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A GUIDE
TO
SYSTEMATIC READINGS
IN THE
Encyclopedia Britannica
NEW AND REVISED EDITION
BY
JAMES BALDWIN, PH.D.
Author of" The Book Lover" " The Book of Elegies"
" The Story of Siegfried" etc.
THE WERNER COMPANY
CHICAGO NEW YORK
1900
6151.26
COPYRIGHT, l8qc, BY
The Werner Company
copyright, 1s97, by
The Werner Company
QUIDK TO liKITANNiCA
PREFACE.
ALTHOUGH the Encyclopedia Britannica has long been
recognized as the greatest of reference works, and al-
though its possessors may have never consulted it without
complete satisfaction, yet its full value has seldom been
recognized. It has usually been regarded simply as a re-
pository of general information, to be kept ready at hand
for consultation as occasion should demand. But while
this is the ordinary use of the Britannica, it has been
found that it possesses a broader function, and that it may
be utilized in such manner as to perform the office of a
great educational agent. The Britannica is a work of
reference, and much more :%it is a collection of all histo-
ries, all biographies, all arts, all literatures, and all scien-
tific, professional, and mechanical knowledge ; but on
account of its comprehensiveness, extending as it does
through so many large volumes, it presents such an " em-
barrassment of riches " that those who consult it fail some-
times to discover all that is suited to their individual
needs. It is evident, therefore, that if each reader and
patron of this great library can have a guide to point out
to him, according to his vocation, the parts that are the
most helpful to him, he will be able to systematize his
reading or his investigations ; and thus, while economizing
3
4 PREFACE.
both time and labor, reach the highest results. The pres-
ent volume has been prepared for that purpose ; and it is
believed that, recognizing its helpfulness, the many thou-
sand owners of the Britannica will welcome it as an inval-
uable addition to their libraries. The plan has been to
direct each individual how to draw from this great store-
house of knowledge that which will cover with all desirable
completeness the line of work in which he is most inter-
ested, thus assisting him in the knowledge of his particular
business, and aiding him in its prosecution.
It being recognized that the Britannica contains a great
deal of interesting and profitable matter for boys and girls,
the first part of this GUIDE is directed to young people.
By the aid of brief but graphic text and copious references,
the youth is led along pleasant avenues of research, and
thus aided in acquiring a habit of reading and of investi-
gation that will continue through life, and add largely to
his chances of success.
The second part is especially designed for students.
The scholar who is desirous of some means whereby to
supplement the work of the school or the college, will find
here the very thing that he is seeking. The earnest, am-
bitious young man or young woman who is being self-edu-
cated, because unable to secure the aid of instructors, will
find here a teacher that will point the way to the acquire-
ment of a thorough knowledge of almost every branch of
science or art. Numerous courses of study are outlined,
which may be pursued independent of schools; many
profitable lines of research are suggested, and the best
PREFACE. 5
ways of obtaining a fund of general information are
pointed out.
The fact that fifty-two text-books used in our leading
colleges and universities have been drawn from the Britan-
nica emphasizes its value to students.
Through our excellent system of common schools, every
boy or girl in the land is furnished with the rudiments of
an education. But in the school, the child is only started
on the way ; the best that can be done is to provide him
with a few essentials, and give him some slight impetus
that will keep him moving on in the right direction. If
he continues his studies beyond the public schools, he may
be conducted a little farther — but it is only a little. No
one's education was ever finished in a university. We are
all, to a greater or less degree, self-educated. A great
deal of what the schools have foisted on us as knowledge
has proved to be worthless to us, and is allowed to drop
from our minds as soon as we are left to ourselves. The
better part of our education is that which we acquire
independently — through reading, through observation,
through intercourse with others — -an ever increasing stock
of what is called general information. It is the aim of
this GUIDE to help, not only students, but everybody else,
to gather this information in an orderly way, without
unnecessary expenditure of time and labor.
The third part of this volume is devoted to the busy
world at large. Its object is to help the busy man, no
matter what his business may be, to pick out from the
Encyclopedia Britannica just that kind of information that
6 PREFACE.
will be of the greatest value to him in his calling. There
is hardly a trade, industry, or profession in the civilized
world that is not noticed somewhere in this department.
A mere glance at the various chapters will indicate their
practical value.
On the whole, it is confidently believed that the plan of
using the Encyclopedia Britannica, as presented in this
GUIDE, will fill a gap and perform an important service in
our system of education. It should be a very material aid.
not only to those whose schooldays have been of limited
duration, and who wish to continue their studies without
the guidance of a teacher, but to people of every class
and condition in life — to students, merchants, farmers,
mechanics, housekeepers, and professional men of all sorts.
It should enable boys, girls, men, women, and whole fami-
lies to spend their leisure hours pleasantly and profitably
with the great Encyclopedia, thus realizing one of its
most important aims by making it the most powerful aid
to home culture or self-education that the world has ever
known.
PREFACE TO THE NEW AND REVISED
EDITION.
The publication of five new volumes of supplementary-
matter to the Encyclopedia Britannica not only furnishes
an opportunity for the revision and enlargement of this
GUIDE, but renders such a revision an absolute necessity.
Encouraged by the flattering reception accorded to the
first edition of these systematic readings, the compiler has
ventured to extend his original plan by the addition of
twelve new chapters, besides the insertion of many hun-
dreds of references not previously included in the work.
Some of the former readings have been entirely re-writ-
ten, and the chapters in the third division have been
arranged in more logical order. It is believed that, in
this revised edition of the GUIDE, there are but very few
divisions of human thought, or of human activity, which
have not received some attention. An examination of
the index at the end of the volume will reveal the compre-
hensive nature of its contents.
January, 1897.
Introduction,
CONTENTS.
PART I. THE YOUNG PEOPLE.
I. To the Boys and Girls,
II. Home Readings in History,
III. Home Readings in Biography,
IV. Home Readings in Science,
V. Games, Sports, and Pastimes,
PAGE
13
23
30
37
46
50
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
PART II. THE STUDENT.
Three Courses of Reading in History, . . 59
Five Courses of Reading in the History of Literature, 72
Readings in Philology and the History of Language, 85
90
96
Readings in Astronomy,
A General Course of Reading in Biology,
Readings in Zoology,
Readings in Botany,
Readings in Geography,
A Brief Course of Reading in Meteorology
Readings in Mathematics, .
Two Courses of Reading in Physics,
Readings in the Study of Man,
Readings in Philosophy,
Readings for Bible Students ,
108
1 12
127
130
135
141
148
156
IO
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
XX. Readings in Mythology, Legends, Traditions,
and Folk-Lore, .... 163
XXI. Readings in the Study of the Supernatural, . 170
XXII. The Desultory Reader's Course, . .175
PART III. THE BUS
Y WORLD.
XXIII.
The Manufacturer,
. 181
XXIV.
The Mechanic,
190
XXV.
The Machinist,
196
XXVI.
The Electrician.
201
XXVII.
The Inventor,
207
XXVIII.
The Architect, .
215
XXIX.
The Builder,
220
XXX.
The Engineer,
224
XXXI.
The Laborer,
228
XXXII.
The Farmer,
231
XXXIII.
The Gardener,
240
XXXIV.
The Fruit-Grovver,
244
XXXV.
The Woodsman,
247
XXXVI.
The Stock-Raiser,
251
XXXVII.
The Miner,
256
XXXVIII.
The Geologist, .
260
XXXIX.
The Seaman,
263
XL.
The Railroad-Man,
270
XLI.
The Soldier,
273
XLII.
The American Citizen,
281
XL11I.
The Candidate for Civil Service,
288
XLIV.
The Political Economist
3°7
CONTENTS.
II
CHAPTER
PACK
XL V.
The Banker and Financier,
311
XLVI.
The Merchant and Trader,
320
XL VI I.
The Insurance Agent, .
326
XLVIII.
The Lawyer, ....
329
XLIX.
The Magistrate and Policeman,
343
L.
The Physician, ....
346
LI.
The Apothecary,
356
LII.
The Chemist, ....
359
LIII.
The Mineralogist,
363
LIV.
The Preacher and Theologian,
366
LV.
The Philanthropist and Reformer,
381
LVI.
The Public Speaker,
388
LVII.
The Bookman, ....
392
LVIII.
The Teacher, ....
398
LIX.
The Writer, ....
410
LX.
The Stenographer and Typewriter,
421
LXI.
The Printer and the Publisher,
423
LXII.
The Journalist, ....
426
LXIII.
The Artist, ....
429
LX1V.
The Musician, ....
437
LXV.
The Actor and Dramatist,
441
LXVI.
The Home-Maker,
450
Index, .....
457
INTRODUCTION.
" It is ours — this Encyclopedia Britannica — and now
how shall we use it in order to derive the greatest possible
benefit from it?" This is probably the question which
more than one purchaser of the Britannica asks himself
as he removes the bright new volumes from their wrap-
pings, and contemplates his lately acquired possession.
Let us first arrange these thirty volumes side by side on
their shelf, and take a look at the work as a whole.
It is the greatest work of its kind in the world, every-
body says. In these volumes are the elements
What shall Qf a complete education in any branch of
with it? knowledge that you may choose. You cannot
mention a single subject about which men
think and talk, that does not receive its share of attention
somewhere in this wonderful work. It contains a rich
fund of information for everybody, from the school-boy
or school-girl to the most learned philosopher. It is val-
uable alike to the farmer and the merchant, to the me-
chanic and the professional man. Turn over the pages
of a single volume, and notice the great variety of articles,
some necessarily brief, others very long and comprehen-
sive. Notice the numerous illustrations, the maps, and
the fine full-page plates. See the list of famous specialists
and well-known writers who have helped to make this
volume. Surely, this is a work which every man ought to
be proud to own.
But unless we know how to use our Encyclopedia, we
13
14 INTRODUCTION.
shall fail to get from it as much benefit as we might. No
book is of value unless its owner knows how to extract
some pleasure or profit from its pages. It will not be hard
to get both pleasure and profit from the Britannica, even
though we should allow it to remain on its shelf and con-
sult it only when we want to find the answer to some
question that is asked. Most people use an encyclopaedia
in that way; and many do not know that it was designed
for any other purpose. That is the proper and only way
in which to use a dictionary. But the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica is a great deal more than a dictionary, and it is
capable of imparting more knowledge and more enjoy-
ment than all the dictionaries in the world.
In order that we may make the most of the rich store-
house of knowledge that is ours, let us consult our GUIDE
to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Here a large
number of the most interesting subjects are arranged
systematically under appropriate headings or in special
chapters. The first five chapters refer to sub-
Young jects that are of interest to young people.
^ e< There are thousands of older people, too, who
Department. r r
will like these chapters.
The next seventeen chapters are designed to aid stu-
dents and specialists in the prosecution of their studies
and investigations. The vast range of the Britannica is
nowhere better illustrated than in these chapters. Among
the easier courses in reading here marked out, arc those
in History (Chapter VI.), in Geography (Chapter XIII.),
in Bible History (Chapter XIX.), and in Myth-
Students' ology (Chapter XX.). In Chapter XI. there
Department, are three courses in Zoology — the first two
being popular courses, which everybody may
understand and enjoy; the third, a purel> scientific
course, intended for only special students. Some other
INTRODUCTION. 1 5
chapters, notably that on Mathematics (Chapter XV.),
refer to subjects and articles in which only scholars and
specialists usually take an interest. Although they may
seem of but little use to us now, there will probably be a
time when some of us shall grow up to them, and find
them to be exactly what is required to meet our wants.
Besides this, there are some of our neighbors and friends
who are now especially interested in those subjects, and
would not want such articles omitted.
After the Students' department, there are more than
thirty chapters showing tradesmen, farmers,
usy teachers, and others how to derive the greatest
People's
•no *^~„* q;ood from the Britannica. Some of these
Department. 0
chapters are sufficiently broad in their scope
and character to be of interest to every intelligent person,
no matter what his calling in life. For instance, what
man in this country will not be benefited by a study of the
chapter entitled "The American Citizen"? What Ameri-
can citizen will not find much interesting and valuable
information concerning the history of money, the conflict
of standards, and the national finances, in the brief chap-
ter entitled "The Banker"? To young men and young
women wishing to enter the civil service of their city,
state, or country, in any capacity, the chapter for " The
Candidate for the Civil Service " will give much informa-
tion and assistance that cannot be easily obtained from
any other source. Here is a chapter to aid the young
lawyer in fitting himself to take a higher position in his
profession. Here is a chapter for the preacher, showing
him what a complete theological library every owner of
the Britannica has at his service. Here is a chapter for
the farmer, telling him where he may learn all about soils
and crops and fertilizers and farming tools, and the thou-
sand other things which interest all intelligent tillers of
l6 INTRODUCTION.
the ground. Here is a chapter for the soldier, and for all
would-be soldiers, directing them to a vast fund of informa-
tion about wars and battles and fire-arms and military law
— such as can be found in no other single publication in
the world. But I need not enumerate further. A glance
at the pages which compose the latter half of the book will
show you that no person in all this busy world of ours
has been forgotten. Surely, with so many hints and helps
at our hands, we shall not be content to use our Encyclo-
pedia merely as a dictionary. The GUIDE will suggest
many ways in which we may begin immediately to make it
yield us large returns of pleasure and profit.
Would we engage in some kind of intellectual employ-
ment during the long evenings of winter? Let us form
ourselves into a family reading circle, and read
ami y some of the lighter courses suggested by the
Rciarcie.g Guide (see Chapters I , II., III., IV., VI., XII. ?
XVII.). Would we like to know where we can
pick up something to read occasionally for pastime rather
than study ? Let us see if Chapter XXII. will not help us.
Do we want to improve our brawn and muscle through
systematic and pleasurable exercise? We may find some-
thing in the chapter on games and sports that will point
out the way. Is Tommie troubled about the composition
that he is to write for the examination at school ? Perhaps
the chapter for the Writer will be found helpful. Is Mary
anxious to become a teacher, and yet not ready to begin a
course of study at the normal school? The Guide will
direct her to some very complete courses of reading on
subjects concerning which no teacher can afford to be
ignorant. Is John, who cast his first ballot last year, deep-
ly interested in politics and hopeful that he may some
time become a candidate for public office? Let him de-
vote his spare time to the study of such articles as the
INTRODUCTION. 1 7
Guide indicates for the American Citizen, the Public
Speaker, and the Political Economist. Is Andrew skilful
with tools, and handy about making things? The Guide
has numerous interesting suggestions for the Inventor,
the Mechanic, the Electrician, and the Engineer.
And so, for every person and for every occupation in
life, the Encyclopedia Britannica comes with its inex-
haustible fund of information, and this trusty GUIDE
which accompanies it shows each individual just how he
can best extract the information which he needs.
EXPLANATIONS.
The references in the GUIDE are necessarily brief, but
there will be no trouble in understanding them.
eferences ^^& titles of important subjects are frequently
to the ... , . , ,
Britannica Panted in small CAPS ; but where a number of
titles occur in a single list, all are generally
printed in plain lower-case letters. The volume of the
Britannica is indicated by Roman numerals ; the page by
Arabic figures. Occasionally the letter a is used to indi-
cate the left-hand column of a page, and the letter b the
right-hand column — accents being added to show whether
the matter referred to begins at the top, the middle, or
the bottom of the column. When the page referred to is
found in the New American Supplement (comprising
five volumes uniform with Encyclopedia Britannica),
the figures denoting it are preceded by the abbrevia-
tion snp.
Examples. — Notice the following references :
(i) Bracelets, IV. 187.
(2) Quill pens, IX. 60 a'
(3) Sea serpent, XXI. 608.
(4) Bells, sup. 412-413.
(5) May-day customs, XV. 647 b"'
1 8 INTRODUCTION.
It is easy to understand what each one of these refer-
ences means. An examination of them, in connection
with the explanations above, shows us
(i) That the article on BRACELETS is found in volume
IV., page 187.
(2) That QuiLL PENS are described in volume IX., page
60, beginning at the middle of the first column.
(3) That an account of the Sea Serpent occurs in
volume XXI., page 608, beginning at the top of the first
column.
(4) That there is an article on Bells in the Supple-
ments, pages 412 and 413.
(5) That an account of MAY-DAY CUSTOMS may be
found in volume XV., page 647, beginning at the bottom
of the second column.
So many special subjects receive treatment in some of
the chapters, that no mere chapter-headings are sufficient
to indicate everything that is included within their limits.
For example, there is no distinct chapter for the shoe-
maker, the carpenter, the mason, the cook, the fisherman ;
but each of these busy workers receives his share of
attention in the Guide. Look for these names, not in
the table of contents, but in the index at the end of
the volume. It will be convenient to use this index
often.
Few persons will have any difficulty in using the Index
VOLUME of the Britannica. In most cases, if you desire to
make a complete study of any given subject, it will be best
to look for that subject at once in the Index volume. The
word which you are looking for will probably be found in
its proper alphabetical place. There you will be directed
to every article or passage in the Britannica wherein any
important mention of the subject occurs. The first refer-
ence is usually to the special article upon the subject, or if
INTRODUCTION. 19
there is no special article, it will direct you to the next
best thing — the fullest or most complete de-
The index scription. For example, suppose you want to
Volume, learn all about the Indians. Turn to the In-
dex volume, and on page 223 you will find the
following entry :
Indians. American, xn. 822, 830 ; 1.
685 ; displacement of, xxm. 819 ;
languages of, xvm. 780; dictionaries
of languages, vil. 192 ; mythology,
xvii. 14S ; religions, xx. 364; totems,
xxm. 467; Eliot's work among, vni.
137; Penn's influence over,xvin.496;
of Costa Rica, VI. 450 ; of South
America, 1. S9 ; of Colombia, VI. 155;
of Peru, xvm. 677.
Consulting the first reference (" volume XII., page 822 "),
you will find an article of eleven pages in length, giving a
concise account of the Indians, their physical traits, tribal
divisions, customs, etc. The second reference (" I. 685 "),
directs the reader to the article America, where there is a
complete history of the aboriginal races, with still further
notices of their habits, languages, religions, etc. The third
reference ("displacement of, XXIII. 819"), directs atten-
tion to a paragraph under the article headed UNITED
STATES, in which an account is given of the westward
movement of immigration and the consequent displace-
ment of the Indian tribes. The remaining references may
be found with equal facility and are self-explanatory.
After having consulted as many of these as you think
necessary, you may still wish to learn the very latest facts
relative to the status of the Indian tribes in the United
States. Turning to the Index to the Supplements, see
whether or not there are additional references of a similar
20 INTRODUCTION.
character there. By turning to any articles that may be
thus indicated, you will doubtless find all the information
on this subject that you desire.
Any other subject may be studied in a similar way.
Now, take the word Sea, or LONDON, or COLUMBUS,
and find all the references to it that are given in the
Index.
Whenever the word for which you are looking cannot
be found in the first part of the Index, look for it in the
second part which relates to the Supplements.
Another important feature of the Index volume, and
one which is not alluded to elsewhere in this
Condensed GuiDE> is the Condensed Biographical Die-
Biographical . . , , .
Dictionary tionary. ^ or quick and ready reference this
dictionary will often prove to be of great service.
It is one of the most complete dictionaries of its kind
ever published, containing the names of more than
twenty-five thousand persons, with their titles or voca-
tions, and the dates of birth and death. Further particu-
lars with regard to many (but, of course, not all) of these
individuals may be found by referring to the Index, which
will point out the exact place in the Britannica where the
desired information is given.
PART I.
THE YOUNG PEOPLE.
21
CHAPTER I.
TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS.
" Now, my young friends, this habit of reading is your pass to the
greatest, the purest, and the most perfect pleasures that God has pre-
pared for his creatures. But you cannot acquire this habit in your old
age ; you cannot acquire it in middle age ; you must do it now, when
you are young. You must learn to read, and to like reading now, or
you cannot do so when you are old." — A nthony Trollope.
ALLOW me to introduce you, boys and girls, to the En-
cyclopedia Britannica. It is, without question, the great-
est book of its kind that has ever been published
The m our language. Here we have it in over a score
Britannica. of huge volumes with thousands of illustrations
and hundreds of maps and diagrams. The
amount of matter which it contains is so great that it
would take you several years to read it through.
But it is not intended that anybody shall read it
through. It would be extremely foolish for you to begin
with the first page of the first volume, and try to read
everything in the order in which it comes. It would be
like sitting down at a table loaded with delicacies and
trying to eat everything from the first dish to the last,
without considering either your tastes or your needs. No
person in his right senses would think of doing such a
thing. You will readily understand, therefore, how im-
portant it is that you should know, at the very outset,
what this famous book is, and how it ought to be used in
order that it may be of the greatest possible assistance
and value to you.
23
24 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
What is an encyclopaedia ?
It is a book which treats of all the various kinds of
knowledge. In other words, it is a book which contains
some information concerning everything that
can be learned by man in this life. If you
What is it ?
could know the whole encyclopaedia by heart,
you would be a very learned person, indeed.
But, of course, this is impossible ; and it would be very
unwise for you to think of becoming a great scholar in that
way. You do not want to make a walking encyclopaedia
of yourself.
Does the carpenter carry his chest of tods around on
his back while he is at work? Of course not. But he
knows where the chest is, and he knows just
How to where each tool is placed in it, so that he can
use it. lay his hands upon it in a moment, even though
his eyes should be shut. So it should be with
your encyclopaedia. You don't want to load your mind
with the millions of facts which it contains, and burden
your memory with the retention of them all. But you
want to know your encyclopaedia so well that when it is
desirable to lay hold of a certain fact, you can do so with-
out loss of time, and without unnecessary labor.
Again, among the great variety of tools which the car-
penter has in his chest, there are some which he uses very
often, there are others which he needs only on special oc-
casions, and there are still others which, being required for
only the very finest work, may not be called into use more
than once or twice for years at a time. But it is neces-
sary to have all these tools, and to know how to handle
them, for there is no telling when they may be called for.
And so it is with your encyclopaedia. Some of its articles
will be helpful to you, day by day, as you carry on your
studies at school or your work at home. Others are, at
TO THE IKUS AND GIRLS. 25
the present, of no interest whatever to you. Indeed, you
will find not a few that are wholly incomprehensible to
you. But that which is of no use to-day may be just the
thing that you will need a year, two years, or five years
from to-day ; and the articles which you cannot now by
any means understand may contain exactly what you will
enjoy and be profited by when you are a little older. And
so it will be a good thing at the outset to confine your
inquiries and your readings to those subjects which are the
easiest for you and in which you will naturally be the
most deeply interested.
Now, here are some curious things which you may like
to read about. They have been selected at random from
among hundreds of others that will from time
Curious to time be suggested to you.
Things. The Bo-tree (the oldest tree in the world),
sup. 529, IX. 154.
The Banyan tree, III. 348.
Great trees of California, IV. 704.
The Upas tree, XXIII. 859.
Pygmies (famous little people of Africa), XX. 120.
Gipsies, X. 611. This is a long article, and a part of it
may not be interesting to you ; but you will certainly like
to read the section which describes their modes of life, X.
616.
Magic mirrors, XVI. 501.
Poison rings, XX. 561.
Ancient bottles, IV. 167.
Great Bells, sup. 412.
Kites and Kite-flying, sup. 1797.
Bracelets, IV. 187.
History of fans, IX. 27.
History of the American Flag, sup. 1285.
Flags in ancient and modern times, IX. 276.
26 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Holidays, sup. 1595.
The sea serpent, XXI. 608.
Cataracts and waterfalls, sup. 722.
Quill pens for writing, IX. 60.
The great wall of China, sup. 1457.
The thugs of India, XXIII. 326.
Wax figures, XXIV. 460.
Spinning in old times, XXIV. 730.
Egyptian, Greek, and Roman months, IV. 665.
Wild horses of India, XII. 741.
The roc (monster bird of the Arabian Nights), XX. 61 1.
The honey guide (a curious little bird), XII. 139.
The cockatrice, VI. 98.
The hunters and the glutton, X. 696.
The ichneumon, XII. 629.
The custom of April Fool, II. 214.
May-day customs in old times, XV. 647.
The Nile festival in Egypt, VII. 727.
The ordeal of fire in the Middle Ages, XVII. 820.
Deodands, VII. 100.
The divining-rod, VII. 293, and XI. 549.
The automaton, III. 142.
The hornbook, XII. 170.
The diving-bell, VII. 294-300.
Balloons, I. 187.
Every young person likes to read about heroes and deeds
of heroism. The Britannica tells of a great number. A
very interesting course of reading ma)' be made
up from the following and similar subjects :
Heroes. T .... r „ . . . ,
Leomdas, king of Sparta, who" with three
hundred men, defended a mountain pass against
the entire Persian army, XIV. 462.
Cincinnatus, who was called from his plough to be dic-
tator of Rome, V. 784.
TO THE BOYS AND GIR1 S. 27
Horatius Codes, who defended the bridge across the
Tiber, and thus saved Rome, VI. 100.
Regulus, the Roman who suffered death rather than
break his word, XX. 348.
William Tell, the mythical hero of Switzerland, XXIII.
155.
Arnold Winkelried, the Swiss patriot, XXIV. 612.
Jeanne d'Arc, the heroine who saved France from the
English, XIII. 695 ; IX. 550.
Captain John Smith, famous in the early history of Vir-
ginia, XXII. 173; XV. 301.
Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, sup. 1368.
Then there are scores of interesting articles about kings,
warriors, and statesmen, some of which you will want to
read. The following are examples :
Alexander the Great, I. 480.
Kings and Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, XI, 441.
Warriors. Julius Caesar, the greatest of the Romans,
IV. 633.
Tamerlane the Tartar, XXIII. 399.
Charlemagne, V. 402.
Alfred the Great, I. 506.
William the Conqueror, XXIV. 574.
Richard Cceur de Lion, XX. 539.
Peter the Great of Russia, XVIII. 698.
George Washington, XXIV. 387.
Napoleon Bonaparte, XVII. 192.
Or, if you would read of discoverers and adventurers,
see such articles as these :
Prince Henry the Navigator, XI. 672.
Columbus, VI. 171.
Hernan. Cortes, VI. 441.
28 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Francisco Pizarro, XIX. 159.
Ferdinand Magellan, XV. 197.
John and Sebastian Cabot, IV. 622.
Discoverers gir Frands Drake, VII. 389.
Advenmrers. VasCO da Gama> X' 57-
Captain Cook, VI. 330.
Henry Hudson, XII. 332.
Ibn Batuta (14th century), XII. 607.
Marco Polo, XIX. 404.
African Explorations, I. 245.
Henry M. Stanley and the recent discoveries in Africa,
sup. 2777.
Arctic Explorations and Discoveries, II. 133; sup.
2408 b.
Sir John Franklin, IX. 719.
Martin Frobisher, IX. 791.
Australian explorers, III. 104.
Captain Kidd, sup. 1788.
Then aside from this mere reading for pleasure or ordi-
nary information, you will want to learn from time to
time how a great many things are done. The
How to do Britannica will help you. For example, no-
Things, tice the following :
How to make liquid glue, X. 134 a.
How to do gold gilding, X. 594 a.
How to tie knots, XIV. 128 a.
How to make gold lacquer for brass work, XIV. 194 a.
How to make snow-shoes, XXII. 201 b.
How to make photographs, XVIII. 214 b; sup. 2370.
How to do sleight of hand tricks, XIV. 414.
How to collect butterflies, IV. 597 b.
I low to make putty, XX. 18.
How to build an ice house, XII. 615 a.
How to shoe a horse, XXI. 831, 832.
TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS. 29
How bells are made, III. 537 a.
How matches are made, XV. 624.
How to do with a magic lantern, XV. 211.
How nets are made, XVII. 359.
How to make flies for trout fishing, II. 40.
How pins are made, XIX. 97.
How a marble statue is made, XXI. 571.
How to make a canoe, IV. 811.
How to rig a ship, XXI. 593.
How to care for hunting hounds, XII. 315.
How to make bows and arrows, II. 376 a.
How to catch fish with a hook, II. 32.
How to make a bull-roarer, sup. 617.
How carrier-pigeons are trained, sup. 709.
And now don't you begin to see what a vast amount of
entertaining and useful knowledge lies before you in these
volumes, ready for you to use when you choose ?
In the chapters that are to follow, an effort will be
made to classify a few of the subjects which will be of
most interest to you. In this way the Guide hopes to
help you to a still further and more intimate acquaintance
with the contents of the Britannica. If you once acquire
the habit of consulting it, you will find it a trustworthy
friend, ready to answer your questions and willing to help
you on all occasions.
The Index volume of the Britannica will be of great
assistance to you in making references to any of the other
volumes. When you want to find out anything about a
given subject, it is often a good plan to turn at once to
that volume. If you do not know how to use the Index,
refer now to page 18 of this Guide, and read the direc-
tions that are given ther°.
30 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER II.
HOME READINGS IN HISTORY.
" The use of reading is to aid us in thinking." — Edward Gibbon.
To know one thing well is better than to have a smat-
tering of many things. It is an excellent plan to choose
for yourself some particular subject which you like, and
then to follow a systematic course of reading
Courses of , , . ., . .
Reading on tnat subject until you have acquired a com-
prehensive knowledge of it. Some of you will
prefer history, some of you biography (which is really a
branch of history), some of you science, and some of you
art. In beginning such a course read that which you can
readily understand ; you will gradually become able to
understand and enjoy things which now seem very hard
and totally unintelligible to you. It is not intended that
a course of this kind should take the place of the miscel-
laneous reading which you will want to do — of the
stories, the poems, the sketches, the many excellent and
beautiful things in literature which every intelligent boy
or girl takes delight in reading. The aim and object of
this course is to add to your knowledge, to aid you in
thinking, to help you to become an intelligent man or wo-
man. Having once decided to begin it, resolve that noth-
ing shall induce you to neglect it. Devote a little time to
it regularly. If you give ten minutes every day to syste-
matic reading — and you need not give more — you will be
astonished at the end of a year to note how many things
you have learned. But if you find the reading pretty diffi-
cult now and then, you must not give up on that account,
HOME READINGS IN HISTORY. 31
The hardest reading is very often the most profitable —
provided always that we make ourselves the masters of it.
There are a great many articles in the Britannica which
may be utilized in courses of reading of this kind. If the
Britannica is the only book to which you have access,
these articles may be made to comprise a complete course
in themselves. But if there are at hand other books on
the same subject, then the readings from the Britannica
may be made to supplement your study of these other
authorities. For instance, let us suppose that you have
undertaken to learn all that you can about United States
History. Perhaps you have studied a text-book on that
subject at school. Did it seem dull and dry to you ? Per-
haps the- writer has made it so by trying to compress a
great amount of information into a very small space. He
has given a large number of dates and names, and you
have been expected to learn these and remember them.
But history in the true sense of the word is a good deal
more than dates and names. It is a fascinating
Historv? story, and people read it because of the pleas:
ure which it gives no less than for the profit
which may be derived from it. Take now your school
history and supplement the lessons which it contains with
readings from the following articles in the Britannica :
The story of Columbus, VI. 171.
The life of Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, VI. 441.
The life of Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru,
Discoverers xiX. 1 59 : and a particular account of his ex-
Colonfsts. PloitS in PerU' XVIIL 677-
The life of Balboa, the discoverer of the
Pacific Ocean, III. 273; and a particular account of his
great discovery, X. 182.
The life of De Soto, the discoverer of the Mississippi,
VII. 131.
32 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The life of Sir Francis Drake, the first Englishman who
sailed round the world, VII. 389.
The life of Sir Walter Raieigh, the great admiral, states-
man, and courtier, XX. 262.
The life of Captain John Smith, who figures so promi-
nently in the story of the settlement of Virginia, XXII.
173-
The story of Pocahontas, the Indian princess, XXII. 175.
The story of the Pilgrim Fathers, XII. 726.
The account of the Dutch settlers in New York, XVII.
454-
The life of William Penn, the Quaker founder of Penn-
sylvania, XVIII. 492.
The story of Marquette, the French explorer, XV. 565.
The life of La Salle, who rediscovered the Mississippi,
XIV. 318.
The story of Pontiac, the Indian chief, XVIII. 504.
The life of General Wolfe, the hero of Quebec,XXI V. 630.
The life of Washington, XXIV. 387.
Great The life of Franklin, America's first philoso-
Americans. pher, IX. 711-
The life of Patrick Henry, XI. 676.
The life of John Adams, I. 141.
The life of Thomas Jefferson, XIII. 613.
The story of the Declaration of Independence, XXIII.
743-
The life of Lafayette, XIV. 201.
The life of General Greene, XI. 163.
The story of Benedict Arnold, XXIII. 744, 787.
The life of Cornwallis, VI. 428.
An account of Aaron Burr, XI. 413.
Tlie life of Alexander Hamilton, XI. 412.
And now, if you wish to continue your historical read-
ings to the present time, you may do so by reading the
HOME READINGS IN HISTORY. 33
biographies of the Presidents who have not been named
in the list above :
The James Madison, XV. [82.
Presidents. [anus Monroe, XVI. 760.
John Quincy Adams, I. 142.
Andrew Jackson, XIII. 533.
Martin Van Buren, XXIV. 56.
William H. Harrison, XI. 495.
John Tyler, XXIII. 674, 766.
James K. Polk, XIX. 401.
Zachary Taylor, XXIII. 96.
Millard Fillmore, IX. 165.
Franklin Pierce, XIX. 81.
James Buchanan, IV. 413.
Abraham Lincoln, XIV. 658.
Andrew Johnson, XIII. 719.
Ulysses S. Grant, XXIII. 788, 776 ; also sup. 1442.
Rutherford B. Hayes, XXIII. 784; also sup. 1554.
James A. Garfield, sup. 1368.
Chester A. Arthur, sup. 250.
Grover Cleveland, sup. 831.
Benjamin Harrison, sup. 1532.
William McKinley, sup. 1959.
By the time you have read all these biographies you
will have acquired such a knowledge of American history
as will be of value to you as long as you live. But to
some of you this course may seem hard, dry reading. If
so, it will be no trouble to suggest another — a very differ-
ent one, which all boys who are fond of the sea and not
afraid of a little history will turn to with pleasure.
NAVAL HISTORY.
Ships in former times were very different from those
which sail the sea nowadays. Read of the first invention
3
34 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNK A.
of boats and ships in volume XXL, page 804. Among the
earliest war ships of which we have any account
are the Greek and Roman triremes, described on
page 806 of the same volume. In the article
on the NAVY, XVII. 279, there is an interesting
account of the early war ships used by the English. King
Henry VIII. is said to have laid the foundation of the
British navy, and the largest ship of his time, the Great
Harry, is described, XVII. 281. Queen Elizabeth called
together the greatest naval force that had ever been known,
in order to oppose the Invincible Armada of Spain. The
story of the ARMADA and of its notable defeat is told in
an interesting article on page 543 of volume II. And in
this connection you will want to read about Sir Walter
Raleigh, XX. 262, about Sir Francis Drake, VII. 389, and
about Sir John Hawkins, XL 535.
But it is not expected that this course of reading shall
be exhaustive ; and so you may turn now to the life of
Nelson, XVII. 321 ; to the battle of the Nile, I. 52 ; and
to the Battle of Trafalgar, VI. 146.
Next, read about our own naval heroes :
Paul Jones, XIII. 738.
Commodore Decatur, XXIII. 759 also sup. 1008.
Commodore Perry, sup. 2351.
Admiral Farragut, IX. 41.
Finally, by way of concluding this brief course of read-
ing, you will find it profitable to learn all that you can
about the United States Navy, XVII. 300, and par-
ticularly our new navy, its wonderful armament and its
estimated strength, sup. 2 145-2 1 53.
THE ROMANCE OF HISTORY.
1. There are man)' things connected with the history of
the Middle Ages which give to it the charm of romance.
HOME READINGS IN HISTORY. 35
We never tire of reading about the KNIGHTS of chivalry,
XIV. no; about the Castles in which they
Tales of lived, V. 1 97 ; about the TOURNAMENTS which
Knighthood, they held, XXIII. 489; and about the CRU-
SADES in which they engaged, VI. 622.
Next, let us read the legend of Roland, the peerless
knight of France, XX. 626; the history of Richard the
Lion-hearted, XX. 539, and particularly of his exploits
in Palestine, VI. 628 ; the story of the English outlaw,
Robin Hood, XX. 605 ; the account of Godfrey of Bouil-
lon, VI. 624 ; the history of the Children's Crusade,
VI. 627 ; and finally, the story of Chevalier Bayard,
the knight " without fear and without reproach," III.
457-
When you have mastered this course of reading, you
will have a better knowledge of mediaeval life and manners
and traditions than you could ever have acquired merely
by studying an ordinary text-book at school.
2. A second course — equally interesting, but somewhat
harder, and, therefore, suited to older readers — may be
taken from Roman History. Read the legendary story of
Romulus, the reputed founder of the city, XX.
Stories of 840 ; the mythical tale of the Horatii and Cu-
Rome. riatii, XII. 160 ; the account of Horatius Codes,
the hero who kept the bridge, VI. 100; of
brave Regulus, who never broke his word, XX. 348 ; of
Cincinnatus, called from his plough to defend his country,
V. 784; of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, VI. 421 ;
of the Gracchi themselves, and of their services to their
country, XI. 25 ; of Hannibal, the Carthaginian hero,
XI. 441 ; and of Caesar, IV. 655, and Pompey, XIX. 451.
and the downfall of the Roman republic, XX. 763.
3. The third course is not historical, but entirely mythi-
cal or legendary, and yet there is, doubtless, some sort of
2,6 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
historical basis for it. It relates to the story of the TRO-
JAN War— an event immortalized by Homer,
Story of the first of the poets, and made the subject of
Troy. many a tale and poem and tragic drama from
his time until now. As the basis and starting-
point of this course, read the Legend of Troy, XXIII. 582 ;
then refer to the following articles in their order:
Paris, whose perfidy was the cause of the war and the
ultimate ruin of his country, XVIII. 295.
Helen of Argos, the most beautiful woman in the
world, XI. 629.
Menelaus, the wronged husband of Helen, XVI. 10.
Agamemnon, " king of men " and leader of the Grecian
forces, I. 273.
Odysseus, the wily hero, chief actor in Homer's Odys-
sey, XVII. 729.
Achilles, whose wrath and its consequences form the
subject of the Iliad, I. 94.
Hector, the bravest and ablest of the Trojan chiefs,
XI. 609.
Ajax Telamon and Ajax Oileus, typical heroes and
leaders of the Greeks, I. 432.
And now, if you have become interested in stories of
this kind, turn to chapter XX. in this GUIDE and find there
an extensive list of Greek legends and other romantic
tales, all of which are narrated with more or less fulness
in the pages of the Dritannica.
HOME READINGS l\ BIOGRAPHY. 37
CHAPTER III.
HOME READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY.
" Lives of great men all remind us,
We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time."
— Longfellow.
The biographies of great, and especially of good men,
will always be found instructive and useful to the young.
Some of the best are almost equal to gospels. They teach
right living, high thinking, and energetic action. They
show what it is in the power of each to accomplish for
himself. No young man can rise from the perusal of such
lives without feeling his whole mind and heart made better,
and his best resolutions strengthened. They increase his
self-reliance by fortifying his views and elevat-
Uses of mg ms aims in life. Sometimes, too, a young
Biography, man discovers himself in a biography, as Cor-
reggio felt within him the risings of genius on
contemplating the works of Michael Angelo. " And I,
too, am a painter ! " he exclaimed. Benjamin Franklin
was accustomed to attribute his usefulness and eminence
to his having in youth read a work of Cotton Mather's.
And Samuel Drew avers that he framed his own life, and
especially his business habits, on the model left- on record
by Benjamin Franklin. Thus, it is impossible to say
where a good example may not reach, or where it will
end, if indeed it have an end.
But, to be more precise, it may be well to name a few
38 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
biographies that will illustrate the more desirable elements
of character. For instance, the most striking lessons of
DILIGENCE, APPLICATION, AND PERSEVERANCE
are to be found in the lives of certain famous men about
whom no one can afford to be ignorant. Read, therefore,
the following biographical sketches :
Benjamin Franklin, the studious printer's
Men of -ii i r i -i i r
Dili ence apprentice, who became the first philosopher ot
America, IX. Ji I.
Washington Irving, the " father of American
literature," XIII. 372.
Arthur Wellesley. Duke of Wellington, the leader of the
victorious armies at Waterloo, XXIV. 493.
Michael Faraday, the distinguished scientist, IX. 29.
James A. Garfield, the canal-boy, who became President
of the United States, sup. 1368.
Richard Cobden, the English political economist and
reformer, VI. 85.
Hugh Miller, the stone-cutter of Cromarty, who at-
tained distinction in both science and literature. XVI.
318.
Sir Isaac Newton, the son of a small farmer, who
through his industry became the foremost philosopher of
modern times, XVII. 438.
Buffon, the French naturalist, who declared that "ge-
nius is patience," and whose rule was to turn every mo-
ment to account, IV. 444.
Dr. Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, XIII. 622;
XXIV. 23.
Daguerre, the inventor of the daguerreotype, and tin
real founder of the art of photography, VI. 761.
Gainsborough, the son of a cloth-worker, who became
one of the greatest oi English painters, X. 15.
HOME READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY. 39
General Grant, who ros from obscurity to be one of the
most successful military leaders of modern times, sup. 1442.
Then there have been men who, in the face of
POVERTY, SICKNESS, OR DISASTER,
won their way to success and distinction. Read the story
of their lives, and learn that, to the boy or man of deter-
mination and will, there is no. such thing as failure.
Among scores of such men, it is necessary to mention
only a few.
Palissy, the potter, whose life reads like a
Menof romance, XVIII. 186.
Galileo, who continued his scientific pursuits
tion. :
even after blindness and old age had come upon
him, X. 30.
Elihu Burritt, "the learned blacksmith," who, in the
odd moments of his business, made himself the master of
fort\- languages, sup. 633.
Thomas Carlyle, the son of a mason, who, by his own
perseverance, became one of the most famous men of mod-
ern times, sup. 701.
John Bunyan, who wrote the " Pilgrim's Progress "
while in prison, and at the same time supported his fam-
ily by making tag laces, IV. 526.
Sir Richard Arkwright, who worked his way from a
barber's shop to be the inventor of the spinning jenny
and the founder of the cotton industry in Great Britain,
II. 540.
Samuel Drew, who rose from the shoemaker's bench to
be a distinguished essayist and preacher, VII. 469.
Sir Humphry Davy, the distinguished philosopher, who
worked his way up from the position of a country apothe-
cary, VI. 845.
40 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
George Stephenson, the colliery engine-man, who in-
vented the railway locomotive, XXII. 537.
Matthew Boulton, "the father of Birmingham," IV.
172; XXIV. 413-
Andrew Johnson, the tailor's apprentice, who became
President of the United States, XIII. 719.
For examples of
ENERGY, PROMPTITUDE, AND HARDIHOOD,
look into the biographies of such men as the following:
Napoleon Bonaparte, XVII. 19?.
Men of Peter the Great, XVIII. 698.
Energy. Saladin, XVI. 588
Francis Xavier, XXIV 716.
Lord Clive, VI. 8.
Oliver Cromwell, VI. 597.
Andrew Jackson, XIII. 533.
Robert E. Lee, XIV. 399.
Henry M. Stanley, sup. 2777.
For interesting illustrations of the manly qualities of
PATIENCE AND FORTITUDE UNDER REVERSES,
study the lives of such noted men as
Christopher Columbus, VI. 171.
Men of John Hampden, the English patriot, XL 428.
Patience. Dante, the great Italian poet, VI. 809.
Sir Walter Raleigh. XX. 262.
Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, sup. 1806.
James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine, XXI Y.
412.
James Audubon, the famous American ornithologist,
III. 70.
HOME READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY. 41
Sir Austen H. Lav. ml, the discoverer and excavator of
the ruins of Nineveh, sup. 1S47.
William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the
blood, XI. 502.
Claude Lorraine, the pastry-cook's apprentice, who be-
came one of the most distinguished of the painters of
France, V. Si 4.
John Flaxman, the famous English sculptor, IX. 298.
If you would like to read of pleasant instances of
CHEERFULNESS AND EQUANIMITY OF TEMPER
under every variety of fortune, turn to the lives ofmen like
Dr. Samuel Johnson, XIII. 719.
Men of Oliver Goldsmith, X. 760.
Cheerful- _ . , ,,,,,.,.
ness. Sydney Smith, XXII. 177.
Lord Palmerston, XVIII. 193.
Abraham Lincoln, XIV. 658.
Very interesting and valuable also are those lessons of
INTEGRITY AND UPRIGHTNESS OF PRINCIPLE
that are shown in the careers of
Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, VII. 245.
Men of Edmund Burke, the English orator, IV. 538.
Integrity, Dr. Thomas Arnold, head master of the school
at Rugby, II. 626.
Sir Thomas More, the English statesman, XVI. 815.
John Howard, the philanthropist, XII. 319.
William Chambers, the Scottish publisher, V. 380.
Loyola, the founder of the society of Jesuits, XV. 31.
William Wilberforce, the opponent of the slave trade,
XXIV. 565.
"Stonewall" Jackson, the Confederate general, XIII.
534-
42 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
If you would learn of the rewards which follow
METHOD, PRECISION AND PAINSTAKING,
read the biographies of
Nicholas Poussin, the French painter, XIX. 649.
Men of Michael Angelo,the great Italian artist,X VI. 229.
Precision. Baron Cuvier, the French naturalist, VI. 740.
Titian, the Italian painter, XXIII. 413.
William Wordsworth, the poet of nature, XXIV. 668.
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor of England, IV. $j$.
Alexander Pope, XIX. 481.
William Cecil, Lord Burghley, Queen Elizabeth's prime
minister, V. 283.
Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield, VIII. 367.
And for the supreme lessons of purity of life and
NOBILITY OF MOTIVE
examine the lives of such men as
Abraham Lincoln, XIV. 658.
General Lafayette, XIV. 201.
Noble .
Motives. William Lloyd Garrison, X. 85.
Horace Greeley, XL 160.
John G. Whittier. sup. 3146,
and other illustrious persons of our own and foreign lands.
Some we have here named might be catalogued, indeed,
as types of every excellence that should adorn human
character. Such arc our own Washington and Benjamin
Franklin, but even the youngest student will see how hard
it is to attempt a biographical classification on these lines.
Most boys are ambitious. They wish to grow up to be-
come men of influence and renown. Many of them lose this
ambition because they are unwilling to wait long enough,
work Hard enough, and be sufficiently patient in well-doing.
"The heights by great men rea< hed and kept
Were not attained by sudden flight,"
Men of
II' » M 1 UKADINCS IN BIOGRAi'HV. • 43
Ami yet there have been many great men who displayed
their abilities at a very early age. Perhaps you would like
t>> read about some of these
GREA r YOUNG MEN.
Handel composed a set of sonatas when he was ten years
..Id, XL 433.
Haydn composed a mass at thirteen; XI. 541.
Mozart composed his first opera at twelve, XVII. 8.
Beethoven's music was beaten into him, but he
composed three sonatas when thirteen, III. 504.
Musicians. * . .
Cherubim composed a mass at thirteen, V.
Paganini was a great violinist at eight, XVIII. 134.
Charles Wesley, the great hymn writer, played the
harpsichord when he was a babe, XXIV. 504.
Michael Angelo finished his great marble statue of
"David" before he was twenty, XVI. 229.
Raphael was an eminent artist at seventeen, XX. 274.
Canova modelled a lion out of butter when
only four years old, V. 24.
Artists.
Sir Edward Landseer painted one of his
greatest pictures at sixteen, XIV. 280.
Cervantes had written several romances before he was
twenty, V. 347.
Goethe could write in five languages when he was eight,
X. 721.
Victor Hugo wrote his first tragedy when fifteen years
old, IX. 676.
Alexander Pope wrote his Pastorals when
only sixteen, XIX. 481.
Chatterton, who died before he was eighteen,
was already a great poet, V. 445.
Burns began to rhyme at sixteen, IV. 566.
44 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Thomas Moore wrote verses at thirteen, XVI. 805.
Shelley published Queen Mab when eighteen, XXI. 789.
Southey wrote Joan of A re when nineteen, XXII. 289.
Mrs. Browning wrote poems at ten, IV. 391.
Tennyson wrote his first volume of poems before he
was eighteen, sup. 2877.
Sir Isaac Newton displayed wonderful ability when a
mere child, XVII. 438.
Blaise Pascal wrote a treatise on Conic Sec-
Phiioso- tions when he was sixteen, XVIII. 333.
phers. Grotius wrote Latin verses when he was
eight, XI. 217.
Haller composed a Chaldee grammar at twelve, XI. 396.
Lord Bacon planned his Novum Organum before he was
sixteen, III. 200.
Sir Christopher Wren invented an astronomical instru-
ment at thirteen, XXIV. 689.
William Pitt, the younger, entered Parliament when he
was twenty-one, XIX. 134.
These were some of the great young men of modern
times. Ancient history furnishes us with other examples
of men to whom
SUCCESS CAME EARLY IN LIFE :
Themistocles, who won his greatest victory at the age
of thirty, XXIII. 250.
Alexander the Great, who died at thirty-one, I. 480.
Pompey, who was a successful Roman general
Young at twenty-three, XIX. 450.
Warriors. Hannibal, who, when only twenty-six, was
made sole commander of the Carthaginian army,
XI. 441.
Charlemagne, who was master of France and Germany
at thirty, V. 402.
HOME READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY. 45
Marshal Saxe, who began his military career at twelve,
XXI. 346.
Charles XII. of Sweden, who became king at the age
of fifteen, V. 420.
This list might be easily extended ; but here is reading
enough for several winter evenings. And when you have
finished it, you will be at no loss to determine whether
these men attained distinction at a single bound or whether
they did not rather win by hard and patient labor, begun
while they were very young. Greatness comes to no man
simply because he wishes it. It is the reward of deter-
mined effort.
46 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER IV.
HOME READINGS IN SCIENCE.
" To neglect all the abiding parts of knowledge for the sake of the
evanescent parts is really to know nothing worth knowing." — Frederic
Harrison.
The subject of history is not equally attractive to all
young people. There are some who would prefer to read
of the great world of nature, and for these it
Natural would be easy to name very many Britannica
History. articles which would prove interesting and in-
structive. Now, here is a course of readings in
natural history arranged in twelve divisions, each of which
can be easily completed in a month. You will find some
of the articles very interesting indeed, while others, per-
haps, will seem rather hard and at first not so easy to un-
derstand. But if you begin on this course and hold to it
for a year, you will find not only that you have gained a
great deal of information, but that the reading of these
various articles has increased your capacity for deriving
the highest pleasure from the perusal of books.
READINGS IN' NATURAL HISTORY.
I. BEASTS.
The Elephant, VIII. 122.
The Giraffe, X. 618.
The Beaver and its habits, III. 475.
Monkeys, II. 148.
HOME READINGS IN SCIEN< I . 47
The Chameleon, V. 381.
The Tiger, Will. 385.
II. Cl RIl H s BIRDS.
The Albatross —the famous bird of the South Seas, I.
448.
The Dodo — a strange bird now no longer in existence,
VII. 321.
The Cormorant — how it is taught to catch fish. VI. 407.
The Dove, VII. 379.
Migration of Birds, III. 765.
The Nightingale, XVII. 498.
The Stork, XXIII. 577.
III. FISHES.
The Shark, XXI. 775.
The Swordfish, XXII. 804.
Mackerel, XV. 159.
Codfish, VI. 103.
Cuttle-fish, VI. 735. Goldfish, X. 759.
IV. REPTILES.
Special article, XX. 432.
Rattlesnake, XX. 293.
Cobra, VI. 90. Anaconda, I. 788.
Boa Constrictor, III. 841.
Tortoise, XXIII. 455 (illustrated).
Crocodile, VI. 592. Alligator, I. 585.
V. INSECTS.
Habits of Ants, II. 94 a.
Slaveholding Ants, II. 97 a.
White Ants of Africa, II. 99 a.
Bees and their Habits, III. 484.
An interesting description of Spiders, II. 297.
48 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The Mantis — the curious "subject of many wide-spread
legends," XV. 503.
VI. EXTINCT ANIMALS.
The Mammoth (illustrated ), XV. 447.
The Megatherium (illustrated), XV. 829.
The Plesiosaurus, XIX. 220.
The Pterodactyl, XX. 86.
VII. FABLED ANIMALS.
The Dragon, VII. 385.
The Cockatrice, VI. 98.
The Griffin, XI. 195.
The Chimaera, V. 626
The Phoenix, XVIII. 810.
The Roc, XX. 611.
VIII. DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
History of the Horse, XII. 172.
The Arabian Horse, II. 240.
The Camel, IV. 735.
Dogs (an illustrated article), VII. 324.
Cats, V. 202.
The Cow, I. 390.
IX. SEA ANTMALS.
Life in the Ocean, VII. 276-281.
Whales and whale fishing, XXIV, 523.
Seals and seal fishing, XXI. 580.
The Walrus (illustrated), XXIV. 337.
The Dolphin, VII. 346.
Corals, VI. 369.
HOME READINGS IN SCIENCE. 49
X. COMMON INSECTS.
The Housefly, XII. 317.
The Humble-bee, XII. 342.
Beetles, VI. 126.
Gnats, X. 700.
Mosquitoes, XVI. 866.
Butterflies, IV. 592.
XI. BARNYARD FOWLS.
Chickens, IX. 491.
Turkeys, XXIII. 657.
Geese, X. yy/.
Ducks, VII. 505.
Pigeons, XIX. 84.
Eggs of Birds, III. 772.
XII. MISCELLANEOUS.
Special article on birds, III. 699.
Special article on insects, XIII. 141.
Animals of Asia, II. 695.
Animals of Africa, I. 258.
Animals of America, I. 681.
Article on Amphibia, I. 750.
Of course this list might have been made very much
longer — for the Britannica contains hundreds of such arti-
cles. But the above will be sufficient to start with, and,
as you proceed with your reading, other subjects will
naturally suggest themselves which you will be able to
find from the Index volume without any further help
from the GUIDE.
50 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER V.
GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES.
" Up ! up ! my friend, and quit your books,
Or surely you'll grow double :
Up ! up ! my friend, and clear your looks ;
Why all this toil and trouble ? " — Wordsworth.
THIS would be but a dull world if everybody worked all
the time, and never took any recreation. And the En-
cyclopedia Britannica would be a dull book if it were filled
entirely with information about the different
Work and branches of scientific knowledge, and said noth-
Play. ing at all about the games, sports, and pastimes
which amuse our leisure hours and add to the
enjoyableness of life. But from these volumes you can
learn how to play, as well as how to work. Every game
of any importance, every pastime that is of general in-
terest receives its proper notice.
OUTDOOR GAMES.
The game of BALL has been a favorite pastime of all
ages and nations. Read the article on that subject, sup.
327-
Do you want to know all about BASE-BALL, its history,
the rules which govern the game, etc.? Turn to volume
III., page 406, and you will find there a brief
Games of Dut comprehensive article on that subject, which
Ball. every boy will want to study; and this is con-
tinued in a supplementary article, sup. 370,
which gives a complete history of the game since its first
GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES. 5 1
introduction in 1857 to the present time. In this latter
article will be found the rules which govern its playing in
America.
The English national game of CRICKET is treated with
equal fulness in VI. 578. See also William G. Grace, sup.
1434. The leading articles on both cricket and base-ball
contain not only the rules most generally recognized for
the government of the games, but carefully drawn diagrams
of the fields, and full directions for playing.
Next to base-ball, football claims the greatest attention
in this country. Indeed, it would be difficult to say which
is the leading favorite. The article on AMERICAN FOOT-
B ALL, sup. 1 301, contains the very latest rules regulating
this exciting game. A history and general notice of
football as it was formerly played may be found in IX.
367-
Archery is the subject of an extremely interesting
article, II. 371. From that article you may learn not only
the history of bows and arrows, but how to
Outdoor make them (II. 376), and also the rules which
Games. govern the popular pastime of archery (II. 377).
Other outdoor games of almost every kind
are described with like completeness :
Golf, X. 765.
Lacrosse, XIV. 195.
Bowls, IV. 179.
Ten-pins, IV. 180 b'".
Croquet, VI. 608 b.
Quoits, XX. 189.
Curling, VI. 712.
Billiards, III. 674.
Rackets, XX. 549.
Polo, XIX. 403.
Tennis, XXIII. 179.
52 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
INDOOR GAMES.
All kinds of indoor games are also described, to-
gether with minute directions for playing them. The
article on CHESS, V. 592, is interesting for its
Indoor historical information. The modern changes of
Games. style in playing chess are noted in sup. 778. The
article on Draughts (commonly known in this
country as checkers), VII. 444, and that on Backgammon,
III. 197, are equally entertaining and instructive. Then
there are the various games at cards, all of which are
described in the Britannica.
Casino, sup. 7J7.
Bezique, III. 623.
Cribbage. VI. 575.
Ecarte, VII. 620.
Euchre, VIII. 654.
Loo, XV. 1.
Napoleon, XVII. 229.
Picquet, XIX. 1 14.
Poker, XIX. 282.
Whist, XXIV. 543.
Among other indoor pastimes we may mention Riddles,
XX. 549-
Legerdemain, or sleight of hand, XIV. 414 ; XV. 207.
SPORTS.
Few sports are more attractive to boys and men than
fishing ; and to all who are partial to this kind of amuse-
ment, the article on Angling, II. 32, will prove
both interesting and instructive. It contains a
great deal of information about fish and the art
of taking them with hooks. The life of quaint
old Izaak Walton, the most famous of fishermen, should
be read in this connection, XXIV. 342.
GAMES, SPORTS', AND PASTIMES. 53
Most boys, even though they are debarred from such
sports themselves, like to read about hunting; and so they
will derive much pleasure from the general article on that
subject, XII. 392. Here, too, they may learn about the
care of fox-hounds, XII. 315; about fox-hunting, XII.
395 ; and about horsemanship in the chase, XII.
195. There is more of the same kind of read-
ing in VII. 328, 330, where a good deal of in-
formation is given about sportsmen's dogs, such
as the pointer, the setter, and the retriever.
Closely related to these sports is the pleasant pastime
of rowing or sailing on the water. Several articles now
claim our attention. As for rowing, read what is said
further on that subject in XX. 619. An account of inter-
collegiate boat-racing is given in sup. 2584. The article
on canoeing, IV. 811, is full of practical information.
Row-boats are described further over, in XXI.
825. The article on Yachting, XXIV. 722-725,
Rowing. . , , ■ r ,, r , . , .
is very complete, and is full of historical inter-
est. Practical directions for swimming and
diving are given in XXII. 768, and these will repay you
for all the time spent in their study. Skating, XXII. 104,
is another instructive and interesting article.
Everybody, nowadays, rides a bicycle ; and so everybody
will want to read its history, III. 665. A complete descrip-
tion of bicycle manufacture in the United States may be
found in sup. 458-460. The laws regarding bicycles and bi-
cycle riders are noticed in sup. 461. Then in sup. 1848 there
is a brief history of the organization called the League of
American Wheelmen, which every bicycler will read. What
bicycles have done for good roads is related in sup. 2557.
ATHLETIC SPORTS, ETC.
While learning about the games and sports of our own
54 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
times it is but natural that we should wish to know how
the people of former ages amused themselves,
In Greece an<^ h°w they trained their bodies, and culti-
and Rome, vated their strength. Here then, to begin with,
are a few of the many articles or parts of arti-
cles relating to this subject :
Greek games, X. 63 ; Olympian games, sup. 2251. The
revival of these sports at Athens in the summer of 1896
lends much additional interest to the chapters describing
them. Read then the following additional references to
the Olympian games, V. 711 ; VIII. 140; XI. 94; XVII.
766.
Athlete, III. 11.
Gymnasium, XI. 347.
Roman games, X. 65.
Gladiatorial games, X. 632.
Secular games at Rome, XXI. 618.
The Amphitheatre, I. 774; XX. 830.
The Colosseum, II. 419.
Roman circus, V. 791 ; XX. 829.
Chariot races, X. 64.
Wrestling, X. 64.
In the middle ages the most popular of all amusements
were those connected with tournaments, the history of
which is pleasantly narrated in XXIII. 489. The knights
who engaged in these contests at arms, often found amuse-
ment of a lighter character in following the chase in the man-
ner described in XII. 393. The rearing and training of
hawks for hunting purposes was called falconry
Athletic ar>d this is the subject of an interesting article
Training. in IX. 6-12.
And now, approaching our own times, read
the two articles on Athletic Sports, III. [2, and sup. 279.
Both are full of valuable information, especially regarding
GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES. 55
physical culture. They are so full and exhaustive that
some of the youngest readers may not care to read them
through; and yet it will pay to get as. many useful
hints, and suggestions from them as you can.
The article on Athletic Training and Apparatus, in the
supplements, presents the very latest facts and the opin-
ions of the best authorities on this subject.
The article on Gymnastics, XL 348, presents some in-
teresting statements with reference to the training of the
body by systematic exercises. The best methods of diet-
ing while attempting to improve one's strength by physical
training are adequately described in VII. 200.
See, now, Calisthenics, sup. 658, and Delsarte System,
sup. 1022.
PART II.
THE STUDENT.
57
CHAPTER VI.
THREE COURSES OF READING IN HISTORY.
" History is philosophy teaching by examples." — Bolingbroke.
The entire history of man, from the earliest times to
the present, will be found in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Many of the articles on historical subjects are chiefly
valuable for purposes of reference, while others are ex-
tremely interesting when read in course, and if taken up
and studied systematically will give to the student a mas-
tery of the subject which he could not well acquire from
any similar work.
It is proposed in this chapter to indicate three distinct
courses of reading, any one of which can be pursued in-
dependently of the others. In laying out these courses
the aim has been to select from the great abundance of
material in the Britannica such portions as are essential
to an understanding of the march of events, and to pass
lightly over those periods of history which have been un-
prolific of events of general and permanent interest.
I. AMERICAN HISTORY.
The article AMERICA, I. 669, contains a section of
twenty pages devoted to ancient America. This will serve
as an excellent introduction to the course of
Ancient study upon which we have entered. Here you
America. will find a full account of the aborigines, page
686 ; their languages, page 688 ; their tribal
organization, page 690; the ancient remains of the Mis-
59
60 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNTCA.
sissippi valley and other localities, page 691 ; an account
of the native civilization, page 694 ; and a very interesting
resume of the curious traditional history of Central Amer-
ica. In the articles Mexico, XIV. 206, and Yucatan,
XXIV. 759, there is a still fuller exposition of this sub-
ject. In the article PERU, XVIII. 676, the remarkable
civilization of the country of the Incas is described in a
manner that is both pleasing and instructive.
It is still, in certain respects, a debated point as to who
was the real discoverer of America. In the article AMERICA,
I. 706, a full account is given of the voyages
The of the Northmen to the shores of North Amer-
Discovery. jca> anc} following this, we have the story of
Columbus and his discoveries. Turn now to
the biography of Columbus, VI. 170. Read, also, the life
of Sebastian Cabot, IV. 622, and that of Amerigo Ves-
pucci, XXIV. 192, who, by a singular fortune, gave his
name to the New World. The conquest of Mexico is
well told in the article Cortes, VI. 441, and that of Peru
in the article PlZARRO, XIX. 159.
THE UNITED STATES.
Begin with the article United States, XXIII. 729.
The first part of this article, containing seventy-two pages,
embraces a history of our country which is not
General only more complete, but far more readable than
Views. most of the school text-books on this subject.
To add to the value of the article, it is illus-
trated with several maps :
1. A map of the English colonies.
2. A map showing the territorial growth of the United
States from 1776 to 1887.
3. A map of the United States corrected to date.
THREE COURSES OF READING IN' HISTORY. 61
A brief analysis of this article will show us what addi-
tional subjects may be brought in by way of collateral
reading.
In connection with the history of Virginia, XXIV. 255.
read the following articles or parts of articles :
Sir Walter Raleigh, XX. 262.
Virginia. ^^ ^.^ xxu ^
History of Tobacco, XXIII. 423 (one column).
Introduction of Slavery into America, XXII. 137 (begin-
ning with " Spanish Colonies," second column, and ending
at the bottom of page 138).
In connection with New England, XXIII. 729, read
about the Puritans, VIII. 340-346, 376-378 ; the
Northern Pilgrim Fathers, sup. 2387 ; and Roger Wil-
Colonies. liams, XXIV. 586.
In connection with Pennsylvania, XXIII. 73c,
read about William Penn, XVIII. 494.
With the Revolutionary War, XXIII. 739, we reach
the period of those great men whom we justly
The style " the fathers." Let us read the biographi-
Revolution. cal sketches of a few of these makers of the
nation :
George Washington, XXIV. 387.
Patrick Henry, XI. 676.
Thomas Jefferson, XIII. 613.
John Adams, I. 141.
James Madison, XV. 182.
James Monroe, XVI. 760.
Alexander Hamilton, XI. 412.
These articles will help us to understand not only the
period of the Revolution, but the equally important pe-
riods which followed — the formation of the Federal
CONSTITUTION, XXIII. 744, and the beginnings of the
government under the Constitution, XXIII. 751.
62 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Nullification, XXIII. 763. With this read Andrew
Jackson, XIII. 533, and John C. Calhoun, IV. 683.
Opposition to Slavery, XXIII. 765. William Lloyd
Garrison, X. 85. History of Slavery, XXII.
(beginning near the bottom of page 138 and
Slavery. V t> t> l & J
continuing to the middle of the second column,
page 142). Henry Clay, V. 817; Daniel Web-
ster, XXIV. 471 ; Stephen A. Douglas, VII. UJ.
Entering now upon the period of the Civil War and
the reconstruction which followed it, XXIII. 774-784, we
may read, for additional information, the articles Abra-
ham Lincoln, XIV. 658, U. S. Grant, sup. 1442, Jefferson
Davis, sup. 996, and Robert E. Lee, XIV. 399.
Read also the article on the Confederate States of
America, sup. 884.
Before concluding this course of reading, it will be well
to notice another very important article, or rather series of
articles, relating to the history of our country.
Supplemen- Among the articles comprising the American sup-
„, . plements to the Britannica there are eighteen
Chapters. * &
pages of matter, sup. 2983-3001, which should be
read, and some of it studied thoroughly. The facts there
given are of interest and importance to every American
citizen. Here are the headings of some of the sections:
The admission of the several States, p. 2985.
Representatives in Congress, p. 2984.
Crime in the United States, p. 2986.
Presidential elections, p. 2987.
Centre of Population, p. 2988.
Recent History of the United States, p. 2993.
II. ANCIENT HISTORY.
In indicating the following course of reading, an attempt
will be made to cover all the more important periods of
THREE COURSES OE READING IN HISTORY. 6$
ancient history, and at the same time not to mark out
more than can be mastered within a reasonable length of
time. It is possible that the reader will enlarge it at
many points by reading entire articles, of which only
parts are here indicated; but, whether he does this or
not, In: should find himself at the end of the course pos-
sessed of a good general knowledge of ancient history, of
its leading characters, and its more interesting
Oriental scenes and incidents.
Countries. EGYPT. — A long and very scholarly article on
this country is contained in the seventh volume
of the Britaiinica. Read the following sections with spe-
cial care :
Description of Egypt, page 702 ; its ancient inhabitants,
page 713 ; its chronology, page 728 ; the Egyptian dynas-
ties, page 730; the twelfth dynasty, page 734; the acces-
sion of Ptolemy I., page 745.
Assyria and Babylonia. — Read the entire article on
these countries, III. 183. Read also the description of
Babylon, III. 182, and of Nineveh, XVII. 511 ; also, the
account of Jonah, XIII. 736, and that of Berosus, III. 607.
Phoenicia. — Read the greater part of the article under
this heading, and especially the following sections : De-
scription of Phoenicia, XVIII. 801, 802 ; origin of the
Phoenicians, page 803 ; navigation, trades, and colonies,
pages 804-807. Read also the articles Tyre, XXIII. 710,
and Sidon, XXII. 35.
PERSIA. — In volume XVIII. of the Britannica, one hun-
dred pages are devoted to Persia. The history of ancient
Persia extends from page 561 to page 616. If your time is
limited, begin with the section entitled Medo-Persian Em-
pire, page 561 ; read the history of Cyrus, page 564, and
of his successors, to the accession of Artaxerxes, page 573.
The account of the expedition against Greece may be de-
64 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
ferred until its proper place is reached in Greek his-
tory.
GREECE. — With the history of this country it is neces-
sary to spend much more time. Begin by reading the whole
of Section I. — " Greek History to the Death of
Alexander the Great" — volume XL, pages
Greece
89-105. For collateral reading, see the follow-
ing articles : Troy, XXIII. 577-582; Lycurgus
XV. 95 ; Sparta, XXII. 369 ; Greek Games, X. 64. While
studying the history of Attica, XL 95, refer to the article
Athens, III. 1, and read with particular care the descrip-
tion given of that city by Pausanias, III. 9. Solon's ac-
count of his own work, XL 97, is supplemented by a
much fuller account in the twenty-second volume of the
Britannica, page 253. Here, too, it will be well to read
the biography of Pisistratus, XIX. 130. The events which
follow the historic battle of Marathon, IX. 99, bring
prominently forward the great rival statesmen, Aristides,
II. 504, and Themistocles, XXIII. 250. Then follows
the period of Athenian supremacy, XL 100, and in con-
nection with it the article on Pericles, XVIII. 529, should
be read. With the Theban supremacy, read Epaminon-
das, VIII. 456 ; and, with the decay of Greek civic life XL
103, study the excellent article on Demosthenes, VII. 6j.
Turn, now, to the article Macedonian Empire, XV.
138, and read down to the account of the departure of
Alexander on his great expedition against Persia. From
this point, continue the story with the article Alexan-
der the Great, I. 480. The death of Alexander, as
you will learn, was the signal for the breaking up of his
empire. Ptolemy, one of his generals, established him-
self in Egypt, VII. 745 ; Seleucus, another general,
founded a new Persian empire, with its capital at Seleu-
cia, on the Tigris, XVIII. 58 ; and Antipater, who had
THREE COURSES OF READING IX HISTORY. 65
been made regent of Macedonia, maintained the integrity
of Greece, XV. 144. We need not follow now the his-
tory of these fragments of Alexander's great empire —
their wars with one another, and their internal dissensions.
A new empire was about to arise which should overpower
them all.
ROME. — The article under this heading, XX. 731-837,
embraces a complete and very interesting sur-
Roman vey of the history of the Eternal City from its
History. foundation in legendary times to the year 1870.
Read, as a beginning, the first sixteen pages of
the article, to the section entitled, " Rome and the Medi-
terranean States." Numerous collateral references present
themselves, but, if your time is limited, they may be omit-
ted, and the reading of the principal article may be con-
tinued. ' The story becomes very interesting now, and you
need not be told to read it carefully. The second Punic
War brings to our notice Haxxibal, XI. 441, and the
elder SciPlO, XXI. 466. In connection with the third
Punic War we shall read of the younger Scipio, XXI.
468, and of Cato the Censor, V. 239. Other collateral
readings will include: Marius, XV. 549; Sulla, XXIII.
632; Cicero, V. 770; Catiline, V. 338; Pompey, XIX.
450; and Julius Caesar, IV. 633.
These readings ought to give you a very complete
knowledge of the history of Rome, in the palmy and he-
roic days of the Republic, as well as in the period of that
Republic's degeneracy.
The story of the Empire begins on page 769, of the
twentieth volume ; it ends with the downfall of the West-
ern Empire (a. D. 476), as described on page 781. Let us,
however, continue our reading with the Eastern Empire,
until it, too, is ended with the fall of Constantinople, A. D.
1453. We shall find this part of the story in the article
5
66 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
GREECE, XI. 1 10-120. On the thread of these two articles
the following biographies, each in its proper place, may
be strung.
Augustus, III. 79; Tiberius, XXIII. 335 ; Nero, XVII.
347; Trajan, XXIII. 502; Hadrian, XI. 363; Commodus,
VI. 207 ; Constantine, VI. 298 ; Justinian, XIII. 792.
For further collateral reading, add the following arti-
cles : Goths, X. 846; Vandals, XXIV. 58; Attila, III. 61.
This course of reading embraces in the aggregate about
150 pages of the Britannica. By reading an hour or so
regularly every evening, one may complete it in
a short time ; and there is no doubt but that
Conclusion. , , .,, , . . . r . .
the reader will obtain from it a tar more satisfac-
tory view of ancient history than can be gained
from any of the so-called " Universal Histories." The rea-
son is obvious. Here the subject is presented as in a paint-
ing, with a distinct background, and the foreground ap-
propriately filled with lifelike figures. It is no mere
catalogue of events that you have been studying ; it is
history itself.
III. MODERN HISTORY.
TJic MoJiammedan Empi?-c. — The first part of the article,
Mohammedanism, XVI. 545, relates the story of Mo-
hammed and the first four caliphs. Read this part care-
fully. Then proceed to .the second part, XVI.
The Arab 5^5, which gives an account of Moslem con-
Conquest, quest and dominion down to the capture of
Baghdad by Jenghis Khan, A. D. 1258. The
most important event for us during this latter period is
the conquest of Spain, a full account of which may be
found in the article SPAIN, XXII. 3 1 2-3 1 5.
Continental l:urope from a. d. 476 to a. d. 1454. — The
period of ten centuries which intervened between the fall
THREE COURSES OF READING IN HISTORY. 67
of the Western Empire and the capture of Constantinople
by the Turks may be briefly studied. The Franks invade
Gaul, IX. 528; the Goths and Lombards establish them-
selves in Italy, XIII. 467; the Visigoths gain
control of bpain, XXII. 308; anew empire is
Middle : ,. , , , _ , , ~, .
established by CHARLEMAGNE, V. 402. This
The
vliddl
Ages
brings us to the year 814. From this point to
the close of the period only a few events need be noticed.
The rise of the feudal monarchy in France, IX. 536; the
Hapsburg dynasty, X. 491, and III. 124; the house of
Brandenburg in Germany, XX. 4. Now read the ac-
count of the Hundred Years' War between France and
England, IX. 545-551. This prepares us for the study
of the article on Feudalism, IX. 119, and the various
notices of CHIVALRY indicated in the Index volume,
page 96.
The chief events of this period are connected with the
Crusades, which are the subject of an interesting and im-
portant article, VI. 622. In connection with the above-
named articles there is room for a good deal of collateral
reading. Study the following articles :
Venice, XXIV. 141 ; Florence, IX. 333 ; Medici, XV.
783; Naples, VII. 191 ; Hanseatic League, XI. 449; and
a part of the article on commerce, VI. 199-201.
From a. D. 1454 to the French Revolution. — Among the
important events of this period were the following :
The discovery of America, X. 179-192.
The invention of printing, XXIII. 687.
Modern The Reformation, XX. 319.
Europe. The invention of the steam engine, XXII. 473.
The study of the history of this period may
begin with the RENAISSANCE, XX. 380. In connection
with this study, refer to the historical portion of each of
the following articles ;
68 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Austria, III. 1 24—13 1 ; Prussia, XX. 1-11; Holland,
XII. 70-82; France, IX. 552-596.
See also Italy, XIII. 482 ; Spain, XXII. 339.
The portions of this history which will claim our chief
attention are: The career of CHARLES V., X. 413; the
struggle of the Netherlands with Spain, XII. 74-77; the
Thirty Years' War, III. 125. In connection with these,
read: Wallenstein, XXIV. 328; Gustavus Adolphus, XL
333; Louis XIV., IX. 573-583; Philip II. of Spain,
VIII. 743; Catherine de Medici, V. 235; Peter the
Great, XVIII. 698; Charles XII. of Sweden, IV. 420;
Frederick the Great, IX. 735 ; and Catherine II. of Russia,
V. 233.
From the French Revolution to the Present Time. — The
leading article for the study of this period is that on
FraisXE from page 596 to page 629, volume
The XlXth IX. Here you may read (i) of the Revolution,
Century, page 596 ; (2) of the Republic, page 604 ; (3) of
the Empire, page 615; (4) of the subsequent
nistory of France to the close of the presidency of M.
Grevy. A supplementary article, sup. 1323, brings the
history of France down to date. In connection with the
above, read the following biographical sketches : Mira-
beau, XVI. 492; Marie Antoinette, XV. 540; Robes-
pierre, XX. 601 ; Danton, VI. 815'; Marat, XV. 526.
The history of NAPOLEON fills thirty-seven pages of the
Britannica, XVII. 162. In connection with this article,
read the following: Josephine, XIII. 751; Talleyrand,
XXIII. 29; Wellington, XXIV. 493.
These articles alone will give us the best part of the
political history of Continental Europe down to the year
181 5. The more important events which have since oc-
curred outside of France may then be read :
The liberation of Greece, XL 125.
THRE1 C01 RSES OJ READING IN HISTORY. 69
The Crimean war, XXI. 102.
The unification of Italy, XIII. 466.
The Austro-Prussian war, X. 502.
The Franco-Prussian war, X. 503-506.
And now you will no longer need the help of the GUIDE.
Almost any information that you may desire can be found
by turning to the proper heading in the Britannica as in-
dicated in the Index volume.
For events that have occurred since 1879, as we^ as f°r
the biographies of men who were living at that time, it is
always well to consult the American supplements. For
example, there is no separate article on Bismarck in
the main portion of the Britannica; but in the supple-
ment, page 478, there is a complete biographical sketch,
and in the Index volume (page 57) there are references
to still other articles in which he is mentioned.
Here also are to be found articles relating to many other
historical events of recent occurrence. See
Home Rule, sup. 1602.
Corea and the war between China and Japan in 1895,
sup. 917.
The British Dominions — England. — In the article
Britannia, IV. 352, an account is given of the ancient
Britons, and of the occupancy of their country
Early by the Romans previous to its settlement by
Britain. the English. The historical part of the article
ENGLAND fills about one hundred pages (VIII-
263-367), which may be read at your odd moments of
leisure. The history of England since 1874 is succinctly
told in sup. 1449.
From these articles alone you may obtain a good prac-
tical knowledge of English history. In connection with
them, however, it will be profitable to read the following
briefer articles :
JO GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
William the Conqueror, XXIV. S74-
Richard Cceur de Lion, XX. 539.
Henry VIII., XI. 662.
English Queen Mary, XV. 592.
Biography. Lady Jane Grey, XI. 193.
Queen Elizabeth, VIII. 142.
Sir Francis Drake, VII. 389.
Charles I., V. 404.
Oliver Cromwell, VI. 597.
William III., XXIV. 578.
Queen Anne, II. 62.
Marlborough, XV. 553.
Lord Chatham, V. 540.
Charles James Fox, IX. 494.
William' Pitt, XIX. 134.
Read, also, Armada, II. 543, and English Costumes,
IV. 465.
Scotland. — See an article on SCOTLAND, XXI. 471-520.
Read also for an account of specially important
Scottish periods in Scottish history, the following Bio-
History, graphical sketches :
William Wallace, XXIV. 326.
Robert Bruce, XX. 592.
Mary Queen of Scots, XV. 594.
Ireland. — The historical part of the article IRELAND,
XIII. 214-272, is extremely interesting. It includes such
topics as the following: Legendary history of
Irish Ireland, page 243 ; Scottish conquest of Ulster,
History. page 246; early Irish church, page 248; Anglo-
Norman invasion, page 258 ; Cromwell's cam-
paign, page 267; James II. in Ireland, page 286; struggle
for independence, page 270; Fenianism, page 271.
India. — For a history of the English in India, see
article INDIA, XII. 796-812. Read, also, the biogra-
THREE COURSES OF READING IN HISTORY. J\
phics of Robert Give, VI. 8, and Warren Hastings, XI.
512.
Africa. — For an account of the various possessions and
dependencies in Africa, refer to the Index vol-
British unie, and read what is said in the Britannica
Colonies. with reference to each of the several colonies
or countries. Study particularly the article on
the present condition of Africa, sup. 59-83. Read, also,
the special articles on
Natal, XVII. 239.
Cape Colony, V. 44-49.
Rhodesia, sup. 2544; Cecil Rhodes, sup. 2543.
Jameson, L. S., sup. 1 73 r .
Stanley, Henry M., sup. 2777.
Australia. — For the history of the exploration and set-
tlement of this continent, see AUSTRALIA, III, 103-106.
There still remain in the Britannica, hundreds of histori-
cal and biographical articles which have not been men-
tioned in this chapter. But you can find them, if need
be, without the help of a guide. Having been
Other conducted thus far along the road, you will now
Courses. have no difficulty in making your own way.
With a little study and care you may even mark
out another course of historical reading for yourself; for
the Britannica contains the materials for very many such
courses.
72 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER VII.
FIVE COURSES OF READING IN THE HISTORY OF
LITERATURE.
COURSE THE FIRST. — AMERICAN LITERATURE.
" O strange New World, that yet wast never young,
Whose youth from thee by gripin' want was wrung,
Brown foundlin' o' the woods, whose baby bed
Was prowled round by the Injun's cracklin' tread,
An' who grew'st strong thru' shifts an' wants an' pains,
Nursed by stern men with empires in their brains ! "
Let us begin this study by a review of the history of
our own literature, for it is in the institutions and produc-
tions of his own country that the pride and hope of
every true American should be centered. " The number
of writers who have acquired some amount of well-founded
reputation in the United States is startling." In the
course of study which we shall here offer, we can do little
more than refer the student to the Britannica 's numerous
biographical sketches of American writers. The special
article on American Literature, I. 718-735, written by
the late Professor Nichol of Glasgow, is worthy of our
careful attention ; and the first two chapters of that article
should be read by way of introduction to the course which
we have before us. The first part of the third chapter (I.
720) will introduce us to colonial literature and the earliest
American writers.
HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 73
Captain John Smith, whose description of Virginia is
usually spoken of as the first American book, is the sub-
ject of a long and interesting article, XXII.
Colonial l73- But Smith's book can scarcely be called
Writers. literature — certainly not in the better sense of
the term. The first genuine literary work per-
formed in America was George Sandys's translation of the
works of Ovid, made on the banks of the James River,
and published in 1626. See the article, George Sandys,
XXI. 262 (also Ovid, XVIII. 78). Of other early writers
in America, there are a few whose biographies should be
studied. Read the lives of the great theologians and con-
troversialists of colonial New England :
Roger Williams, XXIV. 586.
John Cotton, XII. 726.
John Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians, VIII. 136.
Cotton Mather, XV. 631.
Jonathan Edwards, VII. 688.
Then turn to the article on Benjamin Franklin, IX. 711.
This, with the first two columns of Chapter III., on page
720 of volume I. will complete our study of the Colonial
Period.
Concerning the orators, statesmen, and poets who flour-
ished during the Revolutionary Period there is much
to read ; and yet of the writings of that period there
remains to us but little that is of permanent
Statesmen literary value. Read what is said on this sub-
and Poets, ject on pages 721 and 722 of the first volume
of the Britannica. Read the articles on
Patrick Henry, XI. 676.
Alexander Hamilton, XI. 412.
Thomas Jefferson, XIII. 613.
John Trumbull, XXIII. 592.
Joel Barlow, III. 377.
74 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Coming now to the literature of the NINETEENTH CEN-
TURY, let us read first of the great historians :
George Bancroft, sup. 334.
John Bach McMaster, sup. 1061.
Historians. TT7.,,. T T „ wr^r
William H. Prescott, XIX. 702.
John Lothrop Motley, XVII. 2.
Francis Parkman, sup. 2296.
Of the orators :
Daniel Webster, XXIV. 471.
Henry Clay, V. 817.
John C. Calhoun, IV. 683.
Edward Everett, VIII. 736.
Of writers of fiction and miscellanies :
Washington Irving, XIII. 372.
Nathaniel P. Willis, XXIV. 587.
Novelists, James Fenimore Cooper, VI. 337.
etc. Charles Brockden Brown, IV. 383.
Nathaniel Hawthorne, XI. 536.
William Dean Howells, sup. 1624.
Of essayists and theologians :
William Ellery Channing, V. 393.
Essayists, Theodore Parker, XVIII. 300.
etc Ralph Waldo Emerson, sup. 1 195.
Henry D. Thoreau, XXIII. 313.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, sup. 1598.
Of poets :
Henry W. Longfellow, XIV. 860.
Edgar Allan Poe, XIX. 255.
William Cullen Bryant, sup. 601.
Poets
James Russell Lowell, sup. 1925.
John G. Whittier, sup. 3146.
W^lt. Whitman, sup. 3145.
Read, next, Chapter IV., pages 722-734, Volume I.
The new era in the history of American literature be'
HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 75
gan at about the time of the Civil War. The products of
that period, and the characteristics which distinguished
them, are described in an able article by Prof. F. L. Pattee,
in sup. 158-165. See, also, American Drama, sup. 1076.
If the student wishes to continue this course of reading
so as to include a still more minute survey of our recent
literature, with a study of the lives and works of some of
the later writers, he can do so without further direction
from the Guide. By consulting the Index vol-
Recent ume ne Wl^ De aD^e m most cases to find any
Literature, name of real prominence in American literature.
A course of reading pursued in the manner here
indicated cannot fail to impart a comprehensive knowl-
edge of the history of our own literature. If conducted
in connection with the reading of extracts from the writ-
ers mentioned, its educative value can scarcely be over-
rated. The readings may conclude with the " Summary,"
I- 734-735-
COURSE THE SECOND — ENGLISH LITERATURE.
See the special article on English literature, VIII. 403.
This is a long and valuable contribution by
Eleven Thomas Arnold, and should be read in parts in
Periods. connection with the following short articles, or
parts of articles :
I. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 596-1066.
The Venerable Beda, III. 480.
Caedmon, the first English poet, IV. 629.
King Alfred, I. 506; VIII. 404.
^Elfric, the Grammarian, I. 182.
II. ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD, 1066-1215.
Romances and legends of King Arthur, V. 322 ; II. 649 ;
VIII. 3£Q4 IX. 639.
76 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Layamon (13th century), XIV. 374.
Geoffrey of Monmouth (12th century), X. 172.
III. THE TRANSITION PERIOD, 1215-1350.
Matthew Paris (13th century), XV. 633.
Duns Scotus, VII. 545.
Roger Bacon (died 1292), III. 218.
Ormin's Rhythmic gospels, VIII. 395.
Robert Manning, XV. 494.
IV. EARLY ENGLISH LITERATURE, I35O-I477.
John Wickliffe, XXIV. 708.
John Gower, XI. 21.
Geoffrey Chaucer, V. 449 ; VIII. 41 1.
John Lydgate, XV. 97.
The invention of printing, XI. 336; VIII. 413.
Caxton, the first English printer, V. 279; VIII. 398.
V. THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION, I477-1579.
Sir Thomas More, XVI. 815.
John Skelton, XXII. 119.
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, XXII. 694; XXIV. 704.
Sir Thomas Sackville, VII. 372.
Roger Ascham, II. 677.
VI. THE ELIZABETHAN ERA, 1579-1620.
Sir Philip Sidney, XXII. 35 ; XVIII. 346.
Edmund Spenser, XXII. 392.
William Shakespeare, XXI. J^y.
Ben Jonson, XIII. 741.
Sir Frantis Bacon, III. 200; VIII. 422.
VII. THE PURITAN PERIOD, 1620-1660.
Jeremy Taylor, XXIII. 93.
Edmund Waller, XXIV. 330.
history OF LITERATURE. J 7
Abraham Cowley, VI. 532.
Thomas Hobbes, XII. 31.
John Milton, XVI. 324; XIX. 267.
VIII. PERIOD OF -nil-. RESTORATION, 1660-1700.
John Dryden, VII. 488.
Samuel Butler, IV. 588; XXI. 319.
John Bunyan, IV. 526.
John Locke, XIV. 751.
IX. IN THE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE, 1700-1727.
Daniel Defoe, VII. 26.
Joseph Addison, I. 146.
Alexander Pope, XIX. 481.
Dean Swift, XXII. 761 ; XXI. 320.
X. THE GEORGIAN ERA, 1727-180O.
William Cowper, VI. 533.
Robert Burns, IV. 566.
Richard Brinsley Sheridan, XXI. 797.
Samuel Richardson, XX. 543.
Henry Fielding, IX. 142 ; XXI. 320.
Laurence Sterne, XXII. 541.
Samuel Johnson, XIII. 719.
Oliver Goldsmith, X. 760.
David Hume, XII. 346.
Edward Gibbon, X. 572.
William Robertson, XX. 599.
Bishop Butler, IV. 582 ; I. 792.
XI. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Sir Walter Scott, XXL 544.
Lord Byron, IV. 604; XXL 320.
Percy Bysshe Shelley, XXI. 789.
78 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Robert Southey, XXII. 289.
William Wordsworth, XXIV. 668; XIX. 271.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, VI. 135.
John Keats, XIV. 22.
Alfred Tennyson, sup. 2877.
Robert Browning, sup. 592.
Charles Dickens, VII. 173.
William M. Thackeray, XXIII. 214; XXI. 320.
George Eliot (Mrs. Mary Ann Cross), sup. 951.
Sir Edwin Arnold, sup. 243.
Matthew Arnold, sup. 244.
Thomas Carlyle, sup. 701.
John Richard Green, sup. 1460.
John Ruskin, sup. 2589.
Poet Laureate, sup. 1841.
Read now the article on Canadian Literature, sup.
675-677
COURSE THE THIRD — ANCIENT LITERATURE.
i. Greek Literature. — The article on Greek literature,
XI. 136, is a comprehensive sketch of the literary devel-
opment of Greece, showing how its successive
Greek periods were related to each other, and marking
Writers. the dominant characteristics of each. It should
be read in parts, in connection with the separate
articles relating to the lives and particular works of Greek
writers. The study of this literature naturally begins
with the Homeric hymns and with the two great epics,
the Iliad and the Odyssey. Seethe article Homer, XII. 108.
After this read the following articles on three great
poets of ancient Greece :
Hesiod, XI. jjy.
Simonides, XXII. 83.
Pindar, XIX. 98.
HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 79
This brings us to the GREEK DRAMA. Read the first
two paragraphs on the Attic Literature, XI.
The 14°: then turn to the article Drama, VII. 403,
Drama. and read the six pages devoted to Greek drama.
After this take up each of the great dramatists
separately, the tragedians first :
iEschylus, I. 208.
Sophocles, XXII. 271.
Euripides, VIII. 673.
Then re-read what is said of GREEK COMEDY, VII. 407,
and study the article on the great comic dramatist, Aris-
tophanes, II. 507.
PROSE writers will next claim our attention, and
especially the great historians, Herodotus, XI.
756; Xenophon, XXIV. 720, and Thucydides?
XXIII. 322. After these make a short study of
the Greek orators, XI. 142, and especially of
Demosthenes, VII. 67, and of Isocrates, XIII. 388.
The Greek philosophers will then come in for brief men-
tion. Read the biographical portion of each of the fol-
lowing articles :
Philoso- Socrates, XXII. 231.
phers. PlatO, XIX. 1 94.
Aristotle, II. 510.
Attention may now be given to the chapter entitled,
The Literature of the Decadence, in XI. 142,
wherein is given a brief survey of the literary history of
the Alexandrian and Graeco-Roman periods of
Later intellectual activity. Here a number of inter-
Writers, esting names present themselves. In the de-
partment of pastoral poetry, we shall read of
Theocritus, XXII. 252, and of his disciples and imitators,
Bion, III. 696, and Moschus, XVI. 855. In the field of criti-
cism we shall learn of Aristarchus, II. 504, whose studies,
Historians
and
Orators.
',*,-
80 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
with those of his disciples, gradually formed the basis for
the science of grammar. In mathematics we find the
noted name of Euclid, VIII. 655. In prose fiction we
have Lucian, XV. 42, the inventor of the art of the story-
writer. In history we have Josephus, the historian of the
Jewish nation, XIII. 751. In biography, Plutarch stands
forth preeminent, XIX. 232. In geography appears the
noted name of Strabo. In rhetoric we have Cassius
Longinus, XIV. 864, the reputed author of the still
famous essay on Sublimity. In philosophy are the great
names of Epictetus, VIII. 471, and Marcus Aurelius,
III. 86.
But it is time to bring these readings in Greek literature
to a close. It would of course be easy to extend them
almost indefinitely; and the student who wishes to do so
may, by referring to the numerous articles devoted to the
lives of famous Greek writers, continue it to almost any
desired length.
2. Roman Literature. — In the department of Roman
literature we shall take as the basis for our studies the very
comprehensive and scholarly article on that subject in
XX. 715-727. This article, which gives a general survey
of the progress of literature during the different
First periods of Roman history, should be read in
Period. sections, with constant reference to the sep-
arate articles devoted to the lives of the most
famous Latin writers. In connection with the chapter
on the first period (from 240 B. C. to about 80 B. C.), read
the account of the Roman drama, VII. 409, 412. Then
study the history of the early Roman dramatists :
N;uvius, XVII. 161. Plautus, XIX. 215.
Ennius, VIII. 447- Terence, XXIII. 186.
In connection with the chapter on the second period
(80 15. C. to 42 B. C.), read the following special articles :
HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Si
Second Cicero, V. -~. Caesar, IV, 633.
Period. Sallust, XXI. 219. Lucretius, XV. 50.
With the third period (42 B. C. to 17 A. D.) we enter
upon the study of the AUGUSTAN AGE OF Ro-
Third MAX LITERATURE, III. 82-84. Here a noble
Period. list of names is presented, demanding a special
study of the following biographical articles :
Virgil, XXIV. 248. Horace, XII. 159.
Ovid, XVIII. 78. Livy, XIV. 725.
During the fourth period, extending for more than a
century (17 A. D. to 130 A. D.), Roman literature continues
to flow in the old channels, but there is a mani-
Fourth fest deterioration in almost every department
Period. of literary effort. And yet among the drama-
tists we have Persius XVIII. 661, and Juvenal
XIII. 804; among historians, Tacitus, XXIII. 19; among
philosophers, Seneca, XXI. 658 ; among rhetoricians, Quin-
tilian, XX. 187; and among poets, Martial, XV, 577, and
Statius, XXII. 466. " The last writer who combines genius
with something of national spirit, is the poet Claudian (V.
815), who wrote his epics under the immediate inspiring
influence of a great national crisis and a national hero."
After him there is perhaps only one Latin writer whose
life and works are deserving of study in this connection.
That writer is BoetiusdII. 855), who lived in the fifth cen-
tury of our era, and who is described by Gibbon as " the
last of the Romans whom Cato or Tully could have
acknowledged for their countryman."
COURSE THE FOURTH — FOURTEEN GREAT LITERATURES.
1. Hebrew. — XI. 597. The Bible, III. 634-641 ; Early
Israelitish literature, XIII. 408 ; the Talmud, XXIII. 35 ;
the Midrash, XVI. 285 ; the Mishnah, XVI. 502.
2. Sanskrit. — XXI. 273-286.
82 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
3. Persian. — XVIII. 655.
4. Greek. — XI. 136. Homer, XII. 108; Xenophon,
XXIV. 720; Demosthenes, VII. 67.
5. Roman. — XX. 715-727. Caesar, IV. 633 ; Cicero, V.
770; Augustan Age, III. 82; Virgil, XXIV. 248; Ovid,
XVIII. 7S ; Livy, XIV. 725.
6. Chinese. — V. 653.
7. French. — IX. 6$j. Rabelais, XX. 193 ; Montaigne,
XIV. 767; Corneille, VI. 417; Pascal, XVIII. 333 ; Mo-
liere, XVI. 624; La Fontaine, XIV. 203; Racine, XX.
203; Boileau, III. 863 ; Bossuet, IV. 70 ; Voltaire, XXIV.
285; Rousseau, XXI. 23; Victor Hugo, IX. 676, sup.
1629 ; Cousin, V. 521 ; Guizot, XI. 268 ; Dumas, VII. 521 ;
George Sand, VII. 507 ; Emile Zola, sup. 3231 ; the French
Academy, sup. 31.
8. German. — X. 522. Luther, XV. 71; Arndt, II. 622 ;
Wieland, XXIV. 558; Lessing, XIV. 478; Herder, XI.
727 ; Goethe, X. 721; Schiller, XXI. 395; Novalis, XL
472; Hegel, XL 612; Heine, XL 625; Paul Heyse, X.
545; Spielhagen, X. 545, sup. 2768; Fritz Reuter, XX.
494; Auerbach, 288 sup.; Freytag X. 545, sup. 1343;
Ebers, sup. 1 1 10.
9. Italian. — XIII. 498. Dante, VI. 809; Petrarch,
XVIII. 706; Boccaccio, III. 842; Ariosto, II. 502; Al-
ficri, I. 502 ; Carducci, sup. 697.
10. Spanish. — XXII. 252. Lope de Vega, XXIV. 121 ;
Cervantes, V. 347 ; Calderon, IV. 659.
11. Russian. — XXI. 102; Turgenieff, XXIII. 488 ; Tol-
stoi, sup. 2923 ; Gogol, X. 738 ; Marie Bashkirtseff, sup.
373-
12. — Swedish — XXII. 753. Tegner, XXIII. no; Fred-
erika Bremer, IV. 256; Runeberg, XXI. 60; Topelius,
XXII. 758; Rydberg, sup. 2595.
13. Norwegian. — XVII. 589. Bjornstjerne Bjornson,
HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 83
sup. 481. Henrik Ibsen, sup. 1645; Asbjornsen, sup.
260.
14. Danish.— VII. 89. Oehlenschlager, XVII. 730;
Hans Christian Andersen, sup. 178.
COURSE THE FIFTH— GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT
(FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS
Prose Literature. — Let us begin our general study of
prose literature by reading the article on History, XII.
19. Numerous collateral and additional references relat-
ing to the same subject will suggest themselves, and should
be traced out and studied. Among these are the follow-
ing: Influence of history upon the development of
culture, II. 121 ; relation of history to evolution, VIII.
759: the philosophy of history, XVIII. 796; relation of
history to archaeology, II. 334, etc. Following the read-
ing of these, we may make a brief study of the
distinctive features of the works of certain great
History. ... „ , , , 7 , ,
historians, ror example, read what is said of
Herodotus, XI. 758; of Thucydidcs, XXIII.
325; of Livy, XIV. 726; of Sallust, XXI.. 219; of Tacitus,
XXIII. 20: of Villehardouin, XXIV. 229; of Robertson,
XX. 599; of Hallam, XI. 393; of Macaulay, XV. 128.
Fiction. — Read the special article on Romance, XX. 632 ;
also the article by Andrew Lang, entitled, TALES, XXIII.
27. Let this be followed by a study of the romance lit-
erature of different countries. Observe what is said of
French romance, IX.63S ; of German}-, X. 527 ;
of Spanish, XXII. 3^4; of Arabian, XXIII. 5 ;
Fiction. r ^ . ...
of Persian, XVIII. 657. As to romanticism in
English literature, see XX. S57. The influ-
ence of romanticism upon French literature is described
in IX. 675 ; and upon German literature, in X. 541.
84 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The Drama. — Study the very comprehensive article on
the drama, VII. 391. Read about the drama in the time
of Shakespeare, XXI. 759 ; about the Greek
drama, XI. 140; about the French drama, IX.
644; about the Spanish drama, XXII. 356;
about the miracle-plays, V. 324. Read the spe-
cial article on the theatre, XXIII. 222.
Poetry. — The scholarly article on Poetry, XIX. 256-273,
is worthy of careful study. It would be well to
read it by paragraphs, making reference in the
meanwhile to additional articles on the lives
and works of the great poets therein mentioned.
Read Wordsworth's theory of poetry, XXIV. 670. See
what is said of poetry as a fine art, IX. 207.
Satire. — Read the article on satire, XXI.
317. Study the lives and works of the great
Satire J ' J . & .
modern satirists : Rabelais, XX. 193 ; Voltaire,
XXIV. 285; Dean Swift, XXII. 761 ; Thacke-
ray, XXIII. 214, etc.
SUPPLEMENTARY COURSE. — BOOKS AND LIBRARIES.
This course may consist chiefly of a study of the two
important articles on books, XVIII. 144, and libraries,
XIV. 509.
The Advocates' Library, sup. 53.
Astor Library, sup. 272.
Boston Public Library, sup. 527.
Libraries in Chicago, sup. 783.
See " Some Bookish Subjects " in the chapter entitled
The Bookman, in this GUIDE.
For libraries in the United States, see XIV. 534, and
sup. 1873. An interesting account of the Library of Con-
gress is given in the article beginning on page 2139,
supplements.
PHILOLOGY AND HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 85
CHAPTER VIII.
READINGS IN PHILOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF
LANGUAGE.
" They have been at a great feast of languages." — Love's Labour Lost.
Philoi.< >gv is that branch of knowledge which deals
with human speech, and with all that speech discloses as
to the nature and history of man. In the following
courses of reading it is proposed to give a general survey
of the principal languages of the world, their history and
the distinguishing characteristics of each. These courses
may be considered as either prefatory or supplementary
to the courses already indicated for readings in the his-
tory of literature. A fairly good knowledge of general
history, such as may be acquired from the readings desig-
nated in Chapter VI. of this volume, will add very much
to your ability to appreciate and fully understand the
courses which follow.
COURSE NO. I.
Begin with the article PHILOLOGY, XVIII. 765, and
read carefully that part which relates to the science of
language in general, pp. 765-778. This will
give a general view of the subject, and prepare
Philology. to , , . _ . , .,
you lor the more specific study of particular
languages. The following articles, or parts of
articles, may then be read :
History of language (article ANTHROPOLOGY), II. 117.
86 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Theories of evolution with respect to language, VIII.
769.
Language and ethnology, VIII. 621.
Language and thought, XX. 751.
Language and mythology, XVII. 137.
Aryan Languages, II. 697 and XVIII. 778 a. To this
family of languages belong ten groups or sub-families, as
follows :
1. Sanskrit.— XXI. 269; XL 841.
Aryan 2- Iranian. — XVIII. 134.
Languages. 3. Armenian. — II. 549.
4. Greek. — XI. 126. See also Greek litera-
ture ; and learn about the Romaic dialects which origi-
nated in the Greek, XL 135.
5. Albanian.-— XVIII. 784.
6. Italic. — This group includes the Latin language, for
a full history of which see XIV. 327. From the Latin
have sprung the Romance languages, which are the sub-
ject of a valuable article in XX. 661. The great modern
Romance languages are each treated in a separate article,
as follows :
(1) Italian, XIII. 491 ; XIV. 340.
(2) Spanish, XXII. 346.
(3) Portuguese, XIX. 555.
(4) Provencal, XIX. 867.
(5) French, IX. 629.
(6) Ladino, XIII. 492.
(7) Roumanian, XXIV. 269.
7. Ccltie. — This group of languages is treated very
briefly in XVIII. 785, and more fully in V. 297.
I 1 j The Gaelic language, which is a branch of the Celtic,
is the subject of a separate article in X. 6. Other branches
arc treated as follow
(2) Irish, V. 298.
PHILOLOGY AND HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 87
Vrmoric, V. 32 |.
(4) Cornish (dialect), V. 298.
(5) \\\l>h, V. 298, 314.
8. Germanic or Teutonic. — This great sub-family com-
prises two groups, known as the Eastern Germanic and
Western Germanic languages. In the former group be-
long the Gothic language, X. 852, and the Scandinavian
branch, XXI. 366. Of the Scandinavian languages there
are two subdivisions : (1) the Eastern Scandinavian, which
comprises,
Swedish, XXI. 370.
Danish, VII. 89, and XXI. Z7>
and (2) the Western Scandinavian, which comprises,
Norwegian, XXI. 369.
Icelandic, XII. 627.
The Western Germanic languages are each treated in a
separate article :
(1) English, VIII. 390.
(2) Frisian, IX. 788.
(3) German, X. 514.
(4) Dutch, XII. 84.
9. Baltic. — This group embraces three unimportant
groups, the first of which, Prussian, is now extinct (see
XVIII. 785). The other two are the Lithuanian, XXII.
148, and the Lettish, briefly referred to in VII. t 88, and
XVIII. 785
10. Slavonic. — XXII. 147. Of this group there are two
divisions, the Southern and the Western. The former in-
cludes the following languages :
(1) Russian, XXI. 109.
(2) Ruthenian, XIX. 309.
(3) Bulgarian, XXII. 149.
(4) Servian, XVIII. 544; XXII. 150.
(5) Slovenish, XXII. 150.
GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The latter or Western division includes,
(i) Bohemian, XXII. 151.
(2) Polish, XVIII. 785; XXII. 150.
The GUIDE has presented above a brief outline for the
study of the Aryan families of languages. The student
who follows this course of reading carefully will have ac-
quired no small knowledge of the science of philology,
and he will be prepared, by way of review, to study the
second part of the article on that subject, XVIII. 781-790.
COURSE NO. II.
A second and shorter course of study in philology might
include the Semitic family of languages. To this family
belong :
(1) The Hebrew language, XI. 594.
Semitic (2) The Phoenician, XXI. 641.
Languages. (3) The Assyrian, III. 192.
(4) The Syriac, II. 307.
(5) The Arabic, X. 595.
(6) The Abyssinian, XVI. 654.
By way of supplementing this course, a short time may
be spent in tracing the history and peculiarities of the
third great family of languages, the Hamitic (see XVIII.
778). Here we have :
(1) The Egyptian language, VII. 721.
(2) The Lybian languages, XVIII. 778.
(3) The Ethiopic languages, I. 263.
A great many other languages and dialects receive no-
tice in the Britannica. Not only students of philology,
but many curious readers will be pleased to
learn something about the language of the Gip-
neous h & & 1
Studies sies> X* "!3' tnat °f tne PaPuans> XVIII. 231 ;
that of the Hottentots, II. 312; or that of the
Kurds, XIV. 157. But we need enumerate no further.
PHILOLOGY \\l> HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. 89
We have conducted the student to a point whence he will
now be able to proceed in his researches without tin- help
o\ ,1 guide.
Here are a few subjects of general interest, which it is
well to know about :
Grammar, XI. 37.
Of General Dictionaries, VII. 179.
Interest. Americanisms, sup. 154.
Volapiik, sup. 3060.
See now the references in the chapter on TJic History
of Literature in this Guide ; also those in the chapter en-
titled The Writer.
90 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNTCA.
CHAPTER IX.
READINGS IN ASTRONOMY.
" And let my lamp at midnight hour
Be seen in some high lonely tower,
Where I may oft outwatch the Bear
With thrice great Hermes ; or unsphere
The Spirit of Plato, to unfold
What world or what vast regions hold
The immortal mind."
—John Milton.
THERE are two classes of persons who will be helped
by the courses of scientific reading proposed in this chap-
ter, and in those which follow: [ \ ). The young man or
young woman who is attempting to pursue some method
of self-instruction at home, and is not yet prepared to
grapple with the most difficult problems of science. (2).
The student who is already well started on the
woe asses waVj am| js anxious to extend and supplement
Students *-he information which he has acquired from
teachers and text-books, until he shall have
gotten down to the very bottom of the subjects which
he is studying. The first class will, as a general rule, be
profited most by the shorter and more popular articles in
the Britannica; the second will often find in the special
and more technical articles just that kind of thorough-
and comprehensiveness which scholars admire and
desire, and from which they alone are able to derive the
READINGS IN ASTRONOMY. 91
greatest benefit. It is here that the superiority of the
Britannica over every other work of reference is most
apparent— it has articles adapted to the needs and com-
prehension of every class of readers.
The following readings in astronomy are intended for
students who have attained to some proficiency in the
science ; and yet an effort has been made to meet the
wants of the self-taught home student as well as those of
the specialist and the scholar.
The home student should read the historical portion of
the article on Astronomy, beginning on page 744 of vol-
ume II., and ending on page 763. He will find this chap-
ter quite comprehensive, including nearly ten
istory pages 0f the Britannica, and giving an account
Astronomy °^ *ne Progrcss °f astronomical science from
the earliest ages down to the present time.
The college student will find the entire article on astron-
omy (sixty pages in all), II. 744, to be more complete
and satisfactory than most school text-books on the sub-
ject. The fact that it was written by Prof. R. A. Proc-
tor, the most famous of our later astronomers, is sufficient
guarantee of its accuracy. The supplementary article,
beginning on page 273 of the supplement, contains an ac-
count of all the important discoveries that have been made
within the past twenty years.
Still pursuing the study of the history of this subject,
read the entertaining article on ASTROLOGY, II. 738, and
see what is said of astronomy in Arabia, II. 264. After
that, read the biographies of the most famous
Astrono- astronomers, ancient and modern :
mers. Thales, XXIII. 217.
Arista rchus, II. 504.
Hipparchus, XI. 851.
Ptolemy, XX. 87.
92 GUIDE TO THE BRITANN1CA.
Copernicus, VI. 346.
Galileo, X. 30.
Tycho Brahe, IV. 200.
The Herschels, XI. 765, 768.
John Kepler, XIV. 45.
Laplace, XIV. 301.
Richard A. Proctor, sup. 2453.
Camille Flammarion, sup. 1286.
Samuel P. Langley, sup. 1831.
Simon Newcomb, sup. 2169.
You are now prepared to enter upon the study of de-
scriptive Astronomy. Begin with the Solar System, and
read what Professor Proctor says of the sun in II. 768;
then turn to J. Norman Lockyer's scholarly ar-
The Solar tide on' the same subject, XXII. 645. The
System. nebular theory of the origin of the sun and
planets will next claim your attention ; and of
this you will find, in XVII. 310, a full exposition and discus-
sion by Dr. R. S. Ball, the distinguished Irish astronomer.
The latest discoveries regarding the distance of the sun
are described in sup. 275.
And now, before proceeding farther, it will be interest-
ing to notice some curious facts concerning the manner
in which people of all ages and different nation-
Sun alities have regarded the sun. Among other
Worship. things, we shall learn how it was worshipped by
the Sabaeans, XXIV. 741 ; by the Phoenicians,
XVIII. 802; by the Greeks, II. 185; and by the ancient
Peruvians, I. 697.
Read what is said of solar myths, XVII. 157, and XV.
777 a; also the myth of Phaethon, XVIII. 727; that of
Adonis, I. 153; and that of Apollo, II. 185.
Festivals to the sun were held at Ileliopolis, see XIX.
91, and also in Japan, XIX. 92; and one of the most fa-
READINGS IN ASTRONOMY. 93
mous temples in the world was that of the sun at Baal-
bec, see III. 177.
Resuming the subject of descriptive astronomy, and the
study of the solar system, read next of the PLANETS in
their order :
Mercury, II. 777; Venus, II. 782; XIV. 582, XVIII.
246, and II. 754 and 796 ; the place of the Earth
The m the solar system, II. 766, and X. 214; Mars,
Planets. XIV. 46, and II. 776, 796; the Asteroids, II.
736, 806, and sup. 271 ; Jupiter, XVI. 250 and
II. 782, 808; Uranus, II. 758, XI. 767, and II. 782 ; Nep-
tune, XIV. 487, and II. 782, 813. Olbers's theory of the
origin of the asteroids is given in a brief biographical ar-
ticle on that great German astronomer, XVII. 752; and
the most recent facts concerning those interesting bodies
are stated in sup. 271.
The article on the MOON, XVI. 798, next claims atten-
tion. The moon is also described in II. 774, 782.
The For its motion, see XL 74; for its phases, II.
Moon. 797 ; for its influence on the tides, XXIII. 353—
356, 365, 368 ; for its influence on atmospheric
pressure, XVI. 124. The legends and myths of the moon
are duly noticed in XL 680, and XVII. 157.
Many interesting things are told about ECLIPSES. For
the nature and causes of eclipses, see II. 788
and 802 ; turn also to XIV. 581, and XXII. 650.
Eclipses. . .... . ,
borne historical tacts with relation to the obser-
vation of these phenomena are interesting.
The Chinese have very ancient records of such observa-
tions, see II. 745. The Assyrians also kept similar rec-
ords, III. 191.
Read what is said about COMETS, II. 813. The article
on this subject, VI. 182, belongs to mathematical astron-
94 C.UIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
omy. Notice Kepler's theories, XIV. 47 ; Leverrier's, XIV.
486; and Olbers's, XVII. 752. Recent observa-
tions on comets are described by Professor Simon
Con.ots. ._, . „ _. , ,
Newcomb in sup. 275. r or Biela s comet, see
VI. 192, and XVI. III. An account of the ap-
pearance of twin comets may be found in XVI. ill.
In the article on METEORS, XVI. 106, there is much
interesting information. Meteorites, or " falling stars,"
are noticed in XVI. 112, with the theories regarding their
origin, etc. See also AEROLITE, I. 184.
Passing now beyond the solar system, read first that
portion of the article on astronomy which refers particu-
larly to the fixed stars, II. 744, 823. For the classifica-
tion of these stars, with reference to magnitude,
The Fixed turn to XVIII. 840. An interesting notice of
Stars. new and variable stars is given in XXII. 651.
For the measurements of the stars, see XVI.
250; and for their spectroscopic analysis, see X. 215, and
XXII. 651.
Among other subjects which are of interest to students
of astronomy, we may mention the following:
The Zodiac, XXII. 791.
The Zodiacal Light, XXIV. 796.
The Galaxy (Milky Way), II. 818.
Corona, VI. 428.
Celestial Photometry, XVIII. 840.
If you would acquire a knowledge of astronomical in-
struments, read the valuable articles on the telescope,
XXIII. 135, and sup. 2871 ; also that on the transit cir-
cle, XIII. 515; the notice of the micrometer,
XVI. 242; of the sextant, XXI. 724; of the
astrolabe, X. 181. There are two articles on
Observatories which must not be omitted,
XVII. 708-717, and sup. 2236. See the description of
Astronomi-
cal
Instruments
READINGS [N ASTRONOMY. 95
Pond's astronomical instruments, XIX. 452, and of Roo-
mer's, XX. 620; also of the Orrery, sup. 2261.
Read of the famous American telescope-maker, Alvau
Clark, sup. 816.
In connection with the study of Astronomy, we very
naturally think of almanacs and calendars. The Britan-
nica gives a good deal of information concerning both of
these. The articles on the Almanac, I. 590,
and American Almanacs, sup. 137, are espe-
Almsricics
daily interesting. So, too, is that on the Cal-
endar, IV. 664. The different calendars that
have been, or are still in use, are each fully described :
The Egyptian calendar, VII. 728.
The Hebrew calendar, IV. 677.
The Mohammedan calendar, IV. 679.
The Burmese calendar, IV. 555.
The Siamese calendar, XXI. 853.
The Gregorian calendar, IV. 671.
The famous Mexican calendar-stone, I. 695.
The peculiar terms used in almanacs and calendars are
also explained, as :
Chronological eras or epochs, IV. 681 ; V. 711.
Epact, IV. 672.
Dominical letter, IV. 669, etc.
The various methods of measuring time are
described in XXIII. 392.
Difference between mean time and sidereal
time, VI. 14.
Equation of time in astronomy, II. 772.
Timepieces, VI. 13 ; XXIV. 394.
Sun-dials, VII. 153.
Clocks, VI. 13, and sup. 836; Watches, XXIV. 394.
Standard time, XII. 854.
g6 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER X.
A GENERAL COURSE OF READING IN BIOLOGY.
" Full nature swarms with life."
T/iomsoti, The Seasons.
BIOLOGY in its widest sense is the science of life and
living things. It therefore includes Zoology and Botany,
to which separate chapters are devoted in this GUIDE.
The following general course of reading, although far from
exhaustive, includes several chapters on subjects relating
to the foundation principles of the science. It is dis-
tinctively a course for advanced students.
Biology III. 679.
Protoplasm, XIX. 828, 12, 21, 43.
Morphology, XVI. 837.
General Histology, XII. 4; III. 681 ; XVI. 840.
Topics. Differentiation, XVI. 79.
Taxonomy, 1 1. 49; III. 683.
Classification, Botanical, XVI. 845, sup. 821-823 ; zo-
ological, II. 49.
Distribution, III. 684 ; of animals, VII. 267 ; of plants,
VII. 286.
Geological distribution of animals, VII. 281.
Continuity of life, III. 684.
Physiology, III. 684.
Animal physiology, XIX. 10.
Human physiology, XVII. 667.
Vegetable physiology, XIX. 43.
Reproduction, XX. 407.
READINGS IN BIOLOGY. 97
Gemmation, XXIII. 617.
Fission, III. 686.
Agamogenesis, XIII. 146.
Hereditary transmission, III. 687.
I I credity, I. 87.
Variation and Selection, XXIV. 76.
Individuality, III. 688.
/Etiology, III. 688.
Abiogenesis, I. 49.
Biogenesis, II. 689.
Evolution. ° or
Embryology, sup. 11 86.
Origin of Species, Darwin on, XXIV. 77, 81 ;
Lamarck on, XIV. 232.
Evolution, VIII. 744.
Neo-Darwinism, sup. 2160.
Phylogeny, II. 49; III. 690.
See, also Haeckel, XX. 422 ; Darwin, sup. 989 ; La-
marck, XIV. 231 ; Huxley, sup. 1639.
The Vegetable Kingdom. See Readings in Botany,
in this Guide.
Limits and Classification, III. 690.
Vegetable Thallophyta, XX. 430 ; XXIV. 125.
Kingdom. Cormophyta, III. 694.
The Animal Kingdom. See Readings in
Zoology in this Guide.
Acclimatization, I. 84.
Animal Breeds and Breeding, IV. 244.
Kingdom. Hybridism, XII. 422.
Instinct, XIII. 157.
Animal Mechanics, XV. 772.
Longevity of Animals, XIV. 857.
98 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XI.
READINGS IN ZOOLOGY.
" I used to believe a great deal more in opportunities and less in ap-
plication than I do now. Time and health are needed, but with these
there are always opportunities. Rich people have a fancy for spending
money very uselessly on their culture, because it seems to them more
valuable when it has been costly ; but the truth is, that by the blessing
of good and cheap literature, intellectual light has become almost as
accessible as daylight." — Philip Gilbert Hamerton.
The amount and variety of information which the Bri-
tannica offers on all subjects connected with the natural
sciences is truly wonderful. The articles on
Three Zoology, or animal life, are very numerous —
Courses. some of them brief, descriptive paragraphs, in-
structive and interesting to every reader, others
exhaustive treatises designed for the study of specialists.
The vast range of such subjects can perhaps best be illus-
trated by reference to the following schemes for courses
of reading in this science. The first two are of a popular
character, and are believed to be not too difficult for the
home student or amateur zoologist ; the third is more
purely scientific, and will be appreciated only by those
who have already made considerable progress in the study,
and arc able to understand its technical difficulties.
1. HISTORICAL COURSE.
In Volume XXIV., beginning on page 799 and extend-
ing to page 803, the history of the science of zoology is
READINGS IN ZOOLOGY. 99
treated in a manner which appeals to the interest of
every person who cares to acquaint himself
rogress wftJi tlie progress of scientific ideas. After
of the .. i.i , .,, 11
Science reading this, the student will naturally turn to
the biographical sketches of the great men who
have contributed most to our knowledge of this subject.
The following articles will be especially interesting and
instructive :
Aristotle, the most famous of the ancient
Biog- writers on this subject, II. 510.
raphies. Edward Wotton, the first English zoologist
(1492-1555), XXIV. 803.
William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the
blood (1578-1658), XI. 502.
Conrad Gesner, the eminent Swiss naturalist of the
XVIth century, X. 554.
John Ray, " the father of modern zoology " (1628-1705),
XX. 300.
Carl Linnaeus, "the Adam of zoological science," XIV.
671.
Comte de Buffon, the first great popularizer of natural
history, IV. 444.
Baron Cuvier, the eminent French naturalist, VI. 740.
Charles Darwin, the great leader of evolutionary biology,
sup. 989.
Ernst Haeckel, the famous German disciple of the doc-
trine of evolution, XX. 422.
Alfred Russel Wallace, author of " The Geographical
Distribution of Animals," sup. 3074.
Albrecht von Haller, the Swiss physiologist, XI. 396.
Johannes M Ciller, the German anatomist, XVII. 17.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck, originator of the theory of
evolution, XIV. 231.
Louis Agassiz, the great Swiss-American scientist, I. 274.
100 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Sir John Lubbock, sup. 1927.
Thomas Henry Huxley, the English naturalist, sup.
1639.
Ernst von Baer, founder of the science of embryology,
XXIV. 807.
Sir Richard Owen, the foremost of the disciples of
Cuvier, sup. 2270.
John Vaughan Thompson, the great authority on ma-
rine invertebrata, XXIV. 808.
Theodore Schwann, inventor of the cell theory, XXI, 460.
John James Audubon, the greatest- of ornithologists,
III. 70.
Alexander Wilson, the Scottish-American ornithologist,
XXIV. 590.
Spencer F. Baird, secretary of the Smithsonian Institu
tion, sup. 321.
James Cossar Ewart, founder of marine laboratories,
sup. 1226.
G. Brown Goode, director of the National Museum,
sup. 1423.
Joseph Leidy, American biologist, sup. i860.
Lewis Le Conte, American naturalist, sup. 1852.
II. POPULAR READINGS ABOUT ANIMALS.
As an introduction to these readings it will be interest-
ing to notice the historical paragraphs in the
article on ZOOLOGY, XXIV. 799-803. Read
Mammalia. , . ~ , " .,. . . ,,
also the nrst section oi the article on MAMMALIA,
XV. 347, and the last section of the same arti-
cle, XV. 444.
Many things in the article on Anthropology, II. 107-
123, are both curious and instructive; but for the present
the reader's attention is directed only to the section on the
RE \DINCS IN ZOO! OGY. IOI
Origin of Man, page no, and that on the Races of Man-
kind, page iii.
The article on the An:, II. [48-169, by Professor St.
George Mivart, is a complete popular and scientific de-
scription of the various families and groups of monkeys.
The general reader will be interested in the first section,
page [48-155, and also in the concluding sections relating
to the geopraphical distribution, etc., of apes.
The ELEPHANT is the subject of an important article,
VIII. 122. His prehistoric relatives or progenitors are
also appropriately described: the Mammoth, XV. 447;
the Mastodon, XV. 622 ; and the Megatherium, XV. 829.
Perhaps the most interesting of all domestic animals is
the CAMEL. See the general article, IV. 735, and also the
section on the camel in Arabia, II. 242.
Interesting articles — historical and descriptive, and illus-
trated— are those on the Dog, VII. 324 ; and the Cat, V. 202.
Carnivorous animals are represented by the Tiger,
XXIII. 385 ; the Lion, XIV. 679 ; and the Hyena, XII. 420.
Some curious animals are: the Beaver, III. 475; the
Chameleon, V. 381; the Chamois, V. 384; the Sloth,
XXII. 161 ; the Ichneumon, XII. 629.
Of the long and very comprehensive article on BIRDS,
III. 699, the general reader will select the following chap-
ters as the most interesting: Fossil birds, III.
728 ; migration of birds, III. 765 ; birds' eggs,
III. 772. The different classes of birds are
variously represented and described in a large
number of separate articles. For the present it is un-
necessary to call attention to any of these articles further
than to say that no popular course of reading should omit
the Ostrich, XVIII. 62 ; the Rhea, XX. 505; the Eagle,
VII. 589: the Raven, XX. 295, the Hummingbird, XII.
357; and the Albatross, I. 449. The Dodo, that won-
102 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
derful bird which has but lately become extinct, is the
subject of an interesting sketch, VII. 321.
A general study of fishes, such as is contemplated in
this course, should include a glance at the special ar-
ticle, XII. 630, and also a portion of the chapter on fish-
culture, XIX. 126. The article on ANGLING,
II. 32, will be read and enjoyed by every fisher-
man. Among the multitude of similar articles,
the following on food fishes should not be omit-
ted : Salmon, sup. 2612 ; Mackerel, XV. 159; Herring, XI.
764; Cod, VI. 103; Sardine, XXI. 307. Fossil fishes art-
noticed in I.275, and poisonous fishes in XV. 782. See, also,
Seth Green, the famous fish culturist, sup. 1461.
David Starr Jordan, the American ichthyologist, sup.
1755-
Aquarial building, sup. 3201.
As to reptiles, read the following : Distribu-
tion of reptiles in time, XX. 465 ; Rattlesnake,
Reptiles. xx^ 293 _ Cobm) VL 90- . Asp) n. 714 ; Croco-
dile, VI. 592; Lizard, XIV. 732.
Concerning CRUSTACEA, there is a valuable article in
VI. 632 ; but our popular course will include only the
chapters relating to the crab, VI. 538, and the lobster,
VI. 657.
Ocean life is noticed in an interesting way in VII. 276-
281. The articles on the Whale, XXIV. 523;
Ocean the Walrus, XXIV. 337 ; the Dolphin, VII. 346 ;
Life. the Seal, XXI. 580, and the Oyster, sup. 2273-
2274, are particularly interesting.
The above lists include only a very small portion
of the articles on animals. These are sufficient, however,
to indicate the great variety of interesting and practical
information on zoological subjects contained in the pages
of the Britannica.
RE VDINGS IN ZOO i IGY. 103
This course of reading might be extended indefinitely
until it should embrace many hundreds of subjects, and
require half a lifetime for its completion. Thepurposeof
the Guide, however, has been not to present an exhaus-
tive course, but only to indicate that which may be com-
pleted easily by the amateur student within a compara-
tively brief period of time. A still briefer and much
easier course is indicated in Chapter IV. of this GUIDE.
III. SUPPLEMENTARY COURSE FOR SPECIAL STUDENTS.
The principal articles on zoological subjects, written by
specialists and embodying all the lastest discoveries, are
particularly valuable to advanced students. They are re-
markable alike for their comprehensiveness and their ac-
curacy. Taken together, they would form a complete
library of zoology in themselves.
After reading the history of the science as it is related
in XXIV. 799-803, together with the biographical sketches
indicated in Course I. above, the student will be
Classifies- prepared to make some study of the various
tion. forms of classification that have been proposed
by great naturalists. Most of these may be
found in the special article on Zoology, already alluded to :
Aristotle's, XXIV. 804.
The Linnaean, XXIV. 805.
Lamarck's, XXIV. 806.
Cuvier's, XXIV. 807.
Owen's, XXIV. 808.
Huxley's, XXIV. 809.
A valuable scientific article on classification, written by
Mr. Huxley himself, maybe found in- II. 49. Keeping
Mr. Huxley's classification in mind, the student who cares
to go so deeply into the subject may obtain a general and
104 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
complete view of the science of zoology by studying the
following articles in the order here given :
I. Protozoa, XIX. 830 — i valuable article, very finely
illustrated.
II. Infusoria, XXII. 106.
III. Ccelenterata, VI. 107 — .1 short article, purely scien-
tific. Under this sub-kingdom, see Hydrozoa, XII. 547,
and Actinozoa, I. 129.
IV. Annuloida — see Echinodermata, VII. 629.
V. Annulosa. — Under this sub-kingdom there may be
many references. We give only a few :
Crustacea, VI. 632.
Arachnida, II. 271.
Myriapoda, XVII. 115, and V. 340.
Insecta, XIII. 141 (see Index, 224).
Chsetognatha (marine worms), XXI. 148, and II. 52.
Annelida, II. 65.
VI. Molluscoida, IV. 188. — Under this sub-kingdom,
see :
Polyzoa, XIX. 429.
Brachiopoda, IV. 188.
Tunicata, XXIII. 609; II. 53.
VII. Mollusca, XVI. 632 ; II. 54.— Under this sub-king-
dom, refer to the following subjects:
Lamellibranchiata, XVI. 684.
Gastropoda, XVI. 641.
Pteropoda, XVI. 665.
Cephalopoda, VI. 735.
VIII. Vcrtcbrata, XXIV. 178.— Under this sub-king-
dom there might be hundreds of references given. The
following articles and paragraphs will be found especially
valuable :
Class i. PISCES. See Ichthyology, XII. 630; distribution
of marine fishes, VII. 280, XII. 677; freshwater fishes,
READINGS I\ ZOOLI »GY. 105
XII. 669; fishes of America, I. 684; geographical dis-
tribution of fishes, XII. 668; fishes of prehis-
toric times, XII. 666; Agassiz's researches in
fossil fishes, 1.-75; angling, II. 32; aquariums,
II. 217. Several special articles may be of
interest to the general reader, such as:
Sea fisheries, IX. 243.
Mackerel, XV. 160.
Cod, VI. 103.
Sturgeon, XXII. 61 1.
Fish-culture, XII. 664; XIX. 126; sup. 1280.
Angling, II. ^2.
Izaak Walton, XXIV. 342.
David Starr Jordan, sup. 1755.
Class 2. Amphibia, I. 750.
Class 3. REPTILIA, XX. 432 ; snakes, XXII. 189; croco-
diles, VI. 592 ; alligators, I. 585.
CLASS 4. AVES. See Birds, III. 699; distribution of,
III. 736, VII. 269; birds of America, I. 684. Turn to the
special article, ORNITHOLOGY, XVIII. 2. The history of
this science, as narrated in the first pages of this article,
is especially interesting. The list of valuable
works on birds, XVIII. n-19, is very complete
Birds. ji J r
and valuable. The titles of hundreds of articles,
referring to different birds might be given, but
we quote only a few — for example, in volume VI. are such
articles as the following: cockatoo, p. 98 ; condor, p. 253 ;
coot, p. 341 ; cormorant, p. 407; crane, p. 546; crow, p.
617; cuckoo, p. 685 ; curassow, p. 709; curlew, p. 711 —
but the student needs no guide to find such articles as
these.
Class 5. Mammalia, XV. 347 — a very comprehensive
and scientific article, fully illustrated.
Classification of Mammalia, XV. 370.
106 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
History of Mammalia in former times, XV. 374. See
also Palaeontology, X. 319.
Subclass Echidna, VII. 628.
Mammalia. _ , . . r .. -,rTr o • 1
Subclass Metatheria, XV. 378; marsupials,
XIII. 838; kangaroo, III. III.
Subclass EutJicria. Order Edentata. VII. 652 ; sloth,
XXII. 161; armadillo, II. 543; aard-vark, I. 3; anteater,
XV. 385, etc.
Order Sircnia, XV. 389 ; the manatee, XV. 456, etc.
Order Cetacea, V. 357; whale, XXIV. 523; porpoise,
XIX. 521 ; dolphin, VII. 346, etc.
Order Insectivora, XV. 400.
Order Chiroptcra, XV. 405 ; bats, III. 431.
Order Rodentia, XV. 415; squirrels, XXII. 437; rab-
bits, XX. 192 ; hares, XI. 479, etc.
Order Ungulata, XV. 421; elephant, VIII. 122; rhi-
noceros, XX. 521; horse, XII. 172; zebra, XXIV. 772;
deer, VII. 23, etc.
Order Carnivora, XV. 432 ; cat, V. 202 ; dog, VII. 324;
bear, III. 461 ; lion, XIV. 679 ; tiger, XXIII. 385, etc.
Order Primates, II. 108; lemur, XIV. 440; monkey,
II. 148; man, XV. 444, and II. 107, etc.
MISCELLANEOUS READINGS.
The student who has followed this course of reading
to the present point will now be prepared to
Special notice the following important special articles :
Articles. Anthropology, II. 107.
Animism, II. 55.
Biology, III. 679.
Evolution, VIII. 744.
Neo-Darwinism, sup. 2160.
Variation and selection, XXIV. 76.
Acclimatization, I. 84.
READINGS IN ZOOLOGY. 107
Reproduction, XX. 407.
Parthenogenesis, sup. -302.
Embryology, VIII. 163. A valuable supplementary
article, giving an account of all the latest advancements
in this department of science, may be found in sup. 1 186—
1 195.
Breeds and Breeding, IV. 244.
Hybridism, XII. 422.
Distribution of Animals, VII. 267.
Longevity of Animals, XIV. 857.
Animal Physiology, XIX. 10.
Animal Heat, sup. 189.
Animal Magnetism, XV. 277.
Animal Mechanics, XV. 772.
Sense-Organs, sup. 2682.
Segmentation of the Vertebrate Head and Brain, sup.
2674.
Instinct, XIII. 157.
Histology, XII. 4.
See General Course of Reading in Biology, for a more
logical arrangement of these subjects.
108 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XII.
READINGS IN BOTANY.
" In my garden I spend my days ; in my library I spend my nights.
My interests are divided between my geraniums and my books." — Alex-
ander Smith.
THE reader who wishes to acquire a general knowledge
of the subject of botany may begin by reading the chaptei
on the history of Botanical Science, IV. 79.
Great After this, read the biographies of the famous
Botanists, men who have contributed most to the advance-
ment of this science. Among these the follow-
ing are named as among the most important :
The elder Pliny, the first who made any extensive cata-
logue of plants, XIX. 224.
Andreas Caesalpinus, the great Florentine botanist of
the 1 6th century, IV. 633.
John Ray, the originator of the " natural system " of
classification, XX. 300.
Tournafort, the foremost French botanist of the 17th
century, XXII. 490.
Carl Linnaeus, the real founder of the science, XIV.
671.
Jussieu, a famous French family of botanists, XIII. 788.
Robert Brown, the first British botanist to adopt and
support the " natural system," IV. 385.
Asa Gray, the well-known American botanist, sup. 1447.
John M. Coulter, author of many of the articles on
botanical subjects in the supplements to the Britannica,
sup. 927.
READINGS IN BOTANY. IO9
After having read these biographical sketches, turn
again to the special article on Botany, IV. 79-163, and
notice the comprehensive manner in which the subject
is there treated. This article comprises much more mat-
ter than is contained in the ordinary school text-books,
and, as you will see, is profusely and beautifully illus-
trated with numerous full-page plates.
If it is your wish to make a thorough study of the
anatomical structure of plants, their arrangement and
classification, their distribution over the globe, and the
uses to which they are subservient, you will find this ar-
ticle to be full of just the kind of information
A.rticlc
that you want. We will suppose, however, that
Botany. you prefer, instead of studying every portion of
this article, to use it for purposes of reference,
and in order to supplement the information which you ob-
tain from other sources. If this be the case, consult the
" Index of Principal Subjects," IV. 162. But even if you are
making only a hasty and superficial survey of this delight-
ful science, you will find several chapters in this article
worthy of your attention. Here are a few which you
cannot afford to pass unnoticed :
Different parts of flowers, p. 126; essential organs of
flowers, p. 134; respiration of plants, p. 119; pollen, p.
138; fertilization, p. 147; mosses, p. 107; lichens, p. 107;
leaves, pp. 108-119; fruit, pp. 148-153.
One of the most important articles to aid in the syste-
matic study of this science is that on CLASSIFICATION, by
Prof. John M. Coulter, sup. 821-823.
The article on Ecology, sup. uii-1113, a new depart-
ment of plant physiology, is indispensable to all advanced
students.
The article on Morphology of Plants, sup. 2105, is
equally lucid, scientific, and comprehensive.
T 10 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Other articles relating to botanical topics are numerous.
Any lover of flowers who does not care to pursue a course
of reading, may while away many pleasant hours in perus-
ing chapters like the following :
Distribution of plants, VII. 286.
Propagation of plants, XII. 211, 234.
Reproduction of plants, XX. 423 ; sup. 2533.
Ancestry of plants, sup. 176.
Fertilization by insects, XIII. 142.
Linnaeus's classification of plants, XIV. 672.
Morphology, XVI. 841.
Alternation of generation, sup. 143.
Assimilation in plants, sup. 269.
Physiology of plants, XIX. 43.
Insectivorous plants, XIII. 134.
Parasitic plants. XVIII. 264.
The article on the VEGETABLE Kingdom, XXIV.
125-131, contains a complete classification of plants.
Read also :
Botanic Gardens, sup. 529.
Algae, I. 507, sup. 123.
Fungus, IX. 827.
Lichens, XIV. 552.
Hepaticae, XIV. 718.
Muscinae, XVII. 65.
In pursuing the study of botany in a practical way, it
is of course necessary that you should acquire a knowl-
edge of plants at first hand, through personal
The observation. You must, therefore, make a col-
Herbarium, lection of plants and arrange an herbarium for
your own use and study. Full directions for
doing this may be found in XI. 717.
And now, for further referent- t<> plants, their culture,
READINGS IN BOTANY. ill
uses, etc., see the chapters in this volume entitled, The
Gardener, The Fruit Grower, and The Woods-
Further man. Ill the first will be found a series of read-
Studies, ings on the propagation and care of flowers and
vegetables, and in the others some interesting
and curious matter pertaining to trees, their modes of
growth, their history, and their uses in the world's econ-
omy. It is well to remember that all the most important
trees and plants in existence are the subjects of special
articles in the Britannica. These may readily be found
by consulting the Index volume.
112 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XIII.
READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY.
" What a world is this ! "
— As You Like It.
I.— HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.
No TEACHER of geography can afford to be without the
Encyclopedia Britannica. In its pages are found a wealth
and variety of matter pertaining to this science which it is
impossible to find in any similiar work. By reference to
its numerous geographical articles all difficult questions
may be easily solved, and a store of information may be
acquired which will be of infinite value at times when it is
needed most.
The teaching of geography began in very
History of ancient times. The people of antiquity knew
Geography, but very little about the earth, it is true ; but
they were anxious to perpetuate and extend
that knowledge. And so among the Greeks, we find that
it was customary to lay particular stress upon the teach-
ing of the second book of the Iliad, for that book contains,
in connection with the " catalogue of ships," a brief notice
of the geography of the countries known at the time of
the Trojan war. (See Homer, XII. 108 ; Iliad, XI. 137;
Troy, XX. 637.)
The first person who attempted to reduce the science to
a system was Eratosthenes (VIII. 519), and when we con-
sider how limited was his knowledge of the subject we are
surprised that he succeeded so well, lie was followed by
READINGS l.\ GEOGRAPHY. 113
Hipparchus (XV. 516), who proposed a method for deter-
mining the relative position of places upon the earth.
Later came Ptolemy, the greatest of all the ancient ge-
ographers (XX. Sj). His maps are the most ancient that
have come down to us. (For a copy of his map of the
world, see XV. 516.) Strabo, who was a little earlier, was
perhaps even more scientific in his methods and conclu-
sions than Ptolemy (XXII. 580).
During the Middle Ages, geography was taught in the
monastic schools. (See trivium and quadrivium,
The Middle XX. 5 1 5.) In the course of study it was placed
Ages. under the head of geometry ; but the "geometry"
of these schools consisted chiefly of an abridg-
ment of Ptolemy's or Pliny's geography (X. 177 ; XIX.
224), to which the definitions of a few geometric forms
had been added. For a thousand years there was abso-
lutely no advancement made in either the knowledge of
geography or the methods of teaching it.
The first modern impetus to discovery was given by
the invention of the mariner's compass (VI. 225), and this
of course was followed by a corresponding extension of
geographical knowledge. Then came the invention of
the astrolabe (XVII. 251). Then Prince Henry the Navi-
gator began his career of exploration (XI. 672) ; Colum-
bus gave a new impetus to the study of geog-
° raphy by discovering a new continent (VI. 171).
Modem ' , , , , & ., , , V ' ,
Geo phy Other bold adventurers sailed the seas and
added their contributions to mankind's stock
of knowledge concerning the world and its inhabitants.
(See Hakluyt, XI. 378, and Purchas, XX. 114.)
But the history ot the progress of geographical study
is given in full, and with many interesting details, in the
Britannica. See Geography, X. 175.
In obtaining a knowledge of the history of this subject,
8
114 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
the following articles will be found replete with informa-
tion :
Globe, X. 680.
Maps, XV. 515; earliest forms of maps, XX. 91, 94;
classes of maps, X. 191 ; Mercator's map, XVII. 253.
Navigation, XVII. 251.
Promoters of MarCQ polo> XJX g>
Geographical .
Knowledge. Varenius, XXIV. 69.
Rennell, XX. 399.
Ritter, XX. 570.
Petermann, sup. 2356.
See also Polar exploration since 1880, sup. 2408.
Henry M. Stanley, sup. 2777.
II. A VIEW OF THE WORLD.
On the orthography of geographic names, see sup.
1380.
Every reader of the Britamtica will of course under-
stand that all articles descriptive of the conti-
e or nents, and indeed of every place of importance
Whole m tae world> are to be found in their appro-
priate places in the different volumes of this
work. Hence it is not necessary to encumber the pages
of the Guide with mere lists of such articles. The titles
of some of these articles may be grouped together, how
ever, according to topics, in such a way as to indicate a
number of brief courses of reading on geographical sub-
jects. Begin, for example with the world as a whole.
Read the article on Physical Geography, X. 210; then
take up the following in their order :
The Globe, X. 680-685 ; the Relief Globe, sup. 1410.
Maps, XV. 51 5-523-
The Ocean, X. 211, 221, 282.
Atlantic Ocean, III. 15.
READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY. 1 1 5
Pacific Ocean, XVIII. 114.
Indian Ocean, XII. 820.
Ocean Currents, III. 16, X. 283.
Currents of the Pacific Ocean, XVIII. 117.
Currents of the Indian Ocean, XII. 821.
The Continents: Europe, VIII. 680; Asia, II. 683;
Africa, I. 245 ; Australia, III. 103 ; America, I.
660.
Land. *
Seas, XXI. 578 (see Index volume, page 396) ;
Mediterranean Sea, XV. 819; Red Sea, XX.
316; Aral Sea, II. 306 ; Black Sea, III. 795 ; Caspian, V.
176; Baltic, III. 293; North, XVII. 563; Ca-
ribbean, V. 103, etc.
Lakes (special article), XIV. 216.
Rivers, XX. 571 ; The Amazon, I. 654, 674;
Mississippi, XVI. 518; Nile, XVII. 504, VII. 705 ; Niger,
XVII. 496; Congo, XXIV. 76$ ; Indus, XII. 847; Eu-
phrates, VIII. 668; Ganges, X. 68; Rhine, XX. 518;
Danube, VI. 819.
Cataracts and Waterfalls, sup. 722.
Mountains, XVII. 4; Alps, I. 619; Atlas, III. 27;
Apennines, II. 169; Appalachian, II. 200; Andes, II. 15;
Rocky, XXIII. 796; Himalaya, XI. 821; Ural, XXIV.
3 ; Pyrenees, XX. 124.
III. MAPS IN THE BRITANNICA.
To the student of geography, one of the most instruct-
ive articles in the Britannica is that on the making of maps,
XV. 515. The account therein given of the first essays
in map-making is particularly interesting. This is followed
by chapters on the development of map-making among
the Greeks, XV. 516; on map-making among the Romans,
page 517; on map-making in the middle ages, page 517;
on nautical maps, page 518; on the maps of Ptolemy and
Il6 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
his successors, page 520; on the period of triangulations
and geodetic surveys, page 522. In connection with this
article, the curious reader will find a double-page colored
illustration comparing Ptolemy's map of the world with
the actual positions and distances, thus showing that, how-
ever inaccurate it may have been in details, it was never-
theless constructed according to strictly scien-
tific methods, and in that respect was perfectly
Historical. . .. r , T , . .
correct. An outline 01 Mercators map 01 the
world, drawn in 1 569, is another interesting fea-
ture of this article, XV. 521. The Borgia map, X. 177,
made in the 15th century, just before the discovery of the
Western Hemisphere, is not only a great curiosity, but
worthy of study, as illustrating the ideas of learned men
in the middle ages concerning the shape and extent of the
earth. The Lenox Globe, represented in I X. 68 1 , and sup-
posed to have been constructed in 1506-07, illustrates the
next step in the advancement of geographical knowledge.
The maps in the Encyclopedia Britannica, if collected
in a single volume, would form one of the most complete
and convenient atlases ever published. But since these
maps are necessarily somewhat widely scattered through
the various volumes of the Encyclopedia, few people,
realize the extent and importance of this feature. In fact,
there is no country on the globe that is not accurately rep-
resented in these pages.
COLORED MAPS.
Africa, I. 244.
Alabama, I. 438.
Alaska, I. 442.
America, North, I. 668.
America, South, I. 712.
Arabia, II. 240.
READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY. I i
Argentina, II. 489.
Arizona, II. 538.
Arkansas, II. 539.
Armenia XV. 92.
Asia, II. 682.
Asia Minor, XV. 92.
Australia, III. 104.
Austria-Hungary, III. 120.
Bengal and Assam, III. 564.
Boston and Vicinity, XV. 610 ; XX. 524.
Brazil, IV. 224.
California and Xevada, IV. 696.
Canada, IV. 768.
Cape Colony, V. 40.
Central America, X. 240.
Chicago and Vicinity, XII. 704.
China, V. 626.
The Coal Fields of Great Britain, VI. 48.
Colorado — county map, VI. 160.
Connecticut — count}- map, VI. 288.
North Dakota — county map, VI. 772.
South Dakota — county map, VI. 773.
Denmark, VII. 80.
Derby, England, VII. 106.
Devon, England, VII. 136.
Dorset, England, VII. 372.
Durham, England, VII. 560.
Egypt, VII. 704.
England and Wales — county map, VIII. 216.
Britain in 597, VIII. 272.
English Empire in the tenth and eleventh centuric
VIII. 273.
England and France, in the time of Henry the second,
VIII. 304.
Il8 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
England and France in 1360, VIII. 320.
Essex, England, VIII. 552.
Modern Europe, VIII. 680.
Europe in the time of the Romans, VIII. 714.
Europe in the time of Charlemagne, VIII. 715.
Europe in the time of the Crusades, VIII. 716.
Florida, IX. 338.
France, IX. 504.
Georgia — county map, X. 432.
The German Empire, X. 448.
Gloucester, England, X. 688.
Ancient Greece, XI. 80.
Modern Greece, XI. 81.
Guatemala, Honduras, etc., XI. 240.
Hampshire, England, XI. 432.
Hawaiian Islands, XI. 528.
Section of the Leadville Mining District, XVI. 472.
Hayti, XI. 529.
Hereford, England, XI. 728.
Hertford, England, XI. 772.
The Himalaya Mountain Region, XI. 824.
Holland, XII. 64.
Hungary — showing political divisions, XII. 360.
Huntingdon and Cambridge, England, XII. 396.
Iceland, XII. 616.
Idaho — county map, XII. 696.
Illinois— county map, XII. 704.
India — showing political divisions, XII. 730.
Indiana — county map, XII. 812.
Iowa — county map, XIII. 208.
Ireland, XIII. 216.
Italy, XIII. 440.
Jamaica, XIII. 548.
Japan, XIII. 568.
READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY. II9
Java, XIII. 548.
Ground Plan of Modern Jerusalem, XIII. 640.
Kansas — county map, XIII. 842.
Kent, England,' XIV. 36.
Kentucky and Tennessee — county map, XIV. 40.
Lanark, Scotland, XIV. 250.
Lancashire, England, XIV. 252.
Leicester and Rutland, England, XIV. 424.
Lincoln, England, XIV. 656.
London, XIV. 818.
Central London, XIV. 819.
Louisiana — parish map, XV. 20.
Lycaonia, Lycia, Lydia, XV. 92.
Macedonia, XV. 136.
Madagascar, XV. 168.
Madeira, XV. 136.
Maine — county map, XV. 296.
The Malay Peninsula, XV. 320.
Maltese Islands, XV. 136.
Ptolemy's Map of the World, XV. 516.
Maryland and Delaware — county map, XV. 602.
Massachusetts and Rhode Island — county map, XV.
610.
Mesopotamia, XVI. 544.
Mexico, XVI. 216.
Michigan — count}- map, XVI. 240.
Middlesex, England, XVI. 280.
Minnesota— county map, XVI. 474.
Mississippi — county map, XVI. 520.
Missouri — county map, XVI. 524.
The Mohammedan Empire, XVI. 544.
Monmouth, England, XVI. 752.
Montana — county map, XVI. 772.
Morocco, XVI. P32.
120 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Nebraska — county map, XVII. 306.
Nevada — county map, XVII. 368.
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, XVII. 372.
New Guinea and New Caledonia, XVII. 376.
New Hampshire and Vermont — county map, XVII.
392.
New Jersey — county map, XVII. 396.
New Mexico— county map, XVII. 400.
New South Wales — county map, XVII. 408.
New York — county map, XVII. 450.
New York City and Vicinity, XVII. 456.
New York City, on larger scale, XVII. 458, 459.
New Zealand, XVII. 466.
The Region of the Nile, XVII. 504.
Norfolk, England, XVII. 536.
Northampton and Bedford, England, XVII. 556.
North Carolina — county map, XVII. 560.
Northumberland, England, XVII. 568.
Norway and Sweden, XVII. 576.
Nottingham, England, XVII. 596.
Ohio — county map, XVII. 736.
Ontario — county map, XVII. 774.
Oregon — county map, XVII. 824.
Oxfordshire, Buckingham, etc., England, XVIII. 96.
Pacific Ocean, showing depths and temperature, XVIII.
114.
Pacific Ocean, showing currents and routes of travel,
XVIII. 115.
Palestine, XVIII. 176.
Paris and its Environs, XVIII. 274.
Pennsylvania — county map, XVIII. 498.
Persia— Ancient Iran, XVIII. 560.
Modern Persia, XVIII. 616.
Peru — showing political divisions, XVIII. 672.
READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY. 121
Philadelphia (two sheets), XVIII. 736, jtf.
Philippine Islands, XVIII. yw.
The Kingdom of Poland, XIX. 288.
The Polar Regions, XIX. 320.
Polynesia. XIX. 424.
Portugal, XIX. 536.
Prussia in 1 786, XX. 8.
Prussia in 1866, XX. 9.
Quebec (Province of), XX. 164.
Queensland, XX. 172.
Massachusetts and Rhode Island, XX. 524.
Roman Empire, third century, XX. 776.
Ancient Rome, XX. 808.
Modern Rome, XX. 832.
Roumania and Servia, XXI. 18.
Russia in Europe, XXI. 68.
Russia from 1462 to 1689, XXI. 88.
Accessions to Russia, 1689 to 1825, XXI. 89.
The Basin of the St. Lawrence, XXI. 177.
Saxony, XXI. 352.
Scotland in the 16th Century, XXI. 498.
Scotland at the present day, XXI. 520.
Shropshire, England, XXI. 848.
Siam, XXI. 852.
Siberia, XXII. 2.
Sicily, XXII. 29.
Somerset, England, XXII. 256.
South Australia, XXII. 282.
South Carolina, XXII. 287.
Spain, XXII. 304.
Suffolk, England, XXII. 620
Sumatra, XXII. 640.
Surrey, England, XXII. 692.
Sussex, England, XXII. 722.
122 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Switzerland, XXII. 776.
Tasmania — county map, XXIII. J2.
Tennessee and Kentucky — county map, XXIII. 176.
Texas — county map, XXIII. 202.
Tibet, XXIII. 336.
Tripoli and Tunis, XXIII. 576.
Turkey, XXIII. 652.
North and South Virginia in 1620, XXIII. 729.
English Colonies in America, XXIII. 730.
The United States, XXIII. 790.
Territorial Growth of the United States, XXIII.
791.
Rainfall Chart of the United States, XXIII. 804.
Temperature Chart of the United States, XXIII.
805.
Uruguay XXIV. 16.
Utah — county map, XXIV. 18.
Vancouver's Island, XXIV. 56.
Venezuela, showing political divisions, XXIV. 140.
Vermont and New Hampshire — county map, XXIV.
168.
Victoria, Australia, XXIV. 216.
Virginia — county map, XXIV. 257.
Warwick, England, XXIV. 378.
Washington (State) — county map, XXIV. 384.
Westmoreland, England, XXIV. 513.
West Australia, XXIV. 508.
West Indies, XXIV. 509.
West Indies — chart of sea depths, XXIV. 509.
Wiltshire, England, XXIV. 592.
Wisconsin — county map, XXIV. 616.
Worcestershire, England, XXIV. 664.
Wyoming — county map, XXIV. 712.
Yorkshire, England, XXIV. 746.
READINGS IN GEOGRAPHY.
123
PLAIN MAPS.
These are so numerous that we shall name only a few of
the most important :
Atlantic Ocean (showing currents), III. 16.
The Bahama Islands, III. 236.
Baluchistan, III. 299.
Sketch map of Belgium, III. 514.
Plan oi Berlin, III. 594.
Plan of Bristol, IV. 348.
Map of Burmah, IV. 55 r.
Plan of Calcutta, IV. 656.
Maps of great canals, IV. 793, 794; sup. 681.
Map of Ceylon, V. 359.
Plan of Chicago, V. 610.
Plan of Cincinnati, V. 783.
Map of Constantinople, VI. 305.
Plan of Copenhagen, VI. 343.
Sketch-map of Corea, VI. 390.
Map of Cornwall, England (double page), VI. 424.
Map of Cumberland, England (double page), VI. 696.
Plan of Edinburgh, VII. 660.
Map of Mount y£tna and Vicinity, VIII. 626.
Plan of Geneva, X. 147.
Plan of Glasgow, X. 638.
Map of Guiana, XI. 249.
Plan of Halifax, XI. 384.
Plan of Hamburg, XI. 405.
Plan of Jersey City, XIII. 635.
Plan of Lisbon, XIV. 691.
Plan of Liverpool, XIV. 713.
Norden's map of Tudor London, XIV. 847.
Map o
Plan o
Long Island, XIV. 865.
Louisville, Ky., XV. 23.
124 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Plan of Madras, XV. 188.
Plan of Madrid, XV. 190.
The Maldive Islands, XV. 328.
Plan of Manchester, XV. 460.
M creator's Nova ct Aucta Or bis Dcscriptio, 1569, XV.
521.
Plan of Marseilles, XV. 571.
Map of Mauritius, XV. 639.
Plan of Melbourne, XV. 836.
Plan of Milan, XVI. 291.
Map of Montenegro, XVI. 780.
Plan of Montreal, XVI. 794.
Plan of Moscow, XVI. 857.
Map of Naples, XVII. 188.
Map of Natal, XVII. 240.
Plan of New Orleans, XVII. 403.
New York in 1695 and 1728, XVII. 458.
Plan of Olympia (Greece), XVII. 767.
Plan of Pittsburg, XIX. 150.
Plan of Pompeii, XIX. 446.
Map of the Punjab, XX. 107.
Plan of the Forum Romanum, XX. 816.
Plan of the Palatine Hill, Rome, XX. 822.
St. Petersburgh, XXI. 192.
Geological map of Texas, XXIII. 203.
Cotidal lines of the world, XXIII. 372.
Turkestan, XXIII. 632.
Map of Venice, XXIV. 157.
Plan of Verona, XXIV. 171.
Plan of Washington, D. C, XXIV. 383.
IV. MISCELLANEOUS GEOGRAPHICAL SUBJECTS.
Some interesting and curious selections worth reading
in connection with the study of geography:
READINGS I\ C.KOCRAl'HV. 125
Geographic names, sup. 1380.
The Sahara Desert, XXI. 149. Latest dis-
interesting coveries in, sup. 60.
Topics. Dead Sea, VII. 1.
Sargasso Sea, III. 20, 26.
Mount Vesuvius, XXIV. 195.
Volcanoes, X. 240.
Earthquakes, VII. 608.
Mammoth Cave, XV. 448.
Niagara Falls, XVII. 472 ; Yosemite Falls, IV. 697,698.
The Black Forest, XXIV. 669.
Gibraltar, English fortress in Spain, X. 583.
Polar Regions, XIX. 315, 330 and sup. 2408. These
two articles give a complete history of arctic exploration
and adventure from the earliest times to the present.
Recent explorations in Africa, sup. 59.
Famous Cities and Towns; Aix-la-Chapelle, I. 431;
Alexandria, I. 493-496; Athens, III. 1; Baden-Baden,
III. 226 ; Baghdad, III. 231 ; Benares, III. 555 ; Berlin, III.
593; Boston, IV. /2; Bristol, IV. 348; Brook-
Famous lyn, IV. 370 ; Brussels, IV. 404 ; Cabul, IV. 623 ;
Cities. Cairo, IV. 645; Calcutta, IV. 556; Cambridge,
IV. 728; Chicago, V. 610; Edinburgh, VII.
658; Havana, XI. 524; London, XIV. 818 (see Index
volume, page 265); Madrid, XV. 189; New Orleans,
XVII. 402; New York, XVII. 457 (see Index volume,
page 312); Paris, XVIII. 274 (see Index volume, page
332) ; Rome, XX. 833 (see Index volume, page 377) ; St.
Petersburgh, XX. 190; Venice, XXIV. 141 (see Index vol-
ume, page 456); Vienna, XXIV. 219; Versailles, XXIV.
176; Jerusalem, XIII. 636; Ispahan, XIII. 393; Palmyra,
XVIII. 198; Antioch, II. 130; Tyre, XXIII. 710; Con-
stantinople, VI. 302; Mecca, XV. 669; Medina, XV.
$17.
126 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
V. THE UNITED STATES.
See the special article, XXIII. 729-S29, and the index
on the last page. See also the historical and
0Ur statistical view of the United States, sup. 2983.
Country. Both of these long articles are interesting and
comprehensive, presenting a complete exposi-
tion of the geographical features of the country, together
with an account of its history, industries, and natural
resources.
Each of the States and Territories is treated in a simi-
lar manner, both in the body of the Britannica and also
in the supplements. For example, for Arizona, see II.
538 and sup. 229; Arkansas, II. 539 and sup. 232. AM
these may be easily found without any further help from
the Guide.
l.i ADINGS IN Ml 1 EOROLOGY. 22/
CHAPTER XIV.
A BRIEF COURSE OF READING IN M F.TEOROLOGY.
"When it is evening, ye say it will be fair weather: for the sky is
red. And in the morning, it will be foul weather to-day : for the sky is
red and lowring." — St Matthew.
METEOROLOGY, in its later and more strictly definite sig-
nification, is the scientific study of weather and climate,
their causes, changes, relations, and effects. In the Ency-
clopedia Britannica.) there is a comprehensive treatise
upon this science written by Professors A. Buchan, of
Edinburgh, and Balfour Stewart, of the Royal Society of
London. It embraces seventy double-column
General pages, equal in matter to a duodecimo volume
Treatise. of more than 350 pages, and is fully illustrated.
(See XVI. 1 14-184.) The supplementary article
(sup. 2043) is equally valuable and comprehensive.
A short and instructive course of reading in meteor-
ology would include, besides the main points in these
leading articles, the following references :
Air, I. 427.
Atmosphere, III. 28.
Ozone, XVIII. 113.
Temperature, XI. 555. (See general index.)
Thermometer, XXIII. 288.
Climate, VI. I.
Principal causes which determine climate, VI. 2.
Effect of vegetation on climate, VI. 4.
Temperature of the sea, XVI. 116, 132.
Influence of the Gulf Stream upon climate, III. 21.
T28 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.-
Tnfluence of the Kuro Siwe, or Japan current, XVIII.
118.
Hygienic value of Ocean climate, V. I, 5.
Distribution of temperature, XVI. 134.
Tempera- Humidity of the air, XVI. 1 19, III. 32.
ture. J
Dew, XVI. 120.
Diurnal oscillations of the barometer, XVI. 121.
Barometer, III. 381.
Atmospheric pressure, III. 28; XVI. 139.
Influence of the moon upon atmospheric pressure, XVI.
124.
Winds, XVI. 143.
Anemometer, II. 24.
Relation of winds to climate, VI. 6.
Variation in the direction of winds, XVI. 126.
Trade winds, XVI. 143 ; influence upon climate, I. 675.
Monsoons, II. 690.
Isobars, XVI. 141.
The simoom, II. 239.
Winds Cyclones, III. 33; XVI. 155.
Whirlwinds and waterspouts, XVI. 129.
Tornadoes, XXIII. 807.
Blizzards, sup. 499.
Hurricanes, XVI. 164.
Prevailing winds, XVI. 143.
Aqueous vapor, XVI. 138.
Clouds, XVI. 126.
Rainfall, XVI. 128, 150; influence upon climate, VI. 6 ■
rain-gauge, XX. 256.
Thunderstorms, XVI. 129.
Hailstorms, XVI. 131.
Snowstorms, XVI. 154.
Hygrometry, XII. 569.
Weather and weather maps, XVI. 157.
READINGS IN METEOROLOGY. I 29
Weather forecasts, XVI. 158.
American Weather Bureau, sup. 2043.
Increase Allen Lapham, founder of the wea-
Weather , , „ r
Bureau. ther bureau, sup. 1834.
Flags used by the weather bureau, sup. 2617.
Terrestrial Magnetism, XVI. 159.
The magnetometer, XV. 238.
The declinometer, XVI. 159.
The dip circle, XVI. 160.
'lerrestrial Magnetic poles of the earth, XVI. 163.
Magnetism. Influence of the sun upon terrestrial magnet-
ism, XVI. 167, 181.
Optical Meteorology (see Optics).
Aurora borealis, III. 90, II. 787.
130 i GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
For
CHAPTER XV.
READINGS IN MATHEMATICS.
" He apprehends a world of figures here.'
—Henry IV.
" Inquire about everything that you do not know ; since, for the small
trouble of asking, you will be guided in the road of knowledge."
— From the Persian.
In the Britannica, each of the great branches of mathe-
matical science is treated under its own head and at con-
siderable length, and yet it is not presumed that
any person will attempt to acquire the mastery
Reference
Only °f arithmetic, or algebra, or geometry from
these articles. Here, if anywhere, the guidance
of the living teacher and the assistance of specially pre-
pared text-books are absolutely essential. The mathe-
matical treatises in the Britannica, therefore, are valuable
chiefly for occasional reference — they are not intended for
general study, and certainly not for popular reading.
Students and teachers, however, will irequently be able
to derive valuable assistance from them in the solving
of knotty problems or in the elucidation of difficult prop-
ositions. It is well, therefore, to remember where they
can be found.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS.
The history of mathematics is a subject in which every
student, whether he be a mathematician or not, must feel
no little interest ; and it is to a knowledge of this subject
READINGS IN MATHEMATICS. 1 3 I
rather than to the abstruse study of an)- particular branch
of the science that the present course of reading points.
It is supposed that the reader has already some
Ancient general acquaintance with the elementary prin-
Mathemat- . , . , . ... . ,. ..
ics ciples of mathematics, derived, as is ordinarily
the case, from the text-books used at school.
These readings from the Britannica will supplement his
present knowledge, and perhaps encourage him to advance
still farther in his acquisitions.
The best introduction to this course is the short article
on MATHEMATICS, XV. 629. Read especially the histori-
cal parts, and omit, until a future time, such sections and
paragraphs as seem too technical or too difficult for ready
comprehension.
Notice what is said of Pythagorean mathematics, XX.
140, and of Hindu mathematics, XXI. 294.
Now read the historical portion of the article on ARITH-
METIC, II. 524-526. The paragraphs relating to the dif-
ferent methods of notation are especially interesting, and
may be read in connection with the article on Numerals,
XVII. 626. The biographies of the following distinguished
arithmeticians should be read next :
Archimedes, the greatest mathematician of ancient
times, II. 380.
Great Apollonius of Perga, who flourished a little
Mathema- . . . , . , TT
.- - later than Archimedes, 11. 187.
ticians. ' '
Diophantus, a Greek writer on arithmetic, 4th
century, I. 511.
Maximus Planudes (died 1350), referred to in XVII.
627.
Robert Recorde (1558), author of an algebra entitled
The Whetstone of JVi'tte, and of one of the first arithmetics
published in English, XX. 310.
Next turn to the history of algebra, I. 51 1-5 18. Notice
132 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
the list of writers on algebra, page 518. Read the follow-
ing biographies of distinguished algebraists.
Girolamo Cardan (16th century), author of the second
printed book on algebra, V. 90.
Rene Descartes, VII. 115.
Algebra. T . T VTU
Joseph Louis Lagrange, XIV. 207.
Leonard Euler, demonstrator of the binomial
theorem, VIII. 665.
Fourier, author of Fourier's theorem, IX. 490.
Sturm, author of Sturm's theorem, XXII. 612.
Leonard of Pisa, XIX. 125.
The history of geometry is very briefly told in X. 376.
Concerning great geometricians, it will be well
of course to refer first to Euclid, the greatest
of them all. Read his biography, VIII. 655.
Then notice the following :
Thales, XXIII. 218.
Theodosius, XXIII. 260.
Pythagorean contributions to the science of geometry,
XX. 139.
Apollonius of Perga, II. 188.
Boetius on geometry, III. 857.
Legendre's work on geometry, XIV. 414.
For the history of Greek trigonometry, see XX. 87,
' under the article on Ptolemy; a brief notice of
Trigonom- Indian and Arabian trigonometry is given in
etry. XXIII. 561, and an account of modern trigo-
nometry in XXIII. 562. Of biographies, read
the following :
Hipparchus, Greek mathematician, XI. 851.
John Napier, inventor of logarithms, XVII. 177.
Edmund Gunter, inventor of the terms cosine, cotan-
gent, etc., XI. 330.
Sir Isaac Newton, XVII. 438.
READINGS IN MA ["HEMATICS. 133
Gottfried Leibnitz, XIV. 417.
Besides the mathematicians already mentioned, there
are several others whose biographies are given in the
Britannica. In order to acquire a complete knowledge of
the history of the science, you should learn
Men of something about these men. Here is a partial
Figures. list which, if you wish, you will be able to ex-
tend as you progress with the reading:
Pappus of Alexandria, XVIII. 229.
Alhazen (nth century), I. 572.
Henry Briggs (16th century), IV. 343.
Thomas Allen (16th century), I. 583.
Simon Stevinus (17th century), XXII. 531.
Alexander Anderson (17th century), II. 14.
Gaspard Monge (iSth century), XVI. 738.
Thomas Simpson, XXII. 866.
Robert Simson, XXII. 876.
Jakob Steiner (19th century), XXIL 531.
George Peacock, XVIII. 443.
Christiaan Huygens (17th century), XII. 415.
For a popular course of reading in the history of mathe-
matics, perhaps the foregoing is sufficient. Besides the
four branches of the science already mentioned, there are
others upon which the Britannica contains valuable and
scholarly articles intended particularly for specialists in
mathematics. Several additional articles also on mathe-
matical subjects may be found under their own
Mathemati- headings or b reference to the Index. The
cal & J
Topics Guide ventures to name here the following,
not that they should be included in any course
of reading, but simply to remind the student of their pres-
ence in the Britannica, and to indicate where he may
find them if occasion should require that he should refer
to them :
134 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA .
Abacus (arithmetical device), I. 4.
Calculating machines, IV. 654.
Squaring the circle, XXII. 433.
Annuities, II. 72.
Astronomy, XXIV. 85.
The Almagest, I. 589.
Angles, II. 29.
Curve, VI. 716.
Calculus, XIII. 5.
Functions, IX. 818; XIV. 209,413.
Geodesy, X. 163.
Gauging, XVI. 28.
Logarithms, XIV. yj2.
Measurement, XV. 659.
Mechanics, XV. 676.
Quaternions, XX. 160.
Surveying, XXII. 695.
Variations, XXIV. 85.
Probability, XIX. 768.
Projections, XIX. 793.
Surface, Congruence, Complex, XXII. 668.
READINGS IN PHYSICS. 1 35
CHAPTER XVI.
TWO COURSES OF READING IN PHYSICS.
COURSE I.
PHYSICAL science originally had reference to a knowl-
edge of whatever exists in the material universe, as dis-
tinguished from metaphysical science, or a knowledge of
the laws of mind. In this sense it was synonymous with
natural science. With the progress of scientific study,
however, these two terms have come to have,
Physical each a distinctive meaning of its own. Natural
Science. science now has reference more particularly to
the study of organized bodies and their develop-
ment. Physical science investigates the various phenom-
ena observed in things without life ; in other words, it is
a study of the laws of matter.
Until recently the popular name for physical science
was " natural philosophy."
As now generally regarded, it includes two branches,
mechanics and physics.
For readings in MECHANICS, see the article on that sub-
ject in the fifteenth volume of the Encyclopedia Britannica.
See also the chapters in this Guide entitled The Mechanic
and The Machinist.
Since any knowledge of physics implies a study of the
laws of matter, let us at first take a general survey of some
of the most important of those laws.
I36 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
What is matter ? We do not know. But to gain some
ideas of the extent of human knowledge on this subject,
read the articles Atom, III. 56, and Molecule,
Matter. XVI. 6lO : VII. 2 I 5.
Some knowledge of the properties which mat-
ter possesses in itself may be acquired by study-
ing the following topics :
Molecules, XVI. 610; III. 38.
Inertia, XV. 6y6.
Constitution of Bodies, VI. 310.
Attraction, III. 63; XI. 66; XV. 702.
Adhesion, I. 153.
Elasticity, VII. 796.
Density, XV. 698; XII. 536.
Compressibility, VII. 815.
Divisibility, III. 37 ; sup. 1054.
The relative properties of different kinds of matter are
described in such articles as these :
Diffusion, VII. 214.
Cohesion, V. 56.
Gravitation, XI. 66; the law of gravitation II. 780;
Newton's discovery of this law, II. 755.
Capillary action, V. 56.
A consideration of the properties of matter relative to
different forms of energy leads to a study of the follow-
ing subjects:
Conductivity, XI. 578, 586 (thermal), and VIII. 52
(electric).
Specific gravity, XII. 536; Specific heat, XI. 576.
Color, VIII. 823.
Radiation, XX. 212.
The laws and phenomena of matter are treated under
many distinct divisions; and hence in physics we find
several related sciences, such as:
READINGS IN PHYSICS. 137
(i) Hydromechanics, or the laws of liquids, whether
in equilibrium or in motion, XII. 435. Here are included :
Hydrostatics, referring to liquids at rest,
Hydrome- XIX. 2 ; XII. 440.
chanics. Hydraulics, or the action of liquids in motion,
XII. 459-
Closely related to these subjects is that branch of me-
chanics called hyrodynamics, which is discussed in con-
nection with them, XII. 435; XIX. 241.
(2) PNEUMATICS, or the science which treats of the
properties of air and of gases in general, XIV. 240.
Many articles on related subjects might be read in con-
nection with a study of this branch. The fol-
lowing will be found interesting and instructive :
Pneumatics. „ .
Gases, VI. 310; dinusion 01, Vll. 215; mo-
lecular theory of, III. 38 ; density of, XII. 460;
laws of, V. 468 ; elasticity of, VII. 801.
Air, I. 427; aerostatics, IX. 308; aeronautics, I. 185;
atmosphere, III. 28.
(3) ACOUSTICS, or the science which treats of the nature,
phenomena, and laws of sound, I. 100 (see general index);
see also Music, XVII. "JJ, and many of the
references in the chapter entitled The Musician,
Acoustics. . , . _
in this Guide.
Voice, XXIV. 273.
Telephone, XXIII. 127.
Phonometer, sup. 2369; Phonoscope, sup. 2369.
(4) OPTICS, or the science of light, XVII. 798. In con-
nection with this subject read the following :
Light, XIV. 577 ; aberration of light, I. 47 ;
reflection of light, XVI. 64 ; the velocity of light,
XX. 620; polarization of light, sup. 2412; the
theory of light, XXIV. 421, 444-447.
Mirror, XIV. 587; XVI. 499.
138 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Lenses, XIV. 593.
Microscope, XVI. 258.
Telescope, XXIII. 135 ; Galileo's, II. 753, X. 31 ; Lord
Rosse's, XX. 855 ; Herschel's, XI. 766; Lick and Yerkes,
sup. 2871.
Spectacles, XXII. 372.
Spectrometer, XVII. 800.
Spectroscope, XXII. 373.
Camera, IV. 740, 741 ; XVIII. 839.
Eye, VIII. 816.
Aurora polaris, III. 90, 92, 93.
Rainbow, XI. 399.
Optical illusions, II. 205.
Yitascope, sup. 3057.
Mirage, XIV. 600.
(5) Heat, XI. 554. The reading of this long and very-
scholarly article may be supplemented by a study of the
following references :
Temperature (see general index).
Thermometer, XI. 561.
Theory of heat, XIX. 2.
Conduction of heat, XX. 212.
„ Convection of heat, XX. 212.
Heat.
Heat as the equivalent of force, XV. 649.
Power of heat in mechanics, XV. yjT,.
Steam, XI. 560; properties of, XXII. 483.
(6) Electricity and Magnetism. See the chapter entitled
The Electrician, in this Guide.
COURSE 11.
The late Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, in the article on phys-
ical science which he contributes to the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica, presents a classification somewhat different from
the above. Physics includes what he calls the secondary
physical sciences. A study of these sciences embraces
READINGS IX PHYSICS. 139
the acquisition of knowledge relative to the following
topics, and in the order here named :
(i) Theory of gravitation (XI. 66; III. 64),
Weight and with discussions of the weight and motion of
Motion, bodies near the earth. See Motion, XV. J'^2,
and particularly XV. 701, 715, 746.
(2) Theory of the action of pressure and heat in changing
the dimensions and state of bodies.
(a) Physical states of a substance — gaseous
(VI. 310), liquid (VI. 311 ; XII. 459), solid (XIX.
240).
Elasticity, VII. 796; of gases, VII. 801 ; of
liquids, VII. 801 ; of solids, VI. 310.
Viscosity,VII. 801 ; of gases, XVI. 618 ; of solids, XXII.
598.
Plasticity (of solids), XVI. 65 ; Capillarity, I. 153.
Tenacity (of solids), XVI. 378.
Cohesion and adhesion, I. 153.
(b). Effects of heat in raising temperature (XV. 773),
altering size and form (XVI. 66, XIX. 2), changing physi-
cal state (XXIII. 283 ; XXII. 473).
(c). Thermometry, XI. 558; XXIII. 288.
(d). Calorimetry, XX. 132; XI. 555.
(e). Thermodynamics, XXIII. 283; XXII. 479; XV. 649.
(f). Dissipation of energy (XXIII. 285) by diffusion of
matter, etc.
Diffusion of motion (XXIII. 543; VIII. 207) by internal
friction of fluids (XII. 482; XIX. 247).
Diffusion of heat (VII. 217) by conduction (XX. 212).
(g). Theory of propagation of sound, I. 100.
Vibration of strings, etc., XVII. 105; I. 116.
3. Theory of radiance.
(a). Geometrical optics, XVII. 798.
Theory of conjugate foci, XVII. 799.
140 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Optical instruments, XVII. 801, 806.
(b). Velocity of light, II. 797; XXIV. 458.
(c). Prismatic analysis of light, XIV. 519,612.
r^w* Spectroscopy, XXII. 373.
Radiance. vn. ,
fluorescence, XIV. 579, 602.
(d). Diffraction of light, XXIV. 430, 442.
(e). The wave theory of light, XIV. 603.
(f). Polarized light, XIV. 610.
(g). Theory of primary colors, VIII. 823.
The spectrum, XIV. 592, 595.
4. Electricity and magnetism.
(a). Electrostatics, VIII. 24; VIII. 14.
(b). Electrokinematics, or distribution of currents in
conductors (see index VIII. 105).
Electrolysis, VIII. 106.
Magnetism, Electro-chemistry, VIII. 13, 112; VI. 846.
etc. (c). Magnetism, XV. 219.
Terrestrial magnetism, XVI. 159.
Diamagnetism XV. 244, 262 ; IX. 285.
(d). Electro-magnetism, VIII. 66.
READINGS IN THE STUDY OF MAN. 141
CHAPTER XVII.
READINGS IN THE STUDY OF MAN.
"The proper study of mankind is man." — Pope.
A COMPLETE study of Man in all his various relations
to the animal and spiritual world would embrace an in-
vestigation of many branches of knowledge,
msions each occupying a distinct field of its own, but
Subject each dependent to a greater or less extent upon
its kindred sciences. Among these branches
the following are the most important :
1. Anatomy, which treats of the structure of the hu-
man body (see I. 799).
2. Physiology, which treats of the functions and rela-
tions of the different parts of the body, XIX. 8.
3. Psychology, which investigates the operations of the
human mind (see references in chapter entitled The
Teacher).
4. Philology, which deals with the general principles of
language (see chapter on that subject in this GUIDE).
5. Ethics, which treats of man's duty to his fellow-men
(see references in chapter on Philosophy in this Guide).
6. Sociology, which treats of the origin and develop-
ment of human institutions, VIII. 619; XVIII. 796;
XIX. 347-
7. Religion, which deals with man's relations to the
spiritual world, and his duties to God (see the chapter -en-
titled The Preacher and Theologian).
8. Anthropology, the natural history of man.
9. Ethnology or Ethnography — properly a subdivision
142 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
of Anthropology — which deals with the subdivisions of the
human race, such as hordes, clans, tribes, nations, etc.
10. Archaeology and Antiquities, which treat of the
early history of man, and of the remains of ancient art.
ii. History (see Chapter VI. in this Guide).
It is proposed to indicate in the present chapter a few
courses of reading from the Britannica which shall cover
only the subjects numbered 8, 9, 10, and 6, above.
I. ANTHROPOLOGY.
Let us take as the basis of our studies the comprehen-
sive and scholarly article by Professor E. B. Tylor in
volume II., pages 107-123. As to man's place
Origin of m nature, refer to the article Animal Kingdom,
Man. II. 49. Certain portions also of the following
articles may be read: Physiology, XIX. 8; His-
tology, XII. 4. See, also, XV. 444, and the articles on
Evolution, VIII. 744.
Heredity, sup. 1568.
Charles Darwin, sup. 989.
Ape, II. 148.
Man and Monkeys, II. 107.
Concerning the origin of man, see the following : I. 136;
X. 291 ; II. 333, 341 ; also the myths of his creation, III. 141 ;
XVII. 157. Read the section on this subject in II. 110.
The chapter on the races of mankind, II. 1 1 1-1 1 5, maybe
supplemented by the references under Ethnology, below.
Concerning the antiquity of man, read the sections in
X. 368, and II. 115; then see the references under Archae-
ology, below.
Read the section on language, II. 1 17-120;
Language, also the following :
Evolutionary theories of language, VIII. 769.
Relation of language to thought, XX. 75.
READINGS IN THE STUDY OF MAN. I43
Relation of language to mythology, XVII. 137.
(Sec Chapter VIII. in this volume).
Study next the development of civilization
and culture. Read section vi., volume II.,
Culture. , , , . . . . .
pages 120-123; and also what is said of the
earliest seats of civilization, II. 342, and of
Buckle's theory of civilization, IV. 421.
II. ETHNOLOGY.
Read by sections the article entitled Ethnography, VIII.
613-626. (Observe the distinction between Ethnography
and Ethnology, p. 613). The following are a few
of the articles or sections which will be found
interesting in connection with this study.
The Family, IX. 17.
Tribes among Primitive Races, IX. 20.
Races of mankind, II. 1 1 1.
Ages of man, II. 122, also II. 336-341.
Food, VIII. 616.
Fire, IX. 227-232.
Religious Development (see chapter entitled The
Preacher and Theologian, in this volume).
Myths and Legends, VIII. 623 ; VIII. 837; XVII. 135;
XXIII. 28; IX. 358.
Magic, XV. 199.
Superstitions, VIII. 623 (see also the references named
in Chapter XX. of this Guide).
For the characteristics which distinguish man
Character- m different countries, see under the head of each
istics. country. For example, for Man in Africa, see
the article Africa, I. 260 ; so also we shall find,
Man in Algeria, I. 564;
Man in America, I. 686 ;
Man in Arabia, II. 245 ;
144 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Man in Asia, II. 697 ;
Man in Australia, III. 118;
and so on, for every country of importance in the world.
Some curious races are also described in an entertaining
way :
The Natives of the Andaman Islands, II. II.
The Hottentots, XII. 309.
The Bushmen, IV. 575.
The Bongo, IV. 32.
The Ainos of Japan, I. 426.
The Dyaks, IV. 58.
The Czechs, VI. 754.
The Copts, VI. 354-
The Cossacks, VI. 448.
The Natives of Anam (ugliest in the world), VI. 95.
The Esquimaux, VIII. 543.
The Natives of Polynesia, XIX. 432.
The Pueblo Indians, sup. 2473.
Half breeds of Manitoba, sup. 1509.
Concerning the origin of justice and morals, and their
development among primitives peoples, see
VIII. 624. Also marriage, XV. 565; IX. 18;
Customs. . . . .
totemistic marriage ceremonies, AX111. 470;
marriage among ancient Mexicans, XVI. 213 ;
myths relating to marriage, XVII. 158.
Cannibalism, IV. 807.
Totcmism, XXIII. 467.
Ghost-dance of Indians, sup. 1392.
See Frank H. Cushing, sup. 971.
See also the readings in SOCIOLOGY, suggested in this
Guide.
iit. archeology and antiquities.
Under this head we shall include a brief survey of a few
READINGS IN THE STUDY OF MAN. 145
of the more interesting antiquities described in various ar-
ticles in the Britannica. No attempt will be
made at classification. Read first the brief ar-
Antiquities. . , .... T, , ,
tide on Antiquities, II. 134, and then turn to
Archaeology, 1 1. 333. This latter article may be
studied by sections in connection with the supplementary
article on the same subject, sup. 2 1 6. See also Egyptol-
ogy, sup. H27; W. M. Flinders Petrie, sup. 2358.
Then read, as occasion requires, or as inclination may
direct, the following articles, which have been selected on
account of their interest to general readers :
Antiquity of Man, II. 115.
Antiquities of America, I. 692.
The Wound Builders, III. 399.
Ancient American Architecture, II. 450.
Ancient Ruins in Yucatan, XXIV. 758.
Antiquities of Egypt, VII. 767-784.
Antiquities of Peru, I. 696.
Wall of Romulus, XX. 812.
Wall of Servius, XX. 813.
Wall of Antoninus, II. 139.
Wall of Hadrian, XI. 723.
Wall sculptures of Babylon, XVII. 34.
Wall decorations in Pompeii, XVII, 37-41.
Great Wall of China, V. 638, 644.
Baalbec, III. 176.
The Temple of Bel, III. 183.
Nineveh, XVII. 511 ; II. 397.
Schliemann's Researches in Ancient Troy, II. 341 ; sup.
2647.
Olympia, Recent Discoveries at, XVII. 765.
Mycenae, Ancient Remains of, XVII. 115.
Cylopean Masonry, II. 346, 401.
Remains of Masonry in Ithaca, XIII. 517.
I46 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Tiryns, XXIII. 407.
General di Cesnola, sup. 738, and his discoveries in
Cyprus, VI. 750, note.
Temple of Poseidon, XVIII. 133.
The Palladium, XVIII. 188.
Painted Tombs of Corneto, VI. 423.
Mummies, XVII. 20.
Pompeii, XIX. 444.
Herculaneum, XL 723.
Cave Animals and Cave Man, V. 266.
Prehistoric Stone Circles, II. 383.
Stone Monuments, Dolmens, etc., XXI. 50.
Stonehenge, XXII. 576.
Ancient Monuments in Peru, II. 451.
Stone Monuments in Polynesia, XIX. 428.
Animal Mounds of Wisconsin, XXIV. 618.
Druidic Monuments, XXI. 52.
Ancient Barrows, III. 397.
Old Roman Roads, XX. 582.
The Catacombs, V. 206-216.
Ancient Stone Weapons, II. 553.
Ancient Inscriptions, XIII. 1 14-133.
Ancient Bottles, IV. 167.
Ancient Bracelets, IV. 187.
Ancient Bricks, IV. 279.
Ancient Brooches, IV. 369.
Ancient Lamps, XIV. 247.
Ancient Mirrors, XVI. 501.
Ancient Baths, III. 434.
Ancient Mosaics, XVI. 850.
Ancient Relics, XX. 355.
Relics in connection with Christian thought and prac-
tice, XX. 357.
Remains of antique art, II. 134.
READINGS l\ 1 Hi: ST1 DV 01 MAN. 147
Ancient rings; earliest existing rings, cylinders, Ro-
man rings, XX. 560; Episcopal rings, poison rings, XX.
561.
Ancient Plate (Assyrian, Etruscan, etc.), XIX. 179-182.
Ancient Writing Materials, XVIII. 143, 232.
Ancient Pottery, III. 189.
Ancient Textiles, Weaving in Prehistoric Times, etc.,
XXIII. 206.
Antiquarian Societies, II. 135.
Archaeological Societies, XXII. 221.
Asiatic Societies, sup. 265.
I48 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XVIII.
READINGS IN PHILOSOPHY.
PHILOSOPHY is a term the meaning and scope of which
have varied greatly according to the usage of
different authors and different ages. The aim
Definition. . ,. ... 1111
of the courses of reading which we shall here
attempt to indicate, is to afford a general view
of the history of philosophic ideas from the earliest times
to the present, with a brief notice of some of the famous
schools of philosophy, and of their influence upon modern
thought. Of the large number of articles in the Britan-
nica, which may be utilized for this purpose, only those
will be named which are the most essential to a general
knowledge of the subject, or which are deemed to be of
the greatest interest to the young student or the casual
reader.
I. ETHICS.
The special article on Philosophy, XVIII. 791, may be
made the starting point and basis for these studies. This
article, leaving controversial details as far as possible in
the background, attempts to explain generally
the essential nature of philosophy, and to indi-
Ethics. . . ,. . . . \ . ,
cate the mam divisions into which, as a matter
of historical fact, its treatment has fallen. After
reading the first and second divisions of this article, pp.
791-793, let us make a brief study of the lives of some of
the famous ancient philosophers, and of the different
schools which they founded.
But first, turn to the article on Ethics, VIII. 574, and
read the introductory paragraphs defining and giving a
Ancirnt
R] ADINGS IN PHILOSI IPHY. 149
general account of this division of the subject. Read next
the article on Thales, the first philosopher ol Greece, and
the founder of Greek astronomy and geometry, XXIII.
217. Then read the following articles in their order :
Pythagoras (580 500 B. C.) and Pythagoreanism, XX.
Heraclitus of Ephesus (530-470 B. C), XI. 6S1.
Democritus (470-362 B. C), VII. 59.
The Sophists, XXII. 263; The Age of the Sophists,
VIII. 576.
Socrates (470-399 B. a), XXII. 231 ; Socratic
Schools. VIII. 578.
hers Aristippus, II. 506. The Cyrenaic School,
VI. 750.
The Cynics, VI. 7+S> VIII. 578; Antisthenes, II. 136;
Diogenes, VII. 245.
Plato, XIX. 194. VIII. 579; Platonism, I. 68; Plato
and Aristotle, VIII. 580; Plato''- school, VIII. 587; the
Academy, I. 68.
Aristotle, II. 510; Aristotle's Ethics, VIII. 5? , his
logic, XIV. 784 ; his metaphysics, XVI. 79 ; the Peripa-
tetics, XVIII. 545.
Stoicism, VIII. 583; XXII. 561.
Epicurus, VIII. 472, 586.
Marcus Aurelius, III. 86.
Neoplatonism, XVII. 332; VIII. 587.
Mysticism, XVII. 128.
Christian ethics, VIII. 588 ; faith, VIII. 589; love and
purity, VIII. 590.
Alexandrian school, I. 498.
St. Augustine, Christian philosopher, III. 75.
St. Ambrose, I. 662.
Scholastic philosophy, XXI. 117.
Thomas Aquinas, II. 231.
150 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Albertus Magnus, I. 453.
Abelard, I. 34.
Bernard of Clairvaux, III. 601.
Grotius, XI. 217.
Hobbes and his " Leviathan," XII. 31.
Modem The Cambridge Moralists, VIII. 597.
PhilOSO- TX _, ,riTT^
phers. HeniT More> XVL 8l4-
John Locke, XIV. 751.
Shaftesbury, XXI. 731.
Bernard de Mandeville, XV. 472.
David Hume, XII. 346.
Adam Smith, XXII. 169.
. The Intuitional School, VIII. 603.
Dugald Stewart, XXII. 546.
Utilitarianism, VIII. 606; sup. 3013.
William Paley, XVIII. 181.
Jeremy Bentham, III. 575.
John Stuart Mill, XVI. 307; sup. 3014.
Auguste Comte, VI. 229.
Immanuel Kant, XIII. 844.
Georg Friedrich Hegel, XI. 612.
Herbert Spencer, sup. 2764.
Ralph Waldo Emerson, I. 729; sup. 1195.
Transcendentalism, sup. 2935.
Finally, this study of ethics may be brought to a close
by reading the concluding paragraph on that subject in
XVIII. 796.
II. METAPHYSIC.
Metaphysic is " the science which deals with the princi-
ples which are presupposed in all being and
Definition, knowing, though the}- arc brought to light only
by philosophy." According to Aristotle it in-
cludes also theology, the science of God. It is treated at
RI \i)T\r,s IN PHILOS< mn . 151
considerable length by Professor Caird of Glasgow, in
XVI. 79-1 14.
Sn- the references given above for Aristotle,
the Sophists, the Socratic school, Neoplaton-
References. . T_ _ _ . . ..
ism, Kant, Locke, etc. Read also the follow-
ing articles :
Bacon, III, 200; XXIII. 244.
Descartes, VII. 1 15.
Fichte, IX. 134; XX. 290.
Spinoza, XXII. 399.
Animism, II. 55.
Realism, XXI. 419 ; sup. 2515 ; see also Hamilton, XI.
417; Schopenhauer, XXI. 457; and Universals, XXI.
4 1 8 et seq.
Idealism, sup. 1649.
Altruism, sup. 145.
Analytic Judgments, I. 797.
Association of Ideas, II, 730.
Antinomy, II. 130.
III. PSYCHOLOGY.
Psychology, "the science of the phenomena of the
mind," is the subject of a long and very learned article by
Professor Ward, of Cambridge University, XX.
Modern 37—85. It may be read by sections with collat-
Psychology. eral references to the articles treating of the
lives and works of the men who have done
most for the development of this science.
See the references given above for Locke, Hume, Mill,
and many others.
Read also the following articles :
Berkeley, III. 589.
Bain, I. 223; III. 534.
Herbart, XI. 718.
152 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Leibnitz, XIV. 417.
Herbert Spencer, II. 733.
Sir William Hamilton, XI. 416.
Association of ideas, II. 730.
Analytic judgments, I. 797.
Belief, III. 532.
Imagination, XX. 57.
Feeling, XX. 40, 66, 74.
Abstraction, I. 58.
Absolute, I. 57.
Analysis and Synthesis, I. 796.
Attention, III. 52, etc.
Psychology in relation to ethics, VIII. 574; in relation
to logic, XIV. 780; to metaphysics, XVIII. 848; to evo-
lution, VIII. 766; to religion, XXIII. 274.
Aristotle's Psychology, II. 522.
Plato's, XIX. 201.
The Stoics', XXII. 565.
Xenocrates's, XXIV. 719.
Hume's, XII. 352.
Cousin's, VI. 525.
Descartes', VII. 126.
Hegel's, XI. 620.
Leibnitz's, XIV. 422.
Kant's, XIII. 848.
Lewes's, XIV. 491.
See additional references to this subject in the chapter
entitled The Teacher, in this Guide.
IV. LOGIC.
Logic is the systematic study of thought. The subject
is discussed in a comprehensive and scholarly article by
Professor Adamson, of Manchester, in Volume XIV. of
kl ^DINGS i\ PHILOSOPHY. 153
the Britannica, pages 780-803. Hamilton's contributions
to the development of this science arc briefly
noticed in XL 410.
Logic. J
John Stuart Mill's in XVI. 312.
Whately's in XXIV. 530.
Hutchcson's in XII. 411.
Condillac's in VI. 251.
Gilbert de la PorreVs in X. 592.
De Morgan's in VII. 66.
Hegel's in XL 619.
Kant's in XIII. 852.
Leibnitz's in XIV. 422.
Lully's in XV. 64.
The various terms and distinctive expressions used in
the science are defined and discussed, sometimes sep-
arately, each under its own head, and sometimes in a com-
prehensive treatise upon some general topic. For ex-
ample :
A priori and a posteriori, II. 214.
Reductio ad absurdum, I. cq.
Terms. . , > 3?
Accident, I. 83.
Analogy, I. 791.
Reality, XIV. 797, 798.
Analysis, I. 793, 796.
Reason, XIV. 780.
Association of Ideas, II. 730-734.
See the references given above for Aristotle, Kant, Mill,
Hegel, etc.
Read also the following articles or paragraphs:
Lotze, XV. 12,
Ueberweg, XXIII. 716.
Condillac, VI. 249.
Ulrici, XXIII. 721.
Analytics, XIV. 785.
I 54 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Dialectics, XIV. 786; II. 516.
Deduction, I 797.
Induction, I. 797; XIV. 785.
Syllogism, XIV. 789.
V. AESTHETICS.
By Aesthetics is generally meant the science of the
beautiful, with its allied conceptions and emotions. A
brief survey of the subject and the various prob-
The lems which its study involves is given in a
Beautiful, special article by Professor James Sully in I.
212-224. After reading the first two sections of
this article, see the references given above for Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, and the other philosophers mentioned
under the head of Ethics. Read next the chapter on the
history of aesthetic systems, pp. 214-224.
This course of reading may be continued with
a study of the short section on aesthetics, XVIII. 795.
Edmund Burke's work on the sublime and beautiful is
briefly noticed in IV. 540. Jouffray's theory that the
beautiful when considered apart from utility is valueless,
is referred to in XIII. 194. See also:
The nature of beauty, IX. 194.
Hutcheson on beauty, XII. 411.
Plato on beauty, XIX. 201.
VI. SOCIOLOGY.
Philosophers will agree in telling us that for the content
of morality we must refer, in great part, to the experience
crystallized in laws and institutions, and to the
Human unwritten law of custom, honor, and good
Society. breeding, which has become organic in the so-
ciety of which we arc members. Sociology, or
the science of the development of human society, is
RE IDINGS IN PHILOSOPHY. 155
brought therefore within the scope of philosophy. Insome
of its aspects it may indeed be regarded as a branch or
subdivision oi ethics. Many articles in the Britannica re-
. more or less directly, to this interesting subject. The
following may be studied with profit :
Antiquity of .Man, II. I 15.
Development of Civilization, II. 120.
Development of Culture, II. 121.
Family Development, VIII. 618.
Social Development. VIII. 619.
Association and Evolution, VIII. 607.
Relations of sociology to economics, XIX. 347.
Sociological conceptions of Comte, VI. 235.
Herbert Spencer's Social Statics, sup. 2765.
Sociology in relation to Statistics, XXII. 464.
See also Sociological Societies, XXII. 226.
In connection with these readings, make use of the ref-
erences to ethnology given in this GUIDE.
156 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XIX.
READINGS FOR BIBLE STUDENTS.
" This course of reading Scripture and good books will be many ways
to your great advantage." — Richard Baxter, 1660.
SUNDAY-SCHOOL teachers, ministers of the Gospel, theo-
logians, and all students of the Bible will find the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica replete with information con-
Bible cerning all subjects connected with Bible
History. history, biography, or geography. There is
scarcely a proper name in the Old Testament
or the New that is not the subject of a special article.
The History of the Bible itself, with that of the critical
problems connected with the books which compose it, is
ably and fully discussed by Professor W. Robertson
Smith in a fourteen-page article, III. 634-648. Many of
the books composing the Bible are treated separately in a
similar comprehensive manner. See the following :
Pentateuch and Joshua, XVIII. 505-514. This article
embraces a complete survey of the first six
Books of books of the Bible, with a careful discussion of
the Bible. the Mosaic law, and a notice of the most recent
criticisms and opinions. In connection with
this article it will be interesting to read what is said of
Philo's " Exposition of the Mosaic Law," XVIII. 763.
The book of Judges, XIII. 763, and XIII. 400.
The book of Ruth, XXI. 110.
The books of Samuel, XXI. 252.
The First and Second Books of Kings, XIV. 83.
Chronicles, V. 706.
READINGS FOR BIBLE STUDENTS.
157
The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, VIII. 831.
The Book of Esther, VIII. 560.
The Book of Job, XIII. 697, 420.
The Book of Psalms, XX. 29, and XII. 589.
The Book of Proverbs, XIX. 879.
The Book of Ecclesiastes, VII. 623.
Song of Solomon, V. 32.
Prophet, Prophets, XIX. 814.
Lamentations of Jeremiah, XIV. 240.
The Book of Daniel, VI. 803.
The Old Testament Canon, V. 1.
The Gospels, X. 789.
Acts of the Apostles, I. 123.
Epistles of St. Paul, III. 642.
Epistle to the Hebrews, XI. 602.
Epistle to the Romans, XX. 727.
Epistles to the Corinthians, VI. 399.
Epistle to the Galatians, X. 19.
Epistle to the Ephesians, VIII. 458.
Epistle to the Colossians, VI.. 164.
Epistles to the Thessalonians, XXIII. 297.
Epistles to Timothy and Titus, XVIII. 348.
Epistle to Philemon, XVIII. 741.
Epistle of St. James, XIII. 553.
Epistles of St. Peter, XVIII. 697.
Epistles of St. John, XIII. 707.
Epistle of St. Jude, XIII. 761.
The Book of Revelation, XX. 496.
The New Testament Canon, V. 7.
Apocalyptic Literature, II. 174.
The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, II. 180; the
Book of Baruch, III. 404; Esdras VIII. 541; Judith,
XIII. 765 ; Maccabees, XV. 131 ; Tobit, XXIII. 428,
Israel, XIII. 396.
I58 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Moses, XVI. 860.
David, VI. 836.
Miscella- jewSj xnL ^
neous Bible T... . „ , ,rT
-. . Bible Concordance, VI. 240.
Topics. ^
Bible Glosses, X. 687.
Versions of the Bible :
English, VIII. 381 ; Wycliffe's, XXIV. 710; Tyndale's,
XXIII. 675; Coverdale's, VL 531; Luther's,
XV. 76 ; Geneva, VIII. 387 ; the Septuagint,
Versions. ,r-.rT /■*■
XXI. 667.
Inspiration of the Bible, XIII. 154.
Circulation of the Bible, III. 634: sup. 442-456.
The above-named articles, many of them long and all
the work of Biblical scholars of high repute, if read in the
order named will constitute a complete course of study in
Bible history and criticism. Theologians>and advanced stu-
dents will recognize at once their great interest and value.
The Britannica also contains innumerable briefer ar-
ticles on subjects concerning which every Bible
Shorter reader desires to be informed. The following
Articles. is a partial list of such articles arranged alpha-
betically, according to the volumes in which
they occur :
Volume I. — Aaron, the first high priest, p. 3 ; Abel, the
first man slain, p. 33 ; Abimelech, the title of certain kings
in Palestine, p. 49 ; Abraham, the " father of the faith-
ful," p. 52; Absalom, the rebellious son of David, p. 56;
Adam, the first man, p. 135 ; Ahab, the wicked king of Is-
rael, p. 420; Ahasuerus, king of Persia, p. 421 ; Amos,
one of the prophets, p. 747.
Amalekites, p. 651 ; Ammonites, p. 742, and Amorites,
p. 747 — tribes at war with the Israelites.
Abana and Parphar, p. 4; Adullum, p. 166, and Ai, p.
424 — rivers mentioned in the Old Testament.
READINGS FOR BIBLE STUDENTS. 159
Volume II. — Athaliah, p. 827; Asa, p. 153; Apocry-
pha, p. 180; Ark of the Covenant, p. 539; Ararat, p.
309-
Volume HI. — Balaam, p. 258; Baruch, p. 404; Bel-
shazzar, p. 553.
Volume //". — Cain, p. 642 ; Canaanites, p. 763 ; Cana of
Galilee, p. 762.
Volume V. — Canticles, p. 32 ; Chronicles, p. 706.
Volume VI. — Daniel, p. 803 ; David, p. 836.
Volume VII. — Deluge, p. 54; Decalogue, p. 15.
Volume VIII. — Eli, p. 133 ; Elijah, p. 134 ; Elisha, p. 140 ;
Emmaus, p. 177 ; Enoch, p. 449; Esau, p. 533 ; Esdras,
p. 541 ; Esther, p. 560 ; Eve, p. 733 ; Ezekiel, p. 828.
Volume X. — Galilee, p. 27 ; Gath, p. 108 ; Gilead, p. 594 ;
Goshen, p. 788 ; Gideon, p. 588 ; Gog, p. 738 ; Bible
Glosses, p. 687 ; the Gospels, p. 789.
Volume XII. — Hittites, p. 25 ; Hosea, p. 295.
Volume XIII. — Isaiah, p. 377 ; Israel, p. 396 ; Jeremiah,
p. 626 ; Jesus Christ, p. 656; Jesus, son of Sirach, p. 672 ;
Job, p. 697.
Volume XIV. — Lamech, p. 238.
Volume XV. — Manna, p. 493 ; Mark, p. 551 ; Mary, p.
589; Matthew, p. 633.
Volume XVI. — Messiah, p. 53; Micah, p. 224 ; Michael,
p. 226; Midian, p. 284; Moab, p. 533; Moloch, p. 695;
Moses, p. 860.
Volume XVII. — Nahum, p. 165; Naphtali, p. 174; Na-
thanael, p. 242 ; Nehemiah, p. 320 ; Nimrod, p. 5 1 1 ; Nebu-
chadnezzar, p. 309.
Volume XVIII. — Paul, p. 415 ; Peter, p. 693 ; Pharaoh,
p. 730 ; Philemon, p. 741 ; Philip, p. 742 ; Philistines, p. 755.
Volume XX. — The land of Rameses, p. 265.
Volume XXI. — Sabbath, p. 124; Samaria, p. 243; Sa-
maritans, p. 244; Samuel, p. 252 ; Samson, p. 252.
l6o GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Volume XXII — Simeon, p. yj ; Simon Magus, p. 78 ;
Sinai, p. 88 ; Solomon, p. 251 ; Synagogue, p. 811 ; Susa,
p. 722.
Volume XXIII. — Thomas, p. 308 ; Timothy, p. 399 ;
Titus, p. 420; Tobit, p. 427.
Of the articles which relate to the geography of the
Bible, the following are a few of the most important :
Sinai, celebrated as the place where Moses received the
law, XXII. 88.
Palestine, the " Promised Land," XVIII. 170, and XIII.
400.
Jerusalem, the holy city, XIII. 636.
Dead Sea, together with an account of the two cities,
Sodom and Gomorrah, which are said to have
Bible occupied its site, VII. 1.
Geography. Hebron, the ancient capital of Judea, XI.
608.
Bethlehem, the city of David, III. 617.
Bethany, the " town of Mary and Martha," III. 617.
Beer-sheba, the most southern town of Palestine, III.
504.
Samaria, XXI. 243.
Shechem, XXI. 783.
Nazareth, the town where Jesus lived, XVII. 302.
Gennesaret, otherwise called the Sea of Galilee, X. 29.
Gethsemane, sup. 1390.
Capernaum, V. 54.
Joppa, XIII. 746.
Antioch, II. 130.
Damascus, the oldest city in the world, VI. 790.
The journeyings of the Israelites from Egypt to the
Promised Land may be traced by reading the following
READINGS FOR BIBLE STUDENTS. 161
references in their order : Starting from Rameses in Egypt,
\\. 265, they fled to the Red Sea, XIII. 399. Here
Pharaoh and his host were overthrown and
journey drowned, but the Israelites, having crossed in
from . ... . 111
E safety, pursued their journey through the wil-
derness. For three days they had no water to
drink, and arriving at last at Marah, XIV. 767, they found
that the water in the springs there was bitter. This water
was miraculously made sweet, and they continued their
journey, finally reaching Sinai, XXII. 88, where the law
was delivered to Moses. From Sinai they passed by va-
rious stations to Kadesh-Barnea, XXII. 821, and from that
place sent out twelve spies to view the Promised Land.
Being afraid to enter the Promised Land, they then turned
back into the wilderness where they wandered for forty
years. At Mount Hor, XII. 159, Aaron died. While pass-
ing around Edom, XII. 699, they were attacked by fiery
serpents. Arriving at last on the plains of Moab, XVI. 533,
the Israelite army was reviewed and the law was confirmed
by Moses. Moses viewed the Promised Land from the
top of Mount Pisgah and died there. After this the peo-
ple under Joshua crossed the Jordan, XIII. 746, encamped
a short time at Gilgal, X. 596, and then marched against
Jericho, XIII. 629, and Ai, I. 424. At Shechem, XXI.
783, they again encamped, and there the cursings were
read from Mount Ebal, X. 444, and the blessings from
Mount Gerizim, XXI. 244. Returning to Gilgal, a treaty
was made with the people of Gibeon, X. 583. At Merom,
XIII. 746, the Northern Canaanites were signally defeated ;
and at Shiloh, XXI. 803, the twelve tribes were assigned
to their respective possessions.
In much the same way we may follow the Apostle Paul
in his voyage to Rome. He sets sail from Caesarea, IV.
639 ; touches at Sidon, XXII. 35 ; thence proceeds to
l62 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Cyprus, VI. 747, and to Myra, XV. 93, where he is tran-
shipped to a corn vessel which coasts along the shore of
Asia Minor to Cnidus, V. 44. Being caught by
Paul's tjle w^n^ j-^e vessel is driven to Crete, VI. 569,
VoVclETC tO
D and follows the southern coast of that island to
Rome.
Fair Haven, VI. 570. Sailing thence to find a
secure harbor for the winter, the vessel encounters the
wind Eurokylon, XV. 340, and sup. 1220 ; and, under shel-
ter of the island Clauda, VI. 570, the sailors prepare for
the storm by striking sail and turning the vessel's head to
the wind. For fourteen days they are driven helpless
across the sea, and are finally thrown upon the shore of
Melita, XV. 840, escaping only with their lives. After
three months, Paul sets sail in an Alexandrian corn ship,
stops at Syracuse, XXII. 813, for three days; then, mak-
ing circuit, passes Rhegium, XX. 341, and the next day
lands at Puteoli, XVII, 188, where he rests a full week.
Then he proceeds by the Appian Way, II. 211, to the city
of Rome, XX. 807.
It is safe to say, in conclusion, that the earnest student
of the Bible will find in the Britannica an answer to al-
most every question concerning biblical subjects that may
be asked. From no other single work will he be able to
obtain a larger amount of useful information at so little
expenditure of time and labor. The Britannica is, in
short, the great authority to which readers and students
of every denomination or creed may turn with full confi-
dence in"its correctness and impartiality. See the chapter
entitled The Preacher and Theologian, of this GUIDE.
READINGS IN MYTHOLOGY, ETC. 163
CHAPTER XX.
READINGS IN MYTHOLOGY, LEGENDS, TRADITIONS, AND
FOLK LORE.
" Books are our household gods." — January Searle.
"Gods and goddesses, all the whole synod of them!" — Antony and
Cleopatra.
I. MYTHOLOGY.
MYTHOLOGY is the science which examines the myths
of cosmogony and of gods and heroes. A very scholarly
exposition of this science is given by Andrew
Lang in Volume XVII., pp. 135-154, of the
Definition. _ . . _, , . .
Britanmca. Students, however, who are not
already somewhat familiar with the subject will
prefer to read some of the shorter articles first ; they will
afterward be able to take up this entertaining and com-
prehensive disquisition, and read it with appreciation and
delight. The following list includes a number of interest-
ing and valuable articles, arranged for the most part in
alphabetical order :
Myths of the creation, VI. 446, and XVII. 156. Read
also the chapter on cosmogonies, I. 460.
Myths of the gods :
Apollo, II. 185.
Athena (Minerva), II. 830; XVI. 437.
Greek Diana (Artemis), II. 643 ; VII. 167.
Roman. Hebe' XL 49°.
Hephaestus (Vulcan), XI. 679.
Juno, XIII. 778 (Hera), XI. 679.
164 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Jupiter, XIII. 779.
Mars, XV. 569, (Ares), II. 484.
Marsyas, XV. 575.
Mercury (Hermes), XL 749; XVI. 530.
Nemesis, XVII. 331.
Neptune (Poseidon), XVII. 345; XIX. 558.
Saturn, XXI. 320.
Venus (Aphrodite), II. 171.
Vesta, XXIV. 193.
Zeus (Jupiter), XXIV. 732.
The Aesir, I. 209.
Odin, 11.68; XVII. 156.
Frey, I. 210.
Northern. . . TTT
Balder, III. 275.
Niord, I. 210.
Bragi, I. 211.
Thor, XVII. 156.
Freya, IX. 7J7.
Loki, XVII. 474-
Heimdal, I. 211, etc.
Asgard, II. 679.
Bel, III. 175.
Ashtoreth, II. 735.
0ther Astarte, II. 735.
Gods. Merodach, XXIII. 237.
Ammon, I. 740.
Anubis, II. 146.
Bubastis, IV. 408.
Baal, III. 175.
Moloch, XVI. 695.
Ahriman, I. 424.
Dagon, VI. 761.
READINGS IN MYTHOLOGY, ETC. 165
Anoukis, II. 90.
Athor, III. 13.
Buto, IV. 590.
For further references, see the chapter entitled The
Preacher and Theologian^ in this Guide.
II. LEGENDS.
1. Closely allied to the myths of the gods — in fact, in-
separable from them — are the legends of the ancient he-
roes. All are related in the Britaimica, with now
Old Greek and then a pertinent inquiry respecting their
Stories. origin, or a brief discussion concerning their
interpretation. Here you may find the story
of Achilles, whose " vengeful wrath brought woes number-
less upon the Greeks," I. 94; of Acis and his love for the
nymph Galatea, I. 98 ; of Actaeon hunted by his own
hounds, I. 129; of Adonis beloved by Venus, I. 163; of
Adrastus and the war of the Seven against Thebes, I. 164;
of ^Eacus, famed for his integrity and piety, I. 179; of
/Egeus, the king of Athens, and of ^Egina, the river-
nymph, I. 180; of /Egis, the buckler of Jupiter, I. 181 ;
of /Egisthus, the traitor, I. 181, and his betrayal of Aga-
memnon, " king of men," I. 273 ; of /Eneas and his flight
from Troy, I. 182 ; of Ajax Telamon and AjaxOileus and
their bold exploits, I. 432 ; of fair Alcestis giving herself
up to death to save the life of her husband, I. 459 ; of
Alcinous and his Phaeacian people, I. 468 ; of Alpheus, the
river-god, I. 615, and his adventure with the nymph Are-
thusa, II. 485 ; of the Amazonian women, I. 655, brave
warriors of the Colchian shore ; of Amphiaraus, I. 749,
whose prophetic power did not save him from an early
death; of Amphion, I. 774, the sound of whose lyre caused
stones to move and form themselves into the walls of
Thebes ; of Amymone and the satyr, I. 782.
166 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
This takes us only through the first volume. Of the
numerous classical legends narrated in the remaining vol-
umes, it is unnecessary to name all. Any course of read-
ing on this subject, however, ought to include the following :
Anchises, the father of /Eneas, II. 3.
1 er Andromache, the wife of Trojan Hector, II.
Classical
22
Legends.
Andromeda, saved by Perseus from the jaws
of a sea-monster, II. 22.
Antaeus, giant and wrestler, overcome by Hercules, II.
100.
Antigone, the heroine of one of the most famous of the
old Greek tragedies, II. 127.
The Argonauts and their famous voyage in search of
the Golden Fleece, II. 497.
Ariadne, the fair maiden of Crete, II. 501.
Arion, the Greek bard and player on the cithara, II. 502.
Atalant-a, the swift-footed huntress of Arcadia, II. 826.
Atreus, the father of Agamemnon, III. 50.
Atys, the beautiful shepherd of Phrygia, III. 65.
The autochthones, aborigines of Greece, III, 141.
Cadmus, the inventor of letters, IV. 629.
Calchas, the wisest of soothsayers, IV. 653.
Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry, IV. 709.
The centaurs, or " bull-killers," fabled as creatures half
man and half horse, V. 340.
Cerberus, the three-headed dog that guards the gates of
Hades, V. 345.
Cupid and Psyche, VI. 708.
The Cyclopes, a lawless race of one-eyed monsters, VI
744-
Daedalus, the most famous artisan of prehistoric times,
VI. 760.
Daphne, beloved by Apollo, VI. 821.
READINGS IX MYTHOLOGY, ETC. 1 67
Danae, the mother of Perseus, VI. 797.
Danaiis and his fifty daughters, VI. 797.
Deucalion, the Noah of the Greeks, VII. 134.
Dodona and its famous oaks, VII. 322.
Echo and her love for Narcissus, VII. 640.
Elysium, or the abode of the blessed, VIII. 156.
Endymion, and his perpetual sleep, X" III. 204.
The Epigoni, sons of the seven heroes who perished at
Thebes, VIII. 477.
The Erinyes, or Furies, VIII. 524.
The Fauns, IX. 53.
Ganymede, the cup-bearer of Zeus, X. 72.
The Giants, X. 571.
Glaucus, the fisherman who became a god, X. 676.
The Gorgons, X. 784.
The Graces, XI. 26.
The Harpies, XI. 490.
Hercules, the greatest of the heroes, XI. 725.
Hero and Leander, XI. 754.
The Hesperides, daughters of the West, XI. 778.
Iphigenia, XIII. 211.
Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, XIII. 596.
Hyacinthus, the friend of Apollo, XII. 420.
Laocoon, the unfortunate Trojan, crushed by serpents,
XIV. 292.
The Lapithae, ancient race of Thessaly, XIV. 300.
Linus, who taught Hercules music, XIV. 678.
Medea, the enchantress, XV. y/6.
Medusa, the Gorgon, X. 785.
Midas and the "golden touch," XVI. 278.
Milo, the wrestler, XVI. 323.
Minos and the Labyrinth of Crete, XVI. 478.
The Nymphs, XVIII. 688.
Nestor, oldest of Grecian heroes before Troy, XVII. 354.
l68 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Orpheus, the sweetest of all musicians, XVIII. 51.
Odysseus, or Ulysses, XVII. 729.
Pegasus, the winged horse of the Muses, XVIII. 468.
Pelias, king of Iolcos by the sea, XVIII. 474.
Phaethon, son of Helios, XVItl. 727.
Theseus, the great Athenian hero, XXIII. 294.
Romulus, the mythical founder of Rome, XX. 840.
The Trojan war, XXIII. 584.
2. Of old English legends intimately associated with
much that is best in our literature, there are several with
which every student should be familiar. Among
English these are the following :
Legends. King Arthur and his Knights of the Round
Table, II. 649.
Lancelot of the Lake, XX. 644.
Merlin, the wizard, XX. 645.
Guy of Warwick, XI. 341.
Sir Bevis of Hampton, XX. 653.
Godiva, the fair lady of Coventry, VI. 530.
Fair Rosamond, XX. 848.
Whittington and his Cat, XXIV. 556.
3. Of Christian legends, some of the most interesting are:
Saint Cecilia, V. 284.
Christian Saint Christopher, V. 704.
Legends. The Holy Grail, XI. 34.
Saint Nicholas, XVII. 482.
Saint Denis, VII. 79.
Saint Veronica, XXIV. 174.
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, XXI. 697.
4. Of other famous legends the number is too great for
anything like a complete list to be given. Among those
R] IDINGS IN M\ THOL( >GY, ETC. l6g
referred to or narrated in the Britannica the following
may be mentioned :
Misceiia- Adam's Peak in Ceylon, I. 140.
neous. The Tower of Babel, III. [78.
The story »•!' Lohengrin, XXIV. 314.
Roland, the great French hero, XX. 626.
The Cid, famous in Spanish story, V. "$.
Ogier, the Dane, XX. 652.
l'rester John, King of Abyssinia, I. 65; XIX. 714.
The legend of Dr. Fanstus, IX. 54.
Legends of Atlantis, III. 27.
William Tell, XXIII. 155.
The Beast Epic of Reineke Vos, VIII. 838.
The Pied Piper of Hamelin, XI. 409.
The Nibelungen Lied, XVII. 474.
The legends peculiar to different countries are also no-
ticed in their appropriate places, as :
Legends of Afghanistan, I. 238.
Legends of Arabia, II. 255.
Legends of Central America, I. 703, etc.
5. Fairy Stories. — For special article, see VIII. 854. See
also the following sections, paragraphs, and short articles :
Fairies, II. 203.
Brownies, II. 204.
Fairies in Celtic literature, V. 325.
Morgan, the Fay, V. 325.
Oberon, XVII. 704.
6. Fables. — See special article, VIII. 837.
Sanscrit fables, XXL 287.
^Esop, the Greek fabulist, I. 212.
La Fontaine, the French writer of fables, XIV. 204.
Kriloff, the Russian collector of fables, XIV. 148.
170 GUIDE TO THE BRITANiNTCA.
CHAPTER XXI.
READINGS IN THE STUDY OF THE SUPERNATURAL.
" To make modern and familiar, things supernatural and causeless."
— Airs Well that Ends Well.
IN this chapter it is proposed to point out to the reader
a few of the most interesting articles in the
Occult Britannica relating to supernatural phenomena,
Sciences. the occult sciences, magic, mystery, supersti-
tion, etc. No attempt will be made towards a
classification or logical arrangement of the subjects, nor
is it possible to present anything approaching to a com-
plete list of the articles and parts of articles which relate
directly or indirectly to the supernatural. But it is be-
lieved that every student will find in these readings matter
that will afford entertainment, and sometimes instruction.
Before the era of modern science, the belief in the su-
pernatural held a much larger place in the estimation of
mankind than it is possible for it to hold again. Alchemy,
astrology, and magic reigned undisputed, and all knowledge
of whatsoever kind was tinctured with superstition. Let
us begin our readings, therefore, with selections from arti-
cles relating to these defunct sciences :
1. Alchemy has been very aptly described as "the
sickly but imaginative infancy through which
modern chemistry had to pass before it at-
tained its majority." See the very interesting
article on this subject, I. 459-467. Read also
the following articles and selections:
STUDY OF i Hi: SUPERNATl KAL. 1 7 I
Paracelsus, XVI II. 234.
Jakob Bohme III. 852.
Hermes Trismegistus, XI. 750.
Alexander of Aphrodisias, I. 486.
Roger Bacon, III. 218; I. 186.
Albcrtus Magnus, I. 453.
Cornelius Agrippa, I. 418.
Raymond Lully, XV. 63.
Arnold of Villeneuve, II. 620.
The Rosicrucians, XX. 852.
Alembic, I. 477.
2. Astrology was the forerunner of the modern science
of astronomy, and, like alchemy, was not altogether un-
productive of good results. For a general history of this
interesting subject, see the special article in
volume II. 739-743. Also, consult the follow-
Astrology. . , /J^ ^J '
ing short articles :
Horoscope, XV. 206.
Zodiac, XXIV. 791 ; VII. 550.
William Lilly, XIV. 642.
Nostradamus. XVII. 596.
Robert Fludd, IX. 349.
John Dee, VII. 22.
Michael Scott, XXI. 470.
Girolamo Cardan, V. 90; II. 742.
Napier's belief in Astrology, XVII. 183.
Astrology among the Parsees, XVIII. 325.
3. Necromancy : An important article on magic, its his-
tory and influence, may be found in XV. 199.
Magic. Magic among Prehistoric Nations, VIII. 623.
Egyptian Magic, XV. 201.
Babylonian and Assyrian Magic, XV. 201.
172 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Greek and Roman Magic, XV. 202.
Magic among Asiatic Nations, XV. 203.
The Rosicrucians, XX. 852.
Magic in Christendom, XV. 204.
Necromancy in England, VII. 22.
Divination, or the art of discovering secret or future
things by preternatural means, VII. 293.
Supersti- Augury, or the art of discovering through
Beliefs natural signs the will of the gods, III. 72.
Palmistry, the art of divining personal history
from the lines in the palm of the hand, sup. 2285
Ordeal, or the mediaeval method of discovering the will
of God, XVII. 820.
Dreams and their interpretation, VII. 452, 293.
Lycanthropy, or the metamorphosis of men into wolves,
XV. 89.
The mystical arrangement of letters, called
Mysticism. T
Abracadabra, 1. 52.
The mystical word Abraxas, I. 56.
The mystical ornament or charm, Amulet, I 780.
The mystical science, Kabbalah, XIII. 810.
4. Demonology, or the influence of spiritual beings
upon the affairs of men, VII. 60.
Sorcery, or familiar intercourse with demons, VII. 63.
Witchcraft, XXIV. 619. (A history of the
laws and methods by which different nations
Witchcraft. , , . .
have attempted to suppress tins supposed
crime.)
Exorcism, or the means by which evil spirits are ex-
pelled, VIII. 806.
Evil Devil, VII. 136.
Sp.nts. Ahriman I. 424; XVII. 858; XXIII. 238.
Beelzebub, III. 503.
STUDY OF nil-. SUPERNATURAL. 173
Asmodous. II. 714.
Mephistopheles, XVI. 29.
Faust, the sorcerer of mediaeval legend, XI. 54; X. 539.
Merlin, the wizard of Britain, XX. 645.
Apolloniusof Tyana, philosopher and magician, II. 188.
Reginald Scot, English writer on witchcraft, XXI. 470.
Cotton Mather, the New England opponent of witch-
craft, XV. 631.
5. The history of the belief in supernatural beings and
in supernatural influences maybe further illustrated by ref-
erence to the following articles:
Angels, II. 26; II. 183.
Super_ Azrael, sup, 305.
natural ' T' ° J
Influences. Raphael, XX. 274.
Gabriel, X. 30.
Michael, XVI. 226.
Apparitions, II. 202.
Astral Spirits, sup. 273.
Ghosts, II. 205 ; XV. 199.
Spiritualism, II. 207 ; XXII. 404 ; the Fox sisters, sup.
1322; Daniel D. Home, sup. 1601 ; Robert Dale Owen,
sup. 2271.
Fetichism, II. 45.
Totemism, XXIII, 467.
Prophecy, XIX. 814.
Inspiration, XIII. 154; XIX. 197.
Second Sight, II. 202.
Hypnotism, II. 505.
Mesmerism, XV. 277.
Augury, III. 72.
Divination, VII. 293.
Bibliomancy, sup. 457.
Divination by Cup, sup. 965.
[74 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA
The Sibyls XXII. 13; XI. 144. See also Augurs,
III. 72; Oracles, XVII. 808; XIX. 91.
ApotheosiSjII. 199. See also Metempsychosis, XVI. 106.
6. The popular belief in imaginary creatures, as set
forth in very many of the classical legends, in
Imaginary the romances of the Middle Ages, and in the
Beings. fairy tales and folk-lore of almost every nation
in the world, is the subject of numerous articles.
The following are especially noticeable :
Genii, sup. 1379.
Manes, XV. 477.
Penates, XVIII. 488.
Nymphs, XVII. 688.
Dryads, VII. 487.
Fauns, IX. 53.
Chimaera, V. 626.
Harpies, XI. 490.
Mermaids and mermen, XVI. 39.
Griffin, XI. 195.
Dragon, VII. 385.
Were wolves, XV. 89.
Fairies, VIII. 854.
Oberon and Titania, XVII. 704.
Morgana, V. 325.
Elves, VIII. 855.
See the references to astrology in Readings in Astron-
omy, in this Guide ; also the references to alchemy in the
chapter entitled The Chemist.
THE DESULTORY READER'S COURSE. 175
CHAPTER XXII.
THE DESUl roRY reader's course.
" Read what amuses you and pleases you. "- Robert Lowe.
" Adjust your proposed amount of reading to your time and inclina-
tion."— Dr. Thomas Arnold.
To the person who takes pleasure (and who does not ?)
in browsing among the good things in books, without un-
dertaking to read systematically, the Encyclo-
Reading padia Britannica offers advantages which can
Pleasure ^e derived from no other publication. Here
may be found all kinds of literary nuggets —
readings on all manner of subjects — short articles, long
articles — anything and everything to suit the demands
ot the hour. You need not attempt to follow any spe-
cial course of reading — only read that which pleases you,
and you may be sure that, whatever you may select from
the Britannica, you cannot fail to be improved thereby.
If your time is limited, choose something that is brief and
light ; if you are in a studious mood, take up a subject that
will make you think, and that will be to your mind what
brisk exercise is to your body. Among the thousands of
articles with which you may thus occupy your spare mo-
ments, the following are mentioned merely as examples :
I. CURIOUS INVENTIONS, ETC.
The Automaton, III. 142.
Inventions, j/he magic lantern (fully illustrated), XV. 211.
The guillotine, XI. 263.
Tunneling, XXIII. 622 (illustrated).
Wax figures, XXIV. 460.
Horn-books, XII. 170.
176 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Perfumery, XVIII. 525.
Balloons, I. 187.
Fire engines, IX. 235.
Hydraulic Clock, V. 826.
Fire works, XX. 134.
Flying machines, I. 185.
2. NATURAL CURIOSITIES, SCENERY, ETC.
The Luray cavern, XV. 67.
The Mammoth cave, XV. 448.
Niagara Falls, XVII. 472.
Whirlpools, XXIV. 540.
Whirlwinds and tornadoes, XVI. 129.
Geysers, X. 557.
Glaciers, X. 626.
Natural gas, sup. 2140.
Artesian Wells, sup. 250.
Giant's causeway, X. 572.
Tides, XXIII. 353.
Ill STRANGE ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
Prehistoric monsters, XII. 695.
The ichneumon, XII. 629.
The dodo, VII. 321.
The honey guide, XII. 139.
The sloth, XXII. 161.
Sea-serpents, XXI. 608.
Mermaids, XVI. 39.
Dragons, VII. 385.
Chimaera, V. 626.
Harpies, XI. 490.
Trees. Baobab Tree, I. 268,
Sacred Fig. IX. 154.
Upas Tree, XXIII. 859.
Orchids, XVII. 816.
THE DESULTORY READER'S COURSE. 177
iv. curious customs, 1 re.
I leodands, VI I. 727.
Ordeal of Fire and of Battle, XVII. 820.
April Fool Day, II. 214.
Curious May Day in Old England, XV. 647.
Customs. The Morris Dance, XVI. 846.
Caste, V. 186.
Clans, V. 799.
Saturnalia. XXI. 321.
The Nile Festival, VII. 727.
Exorcism, VIII. 806.
• Fehmic Court (a secret tribunal in Germany, twelfth to
sixteenth century), IX. 65.
Pillory, XIX. 95.
V. DEATH AND BURIAL.
Funeral rites, IX. 824.
Burial, IV. 537.
Embalming, VIII, 158.
Mummies, XVII. 20.
Wakes, sup. 3070.
Cremation, sup. 940, VI. 565.
National cemeteries, sup. 732.
Tombs, sup. 2923.
Mausoleum, XI. 383.
Suttee, XXII. 727.
VI. HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY.
History of Flags, IX. 276.
Guilds, XL 259-262.
tt. . , The Man of the Iron Mask, XIII. 360.
Historical. ^
History of Newspapers, XVII. 42.
Piracy, XIX. 1 16.
Hypatia, XII. 596.
178 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Semiramis, XXI. 639.
Aspasia II. 714.
Field of the Cloth of Gold, II. 480.
The Spanish Armada, II. 543.
Great fires: in London, XIV. 826; in Chicago, V. 611 ;
in Boston, IV. 75.
World's Fair, sup. 3195.
International Exhibitions, XVIII. 803.
VII. MISCELLANEOUS.
James Holman, the blind traveller, XII. 103.
Zerah Colburn, the mathematical prodigy,
People VL 4g6>
Things Joseph Scaliger, " the greatest scholar of
modern times," XXI. 362.
The Admirable Crichton, VI. 577.
Kaspar Hauser, the mysterious German youth, XI.
523-
Christian Heinrich Heinecken, the precocious child, XI.
628.
Dwarfs, VII. 567.
Siamese Twins, XVI. 765.
Heredity, I. 87.
Animal Magnetism, XV. 277.
Hypnotism, XV. 277-283.
The Malthusian Doctrine, XV. 344.
Darwinism, XXIV. 77-85.
Cryptography, VI. 669.
White Magic (sleight of hand), XV. 207. See also
Legerdemain, XIV. 414; Ventriloquism, sup. 3030.
Thugs, XXIII. 326.
Assassins, II. 722.
Story of the Tichborne Claimant, sup. 2909.
PART III.
THE BUSY WORLD.
I?Q
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE MANUFACTURER.
" Active doer, noble liver,
Strong to labor, sure to conquer."
— Robert Browning.
FEW subjects engage the attention of so large a num-
ber of busy men as does that of manufacturing. Who,
indeed, is not either directly or indirectly inter-
ested in the making of things, either by hand
Consumer or ^}' machinery ? You may not be a manu-
facturer yourself, but you are necessarily the
patron of many manufacturers. You are the consumer of
the products of various manufacturing industries, and very
naturally you have a curiosity to know something about
the processes by which these products have been evolved
from raw material and made into their present forms of
usefulness. The Encyclopaedia Britannica will give you
the desired information.
If you are engaged in some particular line of manufac-
turing, the Britannica will add to your knowledge con-
cerning it. It will tell you what are the best materials to
be used, the most economical processes to be employed,
and the most desirable qualities to be sought in the prod-
ucts which you design to manufacture. Besides this, it
will probably give you a great deal of interesting histori-
cal information concerning the origin, development, and
various fluctuations of the business in which you are en-
gaged— information which, although not absolutely neces-
sary to your success, may nevertheless add directly to
your enjoyment and incidentally to your prosperity.
1 82 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
This subject covers so wide a field and embraces so
many different industries that, within our limited space,
we can do but little more than make bare references to
some of the most important articles contained in the Bri-
tannica. Let us first notice some of the manufactures of
TEXTILE PRODUCTS.
1. Wool and Woolen Manufactures is the title of a spe-
cial article, XXIV. 653. The first part of this article, re-
lating to the early history of the woolen indus-
try, will interest every reader. See next the
WOOl. J . , , J - • , TT ■ 1
article on woolen manufactures in the United
States, sup. 3188, where the very latest informa-
tion and statistics are given. Now read what is said of
Wool fibre, IX. 133.
Bleaching of wool, III. 822.
Dyeing of wool, VII. 571.
Cassimeres, sup. 718.
Spinning, XXIV. 730, XIV. 664.
Loom, XXIV. 64, XXIII. 206, 210.
Turn to the illustrated article on TEXTILES, XXIII.
206, and read the interesting history there given of the art
of weaving.
2. For an account of flax and linen manufactures, see
XIV. 663.
The manufacture of linen in England, VIII.
Flax
232; in Ireland, II. 143, and XIII. 231; in
Scotland, VII. 534.
Cultivation of flax in America, I. 64.
Bleaching of linen, III. 820.
3. For a complete history of cotton and cotton manu-
factures, see VI. 482.
nil. MANUFACTURER. [83
Cotton in the United States, 824; in India, XII.
748; in Egypt, VII. 708,786; in Brazil, IV.
227.
Cotton manufacture in England, VIII. 230 ;
in India, XII. 761, 763 ; in Russia, XXI. 849.
Bleaching of cotton, III. 812.
Dyeing of cotton, VII. 576.
Cotton-spinning frame, II. 541.
Robert Owen's improvements in cotton spinning,
XVIII. 87.
Cotton yarns, XXIV. 731.
The spinning-jenny, II. 541 and VI. 490.
The spinning-wheel, XXIV. 664.
Calico, VI. 488, 500.
Calico printing, IV, 684.
Ginghams, X. 604.
Gauze, X. 1 18.
Laces, XIV. 183.
See Samuel Slater, sup. 2728.
4. For a history of silk and silk manufactures, see XXII.
56,61. •
Manufacture of silk in the United States,- sup. 2717;
in England, VIII. 2^2 ; in India, XII. 761 ; in
China, V. 638 , in France, IX. 520; in Italy,
Sllk- XIII. 442.
Silk in ancient times, XXIII. 208.
Bleaching of silk, III. 822.
The silkworm, IV. 596 and XIII. 151.
Silk from spiders, II. 295.
5. Miscellaneous.
Hosiery, XII. 299, and VIII. 233.
Knitting, XIV. 127.
1 84 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Invention of the stocking frame, XII. 299.
Cloth, weaving of, XXIV. 463, 466.
Ancient weaving of cloth, XXIII. 206.
Improvements in looms, sup. 1916.
Carpets, V. 127; Persian carpets, XVIII. 626 ; Turkish
II. 708; Oriental, XXIII. 211.
Canvas, V. 40; canvas for sails, XXI. 154.
Straw manufactures, XXII. 593.
Rope-making, XX, 844.
Twine manufacture, XX. 845.
Rhea fibre, XX. 506.
MINERAL PRODUCTS.
I. Iron manufactures, XIII. 278.
Statistics of iron manufacture, XIII. 358; iron industry
in the United States, XXIII. 813; sup. 1694;
Iron. iron as building material, IV. 447.
Strength of iron, XXII. 603.
The Blast Furnace, IX. 840; III. 550; sup. 1695.
Melting-point of metals, sup. 2033.
Puddling, XIII. 320.
Pig iron, XIII. 306, 284.
Cast iron, XIII. 281, 318.
Manufacture of steel, XIII. 358; strength of steel,
XXII. 603; rigidity of, VII. 815; manufacture in the
United States, XXIII. 813 ; sup. 1700; use in ships, XVII.
288.
Bessemer steel, sup. 1701.
Steel castings, sup. 1704.
Nails, XVII. 165.
Screws, XX. 552.
Locks, XIV. 744.
Galvanized iron, XIII. 357.
THE MANUFACTURER. 185
Foundry operations, IX. 479.
The casting of metal, IX. 479.
Rolling-mills, XIII. 328.
Wire, XXIV. 614; wire-drawing, sup. 3173; strength
of. XVI. 65; elasticity of, VII. So, 803; telegraph wire,
XXIII. 114; wire nails, XVII. [66; wire rope, XX. 846;
wire netting, XVII. 360; wire fences, I. 310; wire-glass,
sup. 3173.
Stoves, XXII. 579.
Iron pipes, II. 522.
Pipe-making, sup. 2393.
2. Copper, VI. 3 47 ; copper wire, XXIV. 615.
Brass (alloy of copper and zinc), IV. 217; zinc, XXIV.
784.
Copper Tin, XXIII. 400; strength of, XXII. 603.
and Tin. Tin-plate, XIII. 357.
Can manufacture and canner's tools, sup. 684.
Tin-plate manufacture in the United States, sup. 2916.
Bronze (alloy of copper and tin), VI. 351,
Early casting of bronze, II. 348.
Strength of, XXII. 603.
Bronze work, XVI. 71.
3. Silver, XXII. 69.
Silver plate, XXII. 71.
Silver plate works, XIX. 178.
Silvering, XXII. 71.
Silver wire, XXIV. 615.
Use of silver in mirrors, XVI. 501.
Precious Silver lace, X. 753.
Metals. Silversmiths in Rome, II. 366.
Gold, X. 740.
Gold plate, XIX. 178.
1 86 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Gold wire, XXIV. 615.
Gold thread, XXIII. 209.
Gold lace X. 753 ; gold cloth, XXIII. 210.
Ancient workers in gold, XXIII. 210.
See now the chapter entitled The Miner, in this volume ;
also The Railroad Man, and The Machinist.
4. Pottery, XIX. 600; burning of, XX. 133; glazing, IV.
51.
Pottery Industry in the United States, sup. 2431.
Palissy's pottery, XVIII. 186.
Wedgwood's pottery, XXIV. 476.
lapanese pottery, XIII. 590.
Pottery. * \. ^ il--- £
Indian pottery, XII. 763.
The potteries, sup. 143 1.
Kaolin, XIV. I.
Porcelain, clay for, XIV. 1 and XVI 424.
Chinese porcelain, XIV. 90.
Japanese porcelain, XIII. 590.
Limoges ware, XIV. 651.
Sevres ware, XIX. 6$j.
5. Glass, history of, X. 647.
Manufacture of glass, X. 650.
Manufacture of glass in the United States, sup. 1407.
Annealing, II. 63.
Colors of glass, XXIV. 427.
Painting on, X. 667.
Glass
Venetian glass works, XVII. 48.
Glass cutting, VII. 167.
Plate glass, X. 662.
Wire glass, sup. 3 1 73.
Window glass, X. 660, 668.
Glass bottles, IV. 167, and X. 664.
I 111. MAM FAC 1 I Kl.K. I87
Glass, wire, sup. 1408.
Minors, XVI. 4 19.
6. Leather, XIV. 380.
Artificial leather, XIV. 391.
Latest processes, sup. 1849.
Shoemaking, XXI. 830.
7. Paper, XVIII. 217.
Papier-mache, XVIII. 228.
Parchment, XVIII. 271.
Linoleum, XIV. 676.
Lincrusta Walton, XIV. 662.
8. Flour, sup. 1293 ; IX. 343 ; III. 251.
Bread, III. 250.
Cracknels, III. 252.
Macaroni, XV. 125.
The Canning Industry, sup. 685.
Raisins, sup. 3057.
Sugar, XXII. 622.
Food Sugar-making machinery, sup. 2818.
Products. Beet sugar, 1. 382.
Glucose sugar, sup. 1412.
Maple sugar, sup. 1988.
Molasses, XXII. 626.
Salt, XXI. 228, XXIII. 817.
Animal foods, see Packing, sup. 2278, and Abattoirs,
sup. 1 1.
9. Brick-making, IV. 280.
Ancient bricks, XIX. 604, 619.
Glazed brick, XVII. 35.
Tiles, XXIII. 387, IV. 283.
1 88 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Gutta-percha, XI. 337.
India-rubber, XII. 835, 839; Goodyear's
Miscella- • ,• , „ „
neous. inventions, sup. 1425.
Rope-making, sup. 2575.
Straw manufactures, XXIL 593.
Baskets, III. 421.
Needles, XVII. 313.
Pigments — methods of manufacturing paints, XIX. 85.
Hats, XI. 518 ; straw hats, XXIL 593.
Gloves, X. 692, XIV. 389
Pins, XIX. 97.
Button-making, IV. 599.
American watches, sup. 3097.
Fans, IX. 27
Furniture, IX. 847.
Very interesting are the accounts that are given of some
of the great manufacturing centres, such as :
Manchester, the centre of the English cotton industrv,
XV. 459-
Birmingham, noted for its iron and steel
Manufactur- works, III. 780.
ing Centres. Sheffield, famous for its cutlery, XXI. 785.
Philadelphia, and its extensive and varied in-
dustries, XVIII. 736.
Pittsburg, and its iron manufacturers, sup. 2396.
Lowell, and its cotton mills, sup. 1925.
Lynn, famous for the manufacture of shoes, sup. 1937.
Boston, IV. 72; Newark, XVII. 370; Wilmington,
XXIV. 589; Birmingham, Alabama, III. 287; and scores
of other manufacturing cities of similar importance.
For statistics and other information concerning manu-
factures in all the principal countries of the world, see
THE MANUFACTURER. 189
the appropriate paragraph under the name of each coun-
try. For example :
Statistics. Manufactures in England, VIII. 230.
Manufactures in Germany, X. 459.
Manufactures in Arabia, II. 245.
See World's Fairs, sup. 3195.
But the intelligent reader will require no further assist-
ance from the GUIDE in finding such information.
190 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE MECHANIC.
"Thou art deeper read, and better skilled." — Titus Andronicus.
What constitutes the difference between the good arti-
san and the bungler? Knowledge and skill. These may-
be attained in some degree by practice in the
Artisan handling of tools ; but that broader knowledge
or . & » fc.
Bungler? which leads to success, and that more perfect
skill which wins distinction, can be acquired
only through diligent study. The mechanic who would
rise to a higher position in his calling, must learn all about
the nature of the materials with which he works ; he must
know what are the best tools to use, and why ; he must
understand the philosophy of the forces with which he
deals; and he must seek to comprehend the natural laws
which govern or regulate the operations connected with
his particular handicraft. This is the kind of knowledge
which enables the humblest workman to develop into
the foreman, the manager, the inventor, the skilled
artisan.
Now there is no other printed publication in the world
which offers the means of acquiring so much of this kind
of knowledge as does the Encyclopaedia Britannica. There
is hardly a single difficult problem connected with the
laws of mechanics or of machinery which is not clearly
explained in the Britannica. There is hardly a knotty
THE MECHANIC. 191
question with reference to tools, materials, or products
which is not elucidated Or answered in one of these vol-
umes. The successful mechanic will not always
Mechanic's wait for these difficulties to present themselves.
Helper. He will stud)* the principles of his trade and
every detail concerning it, so as to be read)' be.
forehand for all emergencies. Instead of running with
childish questions to his foreman, he is read)' himself to
give instructions to those who are in need of them. His
workmanship is of superior character. He is constantly
improving, while his fellows who work without thought
remain always on the same level. 1 1 is greater knowledge
leads to greater ability. His employer recognizes the
greater value of his services. Promotion comes to him as
a matter of course. Success and fortune are waiting for
him — and all because he has made use of the opportunities
for self-culture which lie within the reach of every one who
will take the trouble to secure them.
In these days there are so many kinds of handicrafts
and so many classes of mechanics, that to mark out com-
plete courses of study with relation to all would require
more space than we have at command. But the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica contains a vast amount of valuable in-
formation concerning every one of them ; and it is the
object of the GUIDE to help you to get at some of this
information in a methodical way, and thereby make you
the better able to carry on these studies independently
and without aid.
Your first thought, no doubt, will be to turn at once to
the article MECHANICS, XV. 676; but it will be better to
leave this article until we have made a study of some of
the materials and tools with which you propose to work.
In this way we shall gradually approach the difficult
science of mechanics, and by and by we shall be prepared
192 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
to read portions of this exhaustive article with a more
thorough appreciation than is now possible.
THE WOOD-WORKER.
Are you a worker in wood ? Here are a few articles, or
parts of articles, which you will read with pleas-
Wood ure and profit.
Work. Lumber, IX. 404.
Strength of materials, XXII. 594, sup. 2799.
Bending of plank, XV. 744.
Carpentry, IV. 476.
Sawing of wood, XXI 345.
Joinery, IV. 485.
Fir, IX. 222.
Teak, XXIII. 103.
Hemlock, II. 320.
Spruce, XL 222.
Oak, XVII. 689.
Pine XIX. 102.
Poplar, XIX. 510.
Rosewood, XX. 851.
Mahogany, XV. 288.
The early use of tools, VIII. 617.
The plane, XL 437.
Tools' The auger, XL 438.
Other hand tools, XL 437.
Machine tools, XV. 152.
Turners' tools, XIV. 324.
The hammer, XL 425.
The lathe, XIV. 323.
Glue, X. 133, and IV. 489.
Veneering, XXIV. 138, and IX. 489.
Varnish, XXIV. 91.
Barrel-making, sup. 361.
THE MECHANIC. 1 93
Wood-carving, XXIV. 644, and Y. 168.
These are mentioned here simply as samples of the
numerous articles wherein the wood-working mechanic
w ill find practical information concerning the materials,
tools, etc., of his handicraft. If you are a carpenter or
builder, turn now to the chapter in this volume entitled
The Builder, and observe the long and valuable list*of
references there given.
THE METAL-WORKER.
The metal-worker will find that most of the above refer-
ences are of direct importance to him also, and he will
scarcely be willing to omit any of them from
Metal his course of reading. Besides these there are
Work. numerous others which he will regard as having
a special value, referring, as they do, directly to
the handicraft in which he is the most deeply interested.
Here are a few of them :
Anvil, II. 147; XI. 426.
Smith-work in building, IV. 510.
Annealing, II. 63, and XIII. 352.
Forge, IX. 412 ; its history, XIII. 290 ; forging-machines,
IX. 413-
Foundry, IX. 479 ; XIII. 355.
Bellows for smelting ores, XVI. 60.
Blast furnace, IX. 840; III. 550: sup. 1696.
Iron, XIII. 278.
Iron as building material, IV. 447.
Iron-work in architecture, II. 466 ; XVI. 71.
Famous iron-works : at Barrow-in-Furness, England,
III. 395 ; at Stafford, England, XXII. 442; at Neviansk,
Russia, XVII. 369.
Iron bridges, IV. 334.
Nail-making, XVII. 165.
13
194 GUIDE TO THE BRITAIN' MICA.
Tack-making, sup. 2845.
Steel, XIII. 278; sup. 1694.
Tube-making, IV. 218.
Valves, XXII. 501.
Wire-making, sup. 3173.
Wire, XXIV. 614; wire-drawing, IV. 217.
Arms, II. 588; artillery, II. 655 ; rifles, XI. 282 ; rifling
of cannon, XI. 294. (See chapter in this GUIDE entitled
The Soldier.)
Assaying, II. 724; XVI. 63.
Boilers for steam engines, XXII. 496; improvement in,
for abating smoke, XXII. 181.
Brass, IV. 217.
Bronze, IV. 366.
Copper, VI. 347. (See chapter in this GUIDE entitled
The Miner.)
Electro-plating, VIII. 116. (See chapter in this Guide
entitled The Electrician.)
Metallurgy, XVI. 57.
Metal work, XVI. 71.
Tin-plate manufacture in the United States, sup. 2916.
THE LEATHER-WORKER.
There are mechanics who work neither in wood nor
in metal. Of these, one of the most prominent
Work is the man who works with leather or with the
Leather prepared skins of animals, For him there arc,
in the Britannica, such articles as the following :
Tanning, XIV. 381.
Tannin, XXIII. 47.
Leather, XIV. 380.
Buff leather, sup. 610.
Cordovan leather, sup. 917.
Artificial leather, XIV. 391.
THE MECHANIC. 195
New processes in making leather, sup. 1849.
Shoemaking, XXI. 830.
Harness-making and saddlery, XXI. 142.
Stamped leather for wall decoration, XVII. 37.
Morocco leather, XIV. 388.
Book-binding, IV. 41 ; XIV. 538.
THE PAPER-WORKER.
Then there is the worker on paper, who will find the
following articles brimful of information:
Paper, XVIII. 217; manufacture of, XVIII. 219;
bleaching of materials, III. 821.
Ruling of paper, XXII. 461.
Paper' Wall paper, IV. 512; XVII. 38.
Papier-mache, XVIII. 228.
Paper pulp, XVIII. 225, 226.
See the chapter in this volume entitled The Laborer.
THE STONE-WORKER.
Building-stone, sup. 614; IV. 448.
Stone cutting and dressing, sup. 2794.
Strength of building-stone, XXII. 603.
Plaster-work, IV. 504.
Cements, V. 328 ; IV. 459 ; XIV. 647.
Stone pavements, IV. 473.
Chimney-pieces, IV. 473.
Limestone, X. 232.
Marble, XV. 528.
Marble veneer, XVII. 36.
Sandstone, X. 237.
Granite, XI. 48.
See the references to labor and wages in the chapter
entitled The Political Economist, in this volume.
196 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER. XXV.
THE MACHINIST.
" He that loves reading has everything within his reach." — William
Godwin.
In addition to the articles already mentioned in the
chapter addressed to the Mechanic, the practical machin-
ist will find a great many others which will be
of direct and special aid to him in his calling.
Machines. TT ... , r . . c .
He will want to make a careful study ot that
portion of the article MECHANICS which refers
directly to the theory of machines, XV. 752. He will
want to read what is said about their purposes and effects,
XV. 771. There may be other portions also of the same
article which will answer troublesome questions or dif-
ficult problems that come in his way, and to find what
he needs he should refer to the index to the article, XV.
749. The article on Machine Tools, XV. 152, will have a
special value to him. The supplementary article on spe-
cial forms of machine tools, sup. 195 1, gives an exceed-
ingly interesting description of some of the latest inven-
tions of this class. See, also, Tool-making, sup. 2927.
The Steam-Engine, XXII. 473 — a very complete and
comprehensive treatise (fifty-four pages, illustrated) written
by Professor Ewing of Dundee, one of the most
Steam eminent of living authorities. Additional mat-
Engine, ter concerning the invention of the steam-en-
gine by Watts may be found in XXIV. 412.
The improvements made by Murdock are briefly noted in
THE MACHINIST. 197
XVII. 53, and those of Trevithick, in XXIII. 554. See
also ( rovernors, sup. [433.
Various applications of the steam-engine arc described:
Its use in steamships, XXII. 517, XXI. 823, and sup.
[992; its use in locomotive engines, XX. 205, 244,
XXII. 537, ami sup. 1905 ; its use in land carriages,
Ylll. 726; its application to farm machinery, I. 305, etc.
The article HYDROMECHANICS, XII. 435; the appli
cation of water to mechanical purposes, as described in
the chapters on Hydraulic Machinery, XII.
Hydro- 5 1 9, and sup. 1641. The hydraulic press, XV.
mechanics. 753, and the history of its invention, IV. 213.
The article on Calender, IV. 683.
The description of Montgolfier's hydraulic ram, IV.
173-
The description of the hydraulic elevator (lift), XII. 520,
XIV. 574, and sup. 1 1 77.
Of water motors in general, XII. 519.
Of water power in mechanics, XV. 773.
Of water wheels and their action, XII. 438, 522.
Late improvements in water wheels, sup. 3104.
Of the uses of air in connection with mechanics, read
the article PNEUMATICS, XIX. 240; refer also to XII. 439,
445-
Its special application in air locks is noticed in sup. 104;
in the air washer for extinguishing fires, IX. 681 ; in the
pneumatic power transmitter, XV. 753 ; in
pneumatic tubes, XII. 491; in the air-engine,
Pneumatics. .
1. 428 ; in the air-gun, I. 428 ; in the air-pump,
XVI. 30; XIX. 246; I. 429.
As to the application of air in propelling machinery, see
Windmills, XXIV. 599; XV. 773.
Wind carriages, XXII. 545.
I98 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
See also what is said about the wind in navigation,
XVII. 275. In this connection it will be interesting to learn
many important facts concerning the nature of air: Its
composition, III. 32 ; its density, III. 381 ; its weight, III.
28; its other physical properties, XIX. 240.
Here, too, you may read of the efforts that have been
made to navigate the air, I. 187, with a description of all
the great balloons that have ever been constructed.
Whether it is possible ever to build a successful air ship no
one can yet predict. The problem of aeronautics has,
however, engaged the attention of inventors for many
years, and the history of their efforts and ex-
Balloons, periments is in the highest degree interesting
and instructive. Read of the invention of the
balloon by Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, I. 187; of the
later experiments by Langley, Maxim, Chanute, Lilien-
thal, and others, sup. 55 ; and of the aeronautic associa-
tions which have been formed for the encouragement of
further experiments and inventions. "
But air is only a gas — or rather the combination of two
gases, I. 427 — and much that is true with reference to its
properties applies also to gases in general. And so the
machinist who finds it necessary to become acquainted
with the laws of pneumatics will not only study the prop-
erties of air in motion and at rest, but will learn all that
he can about gases in general, VI. 310, their physical
properties, XIX. 240, and their diffusion, VII. 215.
Of the application of gas to the purposes of machinery,
see what is said about gas engines, XXII. 523 ; expansion
of gasus by heat, XI. 574, and XX. 347; elas-
Gas. ticity of gases, VII. 801 ; dilation of gases, III.
35 ; their molecular laws, XVI. 61 1.
Then read about the discovery and use of natural gas
in the United States, XXIII. 813, and sup. 2140.
THE MACHINIST. [99
For a list of references relating to applications of elec-
tricity, see the chapter in this volume entitled The Elec-
trician.
The meaning of the term " horse-power" and its applica-
tion in practical mechanics, is explained in XV. 772, yj^ ;
and it is still further noticed in XII. 207, and
Horse XV. 7 1 5. The signification of the term when
Power. used in connection with steam-engines is made
clear in XXII. 476, 491.
There are still other forces which influence the action of
machinery, and of whose manifestations and laws the ma-
chinist cannot afford to be ignorant. There is
Laws of GRAVITATION, for example, the influence of
Mechanics, which must always be considered when any
system of machinery is contemplated. Study
the article on this subject, XI. 66.
Then read of the discovery of the general law of gravi-
tation, II. 755 ; of the various theories in relation to it,
III. 64; of gravity in mechanics, XV. 701, 729; and of
the discoveries of Archimedes concerning the centre of
gravity, II. 380.
Still pursuing this line of study, read of the laws and
effects of adhesion, I. 153; of cohesion, V. 56; and of
elasticity, VII. 796.
The laws of friction must now claim your attention,
and these you will find very fully treated in IX. yyy,
and XV. 702, 765. The action of friction in connection
with liquids is described in XII. 482, and with gases in
XVI. 618.
The expenditure of energy in the overcoming of fric-
tion is explained in VIII. 208, and the influence of lubri-
cants in preventing friction receives attention in XV. 35.
For an elaborate and very practical essay on strength
of materials, see sup. 2799-2813.
20O ( GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
You are now ready for the article on DYNAMICS, or the
science which treats of the action of force ; and after that
for the article on Energy, or the power of doing work,
VIII. 205. Then read the following :
Force, VII. 581
Dynamics. _ , . ,,-,», ^
Motion, XV. 676, 752.
Momentum, XV. 677.
Velocity, XV. 681, 769.
Inertia, XV. 676, 748.
Laws of Projectiles, XXII. 47.
If you have followed this course of reading faithfully,
you have acquired a comprehensive knowledge of those
fundamental principles of mechanics which govern the ac-
tion and modify the effectiveness of all machinery. Much
of the reading has been difficult : it has required hard
study to master it all. But now you will understand what
is meant when it is said that it is the well-informed mind
no less than the skilful hand that makes the successful
mechanic. Knowledge never impairs one's ability to work,
but it adds to that ability. Of course, knowledge cannot
supply the place of energy and strength. A good mind
must be aided by strong arms ; a full memory must have
the support of steady industry, or no worthy success
can be attained. The best artisan is he who possesses a
thorough knowledge of the foundation principles of his
calling, while at the same time he has the trained hand and
eye and the obedient muscle which can result only from
long and patient training and experience.
See now, for further references, the following chapters
in this Guide :
The Architect, The Builder, The Manufacturer, The
Electrician, The Inventor, and Two Courses of Reading in
Physics.
THE ELECTRICIAN. 201
CHAPTER XXVI.
THE ELECTRICIAN.
" Every person has two educations, one which he receives from oth-
ers, and one, more important, which he gives to himself." — Gibbon.
PRACTICAL electricians will find in the supplementary
article on Electricity, sup. 1133-1173,3 very comprehen-
sive presentation of the entire subject as it is now under-
stood. This article, which comprises forty pages, is very
fully illustrated, and gives a complete outline of all the
latest discoveries. It is invaluable to all persons who are
in any way interested in this subject.
The leading article on electricity, in the eighth volume
of the Britannica, comprises over one hundred
Special pages — equal in amount of matter to an ordi-
Article. nary i2mo volume of nearly five hundred pages.
For the sake of non-scientific readers it is intro-
duced by a brief history of the science, wherein mention
is made of some of the more striking electrical discoveries,
and of the steps by which our knowledge of the subject
has advanced to its present condition.
FAMOUS ELECTRICIANS.
In connection with the above-named articles, the fol-
lowing notices of men who have contributed to the ad-
vancement of the science will be read with interest :
Dr. Gilbert (1 540-1603), founder of the science, X. 592.
Robert Boyle (1627-91), one of the earliest experi-
menters.
202 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Otto von Guericke (1602-80), XI. 245.
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), XVII. 438.
Francis Havvksbee (1705), VIII. 4.
Galvani, discoverer of galvanism, X. 48.
Historical. . . - • .. . , . T r
Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), IX. 711.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), V. 271.
Coulomb (1736-1806), VI. 509.
Volta, inventor of the voltaic battery, XXIV. 284.
Ampere, I. 748.
Ohm, XVII. 738.
Michael Faraday, IX. 29.
Cyrus W. Field, sup. 1264.
Nikola Tesla, sup. 2882.
Thomas A. Edison, sup. 11 15.
SPECIAL SUBJECTS IX ELECTRICITY.
Accumulators, I. 92.
Armatures, sup. 235 ; drum armature, sup. 11 58.
Batteries: History of VIII. 92, 94; Bichromate, sup.
1170; Bunsen's, sup. 1169; copper oxide, sup. 1170;
Daniel's sup. 1169; Grovo's, sup. 1 169 ; Le-
Reference clanche's, sup. 1 1 jo ; silver chloride, sup. 1170;
List. Voltaic, sup. 1 168.
Circuit, Magnetic, sup. 1152.
Condensers, sup. 1143.
Conductors and non-conductors, sup. 1 1 34, 1 140, 114').
Currents, sup. 1 144, 11 59.
Diagometer, sup. 1039.
Dynamo electric machines, sup. 11 56.
Dynamos, sup. 11 59.
Electric light in microscopy, sup. 2057.
Electric meters, VIII. 107, 108.
Electrification, sup. 1 133.
Electrodynamic action, VIII. 10, 66, 105.
mi. ELE< i i<n ian. 203
Electrolysis, or the decomposition of chemical sub-
stances by the agency of the electrical current, is dealt
with in a comprehensive and scientific manner in VIII.
1 06- 1 14.
A supplementary article on the same subject (see sup.
I 174-1 176) gives an interesting account of the latest dis-
coveries and investigations in this branch of science.
Electromagnets, VIII. 66; sup. 1 147, 1150.
Electrometallurgy, VIII. 114.
Electrometer, VIII. 1 17-122.
Electromotive force, sup. 1145.
Electromotograph, sup. 1176.
Electrophorus, VIII. 101 ; sup. 1136.
Electroscopes, VIII. 118; diagometer, sup. 1039.
Fan-motor, sup. 1243.
Field-magnets, sup. 1158.
Fluoroscope, sup. 1295.
Galvanism, X. 48 ; XVII. 524.
Galvanometers, X. 49 ; VIII. 41 ; sup. 1147.
Induction, Electromagnetic, sup. 11 52.
Induction-coils, sup. 1 1 54.
Influence-machines, sup. 1 1 37.
Insulators, sup. 11 34.
Intensity, sup. 11 39.
Magnetism, XV. 219; sup. 1151 ; I. 749.
Ohm's law, VIII. 41-43.
Poles of electromagnet, sup. 1 1 52.
Potential, sup. 1 141.
Resonance, sup. 1162.
Thermoelectric generator, sup. 1378.
Rontgen Rays, sup. n65, 2574.
Transformers, sup. 1 1 5 5.
Volts and Amperes, sup. 1160.
Voltmeter, sup. 3060.
204 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES AND MACHINERY.
Telegraph, XXIII. 112.
Invention of the telegraph, see Guillaume Amontous, I.
746; S. F. B. Morse, XVI. 847 ; Sir Charles Wheatstone,
XXIV. 537-
Telegraphic devices, sup. 2866.
The pantelegraph, sup. 2289.
The The phonophore, sup. 2369.
Telegraph. Ocean cables and submarine telegraphy,
XXII. 281, and sup. 1264 (Cyrus W. Field).
Telegraphs in the United States, sup. 2867.
Telegraphic statistics, sup. 2868.
Telautograph, sup. 2866 ; writing telegraph, sup. 3208.
The telephone, XXIII. 127.
Long-distance telephones, sup. 2869.
Alexander Graham Bell, sup. 408.
Thomas A. Edison, sup. 1115.
Telephonic apparatus, sup. 2870.
Theatrophone, sup. 2888.
Electric motors, XXIII. 496, 508.
Electric Latest improvements in electric motors, sup.
Motors. 21 15.
Electric railways, XX. 249, sup. 2505.
Trolley systems for electric motors, sup. 21 16, and
XXIII. 494.
Trolley railways, sup. 2945.
Electric car construction, sup. 695.
Storage batteries, sup. 1171.
Tesla's oscillator, sup. 2264.
Lightning arresters, sup. 1 88 5.
Niagara power plant, sup. 2207.
Electric elevators, sup. 1 177.
Electric police and fire-alarm systems, sup. 1272.
THE ELECTRICIAN. 205
Electric clocks, VI. 25 ; sup. 836.
Electric alarm thermometer, sup. 109.
Electric piano, sup. 2 380.
Electric regulator, sup. 2529.
Electric lighting, XIV. 630.
The fluorescent lamp, sup. 1295.
Electric welding, sup. 31 18.
Phono- Phonograph, sup. 2368; XXIII. 130, 134.
graph. Kineto-phonograph, sup. 1790.
Gramophone, sup. 1437.
Kinetoscope, sup. 1790.
Vitascope, sup. 3057.
See the chapter, in this GUIDE, entitled The Inventor.
MAGNETISM.
Magnetism, XV. 219; sup. 1151 ; I. 749.
Terrestrial magnetism, XVI. 159.
The Com- The compass, VI. 225.
pass, etc. The dipping-needle, sup. 105 1.
Variation of magnetic needle, XV. 220.
Relation of magnetism to electricity, I. 749.
Electromagnets, VIII. 66; sup. 1147, 11 50.
Field-magnets, sup. 1158.
Magnetic iron ore, XIII. 287.
Animal magnetism, XV. 277.
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA.
Lightning, XXIII. 330.
Franklin's experiment with a kite, VIII. 6 ; Lightning
conductor, XIV. 633.
The cause of thunder, I. 107.
Natural laws regulating the frequency of thunderstorms,
XVI. 128.
206 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A.
Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, III. 90.
Connection of lightning with the Aurora, III. 92.
Sun-spots and magnetic disturbances, II. 787.
Easy experiments to illustrate electrical laws, VIII. 16.
Animal electricity, sup. 188.
the inven roR. 207
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE INVENTOR.
" Neither the naked hand nor the understanding, left to itself, can do
much ; the work is accomplished by instruments and helps, of which the
need is not less for the understanding than the hand." — Bacon.
THERE are few persons who have more to gain from
self-culture than those who aspire to success as inventors.
It is true that now and then some wonderful
Knowledge djscovery has been stumbled upon by accident.
Guesswork ^ut almost every invention that has been of
any genuine importance to the world has been
the result of long and patient study and unwearying toil.
No amount of guesswork will produce a new machine
possessing the qualities of novelty and utility requisite to
a successful invention. The man who would bring such a
machine into existence must devote his days to the acquisi-
tion of a thorough knowledge of the philosophical principles
underlying its construction. He will need to understand
the laws of mechanics; he must be able to perform cer-
tain necessary mathematical processes ; and he must have
an insight into the theory of machinery. One inventor
will probably find it necessary to study the laws of hydro-
statics ; another will need to have a complete knowledge
of chemistry, or of mineralogy, or of botany ; still another
will add to all these branches of knowledge an understand-
ing of the science of optics, or of acoustics, or it may be
of meteorology, or of astronomy, or of navigation.
208 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
PATENTS.
Then, again, every inventor will find it worth while to
learn what has been done by other inventors who have
come before him. Turn to the chronological table on
page 720, Volume V., of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and
notice the dates when the great inventions and discoveries
which have revolutionized the world first made their ap-
pearance. Read next the HISTORY OF PATENTS in
XVIII. 354-358, and notice the patent laws
which are now in force in all the principal coun-
P&tents
tries, and particularly in the United States,
sup. 2309.
List of models in the U. S. Patent Office, sup. 231 1.
Business of the Patent Office, 1 837-1 896, sup. 2313.
New organization of the Patent Office, sup. 2315.
How to apply for a patent, sup. 2317.
Fees for patents, sup. 2320.
Trade-marks, sup. 2321, XXIII. 499.
Registration of prints, etc., sup. 2322.
Forgery, IX. 414.
GREAT INVENTORS.
It will now be both profitable and interesting to read
the biographies of the famous inventors of various times
and countries. You might begin with the legendary story
of Daedalus, the first great inventor, VII. 760 ; then take
up subjects like the following :
Roger Bacon, the first English scientist and inventor,
III. 218; his magical inventions, XV. 208; his theory of
optical glasses, XXIII. 135.
Sir Humphry Davy, inventor of the safety-lamp, VI.
845 ; the Davy lamp, VI. 72.
Denis Papin, inventor of the- heat-engine, XVIII. 228,
i in iw i \ roR. 209
and XXII. 474; his improvements on the air-pump, XIX.
246.
James Watt, inventor of the steam-engine, XXIV. 412.
Robert Fulton, inventor of the steamboat, III. 542.
Oliver Evans, improver of the steam-engine, VIII. 726,
ami XXII. 475.
Benjamin Franklin, the first American scientist, IX.
711 ; his electrical researches, VIII. 6.
Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton-gin, XXIV. 1627;
sup. 3145-
Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of the telegraph, XVI. .847.
David Edward Hughes, inventor of the printing-tele-
graph, sup. 1629.
Sir Richard Arkwright, inventor of the spinning-frame,
1 1. 540; VI. 490.
James Hargreaves, inventor of the spinning-jenny, VI.
490 ; XVII. 600.
Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanized india-rubber,
sup. 1425.
Robert Hare, inventor of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe,
sup. 1526.
Samuel Crompton, inventor of the spinning-mule, IV.
597-
Samuel Colt, inventor of improved firearms, VI. 166.
Richard J. Gatling,inventorof theGatlinggun,sup. 1373.
Henri de Girard, inventor of flax-spinning apparatus,
X. 620.
Sir William Siemens, inventor of the gas-engine, XXII.
37, 526.
Elias Howe, inventor of the sewing-machine, XXI. 718;
sup. 1623.
Alvan Clark, telescope-maker, sup. 817.
Cyrus H. McCormick, inventor of the reaping-machine,
sup. 1945.
14
2IO GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Thomas A. Edison, inventor of many electrical ma-
chines and appliances, sup. 1115.
Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the speaking-tele-
phone, sup. 408.
Isaac Babbitt, inventor of Babbitt metal, sup. 307.
Henry Bessemer, " Bessemer steel," sup. 437.
John Ericsson, inventor of the Monitor, sup. 12 12.
Oliver Evans, inventor of the steam road-carriage, sup.
1222.
M. W. Baldwin, inventor of locomotives, sup. 325.
Thaddeus Fairbanks, inventor of platform scales, sup.
1237-
FAMOUS INVENTIONS.
Gunpowder, II. 655 ; XI. 316; VIII. 807; first use of
gunpowder, II. 655.
Firearms, history of, II. 655; ancient guns, II. 557;
gun-making, XI. 278 ; gunnery, XL 297 ; rifle, XI. 2S2 ;
musket, II. 558 ; naval cannon, XVII. 286.
Printing-presses, sup. 2448; type-setting machines, sup.
2969; XXIII. 700; typewriters, sup. 2972; XXIV. 698.
Air-ships. See the article Aeronautics, I. 185, and par-
ticularly the supplementary article on the same subject,
sup. 55, which gives an account of the latest experiments
and discoveries. Read of flying-machines in the article
Flight, IX. 317; and of balloons in III. 549, and I. 187.
Air-compressors, sup. 104.
Air-engines, I. 428.
Anemometer, sup. 184.
Bells, sup. 412.
Brakes, IV. 211 ; railway brake, XX. 248; sup. 547.
Buttons, IV. 598.
Brushes and brooms, IV. 403.
Calico-printing machines, IV. 685.
mi: i\vi:\ rOR. 21 1
Calculating-machines, sup. 651.
Candle-making, history of, IV. 802.
Carriages, history of, V. 134.
Clocks, VI. [3; electrical clocks, VI. 25; sup. 836.
Coloring-machines, 1 V. 691.
Compressed air for driving machinery, sup. 104.
Combs, V I. 177.
Cutlery, VI. 733.
Diving-bells, VII. 294-300.
The eidoloscopo, sup. 11 27.
Elevators (lifts), XIV. 573; sup. 1177.
Ferris wheel, sup. 1261.
Fire-extinguishing apparatus, IX. 235, and sup. 1273.
Friction matches, invention and history of, XV. 624.
Furniture, IX. 847.
Gramophone, sup. 1437.
Horseless wagons, sup. 296.
Kinetograph, sup. 1790.
Kineto-phonograph, and kinetoscope, sup. 1790.
Locks, XIV. 744.
Lithography, XIV. 697.
Photo-lithography, XVIII. 833.
Microscope, invention of, XVI. 258.
Milling-machine, sup. 2067.
Mortising-machine, sup. 21 13.
Mirrors, XVI. 499; magic mirrors, XVI. 501.
Pens, XVIII. 483.
Pencils, XVIII. 489.
Phonograph, invention of, XXIII. 130, 134.
Photography, XVIII. 821 ; Daguerre's invention of, VI.
761 ; Niepce's inventions, XVII. 495 ; electric-flash pro-
cess, VIII. 636; recent photography, sup. 2370; astro-
nomical photography, 2376.
Engraving, use of photography in, sup. 1205.
Pneumatic-delivery systems, sup. 104.
212 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Reaping-machines, I. 322; sup. 1538.
Rings, history of, XX. 560.
Rope-making, XX. 843.
Sewing-machines, XXI. 718.
Slot-machines, sup. 2730.
Safety-lamp, VI. 487 ; VI. 72, and XVI. 461.
Spectacles, XXII. 372, and XVI. 258.
Steam-engine, invention of, XXIV. 412 ; description of,
XXII. 473. See also sup. 1905 and 1992.
Steamships, invention of, III. 542; IX. 270, and XXII.
478 ; description of, XXI. 823. See also sup. 1992.
Stereoscopes, XXII. 537.
Stocking-frame, XII. 299.
Telegraph, history of, XXIII. 112.
Telephone, history of, XXIII. 127; description of, 130.
Telescope, history of, XXIII. 135-139; description of,
139-154. See also sup. 2871.
Twine-making, XX. 845.
Vitascope, sup. 3057.
Watch-making, XXIV. 394.
Water-tube boilers, sup. 509.
Wrater-meter, sup. 3101.
Weaving, XXIV. 463; ancient looms, XXIII. 206;
spinning-jenny, II. 541, and VI. 490.
Weighing-machines, sup. 31 16.
This list might be continued to a very great length, but
enough has been given to indicate the very complete and
comprehensive manner in which the subject of inventions
is treated in the Britannica.
SPECIAL SUBJECTS.
Now, there are certain special subjects with which al-
most every inventor needs to have some acquaintance.
One man will want to know all about the most recent dis-
mi INVENTOR. 213
coveries in electricity : for he is seeking to invent some new
electrical appliance, or to make some improvement on
former patents. lie should consult the references men-
tioned in the chapter entitled The Electrician, in this
GUIDE. Another inventor will find it necessary to inves-
tigate the phenomena and laws of Heat. Here are some
references that may be helpful to him :
Special article on Heat, XI. 554.
Theory of the action of heat, XIX. 2.
Heat as energy, VIII. 207.
Latent law of heat, VIII. 731.
Diffusion of heat, VII. 207.
Conduction of heat, XX. 212.
Convection of heat, XX. 212.
Power of heat in mechanics, XV. 773.
Production of heat by different fuels, IX. 807.
Heat of coal compared with that of oil, XVIII. 240.
Mechanical equivalent of heat, VIII. 209.
Transformation of heat into force, XXIII. 283.
A third inventor will want to understand the theory and
construction of MACHINES, and perhaps also
Mechanical the general laws of mechanics. Let such an
Laws. one consult the references named in the chap-
ter entitled The Mechanic, in this Guide. A
fourth inventor is interested in such subjects as the air,
gases, etc. He will find the Britannica full of information
of just the sort that he is seeking. For example, in I. 427,
there is a brief article on air, with references to
Atmosphere, III. 28.
Meteorology, XVI. 114.
Barometer, III. 381.
Pneumatics, XIX. 240.
Ventilation, XXIV. 157.
This is followed by an interesting account of the air-
214 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A.
engine, I. 428, and this by an article describing the air-
pump, I. 429. Then, by turning to the Index volume,
one may find scores of minor references to various items
of information relating to this particular subject.
In short, there is no subject connected with the inven-
tion of machines, or of useful appliances of any kind, that
does not receive somewhere in the Britanniea the concise
and comprehensive treatment which its importance de-
mands.
See the following chapters in this book : The Engineer,
The Architect, The Builder, The Manufacturer, The Rail-
road Alan, The Farmer, The Printer, The Miner.
1 111 \ki 111 I I I I. -r5
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE ARCHITECT.
"... When we mean to build
We first survey the plot, then draw the model."
— 2 Henry IV.
" If a man read little, he had need to have much cunning to seem to
know that he doth not." — Lord Bacon.
THE work of the architect is closely connected with that
of the builder. The end of building, merely as such, is con-
venience or use, irrespective of appearance ; but
the end of architecture is so to arrange the
Definitions. , . . . r
plan, masses, and enrichments of a structure as
to impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, unity,
power. Building is a trade ; architecture is an art.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica is a mine of valuable in-
formation for the architect. There is scarcely any ques-
tion connected with the practical application of his art
that does not receive notice and discussion somewhere
within its pages. The history of architecture is treated
with special fulness. The leading article on this subject
i in Volume II., pp. 382-475) is a very complete treatise
embracing as much matter as is contained in an
Leading ordinary i2mo book of four hundred pages. It
Article. is enriched with eighteen full-page plates, be-
sides nearly one hundred illustrations. Follow-
ing it is a Glossary of Architectural Terms (especially clas-
sical and mediaeval), filling sixteen double-column pages.
A supplementary article on AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE,
2l6 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
sup. 218, contains a number of designs and plans for mod-
ern dwelling-houses, with much other valuable matter.
The following are among the numerous subjects of in-
terest which the architect will find fully described or ex-
plained in the Britannica.
Prehistoric structures, II. 383 ; ancient remains at Kar-
nak, V. 118, XXI. 51 ; Cromlechs, VI. 597; ancient stone
circle at Stonehenge, XXII. 576; tumuli, III. 397; lake-
dwellings, XIV. 222 ; crannogs, VI. 562.
Egyptian architecture, II. 384; pyramids, XX. 122, V.
582 ; sphinxes, VII. 772 ; the Serapeum, XXI. 674; laby-
rinth, VII. 774; tombs, VII. 781, XVI. 865;
History of temples> yIL ;86>
Jewish architecture, II. 392 ; temple of Solo-
mon, XXIII. 166; of Zerubbabel, XXIII. 167;
of Herod, XXIII. 168.
Indian architecture, II. 394; Taj Mahal, I. 286.
Assyrian architecture, II. 397.
Persian architecture, II. 399; Persepolis, XVIII. 557;
Susa, XXII. 722.
Grecian architecture, II. 401 ; remains at Mycenae, II.
346, XVII. 115 ; the Caryatides, II. 407 ; Choragic monu-
ments, II. 41 1.
Three orders of Grecian architecture (Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian), II. 402; Doric, II. 409; Ionic, II. 417; Co-
rinthian, II. 407, IV. 709.
Roman architecture, II. 414; the Pantheon, XX. 828 ;
Colosseum, I. 774 ; dwellings at Pompeii, II. 420, XIX.
444.
Pointed architecture, II. 422; Gothic architecture in
England, II. 425 ; in France, II. 429 ; in Germany, II. 431 ;
in Spain, II. 432 ; in Italy, II. 434.
Modern Italian architecture, II. 436; St. Peter's at
Rome, III. 415 ; II. 438.
THE ARCHITECT. 217
Modern English architecture, II. 442; St. Paul's Ca-
thedral, XIV. 837; Sir Christopher Wren, XXIV. 689,
XVII. 442; Ely Cathedral, VII I. 155.
Saracenic architecture, II. 415; mosques of Baghdad,
III. 232; of Constantinople, VI. 305; great mosque at
Damascus, VI. 791 ; at Mecca, XV. 672; the Alhambra,
I. 570.
Chinese architecture, II. 448.
American Architecture, sup. 218.
Ancient American architecture, II. 450.
Present position of architecture, II. 452.
Architecture at the World's Columbian Exposition, sup.
3196.
Richard M. Hunt, sup. 1634.
Henry Hobson Richardson, sup. 2546.
Richardson and his work, sup. 222.
Among the large number of special subjects relating to
practice of this art, the following will be found both valu-
able and interesting:
Abacus, I. 4.
Special Abbeys, I. 10.
Subjects. Aisle," I. 430.
Almshouses, II. 459.
Apartment houses, sup. 202.
Apse, II. 215.
Arcade, II. 325.
Arch, II. 327.
Architrave, II. 459.
Baluster, II. 461.
Baptistery, III. 352.
Basilica, III. 412.
Campanile, IV. 753.
Caryatides, II. 407.
2l8 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Cathedral, V. 226.
Chantry, II. 462.
Cloister, VI. 35.
Column, II. 462.
Coping, IV. 464.
Cornice, II. 462.
Cupola, VII. 347.
Dome, VII. 347.
Dormer Window, II. 463.
Entablature, II. 391.
Fresco, IX. 769.
Monastery, I. 10.
Mosaic, XVI. 849.
Moulding IV. 487.
Parapet, II. 469; IX. 421.
ARCHITECTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS.
St. Peter's at Rome, II. 438.
St. Paul's in London, XIV. 837.
York Cathedral, XXIV. 750.
Cathedral of Geneva, VIII. 154.
Famous The Egyptian Temples, II. 388.
Buildings. The Parthenon, III. 5.
The Atrium, III. 50.
The Colosseum, I. 774.
The Hindoo temples, II. 395.
Jain Temple, I. 423.
The Taj Mahal, I. 286.
The Grand Mosque and the Kaaba of Mecca, XV. 67:
TheBastile, III. 429.
Lara Jongram, IV. 214.
Leaning Tower of Pisa, IV. 753.
Pyramid <>f Gizeh, XX. 124.
The Escorial, VIII. 539.
THE ARCH! iKc T. 219
The Labyrinth, XIV. 179.
The Capitol at Washington, sup. 219.
For additional references, sec the following chapter,
entitled The Builder.
BRIDGES, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC.
For references to articles concerning the construction
of bridges, fortifications, etc., see the chapter entitled The
meet) in this Guide.
220 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE BUILDER.
" In the elder days of art
Builders wrought with greatest care,
Each minute and unseen part,
For the gods see everywhere."
— Longfellow.
THE art of building is in a certain sense supplementary
to the art of architecture. In its highest application it
may very properly be called practical architect-
Practical ure Building, however, is frequently employed
when the result is not architectural ; and in such
tecture.
case it is the exercise of labor to the accom-
plishment of a certain useful end, and cannot properly be
styled an art. The successful builder ought to possess a
scientific knowledge of carpentry, joinery, masonry, and
all other trades connected with building ; and he should
have a practical understanding of the fitness, strength,
durability, and resistance of all kinds of materials. The
Encyclopedia Britannica offers a vast amount of informa-
tion on all these subjects; it is, in fact, a library of useful
knowledge for any person engaged in the building trades.
The special article on BuiLDIXG, IV. 446-513, is in
itself a complete treatise on this subject. Each of the
various divisions of the builder's trade is considered sepa-
rately.
Mason-work, IV. 468.
Brick, history and manufacture of, IV. 279; ancient
THE BUH I>ER. 221
bricks, XIX. 604, 619; enameled bricks, VIII. [82;
glazed bricks in wall-linings, XVII. 35 ; brick as building
material, IV. 448; strength of brick, sup. 2799;
Mason. XXII. 603; brick facings (Roman), XX. 809.
work. Bricks and brick-making, sup. 563, describes
the most improved processes now in use in the
United States. It will be seen that the introduction of
machinery has revolutionized the industry.
Use of brick in combination with stone, II. 457.
Brick architecture in German)-, II. 432.
Brick-laying, IV. 460.
Mortar, XIV. 647 ; how mortar is made, IV. 460.
Calcination of lime, XIII. 296.
Quicklime, XXI. 166.
Building-stone, IV. 448, 469, and sup. 614 ; strength of,
sup. 2799; XXII. 603.
Granite, XI. 48, X. 230; sandstone, X. 237.
Limestone, X. 232.
Marble, XV. 528; marble veneer, XVII. 36.
Stone cutting and dressing, sup. 2794.
Concrete, VI. 243, and IV. 453.
Plaster-work, IV. 504.
Cements, V. 328.
Portland cement, IV. 459.
Hydraulic cement, XIV. 647.
Stone-pavings, IV. 473.
Paving in bricks and tiles, IV. 466.
Paving-tiles, XXIII. 389.
Mason's tools, IV. 468.
Scaffolding, IV. 457, 468.
Chimneys and flues, IV. 466.
Ventilation by chimneys, XXIV. 159.
Chimney-pieces, IV. 473.
Sewers and drains, IV. 467.
222 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Carpenter-work, IV. 476.
Carpentry with the use of labor-saving machinery, sup.
707.
Carpenter's tools, IV. 476.
Flooring, IV. 452, 482, 493.
Partitions, IV. 484.
Timber, IV. 448 ; strength of, sup. 2799; VII. 816, and
XXII. 603; shrinkage, IV. 486.
Kinds of wood used for finishing, IV. 486 b.
Carpenter- Mouldings, IV. 487.
work. Sawing, XXI. 343, XL 437 ; sawyer-work,
IV. 476.
Planing, XI. 437; XV. 155.
Hanging doors, IV. 491.
Windows, X. 666 ; IV. 493.
Ventilation by windows, XXIV. 160.
Roofer's Work, IV. 484, and VII. 347.
Slate, XXII. 127; strength of, XXII. 603;
Roofing. , , 1 ttt
slaters work, IV. 500.
Shingles, XXI. 346, and II. 473.
Thatch, IV. 501.
Copper, zinc, and tin roofs, IV. 503.
Plumber's Work, IV. 502.
Sanitary conveniences of modern houses, sup. 2625.
Sanitary plumbing, sup. 2402.
Radiators for indoor heating, sup. 2488.
Lead, XIV. 374; solder, XXII. 249.
Plumbing. Lead-pipes and gutters, IV. 502.
Water-pipes, XII. 484; sup. 2403.
Cesspools, tanks, and water-closets, IV. 468.
House drainage, sup. 2403.
Gas-fitting, IV. 510,
Nil- Bl n I'l.k 223
i'i \si erer's Work, IV. 504.
Painter's and Decorator's Work, IV. 510.
Plastering Mm. a| (kxoration Xy.T ^
and
Painting. Stucco-work, XVII. 36, and IV. 507.
Paper-hangings, 1 V. 512.
Japanese paper-hangings, XIII. 591.
See, also, Taints or Pigments, XIX. 85.
Body-color, sup. 507.
Glazier's Work, IV. 509.
Glass, X. 647 ; window glass, X. 660 ; plate
glass, X. 662.
Glazing- Putty, XX. 118.
Lead-work, IV. 509.
Stained glass, X. 666, 667.
Pavement lights, IV. 509.
.Many other articles of practical value to the builder
will be suggested to him from time to time, and can be
found by reference to the Index volume of the Bri-
tannica.
The article on BUILDING ASSOCIATIONS, IV. 513, and
especially that on loan and building associations in the
United States, sup. 611, is full of practical information,
not only for the builders, but for all owners and prospec-
tive owners of houses.
For a short list of famous buildings, see page 218 of
this Guide.
See also the chapters entitled The Mechanic and The
Engineer,
224 GUIDE TO THE BR1TANNICA.
CHAPTER XXX.
THE ENGINEER.
" Do as I have done — persevere." — George Stephenson.
Engineering — the art of designing and constructing
works — embraces a very wide range of subjects, and the
different departments into which the profession is divided
do not admit of very strict definition. In this chapter it
is proposed to indicate a few of the subjects in the En-
cyclopedia Britannica which have relation to the work of
the civil engineer. Among these subjects are the different
branches of mathematics, which the GUIDE has already
mentioned in the chapter on that subject. To these may
be added the articles :
Surveying, XXII. 695, and
Geodesy, X. 163.
Both of these, aside from the purely techni-
cal and mathematical portions of which they
Surveying. .
are largely composed, contain much matter of
interest and practical value. (See also Stadia
Measurement, sup. 2774.) Of other articles there are
many, but it is necessary here to name only a few as ex-
amples of the quality of instruction and information to be
derived from the Britannica.
Bridges, IV. 284-341, is a very comprehensive article, with
numerous diagrams and illustrations. A supplementary
article on the same subject, sup. 564, contains an alphabeti-
THE ENGINl I R 225
cal list of the principal bridges in the world, with descrip-
tive notes on those which are of the most recent
construction. Many of these famous bridges are
described in separate articles, of which the fol-
lowing are examples :
Brooklyn Bridge, XVII. 465.
Forth Bridge, XX. 234.
St. Louis Bridge, XXI. 185, etc.
Laws governing the erection of bridges, sup. 568.
Caissons (used in bridge-building), IV. 647.
River engineering, XX. 571.
River engineering on the Mississippi, XVI. 520; James
B. Lads, sup. 1 104.
Engineering at Hell Gate, sup. 1561.
Embankment, VIII. 158.
Aqueducts, II. 219 (chiefly interesting on account of
the history which it contains of ancient aqueducts). The
modern methods of constructing aqueducts and tunnels
are fully described in sup. 211. See also
Railway tunnels, XX. 233.
Tunneling, XXIII. 622.
St. Gotthard tunnel, XXIII. 624.
Sutro tunnel, XVII. 368; sup. 2835.
Viaducts, sup. 3038.
Waterworks, XXIV. 406 (with chapters on
Water- reservoir dams, conveyance, purification, stor-
works. age, and distribution).
Waterworks of London, XIV. 825.
Of Paris, XVIII. 279.
Of New York, XVII. 465.
Of Glasgow, X. 642.
15
226 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A.
Coffer-dams, VI. 114.
Canals, IV. 782-794 (with diagrams and illustrations 1.
History of canals and canal construction,
sup. 677-683.
Canals. £ ' ' _ , __,- ,
Suez Canal, XX. 620.
Panama Canal, XVIII. 209.
M. de Lesseps, sup. 1867.
Harbors, XI. 455-465 (with numerous dia-
grams). Supplementary article relating spe-
cially to the harbors and docks of the United
States, sup. 1520.
United States Coast Survey, sup. 848.
Docks, XL 465-472.
Roads, XX. 582 ; construction of roads, page 582 ;
stone pavements, page 584; wood paving, page 583; as-
phalt paving, page 586.
Telford road, XXIII. 155.
Macadam, the Scotch road-maker, XX. 582,
Roads.
583-
James Nasmyth, sup. 2138.
Railways (see chapter entitled The Railroad Man, in
this Guide).
Lighthouses, XIV. 615.
The Eddystone tower, page 615.
Light- Other famous lighthouses, page 616 ; modes
houses. of construction, page 617.
Beacons and buoys, page 625.
Irrigation, XIII. 362 ; sup. 99 and 1707.
Sewerage, construction of sewers, XXI. 713.
Sewerage, of London, XIV. 826.
Of Paris, XVIII. 280.
THE 1 NGIN1 227
Fortifications, IX. 421 468 (a comprehensive treatise,
illustrated with numerous diagrams and plates). I
daily interesting, even to non-scientific readers,
Fortifica- 's the history of improvements in permanent
tion. fortifications, pages 440 442, and the chapter on
the fortification of capitals, page 466. So also
is the account oi the siege of the citadel of Antwerp, IX.
458, and of the defense of Dantzic, IX. 458.
Other valuable articles are such as the following :
Engineering Societies of the U. S., sup. 1202.
Societies of Engineers, XXII. 226.
Amalgamated Society of Engineers, XXIII. 50.
Naval Engineers, duties of, XVII. 95.
Miscella- Royal Engineers in the British Army, II. 579.
neous. Strength of materials, XXII. 592.
Eiffel tower, sup. 1128.
Gunner}', XI. 297.
Artillery, II. 655.
Telegraphy, XL 632.
Shipbuilding, XXI. 809.
See, also, the chapters entitled The Builder, The Sea-
man, and The Machinist, in this Guide.
228 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXXI.
THE LABORER.
" All true work is sacred ; in all true work, were it but true hand-labor,
there is something of divineness." — Thomas Carlyle.
" Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might." — Eccle-
siastes.
Nearly every chapter in this Guide is addressed to the
laborer in one or another division of the world's
Who are industries. The man who works with his brain
Laborers? is no less a laborer than he who toils with his
hands. Hence the teacher, the lawyer, the
banker, are as truly laborers as the mechanic, the builder,
the farmer, the worker on the roads, the employee of the
mill or the factory. " The life of man in this world,"
says Samuel Smiles, " is for the most part a life of work.
In the case of ordinary men, work may be regarded as
their normal condition. Every man worth calling a man
should be willing and able to work. The honest laboring
man finds work necessary for his sustenance, but it is
equally necessary for men of all conditions and in every
relationship of life. . . . Labor is indeed the price set
upon everything which is valuable. Nothing can be
accomplished without it."
In the present chapter it is the purpose of the GUIDE to
point out some of the many articles and other passages in
the Encyclopaedia Britannica that may be of general interest
to all classes of workingmen, and especially to those who
labor with their hands. The history of labor is identical
with the history of civilization, for without the one the
THE LABORER. 229
other could not exist. Workingmen of the present day
may learn much that is both interesting and
History of instructive by studying the conditions of labor
Labor. in former times and in other countries. The
Britannica affords ample facilities for such
stud)'. See, for example, the following articles or parts of
articles :
Labor in early times, I. 294; XIV. 165.
Slavery, XXII. IJ<>
Labor in England in the Middle Ages, XIV. 166.
Day-laborers in the time of Queen Elizabeth, XIV. 169.
Labor laws in Great Britain, XIV. 171.
The factory system, sup. 2S37.
Apprenticeship, II. 212 ; IX. 760.
Guilds, XI. 259; of London, XIV. 819.
The following articles will be found of greater or less
interest to the different classes of workingmen everywhere :
Labor and Capital, XXIV. 48.
Labor and Labor and Wages, XXIV. 306.
Capital. Labor and Wealth, XXIV. 461.
Labor and Socialism, XXII. 206, 211.
Labor and Communism, VI. 217.
The Sweating system, sup. 2836.
Capital, V. 71.
Capital and Socialism, XXII. 206, 211.
Theories concerning capital, XIX. 374.
Wages, XXIV. 306; XIV. 165.
Wages in the United States, sup. 3066.
Wages. Payment of wages, XVIII. 440.
Lassalle's theory of wages, XIV. 321.
Marx's theory of wages, XXII. 21 1.
23O GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Enfranchisement of the working classes, XIX. 352.
Progress of the working classes, XXIV. 312.
Legal relations of workingmen and employers, XIV.
170; sup. 1 198.
Mechanics' Institutes, III. 779.
Industrial condition of women, sup. 1677.
Trade guilds and wages, XXIV. 310.
Unions of workingmen, XXIII. 499.
American Workingmen's Organizations, sup.
Labor Or- l8l4-
ganizations. Trade Unions in the United States, XXIII.
786.
American Federation of Labor, sup. 153.
Knights of Labor, sup. 1814.
Ancient Order of United Workmen, sup. 177.
Trade Unions in England, II. 213.
Workingmen's International Association, XIII. 189.
Strikes, XXIII. 500.
Recent great strikes in the United States, sup. 2995.
Boycotting, sup. 539.
Co-operation, V. 338.
Mutual Benefit Societies in the United States, sup. 417.
Mutual Benefit Orders, IX. 782.
Building and Loan Associations, sup. 611.
Agricultural cooperation, I. 416.
Farmers' Organizations, sup. 1245.
International Typographical Union, sup. 18 14.
American Railway Union, sup. 1817, 2996.
Labor Parties in the United States, 1817.
United Mine-workers of America, sup. 2995.
Coxey's " Commonweal Army," sup. 2997.
rill FARMER. 231
CHAPTER XXXII.
THE FARMER.
"Life in the country is full of practical teachings, which richer folk
are apt sedulously to deny to their children." — A Sussex Idyl.
"Compare the state of that man, such as he would be without books,
with what th it man may be with books." — Lord Houghton.
Farmer A ami Farmer B are neighbors. Their lands
join, and each has the same number of acres. Twenty
years ago, when they entered upon these lands, they
seemed to be on an equal footing in everyway. It would
have puzzled an expert to tell which of the
A Common farms had the best soil, or which was the most
Illustration, favorably situated for the purposes of agricul-
ture. Both men were industrious, although
everybody said that Farmer B was the harder worker of
the two. Yet, from the very start, Farmer A had always
the best success. His crops were better, the products of
his farm were of a finer quality, he had fewer losses and
fewer expenses, and, in short, everything prospered with
him. But Farmer B, in spite of all his industry, fell con-
stantly behind. His lands became less and less fertile
every year. His crops failed, his stock died, every enter-
prise seemed to end in disappointment or disaster.
Now, how can we account for the difference in the for-
tunes of these two men? We cannot explain it by say-
ing that one was born to good luck and the other to
misfortune. It is to be explained in this way : Farmer A
The
lucatf
Farmer.
232 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
spared no pains to acquire a thorough knowledge of his
calling. He was a reader of books, and through them he
availed himself of the experience of others in
every department of agriculture. On the other
hand, Farmer B placed his entire dependence
upon industry alone ; and, in the conduct of his
business, he had only his own narrow experience to guide
him.
The day of guesswork in farming has passed. In every
detail of the farmer's calling knowledge counts for gain.
Other things being equal, the land-worker who keeps
abreast of the times has an immense advantage over him
who is content to plod along in the footsteps of his an-
cestors.
To the progressive farmer, the Encyclopedia Britannica
is a mine of useful knowledge. Containing information
of the most thorough and trustworthy kind concerning
every department of his business, it proves itself to be a
ready helper and adviser on all occasions.
The article on Agriculture in the United States,
sup. 89-101, is the work of Hon. J. Sterling Morton,
ex-Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, and of
Charles W. Dabney, Jr., both of whom rank among
the highest living authorities on this subject. It is an
article of great practical value, giving just that kind of
information which every intelligent farmer in this country
wishes to have. The historical portion is particularly
interesting, while the statistics relative to United States
farms present many facts that are worth knowing. Tin-
chapters on crops, sup. 91, ct scq., contain much material
for thought, and are full of good suggestions.
The general article on AGRICULTURE, I. 291-416, is
a comprehensive treatise, covering 125 pages, in which
every farmer will find much that is both interesting and
THE FARMER. 233
profitable. Although it may be said to present the sub-
ject from an English point of view, it is nevertheless replete
with that sort of information which farmers everywhere
appreciate. To the curious farmer, who would like-
to know how the work of his craft was done in olden
times, the chapter on Ancient Husbandry, I.
Farming 291-295, will be full of interest. The relative
„ , advantages of " Small Farming " and " Large
General. ° bo
Farming" are discussed in I. 411-412, and
XIV. 268. Truck-farming in the United States is de-
scribed in sup. 94; and this introduces us to a highly
interesting article on Land, its ownership, distribution,
etc., XIY. 259-271.
An article on HOMESTEADS, XII. 122, contains com-
plete information concerning the Homestead Law in the
United States, and the preemption of claims on Gov-
ernment lands, XII. 123 b". Still later facts in regard to
the same subject are given in the article on Public Lands
of the United States, sup. 2472. The chapter on the SUR-
VEYS OF PUBLIC LANDS in the United States, sup. 2990,
presents much valuable information. The farm-seeker
who finds it necessary to lease, instead of buying, or
otherwise becoming the owner of his farm, will obtain
many practical hints from the article on
Land LANDLORD AND TENANT, XIV. 272-278. He
Owning. will be interested, too, in reading the chapter
on Tenure of Land, I. 406 b", and the article
on Rent, XX. 402. The land owner will also find many
things of interest in these articles, and he will want to
read still more of the history of land ownership in
Agrarian Laws, I. 287 a.
Buildings. The chapter on Farm Buildings, I. 308, will
save many a farmer much more than the cost
of an Encyclopaedia ; that on Fences, I. 309, is also replete
234 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
with valuable suggestions. Not many farmers have to
build bridges, but such as do will find something of inter-
est to them in sup. 564. The building of fruit-houses is
described in XII. 223 a", and of plant-houses in XII. 221a".
Next to the subject of buildings, that of implements
and tools is of importance to every farmer.
These are described in detail and at length in
the chapter on Machines and Implements of
Husbandry, I. 311-328. See, also,
Harvesting Machinery, sup. 1538.
Corn-harvesters, sup. 1542.
American plows, sup. 2402.
American threshing-machinery, sup. 2905.
Improved straw-stacker, sup. 2907.
The successful farmer must also know something about
soils. He will find this subject treated in a general way
in I. 306; the chemistry of soils is noticed in
XIV. 567 b" ; the soils best suited for gardens
in XII. 217, 232 ; while the manner in which
different kinds of soils were originally produced
is described briefly in X. 265.
Closely connected with the latter subject is that of fer-
tilizers. Read what is said of Fertilizers, I. 231; of
Manures, I. 342, and XII. 232 ; of the value of
Bone Manure, I. 347; of Lime, I. 350; and of
Fertilizers. . ._ . . AT T ~, ,<
Artificial Manures, I. 353. Then turn to the
special and very valuable article on MANURES,
XV. 505-512, and to that on Guano, XI. 233.
In some parts of the country irrigation is
necessary to the production of crops. Farmers
in such sections will find it profitable to read the
general article on [RRIGATION, XIII. ^2, and
perhaps also th.it which is said about irrigation bysewage,
XXI. 512. The very latest facts regarding irrigation in th :
1 111. 1 AKMF.k. 235
United States arc given in su id sup. 1707. It will
also be interesting to read about the curious methods of
irrigation practiced in other countries. For instance, the
methods pursued in Egypt, VII. ;e~ : in Arabia, i I. 24 \ a ;
in India, XII. 754 ; and in Spain, XXII.
After soils, and the preparation of the ground for crops
(see I. 328 340), we come to the crops themselves. The
supplementary article on Wheat in America, sup. 3134, is
particularl}' valuable. A long and valuable article on
WHEAT, XXIV. 531, is also worthy of every
farmer's attention. Indian corn is described
under the head of MAIZE, XV. 309. An in-
teresting history of the potato is given in the
general article Potato, XIX. 594, while specific directions
as to its culture are to be found in XII. 286 a. The dis-
e ises of the potato are described in XIX. 596, while the
history and nature of the potato-bug are given in VI. 134 a.
Passing now to other grains and vegetables, you will find
each treated in its appropriate place — for example : Bar-
ley, III. 376, and sup. 355 ; Oats, XVII. 696; Flax, IX.
293 ; Hemp, XI. 647.
The special article on COTTON, VI. 482, is interesting
and exhaustive. The chapters on Cottons in the United
States, sup. 93, 2990, present the very latest statistics con-
cerning this industry. For further information concerning
the growth of cotton in the United States, see X. 435 and
XXIII. 824. See, also, the reference to textile fabrics in
this GUIDE, in the chapter entitled T/n* Manufacturer.
Growers of rice will turn to XX. 538, and they will also
find pleasure in reading how this grain is cultivated in
various countries — in India III. 248, 568 ; in Japan, XIII.
574; in Java, XIII. 603 ; and in Madagascar, XV. 172.
The culture of tobacco in the United States receives
due attention in sup. 94, in XIV. 43, and in XXIV. 260.
236 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Interesting facts concerning the history and nature of
the weed are given in the general article on TOBACCO,
XXIII. 424.
Other farm products are the subjects of valuable
articles.
Broom-corn, sup. 585.
Buckwheat, sup. 607.
The farmer who cares for statistics relative to the pro-
duction of Farm Products, will find a great
deal of trustworthy information in the article
Statistics. . . . „ ,, . ,■ ,
on Agriculture, sup. 89, as well as in the chapter
on Agriculture in the United States, XXIII.
824-829.
Has the farmer any enemies ? Yes, many of them ;
and the successful agriculturist will arm himself against
them by becoming acquainted with their character and
habits. The article on INSECTS AND INSECTI-
CIDES, XIII. 904, will be found to be of great
practical value. So also will the chapters on
the Army Worm, sup. 241 ; the various prac-
tical recipes for insecticides, sup. 1684. If you would rec-
ognize a friend also, read what is said of the ICHNEUMON
Fly, XII. 699. It might be well, too, to read about the
Trichina, XXIV. 206. Vine-growers will find several
matters of practical interest in the section relating to the
diseases of the vine, XXIV. 238.
There is a still further endless variety of topics which
will claim the attention of the successful farmer. If he is
interested in the production of hay, he will
Misceiia- want to read the articles on GRASSES, XI. 53,
neous. and sup. 1 305. If he cares for honey, he will see
what is said about BEES, III. 484; about apia-
rian products, sup. 99; about HONEY, XII. 138, 139, and
nil i \k\n r. 237
about Bee Industry, sup. 398. If he has more apples
than he can cat or sell, he will learn all about ClDER, V.
775 ; if he owns chickens or ducks or geese, he will want
to know how to make them profitable, and will read the
article on POULTRY, XIX. 644. In fact, the number of
subjects of this kind is so large that it is impossible here
to enumerate them.
And now, Mr. Farmer, are you a gardener or a fruit-
grower? Turn to the next two chapters in this book,
and notice the references which are given
Further there. You may not be a stock raiser, in the
References, strictest meaning of the word ; but we know
that you want to have the best breeds of horses
and cattle and swine, and in the care of them to avail
yourself of the knowledge and experience of others. And
so we refer you to the chapter entitled the Stock Raiser,
in this GUIDE. In that chapter also you will find numer-
ous references to articles relating to milk, butter, cheese,
etc., and the most approved and profitable methods of
conducting a dairy.
Are you interested in what farmers are doing in other
countries? Do you want to know what kind of soil they
have, what grains they raise, what implements
Farming they use ? Do you care to learn about their
in Other . . ,. . , , _ , . . ,
„ . • modes of living, or about the prohts which they
Countries. t>» r j
derive from their labor ? You will find just
such information in the Britannica. Look under the head
of the country which you have in mind. For example, you
will find
Agriculture in Austria, III. 119.
Agriculture in Afghanistan, I. 232.
Agriculture in Arabia, II. 244.
And so with almost every country in the world.
Are you interested in the present trend of American
238 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
agriculture? Of course you are. See what ex-Secretary
Morton says on that subject in sup. 100. Read also the
brief account which follows of the Department of Agri-
culture at Washington.
Are you interested in cooperation with others of your
calling? Read what is said about Farmers'
Coopera- ORGANIZATIONS, sup. 1245; about agricultural
tion. cooperation, I. 416; about Cooperation in
general, VI. 339 ; and about communities in
Europe and America, VI. 218, 219. See, also, the article
on World's Fairs, sup. 3195.
Nearly all enlightened nations recognize the importance
of scientific instruction in the practice of agriculture. In
Europe there were several agricultural colleges nearly a
hundred years ago. In Germany there are scores of insti-
tutions in successful operation wherein the sons
The Educa- Qf farmers are instructed in the best methods of
^ cultivating the soil. There are also many such
Farmers. ° '
schools in Belgium, France, and England, and the
result is that the lands in those countries produce almost
double the amount per acre raised before their establish-
ment. In the United States, where less attention has been
paid to this branch of education, the annual crops are
almost everywhere growing less per acre. It was not until
1862 that the first national movement was made towards
the establishment of Agricultural Colleges An article in
sup. 86 gives a complete history and description of the
farmers' colleges now in operation in this country. Closely
connected with these colleges are the agricultural experi-
ment stations, of which one or more have been established
in every state. These stations are intended to promote,
under Government auspices, the methodical study of the
farmers' problems, and they are very fully described in
sup. 87-89, The relations of the Government and. its
llll FARMER.
agricultural stations to the farmer are very aptly stated in
sup. too. The chapter on the Education of Farmers, I.
408, is well worth reading in this connection, presenting
as it does some valuable thoughts from an English poinl
^i view. As to the manner in which man}' American
farmers try to keep abreast of the times, see Farmers' In-
stitutes, sup. 1245.
1 1 ere, then, we have indicated enough reading to occupy
your leisure moments for many a day. And as you pursue
the stud\r of these subjects, other topics will naturally fall
under your eye, and you will see how inexhausti-
ble is the fund of knowledge before you. Can
Conclusion.
any one now pretend to say that the farmer
who has made this knowledge his own will not
be vastly more successful in all the departments of his
calling than his neighbor whose information is limited to
that which he has acquired through personal experience
alone ? The Encyclopedia Britannica is a farmer's library
in itself, covering every division of agricultural lore ; and
its articles, being the work of specialists, are not only
complete and comprehensive, but in the highest degree
trustworthy and authoritative.
See the chapter in this Guide entitled The Woodsman.
240 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE GARDENER.
" He that lives in his own fields and the habitation which God hath
given him, enjoys true peace. Nothing should hinder him from the
pleasure of books." — Antonio Jc Guevara, 1540.
As a matter of course the gardener's interests are, to a
large extent, identical with those of the farmer. Every
successful gardener must know a good deal about soils,
fertilizers, the preparation of the ground, implements and
farm machinery, and many other subjects connected with
that larger branch of agriculture generally called farming.
And so, Mr. Gardener, if you have come to that store-
house of knowledge, the Encyclopedia Britannica, for in-
formation which will help you in the practice of your call-
ing, we would advise you to turn to some of the articles
which we have just named in the chapter for the guidance
of the farmer. When you have obtained such information
as you wish upon the subjects therein mentioned, you will
be all the more ready to profit by the courses of reading
and reference which are now to follow.
The general article on HORTICULTURE, XII. 211-295,
will of course claim your first attention. This is a very
comprehensive chapter, and contains as much
Gardening matter as an ordinary I2mo volume of three
General hundred and fifty pages. Some portions of the
article may be of greater value to you than
others. Turn to the Index on page 295, and see what it
e mtains that is of special interest to you.
The chapter on the Formation and Preparation of the
l HE CARD! M -. 241
Garden, XII. 217, contains some valuable, practical hints.
rii.u <>n Garden rools, XII. 233 b ; that on Plant-houses,
XII. 221 a; ami that on the Propagation <>!' Plants, XII.
234 1), will also be found rich in suggestiveness and in di-
rect information.
Is yours a (lower garden? Read the chapter on the
Flower Garden, XII. 247; that on Kinds of Flowers
to Cultivate, XII. 248; that on Greenhouse
The Flower Plants, XII. 261 ; and the chapter on Pruning,
Garden. XII. 24 1 . The article on Floriculture, sup.
1290, contains a number of interesting statis-
tics concerning the progress of this industry in the United
States, and will be read with profit by every florist.
The following articles and parts of articles are worthy,
as you will at once perceive, of the attention of every
gardener and of every lover of flowers.
History of the first attempts at the classification of
plants, IV. 79 a.
The story of Linnaeus, XIV. 671, and his classification
of plants, IV. 79 b.
The account of Robert Brown, the inventor of the natu-
ral system of classification, IV. 81 a", and IV. 385.
The chapter on Structural Elements of Plants, IV. 83.
The special articles on the Rose, XX. 850.
Then there are innumerable special articles on the dif-
ferent kinds of flowers, all of which may be found by ref-
erence to the Index volume. Among these articles it
may not be amiss to call attention to the following :
Lily, XIV. 643
Gladiolus, X. 632.
Geranium, X. 439.
Dahlia, VI. 763.
Pansy, XVIII. 214.
Phlox, XVIII. 798.
16
242 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Honeysuckle, XII. 140.
Hollyhock, XII. 102.
1 [yacinth, XII. 419.
Mignonette, XVI. 2S9.
But it is unnecessary to name more. These are men-
tioned only as examples of many articles which lovers of
flowers will take pleasure in finding and reading.
There are articles on wild-flowers, too, such as Ranuncu-
lus (buttercup), XX. 272 ; Violet, XXIV. 241 ; Daisy, VI.
773 ; and scores of others. And in the general
Wild article on BOTANY, IV. 79, their structure,
Flowers. habits, and growth are treated and described
from a scientific standpoint.
If you are interested in Landscape Gardening, see the
article on that subject in sup. 1828, also the article on
LAWNS, XXI. 248, and that on the parks of the
Landscape United States, sup. 2296. See William Kent,
Gardening. XIV. 40.
Some curious historical facts in relation to
the subject may be found by reference to the article Laby-
rinth, XIV. 180. The article Arboriculture will also
supply some useful hints ; and the account of the Royal
Botanical Gardens at Kew, XII. 153, and sup. 1785, will
be found interesting.
The Vegetable Garden is described in XII. 278; and
the different kinds of vegetables profitable for cultivation
are noticed, each in its appropriate place. Mar-
v bi ^ct gardening in the United States is the sub-
Garden, jcct of a comprehensive paragraph in sup. 95.
See what is said about the Potato, XIX. 593,
;ind I. 364, about its diseases, XIX. 596, and about its
most destructive enemy, VI. 134.
The manner of raising other root crops, such as turnips,
mangel-wurzels, carrots, parsnips, cabbages, kohlrabi, etc.,
l ill. GARDENER. 243
is described with some minuteness in the chapter begin-
ning on 1. 346. All the common vegetables raised in the
gardens receive notice in the Britannica. Special articles
also are given on the cultivation of these vegetables in
the United Stales, as :
Beets, sup. 402 ; Beet sugar, sup. 403, etc.
But tor the latest information, see the special article on
Agriculture in the United States, sup. 89-101.
Market gardens, sup. 95.
Minor crops, sup. 96.
Truck-farming in the United States, sup. 2951.
Truck farms, sup. 94.
See also the references in the chapters entitled The
Fruit Grower and The Woodsman.
244 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE FRUIT GROWER.
" They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig-tree." —
The Book of Micah.
" You only, O books, are liberal and independent. You give to all
who ask, and enfranchise all who serve you assiduously. Trulv, you
are the ears filled with most palatable grains — fruitful olives, vines of
Engaddi, fig-trees knowing no sterility; burning lamps to be ever held
in the hand." — Richard de Bury.
For the fruit grower, be he farmer or gardener, there is
to be found in the Britannica a great variety of practical,
useful information. As to soils, fertilizers, irri-
The gation, and other subjects of general interest to
Orchard. all cultivators of the ground, it may be well to
consult the references already given in our
chapter for The Farmer. In the first volume of the
Britannica, page 284, there is a short chapter on Orchard
Culture which will repay the reading. Of still greater
practical interest is a chapter in sup. 95, on Orchard Pro-
ducts of the United States. An extensive list of standard
FRUIT TREES, with descriptions of the best varieties, may
be found in XII. 269, and should be marked for ready
reference. Further descriptions of fruit and fruit trees
arc presented in special short articles under appropriate
headings, for example :
Apple, II. 211 ; the culture of apples for cider, V. 775.
Apricot, II. 214.
Peach, XVIII. 442 ; the peach-house, XII. 224; peaches
in the United States, sup. 2330.
Pear, XVIII. 445, sup. 2330.
1 HE FRUIT GROWER. 245
Plum, XIX. 230.
Prune, XI X. 230.
Quince, XX. 182.
The article on Strawberries, XXII. 592, is interesting
and valuable. So also are those on other small fruits :
Raspberries, XIII. 276.
Small Cranberries, VI. 45, and XII. 270.
Fruits. Whortleberries, XXIV. 556.
Currants, VI. 715, and XII. 270.
The culture of grapes receives the attention which its
importance deserves. See the practical chapters on vine-
yards, XII. 277, and that on vineyards in the
United States, sup. 96. See, too, Viticulture,
Grapes. ,
sup. 3050; also the special article on the Vine,
XXIV. 237. The manufacture of wine from
grapes is described fully in XXIV. 602.
The wines of different localities are referred to else-
where, as :
Canary wine, IV. 797.
Catawba, V. 219.
Madeira, XV. 178.
Wiirtemberg, XXIV. 700.
Fruit-houses, for the storing of the products of garden
and orchard, are described at length in XII. 223. The en-
tire article on HORTICULTURE, XII. 211-295, is
Fruit of value to the fruit grower, and should be
Houses, read and frequently consulted.
See also the account of the societies that have
been formed for the promotion of horticulture, XXII. 225.
Tropical fruits are noticed, and described at length.
Some of the best known are :
Tropical _, , , TTT
Fruits. The date-palm, VI. 831.
The fig-tree, IX. 153; IV. 121.
Banana, III. 307.
246 GUIDE TO THE BKITANNICA.
Bread-fruit, IV. 241.
Lemon, XIV. 437.
Orange, XVII. 810.
Pine-apple, XIX. 106.
Pomegranate, XIX. 441.
Other articles which commend themselves, not only to
fruit growers, but to large numbers of gardeners and farm-
ers as well, are the following :
Grafting, XII. 213, 236. .
Care of Budding, XII. 237 ; XX. 423.
Trees. Pruning, XII. 214, 241.
Garden Trees, XII. 260.
Fungicides, sup. 1 35 1 .
Mildew, XVI. 293.
Diseases of Vines, XXIV. 238.
The Canning Industry, sup. 685.
In the chapter entitled The Woodsman, in this Guide,
the fruit grower may find numerous further references to
trees, their culture, propagation, and uses. Many of these
articles, if he will take the pains to consult them, may
prove to be of genuine value to him.
THE WOODSMAN. 247
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE WOODSMAN.
" Love of trees and plants is safe. You do not run risks in your affec-
tions."— AUx. Smith.
"The love of knowledge comes with reading and grows upon it."
— Henry Ward Beecher.
In this chapter the word woodsman will be used in a
broad and somewhat unusual sense. It will include every
one who is in an)' way actively interested in trees, and
especially in the trees of the forest. First, the man who
regards trees only as objects of trade and profit, and
views them always from an economical standpoint, caring
for them only so far as they are of practical use to man-
kind ; second, those who love trees for their beauty, their
fragrance, their grateful shade, their friendship ; and third,
those who take pleasure in studying them in their scientific
aspects, observing their modes of growth and their influ-
ence upon climate, soil, and various forms of vegetable and
animal life. For all these " woodsmen " the Encyclopedia
Britannica has a variety of entertaining and trustworthy
information.
I. FORESTRY.
As an introduction to the study of trees, read the article
on FORESTRY, sup. 1309. Then turn to the very compre-
hensive article, Forests and Forest Administration, IX.
396-410, and notice the practical character of the informa-
tion there given. After this, read of the Forests of the United
248 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
States, XXIII. 803-807. Another article of much value is
that on Arboriculture, II. 314-324. This, of course,
relates especially to the growing of trees as one branch of
agriculture. Read particularly the section relating to the
culture of trees, II. 315, and that on timber trees, IX.
405, 406. Valuable practical suggestions are also given
with relation to plantations of forest trees, II. 322 a. For
an account of the timbered region of the United States,
see sup. 2390; IV. 704; XXIII. 808. For the forests of
Canada, see IV. //^. The climatic influences of forests
are discussed in VI. 4.
Of especial interest to lumbermen is the article on SAW-
MILLS, XXI. 344. An account of the lumber
trade in the United States is given in XXIII.
Lumbering. . . .
811. I he trade in Michigan receives notice in
XVI. 238, as also does that of Canada, in IV. 774.
The uses of wood as building material are described in
IV. 448 ; its strength, VIII. 816, and XXII. 603 ; its value
as fuel, IX. 808.
II. USEFUL TREES.
It is, of course, impossible in this chapter to name all the
articles in the Britannica that have reference to individual
forest trees. It may not be amiss, however, to direct
especial attention to the following :
Oak, XVII. 689 — an illustrated article very interesting
to all lovers of trees ; the strength of oak wood,
Timber XXII. 603; the use of oak bark for tanning,
Trees. XIV. 381 ; the oak in the United States,
XXIII. 808.
Elm, VIII. 151 b; culture of, II. 317.
Pine, XIX. 102; strength of wood, XXII. 603; pines
"t California, IV. 704; pines of the Alps, XIX. 102; cul-
ture of, II. 316.
THE WOODSMAN. 249
Pine lumbering in the United States, sup. 2390.
Fir, IX. 222; strength of wood, XXII. 603; Scotch
pines, XI X. 103.
BoXWOOd, IV. iSl ; uses of wood, XXIV. 645.
Rosewood, X X. 851.
Logwood, XIV. 805 ; XII. 133.
Mahogany, XV. 288 ; IX. 406 ; strength of wood, XXII.
603.
Eucalyptus, VIII. 649; XIII. 593: eucalyptus in Au-
stralia, XXIV. 216, 508.
The great trees of California are described in IV. 704
and XXI. 6-5.
Of the trees that are valuable for their products, but
not valuable as timber, it may be interesting to
Valuable note the following :
Trees. Cinchona (quinine tree), V. 780. Its culti-
vation in Peru, XVIII. 6jt, ; in India, III. 568,
and XII. 751 ; and in the Himalaya Mountains, XI. 833.
Caoutchouc (india-rubber), IX. 154; XVIII. 6y$; IV.
226; XII. 835, and IV. 88.
III. FRUIT TREES.
Olive, XVII. 761 ; III. 59.
Orange, XVII. 810.
Lemon, XVII. 437.
Banana, III. 307; XIX. 176, and XIX. 419.
Mulberry, XVII. 13, and XXII. 58.
But for the common fruit trees, see the chapter entitled
The Gardener.
IV. FOOD PLANTS AND TREES.
COFFEE Plant, cultivation of, V. no; in Brazil, IV.
227 ; in Cuba, VI. 681 ; in Arabia, II. 237 ; in Java, XIII.
603 ; in Ceylon, V. 369.
250 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Tea Plant, XXIII. 97, and IV. 738 ; cultivation of, in
China, V. 636 ; in India, XII. 750, and III. 568.
Cocoa, or Cacao, VI. 100.
Date Palm, VI. 831, XVIII, 190 ; of Arabia, II. 237.
Fig, IX. 153.
Almond, I. 594.
Aloe, I. 597.
Bread-fruit, IV. 243.
Among the curious trees of the world, mention may be
made of the Banyan, III. 348; Baobab, I. 268; Bo, or
sacred fig-tree, IX. 154; Upas tree, XXIII. 859, and this
list might be extended indefinitely.
See chapter entitled The Gardener.
An account of the great parks of the world
appeals to the interest of every woodsman and
Parks. J
every lover of trees. See the following articles :
National Parks, sup. 2296.
Parks of the Rocky Mountain region, sup. 2297, VI.
161 ; XXIII. 796.
Adirondack Park, sup. 48.
National military parks, sup. 2297.
Yellowstone National Park, sup. 3219.
Washington Elm, at Cambridge, sup. 662.
Charter Oak, sup. 757.
In conclusion, the reader's attention is directed to the
article on Arbor Day, sup. 215, and the additional para-
graph on the same subject, XII. 848.
The above references are sufficient to indicate the vast
amount of curious, interesting, and instructive information
that may be derived from the Britannica with reference to
this subject of trees.
THE STI K K i.RnW ER. 25 I
CHAPTER XXXVI.
1 Mi: STOCK KAISER.
" The cattle are grazing,
Their heads never raising ;
There are forty feeding like one."
— IVordswortk.
" The man who has studied a subject is on that subject the intellect-
ual superior of the man who has not." — Earl Lyt 'ton.
The interests of the stock raiser are in many respects
identical with those of the farmer. Indeed, most farmers
arc stock raisers, and most stock raisers are by necessity
also farmers. Hence, the references and readings indi-
cated in this chapter are intended for the help and guid-
ance both of farmers and stock raisers, and of all readers
of the Britannica who are in any way engaged in the
breeding or care of domestic animals.
The chapter on stock-raising in the United States, sup.
96, gives much valuable information that is strictly up to
date. So also does the paragraph on farm animals in the
United States, sup. 2989.
Read the article Breeds and Breeding, IV. 244; then
see what is said of the breeding of animals, I. 389, 393,
and XXI. 722.
The article on the HORSE, XII. 172, is a comprehensive
one, of great value to every horse-owner. This
The is supplemented by some later facts in the arti-
Horse. cle on Agriculture in the United States, sup.
89-101, and by further information regarding
the breeding and rearing of horses, I. 384.
252 (iUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
An interesting article on horse-racing in the United
States maybe found in sup. 1615-1617. After this, see
Trotting and Pacing, sup. 2948.
For the Arabian horse, see II. 240.
For the Persian, XVIII. 625.
For the Clydesdale, XIV. 251.
Trotting records, sup. 2948.
Famous trotters and pacers, sup. 2949.
For the diseases of horses, see XXIV. 201, 204.
The art of horse-shoeing is described in XXI. 831 and
XVII. 166.
A special article on CATTLE, V. 244, is interesting for
its historical information. The chapter on
Bovida.% XV. 4^2, has a strictly scientific value.
Cattle .
The breeding of cattle is discussed in I.
387.
For the diseases of cattle, sup. 97, XVII. 57, XXIV.
204, and I. 304, and V. 589. See also Fardel-bound,
sup. 1244; Foot-rot, sup. 1304; Founder, sup. 1320.
The dairyman will read of the management of milch
cows, I. 390. He will be especially interested in the long-
article on the DAIRY, VI. 768 ; in the chapter on Dairy
Products in the United States, sup. 98; in the article on
Milk, XVI. 301; Beestings, sup. 402; Butter, IV. 590;
and Cheese, V. 455. He will also read what is said of the
freshness and purity of milk, and the directions for its
treatment in the dairy, XIV. 304. Within recent years
the methods of making butter have undergone radical
changes, and these methods are described in sup. 638.
See, also, artificial butter, sup. 639.
American process of making cheese, sup. 763.
The influence of cattle-shows, I. 390, is another subject
which will claim the cattle-breeder's attention.
One of the chief objects of the stock raiser is to pro-
Tin STOi k GR( >WER. 253
vide beeves, hogs, or sheep for the great markets, where
they are slaughtered and turned into food products. This
latter process does not necessarily interest the stock raiser ;
it concerns rather the butcher and the dealer in dressed
meats, and to these it maybe a matter of moment to learn
how every portion of a slaughtered animal may be made
to realize some profit. The latest improved
The methods of slaughtering beeves and preparing
Butcher, the various parts for market are fully described
in an article on ECONOMICAL System of
ABATTOIRS, sup. 11. A further and more complete ac-
count of the processes connected with the manufacture of
flesh-food products is given in the article Packing, sup.
2278.
The article on SlIEEP, XXI, 784, is one of much value
to all who have the care of these animals. The
breeding and management of sheep are further
Sheep. ,
discussed in I. 391, and IV. 250. The question
as to what are the best foods in wool-culture is
discussed in sup. 3189.
For Southdowns, see XXII. 725.
For Merinos, XXII. 300.
For Dorsets, VII. 371.
The diseases of sheep are described in XXIV. 204, and
XXIII. 539; Murrain, XVII. 59.
The proper method of shearing is described in I. 396.
And in this connection the article on WOOL, XXIV.
653, should be read, together with the supplementary ar-
ticle on American manufactures of wool, sup. 3189.
The American wool-grower will also be interested in
what is said of wool-growing in Australia, III. 114. (See
also, the references to Textile Products in the chapter
entitled The Manufacturer, in this GUIDE.
Hogs are treated historically and scientifically in the
254 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
article on Swine, XXII. Jji, and notes concerning their
breeding and management are given in I. 400.
For the history of hog-raising in the United
States during the past ten years, see the chapter
on that subject, sup. 97.
Their diseases are described in XXIV. 205, 206, and
XVIII. 270.
Poultry is the subject of a valuable article, XIX. 640,
wherein the various breeds of fowls are described at
length. This is supplemented by an article on Fowls,
IX. 491.
The management of poultry receives special
attention in I. 401.
Poultry. „ . . . ,
borne interesting tacts about eggs are given
in VII. 201, and VII. 696; and the latest fig-
ures about their production in sup. 99.
The goose is noticed in a special article, X. y/j, and
the duck in VII. 505 ; while the turkey is described at
length in XXIII. 657.
Of course the question of foods and feeding is one in
which the stock raiser and the farmer are always interested.
The subject of pastures and pasturage is intelligently
discussed in I. 370, and I. 402, and is worthy of the care-
ful attention of every stock raiser.
Some account of American grass crops for pasturage
is given in XI. 53-60, and the cultivation of
American grasses is the subject of an article in
Pasturage. T
sup. I. 305.
The latest facts relating to the production of
forage crops in this country are given in sup. 94, and sup.
I305-
For the culture of Hay, see I. 378.
The various grains, vegetables, etc., used in feeding
I in STOCK GROWER.
'55
domestic animals have already been referred to in our
chapter for The Farmer.
Other domestic animals, not mentioned in this chapter,
are treated of, each in its proper place. But the care of
them cannot properly be said to belong exclusively to the
stock raiser or the tanner. (See the Index volume.)
256 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
THE MINER.
" Excellence is never granted to man but as the reward of labor."
— Sir Joshua Reynolds.
MINING, or the process by which useful minerals are
obtained from the earth's crust, is treated with great ful-
ness in the Britannica. The special article on this subject,
XVI. 440-472, is a valuable treatise, amply
illustrated with cuts and diagrams, and replete
Mining. . . . ° it 1
with interesting information tor all who are
engaged in this branch of industry. It may be
read by sections, in connection with collateral references
to other articles relating to the different branches of the
subject.
1. Manner in which the useful minerals occur in the
earth's crust, viz., tabular deposits and masses, faults, or
dislocations, XVI. 440-442.
2. Prospecting, or search for minerals, XVI. 442-443.
3. Boring with rods and ropes — diamond drills, XVI.
443-444; Quarrying machinery, sup. 2481.
4. Breaking ground — Tools employed —
Mining Blasting — Machine drills — Driving levels and
Processes, sinking shafts, XVI. 444-449. See, also, Blast-
ing, III. 808; XXIII. 662.
5. Employment of labor, XVI. 449.
6. Securing excavations by timber, iron, or masonry,
XVI. 449-451.
I in: MINER. 257
7. Working away of veins, beds, and masses, XVI.
451 455-
8. Carriage of minerals along underground roads,
XVI. 455-456.
9. Raising minerals to the surface, XVI. 456-457.
10. Drainage of mines, XVI. 457-459.
11. Ventilation and lighting of mines, XVI. 459-461.
12. Means of descending and ascending, XVI. 461-
462. Safety appliances, sup. 2600.
13. Preparation of ores, XVI. 462-467.
14. Laws relating to mining, XVI. 466.
15. Accidents in mines, XVI. 466-467.
For a general description of the methods of coal-mining
in the United States, see sup. 841.
For statistics respecting the product of the world's min-
ing, and especially the mineral products of
Mineral the United States, see XVI. 469.
Products. For a special account and description of the
minerals of any particular country, see the ar-
ticle relating to that country ; for instance, if you wish to
know what minerals are produced in India, see under IN-
DIA, XII. 764 a. Also note such references as the fol-
lowing :
Minerals of the Appalachian Mountains, II. 201.
Gold and silver in Bolivia, IV. 13.
Minerals in Borneo, IV. 57.
Minerals in Burmah, IV. 552.
Gold in California, IV. 701.
Minerals in Arabia, II. 244.
Minerals in Australia. III. 109.
Minerals in Cuba, VI. 680.
And hundreds of others of like character.
For interesting historical notes on the discovery and
use of certain metals, see Metals, XVI. 6^.
17
258 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Special articles are devoted to all the great minerals, as
follows :
COAL, VI. 45-85 ; classification of coal, VI. 45 ; origin
of, VI. 47 ; X. 238 ; anthracite coal of the Unit-
The Great ed States, II. 106, and XXIII. 811 ; coal-mm-
Minerals. ing, VI. 61 (see Coalfields, in Index volume,
XXV. 103) ; analysis of coal, VI. 80 ; area of
coalfields in the United States, I. 680.
GOLD, X. 740 ; gold-mining, X. 745, and IV. 791 ; gold
in the United States, XXIII. 811, 814, and sup. 1416 ; gold
mines of America, I. 716; Cripple Creek mines, sup. 943.
SILVER, XXII. 69; description of silver, XVI. 382;
silver and silver-mining, sup. 2719; how silver is mined,
XVI. 470. See, also, Metallurgy, XVI. 58 ; and Assaying,
II. 724.
IRON, XIII. 278 ; ores of iron, XVI. 58 ; iron-mining in
the United States, XXIII. 811; rolling-mill product of
iron, XX. 1352 ; iron industry in the United States,
XXIII. 813; strength of iron, XXII. 603; sup. 1694.
(See also Index volume, page 226.)
COPPER, VI. 347; copper-mining, XVI. 452; copper-
mining in the United States, sup. 912; production in
the United States, XXIII. 816; in Michigan, XVI. 239;
copper pyrites, XX. 129; copper-smelting, XXII. 733.
Lead, XIV. 374; production of lead in the United
States, XXIII. 817; in Missouri, XVI. 525 ; lead-mining,
XVI. 465 ; description of lead ores, XVI. 383.
ZlNC, XXIV. 784; production of zinc in the United
States, XXIII. 817; treatment of zinc ores, XVI. 465.
TIN, XXIII. 400; ores of, XVI. 58 ; production in the
United States, XXIII. 816; history of mines in Corn-
wall, VI. 425.
Quicksilver, mines and reduction works in the Unit-
ed States, sup. 2990.
THE MINER. 259
Read, finally, the article on Metallurgy, XVI. 57-62,
describing the methods used industrially for the extraction
of metals from their ores. See also :
Amalgamation of gold, X. 747 ; of silver, XXII. 69;
mercurial amalgam, I. 652.
Blast furnace, IX. 840.
Assaying, II. 724.
Table of fusibility of metals, XVI. 66.
See the two chapters, entitled respectively, The Mine-
ralogist and The Geologist.
260 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE GEOLOGIST.
"Sermons in stones, and good in everything."
— As You Like It.
The practical importance of the work of the geologist
is now very generally recognized. It is his to investigate
not only the manner in which the evolution of the earth's
great surface features has been effected, but, by studying
the peculiarities of local formations, to discover what im-
portant minerals are probably concealed within the earth's
crust in given situations ; what is the nature of the soil,
and, in general, what are the hidden mineral resources of
the country. The general article on GEOLOGY, X. 212-
375, by the celebrated Archibald Geikie, is a very com-
plete and excellent introduction to the study of this science.
It is amply illustrated, and the special index, on page 375,
will assist the busy inquirer in finding the answer to almost
any question on this subject that may be suggested.
An article of much practical interest to American read-
ers is that on the GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED
States, sup. 2832.
The cosmical aspect of geology, X. 213-220, may be
studied still further by reference to the article Cosmogony,
VI. 446. For additional curious hypotheses concerning
the origin of the earth, see I. 460 ; III. 193; XVII. 143;
and XXII. 564.
Dynamical geology, especially that portion of the sub-
ject which seeks to unravel the complicated pro-
Dvnamical , ... . . ...
tieolopv cesses by which each continent lias been built
up, is further treated under the head of PHYSI-
CAL Geography, X. 210. See also:
THE GEO! OGIST. 261
Mountains, XVII. 4, 10, and I. 623.
Volcanoes, X. 240.
Earthquakes, VII. 608 (Index volume, page 141).
Rivers, XX. 571.
Lakes, XIV. J 1 6.
Palaeontological geology, or the study of organic forms
found in the crust of the earth, is the subject of an inter-
esting chapter, X. 319-325. The subject is treated still
further in the following articles :
Distribution, VII. 267.
Palaeontol- Birds, III. 72S (see special index, III. 777).
ogy. Ichthyology, XII. 666; I. 275.
Ichthyosaurus, XII. 695.
Mammalia, XV. 375 (see special index, XV. 446).
Mammoth, XV. 447.
Fossils of America, I. 682. Fossil footprints, sup. 13 17.
Oldest known fossils, IX. 384.
Stratigraphical geology is treated very fully in Volume
X., pages 325-3/O.
Archaean rocks, or formation, X. 327.
Palaeozoic, X. 328.
Secondary, or Mesozoic, X. 352.
Tertiary, or Cainozoic, X. 360.
Post-Tertiary, or Quarternary, X. 360.
A further study of these subjects will involve references
to the following topics :
Coal, VI. 45.
Coalfields and coal-mines (see Index volume, page 103).
Coalfields of America, sup. 482.
Practical Caves, V. 265.
Geology. Glaciers (see Index volume, page 183).
Artesian wells, II. 644; sup. ■ 1.
Petroleum, XVIII. 237, 712.
Natural gas, XXIII. 813.
262 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Many other articles which will suggest themselves to the
reader as he pursues this study may be found by reference
to the Index volume.
In studying the history of the science of Geology, you
will find the names of a few distinguished men to whose
labors and investigations we are indebted for the greater
part of our knowledge concerning this subject. It may be
of some interest to you to read the story of their lives.
Among these, the following are especially noteworthy:
Sir Charles Lyell, XVI. 101.
Hugh Miller, XVI. 319.
William Buckland, IV. 420.
Geologists. Sjr Roderick Murchison> XVII. 50.
John Phillips, XVIII. 758.
William Smith, XXII. 178.
Alexander Winchell, sup. 3165.
Sir J. William Dawson, sup. 1000.
Joseph Le Conte, sup. 1852.
Jules Marcou, sup. 1990.
John S. Newberry, sup. 2168.
Sir A. C. Ramsay, sup. 2508.
Sir Archibald Gerkie, sup. 1375.
James Dwight Dana, sup. 983.
Louis Agassiz, I. 274.
Alexander Agassiz, sup. 83.
111K SEAMAN. 263
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE SEAMAN.
" But a great hook that comes from a great thinker — it is a ship of
thought, deep freighted with truth, with beauty, too." — Theodore Parker.
I. SHIPBUILDING.
The subject of greatest importance to all navigators is
ships. The history of shipbuilding, from the first rude
efforts of primitive man to the wonderful
History achievements of the present time, is a topic full
Shi s °^ mtercst to both seamen and landsmen. In
the twenty-first volume of the Encyclopcedia
Britannica, page 804, there is a readable and very enter-
taining article on the development of the ship and of the
art of navigation, particularly in ancient and mediaeval
times. The ships of the Phoenicians, the first race of sea-
faring men, are further described in XVIII. 804. The
ships used by the Greeks in the time of Homer, and also
the war vessels, biremes and triremes, used in the earli-
est sea fights, are noticed at considerable length in the
pages which follow. Mediaeval merchant vessels are de-
scribed on page 808.
The very exhaustive article on SHIPBUILDING, XXL-
809-826, contains much information of general interest.
Read the introductory paragraphs, page 809, the descrip-
tion of the " Great Western " and the "Great Eastern.'*
page 815, the paragraphs on Propulsion, pages 822, 823;
and the section on Boatbuilding, page 825.
264 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Primitive boat of wicker-work, III. 421.
Whaleboat, XXIV. 526.
Boats. Boatbuilding, XXI. 825.
Rowing, XXI. 29.
Life-boat, XIV. 570.
Canoes, IV. 811.
Catamarans, sup. 722.
Yachts and yachting, XXIV. 722.
Yacht-building, sup. 3215.
Steamboat, XXII. 478.
Ships, etc. _ ..
Steamships, XXI. 823; III. 542; sup. 2781.
Whaleback steamers, sup. 3133.
Marine engines, sup. 1992.
The Campania and Lucania, sup. 2782.
The Great Eastern, IV. 397; XXI. 815.
The Great Western, IV. 397.
The Great Harry, XVII. 281.
Oars, XXI. 30 ; ancient oars, XXI. 807.
Rowing, sup. 2584.
Sails and sail-making, XXI. 153.
Mast, IV. 477.
Spars and rigging, XXI. 594.
Rudder and helm, XXI. 602.
Cable, IV. 621.
Nautical Capstan, V. 28.
Subjects. Anchor, II. 3.
Mariner's compass, VI. 225 ; XV. 518.
Sextant, XXI. 724.
Sailors' knots, XIV. 128.
Bends and splices, XXI. 592.
Log, XIV. 769.
Speed recorder, sup. 2764.
Marine glue, sup. 141 2.
THE SEAMAN. 26 =
II. \ WM.ATION.
The article on X \vn; \ HON, or the art of conducting i
ship across the ocean, XVII. 250-277, next claims our at-
tention. The first half of this article contains a good deal
of valuable historical information. The latter half is more
technical and scientific, and is an exhibition of the theory
and art of practical or modern navigation. A popular
course of reading would include the following articles or
parts of articles:
Dockyards, VII. 310; wharves, sup. 3133.
Clearance, sup. 826.
Sounding, XXII. 49.
Buoys, IV. 530.
United States buoy service, sup. 623.
Naval signals, XXII. 49 ; sup. 2716.
" Law of the road " at sea, sup. 2556.
Fog signals, sup. 1296, 2556.
Search-light, sup. 2670.
Lighthouses, XIV. 615.
Lighthouse Board, sup. 1885.
Life-saving service in the United States, sup.
Sea 1382.
Terms. Latitude, X. 198; XVII. 251.
Longitude, XXIII. 394; X. 187, 198.
Tides, XXIII. 353.
Ocean currents, X. 283; XVII. 275.
Gulf Stream, III. 19.
Trade-winds, XVI. 143.
Derelicts, sup. 1031.
Log, XIV. 769.
Marine league, sup. 1996.
Harbors and docks, sup. 1520; harbors, XI. 471.
Law of ports, XI. 471 ; free ports, sup. 1337.
266 GUIDE TO THE BRITANMCA.
Bottomry, IV. 167.
Tonnage, XXIII. 442.
Salvage, XXI. 237.
Marine insurance in the United States, sup. 1995.
Marine hospital service, sup. 1994.
Captain, XVII. 292.
Boatswain, XVII. 293.
Pilot, XIX. 96.
Steamship, XXI. 589-605. This article embraces a
great variety of information relative to the duties and
labors of a seaman ; how to make knots, bends,
Seaman- and splices, page 592 ; how to distinguish and
ship. name the spars and rigging of different kinds
of vessels, page 594; how to lower rigging and
set up stays, page 595 ; how to cast anchor, page 597 ; all
about mooring swivels, anchors, and cables, page 598, etc.
At the end of the article, page 603, there is a complete
glossary of terms used by seamen.
Laws relating to seamen, XXI. 605-608.
Shipping laws, sup. 2707.
International Commission for deep waterways, sup. 3103.
Commerce on the great waterways — see the chapter
entitled The Merchant and Trader.
III. SEA industries.
Sea fisheries, IX. 243.
Whale fisheries, XXIV. 526; whale-oil, XVII. 744:
whalebone, XXIV. 528; XV. 394.
Seal fisheries, XXI. 580; sealskins, IX. 839; extermina-
tion of seals, XIX. -126; sup. 428.
Fisheries. Coral fisheries, XXI. 387; XIII. 455.
Sponge fisheries, XXII. 428.
Amber deposits in Baltic Sea, I. 659.
THE SEAMAN. 267
Oyster fisheries, XVIII. 107.
Pear] oysters, Will. 446.
id fisheries, VI. 103; off Newfoundland, XVII. 384:
in North Sea, IX. 255.
Mackerel fisheries, XV. 1 60.
Herring fisheries, IX. 251, 257.
Sardine fisheries, IX. 253; XIII. 455.
Salmon fisheries, XXI. 225.
Shad fishery, XXI. 726; XII. 694.
Lake fishing, II. 39.
Fishing-boats, IX. 246.
Fishing-nets, XVII. 358.
Fishery Boards and Commissions, XIX. 129.
Laws relating to fishermen, XXI. 607.
Fishery laws, IX. 268.
Fisheries of the United States, XV. 300.
Fisheries of Newfoundland, XVII. 384.
Fisheries of England, VIII. 233.
Fisheries of Canada, IV. 774.
Fisheries of Russia, XXI. 85.
IV. WONDERS OF THE SEA.
Depths of the sea, III. 17 ; XII. 821.
Deep-sea sounding, XXII. 280.
Waves, XXIV. 419.
Descrip- Tides, XXIII. 353.
tion. Animals in the sea, VII. 276.
Color of the sea, XIV. 600.
General description of the sea, XXI. 578.
268 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Sea-anemones, I. 129.
Sea-bear, XV. 443.
Sea-cat, XXI. 614.
curiosi- Sea-cow, XV. 390.
ties. Sea-cucumber, III. 477.
Sea-devil, VII. 138.
Sea-eagle, VII. 589.
Sea-elephant, XV. 444.
Sea-hare, XVI. 656.
Sea-hedgehog, X. 685.
Sea-horse, XXI. 579.
Sea-leopard, XV. 443,
Sea-lion, XV. 443.
Sea-otter, XVIII. 69.
Sea-parrot, XX. 101.
Sea-pens, I. 129.
Sea-pie, XVIII. 1 1 1.
Sea-serpent, XXI. 608.
Sea-slugs, VII. 639.
Sea-snakes, XXII. 197.
Sea-swallow, XXIII. 189.
Sea-trout, XXI. 222.
Sea-unicorn, XV. 3.98.
Sea-urchins, VII. 629.
Sea-wolf, XXI. 614.
V. MARINE WARFARE.
History of modern navies, XVII. 279.
The navy of the United States, sup. 2 145-2 153.
Navy yards, sup. 2150.
Naval Academy of the United States, sup.
The Navy. y j
2142 ; XVII. 300, 301.
Naval Observatory, sup. 2143.
Navy Department of the United States, sup. 2153.
THE SEAMAN. 269
Ironclads, XVII. 284-288.
Ironclad cruisers, sup. 2149.
Armored ships of the United States, sup. 21 51.
The Massachusetts, sup. 2146.
The Kearsarge, sup. 1775, 2148.
Torpedo-boats, sup. 1994, 2817.
Torpedoes, sup. 2929.
Submarine boats, sup. 2816.
Turret ships, XVII. 285.
Marines, XV. 544.
Naval Reserves, or Naval Militia, sup. 2144.
Naval lieutenant, XVII. 293.
Captain, XVII. 292.
Commodore, XVII. 292.
Vice-admiral, I. 159.
Admiral, I. 154.
Embargo, sup. n 86.
Blockade, III. 834.
Privateering, XIX. 764.
Piracy, XIX. 116.
Hovering acts, sup. 1622.
Maritime law, XXI. 583.
Right of search, XXI. 608.
VI. MISCELLANEOUS.
Boat-races, sup. 2584.
Dredges and dredging, sup. 2782.
For further references relating to ships, canals, and
commerce, see the chapter entitled The Merchant and
Trader.
270 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XL.
THE RAILROAD MAN.
" What Mr. Robert Stephenson recently said of the locomotive, at a
meeting of engineers at Newcastle, is true of nearly every other capital
invention : ' It is due,' he said, ' not to one man, but to the efforts of a
nation of mechanical engineers.' " — Samuel Smiles.
I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RAILWAY.
NOT only railroad men, but all intelligent readers, will
be interested in the story of how the modern railway has
been developed from the old tramways of two
hundred years ago — a story which is briefly but
Railway. entertainingly told in the twentieth volume of
the Britannica, beginning on page 223.
Other interesting facts relative to the development of
the railroad maybe learned from the following references :
George Stephenson, XXII. 537.
Isambard Kingdom Brunei, IV. 396.
Development of railroads in the United States, sup.
2501; XX. 253.
Latest facts concerning railroads in the United States,
sup. 2490.
Railroad pooling, sup. 2497.
Railroad financiering, sup. 2504.
Laws relating to railways, XX. 250.
Law of abandonment, I. 5.
Use of railways in time of war, XXIV. 349.
Railways and agriculture, I. 305.
THE RAILROAD MAN. 271
II. ROADS AND DklDGES.
Railway construction, XX. 232.
Kails, XX. 241.
Steel rails, sup. -493.
resting railway rails, XIII. 354.
Railway stations, XX. 235.
Railway bridges, IV. 285.
.Mountain railways, sup. 21 19.
Pacific railways, I. 715; sup. 2275, 2492.
Bicycle railways, sup. 460.
Street railways, sup. 21 15.
Electric railways, XXIII. 494, 508.
Trolley railways in the United States, sup. 2945.
Tramways, XXIII. 506; early tramroads, XX. 223.
Cable roads, sup. 644.
Elevated street railroads, sup. 2500; XX. 240.
Atmospheric railways, III. 36.
Switches, XX. 237.
Switch mechanism, sup. 2839.
Locking mechanism for railroad switches, sup. 1904.
Railroad frog, sup. 1345.
The block system of railroad signals, sup. 500.
III. ENGINES AND ROLLING-STOCK.
Locomotives, XX. 244; XXII. 520.
Latest improvements in locomotives, sup. 1905,
Mogul engines, sup. 2493.
Mathias W. Baldwin, sup. 325.
Traction engines, XXII. 522.
Traction on railroads, XX. 246.
Electricity as a motor, sup. 2499. (See also references
in the chapter entitled The Electrician.)
Application of electricity, XX. 250.
272 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Electric cars, sup. 695.
Railroad carriages and cars, XX. 247.
Latest improvements in passenger cars, sup. 2494.
George M. Pullman, sup. 2477.
Freight cars, sup. 2495.
Railroad speed, sup. 2496.
Speed recorder, sup. 2764.
Safety appliances, sup. 2495.
The Westinghouse brake, XX. 249.
Railway brakes, XX. 240.
Standard air brake, sup. 547.
Snow-plows, sup. 2741.
American Railway Union, sup. 1005, 18 17.
John Henry Devereaux, sup. 1036.
Eugene V. Debs, sup. 1005.
See, also, the chapters in this volume entitled The In-
ventor, The Engineer, The Machinist, and The Mechanic.
THE SOLDIER. 273
CHAPTER XLI.
THE SOLDIER.
" In books warlike affairs are methodized ; the rights of peace pro-
ceed from books." — Richard de Bury.
I. WAR
AMONG the many articles in the Britannica which are of
especial interest to the soldier, perhaps there is none of
greater practical value than that on War, XX I Y.
343-366. This is, in short, a comprehensive
treatise on the effective organization and em-
ployment of armies in active warfare. To offi-
cers in the military service its importance will be at once
apparent. The first section of the article is of an historical
character, and will appeal to the interest of the non-mili-
tary reader as well as to that of the soldier. Other sec-
tions relate to strategy, page 349 ; infantry tactics, page
354 ; cavalry tactics, page 358 ; and artillery tactics, page 359.
It concludes with a special chapter on naval strategy and
tactics, page 363. See Declaration of War, sup. 101 1 ; and
War Department, sup. 3079.
II. ARMIES.
The article Army, II. 559-619, is of no less interest.
The history of the armies of ancient and mediaeval times,
which occupies the first four pages, is of im-
The Army, portance to every student. This is followed by
other historical sections equally valuable — as,
Modern armies, page 563 ; the British army, page 568.
18
274
GUIDE TO THE BRITAXXICA.
After this, the great armies of the world are each described
in a separate chapter :
British arm}', II. 572; its present condition, sup. 1450.
German army, II. 593; " " " 1387.
French army, II. 600; " " " 1324.
Austrian army, II. 604; " " " 294.
Russian army, II. 608; " " " 2592.
Italian army, II. 612 ; " " " 1719.
Army of modern Greece, sup. 1458.
Other European armies, II. 614.
Army of the United States, II. 619, with a supplemen-
tary article giving the latest statistics, sup. 238.
Army regulations, II. 147; sup. 241.
III. ARMS AND ARMOR.
Arms and armor (an historical article with illustrations),
II. 553-558.
History of the sword, XXII. 800.
Bows and arrows, II. 371.
Gunnery, XI. 297-315, and sup. 1493.
Gun-making, XI. 278-296.
Machine-guns, sup. 148 1.
Great Improvements in military rifles, sup. 1482.
Guns. Rapid-firing guns, sup. 1481.
Small-calibre rifles, sup. 1485.
Heavy ordnance, sup. 1485.
Service guns of the United States, sup. 1490.
The Rodman guns, sup. 2564.
The Krupp guns, sup. 1808.
The Maxim guns, sup. 2018.
Dynamite gun, sup. 1102.
Gatling gun, sup. 1373.
Chassepot gun, sup. 759.
Improvements in gunpowders, sup. 1494.
THE SOLDIER. 275
Arsenals, sup. 248 ; II. 632.
Velocity of projectiles, sup. 1493.
t rreek fire, X I. 159.
Ammunition, I. 744.
The range-finder, sup. 2509.
IV. THE PROFESSION OF ARMS.
Roman equitcs, VIII. 509.
Feudal military service, XIV. 114.
Knighthood, XIV. no.
Gentlemen-at-arms, sup. 1379.
Gendarmerie, X. 142.
' Condottiere, VI. 256.
Military Chasseurs, sup. 759.
Companies. Cuirassiers, sup. 962.
Militia, sup. 2064.
The signal service, sup. 2715.
Coast-guard, sup. 847, 2510.
The Black watch, sup. 487.
Aldershot Camp, I. 474.
Enlistment, VIII. 446.
Military costumes, VI. 477.
Barracks, III. 390.
Military Desertion, sup. 1034.
Law, etc. Military law, XVI. 295.
Martial law, sup. 2002.
Military academy of the United States, sup. 20
Military colleges and schools, sup. 2063.
Legion of Honor, XIV. 417.
Grand Army of the Republic, sup. 1438.
Pensions, sup. 2344.
Soldiers' Homes, sup. 2742.
276 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
x
V. IN ACTIVE SERVICE.
Militia, XVI. 299.
Infantry, II. 580.
Cavalry, V. 261.
Artillery, II. 655; American artillery, sup. 255.
Battery, III. 443.
Battle, III. 443-445-
Bombardment, sup. 514.
Battle. l D
Escalade, sup. 12 15.
Fortification, IX. 421-468.
Blockhouse, sup. 500.
Pontoon, XIX. 456.
Ambulance, I. 665.
Forage, sup. 1304.
Armistice, II. 552.
Blockade, Law of, sup. 499.
VI. FORTY WARS.
Trojan War (b. C. 1 193), XX. 637.
Peloponnesian War, XI. 102 ; XVIII. 533.
Persian War (B.C. 490), VI. 825, 827.
Wars of Alexander (b. c. 336-332), I. 480.
The Punic Wars (b. c. 264-149), V. 161.
War between Caesar and Pompey (b. c. 48), IV. 6^S.
Mohammed's Wars (a. d. 623-629), XVI. 546.
Charlemagne's War (a. d. 775-800), V. 402 ; XIII. 468 ;
XXI. 351.
Danish Invasions of England (835-905), I. 506.
Wars of Jenghis Khan, thirteenth century, XVI. 565.
The Crusades, 1 190-1250, VI. 622.
The Hundred Years' War, IX. 545.
King Edward's War with Scotland, XX. 592.
War of the Roses (1455-1471), VIII. 327-329.
The Spanish War (Spanish Armada) 1588, II. 543.
THE SOLDIER. -77
The Thirty Wars' War (1618-1648), IX. 568.
Wars of Cromwell (1642 1057), VI. 597.
The English Revolution of 1688, VIII. 351.
War of the Spanish Succession (1704-1708), III. 126.
The Sects' Rebellion (1745-1746), V. 426.
Seven Wars' War (1756-1763), III. 127.
American Revolution (1775-1783), VIII. 357; XXIII.
741.
French Revolution (1 792-1 798), IX. 596.
Wars of Napoleon (1798-1815), XVII. 192.
War of 1812 (1812-1815), XXIII. 757.
Greek War for Independence, XL 102.
Black Hawk War (1832), XXIII. 763.
Seminole War (1835-1842), XXIII. 759.
The Irish Rebellion (1798), III. 271.
Mexican War (1846- 1848), XXIII. 766.
Russo-Turkish war (1 853—185 5), IX. 623.
. Indian Mutiny (1857-1859), II. 591.
Italian War (1859), XIII. 490.
American Civil War (1861-1865), XXIII. 772-784.
Prussia's War against Denmark, X. 502.
Austro-Prussian War (1866), X. 503.
Franco-German War (1870), X. 512.
Italian War for Unification, XIII. 466.
Chilian War (1891), sup. 789.
Corean War (1895), sup. 917.
The Armenian Massacres of 1896, sup. 2961.
VII. FIFTY FAMOUS BATTLES.
Marathon (b. C. 490), XL 99.
Thermopylae (b. C. 480), XL 100.
Salamis (b. c. 480), XXI. 205 ; XL 100.
Cunaxa (b. c. 401), VI. 753.
Arbela (b. c. 331), I. 482.
■8 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Caudine Forks (b. C. 321), XX. 742.
Drepanum (b. c. 249), XXIII. 522.
Philippi (B. c. 42), XVIII. 746.
Great Actium (B. C 3 1.), I. 4*8.
Battles. Siege of Jerusalem (a. d. 70), XIII. 428.
Adrianople (a. D. 378), XXIV. 36.
Chalons-sur-Marne (a. d. 451), V. 378.
Soissons (a. d. 486), IX. 528.
Tours (732), V. 428.
Roncesvalles (778), XX. 626.
Dunsinane (1054), XVIII. 667.
Hastings (1066), VIII. 291 ; XXII. 725.
Evesham (1265), XVI. 788.
Bannockburn (13 14), VII. 683.
Cressy (1346), VII. 686.
Poitiers (1356), VII. 686.
Sempach (1386), XV. 40; XXII. 784.
Otterburn (1388), XXI. 490.
Agincourt (141 5), I. 282.
Flodden Field (15 15), XIII. 557.
Ivry (1590), IX. 564.
Naseby (1645), VI. 599.
Worcester (165 1), VI. 601.
Boyne (1690), XIII. 268.
Blenheim (1704), III. 126.
Pultowa (1709), V. 421.
Culloden (1746), VI. 696.
Quebec (1759), IX. 590; XXIV. 630.
Lexington (1775), XXIII. 740.
Bunker Hill (1775), XXIII. 740.
Saratoga (1777), XXIII. 744.
Yorktown (1781), VI. 428 ; XXIII. 745.
Hohenlinden (1800), III. 132.
Austerlitz (1805), III. 132,444.
THE SOLDIER. 279
Jena (1806), XVII. 210.
Waterloo (1815), III. 442.
Vera Cruz (1847), XXIV. 162.
Balaklava (1855), VI. 587.
Siege of Lucknow (1857), XII. 810.
Solferino (1859), HI- !39: IX. 524.
Bull Run (l86l), XXIII. 775, 777 \ sup. 617.
Vicksburg (1863), XXIII. 778, 780.
Gettysburg (1863), III. 444; sup. 1390.
Sadowa (1866), XIV. 138.
Gravelotte (1870), sup. 1447.
Sedan (1870), IX. 627.
VIII. BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR.
Antietam (Sept. 16-17, 1862), sup. 197.
Ball's Bluff (1861), XXIII. 776.
Bull Run (July 21, 1861, and Aug. 29, 1862), sup. 617.
Chancellorsville (May 2-3, 1863), XXIII. 780.
Chickamauga (Sept. 18-20, 1863), sup. 785.
Chattanooga (Nov. 23-25, 1863), sup. 761.
Corinth (Oct. 4, 1862), XXIII. 779.
Fort Donelson (Feb. 13-16, 1862), sup. 1065.
Fair Oaks (May 31, 1862), sup. 1239.
Five Forks (April 1, 1865), sup. 1284.
Franklin (Nov. 30. 1864), sup. 1329.
Fredericksburg (Dec. 13, 1862), sup. 1334.
Gaines Mill (June 27. 1862), sup. 1357.
Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), sup. 1390.
Malvern Hill (July 1, 1862). sup. 1977.
Pittsburg Landing (April 6-7, 1862), sup. 2397.
Spottsylvania Court House (May 7-12, 1864), sup. 2770.
Siege of Vicksburg, (May 22-July 4, 1863), sup. 3040.
Surrender of Vicksburg (July 4, 1863), XXIII. 780.
The Wilderness Campaign (1864), sup. 31 51.
280 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
IX. SEA FIGHTS.
Spanish Armada (1588), II. 543.
Battle of the Nile (1798), VIII. 363.
Battle of Trafalgar (1805), VI. 146; XVII. 343.
Monitor and Merrimac (1862), XXIII. jjj.
X. TWENTY-SIX GREAT SOLDIERS.
Cyrus the Great, VI. 752.
Alexander the Great, I. 480.
Hannibal, XI. 441.
Scipio Africanus, XXI. 467.
Julius Caesar, IV. 632.
Charlemagne, V. 402.
William the Conqueror, XXIV. 574.
Robert Bruce, XX. 592.
The Black Prince, VII. 686.
Earl Warwick, XXIV. 381.
Oliver Cromwell, VI. 597.
Gustavus Adolphus, XI. 333.
Peter the Great, XVIII. 698.
Frederick the Great, IX. 735.
Marlborough, XV. 553.
General Washington, XXIV. 387.
Napoleon Bonaparte (see Index volume).
The Duke of Wellington, XXIV. 493.
Ulysses S. Grant, sup. 1442.
Robert E. Lee, XIV. 399.
Count von Moltke, sup. 2088.
" Chinese Gordon," sup. 1425.
Lord Roberts, of Kandahar, sup. 2558.
Lord Wolseley, sup. 3180.
"Stonewall" Jackson, XIII. 534.
William T. Sherman, sup. 2705.
THE AMKRICAN CITIZEN. 28l
CHAPTER XLIL
THE AMERICAN CITIZEN.
" The worth of a State in the long run is the worth of the individuals
composing it." — John Stuart Mill.
It is proposed in this chapter to indicate a few of the
leading articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica which re-
late to the science of government, and which arc therefore
of especial interest and value to every citizen who has a
voice in the conduct of public affairs, no less than to stu-
dents, professional politicians, and statesmen.
Let us take as the basis of our studies the Constitution
of the United States, the full text of which is given in the
American Supplements, page 900. Read next the article
Constitution and Constitutional Law, VI. 309, from
which you may derive some idea of the English Constitu-
tion and of the points wherein it differs from our own.
Then the following courses of reading may be taken up,
either independently or in the order in which they are
here mentioned :
I. ON GOVERNMENT IN GENERAL.
GOVERNMENT, XI. 9-21. This is a thoughtful and in-
teresting article (1) on the forms of government, (2) on
the sphere of government. Under the first di-
orms o vision is an account of the three standard forms
Govern- ...
ment °* g°vernment, the monarchy, the aristocracy,
and the republic. Then follow chapters on :
The government of Rome, page it.
282 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Feudalism, page II.
Parliamentary government, page 12.
Cabinet government, page 13.
The relation between government and laws, page 14.
Under the second division the following topics are dis-
cussed :
Judicature, page 15.
State and Church, page 16.
Sphere of The laissez-faire theory, page 17.
Government. Education and labor, page 18.
Federal government, page 20.
Among the numerous shorter articles on special divi-
sions of the subject, the following deserve careful reading :
Patriarchal government, XVIII. 410.
Monarchy, XI. 11; monarchy in ancient
Monarchy. Rome, XX. 732.
Emperor, VIII. 179; empire, VIII. 181.
House of Lords, VIII. 259.
House of Commons, VIII. 260.
Titles of honor, XXIII. 417.
Coronation, VI. 429.
Parliament, XVIII. 302; powers and privileges of par-
liament, page 310.
Parliamentary procedure, XVIII. 311.
Act of Parliament, I. 122.
British Cabinet, IV. 619.
Budget, IV. 439.
Aristocracy. — Nobility, XVII. 524.
The government of Venice, page 527.
Aristocracy, The nobility of England, page 529.
etc. The Polish aristocracy, page 530.
Peerage, XVIII. 458.
Republic, XI. 1 1.
Ancient Roman republic, XX. 735.
i UK AMI kh \\ CITIZEN. 283
French republic, IX. 597.
The republic and socialism, XXI. 221.
Socialism, XXI I. 205.
.Anarchism, sup. 175.
II. HISTORY OF AMERICAN POLITICS.
1 . Foundation Principles :
Declaration of Independence (full text), sup. 1010.
Articles of Confederation (full text), sup. 252.
Constitution of the United States (full text), sup. 900.
2. Political Parties:
Federalist Party, sup. 1253.
Anti-Federal Party, sup. 198.
Democratic Party, sup. 1023 ; XXIII. 755.
Whig Party, sup. 3137.
Free-Soil Part)', sup. 1338.
Anti-Masonic Party, sup. 198.
Political Native American and Know-Nothing Part)-,
Parties. sup. 1 65.
Republican Party, XXIII. 757; sup. 2535.
Greenback Party, sup. 1461, 181S.
People's Party, sup. 2345.
Labor parties, sup. 181 7.
Socialistic Labor Party, sup. 18 19.
Mugwumps, sup. 2123.
Prohibition Party, sup. 2453.
3. Departments of Government.
(1). Executive Department, sup. 1228.
Presidential Elections, sup. 2987.
Powers of the President, XXIII. 750.
Department of State, sup. 2779.
Treasury Department, sup. 2937.
284 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
War Department, sup. 3079.
Department of the Interior, sup. 1686.
The Department of Justice, sup. 1843.
President. Veto, XXIV. 206 ; XXIII. 749.
Casting vote, sup. 720.
List of Presidents, XXIII. 787.
(2). Legislative Department — Congress of the
Congress. United States, sup. 891.
History of Congress, sup. 2984.
Senate and House of Representatives, XXIII. 749.
The franking privilege, sup. 1328.
(3). Judicial Department — Supreme Court of
Supreme the United States, II. 210 ; XIII. 789; sup. 2824.
Court. See the chapter in this Guide entitled The
Latuyer.
4. Citizenship.
Citizenship in the United States, sup. 808.
Immigration into the United States, sup. 1657.
Naturalization, sup. 2140.
Allegiance, I. 580.
Qualifications of voters in the different States, sup. 1131.
Electors, sup. 1 132.
Ballot III. 288; Australian ballot system,
Elections.
sup. 329.
Voting-machine, sup. 3062.
Elections, VIII. 2; election laws in the States, sup.
1 1 3 1 ; primary elections, sup. 2444.
State governments, XXII. 458.
Local governments — the borough, IV. 62 • the town,
XXIII. 731.
Civil rights, sup. 81 1.
Disfranchisement, sup. 1053.
See especially Civics, sup. 809.
THE AMERICAN CITIZEN. 285
5. Relations with other Governments.
Treaties, XXIII. 530.
Alliance, I. 585.
Ambassadors, I. 657; sup. 149.
Ministers, XVI. 472.
Consuls, V. 315.
Diplomacy, VII. 251.
Diplomatic agents, sup. 105 1.
6. Miscellaneous Topics:
Archons (Greek), II. 476.
Exarchs, VIII. 783.
Ephori, VIII. 469.
yEdiles (Roman), I. 180.
Quaestors, XX. 145.
Comitia, VI. 194.
Althing, sup. 144.
Amnesty, I. 746.
Reconstruction, sup. 2518.
Finances of the United States, sup. 1267; national
debts, XII. 889; debt of the United States, sup. 1005;
debts of various countries, sup 1007.
See The Banker and Financier, in this Guide.
Indian affairs of the United States, XII. 822-833; sup.
1665.
7. Important Passages in the Political History of the
United States :
Declaration of Independence, XIII. 614.
Alien and Sedition laws, sup. 126.
Whisky rebellion, sup. 3138.
Monroe Doctrine, sup. 2091.
Dorr's Rebellion, sup. 1068.
Missouri Compromise, XXIII. 761, 772.
286 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Annexation of Texas, XXIII. 202.
Mexican war, XXIII. 767.
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, XXIII. 770.
Slavery in the United States, XXII. 141.
John Brown's raid, IV. 385 ; XI. 490; XXIII. 772.
Civil War, XIV. 659.
Draft riots of 1863, sup. 1075.
Reconstruction, sup. 2518, XXIII. 784-787.
Credit-Mobilier scandal, sup. 939.
Clayton-Bulwer treaty (relating to ship canals), sup. 825.
Chinese Exclusion Act, sup. 792, 2994.
Behring Sea Question, sup. 428, 2994.
The "Crime of 1873," sup. 942.
Electoral Commission of 1877, XXIII. 787; sup. 1132.
The " Force Bill" (Federal Elections bill), sup. 1307.
The Fisheries Question, IX. 268, 269; sup. 1280.
Position regarding Hawaiian independence, sup. 1549.
The Venezuelan Question, sup. 2999.
The National Election in 1896, sup. 3000.
A SHORT COURSE OF READING IN POLITICAL BIOGRAPHY.
Aristides (B.C.), II. 504.
Pericles (B.C.), XVIII. 529.
Cato (B. C. 95), V. 240.
Patriots Robert the Bruce (14th century), XX. 592.
Statesmen. Oliver Cromwell (1 7th century), VI. 597.
Andreas Hofer (18th century), XII. 44.
George Washington (18th century), XXIV. 387.
Simon Bolivar, IV. 7.
Giuseppe Garibaldi, XIII. 487.
Sir Thomas More, XVI. 815.
John Hampden, XI. 428.
Algernon Sidney, XVII. 33.
THE AMERICAN CITIZEN. 287
Lord Bolingbroke, IV. 4.
Lord Chatham, V. 440.
Edmund Burke, XVIII. 538.
George Canning, IV. 809.
William Pitt, XIX. 134.
Sir Robert Peel, XVIII. 452.
Lord Palmerston, XVIII. 193.
Benjamin Disraeli (Earl Beaconsfield), sup. 388.
William E. Gladstone, sup. 1404.
Mirabeau, XVI. 492.
Due de Broglie, IV. 359.
Gambetta, XVIII. 735.
Prince, Bismarck, XXV. 478.
Samuel Adams, I. 143.
Thomas Jefferson, XIII. 613.
De WTitt Clinton, VI. 75.
Albert Gallatin, X. 38.
Andrew Jackson, XIII. 533.
Thomas H. Benton, sup. 423.
Daniel Webster, XXVI. 471.
William Llyod Garrison, X. 85.
Charles Sumner, XXII. 643.
Jefferson Davis, sup. 996.
Abraham Lincoln, XIV. 658.
Charles Francis Adams, sup. 43.
James G. Blaine, sup. 489.
See, also, the chapters in this Guide entitled, respect-
ively, The Public Speaker, The Lawyer, and The Political
Economist.
288 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XLIII.
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE.
" I have done the State some service, and they know it." — Othello.
THE first practical steps toward what is designated as
Civil Service Reform were taken by the United States
Congress in 1853, when it passed an act providing for
competitive examinations as the basis of ap-
Historyof pointment to any place in the four great classes
Service °^ clerkships in Washington. Little further
progress was made towards freeing the execu-
tive department of government from the abuse of offi-
cial patronage until the year 1872, when President Grant
appointed a commission to devise rules and regulations
for " admission to and continuance in the civil service of
the United States." But the proposed reform met with
much opposition from parties who were interested in the
continuance of the "spoils" system, and it was still several
years before any practical application of such rules and
regulations could be made. During the administration
of President Hayes, in 1879, the system of competitive
examinations was made applicable to a few of the largest
post- offices, including the post -office in New York.
Through the persistent efforts of the opponents of official
corruption, an act of Congress was passed in 1883 pro-
viding for the appointment of three Civil Service Com-
missioners, who should aid the President in prescribing
rules for admission, by examination, into certain branches
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 289
oi the civil service. This act further empowered the
President to revise or m >dify the rules from time to time,
thus enabling him to extend the system of competitive
examinations as rapidly as in his judgment would conduce
to the public welfare. (See sup. 2994.)
On the 9th of May, 1S96, the President extended the
provisions of the civil-service law to 30,000 additional
Government employees, thus increasing the number of
positions on the classified lists to 85,135.
So many governmental positions being now obtainable,
not by personal favor or the influence of friends, but by
absolute proofs of ability to fill them, it has
Examina- become the laudable ambition of thousands of
tions. young men and young women to pass the civil-
service examinations, and thus place their
names upon the lists of available candidates. Changes in
the service are constantly taking place ; vacancies in all
departments are of frequent occurrence. About six
thousand new appointments to the service of the Govern-
ment are made every year. As a rule, the candidate
whose grade in examination is the highest is the first to
be appointed.
It is evident that to pass one of these competitive ex-
aminations even creditably, the candidate must make
some preparation : he must know what are the subjects
he will be examined upon, and he must study these sub-
jects with special care. Now it is a fact well worth
noticing that there is no other single book in
e . " „ri" the world that contains so much information
Helner on a^ subjects as the Encyclopcedia Britannica ;
and it is the purpose of the present chapter to
show how the candidate for any branch of the civil service
may utilize its information so as to obtain therefrom much
practical knowledge in preparing for the examinations.
T9
29O GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
A. THE FEDERAL SERVICE.
All persons who assist in the conducting of the govern-
ment of the United States may be said to be in the
service of the nation. There are three gen-
Executive eraj branches or departments of government :
m^nt The Legislative Department, sup. 891.
The Judicial Department, sup. 2824.
The Executive Department sup. 1228.
Read the Constitution of the United States, sup. 900.
Civil service, as generally understood, has reference
only to service in the executive department of the Govern-
ment. In this department there are also two other
branches of service :
The military service. (See The Soldier, in this Guide.)
The naval service. (See The Seaman, in this GUIDE.)
By an Executive order issued by the President, No-
vember 2, 1896, the employees of the Navy Yard are
practically included within the classified service. In the
War Department, also, about 10,000 employees are now
subject to the civil service regulations. Half of this num-
ber are employed under the Chief of Engineers in the
improvement of rivers, harbors, and fortifications. (See
The Engineer, in this GUIDE.)
Members and employees of Congress, ministers, most
of the foreign consuls, collectors of revenue, postmasters,
and many others, including more than 100,000
persons, belong to the unclassified service, and
are exempt from the civil-service regulations.
It is of those only who are engaged in the
classified service that we shall speak in this chapter.
The classified service, for which examinations are held,
is divided into five distinct branches:
(1) The Departmental Service, which includes officers
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 291
and employees (except laborers and persons who have
been nominated for confirmation) in the several
Divisions executive departments of the District of Co-
of the , , . /TT- -,, N , ., ..
Service lumbia (\ I. [68; sup. 1054), the railway mail
service (sup. 2490), the Indian service (sup.
1667), the pension agencies (sup. 2344), the steamboat in-
spection service (sup. 2781), the lighthouse service (sup.
[885), the life-saving service (sup. 1882), the mints and
assay-offices (II. 724; XVI. 480), the revenue-cutter ser-
vice, the sub-treasuries of the United States (sup. 2937"),
the engineer departments, and all officers and employees
of the executive department outside of the District of
Columbia who are employed as clerks, physicians, nurses,
draftsmen, engineers, watchmen, messengers, or firemen,
or who are in the service of the Supervising Architect's
Office, or in the service of the Treasury Department (sup.
2937)-
(2) The Custom-house service, which includes all offi-
cers and employees in any customs district whose em-
ployees number as many as five (VI. 729).
(3) The Post-office service, which includes all officers
and employees in any free delivery post-office.
(4) The Government Printing service, and
(5) The Internal Revenue service, which includes all
officers and employees engaged in these branches of ser-
vice, except such as have been declared not subject to the
civil-service rules.
To test an applicant's fitness for a position in any of the
five branches of service named above, examinations are
held under the direction of the commission.
Examina- The examination papers are rated on a scale of
tion Papers, ioo, and 70 marks or over are considered as
establishing the candidate's eligibility for ap-
pointment. But, as already observed, those who receive the
292 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
first appointments are those who stand the highest in the
examinations.
I. THE DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE.
There are many positions in this service, the most impor-
tant of which are the following : Clerk-copyist, messenger,
watchman, typewriter, stenographer, printer's assistant,
proof-reader, telegraph operator, special pension examiner,
state department clerk, bookkeeper, weather observer,
draftsman, meat inspector, fish culturist, tagger, stock-
examiner, engineer and machinist, railway mail clerk, and
teachers, physicians, nurses, and others employed in the
Indian service.
What is the character of the examinations for eligibility
to these positions ?
How can the Encyclopaedia Britannica aid candidates
who are preparing for these examinations?
The clerk-copyist is examined in orthography, penman-
ship, copying, letter-writing, and arithmetic.
The examination in orthography includes the writing
of twenty or more difficult words from dictation by the
examiner. The mark on penmanship is determined by
legibility, rapidity, neatness, and general appearance, and
by correctness and uniformity in the formation
Clerk- of words, letters, and punctuation marks. In
Copyist. copying, the candidate is required to make a fair
copy of a rough-draft manuscript, punctuating
and capitalizing properly, and writing in full all abbreviated
words. (See the references to punctuation and capitalization
in the chapter entitled The Writer, in this Guide; see also
the lists of abbreviations in the Britannica, I. 26, and sup.
16.) The letter-writing is intended to test the candidate's
skill in simple English composition (see The Writer, in this
Guide). In marking the letter, its errors in form and ad-
THE CANDIDA 11' FOR CIVIL SER\ [( I . 293
dress (sup. 46), in spelling, and in punctuation arc consid-
ered. The Utter must relate to some subject given by
the examiners, as for example, "The advantages of a
common -school education." (Sec The Teacher, in this
GUIDE.) The examination in arithmetic consists of prob-
lems involving the fundamental principles of the science.
(See references ^\\ page I 3 I of this GUIDE.)
Nearly all other competitors for employment in the de-
partmental service are examined in the branches
named above. Several, such as the typewriter,
Typewriter. 1111
the stenographer, and the telegraph operator,
are required to exhibit practical tests of their
skill. (See The Stenographer and Typewriter, in this
Guide.)
The pension examiner is examined not only in the five
subjects mentioned, but in law and pension law.
Sample Questions in Laic. What is the difference be-
tween primary and secondary evidence? (See VIII. 173.)
What is marriage, and what are impediments to lawful
marriage? (See XV. 565 ; XII. 400.)
What is divorce? (See VII. 300-305.)
Pension (For much information relative to pension
Examiner. law, see Sup. 2344.)
The State Department clerk is examined in
geography, history, international law, government. The
following are sample questions :
Between what parallels and meridians does the United
States extend? (See map, XXIII. 790; Paral-
lels, XVIII. 254; Meridians, X. 198.)
What are the boundaries of France (IX. 504),
of Germany (X. 448), of Ohio (XVII. 736), of
Vermont (XVII. 392)?
(Study the references in the Readings in Geography, in
this Guide.
294 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A.
What circumstances led to the war with Mexico ?
(XXIII. 767.)
Mention the leading facts in the life of Frank-
lin. (IX. 711.)
History. . . ... . .
JName the political parties in the national
election of i860. (XXIII. 774 ct seq.)
(Study the Readings in History, Course I., in this Gu 1 DE :
also The American Citizen?)
What is international law? (XIII. 190; XXII. 471.)
Give some account of the origin and mean-
Intema- mg °f the " Monroe doctrine." (XIII. 192;
tional Law. XVI. 761 ; XXIII. 762; sup. 209I.)
What are the rules regulating sovereignty
over the high seas? (XXIII. 195 ; XXI. 583.)
What are the functions and powers of the Secretary of
State? (XXIII. 750.)
Govern- To what extent are the various States of the
mem. Union sovereign powers? (XXXIII. 741,746,
750, 756, 763, 774.)
What constitutes a treaty? (XXIII. 530.)
(Study the references given in the chapter entitled The
American Citizen, in this Guide.)
The observer in the weather bureau is examined in
meteorology and physics, as well as in the five general
branches previously mentioned. Some of the questions
are similar to the following :
Explain how a barometer may be used in determining
the height of a mountain. (III. 381 ; XIX. 241.)
How are the freezing and boiling points of a thermome-
ter determined ? (XXIII. 288 ; XI. 563.)
What is relative humidity, and how is it ob-
Meteorology. ta.ncd? (m ^ . ^ ^ }
(See Atmosphere, III. 28, 381 ; X. 211, 220;
Meteorology, XVI. 114; Winds, XVI. 143; Temperature
THE CANDIDA IF FOR CN II. SERVICE. 295
(Hcat». XI. 555 ; Climate, VI. 1 ; Frost, X. 265, 280; Ram.
XVI. [28; Snow, XVI. 154; Corona, VI. 428; and es-
pecially the Readings in Meteorology, in this GUIDE.)
What is meant by the density of a body, and
what substance is taken as the standard of
comparison? (XV. 698; VII. 241.)
State three laws of falling bodies. (XI. 68.)
(See Readings in Physics, in this Guide.)
The topographic draftsman is examined specially in
geography, scale drawing, and geographic projections.
The scale drawing consists of compiling, on an enlarged
scale, a chart, a copy of which is furnished at
the time of examination. (See Cartography,
XV. 515 ; X. 191 ; Topographic Maps, XV.
522; Drawing, VII. 446; XV. 628.) Geo-
graphic projections relate to the theory of polyconic and
Mercator projections, and to instruments and appliances
necessary to construct polyconic projections. (See X.
208, 209.)
The meat inspector is examined in veterinary anatomy
and physiology, in veterinary pathology, and in meat in-
spection. He may be asked many questions similar to
the following :
Name and give the situation of the organs which should
be examined for the detection of tuberculosis in cattle.
(XXIV. 204.)
What are the symptoms of milk or parturient
Meat fever? (XXIV. 204.)
Inspection. W "hat is pus made up of, and how does it
appear to the naked eye ? (XXII. 683.)
What are the characteristics of good, sound flesh meat ?
(XV. 782.)
Describe the appearance and give the life history of
trichinae? (XVII. 325; XXIV. 206.)
296 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
(See, also, Animals, II. 49; Animal Physiology, XIX.
10; Animal parasitism, XVIII. 258; Beef-measle, XXIII.
52 ; Poisonous, tainted, or diseased meat, XV. 782 ; Dis-
eases of Cattle, XVII. 57, etc. Also the chapter entitled
The Stock Raiser, in this Guide.)
The fish culturist is examined, in addition to other
subjects, in geography and fish culture. The questions in
geography have reference principally to the United
States, and presuppose an intimate knowledge of the
lakes, seas, and interways of the western continent. The
examination in fish culture is intended to test the com-
petitor's knowledge concerning the geographi-
Fish cal distribution of fishes (XII. 668) ; definition
Culture. and description of varieties (XII. 685); meth-
ods of reproduction (XX. 409) ; conditions of
successful fish culture (XIX. 126; XXI. 226); transport
of fish (IX. 243) ; propagation of different species, etc.
(See Salmon, XXI. 220, 224, 226; Shad, XXI. 726 ; XII.
694; XIX. 128; Pike, XIX. 88; Perch, XVIII. 521;
Trout, XXI. 221, 225, etc. Read the articles on Ang-
ling, II. 32; on Fisheries, IX. 243 ; on Ichthyology, XII.
630; on Aquariums, II. 217; etc.)
The engineer and machinist, besides being examined on
the five general subjects, is required to answer questions
in regard to the various parts of an engine (XXII. 473—
526), and the construction of the boiler (XXII.
Steam 49^) ; and to exhibit a practical knowledge of
Engine. packing, repairing and managing engines and
boilers, (See the chapter entitled The Engi-
neer, in this Guide.)
The railway mail-clerk is examined specially in the
geography of the United States (XXIII. 790); in railway
and other systems of transportation in the United States,
and in reading addresses.
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 297
The candidate for this examination will find many arti-
cles in the Britannica that will be of assistance 1 1 1
Railway him. See The Railroad Man, in this Gu 1 1 >E ; also
Mail Clerk. Post-office, XIX. 562.
International Postal Union, XIX. 584.
Plan of U. S. postal service, XIX. 578.
Postal service in the United States, sup. 2425.
Railways in the United States, sup. 2490.
His examination in Arithmetic may embrace some such
questions as this : A railway mail clerk decided to save y^ of
his salary during one year, but instead, he saved }£, and
found that during the year he had saved $30 more than
he had decided to save. What was his salary?
The Indian Service. The examinations for this service
are for the most part topical rather than textual. Instead
of questions, the candidate is given topics upon which to
write essays or to prepare lessons, and these are intended
to test his knowledge of the subject, and particularly his
ability to prepare exercises for teaching.
The candidate for a position as teacher in the Indian
schools is examined in penmanship, orthography, peda-
gogy, arithmetic, geometry, geography, natural history,
history and government of the United States, drawing,
American literature, and physiology and hygiene.
In pedagogy he is required to write an essay
Indian on some practical pedagogic question, such as :
Teacher. " The advantages and disadvantages of periodi-
cal written examinations in the intermediate
grades of school work." (See The TcacJier, in this GUIDE.)
In arithmetic, besides solving given problems, he is re-
quired to write his opinions upon some practical teaching
point, as : " The proper method of teaching decimal frac-
tions to children 9 to 12 years of age." (See The Teacher,
and also references to Arithmetic, in this Guide.)
298 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
In geometry he is required to write an essay of 100
to 150 words, on some topic assigned. The following
topic has been used: "The method to be pursued in im-
parting a knowledge of point, line, surface, and volume, to
a class of pupils in the intermediate grade." (See Geom-
etry, page 132, in this Guide.)
In geography, topics like the following are to be written
upon: "What plan would you pursue in imparting to
young pupils a knowledge of the earth's motions and
the location of the zones of climate?" (See the last of
the Courses of Reading in Geography, in this GUIDE.)
In natural history, topics like the following have been
used : " Your method of imparting to advanced classes a
knowledge of the habits, characteristics, etc., of the family
Ovida (sheep)." (See XXI. 784 ; XV. 432. Make use of
the Readings in Zoology, in this GUIDE.)
In American history and government, the candidate
is required to write an essay of 150 to 300 words on some
such topic as this; "A description of the war of 18 12,
written in a manner to interest children." (See The Ameri-
can Citizen, also Readings in History, in this GUIDE.)
In American literature the following topic has been used :
"A method of outlining and teaching American litera-
ture to advanced primary pupils." (See Readings in
Literature, in this GUIDE.)
In physiology and hygiene, an essay is required on some
such topic as this : " The anatomy, physiology, and hygiene
of respiration, as you would explain them to a class of
pupils in intermediate grades." (See Anatomy, I. 799-
908; Physiology, XIX. 8-43; Hygiene, XII. 566, etc.
Also The Physician, in this GUIDE.)
The candidate for a position as physician in the Indian
service is examined specially in anatomy and physiology,
in chemistry, materia medica, and therapeutics, in gen-
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 299
era! pathology and theory and practice of medicine, in
surgery, in medical jurisprudence, toxicology,
inJian and hygiene, and in obstetrics. (Sec The Phy-
Physician. siciail, \\\ this GUIDE.)
Sample Question^: Describe the location and
course of the popliteal artery. (I 904.)
Give the origins and attachments of the biceps muscle.
(I. 839.)
What is iron rust chemically? (XIII. 279.)
Give the differential diagnosis of rubeola and scarlatina.
XV. 657; XXI. 576; XVIII. 404.)
What is dysentery? (VII. 584.)
How ma)' cicitrization be hastened after a burn in which
the skin has been destroyed ? (XXII. 680.)
Give the characteristic features of poisoning by phos-
phorus. (XIX. 279.)
The Industrial teacher and farmer in the Indian service
must pass examination in penmanship, orthography, farm
economy, keeping accounts, and practical farming. In
farm economy he must answer five questions on the care
and use of the more common tools, mechanical
Indian appliances, etc., connected with farm work.
Farmer. (See I. 311-328.) In practical farming he must
answer five questions relative to general farm-
ing and gardening operations, care of live-stock, etc.
(See the chapters in this GUIDE entitled, respectively, The
Farmer, The Gardener, and The Stock Raiser.)
II. THE CUSTOM-HOUSE SERVICE.
In the Custom-house service, examinations are held for
clerks, law clerks, day and night inspectors, inspectresses,
messengers, weighers, gaugers, examiners, and samplers.
All are examined in orthography, copying, penmanship,
and arithmetic.
3<X> GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The candidate for clerk is examined specially in the Ele-
ments of the English language (VIII. 390,
XVIII. 782, 787); in letter -writing (see The
Writer, in this Guide); in the elements of
geography (see Readings in Geography, in this
Guide); and in the history and government of the United
States (see The American Citizen, in this GUIDE.)
The candidate for customs law clerk is examined spe-
cially in the elements of the English language ; in letter-
writing; and in law questions. (See The Lawyer, in this
Guide.)
The candidate for inspector or inspectress is examined
specially in the elements of the English lan-
guage, and in the geography of America and
Inspector. „ . _, °, _ ....
Europe (see Readings in Geography, in this
Guide).
The candidate for gauger, examiner or sampler, must
show his fitness for the position by answering
Gauger. practical and theoretical questions, and by
performing practical tests in gauging, etc.
See Custom-houses, VI. 729.
Gauging, XVI. 28.
Commerce, VI. 196, 203.
Tariff legislation, sup. 2853.
Imports and Exports, XVII. 247.
III. THE POST-OFFICE SERVICE.
See the follwing articles :
Post-office, XIX. 578, 579.
Postal service of the United States, sup. 2425.
Post-office Department, sup. 2428.
Free-delivery system, sup. 2426.
Universal Postal Union, sup. 2427.
The classified postal service embraces only clerks and
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 301
carriers. To test the fitness of a candidate for this service,
examinations are provided, which include tin-
Letter following subjects: Orthography, copying, pen-
Carriers. manship, arithmetic (fundamental rules, frac-
tions, and percentage), elements of the geogra-
phy of the United States, local delivery, reading addresses,
and physical tests.
See references relating to above subjects, already given
for examinations for the departmental service, page 292.
IV. THE GOVERNMENT PRINTING SERVICE.
Candidates for any of the trades positions in this ser-
vice must show that they have had five years' experience
at the particular trade for which they desire to be exam-
ined. The examination embraces the following subjects :
Orthography, penmanship, letter-writing, arithmetic, prac-
tical questions. (See remarks on the examination of clerk-
copyist, page 292 of this Guide.) Under the
Printers. head of practical questions, the candidate is re-
quired to perform four exercises :
(1) Correcting proof — in the same manner as in ordi-
nary proof in a printing-office (see sup. 2455 ; XXIII. 701).
(2) a. Writing from incorrect copy, correcting errors in
syntax and orthography, and properly punctuating and
capitalizing. This exercise is for book and newspaper
printers only. (See The Writer in this GUIDE.)
(2) b. Arrangement of a title-page and a business card.
The candidate is furnished with the matter, and he is re-
quired to arrange it properly, indicating the size of type
in which each line should be printed. (See The Printer, in
this GUIDE.) This exercise is for job printers only.
(3) Tabulating, or the proper arrangement of facts and
figures in a table, with appropriate general heading and
box-heads.
302 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
(4) Abbreviations. Writing out in full ten words for
which the abbreviations on the sheet stand, and also giv-
ing the corresponding correct abbreviations for ten other
words printed on the sheet. See I. 26 ; sup. 16, and
sup. 23.)
V. THE INTERNAL REVENUE SERVICE.
The classified internal revenue service includes clerks,
storekeepers, and gaugers employed in the collection of
internal revenue. To test fitness for admission to this
service, examinations of a practical character are provided
on such subjects as the Commission may from time to
time direct.
(See National Revenue, IX. 171. Also that part of the
chapter entitled The Banker and Financier, in this GUIDE,
which refers to public finances.)
B. THE SERVICE OF THE STATE.
Civil-service rules, similar to those in force in the exec-
utive department of the federal government, have been
adopted in three states — in Massachusetts and
Illinois by legislative enactment and in New
State Laws. ,T ....... . , .
York by constitutional amendment. As a gen-
eral thing, the requirements, the questions, and
the tests do not differ materially from those prescribed
for candidates for similar posts of duty in the national
service. In New York, nearly all the state offices below
that of deputy and the officials whose relations to the
head of the department are of a fiduciary character are
placed on the competitive list. In the other States, the
rules apply especially to the selection of employees in the
cities which are included under the provisions of the civil-
service law, and in a more limited manner to the appoint-
ment of sub-officials and assistants in the executive dc-
Ill): CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 303
partment of the Government. In Wisconsin, a legislative
enactment provides for the application of civil-service
rules in cities of the first class; but Milwaukee being the
only city of that description, the law is inoperative rise-
where. Movements have already been inaugurated (De-
cember, (896), for the introduction of civil-service bills in
the legislatures of other States, as Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, Minnesota, and Colorado. It is therefore probable
that, within a few years, civil-service rules will be in force
quite generally in all the State governments.
C. MUNICIPAL SERVICE.
Civil-service rules have been adopted and are now in
effect in all the cities of New York and Massa-
uies av- c]lusetts ; in Chicago and Evanston, Illinois;
ing Civil . 1 at ^-\
Service m Milwaukee, Seattle, and New Orleans ; and
to a limited extent in Louisville, Kentucky,
and Portland, Maine. Movements are on foot towards
the adoption of such rules in many other cities, as St.
Louis, San Francisco, Denver, Wheeling, and Galveston,
Texas.
In New York City, only deputies, private secretaries,'
and the holders of a few important positions
are excepted from the application of these
Nsw York
rules. Indeed, in a total of nearly 15,000 posi-
tions, all but about 75 are subject to the regu-
lations of civil-service laws.
Of the other cities in which the rules are
now in force, Chicago and Boston may be se-
lected as examples. In Chicago the classifica-
tion includes the following divisions :
A. Medical service. (See The Physician, in this Guide.)
B. Civil engineering. (See The Engineer, in this
Guide.)
3O4 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
C. Clerical service, comprising copyists, recorders,
bookkeepers, stenographers, pages, messengers, etc.
D. Police service. (See The Magistrate and Policeman,
in this Guide.)
E. Electrical service. (See The Electrician, in this
Guide.)
F. Fire service.
G. Mechanical engineers — persons who require a knowl-
edge of steam engines, boilers, and other machinery. (See
The Machinist, and Readings in Physics, in this Guide.)
H. Bridge service.
I. Inspection service.
J. Janitor and Elevator service.
K. Library service. (See The Bookman, in this GUIDE.)
L. Labor and miscellaneous service.
In Boston the civil-service list includes nearly the same
classes of workers. Here, besides (1) the clerical service,
are (2) all persons doing police duty in prisons,
reformatories and other public institutions of
the State and city; '(3) members of the fire de-
partment ; (4) members of the police depart-
ment doing permanent duty; (5) engineers and draw-
tenders ; (6) foremen and sub-foremen of laborers ; (7) in-
spectors of work ; (8) engineers and janitors employed in
school buildings ; (9) truant officers, and several others.
The questions for examination in the various cities re-
late to about the same branches and are of about the
same grade of difficulty as those used in examinations for
the national service. A very few examples will be suf-
ficient.
Candidates for health inspector are asked questions on
contagious diseases (XVIII. 401); on fumigation and puri-
fication, deodorants and disinfectants (VII. 258; XII.
569, etc.).
THE CANDIDATE FOR CIVIL SERVICE. 305
Candidates for the similar position of medical inspector
arc supposed to be the possessors of medical
Examina- diplomas, and to have had sonic experience in
tions. hospital practice. They may be asked to name
all the infectious diseases that may become epi-
demic in certain localities; to describe bacteria (XXI.
398) ; to state methods for the suppression of tuberculosis
(XVIII. 405, 855, etc.); to give the diagnosis and treat-
ment of diphtheria, etc.
To such candidates, the references named in The Phy-
sician, in this Guide, will be of no little interest.
The candidate who aspires to the position of assistant
engineer is examined, among other things, upon his
knowledge of the various systems of sewerage (XXI. 711 ;
IV. 467, etc.); of coffer dams (XXIV. 406); of the con-
struction of pavements ; of masonry, of piling (IV. 327), of
waterworks, etc. (See the chapters in this Guide en-
titled The Engineer and The Builder.
Applicants for positions in the detective force of district
police, besides being examined in writing and the elemen-
tary English branches, are asked questions relative to crime,
detection of criminals, legal papers, and methods of proced-
ure in criminal cases. (See the references in the chapter,
in this GUIDE, entitled The Magistrate and Policeman.)
Men wishing to be employed as drivers in the fire ser-
vice or other service of the city, may be examined as to
their knowledge concerning the proper care of horses, the
diseases of horses, the shoeing of horses, etc. (See refer-
ences in the chapter entitled The Stock Raiser.)
Candidates for positions in the public libraries are ex-
amined upon their acquaintance with general literature
and periodical literature, and their general knowledge of
books. (See in this Guide, Five Courses of Reading in
Literature, and The Bookman.)
306 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The limits assigned to this chapter forbid any further
details concerning the requirements and examinations for
the numerous positions procured only through competi-
tive examination in the cities we have mentioned. Enough
has been said to point out the way whereby the candidate
for a position in any department of the civil service may
so utilize the vast store of information in the Encyclopedia
Britannica as to make it a convenient and useful aid in his
efforts to prepare himself for the ordeal of examination,
no matter in what branch or under what division of the
service.
THE POLITICAL ECONOMIST. 307
CHAPTER XLIV.
THE POLITICAL ECONOMIST.
" This is that noble Science of Politics, which is equally removed from
the barren theories of utilitarian sophists, and from the petty craft, so
often mistaken for statesmanship by minds grown narrow in habits of
intrigue, jobbing, and official etiquette— which, of all sciences is the most
important to the welfare of nations — which, of all sciences, most tends
to expand and invigorate the mind — which draws nutriment and orna-
ment from every part of philosophy and literature, and dispenses in re-
turn nutriment and ornament to all." ' — Macaulav.
Political ECONOMY, in its historical aspects, is the
subject of an important article by J. K. Ingram,
Political m the nineteenth volume of the Encyclopaedia
Economy. Britannica. The earliest expressions of thought
on economic subjects have come down to us
from the Oriental theocracies, and of these Mr. Ingram
gives an interesting account in XIX. 348. This is fol-
lowed by a survey of Greek and Roman notions of eco-
nomics, with quite a full exposition of Plato's ideal system.
The economy of the Middle Ages is described at length
(pages 353-355), with some notice of the origin of trade
corporations, and their influence upon the industrial forces
of those early times. The three successive phases of mod-
ern economics are then treated with great fulness (pages
352-401). This latter and larger part of Mr. Ingram's
article may be read by sections, with collateral references
to other articles, as follows:
First Modern Phase — Transitional, XIX. 354.
Second Modern Phase — Mercantile, XIX. 354-358 ; Co-
308 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
pernicus, VI. 346; Sir William Temple, XXIII. 171 ; John
Locke, XIV. 751.
Third Modern Phase— Natural Liberty, XIX. 358-401.
1. Wealth and Currency. Adam Smith, XXII. 169 ;
his " Wealth of Nations," 364-370.
Wealth in economics, XXIV. 461.
Capital, V. 71.
Money, XVI. 720; depreciation of currency, IX. 178.
Bullion, IV. 518, 519.
Exchange, VIII. 784-796.
Silver, XXII. 69-74.
Coinage Laws, sup. 857.
Crime of 1873, sup. 942.
Finances of the United States, sup. 1267.
Jeremy Bentham, III. 575.
Locke on money, XIV. 754; Ricardo on money, XX.
534. (See references to money in the chapter entitled,
The Banker and Financier.)
2. Banks and Banking. (See especially the chapter
in this GUIDE entitled, The Banker and Financier.) Sav-
ings-banks, XXI. 327.
3. Population. Population considered in its statical
and dynamical aspects, XIX. 513.
The Malthusian theory, 371 ; Thomas Malthus, XV. 343.
Immigration into the United States, sup. 1657.
4. TAXATION. See the special article on taxation,
XXIII. 85.
Ricardo, XX. 533.
Taxation and protection, IX. 755; sup. 2461.
nn: POLITICAL economist. 309
Henry ( reorge, sup. 1381.
1 ncome tax, sup. 1^62.
[nheritance tax, sup. [681.
Single tax, sup. 2725.
(See other references, page 319.)
5. Pauperism. See Poor-laws, XIX. 462.
Robert Owen, XVIII. S6.
English Poor-law Parish, XVIII. 296.
Poor-law Relief, XIX. 468, 473.
English Charities, V. 401.
See The Philanthropist and Reformer, in this Guide.)
6. LABOR AND Wac.es. Special article on Labor, XIV.
165 ; special article on Wages, XXIV. 307.
Lassalle, XIV. 321.
Industrial Condition of Women, sup. 1677.
Apprenticeship, I. 213.
Guilds, XI. 259.
(See the chapter in this GUIDE entitled, The Laborer?)
7. COOPERATION. Communism, VI. 211, Socialism,
XXII. 205 ; Cooperation, V. 338.
Oneida Community, XVII. 773.
Amish or Ammonite Community, sup. 169.
Brook Farm Association for education and agriculture,
XX. 567.
The Community at Economy, sup. 11 13.
Shakers, XXL 736.
Fourier, IX. 489.
Saint-Simon, XXI. 197.
Robert Owen, XVIII. 86.
Plato's Republic, VI. 212.
Sociological conceptions of Comte, VI. 235.
3IO GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Modern Clubs, VI. 41.
Poor-laws, sup. 2417.
8. TARIFF. See the special article, Free Trade and
Protection, IX. 752.
Custom duties, VI. 729.
Protection, sup. 2461.
Tariff, sup. 2853.
Warehousing, sup. 3084.
9. Political Economists. A few famous economists
not named above :
John Stuart Mill, XVI. 307.
J. E. Cairnes, IV. 643.
Walter Bagehot, XIX. 396.
Arnold Toynbee, XIX. 397.
Benjamin Franklin, IX. 711.
Harriet Martineau, XV. 583.
Nassau Senior, XXI. 663.
Edward Atkinson, sup. 280.
Henry C. Carey, sup. 698.
For further references, see the chapter entitled, The
A mcrican Citizen.
THE BANKER AND 1 INAM.1ER. 3 1 I
CHAPTER XLV.
THE BANKER AND FINANCIER.
" Seest thou a man diligent in business? He shall stand before
kings." — Proverbs of Solomon.
In this chapter it is proposed to point out a few of the
articles in the Britannica which relate to the kindred
topics, money and banking, with a brief notice of national
finance.
I. MONEY.
In the earliest ages of the world all business was carried
on, and all man's needs were satisfied, by trading or barter.
The man who had wheat and wanted beef had
The First to find some one who had a cow and was will-
Money, ing to exchange her for his grain. See VI. 196.
But this method was so inconvenient that men
finally began to try to find something that would serve as
a medium of exchange. Different races, peoples, and
tribes tried different mediums.
The Greeks used cattle, VI. 197;
The Chinese used tea, XVI. 723 ;
Salt was used in some countries, XVI. 723 ;
Tobacco was used by the colonists of Virginia, XXIII.
729, the Indians used wampum, sup. 3078.
Cowry shells were used in some maritime countries, VI.
535- 766;
312 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
And in other countries various other articles were used,
XVI. 723-
But whatever the article may have been, it was money,
and was so called. Why? What is money? See XVI.
720. W7hat are the causes which determine the value of
money? See XVI. 721.
Why were these ancient forms of money unsatisfactory ?
Why were metals preferable, and when were they first
used for money? See XVI. 723.
Why was iron unsatisfactory ?
Why were silver and gold finally selected? What are
the special advantages of these two metals ? See XVI.
7^3. 724.
What is coinage? See XVI. 724; sup. 856.
The science of coins is called Numismatics. See the
long and very interesting article on this subject, XVII.
628-661. Here under distinct headings are
chapters on the history of Greek coins (page
631) ; of Roman coins (page 652) ; of mediaeval
and modern coins (page 654) ; and of Oriental
coins (page 659). See Coins of the United States, sup. 857.
The substance to be used in coinage being determined
upon, the next thing was to select a standard
unit of value. Every country naturally fixed
Standards. , , . . T _ . . . ,
upon a standard of its own. In England this
standard is the pound ; in France it is the
franc. See XVI. 730. In the United States it is the
dollar. See sup. 856.
What are the standards of other countries ? And what
are the principal gold and silver (coins used in all the
countries of the world ? See XVI. 732, 733.
How are coins made? A complete description of the
processes employed in the making of gold and silver coins
may be found in the article entitled Mints, XVI. 480-490.
THE BANKER AND FINANCIER. 313
In this article there is also a concise and very interesting
history of the methods of coinage among all nations from
the earliest stages of civilizations to the pres-
ent time. See United States Mint, sup. 2075.
Mints. .. . . r . , , .
Since the coins of a country consist of two
metals, gold and silver, how shall the ratio of
one to the other be fixed?
In other words, of how much more value is a certain
quantity of gold, by weight, than an equal quantity of
silver? This brings us to a consideration of the relative
values of the two metals. Read what is said about the
conflict of standards, XVI. 735-738, which you will find
to be a masterly presentation of the whole subject.
In the United States, the first Congress fixed the ratio
at 15 to 1 ; that is, it was decided that fifteen pounds of
silver should be considered worth as much as one pound
of gold. A complete history of the coinage
Sixteen to laws of this country since that time, written by
One. Senator John Sherman, may be found in sup.
856. Used as money, gold has some advan-
tages which silver has not, and silver has some advantages
which gold has not. This matter is carefully discussed in
XVI. 723.
The reader of Senator Sherman's article will find that
the ratio of the two metals did not long remain at 15 to 1.
Silver becoming more and more plentiful all the time, it
followed the inevitable law of demand and supply, and be-
came cheaper and cheaper until finally it took 16 ounces
of silver to buy one ounce of gold.
Did the ratio stay at 16 to 1 ? It would have done
so if silver had not continued to become more and more
plentiful. This whole question is ably discussed in XVI.
736-737, and in Senator Sherman's article. See also the
"Crime of 1873," sup. 942.
314 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
As to the relative increase in the world's annual prod-
uct of gold and silver, see XVI. 731, 735; XXII. j^.
Read also the article on Bullion, IV. 518, and the chapter
on the economic production of the precious metals, XVI.
728-730. See also the account of the Monetary Confer-
ence of 1892, sup. 2994.
II. BANKING.
In its simplest form, a bank is an institution where
money may be deposited for safe-keeping. See the his-
tory of the origin of banking, II. 316, 317.
But banks usually lend money as well as receive it ; and
their profits accrue from the excess of the inter-
est received over that which is paid out. See
Banks. , ,,
the following articles :
Interest, XIII. 188.
Interest in the United States, sup. 1685.
How interest is calculated, II. 536.
Usury, XXIV. 17.
American law on usury, sup. 1686.
When money is deposited in a bank on a current or
drawing account, the customer may draw it out, as he re-
quires, by means of orders called cheques. Sec Cheques,
V. 583.
Bankers also undertake the business of collecting money
for cheques, for bills, and for other securities, which they
may have received from their customers. The labor of
collection is much facilitated by means of bills of exchange.
See the following articles :
Exchange, VIII. 784.
Bills of exchange, III. 673.
Exchange. _ , , ° ^._rTT_
Rates of exchange, XXIV. 52.
Interest on bills of exchange, VIII. 791.
In England, bills of exchange are made payable in
THE BANKER AND FINANCIER. .515
Ion. In the United States every country banker has
a correspondent in one of the banks of New York. The
common centre of exchange, established by the bankers
of these cities to further facilitate this branch of their busi-
ness, is called a clearing-house. See the following:
Clearing-house, III. 328.
Clearing- London Bank Clearing-house, I. 91.
house. Clearing-house in New York, etc., sup. 826.
Clearing-house certificates, sup. 827.
Modern banking originated with the money-dealers of
Florence, Italy, as early as the nth century. See IX. 334.
It was introduced into England by the goldsmiths of
London, in the 17th century. See Bank of England, III.
316-319.
A history of banking in the United States is given in a
very ably written article in sup. 337. Another article on
the same subject, giving an account of the rise of state
banks and their transformation into national banks, is
found in III. 339-341. Still other interesting historical
information upon this subject is given in XXIII. j66, 776.
See also :
Paper currency in the United States, XXIII.
United __c
Currency. Greenbacks, XXIII. 775.
Bank-notes, sup. 341.
Legal tender, sup. 1858.
Banking system of the United States, III. 203.
Greenback Party, sup. 1461.
With the development of commerce and the increase of
exchange, the business of banking has been variously sub-
divided. The different classes of bankers are distinguished
from one another by differences in the rules which they
observe in the management of their business. Hence
arise the different classes of banks.
3l6 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
(i) Banks of deposit, III. 328. The article on bank
vaults, sup 344, is an interesting description of
Classes of the latest improved burglar proof vaults.
Banks. (2) Land-mortgage banks, III. 328. See, also,
XVI. 848; XXIII. 596. Mortgage on land,
XIV. 265, 270.
(3) Credit companies, or credit banks: In Germany,
VI. 214, 339. Credit Foncier and Credit Mobilier, VI.
557-
(5) Discount banks, III. 328. See also Brokers, V.
360; Brokers in America, sup. 581; accommodation pa-
per, sup. 36.
(5) Banks of issue — national banks (sup. 338), state
banks, etc. See bank-notes, sup. 341; United States
Bank, sup. 3001 ; Banking system of the United States,
III. 203; Bank-note manufacture, sup. 341.
(6) Savings-banks, XXI. 327.
Post-office savings-banks, XIX. 572.
Savings-banks in the United States, sup. 2636.
Law of savings-banks, sup. 2637.
In order that the genuineness of the coins of a govern-
ment or of its paper currency may be preserved, stringent
laws have been passed in most countries for the preven-
tion of counterfeiting ami the punishment of counter-
feiters. See sup. 928.
The Influence of the Stock Exchange upon
Stock the financial stability of the country will be
Exchange, better understood after reading the article on
Stock Exchange in XXII. 556. See also Ac-
count, I. 91 ; bulls and bears, I. 92.
For accounts of the great financial crises that have
occurred at various times, sue Banking, III. 319; sup.
339, 340; and Panics, sup. 2288.
THE BANKER AND FINANCIER. 317
Some of the most famous bankers of the world deserve
to be noticed here. A stud)- of the methods
Famous by which they acquired preeminence and
Bankers. boundless fortunes may help to a clearer un-
derstanding of the business principles that are
at the basis of success in every enterprise.
The greatest banking and mercantile houses in Europe
in the 14th century were the Bardi and Peruzzi of Flor-
ence. See III. 316.
William Patcrson was the chief projector of the Bank
of England, XVIII. 359.
The Rothschilds have long been known as the greatest
family of bankers in the world, XXI. 3; sup. 2580.
An American banker, whose name should always be
mentioned with reverence, because of his great services to
our country, was Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, XVI. 846.
Other famous bankers and financiers might be named,
such as :
Baroness Burdett-Coutts, sup. 624.
Lyman J. Gage, sup. 1356.
Hetty R. Green, sup. 1459.
Baron Hirsch, the Jewish philanthropist, sup. 1588.
Sir John Lubbock, sup. 1927.
In connection with these studies, see also :
Pawnbroking, sup. 2327.
Pledge, XIX. 220.
Broker, V. 360.
Safe-deposit Companies, sup. 2599.
Payments, XVIII. 441.
Legal Tender, sup. 1858.
III. PUBLIC FINANCE.
In Great Britain, the Bank of England transacts the
whole business of government. " She acts not only," says
318 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Adam Smith, " as an ordinary bank, but as a great engine
of state. She receives and pays the greater part of the
annuities (see II. 72) which are due to the cred-
Bank of itors °f tne Public ; she circulates exchequer
England. bills (see IX. 182; XI. 386); and she advances
to the Government the annual amount of the
land and malt taxes which are frequently not paid till
some years after." This bank, therefore, occupies a place
of very great importance in the finance of Great Britain.
But before going further, let us define finance. By
the finances of a country we generally understand the
ways and means by which the expenditures of govern-
ment, local and national, are met. Under this
History of head, therefore, all methods of taxation are to
Finance. be considered.
The most ancient forms of finance were taxes
on produce, IX. 171. See
Taxation in Athens, IX. 172; in Rome, IX. 173.
English exchequer, VIII. 297; history of, IX. 174.
Finance a science in England, IX. 180.
Land taxes in England, IX. 181, 182.
Taxation of the American Colonies, IX. 185, 186.
The English Stamp Act, VIII. 357 ; XXIII. 7^7.
Income tax in Great Britain, IX. 187-189.
Tariff legislation, sup. 2853.
The corn laws, IX. 189, VI. 408; their repeal, VI. 84,-
XVIII. 457.
Notorious financial schemes : South Sea scheme, IX.
183 ; John Law's Mississippi scheme, XIV. 367, IX. 584,
XV. 22 ; schemes of Baron von Goertz, sup. 141 5.
History of taxation in England, IX. 1 74-191.
After having read the foregoing articles, we are pre-
pared for the article on TAXATION, XXIII. 85, where we
THE BANKER AND FINANl 11 R. ■ 319
shall find an analysis of the economical theory in accord-
ance with which taxation is shown to be just and equita-
ble, or unjust and oppressive. Here, also, are considered
the various species of taxes:
Direct taxes, and indirect, XXIII. Sy.
Taxes on rent, XXI 1 1. 87.
Taxation.
iaxes on profits, XXIII. 87.
Taxes on capital, XXIII. 88; see, also, Pitt's
income tax, IX. 187; income tax in the United States,
sup. 1662.
Taxes on wages, XXIII. 89; see Wages, XXIV. 306.
Tax sales, sup. 2858.
Taxes on commodities, XXIII. 89. This leads us to a
consideration of export and import duties. Read, there-
fore, the article on Free Trade, IX. 752-762 — a masterly
presentation of the whole question as viewed from a Brit-
ish standpoint. Then follow with
Taxation and protection, IX. 755.
Protection in the United States, XXIII. 754, 761, yj6,
sup. 2461.
Warehousing, sup. 3084.
History of tariff lawrs, sup. 2853.
Finances of the United States, sup. 1267.
Treasury Department of the United States, sup. 2937.
The monetary problem, sup. 2997.
The other side of this subject of public finance relates to
expenditures and the national debt. A number of valu-
able articles are presented for consideration :
National National debt, XVII. 243.
Debt. Debt of the United States, XXIII. 747 ; sup.
1005.
Receipts and expenditures of the United States, sup.
2986.
Debts of various nations, sup. 1007.
320 GUIDE TO- THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XLVI.
THE MERCHANT AND TRADER.
" I will buy with you, sell with you." — Merchant of Venice.
"Many times the reading of a book has made the fortune of a man —
has decided his way of life." — R. IV. Emerson.
COMMERCE, in its broadest signification, is traffic in
goods. This traffic may be on a large scale or a small
scale ; it may be conducted entirely within one's own
country or it may extend to foreign lands. To the mer-
chant who is engaged in such traffic, the Encyclopedia
Britannica affords information which it would be difficult
for him to obtain from any other source. In the first
place, there is no commodity in which he deals
Dry that it does not fully describe. If his specialty
Goods. is dry goods, he has but to turn to the Britan-
nica to learn all about silk, XXII. 56; satin,
XXIV. 464; calico, VI. 488; gingham, X. 604; woolens,
XXIV. 653; thread, VI. 502; and the hundreds of other
articles on his shelves. If he is a grocer, he
may iearn with equal facility all about coffee
Groceries.
VI. 1 10; tea, XXIII. 97; spices, XIX. 97; su-
gar, XX. 622 ; and the numberless commodities
of his trade. And so, no matter what department of mer-
chandise may be his, he will find that the pages of the
Britannica are teeming with information for him. It is
unnecessary for the GUIDE to specify further in this direc-
tion. Any desired article having reference to the various
kinds of merchandise may be readily found by consulting
the Index volume. It is rather with the general features
THE MERCHANT AND TRADER. 321
of trading or of commerce that we propose to deal in
this chapter.
Even' merchant (and thousands of people who are not
merchants) will be attracted by the very inter-
History of esting article on COMMERCE in the sixth vol-
Commerce. umc of the Britannica. 'I nis article is largely
historical in character, and embraces, among
other topics, the following :
Antiquity of commerce, p. 196.
Free trade in Great Britain, p. 205.
Tariffs, p. 203.
Increase of International trade, p. 203.
Now, as to the antiquity and history of commerce, we
may learn still more by referring to the chapter on com-
merce and industry, VIII. 617, and to sections relating to
trade under the heads of Arabia, Phoenicia, etc.
For additional information concerning free
Free trade and tariffs, together with a full discussion
Trade. of the questions relating to them, see the fol-
lowing articles :
Free Trade, IX. 752.
Customs duties, VI. 729.
United States tariff legislation, sup. 2461, 2853.
Economic System of Free Trade, IX. 721 ; Colonial
System, sup. 868.
For the history and present status of international
trade, see the section relating to trade under the head of
each country. For example ;
Trade of Algeria, I. 565.
Trade of Arabia, II. 245.
Trade of Argentina, II. 495.
Trade of Austria, III. 121, etc.
See, also, Imports and Exports, XVII. 247.
322 GUIDE TO THE BRITANXICA.
Foreign Commerce of the United States, sup. 2998.
Reciprocity and retaliation, sup. 2998.
In any system of commerce the question of transporta-
tion is an important factor. This is clearly illustrated in
the chapter relating to defective conditions of
Transporta- commerce in the ancient world, VI. 198.
tion. Transportation by means of camels in cara-
vans (V. 83) is the most ancient method known
to us. Transportation by boats, along rivers and the
shores of inland gulfs and seas, dates also from a very
early period (XXI. 804). See such articles as
Ancient and mediaeval ships, XXI. 804.
Modern ships, XXI. 809.
ipS' Shipping of the United States, XXIII. 826.
Whaleback steamers, sup. 3132.
Notice the references in the chapter entitled, The Sea-
man, in this Guide.
Water transportation in modern times has been vastly
facilitated by artificial water-ways called canals. The Bri-
tannica contains a variety of chapters relative to
these highways of trade.
Canals. _ , , . , . . .
Canals, a historical and descriptive article,
IV. 782.
Ship canals, IV. 787.
History of canals and canal-construction — a valuable
article, fully up to date, sup. 677-683.
The Panama Canal, XVIII. 209; sup. 2286.
The Nicaragua Canal, XVII. 1136; sup. 2208.
The Suez Canal, XXII. 620.
The St. Lawrence Canal, XXI. 179.
The Erie Canal, sup. 12 13.
Statistics of canals in the United States, sup. 683.
Shipping, United States laws, sup. 2707.
Shipping on the Great Lakes, sup. 2707.
THE MERCHANT AND TRADER. 323
Commerce on Deep Waterways, sup. 3103.
But by far the most important method of transporta-
tion is that by railroads ; and here we must refer the reader
to the chapter in this GUIDE entitled, The Railroad Man.
In connection with this same topic of trans-
portation, there are certain related subjects
Railroads.
which arc of practical interest to the trader or
merchant. We mention only a few :
Carrier, V. 138.
Common carrier (in the United States) and his liabilities,
sup. 709
Charter-party, shipping contract, V. 433.
Freight and freight-carriers, sup. 1338.
Grain elevators, sup. 1436.
Bill of lading, III. 674; sup. 470.
TOPICS OF TRADE.
Other subjects of a more or less practical character are
constantly claiming the attention of every man of business.
The Encyclopedia Britannica discusses all of these sub-
jects in a lucid and comprehensive manner, thus answering
many difficult questions, and giving much information that
cannot be found elsewhere. Here are some of the topics:
Account, I. 91 ; sup. 36.
Adjustment, I. 154.
Agent, I. 280.
Arbitrage, II. 311.
Average, III. 145.
Bill of credit, sup. 470.
Bill of exchange, sup. 470.
Bill of sale, III. 674.
Company, VI. 221.
Contraband, VI. 320.
Exchange, VIII. 783.
324 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Excise, VIII. 797.
Insurance, XIII. 161. (See the chapter in this GUIDE
entitled, The Insurance Agent.)
Partnership, sup. 2303.
Trade-marks, XXIII. 498; sup. 2321.
Corn trade, VI. 413.
Cotton trade, VI. 487.
Silk trade, XXII. 64.
Chambers of Commerce, sup. 743.
Commercial Law, sup. 876.
Commercial Museum of Philadelphia, sup. 876.
Trusts, sup. 2952; XXIII. 600.
Business Colleges, sup. 635.
Mercantile Agency, sup. 2037.
Mercantile Law, sup. 2038.
Laws affecting merchant seamen, XXI. 650.
Trade-unions, XXIII. 499.
History of money, VI. 196; cowry shells
Money. used for money, VI. 535. (See the chapter in
this Guide entitled, The Banker and Financier.)
FAMOUS MERCHANTS.
The following subjects are also of more than passing
interest to persons engaged in mercantile pursuits :
Merchants of the Steelyard, London, XXII. 528.
The Company of Merchant adventurers, XXL 826.
South Sea Company, VI. 221.
John Law and the Mississippi scheme, IX. 584; XIV.
367-
Hudson's Bay Company, XII. 333.
East India Company, II. 701 ; sup. 1107; X. 185,186.
Dutch East India Company, X. 186.
For reading in leisure hours, there are few subjects
more interesting than the lives of famous men who have
THE MERCHANT AND TRADER. 325
achieved success in their respective callings. There have
been man\- great merchants whose biographies are well
worth perusal. Read the accounts given in the
Leisure Britannic a, of
Reading. Sir Richard W'hittington, "thrice lord mayor
of London,'- XXIV. 555.
Sir Thomas Gresham, founder of the Royal Exchange,
XI. 186.
John Jacob Astor, the great fur merchant of America,
II 737-
Stephen Girard, the merchant philanthropist of Phila-
delphia, X. 621.
Robert Morris, the American patriot, XVI. 846.
George Peabody, merchant and philanthropist, XVIII.
442.
326 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER XLVII.
THE INSURANCE AGENT.
" He commands us to provide and give great gifts." — Timoii of
Athens.
INSURANCE is the term applied to any organized method
of providing against pecuniary losses from fire, shipwreck,
accidents to the person, or premature death.
Insurance is usually conducted by a company
Definition. ... . , . ,
or corporation having ample means, which guar-
antees the insured, under certain conditions and
to a specified extent, against loss from one or the other
of these contingencies. The business of insurance is very
extensive, employing a vast amount of capital and engag-
ing the services of great numbers of men in every civilized
country in the world. It is evident that to be a success-
ful manager, or agent in any capacity, for an insurance
company, a person must not only possess a fair business
education, but he must know a good deal about the his-
tory, the objects, and the internal methods and economy
of the special business in which he proposes to engage.
No other single publication in the world contains more
well-digested information on these subjects than is to be
found in the Encyclopedia Britannica.
A general history of insurance in its different branches
is contained in the article INSURANCE, XIII. 161-187.
Other topics with which every manager or agent will
wish to make himself acquainted, are as follows :
Company, VI. 221 ; XVIII. 330.
nil. INSURANCE AGENT. 327
( Corporation, VI. 432.
Corporations in the United States, XXIII. 785.
Contracts, VI. 322; XXI. 305.
General Partnership contracts, XVIII. 330.
Topics.
Interest. XIII. 188; calculation of, II. 536.
Premium, XIII. [62.
Commission, II. 536.
Warranty, XXIV. 373.
Assignment, II. 729.
Fire Insurance, XIII. 161-168.
Fire Insurance in the United States, sup. 1276.
Fire Insurance in Great Britain, XIII. 164.
Fire. T
Insurance companies in Canada, XIII. 168.
National Board of Underwriters in the United
States, XIII. 168.
Marine Insurance, XIII. 184-187.
History of marine insurance, III. 145.
Marine Insurance in the United States, sup. IQQS-
Marine. A . . . l **J
Average in maritime commerce, III. 145.
Average in marine insurance, XIII. 187.
Lloyd's marine insurance, XIV. 741.
Life Insurance, XIII. 168-1S4.
Life Insurance in the United States, sup. 1879.
Life. Annuities, II. 72.
Endowments, XIII. 168.
Expectation, or mathematical probability, XIX. 775.
Longevity, XIV. 857.
Tables of mortality, XIII. 169.
Average death-rate in different countries, XIX. 517.
328 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Causes of death, XVII. 686.
As to suicide, XIII. 179; XXII. 629.
The bonus system, XIII. 178.
The Tontine system, XIII. 183 ; IX. 181.
Lorenzo Tonti, XXIII. 444.
Non-forfeiture laws in the United States, XIII. 182.
Accident or Casuaetv Insurance, XIII. 161.
Accident Insurance in the United States, sup. 34.
Minor forms of insurance, XIII. 161.
Friendly Societies, IX. 780.
Cooperation, V. 338.
Mutual benefit orders, IX. 782.
Societies. _ ,, . . . T .. _
Collecting societies, IX. 783.
Mutual Benefit Societies in the United States,
sup. 417.
Fraternal societies, sup. 418.
Oddfellows, XVII. 723; sup. 417.
Order of Foresters, IX. 782 ; sup. 418.
See also, in this GUIDE, the chapters entitled, The Me-
chanic, The Banker and The Financier, and The Lawyer.
THE LAWYER. 329
CHAPTER XLVIII.
THE LAWYER.
" Points more than all the lawyers in Bohemia can learnedly handle."
—A Winter's Tale.
WHO is there who does not need to know something
about law ? It is, of course, not to be presumed that
every man can be his own lawyer, for there are times
when the advice and assistance of trained members of the
legal profession are indispensable. Nevertheless, there
are certain legal terms and processes with which every
person ought to be familiar. Questions are constantly
arising concerning various matters connected with the
operation and enforcement of the laws, and it frequently
happens that much depends upon one's ability to answer
these questions readily and correctly. You might not deem
it worth your while to consult a professional lawyer about
such matters, and yet if you should have a book at hand
to which you could turn at once for the desired informa-
tion, you would not remain in ignorance concerning them.
The man who has a law library, however small, has often-
times no little advantage over the man who has neither
the library nor the legal education. The Encyclopedia
Britannica is itself, within certain limits, an extensive li-
brary of legal lore, wherein every important sub-
A Law ject connected with this branch of knowledge
Library, receives appropriate attention. To the man of
business it is better than a law library, because
he can refer to it so much more readily. Then, too, its
3&
GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
articles have none of that redundant verbiage which so
often makes the ordinary law-book so tiresome and un-
satisfactory. They crystallize the topics ; they show the
gift of brilliant minds in making principles clear above
everything else.
To the young man who is desirous of following the pro-
fession of law as the business of his life, these
Law articles are worth many times the entire cost of a
Students. set 6f the Britannica. The student who makes
himself thoroughly familiar with all these articles
in their proper sequence, will know more law than many
a graduate from our law colleges. Almost any man of in-
telligence, by following the courses of reading here indi-
cated, may lay the foundations for a successful legal career.
I. INTRODUCTORY.
Read the special article on Legal Education, sup.
1856. Then keeping well in mind the points therein
mentioned, study the article on Law, XIV. 354, which is
of itself "as good as a condensed Blackstone."
Then read, as occasion may permit, the following ar-
ticles or parts of articles :
The origin of law, VIII. 624.
Plato on law, XIX. 210.
Roman schools of law, XIV. 164.
Roman law, XX. 669.
Justinian's codification, XIII. 792 ; VI. 105 ,
Codes. _-..
XX. 712.
Early English law, VIII. 276.
Administration of law in England, VIII. 261.
English codes of law, VI. 104.
Codes of Roman law, XX. 710.
Code of Napoleon, IX. 614; XVII. 205.
Inns of Court, XIII. 87.
in i lawyer. 331
Jurisprudence, XIV. 354.
II. LAWS IN HISTORY.
Laws of Moses, III. 634; XVI. 860; XIII. 397.
Laws of Confucius, VI. 258.
Laws of Mohammed, XVI. 591, 594.
Laws of Lycurgus, XXII. 370.
Agrarian laws, I. 287.
Salic laws, XXI. 212.
Brehon laws, IV. 252; XIII. 218.
American blue laws, sup. 504.
III. GREAT LAWGIVERS AND LAWYERS.
Moses, XVI. 860; XIII. 397.
Confucius, VI. 258.
Biographies.
Buddha, IV. 424.
Mohammed, XVI. 545.
Zoroaster, XXIV. 822.
Lycurgus, XV. 95.
Solon, XXII. 353.
Justinian, XIII. 792.
Alfred the Great, I. 506.
Savigny, XXI. 326.
Thibaut, XXIII. 300.
Zachariae, XXIV. 762.
Grotius, XL 217.
Vico, XXIV. 211.
Sir Edward Coke, VI. 1 19.
Sir William Blackstone, III. 800.
Sir John Fortescue, IX. 420.
Daniel Webster, XXIV. 417.
332 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
IV. GENERAL BRANCHES OF LAW.
Common Law, VI. 208.
Constitutional law, VI. 309.
Criminal law, VI. 587 ; IX. 124.
Canon law, V. 15 ; XIX. 499; V. 551.
Ecclesiastical law, VII. 627.
Military law, XVI. 295 ; IV. 587.
Martial law, VI. 517.
Mercantile law, sup. 2038.
Maritime law, XXI. 589.
International law, XIII. 190; X. 161; XII. 152.
Foreign laws, sup. 1309.
V. SPECIAL LAWS OR CLASSES OF LAWS.
Laws of agriculture, I. 298.
Laws relating to the tenure of land, XIV. 259 ; I. 406.
Homestead laws of the United States, XII. 123.
Landlord and tenant, XIV. 272.
Leases, I. 341.
Laws concerning real estate, XX. 304.
Law of fences in the United States, sup. 1257.
Private International Law, and Interstate Commerce
Laws, sup. 1687.
Laws concerning husband and wife, XII. 400 ; sup. 1998.
Marriage laws, XV. 565.
Marriage laws in the United States, sup. 1998.
Laws of divorce in the United States, sup. 105$.
Laws relating to women, XXIV. 637.
Laws regarding infants, XIII. 1.
Laws concerning personal estate, XVIII. 664.
Exemption laws of the United States, sup. 1228.
Laws of intestacy, XIII. 197.
THE LAWYER. 333
Laws relating to wills, XXIV. 570.
Laws of primogeniture, XIII. 733.
1'. u tn< rship laws, XVII. 3-9; sup. 2303.
Bankrupt laws, III. 341-345 ; sup. 342.
Labor laws, sup. 1198; XIV. 165.
Factory laws in the United States, sup. 1234.
Factory laws, VIII. 844.
Laws of apprenticeship, I. 212.
Corporation laws, VI. 432.
Port laws, XIII. 462.
Press laws, XIII. 710.
Corn laws, VI. 408.
Corn laws in the United States, VI. 413.
Election laws in the United States, sup. 11 30.
Elections, VIII. 2.
Ballot — Australian ballot laws, III. 288; sup. 329.
Laws relating to public health, XX. 96.
Public health laws in the United States, XV. 798.
Lunacy laws, XV. 798.
Quarantine laws, XX. 153.
Burial acts, IV. 537.
Medical laws, XV. 798.
Liquor laws, XIV.
Liquor laws of the United States, sup. 1892.
Sumptuary laws, XXII. 643.
The Army Act, XVI. 297. *
Riot laws, XX. 564.
Laws of treason, XXIII. 525-530.
Pension laws of the United States, sup. 2344.
Passport laws, XVIII. 344.
Passport laws of the United States, sup. 2307.
334 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Patent laws, XVIII. 354; of the United States, sup.
2309.
Copyright laws, VI. 356.
Copyright laws of the United States, VI. 365.
Recent revision of copyright laws, sup. 913.
English laws of copyright, XIV. 546.
International copyright, I. 720.
Municipal laws, VI. 435.
Riparian laws, XX. 265.
Sea laws, XXI. 589.
Fishery laws, sup. 1281.
Game laws, X. 61 ; of the United States, sup. 1362.
Laws of the road, sup. 2555.
Laws of auctions, III. 68.
Laws relating to gambling, X. 66.
Laws relating to lotteries, XV. 11.
Laws relating to travelers, sup. 2936.
For additional references, see the chapter in this Guide
entitled, The American Citizen.
VI. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
Administration of justice in primitive communities,
VIII. 624.
Judicial combat, VII. 511 ; XVII. 820.
Areopagus, II. 481.
Supreme Court of the United States, II. 210;
XIII. 789; sup. 2824.
Courts. T ,. . . ... ,
Judicial courts, VI. 516.
Courts of the United States, sup. 930.
Federal courts of the United States, XXIII. 750.
United States court of claims, sup. 814.
Court of private land claims, sup. 930.
the LAWYER. 335
Courts of appeal, II. 209 ; VI. 516; XIII. 765.
Criminal courts, VI. 516.
Justices' courts, XXII. 641.
English courts of justice, VIII. 261 ; XX. 311.
Quarter sessions, XX. 159.
Courts of summary jurisdiction, XXII. 641.
High court of justiciary, XII. 790.
Courts of oyer and terminer, XVIII. 106.
Courts of chancer)', V. 389; XX. 31 1.
High court of admiralty, I. 158.
Vice-admiralty courts, I. 160; XXI. 607.
Judge, XIII. 762.
Prerogatives of judges, XIX. 673.
Officers. . -
Judicial costume, VI. 370.
Justice of the peace, XXIII. 789.
Grand jury, sup. 1439.
Trial by jury, VIII. 298 ; XIII. 783 ; XXIII. 555.
Trial by court-martial, VI. 517.
Contempt of court, VI. 318.
Barristers, III. 344.
Attorney, III. 52; sup. 284.
Sheriff, XXI. 800; VI. 513.
Constable, VI. 294 ; sup. 899.
Advocates' Faculty in Scotland, sup. 53.
For additional references, see the chapter in this GUIDE
entitled, The Magistrate and the Policeman.
VII. LAW TERMS AND LEGAL PROCESSES.
The following is a partial list of law TERMS and
legal processes explained in the Britannica, to which it
maybe necessary at some time to refer.
336 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Abatement, I. 5 ; sup. 10.
Abduction, I. 31.
Abettor, I. 48.
Abeyance, I. 48 ; sup. 27.
Abstract of title, sup. 30. See, also, Con-
Law Terms, veyancing.
etc. Acceptance, I. 82.
Accession, I. 83.
Accessory, I. 83.
Accident in law, sup. 33.
Accomplice, sup. 36.
Accord and satisfaction, sup. 36.
Acknowledgment, sup. 39.
Acquittal, sup. 40.
Act of God, sup. 40.
Ademption, sup. 47.
Action, I. 132 ; sup. 41.
Adjudication, I. 154.
Administrator, I. 154; sup. 50.
Adoption, I. 163.
Adulteration, I. 167.
Adultery, I. 177 ; sup. 51.
Advancement, sup. 51.
Advocate, I. 178.
Advowson, I. 179.
Affidavit, I. 226 ; sup. 57.
Affinity, I. 226.
Age, Legal, sup. 84 ; of Consent, sup. 84.
Agent, I. 280.
Agistment, I. 283.
Agreement, sup. 86.
Agnates, I. 283.
Aiding and abetting, sup. 102.
Alias, I. 574.
THE LAWYER. 337
Alibi, I. 574 ; sup. 126.
Alien, I. 574.
Aliment, I. 576.
Alimony, I. 576; sup. 127.
Allodium, I. 576.
Amendment, sup. 152.
Annuities, II. 72.
Appeal, II. 208; sup. 206.
Apportionment, sup. 209.
Appraiser, II. 212.
Apprenticeship, II. 212.
Appropriation, sup. 209.
Arbitrage, II. 311.
Arbitration, II. 311 ; sup. 215.
Arraignment, II. 628.
Arrest, II. 629 ; sup. 247.
Arrest of judgment, sup. 248.
Arson, II. 635.
Assault, II. 724.
Assets, II. 729 ; sup. 268.
Assignment, II. 729.
Assize, II. 729.
Association, II. 730.
Attachment, III. 50; sup. 283.
Attainder, III. 52.
Attorney, III. 62; sup. 284.
Barristers, III. 344.
Bench warrant, sup. 415.
Blasphemy, III. 805.
Bigamy, III. 668.
Bill of exceptions, sup. 470.
Bona fide, sup. 514.
Bounty, sup. 533.
Breach of promise, sup. 554.
22
33S GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Bribery, IV. 278 ; sup. 563.
Burden of proof, sup. 624.
Burgage, IV. 532.
Capias, sup. 689.
Casuistry, V. 203.
Certiorari, sup. 737.
Contract, VI. 322.
Costs, VI. 451.
Conveyancing, VI. 324.
Codicil, sup. 853.
Conspiracy, VI. 292.
Company, VI. 221, 434.
Contraband, VI. 320.
Conveyancing, sup. 905
Crime, VI. 582.
Damages, VI. 787; sup. 122S.
Deodand, VII. 100.
Deposition, sup. 1030.
Descent, sup. 1033.
Desertion, sup. 1034.
Domicile, VII. 351.
Divorce, VII. 300-305.
Duel, VII. 511 ; XVII. 820.
Duress, sup. 1096.
Embezzlement, VIII. 159.
Employer and employee, sup. 1198.
Equity, VIII. 510.
Entail, VIII. 450.
Estoppel, VIII. 563.
Eviction, sup. 1224.
Evidence, VIII. 738.
Emigration, VIII. 173.
Exchange, VIII. 783.
Execution, sup. I 228.
THE LAWYER. 339
Executors and administrators, VIII. 800.
Ex post facto, sup. 1231.
Extradition, VIII. 813; sup. 1231.
Factors, VIII. 843.
Felony, IX. 68.
Flotsam and Jetsam, IX. 342.
Forgery, IX. 413.
Franchise, sup. 1325.
Fraud, IX. 726; sup. 1332.
Games and gaming, X. 66.
Gavelkind, X. 1 19.
Garnishment, sup. 1370.
Genealogy, X. 142.
Gift, X. 590.
Guilds, XI. 359.
Habeas corpus, sup. 1502.
Hiring, XII. 1.
Holidays in the United States, sup. 1595.
Homestead, XII. 122.
Homicide, XII. 124.
Hotch-potch, XII. 308.
Impeachment, XII. 717.
Indictment, XII. 842.
Infamy and infamous crime, sup. 1679.
Information, sup. 1679.
Insurance, XIII. 161.
Infant, XIII. 1.
Infringement, sup. 1680.
Inheritance, XIII. ;•/.
Injunction, sup. 1682.
Insanity, XIII. in.
Intestacy, XIII. 197.
Kidnapping, XIV. 69.
Legacy, sup. 1856.
34-0 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Libel and slander, XIV. 505 ; sup. 1872.
Lien, XIV. 569.
License, sup. 1878.
Limitation, statutes of, XIV. 65.
Limitation of actions, sup. 1887.
Misdemeanor, XVI. 502.
Monopoly, XVI. 757.
Mortgage, XVI. 848.
Murder, XVII. 52.
Outlaw, XVIII. 75.
Oyer and terminer, XVIII. 106.
Pardon, XVIII. 271.
Partition, XVIII. 328.
Partnership, sup. 2303.
Patents, XVIII. 354.
Payment, XVIII. 440.
Penalty, sup. 2335.
Perjury, XVIII. 548.
Petition, XVIII. 703.
Pension, sup. 2344.
Pleading, XIX. 217.
Penitentiary, XIX. 748.
Poor, XIX. 462.
Prescription, XIX. 704.
Prisons, XIX. 747.
Primogeniture, XIX. 733.
Quarantine, XX. 153.
Quare impcdit, XX. 158.
Quo warranto, XX. 189; sup. 2487.
Quorum, sup. 2486.
Receivers, sup. 2516.
Recognizance, XX. 309.
Records, XX. 310.
Registration, XX. 342.
THE LAWYER. 34 1
Rent. XX. 402.
Replevin, XX. 404.
Rights, Personal, XX. 555.
Riot, XX. 564.
Sale, XXI. 20t;.
Sea laws, XXI. 583.
Settlement, XXI. 692.
Simony, XXII. 84.
Smuggling, XXII. 185.
Solicitor, XXII. 251.
Stamp, XXII. 448.
Subpoena, XXII. 642; XXIV. 696.
Succession, XXII. 616.
Summons, XXII. 642.
Sumptuary, XXII. 643.
Surrender, XXII. 692.
Taxation, XXIII. 85 ; IX. 117.
Theft, XXIII. 231.
Threats, sup. 2904.
Treason, XXIII. 525.
Tort, XXIII. 454; VI. 587.
Trespass, XXIII. 552.
Trial, XXIII. 555.
Trust, XXIII. 595.
Usury, XXIV. 17.
Venue, XXIV. 162.
Wills, XXIV. 570.
Witness, XXIV. 623 ; VIII. 743.
Wreck, XXIV. 687.
Writ, XXIV. 692.
VIII. TEN BOOKS FOR LAWYERS.
Justinian's Institutes, XIII. 794.
Hunter's Exposition of Roman Law, XIV. 362.
342 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
B-lackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England,
III. 801.
Littleton on Tenures, XIV. 704.
Coke's Institutes ("Coke upon Littleton"), VI. 120.
Austin's Province of Jurisprudence Determined, XIV.
354-
Sir Henry Maine's Early History of Institutions, XIV.
364.
Hobbes's Leviathan, VIII. 422.
Jeremy Bentham's Rationale of Judicial Evidence, III.
576.
Hallam's Constitutional History of England, XL 30,3.
See, also, the chapter entitled The American Citizen,
in this Guide.
THE MAGISTRATE AND POLICEMAN. 343
CHAPTER XLIX.
THE MAGISTRATE AND POLICEMAN.
" Your scope is as mine own, so to enforce or qualify the laws."
— Measure for Measure.
THAT branch of criminal justice which comprises a
methodical system for the prevention and de-
Criminal tection of crime is very appropriately called
Justice. The Police. The object of the police system,
however, extends beyond the mere suppression
of crime, and includes the regulation of whatever is in-
jurious to the peace, morality, and welfare of the com-
munity. It is very evident that the person who is invested
with authority to enforce the observance of law and order
should have at least some general knowledge of the ob-
jects, aims, and methods of police justice. The history of
crime and of the public efforts constantly necessary for
its suppression presents many problems for the considera-
tion of lawmakers, while at the same time it affords much
food for thought to those who are entrusted with the duty
of enforcing the laws. The following references will
direct readers of the Britannica to a vast amount of inter-
esting information relative to crime and its punishment
and the various duties of the policeman. The policeman
himself will find these readings not only entertaining, but
in the highest degree profitable.
/Edile, Roman public officer, I. 180.
Quaestor, Roman magistrate, XX. 145.
Sheriff, XXI. 800.
344 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Constable, VI. 294.
Magistrate, XV. 216; XIII. 762, 789.
Police Commissioners, XIX. 337.
Policemen in the United States, XIX. 341.
Officers. . . ,,T,r
Police in various countries, XIX. 341-344.
Detectives, XIX. 337.
Pinkerton laws, sup. 2392.
Gaoler, XIX. 747.
Arrest, II. 629.
Warrant, XXIV. 371.
Subpoena, XXII. 642.
Summons, XXIV. 696; XIX. 220.
Procedure.
Trial, XXIII. 955.
Jury, XIII. 783.
Justice of the peace, XIII. 789.
Court of justice, XXII. 641.
Witnesses, XXIV. 623 ; VIII. 743 ; XIX. 777.
Plea, XIX. 219.
Advocate, I. 127.
Judgment, XIII. 764.
Habeas corpus, XI. 358.
Corpus delicti, sup. 922.
Pardon, XVIII. 271.
Crime, VI. 582.
Roman laws in relation to crime, XX. 675.
Criminal law, VI. 1587.
Crime. . . ' / '
Criminal courts, VI. 510.
Criminality, sup. 942.
Criminal anthropology, sup. 196.
Identification of criminals, sup. 943.
Bertillon system of identification, sup. 436.
Vidocq, the famous French detective, sup. 3045.
THE MAGISTRATE AND POLICEMAN. 345
Burglary, sup. 625.
("rime in the United States, sup. 2986.
Punishment of crime, XIX. 747.
Punish- Punishment under Roman law, XX. 675.
ment. Stocks, XXII. 560.
Branks for scolds, sup. 550.
Torture, XXIII. 460.
Drowning for punishment, sup. 1083.
The garrote, sup. 1 37 1 .
The knout, XXI. 91.
Whipping-post, sup. 2138.
Capital punishment, sup. 689.
Imprisonment, XIX. 747.
Prisons, sup. 2451.
Prison reform, IX. 307, 805 ; XII. 320.
Prison discipline, XIX. 747.
Reformatory schools, XX. 338.
Reformatories, sup. 2525.
Transportation of convicts, XIX. 748, 750.
Ticket of leave, convicts on, VI. 590.
Penitentiaries, XIX. 748.
Prison discipline in the United States, XIX. 763.
Work-houses, XIX. 468, 476.
For further references, see the chapter entitled, The
Lawyer, in this GUIDE.
346 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER L.
THE PHYSICIAN.
" Then give place to the physician, for the Lord hath created him: let
him not go from thee, for thou hast need of him." — EccLsiaslicus.
Medicine, the subject-matter of one of the learned pro-
fessions, includes a wide range of scientific knowledge and
skill. In the Encyclopedia Britannica it receives
a large share of attention, both in its historical
and scientific aspects. The special article on
this subject, XV. 794-817, gives first a synopti-
cal view of medicine, and then, in the second part, traces
its history from its small beginnings in Greece down to
the present time. Let us reverse this order, and present
first a series of readings or references on
THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE.
Among the ancient Greeks the actual organization of
the healing art was ascribed to yEsculapius (or Asclepius),
of whom we have a special notice in I. 209. We are now
ready to read the section on medicine as portrayed in the
Homeric poems, XV. 799, after which we shall take up the
following subjects in their order:
Hippocratic medicine, XV. 800.
Hippocrates, "the father of medicine," XI. 852; his
surgery, XXII. 674.
Alexandrian school of medicine, XV. 800, and XXII.
674.
nil. PHYSICIAN. 347
Roman medicine, XV. 802; Asclepiades of Prusa, II.
Galen, X. 23; Aretaeus, II. 485.
antine School of Medicine, XV. 804.
Arabian medicine, I. 805, XV. 805 ; Avicenna, III. 152 ;
Averroes, III. 149; Maimonides, XV. 295.
Medicine in the Middle Ages, XV. 806.
The Period of the Renaissance, XV. 807. See, also,
Linacre, XIV. 652 ; Rabelais, XX. 193 ; Paracelsus, XVIII.
234, and XXII. 6j6 (see, in this volume, the references to
Alchemy, pages 137, 138).
Revival of ancient medicine, XV. 809.
Medical Associations in the United States, sup. 2024.
American Academy of Medicine, sup. 32.
Medical education in the United States, sup. 2025.
GREAT PHYSICIANS.
John Kaye, founder of Caius College, IV. 648.
William Harvey, and the discovery of the circulation of
the blood, XI. 502.
Van Helmont, XI. 638.
Borelli, and the Iatro-Physical school, IV. 53.
Francis de le Boe, and the Iatro-Chemical school, XV.
810.
Thomas Sydenham, "the English Hippocrates," XXII.
805. He was the intimate friend of John Locke," the great
sensational philosopher," who was also a thoroughly trained
physician, and practiced medicine privately, XIV. 751.
Hermann Boerhaave, the organizer of the modern
method of clinical instruction, III. 854.
George Ernest Stahl, originator of the theory of " ani-
mism," XXII 444; II. 55.
Morgagni, who was the first to make morbid anatomy a
branch of medical research, XVI. 821.
34S GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
William Cullen, VI 694.
John Brown, " the last systematizer of medicine" — origi-
nator of the Brunonian system — IV. 384.
Hahnemann, founder of the Homoeopathic school, XI.
373; XV. 814.
Rudolf Virchow, the German pathologist, sup. 3050.
Edward Jenner, discoverer of vaccination for smallpox,
XIII. 622 ; XXIV. 23.
Leopold Avenbrugger, inventor of the method of rec-
ognizing diseases of the chest by percussion, III. 100,
145.
Laennec, inventor of the method of physical diagnosis
by the stethoscope, XIV. 200.
Erasmus Darwin, VI. 830; XV. 816.
Richard Bright, discoverer of the disease known by his
name, sup. 571.
William C. Rontgen, discoverer of the Rontgen rays,
sup. 2574.
John Abercrombie, I. 36.
John Abernethy, I. 47.
Erik Acharius, I. 94.
Sir J. F. E. Acton, I. 133.
Alexander of Tralles, I. 486.
Prospero Alpini, I. 619.
Charles Alston, I. 638.
Johann Conrad Amman, I. 739.
John Arbuthnot, II. 325.
Neil Arnot, II. 627.
Aspasius, II. 714.
Andrew Combe, VI. 179.
John Elliotson, VIII. 148.
Austin Flint, sup. 1289.
Robert Koch, discoverer of the " lymph " remedy for
consumption, sup. 1803.
i in: physician. 349
Sir Morell Mackenzie, the great throat specialist, sup.
1958.
Louis Pasteur, discoverer of the cause and cure of hy-
drophobia, sup. 1642, 2308.
But it is unnecessary for the Guide to go farther in
this direction. To give a complete list of the men who
have distinguished themselves in this profession would
transcend the limits assigned to this chapter.
SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF MEDICINE.
See the special article on this subject, XV. 794. The fol-
lowing articles, or parts of articles, may also be consulted
as occasion requires :
Relation of medicine to the body politic, XV. 797.
Subdivisions of Medicine as an art and discipline, XV.
796.
Surgery, XXII. 672.
Surgical pathology, sup. 2826.
Obstetrics — Gynaecology, XV. 797.
Dermatology, XXII. 120; XVIII. 269.
Ophthalmology, XVII. 780.
Laryngology, XXIII. 319.
Otology, VII. 591.
Dentistry, VII. 95 ; artificial teeth, XIII. 523 ; teeth,
XXII. 107; human teeth, VII. 232.
PATHOLOGY, the doctrine of disease, XVIII. 361-407
(very fully illustrated).
See Miscellaneous Topics, below.
THE HUMAN BODY.
ANATOMY, I. 799-908. This is a very complete treat-
ise, describing the special anatomy of the human body in
a state of health. It is amply illustrated with diagrams
and full-page plates.
350 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Skeleton, XX. 105.
Muscles, XIX. 8.
Vascular system, or organs of circulation, XXIV. 95.
Digestive organs, VII. 221.
The skin, I. 897.
Nervous system, XIX. 23.
Physiology, XIX. 8-43. This valuable article is in
two parts (part I., general view; part II., the nervous
system).
Comparative Physiology, III. 684.
Digestion, VII. 221.
Circulation, XXIV. 98 ; XI. 503.
Nutrition, XVII. 675.
Absorption, I. 58 ; XVII. 677.
Animal heat, XVIII. 393.
Vivisection, sup. 3058.
HYGIENE, XII. 566. This is a short article of a popular
character, referring to (1) climatic conditions, (2) site of
dwellings, (3) sanitation of dwellings, (4) ventilation, (5)
cleansing, (6) water supply, (7) work and exercise, etc.
Dietetics, VII. 200.
Athletic training and exercise, III. 12 ; XXI. 60.
Ventilation, XXIV. 157.
Sanitation of dwellings, XXI. 714.
SURGERY.
The general article on this subject, XXII. 672-692, is a
complete treatise of great interest and practical value. It
embraces
History and (1) The history of surgery, XXII. 672.
Practice. (2) Practice of surgery, XXII. 6jy.
Treatment of injuries, XXII. 680.
Process of repair, XXII. 682.
Treatment of diseases, XXII. 683.
mi PHYSICIAN. 351
Operative surgery, XXII. 688.
The supplementary article on American surgery, sup.
2826 2832, describes the recent wonderful advancements
made in the practice of this art.
Inflammation and ulceration, sup. 2827.
Fractures, sup. 2828.
Tumors, sup. 2S28.
Operative surgery, and the brain, sup. 2829.
Abdominal surgery, sup. 2830.
Surgical treatment of appendicitis, sup. 2831.
Surgical treatment for kidney diseases, sup. 2832.
Several other related topics are treated specially, each
under its own title. Among them are
Blood-poisoning, XXI. 666.
Tracheotomy, sup. 2933.
Detection of blood-stains, sup. 501.
Artificial limbs, sup. 255; Surgeon's tools, sup. 2825.
SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE, ETC.
Allopathy, sup. 134.
American Eclectic School of Medicine, sup. 153.
Homceopathy, XII. 126.
Hydropathy, XII. 542; III. 438.
Isopathy, sup. 171 7.
Massage, or Swedish Movement, see Ling, sup. 1889.
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS.
Schizomycetes- — the germ theory of disease, XXI.
39S-407 (illustrated); Bacteriology, sup. 311. The latter
is an exceedingly valuable article, presenting the results of
the latest researches.
Embryology, VIII. 163.
Anaesthesia, I. 789; sup. 174.
Apoplexy, II. 193.
352 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Antidotes, XIX. 276.
Auscultation, III. 100.
Bronchitis, IV. 362.
Catarrh, V. 218, XVIII. 377; of the stomach,
Miscella- xxn ^
„ Cholera, V. 682. The latest discoveries and
Topics. '
theories relating to this disease are described
in sup. 795.
Croup, VI. 616; XXIII. 320.
Dietetics, VII. 200.
Digestive organs, VII. 221.
Diphtheria, VII. 249.
Drowning, VII. 473.
Enteritis, sup. 1207.
Fever, IX. 125.
Goitre, X. 739.
Gout, XI. 5.
Heart diseases, XI. 552.
Hip-joint diseases, sup. 1585.
Hydrophobia, XII. 545.
Hysteria, XII. 600.
Insanity, XIII. 95.
Jaundice, XIII. 598.
Leprosy, XIV. 468.
Longevity, XIV. 857.
Malaria, XV. 316.
Measles, XV. 657.
Neuralgia, XVII. 363.
Nutrition, XVII. 667.
Ophthalmology, XVII. 780.
Paralysis, XVIII. 255.
Parasitism, XVIII. 258.
Pharmacopceia, XVIII. 730.
Phrenology, XVIII. 842.
THE PHYSICIAN. 355
Phthisis, XVIII. 855.
Plague, XIX. 159.
Pleurisy, XIX. 222.
Pneumonia, XIX. 249.
Poisons, XIX. 275 ; XVIII. 406.
Public health, XX. 96.
Quarantine, XX. 153.
Quinine, XX. 184.
Rabies, XX. 190.
Scarlet fever, XXI. 376.
Smallpox, XXII. 162.
Stammering, XXII. 447.
Stomach, Diseases of, XXII. 574.
Stricture, sup. 2813.
Sunstroke, XXII. 666.
Throat diseases, XXIII. 319.
Tuberculosis, see Phthisis.
Typhus, typhoid, and reiapsing fevers, XXIII. 676.
Vaccination, XXIV. 23.
Vascular system, XXIV. 95.
Vesical diseases, XXIV. 188.
Veterinary science, XIV. 197.
Yellow fever, XXIV. 734.
Of shorter and less important articles on medical sub-
jects, the number is so great that we cannot
Diseases, undertake to name them here. The mention of
etc- a few, as below, will serve to indicate the vast
amount of medical lore contained in the Bri-
taniiica :
Abortion, I. 52.
Achor, sup. 38.
Ague, IX. 126.
Acupressure, I. 133.
23
354 GUIDE TO THE BKITANNICA.
Anchylosis, II. 9.
Aneurism, II. 26.
Angina pectoris, II. 29.
Asphyxia, II. 716.
Asthma, II. 736.
Ataxy, Locomotor, II. 826.
Auscultation, III. 100.
Bright's Disease, IV. 345.
Cancer, IV. 800.
Cautery, sup. 727.
Clubfoot, VI. 42.
Colic, VI. 140.
Corpulence, VI. 435.
Cramp, VI. 572.
Croup, VI. 616.
Diabetes, VII. 147.
Endemic diseases, sup. 1200.
Epilepsy, VIII. 479.
Erysipelas, VIII. 531.
Glanders, X. 634.
Hydrophobia, sup. 1642.
Paralysis, XVIII. 255.
Meningitis, XVI. 1 1.
Rheumatism, XX. 516.
Rickets, XX. 548.
Whooping-cough, XII. 154, etc.
REMEDIES.
Remedies are treated in a like comprehensive manner
only a few are named, merely as examples :
Antitoxin, sup. 201.
Arnica, II. 623.
Calomel, IV. 71 1.
Cod-liver oil, VI. 104.
THE PHYSICIAN. 355
Emetics, VIII. 171.
Epsom salts, VIII. 496.
Galbanum, X. 22.
Goa-powder, X. 707.
Merc ui}-. XV. 34.
Quinine, XX. 184.
Tuberculin, sup. 2954.
Antagonism of drugs, sup. 193, etc.
See the references in the chapter entitled, The Apothe-
cary, in this Guide.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEDICINE AND SURGERY.
Stethoscope, III. 100.
Eophone, sup. 1208.
Enucleator, sup. 1208.
Haemocytometer, sup. 1504.
Surgeon's tools, sup. 2825.
Surgeon's illuminating apparatus, sup. 1657.
Sphygmograph, sup. 2768.
Trephine, sup. 2941.
356 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LI.
THE APOTHECARY.
"By medicine life may be prolonged, yet death will seize the doctor
too. ' ' — Cymbcline.
The word apothecary is derived from the Greek apo-
the'kc, the name which Galen (X. 23 ; XV. 803) applied to
the closet or room in which he kept his medicines. In
America an apothecary is often called a druggist ; but in
some sections of the country the term pharma-
cist, or pharmaceutical chemist, is frequently
Definition. ..... _ .. . . ,
applied to him. Generally speaking, an apothe-
cary is a person who compounds and sells drugs
and medicines.
In 1868 an act was passed by the British Parliament
prohibiting any person from engaging in this business
without being registered. Since that time many of the
States of the American Union have passed similar laws.
In most parts of our country an apothecary is now obliged
to pass an examination before a State Board of Pharmacy
before he is permitted to compound medicines or fill
physicians' prescriptions. In some of the States this ex-
amination is very rigid, and only such applicants as are
thoroughly conversant with the principles of pharmacy
and its related subjects can reasonably hope to pass the
ordeal. To persons looking forward to an examination of
this kind, the following references to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica will be of much valuable assistance :
I ill ATol HECARY. 357
Short history of the business of apothecary in England,
II. [98.
Pharmacopoeia, XVIII. 730.
International pharmacopoeia, XVIII. 73 1 .
Dispensary, sup. 1053.
Pharmaceutical chemists, XV. 799.
Materia Medica, XVIII. 730-731.
Forensic Medicine, XV. 778-783.
Organic Chemistry, V. 444.
Practical botany (see Index, IV. 162).
Chemical affinity, I. 153, 226.
Poisons, XIX. 275 ; XVII. 231.
Intoxicants, VII. 482.
Narcotics, XVII. 230.
Stimulants, VII. 205.
Tonics, sup. 2927.
Anaesthetics, XVII. 230.
Anaesthesia, I. 789.
Alcohol, I. 469.
Quinine, XX. 184.
Opium, XVII. 231, 787.
Morphia, XVII. 231, 792.
Some Things chloroform, V. 680.
intheApothe-
cary's Stock.- Chlora1' V' 676> 6?7-
Cocaine, VI. 685 ; sup. 851.
Acetylene, or ethine gas, sup. 37.
Antacids, sup. 193.
Antipyrin, sup. 199.
Antitoxin, sup. 201.
Aromatic vinegar, sup. 246.
Bromide of ethyl, sup. 582.
Ethylamine, sup. 12 18.
358 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Fungicides, sup. 1350.
Hippuric acid, sup. 1587.
The above list might be indefinitely extended, but
enough is here given to show the variety of information
that the Encyclopedia Britannica offers to the apothecary
or pharmacist.
Consult carefully the references given in this GUIDE, in
the chapters entitled The Physician and, The Chemist.
mi CH] MIST. 359
CHAPTER LII.
Till: CHEMIST.
"You arc an alchemist. Make gold !"
— Shakespeare.
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY.
The advancement of the science of chemistry during
the past quarter of a century has perhaps been greater
than during any preceding period of similar length. The
article in the American supplements to the Britanuica,
pages 767-775, describes in a brief but comprehensive
manner all the more important discoveries made since the
year 1875. The complete history of the science is told in
the fifth volume of the Britanuica, in the very scholarly
article on that subject, beginning on page 459.
The first mention of chemistry is found in
History. .... 0
the dictionary of Suidas, who nourished in the
nth century (see XXII. 631). He defines it as
" the preparation of silver and gold," and all the efforts of
the early chemists (whom we now call alchemists) seem to
have been directed toward the finding of some method for
making gold and silver.
From the nth to the 15th century, alchemy was dili-
gently studied by the philosophers of Europe.
This period marks the " sickly but imaginative infancy "
of modern chemistry (see Alchemy, I. 459). It was Para-
celsus who declared that " the true use of chemistry is not
to make gold, but to prepare medicines " (see XVIII. 234).
FAMOUS CHEMISTS.
Van Helmont (1 577-1644), XL 638.
Glauber (1604-1668), the discoverer of Glauber's salt,
X. 675.
360 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691), IV. 184.
F. Hoffman, XII. 46.
Sir Isaac Newton, who was the first to indicate the
nature and modes of formation of gases, XVII. 438 (see
Index).
Dr. Stephen Hales (1677-1761), who was the first to
describe the air as "a fine elastic fluid," XI. 382.
Dr. J. Priestley (1733-1804), the discoverer of oxygen
gas, XIX. 730.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), the inventor of the pneu-
matic trough, V. 271.
Lavoisier (1 743-1 794), XIV. 252.
Dr. Dalton, originator of the atomic theory, VI. 784.
Gay-Lussac, discoverer of the laws of the combinations
of gases by volume, X. 121.
Alexander Von Humboldt, XII. 343.
Robert Hare, sup. 1526.
Justus Liebig, XIV. 565 (see Index).
Michael Faraday, IX. 29.
William Crookes, sup. 950.
Robert Ogden Doremus, sup. 1067.
The following supplementary articles will be found
interesting to every chemist :
Animal Chemistry, sup. 188.
Azotized bodies, sup. 305.
Physiological Chemistry, sup. 2379.
Stereochemistry, sup. 2785.
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.
All of the more important " elementary or simple
bodies " met with in nature are described in special arti-
cles in the Britannica. Among these are :
Aluminium, I. 647.
Antimony, II. 129.
THE CHEMIST. 361
Arsenic, II. 634.
Barium, V. 525.
Bismuth. III. 700.
Elements. ' J
Boron, V. 520.
Bromine, I V. 631.
Calcium, XIV. 647.
Carbon, V. 86.
Chlorine, V. 678.
Cobalt, VI. 81.
Copper (see Index volume, page in).
Gold (see Index volume, page 184).
Hydrogen, XII. 433.
Iodine, XIII. 202.
Iron (see Index volume, page 226).
Lead, XIV. 374.
Magnesium, XV. 217.
Mercury, XVI. 31.
Nickel, XVII. 487.
Nitrogen, XVII. 515.
Oxygen, V. 479.
Phosphorus, XXIII. 815.
Platinum, XIX. 189.
Potassium, XIX. 588.
Silicon, V. 521.
Silver (see Index volume, page 405).
Sodium, XX. 240.
Sulphur, XXII. 634.
Tin, XXIII. 400.
Zinc, XXIV. 784.
Argon, a new gaseous constituent in the atmosphere,
sup. 227.
A complete list of the elements, so far as now known,
is given in sup. 768. The discovery of several new ele-
ments is described in sup. 771.
\62 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
A FEW ADDITIONAL TOPICS.
Atomic theory, V. 465.
Molecular weights, V. 471.
Chemical notation, V. 472.
Organic Chemistry, V. 544; sup. 775.
Animal Chemistry, sup. 188.
Formulae of Organic Compounds, V. 547.
Classification of Organic Compounds, V. 551,
Hydrocarbons, V. 556.
Haloid ethers, V. 565.
Ethers, V. 566.
Aldehydes, V. 567.
Ketones, V. 568.
Organic acids, V. 569.
Ethereal salts, V. 572.
Organo-metallic bodies, V. 573.
Amides, V. 577.
Unclassified organic compounds, V. 578.
liii. MINERALOGIST. 363
CHAPTER LIII.
THE MINERALOGIST.
" Stones whose rates are either rich or poor,
As fancy values them." — Measure for Measure.
A COMTLETE description of mineral species, illustrated
with numerous diagrams and cuts, is given, XVI. 380-429.
Very many of the minerals so described are no-
Mineral ticed at still greater length in special articles.
Species. The following are a few of the most important :
Alabaster, I. 439.
Alum, I. 643 ; XVI. 402.
Aluminum, I. 647.
Amber, I. 659.
Amethyst, I. 736.
Anthracite, II. 106.
Antimony, II. 129.
Arsenic, II. 634.
Asbestos, II. 675.
Asphaltum, II. 715.
Barytes, III. 406.
Beryl, III. 613.
Bismuth, III. 790.
Bitumen, XVI. 428.
Borax, IV. 50.
Calcite, X. 228.
Calc-spar, IV. 653.
Calomel, IV. 711.
Carbuncle, V. 89.
Carnelian, I. 277.
Chalcedony, I. 277.
364 ; GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Chalk, V. 372.
Cinnabar, V. 785.
Clays, X. 237.
Coals (see reference given in The Miner.)
Cobalt, VI. 81; XX. 23.
Copper (see references given in The Miner.)
Copperas, VI. 352.
Diamond, VII. 162; diamond mining, XVI. 455; in
South Africa, V. 42 ; in Brazil, IV. 224; in India, XII.
766; cutting diamonds, XIV. 298.
Emerald, VIII. 170.
Emery, VIII. 171.
Feldspar, X. 227.
Flint, IX. 325.
Fuller's earth, IX. 816.
Galena, XIV. 375.
Garnet, VIII. 640.
Gold (see references in The Miner.)
Graphite, XVI. 381.
Gypsum, XI. 351.
Hornblende, X. 228.
Hornstone, XVI. 389.
Ice, XII. 611.
Iceland-spar, IV. 653.
Iron (see references in The Miner.)
Jasper, XIII. 596.
Jet, XIII. 672.
Kaolin, XIV. 1, 90.
Lead (see references in The Miner.)
Lignite, VI. 46.
Limestone, X. 232.
Loam, XVI. 424.
Magnesia, XV. 218.
Manganese (red), XVI. 398.
THE MINERALOGIST. 365
Marble, XV. 528.
Marl, IV. 281.
Meerschaum, XV. 825.
Mercury, XVI. 31 (see Index volume, page 288).
Meteoric iron, XIII. 285.
Mica, X. 228.
Naphtha, XVII. 174.
Nickel, XVII. 487.
Opal, XVII. 777.
Petroleum, XVIII. 712 ; as fuel, IX. 809.
Platinum, XIX. 189.
Pyrites, XX. 128.
Quartz, XX. 160.
Rock-salt, X. 228 ; XXI. 230.
Ruby, XXI. 47.
Salt, XXI. 228; mines in Austria, III. 120; on Caspian
Sea, V. 178 ; production in the United States, XXIII. 817.
Saltpetre, XXI. 235.
Sapphire, XXI. 302.
Sappirite, XVI. 409.
Shale, XVI. 424; bituminous, XVIII. 240.
Silver (see references in The Miner.)
Slate, XXII. 127 ; quarries of, XVI. 454.
Sulphur, XXII. 634; mines in Sicily, XXII. 30 ; in For-
mosa, V. 636.
Talc, X. 228.
Tin (see references in The Miner.)
Topaz, XXVIII. 446.
Tourmaline, X. 228.
Umber, XVI. 425.
Zinc (see references in The Miner.)
366 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LIV.
THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN.
" I preached as never sure to preach again,
And as a dying man to dying men."
— Richard Baxter, 1650.
" The altitude of literature and poetry has always been religion — and
always will be." — Walt Whitman.
The Encyclopedia Britannica, embracing as it does the
whole range of human knowledge, must neces-
Religious sarily devote a large amount of attention to
Knowledge, subjects connected with the religious history
and religious thought of the world. The num-
ber of articles which it contains of this kind, their com-
prehensiveness, and the breadth of scholarship which they
display, are alike amazing. Few private theological libra,
ries contain so much matter of a quality that is so uni
formly excellent. To the minister, the pastor, the churcl-
official, and the theological student, the Britannica offers
a fund of information and a wealth of knowledge which
can be derived from no other single publication in the
English language. It is not the intention in this chapter
to locate or point out all the articles that relate to theo-
logical or religious subjects. To do so would oblige us to
go beyond all the limitations assigned to this volume.
It will be sufficient to name a few of the most important
subjects, as the reader, when once fairly introduced into
this department of knowledge, will be able readily to
refer to others of a similar character.
THE PREACHER AM) THEOLOGIAN. 367
I. RELIGIONS.
The special article on the religious beliefs and modes of
divine worship peculiar to different tribes, na-
tions, and communities, written by Professor
Great
Religions ^' ^' Tiele, of the University of Leyden, XX.
358-370, will be an excellent introduction to
this course of study. It may be followed by the reading
of such additional articles as these :
1. Christianitv, V. 688-702. A comprehensive sur-
vey of the history and influence of Christianity. By Pro-
fessor T. M. Lindsay, of Free Church College, Glasgow.
2. Judaism. See the two articles, Israel, XIII. 369-
431, and Jews, XIII. 679-687. These articles are chiefly
historical, the first by Dr. Julius Wellhausen, of the Uni-
versity of Halle ; the second by Israel Davis, of London.
Jews in the United States, sup. 1 757-1 760.
3. BRAHMANISM, IV. 201-21 1. By Dr. Julius Eggel-
ing, of the University of Edinburgh.
4. Buddhism, IV. 424-438. By Dr. T. W. Rhys Da-
vids, of London.
5. Mohammedanism, XVI. 545-606. A very compre-
hensive article in three parts :
Part I. Mohammed, by Professor Wellhausen.
Part II. The Eastern Caliphate, by Professor Stanislas
Guyard.
Part III. The Koran, by Professor Noldeke.
Besides the above, there are special articles on all other
religious beliefs and systems that have ever
Other exerted any considerable influence upon the
Beliefs. thought of mankind. The following articles
will be of interest to many readers :
Druidism, VII. 477.
Zoroastrianism, XXIV. 822.
368 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
For an account of the religion peculiar to any given
country, see the article devoted to that country ; for ex-
ample :
Religion in Mexico, XVI. 211 a.
Religion of Hottentots, XII. 311b.
Religion in India, XII. 782 a.
Religion in Abyssinia, I. 63.
Religion in Africa, I. 65.
Religion of gypsies, X. 616, etc.
II. BELIEF IN GOD.
Closely allied in thought to the articles mentioned
above are such as the following :
THEISM, XXIII. 234-249. This embraces a survey of
primeval religious ideas, with notices of polytheism, mono-
theism, trinitarianism, unitarianism, deism, mysticism, ag-
nosticism, etc.
Deism, VII. 33.
Theosophy, XXIII. 278 ; sup. 2893 ; Madame Blavatsky
sup. 495 ; William 0. Judge, sup. 1761.
Kabbalah, XIII. 810.
Rationalism, XX. 289.
Agnosticism, sup. 85.
Idolatry, XII. 698.
Fetichism, IX. 1 18.
See also God, in Index volume, page 184.
III. DOCTRINE, ETC.
Read the special article on THEOLOGY, XXIII. 260-
276; also the following:
Apologetics, II. 189; sup. 1224.
Christian Evidences of Christianity, sup. 1224.
Doctrine. DOGMATICS, VII. 332-342, " a branch of theo-
logical study which treats of the doctrine of
Christianity."
1 III: PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN. 369
HERMENEUTICS, XI. 741-749, "which treats of Scrip
ture interpretation."
Harmony of the Gospels, sup. 1528.
ESCHATOLOGY, VIII. 534-538, " the doctrine of the last
things."
Immortality. See Butler, IV. 584; Plato, XIX. 199,
209; Vedanta, XXIV. 118.
CREEDS, VI. 558-565, "authorized formularies of Chris-
tian doctrine."
To these longer articles many others might be added,
such as :
The Holy Ghost, sup. 1600.
Predestination, XIX. 668.
Atonement, sup. 282.
Imputation, sup. 1661.
Justification, sup. 1763.
Inspiration, XIII. 154.
Sanctification, XVIII. 425.
Prophecy, XIX. 814.
Anthropomorphism, II. 123.
Transubstantiation, VIII. 653; sup. 2567.
Perfectionism, sup. 2348.
Antichrist, II. 124.
Christian Apocalyptic, II. 179.
Apostasy, II. 189.
Heresy, XI. 732.
Arminianism, sup. 236.
Apostolic Succession, sup. 205.
Indulgence, XII. 846.
Immaculate Conception, XII. 715.
Consecration, VI. 291.
Beatification, sup. 391.
See, also, the references to Christianity and Church
history below.
24
370 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
IV. CHRISTIANITY.
Christianity, V. 688; creeds of, VI. 558; doctrines of
VII. 332 ; ethics of, VIII. 588 ; theology of, XXIII. 239.
Christ, V. 687.
The testimony of the Gospels to Jesus Christ, XIII. 659.
Christology, sup. 799.
The Church, V. 758.
Views of Christianity by famous writers and philoso-
phers :
Origen's, XVII. 841.
Irenseus's, XIII. 274.
Clement's, V. 820.
Lessing's, XIV. 482.
Locke's, XIV. 756.
Rousseau's, XIII. 670.
Voltaire's, IX. 669.
1. Roman Catholic Church, sup. 2566-2573, an im-
portant and very comprehensive article by Cardinal
Gibbons, should be read in connection with the general
article on the same subject, XX. 628-631, by P. L.
Connellan, of Rome. See also POPEDOM, XIX. 487 - 5 10.
This latter article is designed to give the main outlines
of the history of the Papacy as an institution.
Christian So- A Hst q£ th(, pQpes jg -^ ;U the effd . &nd
cieties and . .
churches reao-ers wishing to extend their knowledge ot
this subject by becoming acquainted with the
personal history of the pontiffs may do so by referring to
the special articles in the Britannica relating respectively
to the different popes. The method of electing a pope is
described in sup. 2568. The following articles may also
be read :
Catholic, V. 227. (For the first use of this name, see V. 9.)
Catholics in America, sup. 2569.
THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN. 371
Titles in the Catholic Church, sup. 2919.
Archbishops, II. 569.
Bishops. III. 788.
. 'but, I. 22.
Acolyte, I. 98.
Celibacy, V. 293.
Propaganda, XIX. 809.
Ultramontism, sup. 2977.
History of Monasticism, I. 14-21, to be read in connec-
tion with
Monachism, XVI. 698.
Asceticism, II. 6j6.
Religious Brotherhoods, sup. 586.
Franciscans, IX. 698.
Dominicans, VII. 354; XIII. 93.
Benedictines, III. 558 ; VIII. 372; sup. 417.
Carthusians, V. 163 ; I. 20.
Jesuits, XIII. 645 ; XVIII. 430 ; sup. 1742.
Passionists, sup. 2307.
Paulist Fathers, sup. 2326.
Trappists, XXIII. 522.
Acoemetae (sleepless monks), I. 98.
Sisters of Charity, sup. 754.
Old Catholics, XVII. 754.
2. Greek Church, XI. 154.
Stundists of Russia, sup. 2814 ; XXI. 82.
3. Armenian Church, II. 548.
4. PROTESTANTISM, XX. 319. Of the sects of Protest-
antism a very large number are noticed in separate
articles in the Britannica. The following will indicate
the scope and character of these articles :
372 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Adventists, XVI. 320; sup. 52.
Baptists, III. 353 ; Freewill Baptists, IX. 762; Baptists
in the United States, sup. 346. This article includes brief
accounts of all the different bodies of Baptists now in this
country.
Catholic Apostolic, V. 237.
Christian Brethren, XIX. 238.
Dissenters, sup. 1053.
Christian Alliance, sup. 797.
Congregationalists, VI. 268; in the United States, sup.
887.
Episcopal: Church of England, VIII. 370; Protestant
Episcopal Church of the United States, VIII. 493.
Disciples of Christ, sup. 1052.
Evangelical Association, VIII. 725; sup. 1221.
Free Church of England, sup. 1335.
Friends, sup. 1344 (see Quakers), XX. 147.
Independents, XII. 722.
Lutherans, XV. 84 ; in the United States, sup. 1932.
Mennonites, XVI. 1 1 ; sup. 2036.
Methodists, XVI. 185 ; in the United States, sup. 2045.
African Methodist Episcopal Church, sup. 83.
Moravian Brethren, XVI. 811 ; sup. 2101.
Mormons, XVI. 825.
Latter-day Saints, or Mormons, sup. 1837.
New Jerusalem Church, sup. 2177; XXII. 759.
Presbyterians, XIX. 676; sup. 2437; Cumberland Pres-
byterians, sup. 963.
Protestant Episcopal Church, sup. 2464.
Reformed Church, XX. 339; Alliance of Reformed
Churches, sup. 132; Reformed Church in America, sup.
2526.
Salvation Army, sup. 2616.
Spiritualists, XXII. 404; II. 207.
THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN. 373
United Brethren, XXIII. 726; sup. 2982.
Unitarians, XXIII. 725 ; sup. 2980.
Universalists, XXIII. 831 ; sup. 3001.
To these might be added an extensive list, embracing
such names as the following :
Abecedarians, sup. 24.
Antinomians, II. 129.
Aquarians, II. 217.
Annihilationists, VIII. 538.
Annunciada, sup. 191.
Hussites, XII. 407.
Illuminati, XII. 706.
Latitudinarians, sup. 1837.
Christadelphians, sup. 796.
The Arminian Nunnery, sup. 1259. (See Ferrar.)
Winebrennerians, sup. 804.
But it is unnecessary to attempt a complete list. The
reader who so desires will now be able to continue the in-
vestigation of this subject without further assistance from
the Guide.
V. CHURCH HISTORY.
As an introduction to another valuable course of read-
ing, take the article entitled CHURCH AND CHURCH HIS-
TORY, V. 758.
The number of special articles, biographical and histori-
cal, relating to the history of the Christian church may
be estimated from the following incomplete list of sub-
jects which receive treatment in the first volume alone :
Volume 1 : — Saint Adalbert, p. 134; Adam of Bremen,
p. 138; Adiaphorists, p. 153 ; Adoption Controversy, p.
163; Popes Adrian, p. 165; ^Etius, p. 356; Archbishop
Agelnoth, p. 279; Johannes Agricola, p. 290; Bishop
Aidan, p. 424; Aired, p. 475 ; St. Alban, p. 446; Cardinal
3/4 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Albert, p. 451; Albigenses, p. 454; Bishop Alcock, p.
469; Alcuin, p. 471; Bishop Aldred, p. 475; Cardinal
Aleandro, p. 476 ; Alesius, p. 478 ; Popes Alexander, p.
486; Joseph Alleine, p. 581 ; Felix Amat, p. 653 ; Amal-
ric of Bena, p. 652 ; Saint Ambrose, p. 662 ; Nicolaus
Arnsdorf, p. 778 ; Moses Amyrant, p. 782.
Instead of continuing this list so as to cover in the same
way the remaining twenty-three volumes of the Britannica%
the GUIDE deems it sufficient to name merely a
Select List ^ew °f the most important subjects.
ofTopics. The history of the Christian church may be
said to begin with the preaching of St. Peter on
the day of Pentecost. See, therefore, St. Peter, XVIII.
693 ; Pentecost, XVIII. 514; Acts of the Apostles, I. 123.
After these, read :
Saint Paul, XVIII. 415.
Saint John, XIII. 706.
Saint Andrew, II. 20.
Revelation, XX. 506.
Apollos, II. 189.
Apostolic Fathers, II. 195.
Saint Anthony, II. 107.
Saint Augustine, III. 75.
Justin Martyr, XIII. 790.
The four Saint Gregories, XI. 775-781.
Arius, II. 537.
Saint Fulgentius, sup. 1349.
Saint Athanasius, I. 828.
Basil the Great, III. 412.
Chrysostom, V. 755.
Eusebius, VIII. 721.
Irenaeus, XIII. 273.
Cyril of Alexandria, VI. 751.
Nestorius, XVII. 355.
["HE PREACHKR AND THEOLOGIAN. 375
Polycarp, XIX. 414.
Saint Barbara, sup. 350.
Saim Agnes, sup. 85.
Saint Epiphanius, XVIII. 482.
Saint Alban, I. 446.
Sylvester, XXII. 74.
Bede, III. 480.
Saint Bridget, IV. 342.
Saint Bernard, III. 601.
Crispin and Crispinian, VI. 590.
Saint Boniface, IV. ^^.
Lanfranc, XIV. 282.
Anselm, II. 91.
Arnold of Brescia, II. 625.
Thomas a Kempis, XIV. 316.
Saint Benedict, III. 557.
Saint Dominic, VII. 353.
Saint Francis, IX. 692 ; Franciscans, IX. 698.
The Jesuits, XIII. 645.
History of Monasticism, I. 14.
Capuchins, V. 79.
Carthusians, V. 163.
Carmelites, V. 1 16.
Celestines, V. 291.
Flagellants, IX- 280.
Cloister, VI. 35.
Asceticism, III. 6/6.
Saint Dunstan, VII. 359.
Manichaeism, XVII. 124.
The Albigenses, I. 454.
The Lollards, XIV. 810.
The Waldenses, XXIV. 322.
The Council of Basil, III. 409.
The Inquisition, XIII. 91.
376 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Francis Xavier, XXIV. 716.
John Wycliffe, XXIV. 708.
Zwingli, XXIV. 832.
Erasmus, VIII. 512.
Martin Luther, XV. 71.
John Huss, XII. 404.
John Calvin, IV. 714.
The Huguenots, XII. 337.
The Reformation, XX. 319.
Council of Trent, XXIII. 543.
Thomas Cranmer, VI. 548.
John Knox, XIV. 130.
William Laud, XIV. 346.
Puritanism in England, VIII. 340.
George Fox, IX. 500.
John Bunvan, IV. 526.
John Wesley, XXIV. 504; VIII. 355.
Emanuel Swedenborg, XXII. 758.
Leo XIII., sup. 1864.
James Freeman Clarke, sup. 819.
Alexander Campbell, sup. 667.
Phillips Brooks, sup. 584.
Henry Ward Beechcr, sup. 400.
Lyman Abbott, sup. 15.
F. W. Farrar, sup. 1249.
Charles H. Parkhurst, sup. 2296.
William Booth, sup. 522.
Christian Missions, XVI. 511.
Sunday-schools, sup. 2823.
Epworth League, sup. 12 10.
Christian Endeavor, Society of, sup. 797.
Young Men's Christian Association, sup. 3223.
Young Women's Christian Association, sup. 3224.
THE PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN. 377
Woman's Christian Temperance Union, sup. 3182.
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge,
sup. 798.
VI. FORMS, CEREMONIES, AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES.
The Seven Sacraments :
Baptism, III. 348.
Confirmation, V. 258.
Eucharist, VIII. 650; sup. 1619.
Penance, XVIII. 484.
Extreme Unction, VIII. 813.
Holy Orders, sup. 2567 ; II. 90.
Matrimony, sup. 2567.
Ecclesiastical costume, VI. 461.
Ablution, I. 50.
Rituals, sup. 2554.
Mass, sup. 2572.
Apostles' Creed, II. 194.
Apostles' Canons, II. 194.
The Litany, XIV. 695.
The Catechism, V. 219.
Confession, VI. 257.
Anointing, II. 90.
Holy water, XII. 105.
Adoration, I. 164.
Incense, XII. 718.
Rosary, XX. 848.
Breviary, IV. 263.
Missal, XVI. 508.
Absolution, I. 58.
Excommunication, VIII. 798; Bell, Book, and Candle,
sup. 410.
Stigmatization, XXII. 548.
378 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Fasting, IX. 44.
Sacrifice, XXI. 132.
Pilgrimage, XIX. go.
Love Feasts, XVI. 188 ; V. 274.
Vows, XXIV. 300.
Hymns, XII. 577.
Dies Irae, sup. 1046.
Kyrie Eleison ! sup. 1812.
Peter's Pence, sup. 2357.
VII. HOLY DAYS, FEASTS, ETC.
Sunday, XXII. 653.
Christmas, V. 704.
Lent, X. 446.
Feas;s Palm Sunday, XVIII. 198.
and * y
Holy Days Passion Week, XVIII. 343.
Good Friday, X. 774.
Easter, VII. 613.
All Saints' Day, I. 578 ; sup. 132.
All Souls' Day, sup. 135.
Atonement Day, VIII. 806.
Candlemas, IV. 804.
Corpus Christi, VI. 436.
Feast of the Annunciation, II. 90.
Feast of the Assumption, II. 734.
Epiphany, VIII. 483.
VIII. CHURCH GOVERNMENT, ETC.
Pope (see Index volume, page 353).
Cardinal, V. 96; sup. 696.
Crnclave of Cardinals, sup. 880.
Roman Congregations, sup. 888.
Patriarch, III. 788.
llii: PREACHER AND THEOLOGIAN. S7lJ
Bishop, III. 787.
Tics!)} ter, X. 075.
Clergy, \". 828.
°fficers Dean, VII. 13.
church. Acolyte, 1. 98.
Abbe, I. 9.
Abbess, I. 9 ; abbot, I. 22.
Abbreviators, I. 29.
Advocatus diaboli (devil's advocate), sup. 54.
Catechumen, V. 220.
Canon, V. 15.
Defender of the marriage tie, sup. 1013.
Parson, XVIII. 327.
Vicar, XVIII. 296.
Curate, VI. 709.
Legate, XIV. 412.
Archbishop, III. 369.
Priest, X. 724.
Deacon, VII. 1 ; deaconess, VII. 1.
Archdeacon, III. 370.
Almoner, I. 595.
Nun, XVI. 699; monk, XVI. 698.
Neophyte, XVII. 332.
Canon law, V. 1-23.
Apostolic canons, II. 194.
The Thirty-nine Articles, II. 653.
IX. THE BIBLE.
For a general discussion of questions relating to the
Bible and its circulation to the year 1875, see Bible, III.
634-650. For a comprehensive account of its circulation
since 1875, see sup. 442-456. This latter article contains
specimen extracts from Bibles printed in 242 languages
and dialects. It is followed by a list of the Bible Societies
380 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
of the world, sup. 456, giving the number of Bibles issued
by each society since its organization.
Inspiration of the Bible, XIII. 154.
Wycliffe's Bible, XXIV. 710.
The Douay Bible, sup. 1069.
Tyndale's Bible, XXIII. 76.
The Geneva Bible, VIII. 387.
The Breeches Bible, VIII. 387.
The Septuagint, XXI. 667.
King James's Version, VIII. 381.
Bible Societies, III. 649.
Bible glosses, X. 687.
Spinoza on Biblical Criticism, XXII. 402.
Higher Criticism, sup. 944.
Origen on Biblical Criticism, XVII. 840; Baur, III. 448 ;
De Wette, VII. 144; Morinus, XVI. 824.
Revision of the Bible, sup. 2539.
See the chapter in this GUIDE entitled, Readings for
Bible Students.
See Theological Education, sup. 2889-2892.
THE PHILANTHROPIST AND REFORMER. 381
CHAPTER LV.
THE PHILANTHROPIST AND REFORMER.
" Love all, trust a few; do wrong to none."
— A 11 ' s Well That Ends Well.
PHILANTHROPY, in its broadest sense, is love of man-
kind manifested in deeds of kindness to one's fellows.
While the ultimate object of all philanthropists
Philan- is the same— the mitigation of misfortune and
thropy. the consequent betterment of all conditions of
life — the methods which they pursue are widely-
different, and the immediate ends toward which they aim,
are many and various. Some labor in missions, believing
that in the spread of the Gospel of Christ there is the surest
means of promoting human happiness. Some devote their
energies to measures of reform, hoping that by effecting
certain changes, whether in the political or the social world,
mankind may be elevated to a higher plane of existence.
Some have been fearless antagonists of slavery and other
forms of oppression, and their voices have always cham-
pioned the cause of the weak, the downtrodden, and the
poor. Some labor in behalf of prison reform, and strive
to bring about better and more humane methods of dealing
with criminals. Some are active in deeds of charity and
in the promotion of means to improve the condition of the
poor. And so each philanthropist works in his own field,
but all are actuated by the same impulse — the impulse of
sympathy and love, the impulse to do good to suffering
humanity. To all who are interested either directly or
382 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
indirectly in any form of philanthropical effort, the Ency-
clopedia Britannica offers a mine of valuable information.
The following lists of references, although by no means ex-
haustive, will be of assistance to every one who seeks to
know more about the active benevolences of the world.
For a comparison between Pagan and Christian philan-
thropy, see VIII. 590.
I. MISSIONS AND MISSIONARIES.
List of missionary societies, XVI. 515.
Christian missions, XVI. 511.
Missions in China, XIX. 810; XVI. 517.
Missions in India, XIX. 81 1 ; XXIV. 716.
Missions in Japan, XVI. 517; XIII. 652.
Roman Catholic propaganda, XIX. 809.
Mission- The Jesuit system of missions, XIII. 651,
aries. 654; XX. 536; in North America, sup. 1742.
Baptist missions, III. 356.
Methodist missions, XVI. 517.
Moravian missions, XVI. 811 ; XVI. 516.
The McAll mission in France, sup. 1940.
Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, XXIV. 716.
John Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians, VIII. 136 ; XVI.
514: XVII. 243.
Robert Morrison, missionary to China, XVI. 846.
William Carey, the father of Protestant missions, V. 101.
Adoniram Judson, missionary to India, XIII. 766.
Father Jogues, Jesuit missionary among the Mohawks,
sup. 1745.
John Williams, missionary, XXIV. 586.
Henry Martyn, missionary to Persia, XV. 586; XVIII.
649.
Thomas Gage, first missionary to Mexico, sup. 1 356.
Robert Moffat, African missionary, XVI. 543.
THE PHILANTHROPIST AND REFORMER. 383
David Livingstone, XIV. 720; I. 247.
William Goodell, missionary in Turkey, sup. 1423.
Stephen Grellet, French Quaker missionary, sup. 1467.
Robert W. McAll, founder of the McAll missions, sup.
1940.
Samuel Marsden, the Apostle of New Zealand, XVII.
471.
William A. P. Martin, president of Tungwcm College,
Peking, sup. 2004.
II. FRIENDS OF HUMANITY.
Thomas Joseph Barnardo, " father of the don't live
anywheres," sup. 357.
Clara Barton, founder of the Red Cross So-
Philanthro- Ciety, Slip. 367.
pists. Charles Loring Brace, sup. 541.
Baroness Burdett-Coutts, sup. 624.
Mary Carpenter, sup. 706.
George W. Childs, sup. 789.
Peter Cooper, sup. 910.
Elizabeth Fry, English Quakeress, IX. 804.
Edward Denison, originator of " university settlements,"
sup. 1026.
Sarah Piatt Doremus, sup. 1068.
Henry Towle Durant, founder of Wellesley College,
sup. 1096.
Abigail Hopper Gibbons, sup. 1393.
Stephen Girard, founder of Girard College, X. 621 ; sup.
1 40 1.
Baron Hirsch, the Jewish philanthropist, sup. 1588;
Philanthropies of American Jews, sup. 1760.
Johns Hopkins, sup. 1612.
Dr. Samuel G. Howe, sup. 1624.
James Lenox, founder of Lenox Library, sup. 1864.
384 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
James Lick, founder of Lick Observatory, sup. 1878.
Sir Josiah Mason, founder of almshouses and orphan-
ages, sup. 2009.
Sir Moses Montefiore, sup. 2096.
Geo. Miiller, founder of orphans' homes, England, sup.
2124.
Florence Nightingale, sup. 221 1.
George Peabody XVII. 442; sup. 2329.
Samuel Plimsoll, "the sailor's friend," sup. 2401.
Enoch Pratt, founder of Pratt Library, sup. 2436.
Charles Pratt, founder of Pratt Institute, sup. 2435.
Matthew Vassar, philanthropist and founder of the So-
ciety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, sup. 3025.
George Williams, founder of the Young Men's Christian
Association, sup. 3157.
Sisters of Mercy, sup. 2039.
Sisters of Charity, XVI. 713.
John Howard, the father of prison reform, XII. 309.
Elizabeth Fry, IX. 804.
p . , Theodore Fliedner, German philanthropist,
Friends. IX. 307.
Enoch Cobb Wines, founder of the National
Prison Association, sup. 3168.
The Prison Discipline Society, XIX. 749.
The Howard Association, sup. 1623.
The following references may be found interesting and
valuable in connection with any study of human benevo-
lence :
The Sanitary Commission, sup. 2624.
Woman's Relief Corps, sup. 3183.
Red Cross Society, sup. 2521.
The education of defective, dependent, and criminal
classes, sup. 2658.
Reformatories, sup. 2525.
THE PHILANTHROPIST AND REFORMER. 385
University settlements, sup. 3005.
Charity organizations, sup. 751.
Law and Order societies, sup. 1843.
Societies tor the Prevention of Cruelty to Children,
sup. 788.
Almshouses, sup. 138 ; XIX. 465.
Almsgiving in relation to Poordaws, XIX. 463.
The Montyon Prizes (rewards for signal instances of
philanthropy), sup. 2099.
Poordaws, XIX. 462 ; sup. 2417.
English Poordiouses, XIX. 468.
Nursing, sup. 2231.
Hospitals, XII. 301.
Bellevue Hospital, sup. 411.
Guy's Hospital, sup. 1499.
Foundling hospitals, IX. 481.
Ambulance associations, sup. 151.
Hospital ambulances, I. 665.
Tenement life, sup. 2873.
III. ANTI-SLAVERY LEADERS.
Abolitionists, XXII. 141 ; sup. 28.
Abolition of slavery in the United States, XXIII. 752,
763, 767, 781.
Abolition of slavery in England, VIII. 365.
Clarkson on slavery, V. 813.
The Quakers' opposition to slavery, XVIII. 492.
John Woolman, sup. 3 191.
President Jefferson's opposition to slavery, XIII. 615.
Emancipation in the United States, XXIII. yyj.
William Wilberforce, XXIV. 565.
William Forster, sup. 13 13.
William Lloyd Garrison, X. 85 ; XVII. 432 ; XXII. 145.
Joshua R. Giddings, sup. 1395.
386 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Wendell Phillips, I. 723 ; sup. 2366.
Samuel May, sup. 2020.
Elijah P. Lovejoy, XXII. 142 ; sup. 1922.
Owen Lovejoy, sup. 1924.
Benjamin Lundy, sup. 1931 .
James G. Birney, sup. 476.
Elizur Wright, sup. 3206.
Anna Dickinson, sup. 1043.
Harriet Beecher Stowe, sup. 2797.
John Brown, IV. 365 ; XI. 490.
Henry B. Stanton, sup. 2779.
John Greenleaf Whittier, I. 734.
John C. Fremont, sup. 1339.
Abraham Lincoln, XIV. 658.
Frederick Douglass, sup. 1071.
See, also, the following articles : History of Slavery,
XXII. 129; Ancient Slavery, XIX. 348; the Slave-trade,
XXII. 137; British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society,
sup. 576; Freedmen's Bureau, sup. 1336.
IV. REFORMS AND REFORMERS.
i. The Woman Suffrage Movement.
The first convention in the United States to advocate
Woman's suffrage was held at Seneca Falls, N. Y., in
1848. Four women were present.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, sup. 2778.
Lucretia Mott, sup. 21 18.
Lucy Stone, sup. 2793.
Susan B. Anthony, sup. 195.
Mary A. Livermore, sup. 1899.
Antoinette Brown Blackwell, sup. 488.
Amelia Bloomer, inventor of the " Bloomer costume,"
sup. 502.
Emily Faithfull, sup. 1240.
Till: rilll.ANTIIROHST AND REFORMER. 387
Millicent Garrett Fawcett, sup. 1251.
Ellen II. Foster, sup. 13 18.
May Wright Sewall, sup. 2694.
Women's clubs, sup. 838.
Education and enfranchisement of women, sup. 31 80.
2. The Temperance Movement.
Liquor laws. XIV. 688; sup. 1892.
Temperance legislation, XIV. 688.
Prohibition laws, sup. 1892.
Option laws, sup. 1893.
South Carolina dispensary system, sup. 1894.
The Gothenburg system, sup. 1895.
Raines liquor law, sup. 1 894.
The Prohibition Party, sup. 2453.
Temperance societies, XXIII. 158.
Woman's Christian Temperance Union, sup. 3182.
Temperance legislation in the United States, sup. 1892.
Father Mathew societies, XV. 631.
Good Templars, XXIII. 159; sup. 1892.
John B. Gough, sup. 143 1.
Frances E. Willard, sup. 3155.
3. Social Reformers.
Felix Adler, founder of the Society for Ethical Culture,
sup. 49 ; sup. 1 2 18.
Charles Bradlaugh, English agitator and social reformer,
sup. 544.
Anthony Comstock, champion of social purity, sup. 879.
Elbridge T. Gerry, president of the Society for the Pre-
vention of Cruelty to Children, sup. 1389.
Society for Ethical Culture, sup. 12 18.
388 < GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LVI.
THE TUBLIC SPEAKER.
" Mend your speech a little,
Lest it may mar your fortunes." — King Lear.
He who would excel as a public speaker must in the
first place possess a thorough mastery of words. He
must be able to express his thoughts in a manner which
is, at the same time, pleasing, forcible, and convincing.
He must have a minute and comprehensive knowledge of
everything pertaining to the subject which he undertakes
to discuss ; and he must understand the secret influences
and methods by which the minds of his hearers may be
moved and their actions determined. A mastery of
words and of correct and elegant language may be ac-
quired by the study of rhetoric and its kindred branches
(see the chapter entitled, The Writer, in this GUIDE). A
knowledge of the subject to be discussed must be obtained
by careful investigation, by personal experience, and by
the study of books. One's understanding of the human
mind and its motives may be improved by the study of
philosophy, and especially that division of the science
which is usually called psychology (see the references in
the chapter entitled, The Teacher, in this GUIDE).
Very much may be learned by studying the methods
of famous orators of former times. Would you
Greek and j^now tilc methods by which Demosthenes made
Roman . , ,, . . .. .
Oratory himself the greatest orator of all time, and
would you understand something of the distinc-
tive qualities of his oratory ? Read the article in the
UN. PUB! IC SPEAKER. 389
Britcin>iicc7, VII. 72; then read of the characteristics of
Greek oratory in general, XI. 142. Read of Antiphon,the
most ancient of Greek orators, II. 134 a; of Isa-us, XIII.
376; of Hyperides, XII. 596 b; of Lysias, XV. 118; of
Isocratcs, XIII. 388; and of Andocides, II. 18.
Then see what is said about Roman oratory, XX. 719.
Read of Cicero, V. 770, and XX. 514; of Hortensius, XII.
210; of Marcus Antonius, II. 140; of Domitius Afer, I.
225 ; of Julius Caesar, IV. 633 and XX. 720.
Then coming down to the oratory of modern times,
read of Lord Chatham, V. 440; of Burke, IV. 544; of
Fox, IX. 500; of the younger Pitt, XIX. 134;
British of Grattan, XI. 63 ; of Brougham, IV. 374; of
Oratory. Lord Derby, VII. 112; of Robert Hall, XI. 392.
Finally, arriving at the study of our own
American orators, read I. 7^1 b', and I. J22 b". Then
turn to the article on Patrick Henry, XI. 6,6; and after-
ward to those on Fisher Ames, I. 735 ; Daniel Webster,
XXIV. 471 ; Henry Clay, V. 817 ; John C. Cal-
American houn, IV. 683 ; Edward Everett, VIII. 736.
Oratory. The rules that govern argumentative bodies
should be thoroughly understood by every
public speaker. Hence refer to
Parliamentary law, sup. 2298.
Parliamentary procedure, XVIII. 311.
Quorum, sup. 2486.
Once started in this course of reading, you will be sur-
prised at the large number of additional subjects which
will suggest themselves ; and if you are actually in earnest,
you will need no guide to point out their whereabouts in
the Britannica. You will be able to depend upon and
help yourself.
As an example of the manner in which a single subject
may be studied with a view to its discussion in public, let
390 « GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
us suppose that you are preparing a lecture on temperance.
What help can the Encyclopedia Britannica give
you ? Let us see. That the wisest of ancient
Temperance ... . . . _r.„TT
Lecturer philosophers advocated temperance, see XXII.
237, and II. 677; and that they declared it to
be one of the cardinal virtues, see VIII. 580.
Read of Bacchus, VII. 248, and XVII. 839.
Then, coming to later times, study the valuable article
on Drunkenness, VII. 481 ; also Liquor Laws, XIV. 688
and sup. 1892 ; Temperance societies, XXIII. 158 ; Good
Templars, XXIII. 159.
Prisons, XIX. 747.
Poor-houses, XIX. 468.
Other articles and sections which may be read at pleas-
ure are :
John B. Gough, sup. 1431,
Prohibition laws, sup. 1892.
Option laws, sup. 1893.
South Carolina dispensary system, sup. 1894.
The Gothenburg dispensary plan, sup. 1895.
Raines liquor law, sup. 1894.
Prohibition Party, sup. 2453.
Father Mathew societies, XV. 631.
Alcoholic beverages, sup. 117.
Distillation of spirits, VII. 264 a.
Brewing, IV. 294; fermentation, XXIV. 602.
Brewing in the United States, sup. 560.
Brandy, IV. 216.
Whisky, XXIV. 542.
Effects of whisky, XVIII. 407.
Wine, XXIV. 601.
Ale, I. 476.
Absinthe, I. 57.
Arrack, II. 628.
THE PUBLIC SPEAKER. 39I
Gin, X. 602.
Liqueurs, XIV. 686.
Perry, XIV. 557,
and in like manner, through the entire list of intoxicating
beverages. To these may be added such articles as
The Keeley Gold-cure, sup. 1775.
Delirium tremens, VII. 50.
Insanity, XIII. 95 ; in relation to crime, VI. 584.
Heredity, VIII. 60S ; XI J I. 96, and XI. 837.
The list of books and other publications which advocate
the cause of temperance, XXIII. 160, will be found of
much value in directing you to further research.
So much for the lecturer on temperance. The political
speaker will find a selection of references for his special
use in our chapter entitled, The American Citi-
Other zen ; the pulpit orator will find an extensive
Speakers. array of references in the chapter for The
Preacher and Theologian ; and, generally speak-
ing, the various subjects adapted to public presentation
and discussion receive due notice in this GUIDE, each
under its especial heading. Hence it is unnecessary to
multiply examples here.
The would-be orator, however, no matter what may be
his theme, is recommended to follow out the course of
reading suggested in the chapter entitled, The Writer.
392 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LVII.
THE BOOKMAN.
" Come, and take choice of all my library."
— Titus A ndronicus.
" We turned o'er many books together."
— Merchant of Venice.
To the lover of books the Encyclopedia Britannica is
itself a great and inestimable treasure, the companion of
leisure hours, the helper in time of need, the one indis-
pensable portion of his library. No other single
The Book collection of volumes in the world furnishes so
Lover. complete an equipment for all the business of
life. Without the Britannica no scholar's libra-
ry is complete ; without it no bookman's house can be fully
furnished. It is not only in itself a book to be consulted
and admired and cherished, buf it is rich in information
concerning other books that deserve to be admired and
cherished. It is par excellence the bookman's book about
books.
Would you like to learn something about the greatest
books that the world has ever produced — something about
the character of their contents ; — something about their
origin ?
The following list of references will help you to find the
information you desire :
FIFTY GREAT BOOKS.
The Bible, III. 634; sup. 442.
The Vedas, II. 698; Rig-Veda, XII. 780.
The Koran, XVI. 597.
THE BOOKMAN. 393
Mahabharata, XXI. 281.
Ramayana, XXI. 280.
Shah-Nameh, XVIII. 656; IX. 225.
Zend Avesta, XXIV. 775.
Homer's Iliad, XII. 117.
Homer's Odyssey, XII. 119.
Aristotle's Ethics and Politics, I. 215 ; XIX. 349.
Demosthenes on the Crown, VII. 71.
yEschylus's Tragedies, I. 209.
Sophocles's CEdipus, XXII. 272.
Euripides's Medea, VIII. 675.
Aristophanes' the Knights, II. 508.
Herodotus, XI. 756.
Xenophon's Anabasis, I. 787.
Cicero's Orations, XX. 514; V. 770.
Virgil's ^Eneid, XXIV. 253.
Plutarch's Lives, XIX. 232 ; XVII. 334.
Malory's Morte d'Arthur XV. 337; X. 173.
The Eddas, VII. 649 ; XXII. 201.
Nibelungenlied, XVII. 474.
Gesta Romanorum, X. 555.
Arabian Nights, XXIII. 316.
Lucian's "True History," XV. 43.
Dante's Divina Commedia, VI. 815.
Spenser's Faerie Queene, XXII. 394.
Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, II. 503.
Shakespeare's Tragedies, VII. 430.
Milton's Paradise Lost, XVI. 336-339.
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, IV. 529.
Locke On the Human Understanding, VIII. 423.
Smith's Wealth of Nations, XIX. 366.
394 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, X.
578.
Mill's Logic, XVI. 312.
Darwin's Origin of Species, XXIV. 77.
Boswell's Life of Dr. Johnson, IV. 77.
Don Quixote, V. 352.
Gil Bias, XIV. 472.
Robinson Crusoe, VII. 28.
Gulliver's Travels, XXII. 766.
The Vicar of Wakefield, X. 672.
Voltaire's Zadig, XXIV. 285.
Goethe's Faust, X. 539.
The Waverley Novels, VIII. 434.
Victor Hugo's Les Miserables, sup. 1629.
Thackeray's Vanity Fair, XXIII. 215.
Dickens's David Copperfield, VII. 177.
George Eliot's Romola, sup. 951.
St. Augustine's Confessions, III. 75 ; VIII. 592 ; I. 216.
Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ, XIV. 32.
Pascal's Pensees, XVIII. 335.
Keble's Christian Year, XIV. 26.
Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living and Holy Dying, XXIII.
93; VIII. 421.
Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, XII. 151.
Bacon's Essays and Novum Organum, III. 210.
Lewes's History of Philosophy, XIV. 491 ; VIII. 765.
Addison's The Spectator, I. 148; VIII. 427.
Macaulay's Essays, XV. 125.
Emerson's Essays, sup. 1195-
Carlyle's French Revolution, sup. 701.
We have named more than fifty. The list might be
greatly extended, but it is unnecessary.
nil. BOOKMAN. 395
SI >ME BOOKISH SUBJECTS.
Album, I. 456.
Aldine — Aldus Manutius, XV. 512.
Almanacs, I. 590.
Ancient forms of books, XVIII. 144.
Anonymous, III. 657.
Alexandrian MS., I. 496.
Bibliography, II. 658; III. 654, 655.
Bibliomania, III. 655 ; sup. 457.
Bindings, IV. 41 ; XIV. 538 ; the " Arminian Nunnery,"
sup. 1259.
Block-books, III. 652 ; XXIII. 683.
Black-letter, XXIII. 686, 694.
Books, IV. 37; III. 651.
Book-cases, XIV. 536.
Book-house, XIII. 152.
Book-plates, sup. 519.
Book-scorpion, sup. 520.
Books for the Blind, sup. 496.
Books in the British Museum, sup. 577.
Bowdlerizing, sup. 536.
Broadsides, XVIII. 204.
Catalogues, XIV. 537, 539.
Copyright, XIV. 541. (See chapter entitled, The Printer
and Publisher.)
Censorship of books, III. 639, 658.
Chap-books, XVIII. 204.
Classification of books, III. 661.
Cleaning of books, III. 821.
Condemned and prohibited books, III. 658.
De Morgan's Bibliography, VII. 6y.
Dibdin, VII. 172.
Dictionaries, VII. 179-193; sup. 1044.
396 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Ducykinck's Cyclopaedia of Literature, sup. 1099.
Egyptian books, XIV. 510.
Folk-books, XVIII. 204.
Grolier, IV. 41 ; sup. 1473.
Grub Street, sup. 1475.
Harleian Collection, sup. 1527.
Illuminated manuscripts, XII. 707; XVI. 437.
Incunabula, III. 653.
Indexes, XII. 729.
Index Expurgatorius, XII. 730 ; XIX. 714.
Macaronics, IX. 355.
Magliabechi, XV. 217; XIV. 530.
Manuscripts, VII. 253; XVIII. 144; XXIII. 682.
Pamphlets, XVIII. 204; XVII. 413.
Prohibited books. III. 658 ; XII, 730.
Pseudonyms, III. 657.
Rare and curious books, III. 654.
Xylographic books, XXIII. 682.
LIBRARIES.
Libraries (general article), XIV. 509-551.
Libraries of the United States, XIV. 534; sup. 1873.
Library Management, XIV. 536.
Library Catalogues, XIV. 539.
Library of Congress, sup. 1874, 3139; XIV. 535.
State Libraries, XIV. 535.
The Advocates' Library, sup. 53.
Astor Library, sup. 272.
Tilden Library, sup. 2914.
Boston Public Library, sup. 527.
Libraries in Chicago, sup. 783.
Libraries in Philadelphia, sup. 2364.
Lenox Library, sup. 1864.
Pratt Library, Baltimore, sup. 2436.
THE BOOKMAN,
National Library, sup. 2139.
Assyrian libraries, 111. 191.
Egyptian libraries, XIV. 510.
Chinese libraries, XIV. 534, 549.
Arabian libraries, XIV. 514.
Library of the British Museum, XIV. 514.
Monastic libraries, XIV. 513, 527.
Bodleian Library, XIV. 519.
Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris, XIV. 524.
Biblioteca Vaticana, XIV. 529.
LIBRARIANS.
Magliabechi, XV. 217.
Richard de Bury, XIV. 514.
Melvil Dewey, sup. 1038.
W. F. Poole, XIV. 540 ; sup. 2417.
A. R. Spofford, sup. 1874, 2769.
397
39§ GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LVIII.
THE TEACHER.
" The true university of our day is a collection of books."
— Thomas Carlyle.
Valuable as the Encyclopedia Britannica is to persons
of all callings and professions, there is no one who can
derive greater benefit from it than the teacher. To the
man or woman actively engaged in education, its worth is
beyond all estimation. It is an exhaustless mine
of knowledge, offering information on every
Teachers' . .,.,. * . .... ,
Book imaginable subject. It is an obliging friend,
answering the thousands of perplexing ques-
tions that are daily and unexpectedly presented, and never
making a mistake. It is the teacher's vade mecutn, the in-
dispensable companion to which he turns for help and
guidance in every time of need. If one were asked to
point out the articles of greatest value to the educator, he
could not answer; he could only say, "All are valuable."
To the teacher of sciences, the articles on scientific sub-
jects will be referred to most frequently (see the references
on pages 90-129 of this volume). The teacher of mathe-
matics will derive aid from the numerous chapters and
treatises on mathematical subjects (see page 130). And
so, whether you are a teacher of geography, or of philoso-
phy, or of literature, or of history, or of music, or of art,
or of any other department of human knowledge, you will
find the Britannica always ready to supplement your in-
struction, and to aid you in the work which you have in
hand.
THE TEACHER. 399
This is the day of educated teachers — of teachers who
are learned not only in the branches which they teach at
school, but in the principles which underlie the
practice of their calling. Pedagogy has become
g°gy' a distinct science. School-teaching is no longer
a haphazard business, but it is a profession con-
ducted on lines as exact as those which determine the
practice of law or of medicine or of theology. The teacher
who neglects or refuses to recognize this fact is already on
the road to failure, and his successor is knocking at the
door.
In the present chapter it is proposed to mark out two or
three brief courses of professional reading for teachers —
courses which may be pursued at odd moments at home,
and which will in no small measure take the place of simi-
lar courses of study in teachers' institutes and normal col-
leges. The teacher who follows them out faithfully will
not only be better equipped for examinations, but will be
possessed of a broader and deeper knowledge of his pro-
fession, and consequently much better prepared to grap-
ple with its difficulties and avoid its perplexities.
I. HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
Let us take as the starting point and basis of this
course of reading the article EDUCATION, in the seventh
volume of the Britannica. This article, which covers ten
double - column pages (671-681), is the work of Oscar
Browning, of Cambridge University, well known in this
country for his work on Educational Theories. The ob-
ject of the article is mainly to outline the history of edu-
cational theories in the chief crises of their development,
and no attempt is made to discuss the science of teaching,
or to describe the practical working of any particular
400 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
method or theory. Let us, then, study the history of edu-
cation from the following references :
Old Greek education, VII. 671.
Education pj XIX.
in Greece
and Rome Old Roman education, VII. 671.
Quintilian, XX. 187, 514.
Early Christian education, VII. 671.
Clement, V. 819.
Origen, XVII. 839.
Tertullian, XXIII. 196.
Augustine, III. 75.
Education in the Middle Ages, VII. 671.
See also Knighthood, XIV. 110.
Charlemagne, V. 402.
-_ " Alcuin, I. 472.
Middle ™
Ages. Bede> HI. 480.
John Scotus Erigena, VIII. 522.
Gerhard Groot, XI. 207.
Thomas a Kempis, XIV. 31.
Brethren of the Common Life, XVI. 711.
Education at the time of the Renaissance, VII. 672.
See also Erasmus, VIII. 512.
Luther, XV. 71.
Melanchthon, XV. 833.
Twelve famous teachers :
Sturm (1507-89), XVII. 673.
Roger Ascham (1515-78), II. 677.
Comenius (1 592-1671), VI. 182.
Famous Ignatius Loyola, XV. 31.
Teachers. Arnauld, II. 62O.
Pascal, XVIII. 333.
August Hermann Francke, IX. 701.
THE TEACHER, 401
Pestalozzi, VII. 677.
Froebel, IX. 792.
Jacotot, XIII. 539.
Thomas Arnold, II. 626.
Horace Mann, XV. 492.
Lindley Murray, sup. 2128.
Mary Lyon, sup. 1937.
James B. Angell, sup. 186.
Writers on Education:
Roger Ascham ("The Scholemaster "), II. 677.
Montaigne, XVI. 767; VII. 674.
Books John Locke, XIV. 751.
and
Writers John Milton ("Tractate on Education"),
XVI. 324.
The Port Royalists, IX. 661.
Rousseau (" Emile "), XXI. 26.
Pestalozzi (" Leonard and Gertrude "), VII. 677.
Jean Paul Richter (" Levana "), XX. 546.
Goethe (" Wilhelm Meister "), X. 712.
Herbert Spencer, sup. 2764.
Alexander Bain, sup. 319.
F. A. P. Barnard, sup. 357.
William T. Harris, sup. 1532.
II. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE OLD WORLD.
Plato's Academy, I. 68 ; other famous academies, I. 69.
The Athenaeum, II. 831.
Universities, XXIII. 831. (This extensive article ex-
hibits the universities in their historical development, each
being brought under notice, as far as practica-
Universities ^ {n the order of itg original foundation.)
Colleges. Oxford University, III. 317 ; XXIII. 837.
Cambridge University, III. 579; IV. 728;
XXIII. 838.
402 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Aberdeen University, sup. 26.
Edinburgh University, XXIII. 846.
University of Leipsic,- XIV. 429; XXIII. 841.
Gresham College, sup. 1468.
Newnham College, sup. 2182.
Public schools in England: Charter House, sup. 757;
Eton, VIII. 632 ; Christ's Hospital (" Blue-coat School"),
sup. 800; Harrow, sup. 1534; Westminster School, sup.
3127.
Musical conservatories, VI. 291 ; XVII. 83.
Technical schools, XXIII. 105.
Schools for the blind, III. 816, 826.
Schools for the deaf and dumb, II. 722 ;
Special VII. 5.
Schools. Industrial schools, XX. 338.
Kindergartens, XIV. 79.
Schools in England, XIV. 834.
Schools in France, IX. 513.
Schools in Germany, X. 470.
Schools in Russia, XXI. 71.
III. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.
A comprehensive and exceedingly interesting article
on the history of Higher Education in the United States
is contained in sup. 11 16-1122. This article is the work of
Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, of Michigan University, and
Higher should be read not only by every American
Education, teacher, but by every person who would be
informed concerning the progress of education
and of educational ideas in this country. It is a worthy
companion article to the very complete history of Uni-
versities, XXIII. 831.
THE TEACHER. 403
Statistics, showing the number of colleges and univer-
sities in each State in 1840, sup. 11 19.
Adelbert College, sup. 47.
American University at Washington, sup. 167.
Amherst College, sup. 169.
.American School at Athens, sup. 277.
Antioch College, sup. 198.
Colleges. _, , TT . r>
Baylor University, sup. 385.
Beloit College, sup. 414.
Boston University, sup. 528.
Brown University, sup. 593.
Bryn-Mawr College, sup. 602.
Catholic University of America, sup. 724.
Chicago, University of, sup. 3003.
Clark University, sup. 821.
Colgate University, sup. 862.
Colorado College, sup. 871.
Colorado University, sup. 871.
Columbia University, sup. 874; XVII. 456=
Columbian University, sup. 874.
Cornell College, sup. 920.
Cornell University, sup. 920.
Dartmouth College, sup. 988.
Depauw University, sup. 1029.
Dickinson College, sup. 1044.
Earlham College, sup. 1105.
Fisk University, sup. 1283.
Franklin and Marshall College, sup. 1330.
General Theological Seminary, sup. 1378.
Georgetown University, sup. 1382.
Georgia, University of, sup. 1385.
Girard College, sup. 1401.
Hamilton College, sup. 1 5 1 5.
Hamline University, sup. 1516.
404 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Hampden-Sydney College, sup. 1518.
Harvard University, sup. 1538.
Radcliffe College, sup. 1538, (under Harvard Univ.).
Haverford College, sup. 1547.
Howard University, sup. 1623 ; XL 500.
Illinois University, sup. 1656.
Indiana University, sup. 1675.
Iowa College, sup. 1693.
Iowa, University of, sup. 3005.
Johns Hopkins University, sup. 1746.
Kansas, University of, sup. 1771.
Kenyon College, sup. 1783.
Knox College, sup. 1802.
Lafayette College, sup. 1822.
Lake-Forest University, sup. 1824.
Lawrence University, sup. 1847.
Leland Stanford Junior University, sup. 1861.
Miami University, sup. 2053.
University of Michigan, sup. 2057.
Military Academy at West Point, sup. 2061.
Military Colleges and Schools, sup. 2063.
Minnesota, University of, sup. 2075.
Mississippi, University of, sup. 2080.
Missouri, University of, sup. 2083.
Montana, University of, sup. 2095.
McKendree College, sup. 1957.
Maine State College, sup. 1974.
Manhattan College, sup. 198 1.
Mount Holyoke College, sup. 2 121.
Muhlenberg College, sup. 2123.
Nashville, University of, sup. 2138.
Nebraska, University of, sup. 2156.
New York, University of, sup. 2205.
University of New Mexico, sup. 116.
THE TEACHER. 405
Niagara University, sup. 2207.
North Carolina University, sup. 2219.
Northwestern University, sup. 2224.
Notre Dame, University of, sup. 2228.
Oberlin College, sup. 2235.
Ohio State University, sup. 2244.
Ohio Wesleyan University, sup. 2245.
Oklahoma University, sup. 2247.
University of Pennsylvania, sup. 2342.
Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, sup. 2435.
Princeton University, sup. 2447; XIX. 742.
Purdue University, sup. 2478.
Randolph-Macon College, sup. 2509.
Rochester, University of, sup. 2562.
Rutgers College, sup. 2594.
St. Louis University, sup. 2606.
South Dakota, University of, sup. 2759.
Syracuse University, sup. 2843.
Tennessee, University of, sup. 2877.
Texas University, sup. 2886.
Trinity College, sup. 2944.
Tufts College, sup. 2957.
Tulane University, sup. 2957.
Union College, sup. 2979.
University of the South, sup. 3005.
Vanderbilt University, sup. 3021.
Vassar College, sup. 3025.
Vermont, University of, sup. 3035.
Virginia, University of, sup. 3053.
Washington, University of, sup. 3095.
Washington and Lee University, sup. 3097.
Wellesley College, sup. 3 119.
Wesleyan University, sup. 3123.
Western Reserve University, sup. 3125.
406 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Williams College, sup. 3158.
Yale University, XVII. 394; sup. 3216.
College Fraternities in the United States, sup. 863.
University settlements, sup. 3005.
University Press, sup. 3005.
Technical schools in America, sup. 2862.
Business colleges, sup. 635.
Special Scientific schools, I. 70.
Schools. Smithsonian Institution, sup. 2738.
Scientific societies, sup. 52.
Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, sup. 762.
University Extension, sup. 3002.
Examinations, VIII. jyy.
Fellowships, sup. 1256.
Private schools in the United States, sup. 2648.
Public schools in the United States, sup. 2650.
High schools in the United States, sup. 2656.
Manual training in the public schools, sup. 1985-2659.
Normal schools in the United States, sup. 2215,2657.
Evening schools, sup. 2657.
Rural schools, sup. 2660.
Kindergartens, XIV. 79; sup. 1790.
School system among the Indians, sup. 1672.
Schools in Indian Territory, sup. 1676.
Compulsory education, sup. 2661.
Legal education in the United States, sup. 1856.
Medical education in the United States, sup. 2025.
Theological education in the United States, sup. 2889.
Union Theological Seminary, sup. 2980.
Education of Women in the United States, sup. 31 80.
National Bureau of Education, sup. 2658.
At Home
I III' l I \< HER. 407
[V. EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Generally a full account of the educational institutions
of any country may be found in the article referring to
the country in question.
United States, XXIII. 828.
France, IX. 5 12.
Institute of France, XIIL 160.
German)', X. 470.
Great Britain, VIL 679 ; XIV. 834.
Abroad Scientific academies, XXII. 221 ; sup. 32.
Italy. XIIL 460.
Russia, XXI. 71.
Austria, III. 118.
Iceland, XII. 619.
India, XII. 774.
Arabia, II. 253.
V. PSYCHOLOGY.
The article on PSYCHOLOGY, by Professor James Ward,
of Trinity College, Cambridge (Volume XX.) fills
nearly fifty pages of the Britannica, and contains more
matter than the ordinary school text-books on this sub-
ject. The teacher who cares to go so deeply
into the study as to master this entire treatise
Mind w^ probably not desire a more extended course
of reading. It may be preferable, however, to
read only selected portions of the article, and to supple-
ment the knowledge thus gained with collateral readings
from other sources. In such case the following subjects
may be included : Definition, page 37 ; standpoint of psy-
chology, page 38 ; constituent elements of mind, page 39 ;
feeling, page 40 ; attention, page 41 ; dependence of ac-
tion on feeling, page 43 ; relativity, page 49 ; sensation
Science
408 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
and movement, page 50; perception, page 52; intuition
of things, page 55; imagination or ideation, page 57;
obliviscence, page 61 ; expectation, page 63 ; feeling, page
66 ; intellection, page 75, etc.
Evolution of mind, VIII. 70.
Mental association, II. 730.
Mental powers of man, II. 109.
Apperception, sup. 207.
Attention, III. 52.
Relativity of knowledge, I. 58.
Sense distinguished from understanding, VIII. 1.
Locke on this subject, XIV. 758.
Faculties of perception, XVIII. 845.
Kant on imagination, XIII. 852.
Memory — mnemonics, XVI. 532.
Optimism and pessimism, XVIII. 684.
The following biographical notes should also be read :
Aristotle, II. 522.
Xenocrates, XXIV. 719.
Democritus, VII. 59.
Great Plato, XIX. 201.
Psycholo- Th Brown, IV. 388.
gists. ' J
Bishop Berkeley, III. 589.
Pierre Charron, V. 431.
Etienne de Condillac, VI. 251.
Victor Cousin, VI. 525.
Descartes, VII. 126.
Kant, XII. 848.
Leibnitz, XIV. 422.
Herman Lotze, XV. 14.
Schleiermacher, XXI. 411.
Schopenhauer, XXI. 457.
Hegel, XI. 620.
Theories
THE TEACHER. 409
Herbart, XI. 719.
Samuel Bailey, II I. 242.
1 >avid I [ume, XII. 352.
G. H. Lewes, XIV. 491.
VI. THEORIES OF EDUCATION.
Plato's, VII. 671.
Socratcs's, XXII. 236.
Quintilian's, VII. 671.
Brethren of the Common Life, XI. 207.
Education Theories of Erasmus, VII. 672 ; VIII. 512
Theories of Sturm, VII. 673.
Theories of Comenius, VI. 182 ; VII. 673.
The Jesuits', theory, XIII. 645.
The Port Royalists', XIX. 533.
Rousseau's, VII. 675.
Pestalozzi's, XIV. 79; XXII. 798.
Froebel's, IX. 792.
Herbart's, XI. 798.
Locke's, XIV. 757.
Milton's, XVI. 330.
4IO GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LIX.
THE WRITER.
" Certainly, the art of writing is the most miraculous of all things man
h is devised." — Thomas Carlyle.
" There are two duties incumbent upon any man who enters on the
business of writing — truth to fact, and a good spirit in the treatment."
— Robert Louis Stevenson.
I. PENMANSHIP AND ITS ALLIED ARTS.
First, as to the manual exercise of penmanship, what
is there in the Britannica which commends itself to the
writer, or to him who is interested in the art of writing?
Let us see.
Without implements and materials there can be no writ-
ing. The history of these and the description of their
manufacture cannot fail to be of interest.
Writing Read the article PEN, XVIII. 483, which is
Materials. replete with interesting details concerning the
manufacture of modern steel pens; Ink, XIII.
79; then an account of the invention of paper, IV. 38; of
its invention by the Chinese, V. 662 ; of the uses made of
it in ancient times, XVIII. 144; and, finally, the special
article PAPER, XVIII. 217. Read also of the Papyrus.
XVIII. 231 ; and of Parchment, XVIII. 271 ; XIV. 390,
and IV. 37. The earliest writing materials are described
in XVIII. 231 b.
Hand- A concise history of the art of writing may
writing. be found in sup. 3207. The history of ancient
handwriting is related in a very interesting ar-
ticle on Palaeography, XVIII. [43-165; the ancient
system of Hieroglyphics, XI. 794; cuneiform writing, VI.
I UK WRITER. 41 I
707, and XI. J 17; Mexican picture writing, XVI. 212;
Chinese writing, V. 653-659; Sanskrit, XXI. 269-272.
A comprehensive history and description <>f Alphabets
is given in I. 600-614.
The alphabets of different nations also receive separate
notice. For example :
The Phoenician, XI. 807, and XVIII. 802, 806 ; Egyp-
tian, XI. 807; Greek, XI. 597; Roman, XIII. 125; San-
skrit, XXI. 270; the old Norse Runes, XXI. 366, 370.
The deaf and dumb alphabet is described in VII. 8 ; the
phonetic method in XVIII. 812, and XXII. 381, and the
phonographic in XXI. 836.
(See, also, Archaeology, II. 342, and the chapter in this
GUIDE, entitled, The Stenographer and Typewriter^)
II. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The mental processes of writing are closely related to
the various branches of language study, such as grammar,
rhetoric, prosody, etc. Hence the inquiry may
Composi- De made, " What are the principal articles in
tion. the Britannica which will be interesting and
useful to the busy man who wishes to acquire
correctness and facility in English composition?" Let us
briefly notice a few.
The special article RHETORIC, XX. 509, is interesting
and comprehensive, and in large part historical. Notice
the section on rhetoric in ancient Greece, XX.
509 ; that on rhetoric in the Middle Acres, XX.
Rhetoric. J J , , , . & '
515 ; and that on modern writers on rhetoric,
XX. 515-
Still pursuing the history of this subject, read the notice
of Aristotle's rhetoric, II. 517 ; of Lysias's, XV. 118 ; and
of Quintilian's, XX. 187. Read also the brief account of
Whately's famous work, XXIV. 530.
412 GUIDE TO THE BRITANN1CA.
Being fairly introduced into this study, you are now pre-
pared to consult the Britannica for the large number of
separate articles relating to the terms, expressions, and
rules of rhetoric and its kindred branches of study. Here
are some that are found in the first two volumes ; they are
mentioned simply as examples, trusting that the reader
will be able to find all other articles of the kind without
further directions :
/;/ Volume I. Acrostic, Alcaics, Allegory, Alliteration,
Alexandrine Verse, Anacoluthon, Anachronism, Ana-
gram, Abbreviations, etc.
In Volume II. Anecdote, Anticlimax, Antithesis, An-
tonomasia, Aphorism, Apologue, Apothegm, etc.
In the American supplements many additional articles
may be found, such as :
Blank Verse, sup. 494.
Climax, sup. 833.
Apostrophe, sup. 205.
Hexameters, sup. 1577.
Prosody, sup. 2459.
By observing the list of terms and expressions used in
any text-book in rhetoric, you may complete this list ; and
then, by finding the various articles in the Britannica, you
will observe how much more fully they are treated there
than in any of the smaller manuals.
The article GRAMMAR, XI. 37, belongs rather to the
philologist than to the writer, and more to the student than
to the busy man. The section on school gram-
mars, XI. 43 a, is interesting, and well worth
Grammar.
your reading.
Every writer will find certain articles in the
Britannica very valuable for reference in case of any dis-
pute or lapse of memory regarding best usage, etc. For
example, the articles on ABBREVIATIONS, I. 26, and sup.
THE WRITER. 413
16, contain a correct list of all the more common abbre-
viations used by reputable writers. The latter article is
very complete. It is followed by a list of Abbreviatory
Signs, sup. 23, showing the marks and symbols employed
in commerce and in the various arts and sciences. A list of
Forms of Address employed in letter-writing is given in
sup. 46.
The methods pursued in correcting printers' proofs are
fully explained in sup. 2454. If the date of any important
event has been forgotten, it may very likely be found by
referring to the Chronological Table, V. 720. In short,
the Britannica is always ready to aid one's memory, and to
no other individual does it give more assistance in this
way than to the writer.
But, after all, it is chiefly through the study of the
works of the best writers that one can hope properly to
improve his own style, and to acquire facility and elegance
in the use of language. Hence the busy writer is urged
to make a special study of the references in the chapter
on Literature in this GUIDE; also the chapter entitled,
The Public Speaker.
III. ONE HUNDRED SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS.
The following list is designed chiefly to aid teachers
and pupils at school in the selection of subjects for es-
says, some of the materials for which may be acquired
through the systematic study of certain articles in the
Encyclopedia Britannica. A good rule, which every writer
should attempt to observe, is this : " Never undertake to
write upon any topic until you have made a careful study
of that topic. Store your mind with knowledge, so that
your writing will be the visible expression of your thoughts.
Always have something to say before you attempt to
speak." The various references mentioned or pointed
414 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
out will indicate some of the places in the Britannica where
information regarding those subjects may be
Subjects found. But they are intended only as hints,
for Essays, and are not designed to relieve the student
from the very necessary labor of independent
research.
i. Temperance. See the references given in the chapter
entitled, The Public Speaker.
2. The Wonders of Electricity. See VIII. 3 ; XV. 773;
XX. 249. The references in the chapter for The Elec-
trician, in this Guide, will be helpful.
3. Ancient Oratory. See the references to famous
speakers, in the chapter entitled, The Public Speaker.
4. American Poetry. Study the article on American
literature, I. 731-734. Read also the biographical sketches
of the great American poets : Henry W. Longfellow,
XIV. 860; John G. Whittier, sup. 3146; William Cullen
Bryant, sup. 601 ; James Russell Lowell, sup. 1925 ; Edgar
Allan Poe, XIX. 255 ; Walt Whitman, sup. 3145.
5. True Greatness in Man. See biographical sketches
of such men as Joseph, XIII. 749; Moses, XVI. 860;
Confucius, VI. 258; Buddha, III. 375 ; Elijah, VIII. 134;
Socrates, XXII. 231 ; Cato, V. 239; Charlemagne, V. 402 ;
King Alfred, I. 506; St. Louis, XV. 18; Savonarola,
XXI. 333; Galileo, X. 30; John Milton, XVI. 324;
George Washington, XXIV. 387; and many others.
6. The Earth. See references in the Courses of Read-
ing in Geography, in this GUIDE.
7. Mountains. Refer to special article, XVII. 4.
8. The Ocean. Water of, XXI. 6li; waves. XXIV.
419; depths, III. 17; temperature, VI. 4; tides, XXIII.
353 ; fishes, XII. 684.
9. Great Cities of the World. See London, XIV. 818;
Paris, XVIII. 274; New York, XVII. 457; Berlin, III.
THE WRITER. 415
598 ; and others that will readily be suggested. Consult
the Index volume.
10. Ships and Sailors. See chapter in this GUIDE,
entitled, The Seaman.
11. Progress of Inventions. See in this Guide, the
readings in " Archaeology," and also the chapter entitled,
The In veil to?-.
\2. The Steam Engine. Consult the Index volume;
refer also to the chapter in this GUIDE entitled, The
Machinist.
13. War and Peace. Refer to the chapter entitled, The
Soldier. See International Peace, XIII. 197. Consult the
Index volume.
14. Slavery. See special article, XXII. 129; ancient
slavery, XIX. 348; negro, XVII. 319. Consult Index
volume. Read about Wilberforce, XXIV. 565 ; Clark-
son, V. 813 ; Garrison, X. 85 ; Wendell Phillips, sup. 2366 ;
John Brown, IV. 385 ; and the anti-slavery leaders named
in the chapter entitled, The Philanthropist a?id Re-
former.
15. Socialism. Consult Index volume. Read about
Robert Owen, XVIII. 87 ; Fourier, IX. 489 ; Saint-Simon,
XXI. 197; Rodbertus, XX. 616; Proudhon, XIX. 867 ; the
Shakers, XXI. 736; the Oneida Community, XVII. 772.
16. Taxation. See references in this Guide, in the sec-
tion on Finance in the chapter entitled, The Banker and
Financier.
17. The Origin of Language. See VIII. 769; consult
Index volume under the headings Language and Philol-
ogy. See references in this GUIDE, in the Readings in
Philology.
18. Land Tenure. Consult Index volume. See Adam
Smith, XIX. 367; Ricardo, XIX. 374; Henry George,
sup. 1381.
4l6 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
19. Law in Ancient Times. Consult the references in
the chapter entitled, The Lawyer.
20. Feudalism. Consult Index volume. See Knight,
XIV. no; Castle V. 197; Tournaments, XXIII. 489;
Chivalry (Index); Homage, XII. 107, etc.
21. The Revival of Learning. See Renaissance, XX.
380. Consult Index volume
22. The Art of Printing. See references in the chapter
entitled, The Printer and the Publisher, in this GUIDE.
23. Newspapers. See references in the chapter enti-
tled, Th e J on ma list.
24. Perseverance Leads to Success. For illustrations of
this truth, see the biographical references in this GUIDE,
page 38.
25. Education in Greece and Rome. See the references
in the chapter entitled, The Teacher.
26. Great Educators. See the references in the chapter
entitled, The Teacher.
27. The Science of Education. See the references in
the chapter entitled, The Teacher.
28. Famous Institutions of Learning. See the refer-
ences in the chapter entitled, The Teacher.
29. The Progress of Medical Science. See the histori-
cal and biographical references in the chapter entitled, The
Physician, in this GUIDE. Consult Index volume.
30. Music and Musicians. See the references in the
chapter entitled, The Musician, in this GUIDE.
31. The Discovery of America. See VI. 173; X. 180;
XI. 171 ; Icelandic discoveries, XII. 624; early knowledge
of, X. 178 ; original inhabitants, XVI. 206 ; origin of name
America, X. 182, and XXIV. 192. See also references in
this GUIDE, in the Readings in History.
32. Great Americans. See the biographical references
in this Guide.
THE WRITER. 417
$5. Washington and Lafayette. Consult Index volume.
See references to great Americans, above.
34. Hamilton and Burr. See XI. 412; XXIII. 756;
XIX. 384; XI. 413.
35. Great American Orators. See the biographical ref-
erences in the chapter entitled, The Public Speaker.
36. The Invention of the Telescope. Consult Index
volume.
2~. The Telegraph and the Telephone. See the refer-
ences in the chapter entitled, The Electrician, in thisGuiDE.
38. Astrology. See the references given, in this Guide,
in the chapter on Astronomy.
39. The Philosopher's Stone. See the references given,
under Alchemy, in this volume, page 170.
40. The Progress of Chemistry. See special article, V.
459. Consult Index volume.
41. The Air We Breathe. Consult Index volume; also
see Atmosphere, Oxygen, Respiration, Ventilation, As-
phyxia.
42. Water and its Uses. Consult Index volume.
43. Curious Facts About Trees. See the references
in the chapter entitled, The Woodsman.
44. The Solar System. See the references on page 91,
of this Guide.
45. The Moon. Consult the Index volume.
46. The Worship of the Sun. By the Greeks, II. 185 ;
by the Phoenicians, XVIII. 802 ; by the Sabseans, XXIV.
741 ; at Heliopolis, XIX. 91 ; at Baalbec, III. 177.
47. The Fire Worshipers. See XXIV. 193 ; XVII.
158; XI. 679; XIX. 807.
48. The American Indians. Consult Index volume.
49. African Explorations. Consult Index volume.
50. The Arctic Regions. See II. 478; XIX. 315; X.
190 ; IX. 721.
27
4l8 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
51. The Gulf Stream. Consult Index volume.
52. Great Cities. See the references on page 125 of
this Guide.
53. Our Government. See the references in the chap-
ter entitled, The American Citizen.
54. Monarchy. Consult Index volume; also see refer-
ences on page 282 of this GUIDE.
55. The Mongol Races of Asia. Consult Index volume.
56. China and Japan. Consult Index volume.
57. Buddha and Buddhism. Consult Index volume.
58. Missions. See the references on page 382 of this
Guide.
59. Idolatry. Sec XII. 698, 710.
60. Mohammedanism. Consult Index volume.
61. The Jews. Consult Index volume. See also Read-
ings for Bible Students.
62. The Gipsies. Consult Index volume.
65. The Moors in Spain. See, in Index volume, the fol-
lowing subjects : Spain, Arabs, Moors, Alhambra, Gra-
nada, Ferdinand and Isabella.
64. The Turks. Consult Index volume.
65. The Battle of Hastings. See the following subjects
in Index volume : William the Conqueror, Normans, Har-
old, Hastings, Battle.
66. Trial by ordeal. See XVII. 818.
6y. Trial by jury. Consult Index volume.
68. The Knights Templars. See Templars, in Index
\ olume.
69. Poetry. Consult Index volume.
Consult Index volume, and also this Guide, for valuable
refi rences to the following subjects :
70. Chaucer, the father of English poetry.
71. Milton and Dante.
J2. Shakespeare s Dramas.
THE WRITER. 419
75. The Greek Drama. See also references on page
442, of this Guide.
74. Pope and Dryden.
75. Addison and the Spectator.
76. Dr. Samuel Johnson.
~J. Dictionaries. See also references in the chapter
entitled, The Bookman, in this GUIDE.
-->. History of Agriculture. See the chapter entitled,
The Farmer, in this GUIDE.
79. Patents. See the chapter entitled, The Inventor, in
this Guide.
80. Copyright. See The Printer and the Publisher, in
this Guide.
81. Books and How they Are Made. See the chapter
entitled, The Printer and the Publisher, in this GUIDE.
82. On Costume.
83. On Commerce. See also the chapter entitled, The
Merchant.
84. On Exercise. See Athletic Sports, Health, Gym-
nastics, Calisthenics, etc.
85. On Games and Amusements. See also the chapter
on Sports and Pastimes.
86. Domestic Animals. See Horse, Dog, Cat, Sheep,
etc.; also the references on page 48, of this GUIDE.
87. The Animal Kingdom. See the readings about
animals, page 47, of this GUIDE.
88. Labor and Capital. See the references in the
chapter entitled, The Laborer, in this GUIDE ; also XXIII.
500.
89. Great Guns. See the references in the chapter
entitled, The Soldier, in this GUIDE.
90. Invention of Gunpowder.
91. War. See also the chapter entitled, The Soldier, in
this Guide.
420 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
92. Stories of Old Greece. See Legends, page 165, of
this Guide.
93. Myths of the Old World. See the references on
page 163, of this GUIDE.
94. The Greatest Books. See the references in the
chapter entitled, The Bookman.
95. The World's Great Thinkers. See the biographical
references on page 149, of this Guide.
96. Great Reformers. See references on pages 383—
387, of this Guide.
97. The Work of the Farmer. See the chapter en-
titled, The Farmer.
98. Famous Merchants. See references on page 324, of
this Guide.
99. The Trade of the World. See references on page
321, of this volume.
100. Superstition. Seepage 170, of this volume.
llll STENOGRAPHER AND fYPEWRITER. 421
CHAPTER LX.
THE STENOGRAPHER AND TYPEWRITER.
"For your writing and reading, let that appear when there is no need."
— Much Ado About Nothing
The successful stenographer and typewriter should be a
person of many accomplishments. He should, in the first
place, be a thorough master of the art of short-
Qualifica- hand writing, alert in mind, quick with the hand,
tions. accurate, ingenious. In the second place, he
should understand thoroughly the construction
and manipulation of the type-writing machine, should be
a good speller, should know how to punctuate correctly
and when to use capital letters, and should have a practical
acquaintance with the rules of English grammar and com-
position and with the forms to be observed in letter-
writing. Besides all this, a general knowledge of business
forms and methods is often of great benefit, sometimes
indispensable. If, in addition to all these qualifications,
the stenographer has at command a stock of information
regarding history, politics, the sciences, and the arts, he
may be quite sure that he will never want for a good posi-
tion and a comfortable salary.
Young men and young women who are obliged to help
themselves to an education of this kind will find no surer
guide than the volume which they now hold in
General their hands ; they will find no better or more
Informa- , , .
j trustworthy assistant than the hncyclopcedia
Britannica. As regards that sort of general
education to which we have just alluded, let the student of
422 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
stenography and type - writing consult the references
named in various chapters of this GUIDE — for example:
.the Readings in History ; the Readings in Geography; the
Readings in Physics ; the chapters entitled, The American
Citizen, The Lawyer, The Merchant and Trader, The
Banker and Financier, The Builder, etc. As regards the
special kind of knowledge which is indispensable to the
practice of his art, he will find much that is helpful and
instructive in such articles as the following:
History of the English language (modern), VIII. 399-
403-
Phonetics, XVIII. 811.
Phonetic spelling, XVIII. 812.
Language. ,
hpeech sounds, XXII. 381.
Alphabet, I. 601.
Abbreviations, I. 26, and sup. 16.
Abbreviatory signs, sup. 23.
Tachygraphy, or ancient systems of shorthand, XVIII.
164.
Shorthand in English-speaking countries, XXI. 836.
The a b c systems, XXI. 836.
Pitman's phonography, XXI. 838-840.
Foreign shorthand systems, XXI. 841.
Shorthand. Sir Isaac Pitman, sup. 2396; XXI. 834.
Benn Pitman, sup. 2395.
Parliamentary reporting, XXL 841.
Forms of address in letter-writing, sup. 46.
Type-writers, sup. 2972-2975.
Type-writing machines, XXIV. 697.
THE PRINTER AND THE PUBLISHER. 423
CHAPTER LXI.
THE PRINTER AND THE PUBLISHER.
" Once invent Printing, you metamorphosed all Universities, or super-
seded them." — Thomas Carlyle.
I. TYPOGRAPHY.
One of the most interesting articles in the Encyclopedia
Britannica is that which relates to the history of printing,
Volume XXIII., pages 681-696. Here we have
'ention an account 0f the first attempts at printing,
Print- which antedated the time of Gutenberg and of
Caxton by many years, if not by many cen-
turies. Then follow chapters on block-printing, page 682;
on the old block-books of German origin, page 683 ; on
the work of Gutenberg at Mainz, page 684 ; on the inven-
tion controversy, page 687 ; on the history of the earliest
types, with fac-similes, page 693, etc. In connection with
the reading of this article, references may be made to the
following articles :
John Gutenberg, XI. 336.
Johann Faust, IX. 853.
William Caxton, V. 279 ; books printed by
Great him, VIII. 413.
Printers. Aldus Manutius, XV. 512, 514.
Christopher Plantin, XIX. 176.
Elzevir, VIII. 156.
Jodocus Badius, III. 228.
Stevens, or Estiennes, XXII. 534.
The history of modern types, XXIII. 695, next claims
4^4 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
our attention. The Italic type, first used by Aldus
Manutius, is said to be an imitation of the hand-
writing of Petrarch. The origin of all other
Types. . &
types in common use is explained in this chap-
ter, which closes with a complete list of works
on the invention, progress, and process of printing. Some
notice of early English typography is given in XIV. 705,
and also in the article on Caxton referred to above.
The latter half of the article on typography, XXIII.
697, is devoted to the discussion of practical printing.
Here are separate chapters on type-setting or composing,
page 700 ; on stereotyping or electrotyping, page 702 ; on
press-work and presses, page 704; on color-printing, page
708 ; on artistic printing, page 709 ; on the departments of
a printing establishment, page 710.
In connection with this part, refer to the articles, En-
graving, VIII. 439; and Lithography, XIV. 697. The
following articles also contain additional information on
subjects connected with the printer's art :
Old Wine-press of Gutenberg, sup. 2448.
The Stanhope Press, sup. 2448.
The Adams Press (1824), sup. 2448.
The Washington Press (1820), sup. 2448.
Presses. v y x
Job Presses, sup. 2449.
Cylinder Presses, sup. 2449.
Illustrated-work Printing Machines, sup. 2450.
Perfecting Presses, sup. 2451.
.Mammoth Presses, sup. 2451.
Lithographic Presses, XIV. IOI2.
( !oIor Printing, sup. 871.
Richard M. I [oe, sup. 1 592.
University Press, sup. 3005.
. especially, Proof-readers' Marks, sup. 2455.
International Typographical Union, sup. 1814.
THE PRINTKR AND T1IK l'U 1U.IS1 1 KR. 425
Type-founding, XXIII. 699.
Type-setting machines, XXIII. 700; sup. 2969.
The linotype, sup. 1889.
Invention of stereotyping, X. 127.
Electrotypes, VIII. 115.
Type for the blind, sup. 496; III. 827.
George Bruce, type founder, sup. 596.
Theodore L. De Vinne, sup. 1037.
II. BOOKS AND BOOKSELLING.
See the special article on Books, IV. 2,7-
Constituent parts of books, III. 652.
Ancient forms of books, XVIII. 144.
Old Material of ancient books, IV. 37, 38.
Books. Early printed books, III. 652.
Rare and curious books, III. 654.
Anonymous and pseudonymous books, III. 657.
Condemned and prohibited books, III. 658.
Bookbinding, IV. 41.
Albums, I. 456 ; almanacs, I. 590.
Annals, II. 60; anthologies, II. 103.
Encyclopaedias, VIII. 190.
Libraries, XIV. 509 ; Sir Thomas Bodley, III.
Libraries. J J :
848 ; Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, VI. 509 ; Maglia-
bechi, XV. 217; Dibdin, VII. 172; biblioma-
nia, III. 655.
Bookselling, IV. 39 ; book-trade in Europe, X. 472.
Baron Tauchnitz, sup. 2858.
Copyright, VI. 356; English laws of copy-
right, XIV. 541 ; international copyright, I. 720.
History of copyright since 1877, sup. 913.
For other references, see the chapter entitled, The
Bookman.
426 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNIC A.
CHAPTER LXII.
THE JOURNALIST.
" We read nowadays in the market place — I would rather say in pome
large steam factory of letter-press where (.lamp sheets of new print whirl
round us perpetually." — Frederic Harrison.
An entertaining and valuable article on newspapers is
contained in the seventeenth volume of the Britannica,
pages 412-437. The history of journalism in Great Britain
is given at length, and is followed by an account
History Qr ^Q newspapers of other European countries.
Journalism TIle NEWSPAPERS OF THE UNITED STATES is
the subject of an interesting and appreciative
chapter, XVII. 433-437. In a supplementary article on
the same subject, sup. 2 186-2 195, a complete account is
given of the methods pursued in the publication of a great
American newspaper, and some hints are presented with
reference to the qualifications of the successful journalist.
This article is illustrated with views of many of the great
newspaper buildings.
Methods of gathering the news, sup. 2188.
Editorial departments of a great newspaper, sup. 2189.
Mailing of newspapers, sup. 2189.
The Sunday paper, sup. 2189.
Journalism as a profession, sup. 2191.
Associated Press organization, sup. 2194.
Several other articles in the Britannica relate directly
or indirectly to this important subject. Among li
tin- following arc especially interesting :
Acta 1 )iurna, I. 1 28.
nil. JOURNALIST. 427
Reporting, XX. 404; XXI. 841.
Advertisements, I. 177, 17S.
The article on ADVERTISING, sup. 52, is full of interest-
ing facts relating to this important department of jour-
nalism, especially in .America.
Printing of newspapers, XXIII. 703, 709.
Laws relating to newspaper press, XIX. 710.
Periodicals, XVIII. 535.
History of British periodicals, XVIII. 536; of French
periodicals, same volume, page 539; of American maga-
zines and reviews, page 544.
American magazines, sup. 1967.
The Associated Press, sup. 269.
Censorship of the Press, III. 658, 659.
Press Laws, XIX. 710-714.
See Typography, in this GUIDE.
FAMOUS JOURNALISTS.
Benjamin Franklin, IX. 71 1 ; his connection with Ameri-
can journalism, XVII. 433.
Horace Greeley, XI. 160; XVII. 434.
Newspaper George Ripley, XX. 567.
Men- John Walter and the " London Times," sup.
30J7-
Thurlow Weed, sup. 3 114.
William T. Stead, of the " Review of Reviews," sup.
2781.
Granier de Cassagnac, sup. 1440.
Charles A. Dana, sup. 983.
Joseph Gale, sup. 1358.
Edwin L. Godkin, sup. 1414.
Joseph Pulitzer, sup. 2476.
James Gordon Bennett, III. 574.
James Gordon Bennett, Jr., sup. 421.
428 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
John W. Forney, sup. 131 1.
Henry T. Raymond, sup. 2514.
Whitelaw Reid, sup. 2530.
Joseph Medill, sup. 2029.
Henry Watterson, sup. 3107.
Allen Thorndyke Rice, sup. 2545.
John Russell Young, sup. 3223.
See The Writer, The Printer, The American Citizen, and
Readings in the History of Literature, all in this GUIDE.
THE ARTIST. 429
CHAPTER LXIII.
THE ARTIST.
"In framing an artist, art hath thus decreed
To make some good, but others to exceed."
— Pericles.
I. PAINTING.
A GENERAL examination of the place of painting among
the Fine Arts will be found in the article under that
heading, Volume IX., page 206. But the most interesting
and by far the most valuable article on this
Schools subject is that entitled : SCHOOLS OF PAINT-
Painting. ING> XXI- 433-44§- This article may be read
by sections, with collateral references to
other articles and to the notices of individual painters, as
indicated below :
1. Classical School of Painting.
For the early history of painting among the Greeks and
Romans, see Volume II., pages 353, 358, 363, 366.
See also Zeuxis, XXIV. 783 ; Parrhasius, XVIII. 321 ;
Sicyon, II. 349; Apelles, II. 169.
2. Italian School of Painting, XXI. 433 ; Giotto, X. 609 ;
Masaccio, XV. 605 ; Fra Lippo Lippi, XIV. 685 ; Sandro
Botticelli, IV. 165 ; Michelangelo, XVI. 229; Andrea del
Sarto, XXI. 315; Giorgio Vasari, XXIV. 94; Raphael
Sanzio, XX. 274; Leonardo da Vinci, XIV. 455 ; Salvator
Rosa, XX. 846; Titian, XXIII. 413.
3. German School of Painting, XXI. 438 ; Hans Hol-
bein, XII. 53 ; Albrecht Diirer, VII. 554; Hans Holbein,
the younger, XII. 54; Anton Raphael Mengs, XVI.
430 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
10 ; Julius Schnorr, XXI. 416; Johann Fried. Overbeck,
XVIII. 76; Wilhelm von Kaulbach, XIV. 16.
4. Flemish School of Painting, XXI. 438; Van Eyck,
VIII. 814; Van der Weyden, XXI. 439; Hans Memling,
XV. 846 ; Ouintin Matsys, XV. 620 ; Antonio Moro, XVI.
840; Rubens, XXI. 41 ; Vandyck, XXIV. 59
5. Dutch School of Painting, XXI. 439; Ruysdael,
XXI. 114; Vandevelde, XXIV. 59; Paul Potter, XIX.
600 ; Hobbema, XII. 30 ; Rembrandt, XX. 375.
6. Spanish School of Painting, XXI. 440; Zurbaran,
XXIV. 829; Velasquez, XXIV. 132 ; Murillo, XVII. 55 ;
Goya, XI. 22 ; Fortuny, XXI. 443.
7. French School of Painting, XXI. 440; Nicolas
Poussin, XIX. 649; Claude Lorrain, V. 814; Watteau,
XXIV. 414; Claude Vernet, XXIV. 168 ; Prud'hon, XX.
1; Horace Vernet, XXIV. 169; Delaroche, VII. 41;
Rousseau, XXI. 22; Millet, XVI. 321 ; sup. 2066; Meis-
sonier, sup. 2031; Regnault, XX. 346; Rosa Bonheur,
sup. 517.
Impressionism in French Art, sup. 1661.
8. British School of Painting, XXI. 441 ; Hogarth, XII.
47 ; Sir Joshua Reynolds, XX. 502 ; Gainsborough, X. 15 ;
Richard Wilson, XXIV. 593 ; Paul Sandby, XXL 257;
Sir Henry Racburn, XX. 218; William Blake, III. 804;
Eastlake, VII. 615; Sir Edwin Laridseer, XIV. 280;
Holman Hunt, sup. 1634; J. M. W. Turner, XXIII. 663 ;
Dante Gabriel Rossctti, XX. 857; E. J. Poynter, sup.
2434; Burne-Jones, sup. 628; Sir Frederick Leighton, sup.
i860; Sir John Millais, sup. 2064 ; George F. Watts, sup.
3107.
9. American Painters: Thomas II ill, sup. 1583; Win-
slow Homer, sup. 1602; William M. limit, sup. 1635;
George [nness, sup. 1683; Eastman Johnson, sup. 1747;
John La Farge, sup. 1821; Will II. Lowe, sup. 1924;
THE ARTIST. 43 1
F. D. Millet, sup. 2067; Washington Allston, sup. 136;
John Singleton Copley, VI. 347; Benjamin West, XXIV.
505 ; John S. Sargent, sup. 2632.
II. PROCESSES OF PAINTING.
Materials used in Painting, XVIII. 137.
Painting in water-colors, XVIII. 139, and
Kinds XjX g6
Painting Enamel — On metal, VIII. 182; in jewelry,
XIII. 679 ; in pottery, XIX. 601.
Encaustic painting, VIII. 185.
Genre -painting, sup. 1379
Fresco, IX. 769.
Raphael's frescos, XX. 278.
Glass-painting, X. 667.
Aureola, III. 89.
Tempera, XXIII. 157.
Illumination, XII. 707.
Mural Decoration, XVII. 34-48 (a beautifully illus-
trated article).
Wall-painting, XVII. 39-48.
Miniatures, XVI. 437.
III. SCULPTURE.
For the history of Greek and Roman sculpture, see the
article on CLASSICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, II. 343;
Hlstory also Phidias, XVIII. 733 ; Polycletus, XIX.
Sculpture 4*6; Scopas, II. 360 ; Praxiteles, XIX. 660;
Lysippus, XV. 120; Arcesilaus, II. 326.
Assyrian Sculpture, III. 190.
Etrurian Art, VIII. 639.
Early Christian Sculpture, XXI. 556.
English Sculpture, XXI. 557; John Flaxman, IX. 298;
Francis Chantrey, V. 395 ; Alfred Stevens, XXI. 561.
432 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
French Sculpture, XXI. 562 ; Jean Antoine Hou-
don, XII. 314; Francois Rude, XXI. 50; David, VI.
842.
German Sculpture, XXI. 564; Vischer, XVII. 633 ;
Schluter, XXI. 566; Albert Wolff, XXI. 566.
Spanish Sculpture, XXI. 566.
Italian Sculpture, XXI. 567; Pisani, XIX. 122 ; Dona-
tello, VII. 350; Orcagna, XVII. 814; Ghiberti, X. 566;
Michelangelo, XVI. 230; Raphael, XX. 281; Giovanni
da Bologna, XXI. 569 ; Benvenuto Cellini, V. 294; Ber-
nini, III. 604; Canova, V. 24.
Venetian Sculpture, XXIV. 156; Veronese, XXIV. 172.
Scandinavian Sculpture, XXI. 570; Thorwaldsen,
XXIII. 315.
American Sculpture : Hiram Powers, XIX. 650 ; Thomas
Crawford, VI. 554; Horatio Greenough, XI. 173; Henry
Kirke Brown, I. 352, sup. 588; W. W. Story, sup. 2796;
Harriet Hosmer, sup. 1618; John Rogers, sup. 2565 ; Lar-
kin G. Mead, sup. 2022 ; Augustus St. Gaudens, sup. 2603 ;
R. S. Greenough, sup. 1464; Clark Mills, sup. 2067; Fred-
crick McMonnies, sup. 1962.
Technical methods of sculpture (how a piece of statuary
is made), XXI. 571.
Alto relievo, I. 643.
Relief, IX. 205; relief in wall decorations, XVII. 34;
relations of sculpture to the Fine Arts, IX. 205.
IV. POTTERY, ETC.
The special article on this subject, XIX. 600-643, is one
of much interest, amply and beautifully illus-
trated. The article on Ceramic Art, sup. 734,
Porcelain describes the development of this art since 1880,
and is replete with interesting facts.
Prehistoric pottery, XIX. 602.
THE ARTIST. 433
Egyptian pottery, XIX. 603.
Assyrian, XIX. 604.
Phoenician, XIX. 605.
Hellenic. XIX. 611.
Etruscan, XIX. 615.
Graico-Roman and Roman, XIX. 617.
Persian and Moslem, XIX. 619.
Teutonic and Saxon, XIX. 623.
Mediaeval, XIX. 624.
Majolica-ware, XIX. 624.
Spanish and Portuguese, XIX. 628.
French, XIX. 629.
Bernard Palissy, XVIII. 186.
Mediaeval German-ware, XIX. 630.
English, XIX. 631.
Josiah Wedgwood, XXIV. 476.
Ancient Mexican-ware, XIX. 633.
Chinese porcelain, XIX. 633.
Japanese pottery, XIII. 454.
Sevres-ware, XIX. 637.
Dresden-ware, XIX. 639.
English porcelain, XIX. 640.
Terra-cotta, XXIII. 190; Assyrian terra-cotta, II. 399;
Etruscan, VIII. 641 ; Japanese, XII. 599.
Tiles, XXII. 387; encaustic tiles, VIII. 187; for wall-
linings, XVII. 36.
Mosaic-work, XVI. 849 ; of Egyptians and Romans,
XVI. 850; of the Middle Ages, XVI. 852.
V. METAL-WORK.
Metal-work as an ornamental art, XVI. 71.
Metal-work of Greece, XVI. 73.
Of Italy, XVI. 74.
Of England, XVI. 76.
28
434 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Of Germany, XVI. yy.
Brasses, IV. 219; VII. 694.
Brasses Bronze-work, XVI. 71.
Bronzes. Japanese bronze-work, XIII. 591.
Chinese bronze-work, IV. 366.
Venetian bronze-work, XXIV. 156.
Iron-work in architecture, II. 466.
Hammered metal-work, XVI. 72.
Damaskeening, VI. 793.
VI. WOOD-WORK.
Wood-carving, XXIV. 644 (a six-page illustrated article
treating mainly of ancient and mediaeval work).
Wood- Wood-carving in Switzerland, XXII. 779.
carving. Buhl-work, IV. 446.
Inlaying, XIII. 81.
Marquetry, IX. 849.
VII. PHOTOGRAPHY.
Special article on Photography, XVIII. 821-840, with
supplement giving an account of the most recent
Progress improvements and discoveries, sup. 2370. See
of Phctog- , 1 ' f J/
. also :
raphy.
Daguerre, VI. 761.
Niepcc, XVII. 495.
Photogravure, XXII. 717.
Photo-engraving, XVIII. 834.
Photolithography, XVIII. 833, 834.
Camera, [V. 740, 741 ; XVIII. 839; sup. 664.
Instantaneous photography, sup. 2371.
Photographs in natural colors, sup. 2372.
Woodburytypes, sup. 3186.
Albertypes, sup. 1 15.
Artotypes, sup. 258.
THE ARTIST. 435
Photochronograph, sup. 2370, 2377.
Dry plates, sup. 2373.
Plantinotypes and kallitypes, sup. 2376.
Astronomical photography, sup. 2376.
Rdntgen or X rays, sup. 2372, 1166.
VIII. ENGRAVING.
Special article on Engraving, VIII. 435. A valuable
supplementary article on engraving, giving an
istory account of the latest advancement made in the
Engraving. art' may be found in sup. 1204-1207. Wood-
engraving, VIII. 436 ; early engraving on wood,
V. 99; in time of Albrecht Durer, VII. 554; Bewick, III.
621.
Copper and steel plate engraving, VIII. 439 ; Mantegna,
XV. 501 ; Audran, III. 70; Ferdinand Gaillard, VIII.
443-
Half-tone process, sup. 1205.
Wax process, sup. 1206.
Etching, VIII. 443.
Mezzotint, VIII. 445.
Lithography, sup. 1897.
IX. MISCELLANEOUS.
Drawing, VII. 446-451. Beginning on page 448, the
article is an interesting and very readable
Drawing. critique on the art of delineation as practiced
by different artists and in different countries.
Illumination of written or printed texts, XII. 707 ; illu-
minated borders of books, XXIII. 696.
Illuminated manuscripts, VI. 45 ; XII. 797.
Caricature, V. 103.
Arabesques, I. 233.
Embossing, VIII. 160.
436 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Stamped leather for wall-decoration, XVII. 37.
Embroidery, VIII. 160.
Gilding, X. 593.
Etching, VIII. 443.
Lacquer-work, XIV. 194.
Lapidary, XIV. 298.
Cameo, IV. 738 ; cameos of mediaeval times,
Ornamen- IV. 739.
tation. Work in ivory, XIII. 520.
Jewelry, XIII. 675-679.
Decalcomania, sup. 1007.
X. ILLUSTRATORS.
George Cruikshank, sup. 956.
Frank O. Darley, sup. 986.
Gustave Dore, sup. 1067.
George du Maurier, sup. 1092.
Mary Hallock Foote, sup. 1304.
"Alfred Crowquill," sup. 13 12.
Harry Furniss, sup. 1353.
Charles D. Gibson, sup. 1394.
William Hamilton Gibson, sup. 1394.
Bernhard Gillam, sup. 1398.
Kate Greenaway, sup. 1461.
Augustus Hoppin, sup. 161 3.
Thomas Nast, sup. 2138.
Joseph Pennell, sup. 2337.
Charles S. Reinhart, sup. 2530.
Frederic Remington, sup. 2531.
See Art Unions, sup. 258.
THE MUSICIAN. 437
CHAPTER LXIV.
THE MUSICIAN.
" Such sweet compulsion doth in music lie." — Milton.
ALTHOUGH America has not yet produced a great com-
poser of music, it has nevertheless a copious and impor-
tant musical history. The article on MUSIC IN AMERICA,
sup. 2128, wherein this history is narrated, will therefore
be read with great interest, and doubtless also with profit,
by every American musician who wishes to know anything
about the origin and progress of music in. his own country.
In the seventeenth volume of the Encyclopedia Britan-
nica (pages 77-102), Professor Macfarren, of the Univer-
sity of Cambridge, presents a scholarly and comprehensive
history of music, tracing its progress through western civ-
ilization, and showing how it has been changed from an
artificial or calculated form to a natural or spon-
taneous. This article not only appeals especial-
Music ^ to musicians and students of music, but it
contains much that will interest the casual
reader. It may be taken as the basis of a short course of
study on this subject. It may be read in sections in con-
nection with other special articles, as follows :
Origin of musical instruments, page yy. (See list of
musical instruments below.)
Musical intervals, XVII. 78, 103.
Affinity of music to astronomy, XVII. 78. See Pythago-
ras, XX. 137.
Antiphony, XVII. 79; also II. 134.
Scales, XVII. 80.
438 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Time in music, sup. 2915.
Tone in music, sup. 2926.
Harmon)-, XVII. 81. Special article on, VII. 593. The
principles of harmony are treated still further
in part IV. of the article Acoustics, I. 107.
Harmony. .
Counterpoint, XV11. 02.
Academies of music, XVII. S3. See also
Academy, I. yS, and Conservatory, VI. 291.
Troubadours, XVII. 83 ; also VII. 413 ; Minstrel, XVI.
479-
Madrigal, XV. 192.
Oratorio, XVII. 85-100; also Handel's XI. 435 ; Hay-
dn's, XI. 549; Mendelssohn's, XVI. 8; in America, sup.
2130.
Hymns, XVII. 85 ; also the special article on this sub-
ject, XII. 577.
Psalmody in America, sup. 2129.
Choral tunes, XVII. 85.
Opera, XVII. 87, 99. See Scarlatti, XXI. 375 ; Lully,
XV. 6$ ; Wagner, XXIV. 313.
Cantata, XVII. 88.
Symphony, XVII. 95.
Among the many other articles on musical subjects the
following are of especial interest:
Voice, and vocal music, XXIV. 273.
Plain song or chant, XIX. 168.
Vocal Anthem, II. 102.
Music. Agnus Dei, I. 284.
Almai (Egyptian singers), I. 592.
Glee, X. 677.
Minuet, XVI. 492.
Scientific basis of music, XVII. 102-106 (a scholarly
article by Professor Bosanquet, of the Royal College of
Music, London).
THE MUSICIAN. 439
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Drum, VII. 479.
Flute, IX. 350.
Transverse flute, XXII I. 519.
Flageolet, IX. 351.
Bassoon, III. 425.
Lyre, XV. 1 13.
/Eolian harp, I. 182, and sup. 54.
Harp, XL 488.
Lute, XV. 70.
Violin, XXIV. 242.
Banjo, sup. 337.
Hornpipe, XII. 171.
French horn, XII. 167.
Dulcimer, sup. 109 1.
Oboe, or hautboy, XVII. 705.
Trumpet, XXIII. 592.
Trombone, XXIII. 586.
Ophicleide, XVII. 705.
Organ, XVII. 828-839.
Barrel-organs, sup. 361.
Pianoforte, XIX. 64-78.
MUSICIANS AND COMPOSERS.
These are so numerous that we shall attempt to name
only a few of the most famous. Reference to others may
easily be made by consulting the Index volume.
Jenny Lind, XIV. 662, sup. 1419.
Adelina Patti, sup. 2325.
Singers. Parepa Rosa, sup. 2576.
Emma Eames, sup. 2795.
Clara Louise Kellogg, sup. 2798.
Nellie Melba, sup. 2032.
440 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Beethoven, III. 504.
Mendelssohn, XVI. 6.
Handel, XL 433.
Haydn, XL 538.
Composers. Franz Liszt, sup. 1896.
Moscheles, XVI. 222.
Czerny, VI. 755.
Lully, XV. 63.
Johann Strauss, sup. 2798.
Meyerbeer, XVI. 6.
Wagner, XXIV. 313.
Weber, XXIV. 467.
Brahms, sup. 546.
Scarlatti, XXI. 375.
Rubinstein, sup. 2586.
Paderewski, sup. 2279.
Pianists. Tschaikowsky, sup. 2954.
Gottschalk, sup. 143 1 , 2132.
Antonin Dvorak, sup. 1100.
Moritz Rosenthal, sup. 2578.
Lowell Mason, sup. 2009, 2129.
Theodore Thomas, sup. 2 131, 2897.
Directors. Leopold Damrosch, sup. 2131,983.
Dudley Buck, sup. 605, 2132.
Reginald de Koven, sup. 1016.
Anton Scidl, sup. 2678, 2132.
Remenyi, sup. 2531.
Paganini, XVIII. 134.
Corelli, VI. 394-
VlOliniStS. _ TTTTT
Ernst, VIII. 527.
Ole Bull, sup. 615.
Violin-makers: Stradivari, XXIV. 245; Amati, I. 654.
See Cremona, VI. 507, and XVII. 98.
THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST. 441
CHAPTER LXV.
THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST.
" The best actors in the world, either for tragedy, comedy." — Hamlet.
THE word drama is from the Greek drao, meaning
action. The invention of dramatic art is the direct out-
come of a universal quality of human nature — the desire to
imitate. Aristotle says that this desire is in-
Xhe stinctive in man from his infancy. Children are
Drama. perpetually going out of themselves ; it is one
of their chief amusements to represent those
grown people whom they have had an opportunity of ob-
serving, or whatever strikes their fancy ; " and, with the
happy pliancy of their imagination, they can exhibit all
the characteristics of any dignity they may choose to
assume, be it that of a father, a schoolmaster, or a king."
Here, then, is the first step towards the invention of the
dramatic art. Imitation of action by action, however
simple and unpremeditated, is a drama in embryo. The
business of the dramatist is to invent this action and to
mould it into a form sanctioned by the laws of literature.
It is the business of the actor to present this action in its
concrete form, agreeably to the laws of histrionic art.
The actor is only the temporary interpreter of the
dramatist,
The history of the drama, which includes both dramatic
literature and its presentation on the stage, is
History. a subject very interesting not only to all actors
and dramatists, but to students of literature and
art and humanity, and even to "the general reader."
The Encyclopedia Britannica presents that history in a
442 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
form adapted to the convenience of all who care to peruse
it, while its various related topics are so grouped and ar-
ranged as to afford every convenience for ready consulta-
tion. The following references, including the entire his-
tory of the drama and of dramatic representation, will
point the way to several courses of systematic reading :
I. HISTORY OF THE DRAMA.
Egyptian drama, VII. 403.
Chinese drama, VII. 400.
Hindoo drama, VII. 396.
The Sakuntala of Kalidasa, XIII. 828 ; VII. 397.
The Greek drama, VII. 403, comprised two great divi-
sions, tragedy and comedy.
The traditional inventor of tragedy was Thespis, VII.
404 ; hence the expression Thespian art, so often used to
designate dramatic art.
Tragedy was defined by Plato as an imitation
Greek °f the noblest life.
Drama. Comedy had its origin in sport; it was "the
village song," the rustic jest, and formed the
most complete contrast to tragedy.
Origin of tragedy, XI. 140.
The great masters of Greek tragedy were /Eschvlus,
I. 208, VII. 403 ; Sophocles, XXII. 271 ; and Euripides,
VIII. 673, XL 140.
The construction of the Greek tragedy was essentially
different from that of the modern play. See VII. 406.
Origin of comedy, VII. 407.
The master of Greek comedy, although by no means
its inventor, was Aristophanes, II. 507. He was the rep-
ntative of the Old Comedy, the distinctive features of
which are described in VII. 407.
THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST. 443
Of the Middle and the New Comedies, the greatest
names are those of Eubulus and Menander, XVI. 2.
The Attie drama, represented by the great names just
mentioned, had its origin in religion, VII. 408. Its reli-
gious character had much to do in modifying its rep-
resentation upon the stage.
The Roman Drama — its origin, VII. 409.
Livius Andronicus, who was both dramatist and actor,
produced the first regular Roman tragedy and the first
great Roman comedy, XIV. 723, VII. 410. Other trage-
dians were :
Cna_>us Nsevius, XVII. 161.
Roman Quintus Ennius, VIII. 447 ; XX. 717.
Drama. Lucius Accius, I. 83.
Lucius Annneus Seneca, XXI. 658.
Of the writers of Latin comedy the greatest names are
T. Maccius Plautus, XIX. 215.
Terence, XXIII. 186; XVI. 2.
With the triumph of the Christian Church in the 4th
century, the Roman drama came to an end, VII. 412.
The Christian drama had its origin in dramatic com-
positions written doubtless for educational purposes as
early as the 5th century.
St. Gregory Nazianzus, XI. 179; VII. 412.
Hrotsvitha, XII. 326.
Mystery-plays, VII. 412.
Mediaeval Miracle-plays, V. 324.
Plays. Moralities, VIII. 41 6; VII. 413.
Passion-play of Oberammergau, XVII. 703.
The English drama was the offshoot of the miracle-
plays and moralities which survived even after the regular
444 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
tragedy and comedy of the modern stage had begun
their course.
English The first tragedy proper in the English
Drama. tongue was Gorboduc, by Thomas Sackville,
Lord Buckhurst, VIII. 416.
The earliest English comedy now extant was Ralph
Roister Doistcr, by Nicholas Udall, XXIII. 716.
" Out of such promises as these the glories of our
drama were ripened by the warmth and light of the great
Elizabethan age." Of the Elizabethan dramatists, the
following are the most famous :
John Lyly, VII. 429 ; XV. 103.
Thomas Kyd, XXI. 463.
Christopher Marlowe, XV. 556.
George Peele, XVIII. 457.
Robert Greene, XI. 163.
Thomas Lodge, XIV. 767; XVIII. 346.
Thomas Nash, XVII. 236.
William Shakespeare, XXI. jij. (See Index, page
401.)
Ben Jonson, XIII. 741.
John Webster, VII. 432.
Francis Beaumont, III. 469.
John Fletcher, XVIII. 347.
Philip Massinger, XV. 618.
The Puritans and the Drama, VII. 434.
Milton's Com us, XVI. 526.
Sir William Davenant, VI. 835.
Drama of the Restoration, VII. 434, 435.
John Uryden, VIP 488; VIII. 423.
William Wycherley, XXIV. 705.
THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST. 445
William Congreve, VI. 271.
Sir John Vanbrugh, XXIV. 54.
Drama of the Eighteenth Century, VII. 435-438.
Addison's Cato, VIII. 425, 426; VII. 435.
Home's Douglas, XII. 107.
Allan Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, XX. 266.
Gay's Beggar s Opera, X. 119.
Henry Fielding's comedies, IX. 142 ; VIII. 430.
Goldsmith's comedies, X. 760; VII. 435.
Sheridan's comedies, VII. 438 ; XXI. 797.
Drama of the Nineteenth Century, VII. 438, 439.
Byron's Manfred, IV. 604 ; VII. 438.
Shelley's The Cenei, VIII. 433; XXI. 789.
Buhver-Lytton's Richelieu, XV. 121.
Modern Italian Drama, VII. 416-417.
Cinthio's Heeatommithi, X. 620.
Marquis S. Maffei, XV. 196.
Italian Alfieri, I. 502.
Drama. Manzoni, XV. 5 1 4.
Ariosto's comedies, VII. 418.
Guarini's Pastor Fido, XI. 236.
Goldoni, X. 759; XIII. 513.
The Spanish Drama, XXII. 356, 358; VII. 419.
Cervantes, XXII. 356 ; V. 347.
Lope de Vega, XXII. 357; VII. 420;
Spanish XXIV. 121.
Drama. Calderon de la Barca, XXII. 359 ; IV. 659.
Moreto, VII. 422; XVI. 821.
Cienfuegos, V. 775.
Bartolome Torres Naharro, XXII. 356.
446 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
The French Drama, VII. 423.
Bible-plays, IX. 647; miracle-plays, IX. 648.
Stephen Jodelle, VII. 423 ; XX. 841.
The Classical Drama, IX. 654.
Robert Gamier, VII. 423.
Corneille, VII. 424; IX. 655.
Racine, IX. 663.
Voltaire, XXIV. 285 ; IX. 670.
Moliere, IX. 659; XVI. 624.
French Victor Hugo, VII. 427; IX. 676.
Drama. Minor dramatists, IX. 660.
Dramatists of the Empire, IX. 676.
Victorien Sardou, sup. 2631.
Theatre Francais, sup. 2{
The German Drama, X. 529; VII. 440.
Lessing, VII. 441 ; X. 536.
German " Sturm und Drang," VII. 442 ; X. 540.
Drama. Goethe, X. 537, 72 1 ; VII. 442.
Schiller, XXI. 395 ; X. 538.
Hans Sachs, X. 528 ; Gustav Freytag, X. 541.
The Romantic School, VII. 443
Later dramatists, X. 545.
The Dutch Drama, XII. 91,96.
Dutch Hooft, XII. 93, 146.
Drama. Van den Vondel, VII. 444; XII. 94.
Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgium), sup. 1966.
The Scandinavian Drama, XX I. 754; XVII 590; VII. 92.
Holberg, XII. 56.
Ochlenschla;., r, XVII. 730.
Bjdrnstjerne Bjornson, XVII. 591.
Henrik Ibsen, XVII. 591.
THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST. 447
II. THE THEATRE.
By this word we have reference to a place specially
devised for dramatic representations. See the following
articles or parts of articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica :
The Greek theatre, its invention and plan, XXIII. 222 ;
11.413-
Dionysiac Theatre at Athens, III. 3.
The Roman theatre, VII. 411 ; XXIII. 223 ; II. 419.
Amphitheatre, X. 65 ; I. 774.
Colosseum, II. 419; XXIII. 420.
Early English theatres, VII. 428; XXIII.
Theatres.
224.
Blackfriars Theatre, VIII. 419.
Globe Theatre, XXI. 761.
Theatres of Paris, XXIII. 225 ; XVIII. 277.
Drury Lane Theatre, XXIII. 226.
Theatres of New York, XVII. 461.
Chinese theatres, V. 666.
The stage in Greek theatres, VII. 408.
In Roman theatres, VII. 411.
In early English theatres, VIII. 420.
In modern theatres, XXIII. 226.
Costumes and scenery, XXIII. 225.
Masks in Greek tragedy, VII. 408.
The cothurnus, VII. 408.
The Coventry-plays, VII. 414.
Pageants, VII. 416.
Masques, VII. 431.
III. ACTORS AND ACTING.
The Histrionic Art, VII. 396 ; IX. 209.
Actors: Greek, VII. 408; Roman, VII. 411 ; Hindu,
VII. 399; English, VII. 434, 439 ; Chinese, VII. 402.
Livius Andronicus, XIV. 723.
448 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Richard Burbage, XXI. 761.
David Garrick, X. 83.
Mrs. Sarah Siddons, XXII. 32.
JohnKemble, XIV. 31.
Fanny Kemble, sup. 1778.
Edmund Kean, XIV. 21.
William Charles Macready, XV. 167.
Barton Booth, IV. 48.
Edwin Booth, sup. 521.
Lawrence Barrett, sup. 362.
Dion Boucicault, sup. 531.
Ernesto Rossi, sup. 2579.
Anna Cora Mo watt, sup. 2553.
Edwin Forrest, sup. 13 12.
Joseph Jefferson, sup. 1738.
Charlotte Cushman, sup. 971.
Mary Anderson, sup. 2144.
Richard Mansfield, sup. 1984.
Maggie Mitchell, sup. 2085.
Fanny Davenport, sup. 992.
Clara Morris, sup. 21 10.
Sir Henry Irving, sup. 1 7 1 5.
Ellen Terry, sup. 2881.
Helena Modjeska, sup. 2087.
Lilian Neilson, sup. 2158.
In general, the names and biographies of all the most
popular actors on the American stage may be found by
consulting the American supplements to the Encyclopedia
Britannica.
IV. THE ART OF DRAMATIC COMPOSITION.
See VII. 39O-396.
In the first place, a drauiati. action must possess unity.
See VII. 390; XVI. Si.
THE ACTOR AND DRAMATIST. 449
It must be complete. See VII. 391.
Prologues and epilogues, VII. 392.
See Chorus in Greek Drama, XVII. 79.
Climax and catastrophe, VII. 393.
Characterization, VII. 394.
Consistency, VII. 394.
Tragedy and comedy, VII. 395.
Gesture, speech, costume, VII. 396.
450 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
CHAPTER LXVI.
THE HOME-MAKER.
"Our books, gardens, family, scenery, might all bring forth to us
far greater wealth of enjoyment and improvement if we tried to squeeze
the very utmost out of them." — Charles Buxton.
" A home without books is like a room without windows." — Henry
Ward Beecher.
The Britannica would be lacking in completeness if it
did not contain a number of practical articles on topics
of domestic interest and utility. An examination of any
single volume will show that it is not in the least deficient
in this respect. To any person having in charge the af-
fairs of a home or a family, this great work offers a variety
of useful information that is not to be found in any simi-
lar publication.
A. THE household.
Do you think of building a house for yourself ? See the
article on Building, IV. 447. Consult, also, the
House- supplementary article on American Architec-
building. ture, sup. 218 ; and notice the practical refer-
ences in the chapter entitled, The Builder, in
this GUIDE. Then refer to the following valuable arti-
cles, or parts of articles :
Sanitation of the house, XII. 567.
Progress in American sanitary science, sup. 2402.
Ventilation of the house, XII. 567; ventilation by
chimneys, XXIV. 160.
Sewerage, XXI. 71 1 ; sup. 2403.
Plumbing, IV. 502 ; sup. 2402.
THE HOME-MAKER. 45 I
Water-closets, XXI. 716.
Water-pipes, XXII. 484.
Paper-hangings, IV. 512.
Japanese paper-hangings, XIII. 591.
Tapestry, XXIII. 211.
Heating apparatus, XI. 590; XXIV. 161; sup. 1352.
Stoves, XXII. 579.
The latest improvements in cook-stoves, sup. 2796.
FURNISHING.
After the house has been built, other questions will pre-
sent themselves, and the following articles in the Britan-
nica will be read with interest :
Furniture, IX. 847.
Bed, sup. 396.
Chairs, IX. 849.
Carpets, V. 127.
Mural decoration, XVII. 34.
FOODS.
The busy housewife, upon whose wisdom and discretion
so much of the family happiness depends, will find a vast
fund of information, and often some valuable practical
suggestions, in such articles as these :
Cooking-stoves, XXII. 579.
Cookery, VI. 331.
Adulteration of foods, I. 169.
Cookery among the Arabs, II. 251.
Baking, III. 250-258.
Baking-powder, sup. 323.
Food, sup. 1298.
Dairy foods, VI. 768.
Table showing the composition of different foods, sup.
1298.
452 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA,
Milk, XVI. 301.
Cream, XVI. 303.
Butter, IV. 590.
Cheese, V. 455.
Coffee, VI. 1 10.
Tea, XXIII. 97.
Chocolate, V. 680.
Lard, XIV. 312.
Use of salt in food, sup. 1301.
Sugar, XXII. 622.
Sugar in the United States, sup. 1988, 2818.
Honey, XII. 136.
Gelatine, X. 130.
Gluten, X. 695.
Preserved foods, XIX. 707.
Jelly, as conserve of fruit, XIII. 564.
Tinned foods, XIX. 708.
Arrowroot, II. 631.
Canning industry, sup. 685.
Macaroni, XV. 125.
Flour, IX. 343.
Nutritive lichens, Iceland moss, etc., XIV. 559.
Curry, VI. 715.
Cinnamon, V. 785.
Nutmeg, XVII. 666 (illustrated).
Allspice, XIX. 97.
Pepper, XVIII. 516; cayenne, V. 280.
Confectionery, VI. 256.
Aerated waters, I. 184.
Mineral waters, XV. 431.
Ice, XII. 611.
Read the valuable article on dietetics, VII. 200.
Digestion of foods, sup. 1299.
THE HOME-MAKER. 453
Diet in sickness, VII. 205.
The uses of water in dietetics, XXIV. 399.
Dietetics. Meals, VII. 209.
Plutarch on dietetics, VI. 181.
Lord Combermere's rules, VI. 181.
HOUSEHOLD NECESSITIES AND UTENSILS.
Candles, IV. 802.
Lamps, XIV. 244.
Sewing-machines, XXI. 718.
Needles, XVII. 313-
Pins, XIX. 97.
Thread, VI. 502.
Combs, VI. 177.
Brushes, IV. 403.
Looking-glasses, IX. 849.
Pottery (see page 432, of this Guide).
Cups, XIX. 180.
EMERGENCIES.
What to do in case of asphyxiation, II. 716.
Antidotes to poisons, XIX. 276.
What to do in case of burns, XXII. 681.
Burns and scalds, sup. 629.
Some rules for the care of the sick, VII. 205.
Other topics will suggest themselves to every intelligent
housekeeper, and these may generally be found by refer-
ring to the Index volume.
See, also, the chapters in this Guide entitled, respec-
tively, The Farmer, The Gardener, The Physician, and
The Fruit Grower.
454 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
B. SOCIAL LIFE.
DRESS.
A long list of articles on subjects connected with the
social life of the home might be given here. The follow-
ing will be sufficient to indicate their number and variety :
Costume : In Volume VI., page 453, there is a complete
history of dress, with illustrations.
Gloves, X. 692.
Girdles, X. 622.
Shoes, XXI. 830; boots, sup. 522.
Hats, XI. 518.
Ribbons, XX. 531.
Rings, XX. 560.
Jewelry, XIII. 675.
Gems, X. 136; XX. 560.
Diamonds, VII. 162.
Laces, XIV. 183.
Parasols, XXIII. 722.
Sachets — perfumes, XVIII. 527.
MUSIC.
See the chapter in this Guide entitled, The Musician.
ART.
See the chapter entitled, The Artist.
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS.
Billiards, III. 674.
Chess. V. 592 ; sup. 778.
Checkers, VII. 444.
Dice, sup. 1042.
Backgammon, III. 197.
Games at Cards: Kuchrc, VIII. 654; poker, XIX.
282; whist, XXIV. 543, sup. 3139; cribbage, VI. 575;
THE HOME-MAKER. 455
casino, sup. 717; bezique, III. 623 ; loo, XV. 1 ; picquct,
XIX. 114; ecarte, VII. 620 ; Napoleon, XVII. 229; faro,
sup. 1248; baccarat, sup. 308; seven-up, sup. 2693.
Riddles, XX. 549.
Charades, V. 398.
White magic, XIV. 414 ; XV. 207.
Dancing, VI. 798-801; jig, VI. 799; hornpipe, XII.
171 ; waltz, VI. 799; schottische, VI. 800; reel, VI. 801 ;
Spanish bolero, sup. 511; fandango, sup. 1242.
Calisthenics, XI. 350.
OUTDOOR AMUSEMENTS.
Tennis, XXIII. 179, 181.
Croquet, VI. 608.
Golf, X. 765.
Cricket, VI. 578.
Football, sup. 1 301 ; IX. 367.
Polo, XIX. 549.
Baseball, sup. 370.
Horsemanship, XII. 195.
Fox-hunting, VII. 329; XII. 314.
Shooting, XXI. 832.
Archery, II. 371.
Fishing, II. 32.
Bicycling, sup. 458.
Skating, XXII. 104.
Swimming, XXII. 768.
Rowing, XX. 619.
Canoeing, IV. 81 1.
Yachting, XXIV. 722-725.
PASTIMES.
Autograph collecting, III. 141.
Stamp collecting, XIX. 588.
456 GUIDE TO THE BRITANNICA.
Crocheting, XIV. 127.
Amateur photography, sup. 2370.
Hammered metal-work, XVI. 72.
Embroidery, VIII. 160.
Decalcomania, sup. 1007.
Ceramics, XIX. 600, sup. 734.
Reading (see the chapter entitled, The Bookman).
Cigars, V. 776; XXIII. 426.
Wine, XXIV. 601.
Coffee, VI. no.
Tea, XXIII. 101.
Clubs, sup. 837 ; VI. 38.
Women's clubs, sup. 838.
INDEX
Acoustics. 137, 139.
Actor, The, 441.
Adventurers, 28.
Agriculture, 231.
Alchemy, 170.
Algebra, 132.
Almanacs, 95.
American citizen, The, 281.
American history, 59; literature,
73; politics, 282; colleges, 402-
406.
Amusements, 50, 52, 454.
Ancient art, 146.
Ancient history, 62.
Ancient literature, 78.
Animals, 46, 100.
Antiquities, 144.
Apothecary, The, 356.
Archaeology, 144.
Archery, 51.
Architect, the, 215.
Arithmetic, 131.
Arms and armor, 274.
Artist, The, 43, 429.
Aryan languages, 86.
Astrology, 91, 171.
Astronomy. 90.
Athletic games, 53.
Authors, 43.
Ball, Games of, 50.
Balloons, 198.
Banker, The, 311.
Banks and banking, 308, 314.
Battles, 277.
Bible — History, 156 ; geography,
159; circulation, etc., 379.
Bible student, The, 156.
Bicycling, 53.
Biographies : adventurers 28 ; al-
chemists, 171; Americans great,
32 ; American writers, 73 ' anti-
slavery leaders, 385 ; asirolo-
gists, 171; astronomers, 91, au-
thors, 73, 75; bankers, 317; B ble
characters, 158; botanists, 108;
chemists, 359; colonists, 31; de-
termination, men of, 39; dili-
gence, men of, 33; discoverers,
28 ; dramatists, 443 ; electri-
cians, 202; energy, men of, 40;
Englishmen, great, 70 ; English
writers, 75; financiers, 317; ge-
ologists, 362 ; illustrators, 436 ;
integrity, men of, 41 ; inventors,
208 ; journalists, 427; kings, 27;
lawyers, 331 ; librarians, 397 ;
logicians, 153 ; mathematicians,
x3r> x33 ! merchants, 324 ; mis-
sionaries, 382 ; musicians, 440 ;
noble motives, men of, 43 ; ora-
tors, 389; painters, 429; patience,
men of, 40 ; patriots, 2S6 ; phil-
anthropists, 383 ; philosophers,
149 ; physicians, 347 ; political
economists, 310; preachers, 3^4;
precision, men of, 42 ; presi-
dents, 33 ; printers, 423; prison-
ers' friends, 3S4 ; reformers,
386 ; psychologists, 408 ; religi-
ous leaders, 376 ; scientists, 99 ;
sculptors, 431; social reformers,
387 ; soldiers, 281 ; statesmen,
286 ; teachers, 400 ; temperance
advocates, 3S7; theologians, 374;
warriors, 27; woman suffragists,
386; young men, great, 43.
Biography, Home readings in, 37.
Biology, General course of read-
ing in, 96 ; great biologists, 99 ;
miscellaneous topics in, 106.
Birds, 105.
Blacksmith, The, 193.
Boatman, The, 53.
Bookish subjects, 395.
Bookkeeper, The, 292, 300.
Bookman, The, 392.
Books and libraries, 84.
Books, Fifty great, 392.
457
458
INDEX.
Books for lawyers, 341.
Books of the Bible, 157.
Bookseller, The, 425.
Botany, 108. See Plants.
Boys and girls, To the, 23.
Brewer, The, 390.
Brick-layer, The, 220.
Brickmaker, The, 187.
Bridges, 225, 450.
Builder, The, 220, 450.
Buildings, Famous, 218.
Burial customs, 177.
Butcher, The, 253.
Calendars, 95.
Canals, 226, 322.
Carpenter, The, 192, 222.
Carrier, The public, 322.
Ceramic art, 432.
Chemist, The, 359.
Christianity, 370.
Christian legends, 168.
Church history, 373; government,
378.
Civi; service, 288.
Classification in zoology, 103 ; in
botany, 109.
Clerk-copyist, The, 292.
Clerk, The, custom-house, 300.
Climate, 127.
Colleges, 402-406.
Clothier, The, 454.
Composer, The musical, 439.
Cooperation, 238, 309, 32S.
Criminal, The, 344.
Curious customs, 177.
Curious inventions, 176.
Curious people, 178.
Curious races, 144.
Curious things, 25.
Curious things in the sea, 267.
Custom-house service, 299.
Dairyman, The, 252.
I >eath and burial, 177.
Debater, The, 389.
Desultory reader's co urse, 175.
Detei live, The police, 305.
Disi overers, 28, 31.
Divon e, 144, 332.
Draftsman, The, 295.
Drama, The, 84 ; history of, 441.
Drama) ist, I he, 441.
Drawing, 436.
Press, 454.
Druggist, The, 356.
Dynamics, 200.
Education, 399 ; theories of, 409.
Electrician, The, 201.
Electric machinery, 204.
Emergencies, 453.
Encyclopaedia, What it is, 24.
Engineer, The, 224 ; steam en-
gineer, 296.
English drama, 442; history, 67 ;
legends, 16S; literature, 75.
Engraver, The, 435.
Essays, Subjects for, 414.
Ethics, 148.
Ethnology, 143.
Evil spirits, 172.
Explanations of references, 17.
Expressman, The, 322.
Fabled animals, 48.
Fables, 169.
Fairy stories, 169.
Farmer, The, 231.
Farmer, The Indian, 299.
Fiction, History of, 83.
Financier, The, 311, 317.
Fireman, The, 305.
Fisherman, The, 52, 102, 266.
Fish culturist, The, 296.
Fishes, 102, 104.
Florist, The, 241.
Flowers. See Botany and Gardener.
Foods, 451.
Forestry, 247.
Fortification, 227.
Free trade, 310, 321.
French language. 86; literature, 82.
Fruit-grower, The, 244, 2711.
Funeral director. The, 177.
Furnishing, 451.
Games, Outdoor, 50; indoor, 52.
Gardener, The, 240.
Geography — History of, 112; maps
in the Britannica, 115; geograph-
ical topics, 124 ; geog.„Khy of
United States, 126.
Geologist, The, 260.
Geometry, 132.
( rerman language, 87; literature, 82.
Girls, To the boys and, 23.
( rlass-maker, The, 186.
Glazier, The, 223.
Goldsmith, The, 185.
Government, 281,
INDEX.
459
Grammar, 412.
Greek drama, 442 ; history, 64 ;
language, S6 ; literature, 7S ;
mythology, 163.
Grocer, The, 320.
Gymnastics, 55.
Harbors, 226.
Health inspector. The, 304.
Heat. 213.
Hebrew language, 88; literature, 81.
Heroes, 26.
History: Home readings in, 30;
naval history, 33 ; romance cf,
34; three courses of reading in,
59; American, 59; Ancient, 62;
Greek, 64; Roman, 35, 65; Mod-
ern, 66.
How to do things, 28.
Home-maker, The, 450.
Huntsman, The, 53.
Hydromechanics, 136, 197.
Ichthyology, 104.
Illustrator, The, 436.
Imaginary beings, 174.
Indian teacher, 297 ; physician,
299 ; farmer, 299.
Index volume, How to use the, 18.
Insurance agent, The, 326.
International law, 294.
Inventions, Famous, 210.
Inventor, The, 207.
Israelites, Journey of the, 160.
Italian language, S6; literature, 82.
Jeweler, The, 454. See Mineralo-
gist.
Journalist, The, 426.
Justice, Administration of, 334.
Kings and warriors, 27.
Knighthood, 35.
Labor and capital, 229.
Laborer, The, 228, 309.
Labor organizations, 230.
Language, History of, 85.
Latin language, 86; literature, 80.
Lawyer, The, 329.
Leather-worker, The, 194.
Lecturer, The, 390.
Legends, 165.
Letter-carrier, The, 301.
Librarian, The, 305.
Libraries, 84, 396.
Light-houses, 226.
Liquor-dealer, The, 390.
Literature — Five courses of read-
ing in, 72; American, 73; Eng-
lish, 75 ; Greek, 78; Roman, 80;
Hebrew, 81 ; French, 82 ; four-
teen great literatures, 81 ; fic-
tion, 83 ; the drama, 84, 441 ;
poetry, 84.
Logic, 152.
Lumbering, 248.
Machinist, The, 196.
Magic, 171.
Magistrate, The, 343.
Magnetism, 140, 205.
Mail-clerk, The railway, 297.
Man, Readings in study of, 141.
Manufacturer, The, 181.
Manufacturing centres, 188.
Maps in the Britannica, 115.
Marriage, 144.
Mason, The, 220.
Mathematics, 130.
Meat inspector, The, 253, 295.
Mechanic, The, 190.
Mechanics, Laws of, 199, 211.
Medical inspector, The, 305.
Medicine, 346.
Merchant, The, 320.
Metal-worker, The, 193; art metal-
work, 433.
Metaphysic, 150.
Meteorology, 127.
Milkman, The, 252.
Miner, The, 256.
Mineralogist, The, 363.
Mineral manufactures, 184.
Minerals, 257.
Missionary, The, 382.
Money, History of, 311.
Municipal service, The, 303.
Musician, The, 43, 437.
Mutual-benefit societies, 328.
Mythology, Readings in, 163.
Natural history, 46.
Natural philosophy, 135.
Navigator, The, 265.
Navy, The, 33, 268.
Necromancy, 171.
Norse mythology, 164.
Occult sciences, 170.
Ocean life, 102.
Optics, 137, 140.
Oratory, 388.
Ornithology, 105.
460
INDEX.
Painter, The, 429.
Paper-maker, The, 195.
Parks, 250.
Parliamentary rules, 389.
Pastimes, 50, 52, 455.
Paul, Journeys of, 161.
Pauperism, 309.
Pension examiner, The, 293.
Pharmacist, The, 356.
Philanthropist, The, 381.
Philology, S5.
Philosophers, 43.
Philosophy, Readings in, 148.
Photographer, The, 434.
Physician, The, 299, 346.
Physics, Readings in, 135.
Plants, 108, 240, 247, 250.
Plasterer, The, 223.
Plumber, The, 222.
Pneumatics, 137, 197.
Policeman, The, 305, 343.
Political economist, The, 307.
Politics, American, 283.
Population, 308.
Post-office service, 300.
Potter, The, 186, 432.
Pottery, 432.
Poultryman, The, 254.
Precious metals, 185.
Printer, The, 301, 423.
Prisoners' friends, 384.
Psychology, 151, 407.
Preacher, The, 366.
Publisher, The, 425.
Quarry man, The, 256.
Races of men, 141.
Railroad-man, The, 270.
Religions, 367.
Reptiles, 102.
Revenue service, The, 302.
Rhetoric, 411.
Roads, 220.
Roman history, 65 ; language, 86;
literal lire
Rome, Stories of, 35.
Rowing, 53.
Sailor, The, 263.
S< hoolmaster, 1 he, 400.
S< hoots, A^ri* ultural, 238.
s< ien< <-, I Ionic readings in, 40
S« ulptor, 1 1><-, 1 11
Seaman, The, 263.
Semitic languages, 88.
Ships, 34, 264.
Shoemaker, The, 187, 194.
Slater, The, 222.
Slavery, 385.
Social lite, 454.
Sociology, 154.
Soldier, The, 273.
Speaker, The public, 388.
Special schools, 402, 406.
Spinner, The, 182.
Spiritualism, 173.
Steam engine, 196.
Stenographer, The, 421.
Stock-raiser, The, 251.
Stone-cutter, The, 195, 221.
Sun worship, 92.
Supernatural, Readings in the, 170.
Surgeon, The, 350.
Surveyor, The, 224.
Tanner, The, 194. '
Tariff, 310.
Taxation, 308.
Teacher, The, 398.
Teacher, The, in Indian schools,
297.
Temperance, 387, 390.
Textile products, 182.
Theatre, The, 447.
Theologian, The, 366.
Trader, The, 320.
Transportation, 322.
Trigonometry, 132.
Truck-farmer, The, 242.
Typewriter, The, 293, 421.
Universities, 401-400.
Vintner, The, 245.
Wages, 229.
Wars, 276.
Waterworks, 225.
Wealth and currency, 308.
Weather bureau, 128, 294.
Weaver, The, 182.
Weight and motion, 139.
Winds, 128.
Witchcraft, 172.
Woman suffrage, 3S0.
Woman's household work, 450.
Wood-carving, 434.
w oodsman, The, 247.
Wood-worker, The, 192.
Writer, The, 410.
ZoOlogy, 46, 98.
AE
5
E44B2
1900
Baldx>dn, James
A guide to systematic reading
in the Encyclopaedia Britannic a
1 ew and rev, ed.
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