 36 


7.8206819 


Batttm, 


1901 83 2( 4 


aS]07l86 


Ucraeliel, 


6i24 16 63 1 


&6708897 


Mood Ur the Earthy 


4 19 64 S7 


«u6aDMfl» 



to» 






if tie Sun in each, and Ihe dsji on which thef 
ut ■< 9 o'clock m tbe evensg. 



TABLE n. 

Bxhibitiar the Right Ascensicm andDeclinaticniof the principa. 
Fixed Stars, and the time of their comug to the Meridian. 

ThuM to wHch B to aimezed are in South docUnaCion ; the otbait ue in North 

doclinaliou. 



& 



NasMs of the Stars. 



1 
9 

3 

4 

5 
€ 
7 
6 
9 

10 
11 
V2 
t3 
t4 
15 
16 
17 

18 
19 

ao 

SI 
S3 



Persei, 
y Eridaniy 
Eridani, 
f TauTi, 

A Tauri, Aldebaran, 
fi Eridani, 
A Auri^, Capella, 
A OrioQis, Rigel, 
fi Tauri, El Nath, 
» Oriobis, 
y Ononis, Bellatrix, 
Leporis, Nibal, 
^ Ononis, Mintaka, 
« Leporis, Ameb, 
f Ononis, Anilam, 
? Tauri, 

^ Orionis, Alnitak, 
ae Columbee, Phaet, 
X Ononis, Saiph, 
fi Columboe, 
A Orionis, Betelguese 
)^Aurigc,]deB]u2ina 



CS!.*: <'4eininorum, Tejat, 

Q4:'\f* omiiinonim, 
2S\( Canis Majoris, 
26 i@ Ca. Maj., Mirzam, 
37 <t Navis, Canopus, 

28 > Gtemino., Alhena, 

29 * Canis Maj., Sinus, 

30 ■ Canis Maj..Adhara, 

31 ( Greminorum. 
82 > C, Maj., Mnlipben, 
83/ C. Majoris, Wcsen, 
34/ Gemino., Wasai, 

35 «• Argo Navis, 

36 « C Maj., Aludra, 

37 * Gkmino., Castor, 
Srt at C. Minor, Procyon, 
^9>: Ar.Nayis,Markab, 
$(i A Gemino., Pollux, 



34 

3 
3 
3 
1 
3 

1 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

S 
1 
3 
3 



Right 
Ascension. 



B. x. 
3 47 
3 SO 



4 
4 
4 

4 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 



3 

18 
36 
39 

4 
6 
15 
15 
16 
31 



5 33 

5 35 

5 37 

5 37 

5 33 

5 33 

5 39 

5 45 

5 46 

5 47 



8 
15 

31 • 
53 
31 
35 

S3 
31 
44 
36 
11 
33 

39 
33 
44 
53 
30 

9 
S9 

6 

8 
17 



Deelinatinn. 



39 
13 

7 
18 
16 

5 

45 

8 
38 
3 
6 
30 


17 

1 
31 

3 
34 

9 
135 

7 
44 



6 4 
6 13 



54 
54 



6 


14 


4 


6 


15 


33 


6 


30 


15 


6 


38 


4 


6 


37 


47 


6 


53 


14 


6 


53 


53 


6 


56 


36 


7 


1 


17 


7 


10 


8 


7 


U 


7 


7 


17 


16 


7 


33 


56 


7 


30 


33 


7 


33 


17 


7 


35 


5 



3 
10 
44 



33 
33 

29 
17 
53 
16 

16 
28 
30 
15 

36 
33 

36 
38 
33 
5 
36 
38 



// 



31 37 

59 4a 

16' 33S. 

8 18 

10 4 
18 OS. 

49 10 

33 55S. 

37 39 

33 na 

11 33 

53 46S. 

85 39a 

56 5oa 

18 49s. 

3 7 



On the 
Mend. 



9S. 
SS. 
3S. 



50 13S. 
33 6 
55 34 



33 1 

35 48 

59 36S. 

53 41S. 

36 33S. 

32 18 

29 97d. 

44 ft5S. 

48 36 

33 SOS. 

7 638. 
17 6 
48 78. 

58 508. 

14 5S 

38 55 

36 33S. 

35 38 



Jan. 



Fel. 



S 

1 
9 

6 

8 

10 

13 

19 
SO 
S3 
33 
S2 
33 
34 
34 
35 

35 
36 
36 
97 
99 
39 
99 

"3 

'4 

5 
5 

^1 

11 
15 
15 
lb 

17 
19 

19 

SI 
33 
34 
35 
36 



TABLE fL— Oontiniud. 



il 



Names of ihe Stars. < 



I 



( ArgoNayis, 



^( Argo Navis, Naos. 
y Argo Navis, 

44 • Argo Navis, 

45 / Argo Navis, 
46 1 Urs» Majons, 
47 « Cancri, Acubens, 
i8 \ Argo Navis, 

49 >0 A. N.,Maia Placid. 

50 X Argo Navis, 

51 * UydrsB, Alphard, 
53 fl Ursae Majoris, 
53 1 Leonis, 



54 

55 

56 
57 

58 
69 
60 

61 
62 
63 
64 

65 
66 
67 
68 
69 



/u Iieo&is, Rasal Asad. 
j» Leonis, * 
« Leonis Regolns, 
X Urs» Majoris, 

} Leonis, Aldhafara, 
y Leonis, Al Gieba, 
^ U. M., El Phekrah, 
<c Leonis Minoris, 
d Argo Navis, 
9 Argo NavisL 
« Crateris, Alkes, 

/8 Urs» Maj., Merak, 
« Ursae Ma|., Dubhe, 
/ Leonis, Zozma, 
8 Leonis, 
X Draconis, Giansar, 



7D Leonis^ Dendx^ 

71 fi Virginis, Zavijava, 

72 > T7. Maj., Phach'd, 
73^ Centaari, 
74/ Cmds, 
75/ Urs8BM.,M^;TeaL, 

1B> Corvi, 

T7 t Cmcis, 

78/ Corri, Algorab, 

119 y Cmcis, 
0M Corvi, 



3 



2 
3 

8.3 
8.3 
3 
3.4 
8.3 

1 
8.3 
2 
3 
3 



3 

3.4 

1 

3 

3 

8.3 

3 

3 
8.3 

2 
3.4 

8 
8 
3 
3 



8 
3 

8 

83 

3 

3 

3 
1 
3 

I 



Right 
Ascension. 



Declination. 



I o 



ff 



7 48 80 84 86 35S. 



On the! j; 
MeriS^ 



Feb. 



7 57 44 39 32 38. 

8 4 33 46 50 438. 

8 19 5 58 58 338. 

8 40 7 54 5 438. 

8 47 47 48 41 50 

8 49 45 12 30 9 

9 1 51 42 45 408. 

12 57 69 1 548. 

16 59 54 17 538. 

19 23 I 7 56 148. 

9 21 47 53 86 45 

9 36 22 j24 32 86 



Mar. 



9 
9 
9 



9 42 

9 58 

9 59 

10 6 

10 7 

10 10 

10 11 

10 28 

10 37 

10 38 

10 51 

10 51 

10 53 

11 5 
11 5 
11 80 



56 26 

13 1 17 

28 112 

58 |43 

23 I34 

45 20 



55 

47 
12 
36 
35 

42 

21. 

13 

39 

17 



11 40 
11 42 

45 

59 

6 

7 

7 
17 



U 
11 
12 
18 

18 
18 
13 81 

12 21 

13 35 

88* 



38 


1 
44 

81 

7 



43 

32 
63 

58 
17 

57 
62 
21 
16 
70 



47 32 
34 34 
46 52 
44 49 

14 53 
41 16 
20 15 

50 39 

31 148. 

48 348. 
24 368. 

16 35 

39 3 

27 32 

20 39 

15 3 



April. 



4 
5 

9 
15 
17 
18 
21 

24 
95 
86 
87 
31 



15 30 S3 
2 42 43 



54 
49 
57 
57 

116 
23 Gi 

38 15 

56 56* 

39 |33 



37 35 

30 158. 

33 48. 
58 46 

36 438. 

10 868. 

34 498. 
10 838. 

9S.I 



May. 



1 
6 
6 
8 

8 
9 
9 

14 
16 
17 



80 

31 
84 
84 



S 
3 

4 

8 

10 

10 

10 
13 
14 

iM 



TABLE n.— Continued. 



No. 1 


Names of the Stars. 


1 

3 


Right 
Ascensi 


on, 

■ 
23 


Declination. 


On the 
Merid. 


1 


81 


^ Draconis, 


H. 

12 


26 



70 




42 


38 


May. 


15 


82 


y Centauri, 


2.3 


12 


32 


23 


48 


2 


23S. 




16 


83 


y Virginls, 


3 


12 


33 


37 





31 


55S. 




Yt 


84 


Crucis, 


2 


12 


38 


3 


58 


46 


27S. 




18 


85 


1 Ur. Majons,Alioth, 


2 


12 


46 


27 


57 


52 


5 




20 


86 


/ Virginis, 


3 


12 


47 


12 


4 


18 


31 




20 


87 


at Cor-Caroli, 


3 


12 


47 


57 


39 


13 


21 




20 


88 


• Vir., Vindemiatrix, 


3 


12 


56 


36 


11 


51 


32 




22 


89 


y Hydrae, 


3 


13 


9 


42 


22 


17 


9S. 




26 


90 


' Centaan, 


3 


13 


10 


48 


35 


49 


49S. 




26 


•91 


« Virginis, Spica, 


1 


13 


16 


24 


10 


17 


lOS. 




27 


92 


f Urse Maj., Mizar, 


2 


13 


17 


11 


55 


17 


69 




28 


93 


f Virginis, 


3 


13 


25 


36 





15 


43 




30 


94 


• Centauri, 


2.3 


13 


29 


20 


52 


32 


20s. 




31 


95 


» U. M., Benetnasch, 


"2 


IT 


40 


57 


50 


8 


58 


June. 


2 


96 


f Centauri, 


3 


13 


45 


11 


46 


27 


37S. 




3 


97 


» Bootis, 


3 


13 


46' 


32 


19 


14 


39 




4 


98 


Centauri, 


1.2 


13 


52 


8 


59 


33 


36S. 




5 


99 


« Draconis, Thuben, 


3 


13 


50 


52 


65 


10 


31 




7 


100 


« Bootis, Ardnms, 


1 


14 


8 


3 


20 


3 


21 




8 


101 


* Centauri, 


2.3 


14 


24 


54 


41 


25 


OS. 




13 


102 


> Bootis, Seginus, 


3 


14 


25 


17 


39 


2 


32 




13 


103 


* Centauri, 


1.2 


14 


28 


58 


60 


9 


28S. 




14 


104 


* Lupi, 


3 


14 


30 


46 


46 


39 


47S. 




14 


105 


• Bootis, Mirac, 


3 


14 


37 


41 


27 


47 


2 




16 


106 


* Librae, Zubenesch, 


2.3 


14 


41 


27 


15 


20 


29s. 




17 


107 


U. Mino., Kochah, 


3 


14 


51 


16 


74 


50 


17 




19 


108 


fi Bootis, Nekkar, 


3 


14 


55 


12 


41 


3 


18 




20 


109 


Librae, Zubenelg, 


2.3 


15 


8 


2 


8 


45 


41S. 




23 


110 


/ Serpentis, 

* C. Bor.^ Alphaoca, 

i Serpentis, Unuk, 


3 


15 


26 


32 


11 


6 


14 




28 


111 


2 


15 


27 


37 


27 


16 


55 




28 


112 


2 


15 


36 


3 


6 


57 


24 




30 


lii 


Serpentis, 


3 


15 


38 


29 


16 


57 


7 


July. 


^ 


114 


• Serpentis, 


3 


15 


42 


36 


6 


69 


7 




2 


115 


y Serpentis, 


3 


15 


48 


26116 


12 


69 




3 


116 


«• Scorpii, 


3 


15 


48 


4 


25 


37 


US. 




3 


117 


i Scorpii, 


3 


15 


50 


28 


23 


8 


18S. 




4 


118 


0ScotpiL 
B Draconiiy 


2 


15 


66 


44 


19 


20 


28S. 




5 


119 


8 


15 


^ 


37 


59 





33 








TABLE IL— Ooatinoed 



I 



Nuum of the Stars. 



s 



190 

m 

193 « 

194 

195 

126 

127 

198 

129 

1301 

131 

132 



/3 
i 



i 



133, 

134U 

135/ 

136^ 

137^ 

138 

139 

1401 

141 



r 





l^y 



Ophio., Yed, or Jed. 

Ophiuchi, 

Hercules. 

Scorpii, Antiures, 

Dracoms, 

Hercules,Ratilieas, 

Ophiuchi. 

Tnane. Australis, 

Herculis, 

Scorpii, 

I Scorpij, 

Scorpiij 

HerculiS| 

Ophiuchi, 

Her., Ras AlgetM, 

Herculis, 

Draconis, 

Ane, 

Scoipii, Lesath, 

Scorpii, 

Ophiu., Ras Alhag. 

C^hiuchi, Cheleb, 

Ophiuchi, 



143 
144 
145 
146 
147 
148. 



149|^ 
150^ 
1516 
152/ 
153'/ 
154;> 
155|i 

m{ 

15T«- 
158L 

159|/ 



Draconis. Rastaben, 

2 Sagit^rii, 

Sagittarii, 

Sagittarii, 

Lyrae, Vega, 

iTrsae Minoris, 

Lyrae, 

Sagittarii, 

Serpentis, Alga, 

Lyrae, 

Sagittarii, 

Lyrae, Jugum., 

Aquilae, 

A., Deneb e Okab, 

Sagittarii, 

Sagittarii, 



« 

3 
3 
1 
3 
3 
3 

9.3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

2.3 

2.3 
3 
3 
3 

2.3 
3 
2 
3 
3 



Right 
Ascension. 



Declination. 



On the ^ 



16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 



5 

9 



8. 

36 
39 



14 23 

19 10 

21 12 

23 22 

27 45 

21 3 

34 59 

39 4 

40 8 
42 52 
54 14 

50 

7 2 

8 20 
8 23 

18 57 

22 58 
25. 20 

28 11 

35 36 
39 56 



2.317 
3 17 
3 18 

2.318 
118 



3 
2.3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3.4 



18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
19 



52 44 

55 5 

10 1 

12 4S 

26 11 

28 6 

43 55 

44 58 
47 36 
49 6 
52 1 
52 11 
52 26 
57 44 
59 54 
12 19 



/^ 



3 15 

4 16 
19 33 
*26 3 
61 53 
21 57 
10 13 
68 42 
31 54 
33 58 
37 45 

41 3 
31 10 
15 30 
14 35 
25 2 
65 55 
49 43 
36 58 

42 52 
12 41 

4 38 

2 46 



18S. 
37S. 

1 

7S. 
38 
36 
15S. 
23S. 
39 
40S. 
14S. 
33S. 
40 
35S. 
17 
43 
12 
54S. 
24S. 
55S. 
20 
40 
42 



51 
30 
29 
34 
38 
86 
33 
26 
3 
•Id 
30 
32 
14 
13 
21 

m 



Jolj. 



3il9 19 29 67 



30 42 

94 40S. 

53 2BSJ 

27 US. 
38 

35 47 

10 33 

29 423. 

50 20 

41 98 

6 408. 

27 47 
50 4 

37 90 

16 56a 

ft5 9S. 

91 59 < 



Aug. 



7 
8 
9 
11 
11 
19 
13 
14 
15 
16 
16 
17 
19 
21 
93 
23 
23 
24 
27 
27 
98 
30 
31 



I 



9 
4 

8 
8 
19 
19 
17 
17 
18 
18 
19 
19 
19 
90 
91 



IS 



TABLE II.— Contlniied. 



i 


Names of the Suurs. 


i 


Right \ 
Ascension. 


DeeliMttioB. 


On the 
Merid. 


160 


/ Aqnile, 


3 


B. M. a 
19 17 5 


3 


46 


57 


Aug. 


161 


b Vulpecolte, 


3.4 


19 31 30 


34 


30 


5 




162 


>P Cygni, Att>ireo, 


3 


19 24 17 


37 


36 


51 




163 


y Aquite, Tarazed, 


3 


19 38 19 


10 


13 


48 




164 


i CygBi, 


"^ 


19 40 


44 


43 


25 


Sept. 


165 


« Aqiiilse, Altair, 


1.2 


19 42 38 


8 


36 


3 




166 


^ AqiiiiaR, Alshain, 


3 


19 47 7 


5 


59 


47 




167 


d Aquite, 

tt 1 Capri., Dshabeh, 


3 


20 3 38 


1 


18 


39S. 




168 


3 


20 8 23 


13 


1 


59S. 




169 


A 3 Capricomi, 


3 


20 8 47 


13 


3 


16S. 




170 


/8 Caprvaomi, Dabih, 


3 


20 11 48 


15 


18 


15S. 




171 


(t Pavonis, 


1.2 


20 12 23 


57 


15 


42S. 




172 


y Cygni, Sa'dr, 


3 


20 16 11 


39 


43 


32 




173 


f Delphini, 


3 


20 25 32 


10 


44 


29 




174 


^ Delphini, Rotanen, 
dc Delphini, Scalovin, 


3 


20 39 29 


13 


59 


53 


» 


175 


3 


20 31 53 


15 


59 


32 




176 


/ Delphini, 


3 


20 35 29 


14 


38 


53 




177 


at Cygni, Deneb, 


1.2 


20 35 45 


44 


41 


15 




178 


y Delphini, 


3 


20 38 29 


15 


31 


47 




179 


t Cygni, Oienah, 


3 


20 39 16 


33 


30 


16 




180 


f Cygni, 


3 


21 5 22 


29 


32 


45 




181 


A Cephei, Alderamin, 


3 


21 14 35 


61 


53 


45 




182 


/S Aqnarii, 


3 


21 32 46 


6 


18 


9S. 
43 


Oct. 


183 


yg Cephei, Alphirk, 


3 


21 26 28 


69 


49 


184 


y Capricomi, 


3 


21 30 45 


17 


34 


48S. 




185 


• Pegasi,Enit; 


2.3 


21 35 32 


9 


6 


47 




186 


(T Capricorni, 


3 


21 37 49 


16 


53 


33S. 




187 


A Aquarii, 


3 


21 57 12 


1 


7 


33S. 




188 


* Grnis, 


2 


21 57 40 


47 


45 


38S. 




189 


i Cephei, 


3 


22 5 5 


57 


32 


59 




190 


y Aqnarii, 


3 


22 13 38 


3 


13 


40S. 




191 


p Piscis Anstralis, 


3 


32 21 50 93 


11 


44S. 




192 


• Piscis Anstralis, 


3 


22 31 49 


37 


54 


48S. 




193 


i Pegasi, 


3 


23 33 36 


9 


57 


49 




194 


^ Aquani, Scheat, 


8 


33 45 43 


36 


43 


31S. 




195 


« Pise. Anst..Fama]h. 


1 


32 48 34 


30 


30 


18a 




196 


/e Pegasi, Scheat, 


3 


33 55 32 


27 


10 


37 




197 


« Pegasi, Maikib, 


% 


28 56. 37 


14 


18 


37 


Nov. 



TABLE II.— Oootmned. 



i 


NametoftbaSlan. 


1 

8 
3 


Right 
As<y.nsinn. 


Dediaatian. 


On the 
Merid. 




im 


y Cflpbei, Er Rai. 
* ADdromedB, An>h., 


23 


88 

69 


a. 

16 

46 


o 

76 
88 


41 
10 


68 
9 


Nor. 


10 
10 


m^ Casatopeis, CluEph, 


3 


84 





86 


58 


18 


47 




11 


»r> Pegasi; Algenflb, 


3 





4 


89 


14 


15 


99 




14 


909^ Hydnia, 


3 





15 


56 


78 


18 


78. 




14 


£03 « Phoenicis, 


8^ 





18 


1 


43 


13 


188. 




17 


904 '^ AndromeOBL 
905,« Casslgp., Sehedir, - 
9O6;/0 Ceti, DenebKaitos, 


3 





30 


86 


89 


56 







17 


3 





31 


5 


56 


37 


18 




18 


3 





35 


18 


18 


54 


17a 




91 


907> Cassiopeia, 


3 





46 


41 


69 


48 


41 




94 


908,« U. M. Almccabali. 


8.3 







19 


88 


95 


7 




94 


209 

iio 


fi Andro., Mirach, 


8 







45 


34 


44 


10 




38 


/ Cassia, Rnchbah, 


3 




14 


57 


59 


81 


54 


Dec 


"i 


Sll 


« Eradani, Achemar, 


1 




31 


81 


58 


13 


37S. 




4 


812 


1 «Cassiapei», 

i Ceti, Baton Kaitos, 


3 




43. 


11 


68 


50 


43 




4 


813 


3 




43 


35 


11 


9 


368. 




5 


SUijg Arietis, 


3 




45 


45 


80 


59 


30 




7 


815 


« Pisciiim,ElRt9cha, 


3 




53 


38 


1 


57 


19 




7 


816 


y Andio., Almaach, 


8 




53 


54 


41 


31 


33 


1 


8 


217 


« AnetiB,or£lNath, 
Ceti, MinL 


8 




57 


47 


88 


40 


11 




11 


818 


3 


8 


10 


36 


3 


43 


598. 




15 


819 


/ Ccti, 


8 


8 


30 


38 





83 


158. 




15 


820 


f Ceti, 


3 


8 


31 


31 


18 


34 


498. 




16 


881 


y Ceti, 


3 


8 


34 


38 


8 


31 


57 




80 


888 


y Pers»ei, 


3 


8 


53 


13 


53 


50 


46 




80 


%3 


X Ceti, Menkar, 


8 


8 


53 


33 


3 


85 


54 




31 


884 


fi Persei, Algol, 


var. 


8 


56 


58 


40 


18 


30 




33 


885 


at Fornax Chemica, 


8 


3 


5 


80 


29 


39 


508. 




33 


886 


f Eridani, 


8 


3 


7 


31 


9 


86 


318. 




35 


827 


« Persei, Algeneb, 


8 


3 


18 


86 


49 


15 


38 




97 


828 


« Eridani, 


8 


3 


85 


38 


10 


1 


868. 




99 


829 


^ Persei, 


8 


3 


31 


4 


47 


14 


54 




30 


830 


/ Eridani, t 


3 


3 


35 


31 


10 


90 


168. 




80 


831 


« Pleiades, Alejme, 


8 


3 


37 


34 


33 


85 


4 






838 


^Penwi, 


"i 


8 


44 





81 


83 


96 


Jan. 


"i 







• 


TABLE lit 








EihibitmA: llie Sim's Bight ABoensioiii in Tim^ Ibr emy flay m dM 

year. 


i 


» 
January. 


February. 


Harch. 


A|ira. 


Bfoj. 


June. 


1 




h. m. e. 


h. m. a. 


h. m. 8. 


h. m. B. 


h. m. a. 


h. m. a. 




1 


18 46 21 


20 58 4322 47 51 


41 25 


232 36 


4 35 .4 


1 


2 


18 50 46 


21 2 47|22 51 36 


45 3 


2 36 25 


4 39 19 


9 


3 


18 55 11 


21 6 50 22 55 19 


048 42 


2 40 14 


4 43 25 


3 


4 


18 59 35 


21 10 53.22 59 3 


52 20 


244 4 


4 47 31 


4 


5 


19 3 59 


21 14 54 23 2 46 


55 59 


2 47 55 


4 51 38 


6 


6 


19 8 22 


21 18 55'23 6 28 


59 57 


2 51 46 


4 55 45 


6 


7 


19 13 45 


21 22 55 23 10 10 


1 3 16 


2 55 37 


4 59 52 


7 


8 


19 17 7 


21 26 54 23 13 52 


1 6 56 


2 59 30 


5 3 59 


8 


9 


19 21 29 


21 30 53 23 17 33 


1 10 35 


3 3 22 


5 8 7 


9 


10 


19 25 50 


21 34 50 23 21 14 


1 14 15 


3 7 16 


5 12 15 


10 


11 


19 30 11 


21 38 47,23 24 54 


1 17 55 


3 11 10 


5 16 24 


11 


12 


19 34 31 


21 42 43 23 28 35 


1 21 35 


3 15 4 


5 20 32 


12 


13 


19 38 50 


21 46 38 23 32 14 


1 25 15 


3 19 


5 24 41 


13 


14 


19 43 9 


21 50 33 23 35 54 


1 28 56 


3 22 55 


5 28 50 


14 


15 


19 47 27 


21 54 2723 39 34 


1 32 38 


3 26 52 


5 32 59 


15 


16 


19 51 45 


21 58 20 23 43 13 


1 36 19 


3 30 49 


5 37 9 


16 


17 


19 56 1 


22 2 12 23 46 52 


1 40 1 


3 34 46 


5 41 18 


17 


16 


20 18 


22 6 423 50 31 


.1 43 44 


3 38 44 


5 45 28 


18 


19 


20 4 33 


22 9 55 23 54 9 


1 47 26 


3 42 43 


5 49 37 


19 


90 


20 848 


22 13 45 23 57 48 


1 51 10 


3 46 42 


5 53 47 


20 


21 


20 13 2 


22 17 35 1 26 


1 54 53 


350 42 


5 57 57 


21 


22 


20 17 15 


22 21 24 5 4 


1 58 37 


3 54 42 


6 2 7 


22 


23 


20 21 27 


22 25 13 8 43 


2 222 


3 58 44 


6 6 16 


23 


24 


20 25 39 


^2 29 1 


12 21 


2 6 7 


4 245 


6 10 26 


24 


25 


20 29 50 


22 32 48 


15 59 


2 9 53 


4 6 47 


6 14 35 


25 


26 


20 34 


22 36 35 


19 37 


2 13 39 


4 10 49 


6 18 44 


26 


27 


20 38 9 


22 40 21 


23 15 


2 17 25 


4 14 52 


622 54 


27 


28 


20 42 18 


2244 6 


026 53 


2 21 12 


4 18 56 


627 3 


28 


29 


20 46 25 




30 31 


224 59 


423 


6 31 11 


29 


30 


20 50 32 




034 9 


2 28 47 


427 4 


635 20 


30 


81 


20 54 38 




37 47 




4 31 8 




31 



TABLE nL^-Cgntmaed. 



I 


July. 


A.i]fiut 


Bept 


Oet 


Not. 


Dec 


1 




h. n. ft. 


h n. B. 


h. m. B. 


h. m. B. 


h. m. B. 


li. m. «. 




1 


639 28 


844 22 


10 40 30 


12 28 35 


14 24 45 


16 28 29 


1 


8 


643 36 


8 48 15 


10 44 8 


12 32 12 


14 28 41 


16 32 48 


9 


3 


6 47 44 


852 7 


10 47 45 


12 35 50 


14 32 37 


16 37 81 3 


4 


6 51 52 


8 55 59 


10 51 22 


12 39 28 


14 36 34 


16 41 29 


4 


5 


6 55 59 


859 50 


10 54 59 


12 43 6 


14 40 32 


16 45 50 


5 


6 


7 6 


9 3 40 


10 58 36 


12 46 45 


14 44 30 


16 50 12 


6 


7 


7 4 12 


9 730 


11 2 12 


12 50 24 


14 48 30 


16 54 34 


7 


8 


7 8 18 


9 11 19 


11 5 48 


12 54 4 


14 52 30 


16 58 57 


8 


9 


7 12 24 


9 15 8 


11 9 24 


12 57 44 


14 56 31 


17 3 20 


9 


10 


7 16 30 


9 18 56 


11 13 


13 1 24 


15 34 


17 7 44 


10 


11 


720 35 


9 22 44 


11 16 36 


13 5 5 


15 4 37 


17 12 9 


11 


12 


7 24 39 


9 26 31 


11 20 12 


13 8 47 


15 8 41 


17 16 33 


12 


13 


7 28 43 


9 30 18 


11 23 48 


13 12 29 


15 12 45 


17 90 58 


13 


14 


7 32 47 


9 34 4 


11 27 23 


13 16 12 


15 16 51 


17 25 24 


14 


15 


736 50 


9 37 49 


11 30 59 


13 19 55 


15 20 57 


17 29 49 


15 


16 


740 53 


9 41 34 


11 34 34 


13 23 38 


15 25 5 


17 34 15 


16 


17 


744 55 


9 45 19 


11 38 10 


13 27 23 


15 29 13 


17 38 41 


17 


18 


7 48 57 


9 49 3 


11 41 45 


13 31 8 


15 33 22 


17 43 8 


18 


19 


752 58 


9 52 46 


11 45 21 


13 34 53 


15 37 ^ 


17 47 34 


19 


90 


7 56 59 


9 56 29 


11 48 56 


13 38 39 


15 41 42 


17 52 1 


20 


SI 


8 059 


10 12 


11 52 32 


13 42 26 


15 45 54 


17 56 27 


91 


22 


8 459 


10 3 54 


11 56 8 


13 46 13 


15 50 6 


18 54 


99 


23 


8 8 58 


10 7 35 


11 59 43 


13 50 1 


15 54 19 


18 5 21 


93 


24 


8 12 56 


10 11 16 


12 3 19 


13 53 50 


15 58 33 


18 9 47 


94 


25 


8 16 54 


10 14 57 


12 6 55 


13 57 39 


16 2 47 


18 14 14 


96 


26 


8 20 52 


10 18 37 


12 10 31 


14 1 29 


16 7 2 


18 18 40 


96 


27 


824 48 


10 ^2 17 


12 14 7 


14 5 20 


16 11 18 


18 23 7 


97 


28 


828 44 


10 25 56 


12 17 44 


14 9 12 


16 15 35 


18 27 33 


96 


89 


8 32 39 


10 29 35 


12 21 21 


14 13 4 


16 19 52 


18 31. 59 


99 


30 


836 34 


10 33 14 


12 24 57 


14 16 57 


16 94 10 


18 36 24 


30 


31 


8 40 88 


10 36 58 




14 90 61 


- 


18 40 6QI 


81 









TABLE IV. 






SbowiDg On B^IAMennoiiof Ibe Mid-Hsa^ M So'cloilii 


«TCniub£irenn " 


tjrdirmttaejrwt. 


i_ 


JutMJ. 


Febnw7 


' 














1 


3 46 31 


5 58 43 


7 47 5 


9 4t 35 11 32 36 


13 35 14 


a 


300 46 


6 3 47 


7 51 35 


9 45 3 11 36 35 


13 30 19 


3 


3 55 11 


6 650 


7 56 19 


9 48 43 11 40 14 


13 43 35 


4 


359 35 


6 10 63 


759 3 


9 52 30 11 44 4 


13 47 31 


5 


4 3 59 


6 14 54 


8 2 46 


9 55 59 11 47 55 


13 51 38 


6 


4 8 23 


6 19 65 


8 638 


9 59 57 11 51 46 


13 55 45 


7 


4 12 45 


622 65 


8 10 10 


10 3 16 11 65 37 


13 69 63 


e 


4 17 7 


6 36 54 


8 13 62 


10 6 56 11 69 30 


14 3 59 


9 


4 31 S9 


6 30 53 


8 17 53 


10 10 35 13 3 33 


14 8 7 


10 


495 50 


634 50 


8 31 14 


10 14 15 13 7 16 


14 13 16 


n 


4 30 11 


6 38 47 


8 34 64 


10 17 55 13 U 10 


U 1G34 


IS 


4 34 31 


6 43 43 


828 35 


10 31 35 12 15 4 


14 30 32 


13 


4 38 50 


646 38 


8 32 14 


10 25 15 12 19 


14 24 41 


U 


443 9 


660 33 


835 64 


28 56 13 32 55 


14 38 50 


16 


4 47 27 


6 54 27 


8 39 34 


32 36 13 36 52 


U3S69 


16 


4 51 45 


6 58 20 


8 43 13 


36 19 12 30 49 


U 37 9 


17 


456 


7 3 13 


846 52 


10 40 1 12 34 46 


14 41 18 


18 


5 18 


7 6 4 


8 50 31 


10 43 44 13 38 44 


14 45 28 


19 


5 4 33 


7 9 55 


8 54 9 


10 47 36 12 42 43 


14 49 37 


90 


5 848 


7 13 45 


8 67 48 


10 51 10,13 46 43 


14 53 47 


31 


5 13 a 


7 17 35 


9 136 


10 54 53 


13 50 42 


14 57 67 


33 


5 17 15 


7 31 24 


9 6 4 


10 58 37 


13 64 43 


16 2 7 


S3 


5 81 27 


7 25 13 


9 843 


11 3 2) 


12 58 44 


15 6 16 


» 


525 39 


T39 1 


9 13 21 


11 6 7 


13 2 45 


16 10 36 


SE. 


633 60 


732 48 


9 15 69 


11 9 53 


13 6 47 


15 14 35 


fl6 


534 


736 35 


9 19 37 


11 13 39 


13 10 49 


16 18 44 


«7 


638 9 


7 40 31 


9 33 15 


11 17 25 


13 14 52 


16 22 54 


« 


5 43 18 


744 6 


996 63 


11 21 13 


13 18 56 


1537 3 


d9 


5 46 35 


9 30 31 


11 24 69 


13 33 


15 31 11 


3D 


550 33 


9 34 9 


11 38 47 


13 37 4 


15 36 20 


SI 


5M3t 




9 37 471 




13 31 el 





TABUS IT^-OoBtiniied. 



I 


• 


.^ 


8epC> 


Oct 


H4V* 


Dec 


• 




h. OL B. 


h. m. B. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. ■. 


h. m. ■. 


h. m. 8. 




1 


15 39 28 


17 44 22 


19 40 30 


21 28 35 


23 24 45 


1 28 29 


1 


s 


15 43 36 


17 48 15 


19 44 8 


21 32 12 


23 28 41 


1 32 48 


3 


3 


15 47 44 


17 52 7 


19 47 45 


21 35 50 


23 32 37 


1 37 8 


3 


4 


15 51 52 17 55 SO 


19 51 22 


21 39 28 


33 36 34 


1 41 29 


4 


5 


15 55 59 17 59 50 


19 54 59 


21 43 6 


23 40 32 


1 45 50 


5 


6 


16 6 18 3 40 


19 58 36 


21 46 45 


23 44 30 


1 50 12 


6 


7 


16 4 12 18 7 30 


20 2 12 


21 50 24 


23 48 30 


1 54 34 


7 


6 


16 8 18 18 11 19 


20 548 


21 54 4 


S3 52 30 


1 58 57 


8 


9 


16 12 24 18 15 8 


20 924 


21 57 44 


S3 56 31 


2 3 30 


9 


10 


16 16 30 18 18 56 


20 13 


22 1 24 


34 


2 744 


le 


11 


16 20 35 18 22 44 


20 16 36 


22 5 5 


437 


2 12 9 


11 


13 


16 24 3918 26 31 


20 20 12 


^ 8 47 


8 41 


2 16 33 


12 


13 


16 28 43!l8 30 18 


20 23 48 


22 12 29 


12 45 


220 58 


13 


14 


16 32 47 18 34 4 


20 27 23 


22 16 12 


16 51 


225 24 


14 


15 


16 36 5018 37 49 


20 30 59 


22 19 55 


20 57 


2 29 49 


15 


16 


16 40 53 18 41 34 


20 34 34 


22 23 38 


025 5 


2 34 15 


16 


17 


16 44 55118 45 19 


20 38 10 


22 27 23 


29 13 


2 38 41 


17 


18 


16 48 57 


18 49 3 


20 41 45 


22 31 8 


033 32 


2 43 8 


18 


19 


16 52 58 


18 52 46 


20 45 21 


22 34 53 


37 32 


2 47 34 


19 


*^0 


16 56 59 


19 56 29 


20 48 56 


22 38 39 


41 42 


252 1 


30 


21 


17 59 


19 12 


20 52 32 


22 42 26 


045 54 


256 27 


31 


22 


17 4 59,19 3 54 


20 56 8 


22 46 13 


50 6 


3 54 


33 


23 


17 8 58|l9 7 35 


20 59 43 


22 50 1 


54 19 


3 5 21 


S3 


24 


17 12 56 


19 11 16 


21 3 19 


22 53 50 


058 33 


3 9 47 


94 


25 


17 16 54 


19 14 57 


21 6 55 


22 57 39 


1 2 47 


3 14 14 


36 


26 


17 20 52 


19 18 37 


21 10 31 


23 1 29 


17 2 


3 18 40 


36 


27 


17 24 48 


19 22 17 


21 14 7 


23 520 


1 11*18 


323 7 


37 


28 


17 28 44 


19 25 56 


21 17 44 


23 9 12 


1 15 35 


337 33 


38 


29 


17 32 39 


19 29 35 


21 21 21 


23 13 4 


1 19 63 


3 31 69 


99 


30 


17 36 34 


19 33 14 


21 34 57 


23 16 57 


1 34 10 


336 34 


30 


31 


17 40:18 


19 3650 




83 90 61 




340 60 


31 



39 





' 




TABLE y. 










6 


1 

Jamuury. 


Vfthtmrf. 


BraFCB* 


April. 


Maj. 


June. 


k 




o f n 


1 fl 


/ 11 


/ 11 


/ 11 


1 11 




I 23 1 52 17 8 57 


7 39 11 


4 27 37 


15 22 


22 1 44 


1 


2 


22 56 45 16 51 46 


7 16 22 


4 50 43 


15 18 26 


22 9 49 


2 


3 


22 51 10 16 34 18 


6 53 27 


5 13 44 


15 36 16 


22 17 30 


3 


4 


22 45 8 16 16 32 


6 30 26 


5 36 39 


15 53 50 


22 24 4S 


4 


5 


22 38 39:15 58 29 


6 720 


5 59 28 


16 11 8 


22 31 43 


5 


6 


22 31 43 15 40 11 


544 9 


6 22 11 


16 28 10 


22 38 14 


6 


7 


22 24 20!l5 21 36 


5 20 53 


6114 48 


16 44 56 


22 44 21 


7 


8 


22 16 31 


15 2 46 


4 57 34 


7 7 17 


17 1 25 


22 50 4 


8 


9 


22 8 16 


14 43 40 


4 34 10 


729 40 


17 17 37 


22 55 23 


9 


10 


21 59 34 


14 24 20 


4 10' 43 


7 51 54 


17 33 32 


23 19 


10 


11 


21 50 27 


14 4 45 


3 47 13 


8 14 1 


17 49 10 


23 4 50 


11 


12 


21 40 55 


13 44 56 


3 23 40 


8 36 


18 4 30 


23 8 56 


12 


13 


21 30 57 


13 24 54 


3 5 


8 57 50 


18 19 31 


23 12 39 


13 


14 


21 20 34 


13 4 39 


2 36 28 


9 19 32 


18 34 14 


23 15 56 


14 


15 


21 9 47 


12 44 11 


2 12 49 


9 41 4 


18 48 39 


23 18 50 


15 


16 


20 58 35 


12 23 30 


1 49 9 


10 2 27 


19 2 45 


23 21 18 


16 


17 


20 47 


12 2 38 


1 25 27 


10 23 40 


19 16 31 


23 23 22 


17 


18 


20 35 


11 41 34 


1 1 45 


10 44 44 


19 29 58 


23 25 1 


18 


19 


20 22 37 


11 20 19 


38 3 


11 5 36 


19 43 6 


23 26 15 


19 


20 


20 9 51 


10 58 53 


S. 14 21 


11 26 18 


19 55 63 


23 27 5 


20 


21 


19 56 43 


10 37 17 


N. 9 20 


11 46 48 


20 820 


23 27 30 


21 


22 


19 43 12 


10 15*31 


33 1 


12 7 8 


20 20 26 


23 27 29 


22 


23 


19 29 19 


9 53 36 


56 41 


12 27 15 


20 32 12 


2327 4 


23 


24 


19 15 4 


9 31 31 


1 20 18 


12 47 10 


20 43 36 


23 26 15 


24 


25 


19 28 


9 9 19 


1 43 54 


13 6 52 


20 54 40 


23 25 


25 


26 


18 45 31 


846 58 


2 728 


13 26 21 


21 5 21 


23 23 21 


26 


27 


18 30 14 


824 59 


2 30 58 


13 45 37 


21 15 41 


23 21 17 


27 


28 


18 14 37 


8 1 53 


2 54 26 


14 4 40 


2125 38 


23 18 48 


28 


29 


17 58 40 




3 17 50 


14 23 28 


21 35 14 


23 15 55 


29 


SO 


17 42 24 




3 41 10 


14 42 3 


21 44 27 


23 12 38 


30 


31 


17 25 50 




4 426 




2153 17 


' 


31 



TABLE v.— Contuuied. 



I 


lolf. 


▲l«1Mt 


Bept 


Oct 


eMK* 


Dec. 


1 




o f ft 


o 1 II 


o 1 It 


o / II 


o 1 It 


o / II 




1 


23 8 56 18 6 40 


8 23 33 


3 5 22 14 22 19 21 47 34 


1 


9 


23 4 49 17 51 30 


8 1 44 


3 28 40,14 41 30 21 56 46 


9 


8 


23 19 17 36 2 


739 48 


3 51 56|l5 27 23 5 34 


3 


4 


22 55 25,17 20 17 


7 17 44 


4 15 9 15 19 922 13 55 


4 


5 


22 50 6;i7 4 16 


6 55 32 


4 38 2015 37 37 22 21 51 


5 


6 


22 44 2416 47 58 


6 33 14 


5 1 27 15 55 49 22 29 21 


6 


7 


22 38 18,16 3123 


6 10 49 


5 24 3016 13 45 22 36 25 


7 


8 


22 31 49 16 14 32 


5 46 18 


5 47 30 16 31 2522 43 2 


8 


9 


22 24 56 15 57 26 


5 25 41 


6 10 25 16 48 48 22 49 12 


9 


10 


22 17 40 15 40 4 


5 2 59 


6 33 1517 5 55 22 54 55 


10 


11 


22 10 1,15 22 27 


4 40 11 


6 56 017 22 43 23 11 


11 


13 


22 1 59 15 4 35 


4 17 18 


7 18 4017 39 14 23 5 


19 


13 


21 53 34 14 46 29 


3 54 20 


7 41 14|l7 55 27 23 9 21 


13 


U 


21 44 46 14 28 8 


3 31 19 


8 3 41jl8 11 21 23 13 14 


14 


15 


21 35 3714 9 33 


3 8 13 


8 26 2U8 26 55 23 16 40 


15 


16 


21 26 5!l3 50 45 


245 3 


8 48 16 18 42 10 23 19 38 


16 


17 


21 16 1113 31 43 


2 21 51 


9 10 22 18 57 5 23 22 7 


17 


18 


21 5 5513 12 28 


1 58 36 


9 32 21 19 11 40 23 24 9 


18 


19 


20 55 18112 53 1 


1 35 18 


9 54 1119 25 5123 25 42 


19 


ao 


20 44 20 12 33 22 


1 11 58 10 15 52 19 39 47 23 26 47 


90 


31 


20 33 1 12 13 30 


48 3610 37 24 19 53 19 23 27 24 


31 


22 


20 21 20,11 53 27 


25 13,10 58 4720 6 28 23 27 33 


99 


23 


20 9 20,11 33 13 


N. 1 4911 19 59,3i 19 15 23 27 13 


93 


24 


19 56 59 11 12 48 


S.21361141 i;20 31 40 23 26 24 


94 


25 


19 44 19: 10 52 12 


45 1 


12 1 53 20 43 42 23 25 8 


95 


26 


19 31 18 10 31 26 


1 8 27 


12 22 33,20 55 21 23 23 23 


96 


27 


19 17 59; 10 10 31 


1 31 52 


12 43 221 6 36 23 21 10 


27 


28 


19 4 20| 9 49 25 


1 55 16 


13 3 19;21 17 27 23 18 29 


98 


29 


18 50 22 


9 28 10 


2 18 40 


13 23 23 21 27 54 23 15 90 


99 


80 


18 36 6 


9 6 46 


2 42 2 


13 43 15 


21 37 56,23 11 43 


80 


31 


18 2183 


8 45 14 


- 


14 9 54 


1 


93 7381 


31 



TABLE VL 



£shibitine the Sun's mean place in the Ecliptic, or its liongitude^ 
togetier with the Right Ascension, for every day in the year. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

J7 

18 

19 

80 

21 



January. 



Long. R. A. 



23 

24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 



280 
281 
282 
283 
284 
285 
286 
287 
288 
289 
290 
291 
292 
293 
294 
295 
296 
297 
299 
300 
301 



22 302 



303 
304 
305 
306 
307 
308 
309 
310 
311 



f 

39 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

57 

58 

59 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

1^ 



281 
282 
283 
284 
266 
287 
288 
289 
290 
291 
292 
293 
294 
295 
296 
297 
299 
300 
301 
302 
303 
304 
305 
306 
307 
308 
309 
310 
,311 
11312 
12,313 



41 
48 
54 

5 
11 
17 
22 
28 
33 
38 
43 
47 
52 
56 

4 
8 
12 
15 
19 
22 
25 
27 
30 
32 
3 
3 



February. 



Long. 



35 312 



313 
314 
315 
316 
317 
318 
319 
320 
321 
322 
323 
324 
325 
326 
327 
328 
329 
330 
331 
332 
333 
334 
335 
336 
337 
338 
339 



13 
14 
14 
15 
16 
17 
17 
18 
19 
19 
20 
21 
21 
22 
22 
23 
23 
24 
24 
25 
25 
26 
26 
26 
27 
27 
27 
27 



Un a» 



314 
315 
316 
317 
318 
319 
320 
321 
322 
323 
324 
325 
326 
327 
328 
329 
330 
331 
332 
333 
334 
335 
336 
337 
338 
339 
340 
341 



March. 



Long. 



340 
341 
342 



f 

41 

42 

42 

43;343 

43|344 

44 345 

46346 

44347 

43 348 



R. A* 



43 



41350 



40 



40 352 



38 
37 
35 
33 
31 
29 
27 
24 
21 
18 
15 
12 
9 
5 
2 



349 



351 



353 

354 

355 

356 

357 

358 

359 

000 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 



27 341 
281342 
28343 

28 344 
28 345 
28 346 
28' 347 
28'348 
27349 
27 '350 
27 351 
27 352 
271353 
26 353 
26 354 



58 
54 
50 
46 
41 



April 



Long. I R. A 



f 



37 
32 
28 
23 
18 
13 

9|22 

4 
59 



26 
25 
25 
24 
24 
24 
23 
22 
22 
21 
21 
20 
19 
18 
18 
17 



355 

356 

357 

358 

i359 



1 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 



53 

48 



11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 



43 26 



38 
32 
27 
22 
16 
10 
5 

64 
49 
42 



32 
27 



23 
24 
25 
25 



15 11 

14 12 

43 13 

12,14 

1114 

10,15 

916 

8,17 

618 

519 

420 

3 21 



27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 



1 
00 
59 
57 
56 
54 
53 
51 
50 
48 
47 
45 
43 
42 
40 



22 
23 
24 
25 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 



38 38 38 36 



f 



1610 21 



39 36 



37 



16 
10 
5 

54 
49 
44 
39 
34 
29 
24 
19 
14 
9 
5 

56 
61 
47 
43 
39 
36 
32 
28 
25 
21 
18 
15 
12 



TABLB VIw>*C«ntiuied. 



^ 


Kay. 


JVOB, 

ft 


July. 


AngiMt 


1 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 


R. A 


» 


o / 


o / 


o / 


o / 


o f 


o / 


o / 


o f 


1 


40 34 


38 9 


70 25 


68 48 


99 4 


99 52 


128 40 


131 5 


2 


41 32 


39 6 


71 23 


69 50 


100 1 


100 54 


129 37 


132 4 


3 


42 31 


40 3 


72 20 


70 51 


100 59 


101 56 


130 35 


133 3 


4 


43 29 


41 1 


73 18 


71 53 


101 56 


102 58 


131 32 


134 


5 


44 27 


41 59 


74 15 


72 54 


102 53 


104 


132 29 


135 


6 


45 25 


42 56 


75 12 


73 56 


103 50 


105 1 


133 27 


135 55 


7 


46 23 


43 54 


76 10 


74 58 


104 47 


106 3 


134 24 


136 53 


8 


47 21 


44 52 


77 7 


76 


105 44 


107 5 


135 22 


137 50 


9 


48 19 


45 6 


78 4 


77 2 


106 42 


108 6 


136 20 


138 47 


10 


49 16 


46 49 


79 2 


78 4 


107 39 


109 7 


137 17 


139 44 


11 


50 14 


47 47 


79 59 


79 6 


108 36 


110 9 


138 15 


140 41 


12 


51 12 


48 46 


80 56 


80 8 


109 33 


111 10 


139 12 


141 38 


13 


52 10 


49 45 


81 54 


81 10 


110 31 


112 11 


140 10 


142 34 


14 


53 8 


50 44 


82 51 


82 13 


111 28 


113 12 


141 8 


143 31 


15 


54 6 


51 42 


83 48 


83 15 


112 25 


114 13 


142 5 


144 2^ 


16 


55 3 


52 42 


84 46 


84 17 


113 22 


115 13 


143 3 


145 24 


17 


56 1 


53 41 


85 43 


85 20 


114 20 


116 14 


144 1 


146 20 


18 


56 59 


54 41 


'86 40 


86 22 


115 17 


117 14 


144 59 


147 16 


19 


57 57 


55 41 


87 37 


87 24 


116 14 


118 16 


145 56 


148 12 


20 


58 54 


56 41 


88 35 


88 27 


117 11 


119 15 


146 54 


149 7 


21 


59 52 


57 41 


89 32 


8p 30 


118 9 


120 15 


147 52 


160 3 


22 


60 50 


58 41 


90 29 


90 32 


119 6 


121 15 


148 50 


150 58 


23 


61 47 


59 41 


91 26 


91 34 


120- 3 


122 14 


149 48 


151 54 


24 


62 45 


60 41 


92 24 


92 36 


121 1 


123 14 


150 46 


152 49 


25 


63 43 


61 42 


93 21 


93 39 


121 58 


124 14 


151 44 


153 44 


26 


64 40 


62 42 


94 18 


94 41 


122 55 


125 13 


152 42 


154 39 


27 


65 38 


63 43 


95 15 


95 43 


123 53 


126 12 


153 39 


155 34 


28 


66 35 


64 44 


96 13 


96 46 


124 50 


127 11 


154 37 


156 29 


29 


67 33 


65 45 


97 10 


97 48 


125 48 


128 10 


155 35 


157 24 


90 


68 30 


66 46 


98 7 


98 50 


126 45 


129 9 


156 34 


158 18 


31 


69 28 


67 m 






127 42 


130 7 


157 32 


159 13 



99* 



TABLE VL— CoDtinned. 






1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

Q 

10 
11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
2fl 
82 
23 
24 
25 



September. 



October. 



PfoTember. 



DeoeiqliMi; 



Long. R. A. 



27 
SB 
29 

ao 

31 



158 30 

159 28 

160 26 
16124 

162 22 

163 20 

164 19 

165 17 

166 15 

167 14 

168 12 

169 11 

170 9 
171 
172 
173 
174 
175 
176 

176 69 

177 68 

178 57 

179 56 

180 54 
18153 

182 52 

183 51 

184 50 

185 49 
196 48 



I Long. Rh a. 



8 
6 
5 
3 
2 
1 



o / 

160 8|l87 

161 2 188 

161 55 189 

162 51 190 

163 45|l91 
192 
193 
194 
195 
196 
197 
198 
199 
200 
201. 



164 39 

165 33 

166 27 

167 21 

168 15 

169 9 

170 3 
170 57 
17151 
172 45 



173 39 202 



174 32 

175 26 



203 

204 



176 20 205 

177 14 206 

178 8 207 

179 2 208 

179 56 209 

180 50 210 

181 44 ^11 

182 38 212 

183 32 

184 26 
186 2 
1861 



47 

46 

45 

44 

43 

43 

42 

41 

40 

40 

39 

39 

38 

38 

.37 

37 

36 

36 

36 

35 

35 

35 



Long. EL A. 




35 
35 
35 
34 
34 
34 
34 
34 



187 

188 

188 

189 

190 

191 

192 

193 

194 

195 

196 

197 

198 

199 

199 

200 

201 

202 

803 

204 

205 

206 

207 

208 

209 

210 

211 

S12 

213 

214 



9 218 
3 219 



57 



52 221 



47 



36 



220 



222 



41223 



224 



31225 



26 
21 
16 



3 

59 



51 



226 

227 
228 



12 229 
7 230 



231, 
232 



55 233 



234 



47 235 
43 236 



34 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

36 

36 

36 

37 

37 

37 

38 

^38 

39 

39 

40 

41 

41 

42 

43 

43 

44 

45 



Long. I R. A. 



/ 



t 



216 11 248 50 

217 10 249 51 

218 9 250 52 

219 8 25153 



220 
221 



8 
8 



252 64 

253 55 



222 7 254 56 

223 8 255 57 



224 
225 
226 



8 
8 



256 58 

257 59 
9 258 



227 10 260 



228 11 

229 13 



341215 




23116 



261 

262 



1 
2 



230 14 263 4 



264 6 



232 18 265 7 

233 20 266 8 

234 23 267 9 

235 26 268 10 

236 28 269 11 

237 31 270 12 

238 35 271 14 

239 38 272 15 

240 42 273 16 

241 46 274 17 

242 50 275 18 

243 64 276 19 

244 68 277 21 
246 2 278 22 

279 23 



247 7 

248 12 

249 17 

250 22 
25128 

252 33 

253 39 

254 44 

255 60 

256 65 

258 2 

259 8 

260 16 
26121 

262 27 

263 34 

264 40 

265 47 

266 64 

268 

269 7 

270 14 
27120 

272 27 

273 34 

274 40 

275 47 

276 63 

278 

279 6 

280 13 



TABLB Vn. 



Exlubiting tlie Right Ascension and Dedinatbn of die PlaiieC% 
time of their pessing the Meridien, for 18331 



■ad the 





rf 


Vnnis. 1 Mais. 


JmnR. 

• 




1 


Eu- 


Deo. 


rkMlR.M. 


Dec- 


Pass 


R-M-iDec- PaM 


R.a8. 


Dec- Peee 


5 


t 


een- 


Uoft- 


MerJ een- 


liD** 


Mer. 


cen- linar ; Mer. 


cen< 


lina- , Mer. 


" 


& 


■ion. 


Uoo. 


H 


tion. 




Bion. 


tion. 




■km. 


ttoo. 




■"■ 




Itm. 


O ' 


k.iii.lh.m. 


' 


h. m. 


\l m. 


' 


li. in.liL m. 


'iLnv 


• 

5 


1 


21 30 


16 44 


2 4213 13 


90 8 


824 


83 36; 4 6 


4 46 


1167 


9 4817 • 


7 


21 66 14 19! 2 441 


8 16 


90 92 


8 1 


23 38. 3 43 


4 9411167 


9 4916 40 


S 13 


122 26 


1127 2 46 


3 21 


20 41 


740 


23 42 3 18 


4 1 


11 67 


9 61 16 14 


8 119 


22 61 


833 246 


827 


91 4 


7 21 


23 46 269 


339 


1166 


2 6616 48 


"* 26 


23 17 


6 311 9 46 


336 


9129 


7 a 


23 60, 2 94 

1 


3 18 


11 66 


3 016 29 

1 


• 


1 


23 46 


164 2 47 


344 


23 2 


644 


23 56 1 49 


966 


11 66 


3 914 89 


P 


7 


036 


1 14' 2 47 


864 


22 29 


6 29 


23 60 1 29 


935 


11 64 


3 17 14 27 


1 13 


420 247 


4 4 


22 57 


6 16 


4 047 


9 16111 53 


3 25 14 3 


•e 19 


058 


7 29 2 47 


4 16 


23 24 


6 4 


9 


16 


168 


11 61 


3 36 13 38 


e .26 


122 
1 37 


10 19 
12 11 


,94fi 


427 


23 60 


663 


14 


18 


140 


11 60 


3 47 
354 


13 14 


1 I 


94J 


436 


24 6 


5 46 


17 


040 


1 28 


1149 


12 68 




7 


1 59 


14 63 2 481 


448 


24 27 


6 35 


023 


1 14 


I 11 


11 47 


4 61234 


g 


13 


2 22 17 23 2 481 


6 1 


24 45 


528 


281 1 48 


064 


11 46 


4 18 12 10 


3 ;i9 


2 43 


19 371 2 48 


6 16 


24 69 


5 19 


033 223 


038 


11 44 


4 29 11 46 


3 3 
324 


2136 2 46 
23 33 242 


628 


05 9 


6 11 


038 


267 

537 


21 


1142 


4 40 


11 23 

10 66 


1 


6 45 


25 16 


6 2 


45 


2 


11 40 


4 63 


1 13 


3 4024 63 2 351 


659 


25 16 


456 


060 


4 1123 431 


11 38 


5 2 10 32 


3 63 


25 5I< 2 26 


6 14 


25 11 


4 47 


056 


4 44 


23 26 


11 37 


5 11 


10 9 


t !l9 


4 1 


26 26 2 13 


629 


25 2 


4 40^ 


1 1 


6 17 


23 9 


n 36 


5 19 


946 




25 

T 


4 6 
4 3 


26 33 


1 64 


6 44 


24 46 
24 26 


4 83 


1 6 


550 


22 92 


1134 


625 


929 




26 8 


129 


669 


426 


111 


622 


Si2 35 


11 34 


630 


858 




7 


3&> 


25 4 


068 


7 14 


24 


4 17 


ia6 


653 


22 17 


11 33 


634 


R35 


1 13 


3 42 


23 29 21 


729 


23 29 


4 8* 


121 


7 23 


21 56 


1132 


636 


8 11 


n 


19 


327 


21 13'28 37 


744 


22 52 


4 


1 26 


7 62 


21 40 


11 32 


637 


'£ 




26 

1 


3 15 
3 6 


18 68 
16 46 


93 2 


759 


2^ 11 


3 50: 1 31 


820 
8 61 


21 20 
29 67 


1132 


636 


723 


"^ 


22 25 8 16 


21 16 


339! 1 37 


il32 


634 


664 


i 


7 


3 4 


16 28 91 691 8 31 


20 23 


3 30 1 41 


9 11 


20 37 


11 32 


530 


630 


13 


3 7 


14 60 21 39l8 46 


19 26 


3 19 


146 


9 40 


90 17 


11 83 


6 21 


6 i 


19 


3 16 14 44 21 221 9 


18 25 


3 9 


1 50 


10 2 


19 66 


11 34 


6 18 


649 




» 


S27 


16 i 


21 lOJ 


19 16J 


17 19 


2 69J 


164i 


10 as 


19 36 


1136 


5 10 


6 16 



TABLE yJL for 183^— OoDttniieQ. 



>% 

f § 



4 


■( 


Vbmttb. 1 


Mars. | Jopitu. 1 


Batubx. 


1 


R. as- 


Dec- Pass | 


R as- 


Dec- Pass R.a8-| Deo- Pau| 


R.as- 


Dec- 


FaM 


o 


»s 


cen- 


lina- 


Mer. 


cen- 


Una* 


Her. ccn-Iina- | 


Mer. 


c<^n- 


lina. 


ILa^r 


* s 


sion 
h. m. 


lion. 




sion. 


lion. 

O ' 


•ion. 1 


Lion. 




tion. 


tion. 

O ' 








' 


h. in. 


ti. m. 


h. m. h. m. 


O ' 


h. m. 


h. m. 


b.m 




1 


3 42 


15 43 21 0] 


9 29 


16 9 


2 48 1 57 10 42 19 14| 


11 36 


6 1 


466 


J?? 


7 


3 59 


16 33 20 53^ 


9 43 


14 56 


2 38 


2 110 59 18 53 


11 38 


4 50 


4 31 


y 


13 


4 19 1 17 30 20 48 


9 58 


13 9 


228 


2 4 11 15 18 31 


11 39 


4 39 


4 9 




19 


4 40 13 25 20 4ti 


10 12 


12 19 


2 18 


2 7 11 28 18 10 


11 41 


426 


3 46 




25 

1 


5 3 19 17 20 45 


10 26 
10 42 


10 56 
9 15 


2 8 


2 9 U 40 

1 

2 11 11 61 


17 43 


11 43 


4 13 
3 56 


3 24 




532 


20 6 20 46 


1 66 


17 23 


11 45 


2 69 


^ 


7 


5 58 


20 36 20 49 


10 56 


7 47 


1 47 


2 13 11 57 17 2 


11 47 


3 41 


239 




13 


6 24 20 51 20 53 


11 10 


6 17 


1 38 


2 14 12 2 16 40 


11 50 


3 26 


2 18 


19 


6 52 20 49 20 58 


11 24 


4 45 


1 30 


2 15 12 4 16 19 


11 52 


3 10 


1 58 


^ 


25 

1 


7 20 
7 53 


20 30 
19 43 


21 3 


11 38 


3 11 
I 21 


1 22 


2 15 


12 4 
12 I 


15 57 


11 55 


253 

2:« 


1 39 




21 12 


11 55 


1 13 


2 15 


15 31 


11 58 


1 16 


^ 


7 


8 21 


18 42 21 191 


12 9 


15 


1 6 


2 14 11 56 15 9 


12 


2 16 


57 


s 


13 


8 60 17 22 21 2t> 


12 23 


1 51 


0^59 


2 13 11 48 14 46 


12 3 


1 58 


3H 




19 


9 18|15 45 21 33 


12 38 


3 26 


51 


2 11 11 39 14 23 


12 6 


1 41 


19 


25 

1 


9 40 
10 14 


13 51 
11 42 


21 39 


12 52 


5 2 

6 37 


44 


2 9 


11 27 
11 14 


13 59 


12 8 


1 23 


1 


fci 


21 45 


13 7 


037 


2 7 


13 35 


12 11 


1 6 


Zi'M 


1 


7 


10 41 


9 20 21 51 


13 22 


8 10 


30 


2 4 11 13 11 


12 14 


48 23 19 


1 


13 


11 9 


6 43 21 56 


13 37 


9 43 


23 


2 no 44 12 46 


12 17 


3123 


19 


11 36 


4 8 22 1 


13 52 


11 13 


16 


1 58 10 27 12 20.12 19 


15 22 40 


25 

1 


12 3 
12 35 


1 21 
1 57 


Zi 5 


14 8 


12 41 
14 19 


9 


1 55 


10 11 


11 51 


12 22 


122 20 




22 10 


14 26 


1 


1 52 


9 52ill a 


12 25 


19 21 66 


i 


7 


13 2 


4 48 22 13 


14 43 


15 40 


23 5a 


1 49 


9 36 10 57 


12 27 


34 21 34 


13 


13 30 


7 36 22 17 


14 59 


16 57 


23 44 


1 46 


9 22 10 30 12 29 


47,21 13 


o 


19 


13 58 


10 13M 20 


15 16 


18 9 


23 36 


1 43 


9 9;iO 3|l2 32 


1 03060 


ift 


25 

1 


14 27 
14 66 


12 53 


22 23 


15 33 


19 15 


2;i2H 


1 41 


859 
860 


936 


12 34 


1 12 
1 23 


20 36 




15 17 


22 27 


15 51 


20 17 


23 20 


1 40 


9 8 


12 36 


S9 8 


d 


7 


15 25 


17 28122 31 


16 9 


21 11 


23 12 


1 38 


8 46 


8 41 


12 37 


1 32119 38 


s 


13 


15 57 


19 21 


22 35 


16 27 


21 59 


23 4 


1 37 


8 42 


6 14 


12 39 


1 40 


19 13 


o 


19 


16 28 


20 56 


22 40 


16 46 


29 40 


22 56 


1 37 


8 41 


7 47 


12 40 


1 47 


19 48 


• 


» 


17 


m 8 


23 45 


117 6 


23 13 


2S4^ 


1 37 


8il 


730 


12 41 


1 68 


u)a 



TABLE YIL for 183& 





1 










» . 




« 


" 


OL 


( 


<• 






VKHDI. 


mAMM, 


lupm 


DATUKK 


R.a» 


Dec> Pub 


R. as- 


Dec-iPaas 


a.a»-il>ec- 


Pass 


R.aa-i1>ec-l P^ui 


cea- 


lioa- Her. 


cen- 


Una- 


Her. 


cea- liaa- 


Mer. 


cen- 


Itnar JK-sr. 


Moa. 
h. m. 


lion. 
' 


1 


sion. 


tiuD. 




sion. Uoo. 




SkJU. 


tioe. 1 






h. m. 


1. m. 


' 


h. m. 


h. m. 


' 


h. m. 


h. m. 


h. JL 


^ 


1 20 IS 


21 17 1 37 


19 31 


21 6 


23 49 


6 48 23 4'12 5 


14 9! 10 31 :? 25 


fr 


6 20 38120 8 1 42 


18 44 


23 56 


23 47 


6 45 23 7,11 47 


14 10 (0 35 19 11 


B ;iO 21 4118 29 1 4H 


19 1 


23 36 


23 44 


642 23 IIJU 21 


14 11 10 4l!ld 52 


fi ; 16 21 291 16 37 1 63 
^ , 1» 21 53; 14 33 1 68 


19 17 


23 n 


23 41 


6 40 23 14 11 2|14 12 10 45 l^ 34 


19 31 


22 39 


2J3S 


6 37 23 17 10 40|l4 13 10 4S,I/< 16 




26 22 17 
1 22 GO 


12 20 2 2 
9 2 7 


19 SO 


22 1 


23 35 


635 
6^ 


23 20 10 !~"* Z\ 

' r ' 


17 66 




20 13 


20 57 


23 3tl 


23 23 9 47 


14 15 {10 53 17 29 


1% 


6 23 8 


7 12 9 


fl)26 


20 16 


23 27 


6 30 23 25; 9 30 


14 l5 


10 53 17 U 


S ; 10 23 30 


4 27 2 12 


20 43 


19 19 


23 23 


6 es 23 27; 9 8 


14 15 


10 53 H 54 


i I 16 23 &t 


1 61 2 14 


Hi 68 


18 17 


23 20 


6 27 23 23, 8 48 


14 15 


10 52 16 35 


S 20 


15 


46 2 17 


il 14 


17 10 


23 16 


6 -26 23 29, 8 27 


14 15 


10 50 16 15 


h 


25 
1 


037 
059 


323 
569 


2 19 


21 3(> 


15 58 
14 42 


23 11 


6 26 23 30 

J 


8 7 


14 16 

• 


10 47 15 56 




2 21 


21 45 


23 7 


6 26 23 31 


7 47 


14 15 


10 44 15 3S 


1 


6 


1 16 


8 1 2231 


21 57 


13 39 


23 4 


6 26 23 31 


7 32 


14 14 


10 41 15 18 


10 


1 38 10 30 2 26 


22 13 


12 17 


22 69 


6 26 23 31 


7 12 


14 13 


10 36 14 58 


16 


2 1 12 62 2 23 


22 28 


10 63 


22 61 


6 27 23 31 


6 5i 


14 13 


10 30 14 38 


20 


2 23 15 8 2 31 


23 42 


92> 


22 49 


6 28 23 31 


635 


14 12 


10 21 14 17 




26 


2 46 


17 14 

19 64 


234 

1 


22 57 


7 66 


22 44 


6 29 23 30 6 17 


14 10 


10 13 


13 56 

1 

13 27 




1 


3 18 


239 


23 17 


5 49 


22 37 


6 32 23 49 6 52 


14 9 


10 8 


1 


6 


3 37 21 15 2 42 


23 29 


431 


22 33 


6 34 -23 23, 6 3S 


14 8 


10 2 13 10 


10 


4 1 22 44 2 46 


^ 43 


3 1 


22 27 


6 36 23 26, 5 20 


14 6 


9 M 12 49 


16 


4 25 21 2 50 


23 57 


1 27 


22 22 


6 39 23 24, 6 3 


14 5 


9 46 12 28 


^ 


20 


4 49 25 


254 


12 


6 


22 16 


6 42 '23 22, 4 47 


14 3 


9 38 12 7 




26 
T 


6 13 25 45 


269 


026 


1 39 
330 


22 U 


6 45 


23 19 
23 15 


430 


14 2 


9 31 


11 46 
11 29 




6 41 


26 19 


3 3 


43 


22 4 


6 49 


4 10 


14 


9 22 




6 


6 0'26 28 


3 6 


064 


4 43 


21 59 


662 23 11 


3 58 


13 69 


9 16 11 4 


fr 


10 


6 22 26 27 


3 9 


1 8 


6 12 


21 64 


6 65,23 7 


3 42 


13 58 


9 9 10 43 


i 


16 


6 44 25 10 


3 11 


I 22 


7 40 


21 48 


6 6923 2 


326 


13 66 


9 2 10 22 


20 


7 6 25 40 


3 13 


1 36 


9 6 


21 43 


7 3 


22 67 


3 10 


13 65 


8 66 10 1 




26 

T 


725 
7 6i 


24 68 
23 41 


3 13 


1 50 


10 28 


21 37 

21 29 


7 7 
7 13 


22 61 


264 


13 54 


8 61 


940 




3 11 


2 10 


12 19 


22 41 


233 


13 53 


8 45 


9 11 


J 


6 


8 4 22 49 


3 8 


222 


13 20 


21 25 


7 17 


22 35 


2 21 


13 52 


9 42 


856 


10 


8 19 21 39 


332 


2 36 


i4 32 


21 20 


7 21 


22 27 


2 5 


13 51 


8 39 


834 


16 


8 31,20 25 


2 50 


250 


15 41 


21 14 


7 26 22 19 


1 5(> 


13 51 


837 


8 14 


^ 


ao 


8 41 19 9 


2 4^ 
2 341 


3 6 


16 46 


21 9 


7 30;22 9 


1 35 


13 51 


8 36 


764 




86 


845 


17 64] 


3 191 


17 47 


21 d 


7 351 


22 01 


lao 


13 6a 


836 


731 



TABL& VII. for 1836— Gontinaed. 



1 


rf 


Vamn. 


Mau. 


JUPITBB. 


Sattiui. 


R.a8-| DeC' 


Pass 


R.a» 


• Dec 


• Paaa 


R.a8-| Dcc-iPasa 


R.as- 


Dec-i Pass 


IS* 


cen-,Iina- 


Mer. 


cen 


- lina- 


Mer. 


cen 


■ lina- 


Mer 


cen- 


Una- 


Mer 


^ 


2 


sion 


tlOQ. 
O ' 




Bion 


tioa. 




axon 


. tion. 




sion. 


tioQ. 






h. in. 


h. m. 


h. in 


O ' 


h. m 


\\. m 


' 


f m. 


111. in. 


' 


h. m. 




I 


8 53' 16 29 


2 14 


3 37 18 64 


20 5e 


7 40!21 471 1 413 5(j 


836 


7 10 


% 


5 


3 52 15 39 


1 58 


3 48 19 35i20 53 


7 44 


21 381 K113 50 


8 38 


6 66 


10 


8 48> 14 44 


1 34 


4 3 20 22 20 48 


7 4S 


1 21 2; 


' 3« 


13 50 


8 40 


6 35 


•? 


15 


8 40: 14 2 


1 7 


4 18 21 4!20 43 


7 54 


21 IS 


» 02U 


13 50 


8 43 


6 16 




20 


8 29 13 35 


036 


4 3:^ 


!2l 41:20 38 


7 58 21 a 


t 5 


13 51 


8 47 


6 67 




25 
1 


8 17 


13 21 


2i 


4 47 


'22 13 
28 50 


20 33 


8 320 5G 


23 47 


13 51 8 62 


538 




.7 59: 13 24 


23 12 


6 7 


20 26 


8 9 20 31 


23 26 


13 52 


9 


6 U 


t^ 


5 


7 51 13 35 22 49 


5 19 


23 61 -20 22 


8 13120 20 


23 14 


13 53 


9 6 


4 56 


10 


7 44,13 54 


22 21 


533 


23 22 "20 16 


8 18 


20 6*22 59 


13 54 


9 13 


4 38 


15 


7 4l|l4 16 


22 2 


5 47 


-23 33 20 11 


8 22119 52 22 44 


13 54 


9 20 


4 19 


< 


20 


7 43; 14 38 


22 44 


6 1 


23 40 20' 5 


8 21 


19 37 


22 28 


13 57 


9 29 


4 ] 




25 

1 


7 48 

8 


14 53 

15 14 


21 3U 


6 15 


23 42 


19 59 


8 31 


19 22 


'22 13 


13 58 


9 38 


3 43 


c 


21 16 


635 


23 37 


19 51 


837 


19 2 


21 51 


14 


9 51 


3 17 


1 


5 


8 10 15 17 


21 10 


6 45 


23 31 


19 m 


8 40 


18 50 


21 39 


14 2 


10 U 


3 3 


10 


8 23; 15 11 


21 4 


6 59 


•23 19 


19 40 


8 44 


18 35 


21 23 


14 4 


10 10 


2 45 


0) 


15 


8 39 U 51 


21 


7 12 


23 4 


19 33 


8 48 


18 21 


21 7 


14 6 


10 21 


227 


(L 


20 


8 55 14 26 20 57| 


7 25 


22 46 


19 26 


8 52 


18 7 


'20 51 


14 7 


10 3;? 


2 10 


w 


1 


9 13 13 46 


20 56 


7 37 


ii 25 
21 55 


19 IS 
19 10 


855 
9 


17 62 
17 37 


20 35 


14 9 


10 44 

10 58 


1 62 




9 36 12 41 


20 55 


7 52 


20 10 


14 12 


131 


*: 


5 


9 52 U 49 20 551 


8 1 


21 34 


19 3 


9 2 


17 20 


20 3 


11 14 


11 7 


1 17 


x> 


10 


10 12 10 3:3120 55| 


8 13 


21 6 


18 55 


9 6 


17 14 19 46|t4 16|11 19 


059 


o 


15 


10 32 


96 


20 56 


824 


20 36 


18 46 


9 8 


17 2 


19 29 14 131 11 311 


42 


o 
O 


20 


10 52 


7 30 20 571 


8 35 


20 6 


18 37 


9 11 


16 51 


19 12 


14 20 


11 43 


026 




25 


11 13 


5 46 
3 7 


20 58 


8 45 


19 35 


18 28 


9 13 


16 41 
16 29 


18 65 


14 23 


11 55 

12 11 


7 


,• 


1 


11 43 


21 


859 


18 51 


18 14 


9 16 


18 30 


14 26 


2339 


o 


5 


12 


1 31 


21 I 


9 6 


18 26 


18 5 


9 18 


16 23 


18 16 


14 28 


12 20 23 26 


.a 
c 


10 


12 21 


Oa3 21 31 


9 15 


17 56 


17 M 


9 19 


16 17 


17 6)= 


14 30 


12 32 


23 8 


« 


15 


12 43 


2 40 21 6| 


9 23 


17 27 


17 43 


9 21 


16 12 


17 40 


14 33 


12 43 


22 51 


s 


20 


13 5 


4 48 21 71 


9 31 


17 


17 31 


9 22 


16 8 


17 21 


14 35 12 66 


22 38 


2 


25 


13 27 


6 67!' 


21 101 


937 


16 37 


17 18 9 23 


16 6 


17 a 


14 37 


13 4 


22 16 


»: 


UI354I9 28' 


21 131 


9 45 


16 12 


17 I 9 23 


16 5 


16 39 


14 40 13 16 


21 55 


o 


5 14 13 11 7 21 16 


9 49 


15 59 16 50 9 2lil6 6| 


16 23 


14 41 13 24 


21 41 


1 


10 11 3(M3 5 21 20 


9 54 


15 47 16 35 


9 23116 8 16 3 


14 44 13 3.^ 21 24 


15 1 15 14 57 21 24 


9 57 


15 39 16 18 


9 22; 16 12: 16 13 


14 46 13 42 21 6 




20 115 24 16 41 21 29 10 Ol 


15 38 16 1 


9 22,16 17i 


15 22J 


14 43 13 50 20 4? 


25. 


16 491 


18 13.2 


21 34£ 


10 11 


iS42l 


15 431 


9 20] 


16 941 


16 H 


14 49 


13 581 


20 3C 





TABLE ym. 


1 






TABLE OL 




To change degrees, 


minutes, uiq 


Tc 


t change hours, minutes, acd 


seconds of ihe equator, or ol 


seconds, of sidereal time, into 


right ascension, into hours, mi- 


degrees, minuies, and seconds, 


fiiiies, and seconds, of sidereal 


of the equator, or right ascen- 


time. 


1 


L.OU. 


Dec 


KK 


m 


H. 


M. 


1 


S 9 


e 


i 


MIn. 


D. M. MIn. 


D. M. 


ih: 


M. M. 


M. 


8. 


M 


§ •£ 




M 


Sec- 


M. S. 


cMSC* 


Al. 9. 


Sec. 


8. Th. 


Sec. 
31 


S.T1L 


"to 


ss 


X 


^ 


Th. 

1 


S. Th. 


Th. 


8. Th. 


1 


4 


2 


4 


4 40 


1 


15 


15 


31 


7 45 


d 


8 


32 


2 


8 


80 


5 20 


2 


30 


2 


30 


32 


8 


3 


12 


33 


2 


12 


90 


6 


3 


45 


3 


45 


33 


6 15 


4 


16 


34 


2 


16 


100 


6 40 


4 


60 


4 


1 


34 


8 30 


5 


20 


35 
36 


2 


20 


110 
120 


7 20 


5 


75 
90 


5 
6 


1 15 


35 


8 45 


6 


24 


2 


24 


8 


6 


1 30 


36 


9 


7 


28 


37 


2 


28 130 


8 40 


7 


105 


7 


1 45 


37 


9 15 


8 


32 


38 


2 


32 


140 


9 2d 


ft 


120 


8 


2 


38 


9 30 


9 


36 


39 


2 


36 


150 


10 


9 


135 


9 


2 15 


39 


9 45 


10 


40 


40 


2 


40 


160 

no 


10 40 


10 


150 


10 
11 


2 30 


40 
41 


10 


11 


44 


41 


2 


44 


11 20 


11 


165 


2 45 


10 15 


12 


48 


42 


2 


48 


180 


12 


12 


180 


12 


3 


42 


10 30 


13 


52 


43 


2 


52 


190 


12 40 


13 


195 


13 


3 15 


43 


It) 45 


14 


56 


44 


2 


56 


200!l3 20 


14 


210 


14 


3 30 


44 


11 


15 


1 


45 


3 





210 
220 


14 


15 


225 


15 
16 


3 45 


45 
46 


11 15 


16 


1 4 


46 


3 


4 


14 40 


16 


240 


4 


11 30 


17 


1 8 


47 


3 


8 


230115 20 


17 


255 


17 


4 15 


47 


11 45 


18 


1 12 


48 


3 


12 


240 16 (i 


18 


270 


18 


4 30 


48 


12 


19 


1 16 


49 


3 


16 


2501 16 40 


19 


285 


19 


4 45 


49 


12 15 


SO 


1 20 


50 
51 


3 


20 


260 
270 


17 20 


20 


300 


20 
21 


5 


50 
51 


12 30 


21 


1 24 


3 


24 


18 


21 


315 


5 15 


12 45 


22 


1 28 


52 


3 


28 


28018 40 


22 


330 


22 


5 30 


52 


13 


23 


1 32 


53 


3 


32 


290,19 20 


23 


345 


23 


5 45 


53 


13 15 


24 


1 36 


54 


3 


36 


:w)o;2o 


24 


360 


24 


6 


54 


13 30 


25 


1 40 


55 
56 


3 


40 


310 

320 


20 40!25 


375 

390 


25 


6 15 


55 


13 45 


26 


1 44 


3 


44 


•21 90 26 


6 30 


56 


14 


27 


1 4(5 


57 


3 


4H 


330 22 0;27 


405 


6 45 


57 


14 15 


28 


1 52 


58 


3 


52 


340 22 40 28 


420 


28 


7 


58 


14 30 


29 


1 56 


59 


3 


561350 23 20129 


435 


29 


7 15 


59 


14 45 


bo 


"^ 


60 


4 





36(1 


124 


m 


450 


30 


730 


60 


15 



TABLE X. 

Showing how many miles make a degree of Ion- 
ptude, in every degree of latitude. 



LitL 

"T 
2 
3 

4 
t. 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
2fi 

ar 



Miles, 
^99 

59.92 

59.85 

59.77 

59.67 

69.55 

59.42 

59.26 

59.09 

5S.S9 

58.69 

53.46 

5S.ia 

57.95 

B7.67 

67.38 

57.06 

56 73 

56. :« 

56.01 

55.63 

55.23 

&1.8I 

I54.:« 

i 53.93 

^53.46 

\ 62.97 

, 62.43 

'51.96 



Ens. 


Ocfi. 


Miles. 


Lat 


69()6 


31 


69 03 


32 


68.97 


33 


68.90 


34 


68.81 


35 


68.62 


36 


68.48 


37 


6S.3I 


3S 


68.15 


39 


67.95 


40 


67.73 


41 


67 48 


42 


67.21 


43 


66.95 


44 


66.65 


45 


66.31 


46 


65:98 


47 


65 62 


43 


65.24 


49 


6.1.81 


50 


6-142 


61 


6LV97 


52 


6:{51 


53 


6;J.UJ 


54 


62.53 


55 


62.02 


66 


61 43 


57 


6093 


53 


60.35 


59 


69.75 


60 



Geo. 
Miles. 

61.43 
50.88 
50.32 
49.74 
49. 15 
48.54 
47.92 
47.28 
46.6:) 
45.96 
45.28 
44 59 
43 88 
43.16 
42.43 
41.68 
40.92 
40.15 
39.36 

as.57 

37 76 
36.94 
36.11 
36.27 
3-1.41 
33.53 
32.tJ8 
31.79 
30.90 
30.00 



Eng. 


Hog. 


Geo. 


Miles 


UU 


Miles 


69.13 


61 


29.09 


68.51 


62 


28.17 


57.87 


63 


27rM 


67.20 


W 


26.30 


66.51 


65 


25.3^3 


55.81 


66 


24.40 


5o.iO 


67 


23.45 


W.37 


68 


ZiAS 


63.62 


69 


21.50 


52.85 


70 


20.52 


52.07 


71 


19.53 


51.27 


72 


18.64 


50.46 


73 


i7.&l 


49.63 


74 


16.64 


48.78 


76 


15.53 


47.93 


76 


14.52 


47.06 


77 


13.50 


46.16 


78 


12.48 


46.26 


79 


11.45 


44.35 


80 


10.42 


43.42 


81 


9.38 


42.48 


82 


8.35 


41.5.3 


83 


7.31 


40.56 


84 


6.27 


39.53 


85 


5.22 


33 58 


86 


4.18 


37.58 


87 


3.14 


36.57 


88 


2.09 


35.54 


89 


1.03 


34.60 


90 


000 



Eng. 
Allies 



3;i.45 

32.40 

31.33 

30.24 

29 15 

28.06 

26.96 

25.35 

24.73 

23.60 

22.47 

21.32 

20.17 

19.02 

17.86 

16.70 

15.52 

14.35 

13.17 

11.93 

10.79 

969 

8-41 

7.21 

6.00 

4.81 

361 

2.41 

121 

0.00 



TABLE XL 

Of the Ciimates be- 
tween the Equator 
and ihe Polar Cir- 
cles. 



d. m. 

1 831 

2 1644 

3 2412 

4 3048 

5 J3631 

6 4124 

7 14532 

8 49 2 

9 '6159 

10 J&4 30 

11 15638 

12 ;5S'2r 

13 5959 

14 61 13 

15 6226 

16 6322 

17 |64 10 

18 16450 

19 16522 

20 6548 



21 
22 
23 
24 



66 6 
6621 
6629 
66321 



re the 
;est 
is. 




h. m. 


(1. m. 


12 30 


8 31 


13 00 


8 10 


13 30 


7 28 


14 00 


6 36 


14 Ik) 


5 43 


15 00 


453 


15 30 


4 8 


16 00 


330 


16 30 


257 


17 00 


231 


17 30 


•2 8 


13 00 


149 


IS 30 


132 


19 00 


1 19 


19 30 


1 8 


20 W) 


56 


20 30 


48 


21 (10 


43 


21 30 


32 


22 00 


26 


22 30 


17 


2:hk) 


16 


23 30 


3 


iUOO 


a 



TABLE XII. 

Of the Climates between the Polar Circles and the Poles. 



C11 
aaates. 



25 
90 
27 



Ends in i,>„„«-. 



LaL 



d m. 
67 18 
69 30 
73 6 



longest 
day is. 



d. m. 
30orl. 
60 2. 
90 3. 



Breadths 

of the 
Climales. 



2 
3 



ra. 
46 
15 
32 



Cli- 
mates. 



28 
29 
30 



Ends In 
LaL 



d. m. 
77 40 
82 60 
90 00 



Where the 
hingust 
day is. 



d. m. 
120 or 4 
150 6 
180 e 



Breadths 

of th« 
Climales. 



d. m. 

4 86 

6 19 

7 A 



9b» 



TABLE XIIL 

Showing the Latitude and Loni^itude of some of the pnndpal plaoes m 
the United Status, dSic., with their Distance Sroai tlie city of Wash- 
mgton. 

TTu LongUudti arc rtckoned from GremtoicfL 

T%8 Q^pttei* {uaU qf GovemmtrU) qf the Stoics and TerritoricM are 

designated by Ilalk IcUtrs, 



if Zftony (CapitoIX . . • 
AlcxBfulna, • . • . 
AnnupoliSi • . • . 
Auburn, .... 

Augusta^ 

AufftMta fState ffonseX 
llattiiii>>re (Itattic Monument)^ 
Baiiitor (Court I louse X • • 
BftruKtable (UM Court IlouaeX 
BatHvia, • • . . 

Beaiilort, • 

BM/on (State IlouseX • 

Briittot (IIoiol) 

BnK)klyn (Navy Yard^ . 
Bniiii<wtck (College), . . 

rufnuo, ..... 

Oaiiii>ri(lge (Harvard IlallX 
Cant' ion, .... 
Caiiaiitlai^ia, .... 
Capr (;«h| (U'^ht-TToilseX • 
Oiiirieaioii (Collc{;c). 
Charlpdiown (Navy Yard)^ . 
CiiiciiinHtt, .... 
ColumfnOf .... 
CoiunifnuSf .... 
Conoid (Blate TToufloX 
Dt><lhaiii^Court Ilouee]^ . . 
D'.troiL .... 
DtmaldsonvUle^ . 
D<irchcster (Ast Observatory^ 
UortTy .... 

Dovor, 

Ea.>«ion (Court Ilouse) 
£aKt|u>rt| ..... 
Eilonton, . . • • 
Exptor, ..... 
Prankforty .... 
Frodcricksbuiii • • • 
Pretlerickionf . • . 
Fre/lerickstown, • • . 
Georgetown, . • « • 
Gloucester, . • . . 
Greenfield, • • • • 
JIagera'tWii, .... 
CsNki, .... 





Latitude 


liongUude, West, 


Dist from 




Nortli. 


in degrees. 


in Uiue. 


Waslio. 




O f ft 


O ' " 


h.m. s. 


miles. 


N. Y.42 39 8 


73 44 49 


4 54 59.3 


376 


D. C. as 49 


77 4 


5 8 16 


6 


Md. 39 


76 43 


5 6 52 


37 


N. Y. 42 65 


76 28 


5 562 


339 


Ga. ,33 23 


81 54 


527 36 


680 


Me. 144 18 43 


69 60 


4 39 20 


G95 


Md. 


39 17 13 


76 37 60 


5 6 31.3 


38 


Mc. 


44 47 60 


68 47 


4 35 8 


661 


•Alass. 41 42 9 


70 16 


4 41 4 


466 


N. Y. 42 69 


78 13 


5 12 62 


370 


S. C. 32 25 


80 41 


5 22 44 


629 


Mass. 42 21 15 


71 4 9 


4 44 16.6 


432 


R. 1. 41 39 58 


71 19 


4 45 36 


409 


N. Y. 40 41 60 


73 69 30 


4 55 58 


227 


Me. 43 63 


G9 66 I 


4 39 40.1 


668 


NY. 42 53 


78 55 


5 15 40 


370 


.Ma.^s.42 22 15 


71 7 25 


4 44 29.7 


431 


S. C. !34 17 


80 30 


5 22 12 


467 


N Y. 


42 51 


77 ir 


5 9 8 


336 


Ma.ss. 


42 2 16 


70 4 


4 40 16 


607 


B.C. 


32 47 


80 52 


5 20 3.5 


544 


Masa. 


42 22 


71 3 33 


4 44 14.2 


433 


Oiiio. 


39 6 


81 22 


6 37 28 


497 


8. C. 


33 57 


81 7 


5 24 28 


600 


Ohio. 


39 47 


83 3 


6 32 12 


396 


N. II. 


43 12 29 


71 29 


4 45 56 


474 


Mass. 


42 16 


71 11 


4 44 44 


422 


Mich. 


42 24 


82 53 


5 31 52 


626 


Ia. 


30 3 


91 2 


6 4 8 


1278 


Mass 


42 19 15 


71 4 15 


4 44 17 


432 


Del. 


39 10 


75 30 


6 2 


114 


N. II. 


43 13 


70 54 


4 43 36 


490 


Md. 


38 46 10 


76 8 


5 4 32 


80 


Me. 


44 54 


66 56 


4 27 44 


778 


N. C. 


36 


77 7 


5 28 28 


284 


N.II. 


42 58 


70 55 


4 43 40 


474 


Ky. 


38 14 


84 40 


5 38 40 


651 


vi 


38 34 


77 38 


5 10 32 


^ 


N B. 


46 3 


66 45 


4 27 




Md. 


39 24 


77 18 


6 9 12 


43 


S. C. 


33 21 


79 17 


5 17 8 


482 


Mass. 


42 36 


70 40 


4 42 40 


462 


Mass. 


42 37 


72 36 


4 60 24 


»6 


Md. 


39 37 


77 35 


5 10 20 


68 


N. & 


44 39 20 


63 36 40 


4 14 27 


996 



TABLE XIIL-Ocmtiiuttd. 



HaDoweH, Me. 

I/arriahurgh, , , , Pa. 

Hart/ordt Conn. 

Iluilson, . * . . NY. 

liunisville, • • ^ t Ala. 

IndianapoUSf • • • huL 

JackaoUy M'pi. 

JeffeT»on^ , . . . M'ri. 

Kennebunki • . • • Me. 

Kingston, . . • • U. C. 

Knoxvillei . # • • Tcnn. 

Lancaster, .... Pa. 

Lcxini;iun, • • • . Ky. 

ZaUU Roekf . . . Ark. 

IjOck|K}rt, . . , . , N. Y. 

Louisville, .... Ky. 

Lowell (riL Ann'i Charch)^ . Mass. 

Lynchburgh, . . . Va. 

Lynn, . • « • . Mass. 

3lari)lcheac]| . • . Mass. 

MiiMlelown, . • • . Conn. 

MilledgeviUOt . • . Ga. 

Mobile, . • - . • Ala. 

Monlpelier, . . . . Vt. 

Monoinov Point Light, . . Maas. 

Montreal, . . • • L. G. 

Nantucket (Town IlallX • • Mass. 

Nashvillt^ .... Tenn. 

Natchez (Castle)^ . . . M'pi. 

Newark, . . . • N. J. 

New UeUford (Bfarlnen*. Ch.)^ Mass. 

Newbern. . • • . N. C. 

Newburgn, . . . . N. Y. 

Ncwburyport (2d Prei. C1|.X Mass. 

Newcastle, .... Del 

iV«te//aven(CoI]«geX> • Conn. 

New London, .... Conn. 

New Orleans (CItyX . . La. 

Nettpurty R. L 

New York (City Kail), . . N. Y. 

Norfolk (Fanner's Banlr)^ . Va. 
Northampton (Mansioa llooaeX Mass. 

Norwich. Conn. 

Pensacon, . • j • Fa. 

Petersbunh, .... Va. 
Philadelphia (Independence H.X Pa. 
Pittsbursh, . . .Pa. 

Pittsfield, (Ist CoDf . ChurehX Mass. 

Platuburgh, . . . • N. Y. 

Plymoatlx f Court noQM> • Blass. 

Portland (Town IloaseX • * Me. 

Portsmouth (Cooirt IIoiiM)^ N. H. 

Ponghkeepele, • • N. Y. 

PruueUMH • N. 1. 



latitude 


Longitude, West, 


inst Trom 


NorUi. 


in degrees. 


in tiiue. 


Wash'n 


O ' /' 


h.ni. s. 


utiles. 


44 17 


69 50 


4 39 30 


593 


40 1$ 


76 50 


6 7 20 


110 


41 46 


72 60 


4 51 20 


333 


42 14 


73 46 


4 55 4 


315 


34 36 


86 67 


5 47 48 


726 


39 as 


86 5 


6 44 20 


573 


32 23 


90 8 


6 32 


1036 


38 36 


92 8 


6 832 


960 


43 25 


70 32 


4 42 8 


618 


44 8 


76 40 


6 6 40 


466 


35 59 


8364 ' 


5 35 36 


616 


40 2 36 


76 20 33 


6 5 22.2 


109 


33 6 


81 18 


5 37 12 


6d4 


ai 40 


92 12 


6 848 


1068 


43 11 


78 46 


6 15 4 


408 


33 3 


86 30 


6 42 


690 


42 38 45 


71 18 45 


4 45 15 


439 


37 36 


79 22 


5 17 28 


198 


42 28 


70 57 


4 43 48 


441 


42 30 


70 52 


4 43 28 


450 


41 34 


72 39 


4 50 36 


825 


33 7 


83 20 


6 33 20 


612 


30 40 


88 11 


5 52 44 


1033 


44 17 


72 36 


4 30 21 


624 


41 32 68 


70 1 31 


4 40 6.1 


600 


45 31 


73 35 


4 54 20 


601 


41 16 32 


70 7 42 


4 40 30.8 


600 


36 930 


86 49 3 


5 47 1C.;2 


714 


31 34 


91 21 42 


6 5 38.8 


1146 


40 45 


74 10 


4 66 40 


215 


41 38 7 


70 56 


4 43 44 


429 


35 20 


77 6 


6 820 


337 


41 31 


74 1 


4 56 4 


^83 


42 43 29 


70 52 


4 43 28 


466 


39 40 


75 33 


5 2 8 


^ 


41 17 68 


72 67 46 


4 61 51.1 


41 22 


72 9 


4 48 36 


' 354 


29 67 45 


90 6 49 


6 27.3 


1203 


41 29 


71 21 14 


4 45 24.9 


403 


40 42 40 


74 I 8 


4 56 4.6 


226 


36 60 50 


76 18 47 


6 6 15.1 


217 


42 18 55 


72 40 


4 50 40 


376 , 


41 ») 


72 7 


4 48 28 


362 


30 28 


87 12 


6 48 48 


1060 


37 13 64 


77 !» 


5 920 


144 


39 66 69 


75 10 69 


6 43.9 


136 


40 32 


30 8 


6 20 32 


223 


42 26 60 


73 17 30 


4 63 10 


880 


44 42 


7326 


4 63 44 


639 


41 67 12 


70 42 30 


4 42 60 


iS9 


43 39 26 


70 20 30 


4 4122 ^ 


t "? 


43 4 64 


70 46 


4 43 


491 


41 41 


73 66 


4 66 40 


301 


10 28 


7ia6 


48820 


U7 



TABLE XHL-Ccatmued. 



-* 




ijUOtn^ 


Tx>n(rituH«, Weet, 


Dist froiB 






Noith. 


In <icgrccs. 


in lime. 


Waslrn. 




Q t ff 


O ' " 


li.in. 8. 


juil'^s. 


i'TTViOenee (Old GoLX . 


. R. I. 


41 49 25 


71 25 56 


4 45 43.7 


391 


Quctioc ((Ja«lii))^ 


. L. C. 


40 47 17 


70 56 31 


4 13 40.1 


781 


JCateigh^ . . , . 


. . N. C. 


:» 47 


78 48 


5 15 12 


Ve& 


Jtichmtmd (OpUolX . 


. Va. ' 


37 32 17 


77 26 28 


5 9 199 


|s£2 


Uocltet«u>r (K'r iiouaeX 


. . N. y. 


43 8 17 


77 61 


5 11 21 


3C1 


fiSulile (('at>e\ . . 
liRckeii'ii liar boar, . 


. Fa. 


til 50 


61 15 


5 25 




N. Y. 


43 55 


75 57 


5 3 43 


\m 


841(*«l, . . • • 


. Me. 


43 31 


70 26 


4 41 44 


628 


8i. AiiBiisUne, . 


• . Fa. 


■^i 4^30 


61 35 


6 26 20 


841 


B( l^t\»^ 


. M'ri. 


38 3G 


89 36 


558 24 


856 


GalciiKB. l.M.naUX 


. . Ma:M. 


42 31 19 


70 M 


4 43 36 


446 


Siivaiiiiali, . . • 


. Ga. 


32 2 


61 3 


5 2t 12 


6G2 


Hclu'iK'ciaily. . 
PnniitffiL'hl (Court IIohm 


. . NY. 


42 49 


73 55 


4 55 40 


391 


iX . Majia. 


42 5 58 


72 36 


4 50 24 


357 . 


7Vt//a/<«i«v«e, . 


. . Fa. 


30 23 


61 36 


5 3S 24 


696 


Titiiiiioii «^urt IIoomX 


Mass. 


41 M 9 


71 50 


4 44 20 


413 


Toroiiiu (VorkX 


. V.C, 


43 33 


79 '20 


5 17 i» 


600 


Trtmon, 


. . N.J. 


40 14 


74 39 


4 53 36 


166 


1Vi»3r, . . . 


. '. N. Y. 


42 44 


73 40 


4 51 40 


383 


TincaioMOf . 


Ala. 


33 12 


87 42 


5 50 48 


&'>3 


riiiv«r«iiy of \1ririnia, 


. . Va, 


38 2 3, 


78 31 29 


5 14 5.9 


124 


lUica (Oiiich CUurehX 


. N. Y 


43 G ki 


75tl3 


5 52 


383 


VutuUtUot 


. 11. 


M 50 


89 2 


5 56 8 


781 


Vevay, .... 


. Ind 


38 46 , 


84 59 


6 39 56 


S56 


Viiiccnnea, 


. Inci. 


38 43 


87 25 


5 49 40 


IG93 


VV A H II 1 NOTOii, (CapltolX 


. 1). C. 


38 52 54 


77 1 48 


5 8 7.2 




WdKUiiigion, . . 


. . M'pi. 


31 36 


01 20 


6 5 20 


HC 


Wliufilini;, . . • 


. Va. 


40 7 


80 \% 


6 '^48 


264 


WilmiiiMtonf 


. Del. 


39 41 


75 23 


5 1 52 


108 


Wiliuiii^ton, . . • 


N. C. 


ai II 


78 10 


5 12 40 


416 


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42 16 9 


71 49 


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70 40 


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76 40 


6 6 40 


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