Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http: //books .google .com/I
HYDRAULIC MANUAL.
PAET I.
OOHSmillO OF
WORKING TABLES
AHD
EXPLANATORY TEXT,
IIimrDBD AB A
GUIDE IN HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS
AMD
FIELD OPERATIONS.
* * •»
•• •
* *^t • »
Lowis D'A. JACKso^; •k-tdJ:
AUTHOR OP "a CURVlEtfPpal.'^;-' .'; /';": /
"^
.\lDfA
r
LONDON:
W. H. ALLEN & CO., 18, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.
1875- Vr
U
[AU righU re$eTXtd.'\
■ *
-•..n v.:
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
presenting this third edition to the public, it is unfortunately mj
t J to apologise to those interested in the work for the delay that
s taken place in its publication ; this, however, has been due to
*camstances over which I discovered eventually that I had but little
ntrol. To avoid disappointing the public generally, and prevent
em from expecting to find anything in this book that is not in it, it
necessary to state the intentions and scope of the work.
The object of this Manual is to aid the hydraulic engineer in his
Iculations by means of a collection of working tables based on the
ost improved modem principles, and by a small amount of text
itting forth these principles and giving ali the necessary formuloD in
concise manner ; also to serve as a gui^^'iii %d[r^ulic/ field. gpera-
3ns by giving short resumes of the modes si^opt^a inT th^- flel4;'by
le engineers whose experiments have been/ jJ^JrtieuJ^lyreBainent'in
roducing practical and theoretical results.. .;•. //" ';■• - %-
A few miscellaneous paragraphs on variomd ^/imxiiiic ^nhjiScts are
so attached with the hope that some of them may prove or interest,
id that others may show the state to which the collective experience
' the past has arrived, unsatisfactory though it may be in many
stances.
In such a work, which is necessarily a compilation, the principal
)ject has been to avoid as mucli as possible any attempt at originality*
liicli might defeat the object of the Manual, and at the same time to
icorporate the most recent information in the form most convenient
►r practical application, while not neglecting any of the more ancient
it still useful modes and formula* of calculation that have not yet
Jen suiKjrscdcd.
IV
The works principally cousnlted, and from which extracts and infor-
mation have been taken, are — D'Aubuisson's " Hydraulics," D'Arcy
and Bazin*8 " Becherches Hydrauliques ;" the " Cultur-Ing^nieur,'* for
1869 and 1870, containing the valuable articles of W. R. Kutter, of
Bern ; Glanders Tables, constructed on the system of Dupuit ; the
Mississippi Report of Captains Humphreys and Abbot; the Lowell
experiments by Francis ; the " Hydraulics of Great Rivers," by J. T.
Revy ; also, in a small degree. Box's •* Hydraulics," Neville's well-
known work on the same subject, Stoddard's and Dwyer's works,
Spon's " Dictionary of Engineering," Hurst's Manual, some ancient
numbers of various periodicals and cyclopssdias, and some articles in
the Roorkee professional papers, by Colonel Dickens, Mr. Burge, and
Mr. J. H. E. Hart
In addition, my thanks are especially due to the latter grentleman,
for placing at my disposal his valuable MSS. on dams and walls, and
to a friend for his on towage.
The Second Part of the Manual, annexed to the first in accordance
with the wishes of the Secretary of State for India, consists entirely
of hydraulic and meteorological statistics, the former principally, and
the latter altogether, Indian.
The hydraulic statistics may be useful for reference in connection
with works of irrigation, storage, and river-improvement in any part
of the world, but more especially in hot climates. It has not, however,
been found advisable to incorporate with them any statistics of irriga-
tion suitable to England or to cold climates generally, because, though
the irrigatipnistg in'^^l^d have certainly achieved an important
su't^pia^iSi flel^onSh^tifl^ unmistakeably that theirs is the only practical
moafe*of ^^alin5p.^tj§th;s«yrage, and are likely to carry out such matters
on a more fSX^utfei ^alp ; yet, in the first place, this system of sewage
irrigatioi\- 4}tflre«;^ '^^tJjT.ftom the more simple watering practised in
warm countros ;'and, in the second place, the experiments and results
obtained at Croydon, Barking, Merth3rr Tydvil, Aldershot, and the
few other places, do not appear to admit of satisfactory comparison,
or to afford a guidance useful under other local circumstances and
conditions, either as regards amount or intermittency of supply.
Such of the hydraulic statistics as relate to India were mostly col-
'cted by myself personally, in the various provinces of India from the
ifferent local officials and Government records, and reduced to their
resent shape. These cannot be expected to be of so much interest to
oigincers of exclusively home practice as to those of more extended ex-
perience ; and again, the results shown by them may appear, in the eyes
br mftny, to be amajl in comparison with what might have been done
in Indift nnder a more favonrable adminietratioa. While tbe latter is
donbtless tme, its connterpart ia no less so ; it is also surprising that
so much has been done under such extreme administrative and finan-
cial difficulties ; in fact, there is every reason to believe that, had it
not been for the energy and great administrative abilities of the
Inepeetor General of Irrigation, General Strachey, all irriga-
m works in India would probably have remained at a stauilstill
till now, and perhaps longer.
.present, the older canals are being rectified, and new works
carried out. The results are not entirely satisfactory in all
is it possible that they should be ; they are, however, on
lie, extensive resnlte, showing an actual and a progressive
development of irrigation not esisting in any other conntry, which
have not hitherto been collected and impartially set forth ia a form
conveniently for reference. In the present edition, some modern
additions, relating to the years from 18/0 to 18~3, have been made
from India OfHce records, kindly placed at the disposal of the author
the Under Secretary of State for India. Such statistics as relat«
England, France, Italy, and Spain have, in every case, the source
im which they were taken mentioned with them.
In all of them, whether tabular or in the form of brief accounts,
object has always been expressly to avoid introducing anything
iply because it might be of interest, and to limit myself to simple
Its and achieved results that may be useful to engineers for refer-
In one or two cases rather doubtful statiitics have been intro-
to wliich foot-notea are attached : this, however, was unavoid-
nnder the circumstances of the case, which were particularly
icnlt, the voluminous records of India, both at home and abroad,
ng generally destitute of anything approaching to a catalogue
raiaonnee, although filed and indexed, according to certain prin-
ciples, with extreme care. The difficulties, then, had to be overcome
in the first place by wading through an immense quantity of matter
in order to obtain but a few facts, and in the second place by availing
myself of the kind aid of several officials, which materially shortened
fliat labour: to these, therefore, and more especially to the present
Ftary in the Geographical Department of the India Office, and to |
'. Maenamara, of Calcutta, I beg to offer my best thanks.
The Indian meteorological statistics here given were also, with the
rxcepfion of those from 1871 to 1873, collected in India by myself.
Implied bythejarioTis meteorological te^rtsTft, wi^^g^
^Kftat 1
^KSecrel
^Dr.M
VI
wards reduced and worked into the present form as most suitable for
reference for engineering purposes. They arc the first general collec-
tion yet made, and include rainfall statistics of all India, and other
meteorological statistics of use to the engineer. For the principal
portion of them I am indebted to Mr. Blanford of Calcutta, Mr.
Chambers of Bombay, and Dr. Murray Thompson of the Panjab :
those for the Madras Presidency, excepting the older rainfall data,
are unfortunately less complete. The remarks on the meteorology
of India, drawn up by myself, are offered as a general account and
explanation of the meteoi;9logical conditions of India as far as they
are at present known.
With regard to the alterations effected in this edition, tliey
principally consist of replacing two or three of the former working
tables by new ones, an3 adding such new tables as the modem
system of Kutter absolutely requires : the appendix of miscellaneous
tables and data, which are taken fi*om various works and other sources,
is slightly enlarged ; the text is generally re-written or re-arranged,
some additions being made to the article on modules, including a
description of a new module of the author's. The hydraulic statistics,
as well as the Indian meteorological statistics, have been increased
by all such matter as has reference to data available only since the
author's departure from India in 1872; the sole matter expunged
being the description of the author's evnporameter.
L. D'A. J.
RoTAL Ikstitution, Albemarle Street,
1st March, 1875.
PART I.
TEXT.
Chapteb I. — ^Explanation of the Pbinciples and Formulje adopted
IN Calculation and applied in the Working Tables.
Chaptib II. — On Field Operations and Gauging; with brief Ac-
counts OF the Methods adopted by various Htdraulicians.
Chaptsb III. — ^Pabagrafhs on various Hydraulic Subjects.
WORKING TABLES.
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
/
Y
PART I.
CHAPTEE I.
ExpiaAI^ation of the Principles and Fobmulje adopted in Calculation
AND applied in THE WORKINO TABLES.
1. Hydrodjnamio Theories. 2. Notation and Symbols. 3. Rainfall, Supply,
and Flood Discliarge. 4. Storage. 5. Discharges of Open Channels
and Pipes. 6. Section of Channels and Pipes. 7. Other Theories
of Flow. 8. Velocities in Section. 9. Bends and Obstructions.
10. Discharges of Sluices and Weirs. 11. Discharge from Basins,
Locks, and Reservoirs. 12. Application of the Working Tables.
1. HYDRODYNAMIC THEORIES.
The science of hydraulics, yet in its infancy, may be
said to depend, as far as its practical application by the
hydraulic engineer is concerned, on a combination of certain
known laws with the empirical results of observation and
experiment ; the former few in number, and eliminated
principally by the philosophers and mathematicians of the
past ; the latter also few, and, if we except the old observa-
tions which were carried out on a very petty and limited
scale, exceedingly mo*dern. Previous to the experiments
of d'Arcy in 1856, little was known about the velocities
and discharges through pipes ; until the operations of
Captains Humphreys and Abbot on the Mississippi in 1858,
the discharge of large rivers was a comparatively uaex-
plored subject; in 1865 the experiments of Bazin led the
way to a more accurate knowledge of the discharges and
Velocities of open channels. Before this time the less im-
portant subjects alone had been investigated to any prac-
tical purpose, such as the vena contracta, the discharges
through small orifices, over certain forms of overfall, and
through short and small pipes, the discharges from reser-
voirs, and the velocities in troughs 1 8 inches wide. There
was, however, plenty of theory, and a large number of
formulae, some of them exceedingly complicated in form,
mostly resulting from a number of superimposed theories,
the more ancient of which were based on very limited ex-
periments : in fact, the mode often adopted seems to have
been to assume a new form of formula, and to prove it by
a few partial experiments, a principle worthy of ancient
soothsayers, and which, had it been further supported by
traditionary and name-reverencing hydraulic schools of
believers, could only have resulted in prolonged and per-
manent error. At present even, a reference to some works
comparatively recently published in England will show
formulae to be supported by a most heterogeneous collec-
tion of experimental data ; discharges of pipes irrespective
of their material or internal surface, of large and small rivers
irrespective of the quality of their beds and the bends in
their courses, of canals in any material, down to wooden
troughs, all seem to prove the correctness of a fixed formula
having an unvarying constant coeflBcient: other works
again having greater accuracy of result in view go to the
opposite extreme in method, and recommend the adoption
of two distinct formula) for cases in which the principle
involved does not even seem to vary in the least, as for
instance, in discharges through pipes with low velocities, a
formula distinct from that for those with high velocities is
oflten adopted ; this, amounting to a method of successive
approximation imperfectly worked out, is almost as unfor-
tuuate as the other. From a continuance of this, however,
the modern experiments have already saved us to a great
extent, and further and more extended experiment will
probably relieve us from it altogether.
At present, therefore, the hydraulic engineer is more
Icpendent for correctness of calculated result on the so-
ijlled empirical data obtained by experiment, and put into
couvenient form, than on any purely mathematical theories
I ir laws. The correct application of all known mechanical
liiws cannot, however, fail to be valuable in cases admit-
ting of them J those relating purely to hydrodynamics are
■umparatively few, and the most important and best known
nf them are the three following: —
First. If fluid run through any tube of variable section
kept constantly full, the velocities at the different sectit
will be inversely as the areas, or
AV = A'V.
This theory of uniformity of motion is in practice sup-
posed to hold good with reference to mean velocities of
dischai^e; which is actually little more than assuming a
theoretical velocity that will fulfil the conditions of the
law, in order to render calculation convenient. There is
no reason to believe that actual velocities in a tube of
variable section would all vary inversely with the area of
cross section ; hence this theory is not one that throws
any light on the laws of absolute velocity.
Second. The velocity of a fluid issuing from an orifice
in the bottom of a vessel kept constantly full, is equal to
that which a heavy body would acquire in faUing through
a space equal to the depth of the orifice below the surface
of the fluid, which is called the head on the orifice ; or by
my of formula
V = (2^ H)l
ion^^
g = 82-1695 (1 + 002 84 cos 2/) (l - — ).
6
where H = the head, and g = force of gravity. The
quantity g represents the accelerating force of gravity,
which varies at different places on the earth's surface and
elevations ahove the mean sea level, and is also affected hy
the spherical eccentricity of the earth at the place, a quan-
tity that again varies with the latitude ; above the earth's
surface g varies inversely with the square of the distance
from the earth's centre, below the earth's surface direct
with the distance from the earth's centre ; to obtain the
exact value of y, d'Aubuisson's formulae applied to English
feet are —
r = 20 887 540 (1 + :001 64 cos 2/)
2_^
r
The values of this formula for different latitudes and eleva-
tions are given in Working Table No. I., and the values
of y, obtained from observation at different latitudes, are
given in Table No. I. of the Hydraulic Statistics. For
purposes of ordinary calculation in England, and hence
throughout these tables, g is generally taken as 32*2 feet
per second ; in India, however, it would be more correct
to use 32*1 ; but the convenience of using English data
will probably outweigh that of this exactness until the
science of hydraulics can produce far more accurate results
than now.
The above theory supposes that the orifice is indefinitely
small, neglects the conditions and size of its sectional area,
friction, the pressure of the atmosphere, and the resistance of
the air to motion, which increases with the square of the
velocity of the issuing fluid ; the practical application that
shows its discrepancies most strongly is the fact that the
height of a jet is never equal to the head of pressure on it.
Third, The theory of flow, which is a combination of
the two previous theories in a modified form, assuming
both uniform motion and the principle of gravitation, and
is best expressed in the form of a formula^ —
where V = the mean velocity generated.
E = mean hydraulic radius of the water section.
S = the sine of the slope of the water surface.
This formula is a simple equation of the accelerating force
of gravity down an incline with the retarding force of
friction at any section at right angles to the course of
flow, namely : —
^s = (
since, for uniform motion, the total accelerating force is
equal to the total resistance.
This theory is the basis of calculation of flow in full
tubes, and in open channels and unfilled pipes, where
the principle still holds, though the equation should
be strictly modified, the air above giving a resistance as
well as the surface of the channel or tube below, though
in a less degree.
However rigid these theories may appear in neglecting
important points, they are yet generally true in the abstract,
and no substitutes for them have yet been discovered ; the
consequence is that all hydraulic calculations are made to
depend on them, their defects being made up by applying
to them experimental coefficients, in preference to endea-
vouring to obtain theoretical accuracy by introducing into
them niceties of theory that might fail in obtaining trust-
worthy results. It becomes, therefore, one of the impor-
tant duties of a hydraulic engineer to apply these partly
empirical formulae with care and circumspection, especially
guarding against t>aking for granted the formulae and
tabular results of diflferent calculators, which vary in form
and in result to a very great extent ; some authors even
8
giving one-third more discharge than others as dae to the
same data. Daring practical work, again, time forbids a
lengthy examination of principles ; for this reason, there-
fore, this short chapter is given as an easy guide to the
proper management and application to every-day wants
of the working tables attached, which are based on the
most improved modem principles.
2. NOTATION AND SYMBOLS.
To ensure clearness and rapidity of application of these
theories, it is absolutely necessary that the nomenclature
should be neither doubtful nor inconvenient, that the
symbols be free Irom confusion, and the units of time,
weight, and measurement, once adopted, generally adhered
to as much as possible ; this alone can cause the form of
a formula to give at a glance any definite idea of the
values of its terms and expressions.
The English foot has been generally adopted in this
work as the unit of length, surface, and capacity, being
the measure ordinarily used for heights and depths, as
well as distances in survey work, and being now more
capable of extended application than either the yard, link,
or inch ; the second has been generally taken as the unit
of time, so that the numbers expressing discharges and
velocities, which often are high numbers, may be as small
as possible. This has been found to be perfectly manage-
able in practice. In the canal departments of Northern
India the engineers have succeeded in abolishing chains,
yards, and inches from their plans, estimates, and calcula-
tions, and in adhering generally to the second as a unit of
time ; they have also, on the Bari Doab Canal, adopted a
mile of 5000 feet to the exclusion of the statute mile of
^^280. This decimal system of measures, while retaining
the use of a familiar unit, is found to save much needless
labour in calculation, and at the same time has the great
advantage of facilitating the conversion of foreign data
and formiiUe ; the principal difficulties to contend with are
the old habits of measuring water supply for towns in
gallons instead of cubic feet, and of using dimensions of
pipes in inches, instead of tenths of a foot ; these obstacles
MfiU probably gradually disappear.
As regards the metrical system, although it is now
adopted in all the civilized countries in Europe except our
own, there seems little hope of its replacing our own
measures to the entire exclusion of them for some time
^Ljet ; hence it would not have been an advantage to have
^BOonstructcd the accompanying working tables on the
^Upaetrical system, nor to have adopted it throughout this
^vwork in the data and formulae ; but as English engineers
^1 are now conversant with metrical measures, all such foreign
fonnulEB and data mentioned are generally left in tlieir
original form, their conversion not serving any important
purpose, but rather, on the contrary, causing complication
needlessly.
Whether the decimal metrical system will hold its own
for a very long time is yet a matter of considerable doubt :
the number ten is not by any means in itself a convenient
» number for purposes of calculation, it is neither composed
©f a large number of factors, and hence admitting of easy
subdivision, nor are its roots easily obtained ; its use in-
volves the necessity of referring to tables of logarithms in
the greater part of the calculations made by engineers
and scientific men ; its sole advantage is a perfectly for-
tuitous one ; it was chosen in ancient times as the first
Biunber to be represented by two digits, and the digital
gTOnt^e it now possesses is perhaps its only one.
10
Should in the future any new notation come in vog^e,
which would readily enable the calculator to dispense with
half of his logarithmic calculations, the advocates of the
decimal system will then be looked upon as antiquated
obstructors of progress.
For the present, however, the adoption of a decimal
system seems absolutely inevitable, although it seems
doubtful whether the English will first adopt one based
on units familiar to them, or will change at once to the
metrical system in its entirety.
The hydraulic engineer can, however, very conveniently
adopt a decimal system based on the English foot rfor
measures ; nor apparently are there any very good reasons
why the railway engineer should not do so also, except
perhaps the tradition-loving habits of the multitude, and
the meddlesome legislation in social matters under which
we suffer, which enforces on him the adoption in Parlia-
mentary plans of the whole of the old measures.
The advantage of adhering to one set of symbols in
hydraulic formulae, which sometimes appears very compli-
cated, is sufficiently evident ; with this view, therefore,
the following general notation is drawn up, and the velo-
city notation of the Mississippi survey also attached for
purposes of reference.
General Notation.
N = catchment area drained.
Q = discharge ; q = discharge per square mile drained.
V = mean velocity of discharge, Vp &c., other velocities.
V^= maximum velocity in the cross section.
A = sectional area ; a, a^, a^, subsidiary areas.
P =z wetted sectional perimeter.
H = mean head or fall ; //, h^, //,, subsidiary heads.
11
A
B = mean hydraulic radius = p
A
K^ = prime hydraulic radius = p ^
H
S =: hydraulic slope in terms of its sine = 7">
thus S = g^ = -002 for a slope of 1 in 500.
li :r a longitudinal length taken in the direction of flow ;
/, /j, /,, subsidiary lengths.
W = total transversa width, across the direction of flow ;
^> ^v ^v subsidiary transverse widths.
D =z depth from surface level ; d, d^, (/,, subsidiary depths.
T z= total time of discharge ; /, t^y ^,, subsidiary times.
/ = experimental coeflBcient of fluid friction.
n =1 experimental coefficient for drainage discharges.
c = experimental coefficient for channel discharges.
m = experimental coefficient for orifice and overfall dis-
charges.
y = velocity acquired by gravity in one second = 32*2
feet approximately.
All dimensions are generally in feet and decimals, and
velocities and discharges are in feet and cubic feet per
second.
Velocity Notation of the Mississippi Survey.
v =: mean velocity of the river.
V =: velocity at any point in any vertical plane
parallel to the current.
V = velocity at a point 20 feet below the surface at
a perpendicular distance of 100 feet from the
base line.
100 20
12
U = velocity at any point in the mean of all vertical
planes parallel to the current.
U,;^ = grand mean of the mean velocities in all vertical
planes parallel to the current.
U^ = the mean of the bottom velocities in all such
planes.
1^ V = velocity at any depth below the surface at a per-
pendiciilar distance w^ firom the base line.
Vp = velocity at the surface in any vertical plane
parallel to the current.
V, and Vd = velocities at mid-depth and at the bottom
in any such plane.
Yj and Y^^ = the maximum and the mean velocities
in any such plane.
6 = sectional constant =
(R + 1-5)*.
/ = length of a portion of river.
A = difference of level of the water surface at the two
ends of /.
^^ s the part of /i consumed in overcoming longitudinal
channel resistances, for a straight, regular
course.
/i^^ zz the part of /i consumed in overcoming transverse
channel resistances or irregularities.
W = river width at any given place.
w = perpendicular distance from the base line to any
point of the water surface.
to^ = perpendicular distance from the base line to the
surface fillet moving with the maximum velocity.
D = total depth of river at any given point of surface.
d =: depth of any given point below the surface.
depth from the surface of the fillet niovmg with
the maximum velocity in the assumed vertical
plane parallel to the current.
: depth from the surface of the fillet moving with
a velocity equal to the mean of the velocities
of all fillets in the assumed vertical plane
parallel to the current.
: maximum or mid-channel depth.
I
3. RAINFALI/, SUPPLY. AND FLOOD-DISCBAROl
4
All hydraulic works of irrigation, drainage, stor^e,
water supply, river improvement, and Iund reclamation,
are more or less affected by the amount and periodicity
of the rainfall ; for many of them careful and trust-
worthy rainfall statistics and data are absolutely essential ;
but the nature and amount of detail required vary with
the nature of the work ; works of storage being those
that, perhaps, require the greatest amount of accurate
information. In order that these local records should be
sufficient to form a correct basis for the engineering data
of these latter works, they should comprise observations
extending over a period of ten years, or of the local period
comprehending a cycle of rainfall from one season of
maximum rainfall to another, including years of extreme
drought ; from these the following results can be de-
duced : —
1 . The mean, maximum, and minimum monthly rain-
fall, from which the mean and extreme falls for each
^ natural local season, wet, cold, and Itot, can be obtained.
2. The mean and maximum daily falls, in twenty-four
lours for each month.
14
3. Special occurrences, hourly fallB, longest continuous
falls and droughts.
These, arrang^ in a convenient tabular form, are all
tlie rainfall data that the engineer will generally require.
In most cases, also, and especially in hot climates,
evaporation records are also necessary; and sometimes,
too, it is advisable to possess other meteorological data,
such as those of humidity, temperature, atmospheric
pressure, and wind ; and, what is often difficult to pro-
cure, some data of absorption and percolation that would
be applicable to the soils of the district under con-
sideration.
On many of the works before mentioned, the first duty
of the engineer is to account for the whole of the down-
fall, or to discover what becomes of it all, under both
ordinary and unusual circumstances, so that he may be
able to deal with more certainty of knowledge with that
portion of it that more intimately affects his works ; as,
for instance, the bridge-builder with the floods, the
engineer of storage works with the drought, and those of
canals and river improvement with both. A geographical
and geological knowledge of the catchment area, whose
rainfall affects the works, is hence also needful ; the
boundaries of this area, its lines of watershed and
drainage, its disposition as regards prevailing winds, the
nature and porosity of its soil, and the amount of vegeta-
tion or cultivation on it, as well as any available records
from which the quantities of water actually run off by its
streams and rivers in various seasons may be arrived at,
are all data necessary for. establishing satisfactorily a
perfect knowledge of the disposal of the whole of the
rainfall under any circumstances.
In many instances it is, from want of sufficient informa-
**on, utterly impossible to obtain this perfect knowledge;
I
in others, the deficient data may be supphcd by approxi-
mations known to hold good in other similar cases, and a
tolerably correct approximate balance struck between the
downfall and the amount evaporated, absorbed, and run off;
in any case, however, the engineer may, with time and
means at his disposal, gauge the streams and rivers affect-
ing his works, and make correct records of the amount
of water run off in them at different seasons of the year,
and in exceptional floods. Failing, however, both time and
opportunity, such data have to be observed in a rapid
manner that will enable him to determine tliis approxi-
mately ; such as the section and fall of the rivers, the
depths at various stages, floodmarks, and, if possible, a
few velocity observations, The results principally required
are the flood or maximum discharge, in cubic feet per
second, of the river or stream draining the catchment area ;
its mean discharge throughout the year ; and its minimum
discharge in seasons of extreme drought, as well as in its
ordinary low stage ; dividing each of these by the number
of square miles of catchment, similar results per square
mile are obtained, which, when multiplied by I'lSl, ex-
^ptess the depth in feet of rainfall run ofl' under each of
those conditions. The relation between these quantities
and the probable or approximate downpour over the catch-
ment area can then be compared with those known to exist
in other similar cases, and a valuable check on these im-
portant results thus obtained.
Flood Discharge. — The determination of the quantity of
water discharged from a catchment area in a river or
;ream at a time of extreme flood, is a matter that is very
in of the highest importance. Costly bridges have
ifltinually been sacrificed, and long lengths of canal
damaged for want of sufficient attention having been paid
to this subject.
16
When the data mentioned in the forgoing paragraphs
can be obtained, and are properly handled^ there is litQe
difficulty in arriving at a correct result ; but, as in many
cases, only some of these are forthcoming, the bases of
calculation are considerably narrowed, and various modes
of obtaining a result necessarily varying with the avail-
able, have to be adopted.
When the catchment area has to be scaled from a map,
and the highest maximum rainfall of 24 hours has to be
taken from observations made at perhaps only one or two
places near that area, the flood discharge may be approxi-
mately obtained by the equation, ^
Q = « X 27 v/NT
where Q = flood discharge in cubic feet per second.
N = catchment area in square miles.
« = a local coefficient chosen with reference to the
maximum day's rainfall of the place.
In using this as well as other formulae of a similar type,
records of flood discharges under somewhat similar condi-
tion are necessary for reference, in order that a practically
correct value of n the coefficient may be assumed. This
formula, which was originally adopted in connection with
the inconvenient mode of estimating discharges in cubic
yards per second or per hour, has very little to recommend
it, the values of n being necessarily very wide in range ;
it still, however, has its adherents.
A more convenient one, having a narrower and more
correct range of coefficients, is the following, which is a
slight modification of that of Colonel Dickens, having a
more extended application. It is
Q = ;« X 100 (N)f,
its terms are generally similar to those of the last
,iUa. The values of n for India, generally lie between
id 24 ; see coefficients at Table XIT., Part 2, page ]xx
the Working Tables ; — some further values of it appK-
lle to various river basins in India, are also given in the
les of flood discharges at page [8] of the Hydraulic
lintics in the second part of this Manual. The values
the general expression, for a value of m = 1, are
'en for catchment areas of various sizes at pages ix.
Id X. of the Working Tables, Table TV., Part 1, and
the chosen coefficient can be readily applied to these
qnantities.
The original form of this formula was simply Q = 825
(N)'; it was considered applicable only to Bengal aud Bahar
in the flrst instance, and afterwards as applicable to all areas
in the plains of India that have an annaal rainfall of from
24 to 50 inches. It seems, however, more rational to us©
a variable coefficient depending on a similarity of general
conditions, of which the maximum day's downpour ia
perliaps the most important. In Northern India where
'his latter is about 1*5 feet in or near hiUs, and 10 foot
^juthe plains, the flood waterway allowed for bridges has
^hnerally been based on the as.s«mption that the rain-
^Hl ran off would amount to 1 0 foot in depth over the
^wiole ; and allowance has been made with these data for
^Bte flood waterway of the streams and rivers crossing
ooth the Ganges Canal and the Sarhind Canal ; in other
■■utes, also, in Korthern India, two-thirds of the depth of
'I'jwnpour is assumed to pass ofi' in flood. It is, however,
''letter to use the improved formula given and assume
■1 coefficient suitable to similar conditions of catchment
A further attempt at arriving at a flood discharge by
Scans of a formula has been made by Mr. Burge, Eesi-
18
dent Engineer of the Madras Railway. His formdi
given in the Indian Professional Papers is j
Q = 1300 ^
where Q and N are as before^ L = the length of the main
river in miles, and 1300 is a coefficient applicable to 8
maximum downfall of 6 inches in 12 hoars, and an aiea
elevated from 500 to 1300 feet above mean sea level, con-
sisting principally of unstratified rocks. It was deduced
from observations on 27 bridges, of above 80 feet span, on
the Madras Eailway, and its results correspond closely
with those of recorded flood sections ; the errors lying
between 404 feet too high and 3'40 too low in height of
section. He argues most justly that the length of the
river necessarily extends the time of the discharge, and
hence diminishes the quantity passing off within a certain
time ; and that also the functions of discharge, the hydrau-
lic slope, the cross section, and the head affected by the
sinuosities in greater length, are reduced by it. Admitting
this, the same principle would apply not only to the mam
river, but also to its tributaries ; the number and condi-
tions of the tributaries would probably be a more important
consideration. Again, there is much difficulty in saying
where a main river begins ; so much so, that in the first
place the introduction of an index of f against a coefficient
of 1300 would appear to be a needless attempt at exacti-
tude; and in the second place the introduction of the
length of the river at all in an equation of this sort is a
matter incapable of very extended application ; although
in the instances from which this formula was laid down it
has been very successfully introduced.
A better mode of introducing a function somewhat
similar to this would be to apply in the equation the
ratio of extreme breadth to extreme length of catchment
19
; we have already a formula, the range of wh(
icients for ludia seem to be between 1 and 24 — an
ortant step already gained ; and if this is modified into
form,
B
Q:
' 100 (N)J,
B =: extreme breadth of catchment area,
L = extreme length of catchment area,
»^ = a new coefficient,
btain a more tangible improvement, capable of extended
ication. It is unfortunate, however, that for this
IxJa a sufficient number of values of the new co-
lent are not yet forthcoming ; although in the instances
rhicb it has been applied the improvement seems
riy manifested in reducing the range, so that for the
ent it is, perhaps, generally better to use that from
sh it is modified, while in special cases the ratio can
ttsily introduced.
ailing, however, such data as would be needful to
le one to choose a practically correct coefficient for
lulfie of this type, it becomes necessary to fall hack
!Bly on recorded flood marks, as a means of approxi-
ing to the flood discharge ; and after gauging the
iacharge of the river in its ordinary stage, assume the
discharge to be proportional to it according to the
formula,
q _ An/K
I A is the sectional area up to flood mark, li :
»uUc mean radius, and a and r are similar quantitiei
Kiuding to the discharge (y) determined by obserJ
20
4. STORAGE.
Reservoirs generally have for their object either the de-
tention of flood water that might otherwise cause damage,
as in works of river improvement, or the utilization of it
in canals, of navigation, irrigation, or driving machinery,
or for town supply. For the first purpose they must, to
effect their purpose, be very extensive, and strongly aided
by the natural formation of the country ; for the last pur-
pose they are, in one respect, excepting under very
favourable conditions, particularly ill-fitted. The collection
of drinking-water from the surface of land needs, in the
first place, a clean, uncultivated and uninhabited tract of
land as a catchment area; and in the second place, the
water stored in the reservoir, which is liable to become
putrescent, or seriously affected by the organisms, plants,
and animalculsD that inhabit stagnant water, requires a
very perfect and careful filtration, of a sort beyond the
ordinary economic powers of municipalities or public com-
panies. Indeed it is now asserted to be an uncontro-
vertible fact, tlmt it is to the tainted water of rivers and
reservoirs that one-half of most preventibie diseases are
due, the other half being caused by want of ventilation,
faulty drainage, and mistaken modes of managing sewage,
or, in other words, that impure air and tainted water are
the chief enemies of human life ; and there is, therefore,
every reason to believe that in the future, when the
general public become awake to this, and acquire enough
energy to throw of the incubus of vested interests in the
form of water companies, both tainted rivers and open
reservoirs will be universally condemned as sources of
drinking-water supply, and the water filtered, stored, and
preserved against impurity by nature in the permeable
;ta or the earth, will he dravm on in a more scientific
id enlightened way than is at present usual, and be
isidered, as it justly is, a necessary of life. Another
irttr of a centmy may show us scientific men object-
on sanitary grounds, to the watering of our streets
ith such water as is now used in our food. It will
fore be only under very favourable conditions, or
ider circumstances that admit of no better alternative,
it the water of storage reservoirs will be used to
k- For extinguishing fires, watering streets, and
ly other purposes, such water is, however, still valu-
le under ordinary circumstances.
The determination of the size and dimensions of a
■age reservoir is a matter entirely governed by local
lumstances and requirements. The assumptions that
area covered by it should bear a certain proportion to
it of the catchment area, or that the amount of water
ired should be as nearly as possible one-third of the
railable supply, are not by any means rules to be applied
ihout a very large discretionary power, although there
rules laid down in various forms by different hydraulic
(gineers that very much resemble these. The object
being the collection and retention of a certain amount of
water for a definite purpose, and the circumstances being
tlie local formation of the ground and the amount of
downpour on the catchment area, all the economic con-
siderations depend on these points.
The intention may either be to store as much water as
possible within a certain amount of expenditure of cost,
only a definite amount sufficient for a certain purpose,
to store all that can possibly be obtained with a inow-
ledge that the extreme amount would not lie enough,
Again, in one case, the quality of the water and the con-
venience of proximity, or of cleanliness of site, may be
22
considerations outweigliing all others. If, therefore, the
latter is the case, there are geuerallj not many local con*
ditions answering the purpose within which any choice can
be made ; and again, if a definite amount be required, the
same may be generally said. It is only therefore in the
case when the object is to store and utilise as much water
as possible that much choice is left to the engineer.
Large artificial reservoirs being generally made on the
natural surface of the ground, and bounded in one direc-
tion only by an embankment of earth, or a dam of
masonry or brickwork, the first object is to choose a
site or sites where the greatest amount of water can be
stored with the shortest and least amount and length of
embankment ; for this purpose a river gorge, narrow and
precipitous, terminating a great length of country, having
a gradual fall towards it, offers the best ordinarily natural
conditions ; if, in addition, the lateral or transverse slope
of the country is also very gradual, it becomes a large
natural basin, with one narrow outlet ; and if that admits
of being easily dammed, an extraordinary advantage not
often available presents itself.
The economy of constructing one large reservoir in
preference to two or more small ones to hold the same
amount would, perhaps, be evident at first sight to most
people. Tlie author has, however, met so large a number
of persons that believe the contrary, that he is constrained
• to give the following mathematical proof of it by Graeff*.
Let a single reservoir, or rather its contents when full,
be supposed to consist of a number of lamina?, or layers of
water, the sum of which will equal the total content, and let
K = the height of any one layer ;
P and S = the perimeter and surface of its lower side ;
P' and S' = the perimeter and surface of its upper side ;
len the volume of this layer will be
23
= a JsL + - - + — — ; where a = S ;
, 2P(S>.). ^ ^ (Sl-ifl (Pl-Z) .
"" KCP'+P)' '^"" K^P'+P) '
Hence the above expression becomes
= 3(j^p^ (p. 2ST^ + F2S + S').
In the case where the lateral and longitudinal slopes of
the ground are uniform, we can imagine the reservoir to
consist of one only of tliese layers ; and its content will
then represent that of the whole reservoir. In this case
the height of the layer will be the extreme depth of
water stored, and the quantities S and P will become
indefinitely small in comparison with S' and P', and may
hence be neglected : hence the total volume of water
stored = -5- , and this is the volume of a reversed cone
having S' for its base ; a demonstration that proves how
rapidly the amount of storage increases with the depth
of water, or with the height of the embankment.
To the height of dams, again, there is a practical limit :
earthen dams of great height require an enormous section,
being consequently very costly as well as dangerous,
and are in themselves difficult to manage as regards
escape ; masonry dams have a limit to their height, due
to the pressure per unit of surface on the foundation ;
the highest yet built does not exceed 164 feet, and it is
very improbable that that height will be exceeded for
some time to come, unless iron is made to enter largely
into their construction.
After choosing a site for a proposed reservoir, one of
the first points requiring attention is the determination
24 I
of its storage capacity up to different proposed levels of I
escape. For this purpose, marks are fixed at differences I
of level of about 6 or 10 feet, on any convenient short I
line of its section ; and the contours of these levels marked 1
out and surveyed all around the basin, in order to obtain |
the perimeters and areas at each contour, from which, as I
before shown, the contents of each lamina can be calcu- j
lated, and the content up to any other contour. If, |
however, it be preferred to obtain this by means of a
series of longitudinal and transverse sections taken up
to the heights of the various contour levels, it is perhaps
best to direct the former in conformity with the axis or
axes of figure of the basin, and the transverse sections at
right angles to them, and, as far as possible, at equal
distances along them ; although in many instances, un-
equal distances and inclined directions, more suited to
the form and disposition of the ground, would give more
correct results ; and the inclined sectional areas, when
multiplied by the cosine of the angle of obliquity, are
easily reduced to the true values of their corresponding
rectangular transverse sections. Should a winding river
channel or depression form part of the basin, it is often
more convenient and correct to estimate its content
independently, and add it in afterwards.
The following are the three formulae most used in
obtaining the contents from the sectional areas : —
1. If there be only two sectional areas, Aj, A,, taken at
a time, at a common distance, rf,
the contents = o (-^i "^ ^^' ^^ " 3 ^^i + A, + ^ K^ A,).^
2. If there be three equidistant sections, Aj, A,, A3,
taken at a time, and their common distance is d^
d
the contents = g (Aj -f 4 A, + A3,) prismoidal.
R Tf there te any even number (a) of eqiilclistant
tions, A,, A,, &c., up to A„, at a common distance, d,
» contents = rf(^' + A, + &c. A„ - 1 +^)-
[08^^
; accuracy of result wiU of course depend on the cl<
i of the sections, and the suitability of their positions
■ the general form of the_re8ervoir.
■The capacity of the reservoir being obtained, the
pount of supply that can be expected anuually from
catchment area may be obtained, either in total
ntities or in continuous qiuintities as cubic feet per
lond, by the aid of Parts 1 and 2 of Table II. of the
forking Tables ; in these calculations much labor is
(red by deducting, in the first place, the allowance due
evaporation and absorption on the catchment area
from tlie rainfall given, and making use of the available
rainfall or rainfall run off as the basis of calculation for
supply.
I If a limited supply alone be required, the use of
^Kart 1, Table III. of the Working Tables, will enable
^^Bie contents of the reservoir, and extent of catchment
^^Dfea necessary to afford the supply to be rapidly deter-
niined. Part 2, Table III., may also be occasionally
useful, where the supply is limited by the needs of an
*teut of land to be irrigated, or the population of a
wn requiring water for public purposes.
The section of waterway of escape has next to be
determined ; this depending on the flood discharge and
II the maximum downpour in twenty-four hours. In these
^Bttlculatious, Part 3, Table II. of the Working Tables is
^HBefal; 80 also are Parts 1 and 2, of Table IV., in cou-
i^nection with the formula already given for flood dis-
charge.
-The reduction or conversion of discharges or sup]
'pai
into citlior l(»tal or crmtiniious quantities for various
ijit(*rvals of time, can be raj)i(lly effected b}' the aid of
tlio Table of Equivalents, Table XI., Parts 1 and 2 ; and
tlieir conversion into other measures, English or metrical,
may be facilitated by the use of Parts 5 and 6 of the
same table.
All these are of course simply modes of calculatingi
or of shortening the calculation, of the quantities of
water ; the determination of them has to be left to the
discretion of the engineer and the requirements of the
case. Should the supply be required to maintain a certaia
depth of water for navigation in a canal, the seasons,
the supply deficient, the loss in the canals from evapo-
ration and filtration, and all such data, will determine
the amount ; — if for irrigation, the amount of land, its
quality of soil, and probable water duty ; on this latter
subject information is given in Chapter III. and in the
Hydraulic Statistics, in Part 2 of this Manual, where
data of the waterings and water duty usual in Prance,
Spain, Italy, and Northern and Southern India, are
given.
If, again, the supply is required either for motive
power or the public purposes of town supply, the amount
and height of delivery require determining with reference
to local conditions ; with reference to this, therefore, no
guide would be of use. Lastly, if the object is the
control of floods, the whole of the physical conditions
of the river and its banks, from its highest watershed
down to its mouth or embouchure in the sea, will be
matters affecting the amount, and the management and
regulation of the storage.
' DISCHARGES OF HrTERS, OPEPT CHAIOreLS,
PIPES.
^
^^we described in the cliapter on field operations and
^^■D^Dg. The calculation of velocity or of discharges,
^^Hader diiferent conditions and for different diita, may be
^^Btmsidered independently of gauging. It is important
^^B the engineer that lie shonld at any time be able to
^HUcolate, in a few moments, the discliarge of any pipe,
^r river, or canal, from such data as he may possess.
B The number of calculated velocity formula", their variety,
.iiul the wonderful amount of complication in them, as well
I- the want of exactitude of result they give, is truly
iistonishing ; and when, on the other band, one observes
some engineers adhering slavishly to the tables and data
of one hydraulician, others to those of another, and others
again going through the conscientious, but very lengthy,
coarse of examining everjiibing that every hydraulician
has said or done in the matter of calculation of mean
velocity of discharge, one cannot but feel pained as well
as surprised.
It would be quite out of place in this portion of a
Manual of this description, which has for its object the
supplying the engineer with information and tables for
calculating his quantities and data in as rapid a way as
practical correctness will allow, to enter into a detailed
investigation of all these formiUie, and the reasons for
setting them all aside, and adhering to that adopted in
preference, and to the exclusion of all others ; it will,
therefore, suffice for the author here to mention the reason
for adopting any one formula or conclusion as it is
brought forward. A comparison of the results of various
28
hydrodynamic formulae, will be given in Chapter IH,
among the miscellaneous detached paragraphs.
The general formula for discharge, based on the theories
mentioned in the previous sections of this chapter, is
Q = AV = A(/yES)*,
the terms of which are given in the general notatioiii
page 10 ; the mean velocity of discharge being the
smaller and more convenient quantity to deal with, for
rivers and open channels, and the discharge itself being
the quantity more often required for pipes, sewers, and
closed tubes or tunnels of all sorts.
Taking, however, the expression for mean velocity of
discharge, obtained by equating the accelerating effect of
gravity down an inclined plane with the retarding effect
of friction, it can be put into the form more convenient
for English measures —
V = (? X 100 (ES)*,
where c is a variable experimental coeflftcient, depending
on the surface, the condition, the dimensions, and the
hydraulic slope of the channel or pipe, and hence on a
further experimental coefficient of fluid friction, and on
a fresh development of the functions R and S : its value
under extreme conditions varies from '25 to about 2*00.
A correct formulated determination of the value of the
coefficient, c, for all conditions, is a matter that can only
be said to have been even approximately arrived at in the
last few years, from an examination of the experimental
results of d'Arcy and Bazin on the discharges of pipes,
open channels, and ordinary rivers, and those of Hum-
phreys and Abbot on the discharges of very large rivers,
by Mr. W. K Kutter, of Bern.
The determination of the coefficient, for which we are
idebted to him, and tables rendering it easily found for
firt channels and rivers of any sort or dimensions, in
Ktrica! measures, are given in his valuable articles in tlie
^Cultor Ingenieur " for the year 1870.
From these the values of the coefficient suited to
^Eoghsh feet aud cubic feet per second have been reduced ;
key are given in the table for coefficienta of all sorts,
( XII., under the head of coefficients of velocity of
jTge, in Part 3, pages Ixxi. to Ixxx. : these are also
rther explained by the table of coefficients of fluid
in Part 1, Table XII., page Ixix.
With the aid, therefore, of these tables of coefficients,
the values of the expression 100 (ESj*, given in
hie VII., pages xviii. to xxv., the values of V, the
velocity of discharge of rivers and open channels
be rapidly determined in a few momenta, according
9 the most improved and correct method yet known.
"With the aid of the same tables of coefficients and the
ilues of the expression, ^H
Q = c X 3U-27 iSd") when c = 1, ^
given in Table VIII., pages xxvi. to xxxvi., the actual
dischajTge of any full cylindrical pipe, sewer, or tunnel,
^bpan also be determined.
^B These tables, to which explanatory examples are
attached, can also be used for the converse purpose of
obtaining the head, diameter, hydraulic slope or hydraulic
radius, due to given discharges of channels and pipes ;
it will, however, be necessary for the calculator to
remember that all dimensions, even diameters of pipes,
are invariably kept in feet, and that all slopes are kept
in the form known as the sine of the slope, mentioned
^ in the general notation, page 11, of this chapter. Should
^■it be necessary to reduce these from gradients given in
^BnUtcr forms, such as in feet per English mile, or as a fall
in
1
of unity to a certain lonijftli, 'J'able VI., passes xiii. to
xvii., will be I'ound to save calculation.
So far for the velocity formula actually adopted, and
the mode of working it in calculating results. As regards
the formula itself, independently of the determination of
the variable coeflftcient, it is none other but the Eytelwein
formula, or Chezy formula, in a very much improved
form, having the results of modern experiment incor-
porated with it. An examination of all the hydraulic
formulae for mean velocity shows that most, in fifcct,
almost all of them, were modifications of the Chezy
formula, some of them adding an additional term or
function, and altering the value of the experimental
coefficent, but still asserting its fixity. In the previoos
editions of this Manual, written before Mr. Kutter had
published his valuable improvement, all these formnle,
having fixed coefficients, were rejected by the author,
who at the same time asserted the principle that no
fixed coefficient was suitable to all circumstances, and
that the engineer should choose for himself a coefficient
most suitable to the special circumstances, dimensions,
and condition of the pipe, channel, or river, with whose
discharge he was dealing; and that the results of ex-
periments should be always consulted for this purpose.
A mode of successive approximation to the mean
velocity was also recommended, first, assuming er = 1 ;
and then from the mean velocity resulting, assuming a
second value of c^ according to the following table, a second
true velocity of discharge was calculated.
r. c r. c V* c* v, c.
1-0
•910
1-5
•960
2-0
1-000
2-5
1-023
11
•920
1-6
•968
21
1-005
26
1026
1-2
•930
1-7
•976
22
1-009
2-7
1-030
•
1-3
•940
1-8
•984
23
1-014
2'S
1-033
1-4
•960
1-9
•992
2-4
1-018
2-9
3-0
1-037
1-040
81
But these were intended to apply solely to canals in
earth in good order. A few values of c, suitable to pipes
j under various velocities, were also given ; but they were
[ detached, and, from want of experiment, very insufficient.
[ Yet the true state of the case, and the mode most
advisable for adoption until investigations on a larger
[ Male threw more light on the matter, was then clearly
set forth.
Now that the experiments of d'Arcy and Bazin, of
j Humphreys and Abbot, and of Ganguillet and Kutter,
have been comprehended in one formula, the labour of
choosing a coefficient from experimental records is ren«
dered entirely needless.
^be determination or tabulation of this coefficient has
gone through two stages of development. The first was
that made by Bazin, based on the experiments conducted
by d'Arcy, by Bazin himself, and by various engineers of
the French Fonts et Chaussees, and is applicable to
metrical measures. The principles asserted were that
the coefficient depended on two quantities or qualities
only, namely, the condition of surface of the bed and
banks touched by the water, and the hydraulic mean
radius of the section of discharge. Four categories of
coefficients were adopted.
Ist. For very smooth surfaces, well plastered surfaces
in cement, and well planed plank.
2nd. For smooth surfaces, ashlar, brickwork, and
ordinary planking.
3rd. For less smooth surfaces, as rubble.
4th. For earthen channels.
The values of the coefficient. A, being —
(1) 000015(1 + ^)
82
(2) 000019(1 + ^)
(3) 000024 (l ■
0-25
B
)
(4) 000028(1 + ^)
and the corresponding value of c for the English formula
1-81
of discharge being « ==- for metres, and
^ ^ lOOv/A lOO^A
for English feet ; the French formula for metres being
BS
V»
= A,
and the
English formula for feet being
V
c.
100 (RS)*
The values of these coefficients, adapted to the corre-
sponding formula
in English
feet, are generally
as follows,
in their
respective
categories
•
B.
-C.
C.
R.
C.
C.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
1-
1-41
118
1
0-87
0-48
1-5
1-43
1-22
2
0-98
0-62
2-
1-44
1-24
3
1-04
070
2-5
1-45
1-26
4
106
0-76
8-
1-45
1-26
5
108
0-80
3-5
1-46
1-27
6
1-10
0-84
4-
1-46
1-28
7
110
0-86
4-5
1-46
1-28
8
111
0-88
6-
1-46
1-29
9
112
0-90
5-6
1-46
1-29
10
112
0-91
6-
1-47
1-29
11
113
0-92
7-5
1-47
1-29
14
113
0-95
8-
1-47
1-30
15
1-14
0-96
19-
1-47
1-30
18
1-14
0-98
20*
1-48
1-31
20
114
0-98
To obtain the values of coefficients of mean velocity
from the observed maximum velocity V,,, and values of
R aud S in English feet, we obtain from Bazin's formula
V,n = V, — 14 v/ES for metres, which for English feet is
Y, = V,-23-5v/RS;c=01 [■^-" 25-31.
Applying this coeflScient to the formula V^^ = c x 100 v/RS,
the true mean velocity of discharge V^ is obtained, and
it is probable that this latter mode of determination is
preferable both to the former and to the following method
adopted by Kutter.
The second stage of development was effected by
' Kutter and Ganguillet ; their own experiments on tor-
rents and streams in Switzerland, combined with the
results of Humphreys and Abbot on very large rivers,
led them to believe that the coefficient should not be
confined within so small a number of categories, and that
also it was, besides being a function of the surface acted on
by the water, and the hydraulic radius of the section, a
ftinction of the hydraulic slope.
They therefore extend the categories of coefficients suit-
able to open channels of all sorts in earthen beds into
four distinct classes, and make some other additions to
the categories adopted by Bazin ; these new classes being
ranged in accordance with the coefficient of fluid friction
adopted as suitable to the surface under consideration.
A table of these general values of the coefficient of
fluid Motion is given in Part 1 of Table XII., page Ixix. ;
and some local values from which the former were deduced
by Mr. Kutter, are also given on the same page. The
classes being determined by these means, the values of
the coefficients of discharge are made to depend on
them, as well as on the hydraulic slope and hydraulic
radius of the open channel under consideration, and are
84
obtained for metrical measures by the following exprei*
sion : —
23 1 000155
which is also given in the following form : —
z
where .= 23 +-^+2J1^5 ^d ^ = /( 28 + ?:2^5j
The reduction of this expression for application to
English measures, for which c = 0*0181 c^, is effected in
pages Ixxi. to Ixxx. of the Working Tables ; and if any
convenient general value of / be assumed as applicable to
the particular case, the coefficient corresponding to any
ordinary values of R and S, likely to occur in practice on
canals and rivers, can be read at sight.
The calculation of the discharge of pipes is conducted
on exactly the same principle ; although it is extremely
unfortunate that the investigations of Ganguillet and
Kutter were limited to open channels, and hence the
application of his principles to pipes, though rationally
superior to any other mode previously adopted, cannot be
conducted with the same amount of experimental record
in support, nor with the same amount of accuracy.
Assuming then the same formula for mean velocity of
discharge —
V = c X 100(RS)4,
and adapting it to terms of the diameter of a pipe in
feet ; it becomes for full cylindrical pipes and tubes of all
sorts, where R = -
V = (? X 60(rfS*).
rf =
H=-^
0 064S -
35 1
and as the actual discharge is the quantity more usuaUja
required direct in the case of pipes, this is^ — M
Q = A V = c X -7854 li* x 60 (</S)*, ■
I- X 39-27 (S <;•)', I
Tor discbarges in cubic feet per second. I
The converse forms of tliis expression being — I
QL 1
rf' ■ I
where H is the bead in feet for a len^h of 100 feet, or i* '
equal to 100 S.
The values of these quantities are given in Parts 1, 2, '
and 3, of Table VIII,, for a value of c = 1, aud the valuea I
«f c given in the table of coefticients of discharge. Table
■XII., pages Ixsi. to Ixxiv., can be applied ; the powers and 1
'iwts of c can be taken from Part 7, Table XII.
With regard to these coefficients, it will be noticed that j
for want of sufficient experimental data, a coefficient of
friction / = 00 10 has been assumed as applicable to
enamelled or glazed metal pipes, and one of 0*013 for
ordinary metal and eartheuvvare or stone-ware pipes under
ordinary conditions, but not new ; and there is every
reason to believe that these assumptions are generally
correct, if we compjire the smoothness of surface of a
glazed pipe with that of very smooth plaster in cement,
lod that of an ordinary pipe, in average condition, with
that of ashlar or good brickwork. ,
In applying however, to pipes the coefficients of dis-
charge, resulting from the formula of Mr. Kotter, on©
would naturally be unwilling to push to extremes the
principle, asserted by him as applicable to open channels,
and would prefer stopping at a point where the experi-
mental data now furtlicoming leave us. It would, there- i
i\)Yi\ s(HMii iinpriideiit at ])resent to assume the law of
cocilicicnts asserted by !Mr. Iv utter, to liold good for a
hydraulic radius R less than 01 feet; which, for falls
steeper than 0 001 give as a coefficient for glazed pipes
0"84, and for ordinary pipes 0*61. This limiting hydraulic
radius of 01 feet is that of a 5-inch pipe, or a pipe
having a diameter of 0*4 feet ; and we therefore assume
for the present, and until further investigation has thrown
more light on the subject, that the coefficient of discharge
for all full pipes, having a diameter less than 0*4 feet,
will be the same as for those of that diameter.
The above-mentioned modes of calculating the dis-
charge of rivers, open channels, and full cylindrical tubes,
are intended to apply generally. .
It will, however, be perfectly evident that this does not
by any means preclude the application of an allowantt
or deduction made for special circumstances. In actoal
fact, few channels are either perfectly straight, perfectly
regular, or free from lateral and longitudinal irr^uhuN
ities ; these alone may affect the amount of discharge by
as much as five per cent., even after making allowance
for loss of head by bends and obstructions ; and the local
conditions of a river, the wind, the amount of silt in
suspension, the motion of its shoals, the change of the set
of its currents, aU seriously affect a discharge calculated
from data that make no allowance for these circumstances.
For canals and regular rectangular and trapezoidal
channels in earth in good order, calculated discharges
will naturally give, results more correctly than for natural
or river channels ; the errors due to various irregularities
being very much reduced. The formulae of discharge
are, however, as frequently used in determining the
section of canal intended to convey a certain discharge,
as to obtain a discharge from data of an actual canal.
In these cases, a consideration of the various forms of
ctclion, suitable to different purposes, is also necessary.
Tills matter has been treated and repeated iu nearly the
same terms in all works on hydraulics, and there is,
[lerhaps, nothing new to be said about it; the entire
omission of it in a Manual of this description might,
iiowcvLT, he liable to cause disappointment ; and hence
the following remarks, most probably based on the ideas
III' Ej-telwein and d'Aubuisson, though, perhaps, taken
throagh other channels now forgotten, are therefore in-
^trted for purposes of reference.
6. THE FORM OF OPEN CHiNNEL
i!iat will give a maximum discharge, is that which, for
^Ten sectional area, has the least wetted border or peri-
the semicircle, like the circle, is geometrically
blown to possess this property, and regular deraipoly-
gons externally tangential to the semicircle, have also
more or less this property, according as their sections
ti.ore or less approximate to it in form; the semicircle,
' ■>, has its hydrauUc radius equal to half its middle
(iepth, and this also holds for trapeziums of maximum
discharge.
Hence Neville's geometrical construction for deter-
mining the form of the trapezoidal channel of maximum
discharge that has given side-slopes and sectional area.
From the middle of the top width of the proposed
fra])ezium, describe a semicircle with a radius, equal to
_ the proposed depth, and draw the given slopes and the
Ittom tangential lo it.
L This form gives the top width = sum of the side-slopes,
the mean widtlj — half the perimeter,
Ltlie area — <r (tan -^ + cosec BV
I
1
38
where d = depth, and B = inclination of the slope with
the horizon.
From these properties, the relative dimensions of trape-
zoids of maximum discharge, may be obtained for anj
side-slopes. They are given in the following table by
Neville.
Belative Diniefitiom of Maximum Discharging ChanneU — (Nevilla).
Fkcton for
Slope.
Angle.
Depth. Bottom. Top. &.
In terms of the Bgoare root
of the area.
Aiea.
90«
Otol
•707
1-414
1414
-354
2d^
63« 26'
Jtol
•759
•938
1^697
•379
l-736rf«
48»34'
itol
•748
•675
1996
•374
l-784rf«
45«
1 tol
•740
•613
2093
•370
l-828rf«
36*> 52'
Utol
•707
•471
2-357
•354
2J«
33« 41'
U tol
•689
•417
2484
•3-15
2105J*
30** 58'
If tol
•671
•372
2-608
•336
2-221rf«
26» 34'
2 tol
•636
•300
2^844
-318
2-472J*
Semicircle
curve
•798
•000
1^596
•399
1-571^'
circle
curve
1-128
•000
•000
•282
-785J'
These are most applicable in cases where heavy floods
have to be provided lor by a rapid drainage, and where the
maximum discharge is the principal object.
For most practical purposes, however, such channels
would be worse than useless, because depth is more ex-
pensive tlian width, because the high velocity generated
might be destructive to the channel itself, and in cases
where navigation is an object, the depth of draught
would be too much affected by the fluctuation of supply ;
depth and velocity being thus limited, as well as the
hydraulic slope, which is controlled by local circum-
stances, and the side-slopes, which depend on the nature
of the soil, the width remains the only function of the
section which admits of much variation.
Now, in a proportion of width to depth exceeding
14 to 1, which is about the lowest limit that will main-
tain a navigable depth, the side-slopes cease to remain
a very important element, and the mean width can be
dealt with equally well for rectangular and for flat trape-
loidal se'ctions ; the practice in calculation, therefore, is,
after assuming certain side-slopes, to reduce or increase
f the mean width by two or three feet at a time, until
a safe bottom velocity is attained by the form of section
thus approximated to, and the intended discharge thus
arrived at. The next point is to know the relations
between width and depth that give many sections that
will discharge the same quantity with the same hydraulic
dope. For this purpose their areas are inversely as the
square roots of their hydraulic mean depths, and hence
the square root of the cube of the channel sectional area,
divided by the perimeter, must be constant. Thus : —
and hence a j a =-i.
w icr
Solving which, we obtain for a value of w = 70, and
for convenient values of d up to 6, corresponding values
of«. Thus:—
d -25
•50
•75
1-00
1-25
1-60
1-75
2-00
m 87
246
45-0
690
96-9
126
158
193
d 2 5
30
3-5
40
4-5
5-0
5-5
6-0
m 267
349
437
631
629
732
839
951
This equation being also worked out for the same
values of d and other values of to, the results are formed
into a table of equal discharging channel-sections, given
in Part 4, Table XI., page Ix., which answers all practical
purposes in determining dimensions of section for open
channels of any size, by applying multiples and sub-
40
multiples to the dimensions there givei^. The table
mentioned was taken from Stoddard's work, although
there is also one very much like it in Neville's well-
known work on Hydraulics, as there appeared to be no
advantage in making a new one.
An additional table has, however, been made by the
author to facilitate the determination of channels (not.
channel sections) of equal dischai^e, applicable to cases
in which the variable coefficients of discharge, adopted by
Mr. Kutter, are employed. Part 4, of Table XL, pagelxi.,
gives a variety of depths, bottom widths, velocities,
and hydraulic slopes, that are applicable to channels of
one given discharge, and is useful in roughly deter-
mining dimensions and data necessary for various dis-
charges.
The form of section of a pipe, with reference to its
discharge, is a matter in which very little variation is
practically possible : all small pipes being generally
made cylindrical and kept constantly full. The quality
of the interior surface of the pipe is however very impor-
tant, the discharge being liable to be reduced as much as
33 per cent, by fouling and incrustation, the retarding
influence being not so much the diminution of section
as the increase of friction.
Formerly the method usually adopted in making allow-
ance for incrustation consisted in reducing the diameter
employed in calculating the discharge; the reduction
being \ inch for pipes less than 3 inches in diameter,
f inch for 3-incli to 6-inch pipes, and 1 inch for pipes
0 inches to 1 foot and upwards in diameter. It is evident,
however, that this principle is faulty, and that the reduc-
tion should be made for these circumstances in the
coefficient of fluid friction employed in determining the
coeflicent of discharge. It is to be hoped also that in the
ire wafer pipes will not he allowed to fall into tlie
^acefuUy filthy condition that has too often existed in
^land, and that some enamelling or glazing process,
t that of Dr. AngU3 Smith, will be more universally
IDpted.
Kit will be evident from an examination of the original
uula, that in order to obtain a maximum discharge
a pipe, its hydraulic mean depth, R, roust be a
d
dmum. A full cylindrical pipe, having It=^j seems
I 6rst sight to be nearly perfect in this respect ; and,
ider high velocities, doubtless gives the greatest scouring
power ; — but the segmental circular section, leaving an
upper section, whose angle is 78^° empty, admitting of
the advantage of making the upper segment movable
for cleaning, gives a maximum discbarge for nearly filled
Iipes under smaller velocities, as thus shown : —
^ ScgmestuL Full Ciiclt. ,^H
i Hydraalic radius '6 -5 ^M
Velocity I'OOS I- ■
Discharge 1-02G 1-
[ The egg-shaped section, usually adopted for sewers, is
pod for intermittent unfilled pipes, as it fills higher
ftA flushes better : — one form is generally adhered to, in
rhich the diameter of the bottom circle is half that of
the top, and the depth of the sewer, and the radius of
each side curve, are each equal to once and a half the
diameter of the top circle ; they are generally calculated
for filling to two-thirds of their depth, and in that state
leir discharges and velocities bear well-known pro]
[pus to those of cylindrical sewers : — viz.
V.^lodti«s.
DuuhArgM;
Cylindrical, fall
1-00
I'OO
O/oid, i-ful1
1-04
■89
Cylindrical, ij-full
-J
*2
Calculations connected with pipea and sewers, may be
sometimes shortened by taking discharges through pipes
of the same section in proportion to the square of the
head, and through pipes of the same head proportional
to the square roots of the fifth powers of the diameters.
In these, Part 7, Table XII., is of use.
In dealing with the slopes of pipes, it must be remem-
bered that the hydraulic slopes are those that are dealt
with in all formulsa of discharge. Pipes are usually placed
two or three feet below ground, to protect them from frost,
and follow its sinuosities, rarely being allowed to rise above
the mean hydraulic gradient or slope : should they do so,
a great loss of head results, unless air vessels are apphed
at those points, from which the air is allowed to escape
through cocks every two or three days. As again it is
comparatively rare that a single pipe is laid to any very
great distance with a uniform fall, being more generally
cut up into lengths having difierent falls, it becomes neces-
sary to proportion the diameter of the pipe in these different
lengths, so that the discharge may be that due to the
smallest diameter. When with such a series of pipes of
different diameters the total head is given, and the dis-
charge is required, the case does not admit of direct solu-
tion, as each pipe must have its own proper head ; in this
case it is best to assume a discharge, and obtain separate
heads due to it for each pipe in the series ; the true heads,
both total and separate, may be then obtained by propor-
tion, and the gradients of each pipe, as well as the mean
hydraulic gradient of the whole series (which is the slope
that would be adopted for a single uniform pipe through-
out) marked on the section of the design. The final dis-
'iharge can then be calculated from any one of the pipes.
in example of this is attached to Working Table, No. X.
7. OTHER THEORIES OF FLOW.
^H Before quitting the subject of flow and entering into
^Btii&t of velocities, it may be as well to mention two
^^%pparentlj more perfect, though far less siraplcj theories
li of flow, which have not yet brought about sufficiently
txtended practical results in the determination of dis-
'-•liarges. The first is that of Dupnit : it neglects friction
oil the sides of the section of flow, thus considering
motion in all vertical planes to be the same, and dealing
with horizontal laminae only ; the surface lamina is con-
eidered to be in the condition of a solid gliding over au
inclined plane, and each lamina below, except the bottom
one, is urged on by its own weight and its cohesion to the
upper lamina ; the bottom fillet is retarded by its adhe-
sion to the bed. Putting this in the form of an equation,
summing, rejecting certain terms, integrating and apply-
Ig three numerical coefficients, Dupuit obtains a result,
iich for English feet is —
„_S. KA.
It
-— ^ -OS^ + (0067 + -9114 RS)t.
f
It is this formula that has produced more correct
practical results generally, than any one of the formulfie
having fixed coefficients : nest to it, in order of correct-
leas, coming the Chezy formula, with a fixed coefficient
1. This theory assumes that the uppermost lamina
loves invariably with the maximum velocity, which is
not the case ; the neglect of the friction of the banks
might again not vitiate results if applied to large rivers
or shallow channels ; it is probable, therefore, that a modi-
fication of calculation suited to the facts more receutly
discovered, about maximum velocity, might render i
44
theory very perfect as well as practical. For more in-
formation, refer to Dupuit's "Etude Theorique et Pra-
tique sur le mouvement des eaux courautes, Paris, 1848,"
and Claudel's Tables, which contain extracts therefrom.
The second theory is that of the Mississippi survey,
mentioned in the Mississippi Eeport, Philadelphia, 1861,
which deduces the new formula mentioned, as giving the
most correct results of all yet known ; it is, however,
unfortunate in its formulae being rather inconvenient in
some respects. While, therefore, the investigation ani
deduction of the formula is valuable on account of thfe
information, and results of experimental data applied
to it, the result is not so useful as regards the practical
use of the formula, which was virtually set aside by the
Mississippi Survey, whenever careful river-gauging was
carried out in favour of other equations deduced from
velocity observation.
In a work of this scope, it is impossible to go beyond
the mere outlines of the demonstration adopted. Adopt-
ing the notation of the Mississippi Survey given at pages
11 and 12, it may be stated as follows.
The theory accepts uniform motion and the usually
accepted application of the laws of uniform motion, but
in retarding force, denies the stability of position of maxi-
mum velocity, and makes allowance for the resistance of the
air on the water surface, as well as for the effect of wind.
The process of reasoning follows through the following
equations.
The equations obtained for the forces, are as follows : —
(1). mgas = np+w) <l>^<' ^ + ^'■■P
• •
^mding both sides by Gy/,
putting U. = nv + (016 - 06/) {6v)*
Vr = dSv + (-06/ + -35) {6v)i
45
(2)
.=^ = 4. [.93. + (ft.)>(^C3^-7)+i'(7-««0l
^ +^ ( • w +^ )
pnttiiig W = qp, where q practically = 1 for large rivers.
(3).
a8
W +p
= 0 (-931; + -167 {dv)^ = ^ (2) = C:s^.
(4). C =
as
{p H- W)^;*
8
I
by practical observation C = -r^, hence
In this equation there are practically only four variables,
<2* JD + W, 8 and ;?, once for ordinary natural channels p
nearly = 1'015 W; hence if the values of any three are
given, the fourth may be obtained, the transpositions of
the equation being —
(6). s = (
195a
)
195 «*
(8). /? + W =
195 as^
z'
Now £r is a variable, of which only two absolute values
are known, viz., that for a rectangular cross section, and
that for an ordinary river section, which are —
z =zv -h -167 b^v^
z = -93^ + -167 b^v^
Substituting these in (5) and solving, we get for rec-
tangular channels,
(9). V = \/0064A + (195r,**)*- -OS**)'
46
For ordinary river channels,
(10). V = (>/-0081* + (225r,«*-09i*)*;
For large rivers, where r > 12 feet, and where b =
1*69
p— ,"7^^ = 1856, the first term may be neglected, and
this latter equation becomes —
(11). V = ([225r,^J* - -OSSB)".
If the discharge is known, and also two of the four
variables in equation (5), provided they are not a and v,
the other two variables may be computed by eliminating
the unknown variable in the second member of that one
of the transpositions of equation (11) whose first member
is the variable sought, by substituting for it its value
deduced from the equation (12),
a
No difficulty will be found in performing the calcu-
lation, except when s and p + w are the known variables,
in which rate an equation of a higher degree than the
second cannot be avoided, and successive approximation
must be adopted as follows : —
Assume a value of a, and find two values of r, one
from equation (12), the other from (10) or (9), as the
case may require ; these values of v will not agree, hence
assuming a new value for a, until the resulting values
of V are identical.
An application of the above-mentioned Mississippi
formulae to the discharges of canals, or even of small
streams and rivers, cannot by any means be considered
satisfactory as regards result; although for large and
very large rivers, the amount of exactitude resulting may
exceed that of any other known formula.
47
8. VELOCITIES m PIPES AlTD ARTIFICIAL CHAlfNELS.
The laws of the distribution of velocity in the section
of an open channel, canal, or river, are not yet satis-
&ctorily determined. A certain amount of knowledge
lias been deduced from observation of the variation of
velocity in the vertical planes, but as regards that in
the horizontal planes of the section^ nothing has abso-
lutely— and very little relatively — ^yet been determined.
In pipes, on the contrary, the conditions of velocity are
comparatively simple. All the valuable information on
this subject, quoted in this work, is that deduced By
d'Arcy and Bazin, and by Humphreys and Abbot, from
the results of their extensive experiments.
The experiments of d'Arcy, in 1851, established the
following law of velocity in full pipes : —
v/ES \-E)
This equation is in terms of metrical measures —
V = central velocity.
V = the velocity anywhere at a distance = r from the
centre.
•R =: the radius of the pipe.
S = the loss of head or slope per running metre.
This equation in another form becomes —
ft
This formula was deduced by d'Arcy from observations
taken at from one-third to two-thirds of the radii of various
pipes from the centre ; beyond f of the radius, it is pro-
bable that the law does not hold good, and that tb^
decrement of velocity should be more rapid than tl
48
indicated by the formula. Under any circomstances,
however, it is clearly established that the velocities in a
full cylindrical pipe, are equal at all points equidistant
from the centre, and that the above law of decrement
holds good for the central f of the diameter taken in any
direction. In a pipe of rectangular section, the velocities
are equal at any four points, taken symmetrically with
reference to the centre of figure.
In open channels, however, this almost mathematical
accuracy is entirely absent, and the perturbations produced
near the surface of the water does not allow us to hope
that any formula can be arrived at, which would give the
actual velocity at any point in terms of the mean velocity
and the co-ordinates determining the position of that
point. These perturbations appear to be more consider-
able in proportion to the diminution of velocity, and the
increase of depth of channel, and are coincident with a
depression of the locus of maximum velocity; in the
extreme cases, the curves of equal velocity in the section
cut the surface of the water very obliquely.
The following are the conclusions drawn by Bazin on
this subject : —
1st. For a very wide rectangular channel —
v/H S ^ H" ^ '
where V = central velocity at the surface.
V = velocity at a point at a depth A below it.
H = total depth of water.
S = hydraulic slope of the water surface.
The above law of velocity is proved to hold good for very
wide channels ; the cases under experiment give a practi-
cally constant value of K = 20-0, the extremes varying
between 15*2 and 24 9;— it would also appear that for a
49
tangular canal of infinite widths in which the influence
the ' sides was entirely made to disappear, K would
24-0.
\Yhen, however, the depth of a rectangular channel is
at enough, in proportion to the hreadth, to make the
luence of the lateral walls show itself in the middle of
\ current, this law does not hold, nor does any law of
3rement of velocity seem possible, and mere generali*
aons, in terms of the mean velocity, can alone be
rived at.
If, then U = the mean velocity in a canal, the section
which is very great in proportion to its depth —
dh
id the depth h below the surface is determined by the
pression (fj) = ^; whence h =: 0*577 H, which is, in
% saying that the mean velocity is found at about f of
e total depth. This, however, assumes the before-men-
med parabolic law of the decrease of velocity in each
rtical plane, a hypothesis only admissible in a very large
d perfectly regular canal.
In fact, however, and from experiments quoted, it
pears that the locus of mean velocity is often below
of the depth, and more often below f of it ; and that
ien the depth of the canal is great, and the velocity
ible, the curve of mean velocity approaches still nearer
e bottom, and goes as low as f of the depth.
Taking the above relation U = V — q- v/RS, where -_.
v/X and K =240, for a channel of infinite width ; in
is case also we get fj = 1 +8 n/A, as a result applic-
4
60
able to this special case, which supposes the parabolic^
law applicable throughout the whole breadth of the;
channel ; and this differs greatly from the results dT
V -
experiment on channels, which gives fj = 1 + 14 v^A.
The locus of maximum velocity is, however, not always
at the centre of the surface, but is at a greater depth in
proportion as the depth of the canal is greater and the
mean velocity is less, being sometimes as low as f the
total depth.
The determination of bottom velocity can, in rectan-
gular canals, be alone made in the special case of one
supposed to be of infinite breadth : for this case, putting
^ = H in the original formula, we obtain the velocity
ir = V — K v/lt S ; but in all other cases no law can bo
given. Tlie greatest of bottom velocities is in the middle
and the least at the sides.
The velocity along the vertical sides of a rectangular
canal, is generally greater in the middle than at the top
or at the bottom ; but beyond this fact, the determination
of the exact velocity at any point of the side remains a
very difficult problem yet unsolved.
The laws of velocity in canals of semicircular section are
far less complicated than those of rectangular section : —
the law of decrement of velocity is expressed in the
following formula : —
the extreme values of the coefficient deduced from experi-
ment being 18*2 and 23*2 ; and the terms of the expres-
sion being similar to those in the equation for decrement
of velocity in sections of pipes before mentioned: — '
51
r in this we make r =: B, we obtain as for rectangular
lannels, the bottom velocity, w =zY ^ 21 y/RB.
And the mean velocity will be deduced thus : —
= V-|KvAttS; where ^^ = n/2A;
V
hence ^ = 1 +fKv/2A; where K = 21
= 1 + 11*9 v/ A: an equation differing but
HtUe from that deduced from experiment on semicircular
canals.
The radius r , of the circle of mean velocity of the
Bection =B. i^ f = 0'737 E ; — which is saying that this
is at about three-quarters of the radius from the centre,
whereas in fact it is farther.
Taking finally the two expressions for decremenl; of
▼docity in canals of rectangular and semicircular section,
V-t; -f/iy.' ,Y^v ^/rx»
a general expression may be deduced from them,
and as imder these circumstances absolute velocities cannot
be dealt with, it is better to make use of relative velocities,
and by dividing each side of the general equation by U to
transform it into the form
V — r _
— Ty— = ^ v/A ; which is therefore true for all canals
^here ^ is a function of the relative (not of absolute)
co-ordinates determining the position of the point whose
velocity is under consideration, their values being taken
^ proportion to the dimensions of the section.
With regard to velocities in natural and artificii
4*
52
channels generally, by far the most important lesiilt
arrived at by d'Arcy and Bazin, is the relation between i
the maximum velocity and the mean velocityof di9chaTge, tl
represented by this equation, suitable to metres :
■p = 1 + 14 \/A; and since A = -ttj ; V— XJ = 14\/BS;
these equations reduced to English measures become
T^ = 1 + "' Tnn; and V- U = 2534 n/BS.
U ex 100
The advantage derived from the application of this law
in gauging is probably greater than that of any other
velocity discovery of modem times.
Velocities in Natural Channels.
The laws of variation of velocity in horizontal planes,
with reference to different forms of section have not yet
been satisfactorily deduced, such velocities have therefore
to be determined locally when required ; the horizontal
curves of velocity again vary much in different stages of
the river or stream under consideration ; the records there-
fore of such velocities involve much labour, and have not
yet shown themselves of sufficient . practical importance
to repay the labour and trouble of their observation.
The laws of variation of velocity in vertical planes have
been most fully investigated by Captains Humphreys and
Abbot on the great Mississippi Survey.
It was previously generally believed that the maximum
velocity of any river or channel was that on the surface
in the middle ; that the mean velocity varied between
•7 to '95 of the maximum velocity, in natural channels,
and was generally '8 for rectangular sections ; and that
the bottom velocity equalled twice the mean velocity less
the maximum velocity, or 6 of the maximum velocity for
rectangular sections. There were also numerous other
mttohs of relation between these quantities given "by
■nous theorists, none of them probably more correct
an the above.
' There is every reason to believe that this subject, difficult
n itself, has been rendered more difficult to manage (roin
J falsification of Results by using many different coni-
Eilicated instruments, possessing inherent errors, and not
idmitting of a just comparison ; the Mississippi observa-
ions being conducted on a very large scale, and in the
niplest manner possible, have brought forth very impcr-
bnt results. From their experimental data it has been
idaced that the velocities at different depths below the
hir&ce in a vertical plane, vary as the abscissa) of a
rabola, whose axis is parallel to the water-surface, and
toy be considerably below it, thus proving the maximum
"elocity to be generally below the surface ; the equation
f this curve with reference to its axis, taking the depths,
tively to the total depth, as ordinates, was obtained
1 the form —
y* = 1-2621 I)*i'
D = total depth of bed below the surface, and
r and y are the co-ordinates to the axis.
They also deduced that if d is the depth of the axis of
I the parabola, or locus of maximum velocity from the sur-
^feuse, then ^M
■ i/,= ('317 + '06/] E H
where R = hydraulic mean radius, and/ = force of wina
taken positive or negative, and taken = 1 when tlie
velocity of the wind and current are equal, iind = 0 for a
cross wind or calm.
The following are other important equations, with
Htegard to velocity in vertical planes, that they deduced,
^Kbich though they are not so useful practically as might
^■e wished, arc inserted here for reference.
1
54
(For symbols refer to the notation g^ven in the para-
-graph on that subject.)
Formulae for velocity in any vertical plane :
1'69
(1) b = /p + 1-5) i = *^^^^ °^y ^^®^ D 7 30 feet.
(2) </, = ( -317 X -06/) D very nearly.
(3) V = V^, - («f)'(^^' /
(4).V. = Vrf, -(*«;)* (^»)*
(5) V„ = V</, -{bv)i (l -§)
(6) Y„ = %Yd, +iV„ + ^(iV,-iVp)
('') ^1 = V„ + j>s (*i;)*
(8) V„ = V„ + i6v)* ( i + ^^^^^^^)
(9)V =v„ ,(,.), (M^^^_hlM^))
in which equation (9) is a mere combination of equations
(3) and (8).
For velocity in tlie mean of all vertical planes the
following formulae have been deduced :
^ ^ (r + I'oy.
(2) </, = (-317 + -06/) r.
(3) U„ = -931;.
(4) U = -93^; + (^"^'^^^ + -IMZL^- -06/+ -Qiejcfo)*.
(5) U. = -931; + (-016 - -06/) (it;)*.
(6) U, = -9317 (-06/ - -35) i6v)K
(7) Vd, = •93w + {[-317 + -Oe/]*- 06/+ '016} {6v)K
(8) « = /[l-08 U, + 002^]* - •045i*\*.
The most important result of all these data and deduc-
55
yns is the foUowing, ifc, fact of great practical use in
kogmg rivers, that the ratio of the mid-depth to the
ean velociiy in any vertical plane is independent of the
idth and depth of the stream (except for an almost
lappreciably small effect) absolutely independent of the
epth of the axis of the curve before referred to, and
early independent of the mean velocity The formula
xpressing this is
(7) V^ = V„ + ^^l, where
»
V^ is the mean velocity on any curve in the vertical
plane.
V 2 is the mid-depth velocity.
V is tlie mean velocity of the river.
D is the depth of the river at the spot.
* = 7Fr^^^T-FTi> which when D 7 30 ft. = -1856.
(D + 1'5/
The application of this result to gauging is shown in
Chapter II. on Field Operations.
9. BENDS AND OBSTRUCTIONS.
The irregularities of a river materially affect its velocity ;
the following remarks on this subject, by Captains Hum-
phreys and Abbot, are instructive on this point.
*'Even on a perfectly calm day, there is a strong
" resistance to the motion of the water at the surface,
" independent of, and not mainly caused by the friction
*'ofthe air; the principal cause being a loss of force,
" arising from the upward currents or transmitted motion
*' caused by the irregularities at the bottom. There is
**also iin almost constant change of velocity at various
[lifl tbe T)eiid ; — it is, however, always assumed that each
5 one of 30°, aud the effect is estimated as due to the
riwmber n of sucli bends or deflections of 30" ; and this
tuables the formula to be put into the simpler form —
/*, = 1^ = nV X 0-00ia65.
536 M
The values of tliis formula, for various velocities aod ben3^.
Me given in Part 2, of Table X., page li., and an explana-
tory example at page lii.
A formula more suited to hends of pipes, is that of-
ATeisbach ; it is for cylindrical pipes —
i=^ - X ■{ 131 + 1-847 fillH
and for rectangular tubes —
^ =_^, Z.' X ■(•124 + 3-104 f-^l' I
' ISO" 2y 1 \2}i/ }
but as the bends of pipes, known as quarter bends,
generally taken as 90"; the factor — ■
" ^' becomes = , X, ^ = 007764.
i^J
Ibll" X 2y 12SS "
In this formula r and R are the radii of the pipe and of
the bend, and the other terms are as before. The loss of
head due to bends in pipes is, however, generally required
as corresponding, not to mean velocities of discharge, but
to the discharges themselves. The values given by this
formula have, therefore, been tabulated in tliis form, and
are given in Part 1 , of Table X., page 1. ; an explanatory
example is also attached.
The ordinary formula for calculating the rise in feet
ilting from an obstruction in tbe section of a river
annel, is that of Dubuat ; it is—
A
58
where A, a, are the normal and Ih^ reduced sectional
areas,
S is the sine of the hydraulic slope of the river,
and m is the experimental coefficient.
Now, as in most cases, S is less than "001, that term
may be neglected, and taking m = '96, m^ == "92, and the
formula becomes —
*^ = 001C9 V
{(^)"-'}
The values of this are given in Part 3, of Table X.,
page li., and an explanatory example on page lii.
10. DISCHARGE FROM ORIFICES AND OVERFALLS.
The discharge from orifices and overfalls, which to the
hydraulic engineer generally resolve themselves into
sluices and weirs, is a subject that was fully entered into
by hydraulicians of past times, and to which very little
information has been added by recent experimentalists.
Nor is it by any means likely that further contributions
will be soon made to this branch of hydraulic science, as
there have recently been to that of the discharges of open
channels ; the practical interest attaching itself to the
exact determination of discharge of a sluice or a weir, not
being in excess of the amount of exactitude already
attained. All accepted information on this subject being
to be found, with but little variation, in the older books,
the author has had little choice left to him, and has
therefore taken the following notes almost entirely from
Bennett's translation of d'Aubuisson's hydraulics.
Setting aside the experiments of the more ancient
59
philosophers, aud assuming that the discharge from i
orifice is
Q = AV = A. m v^H
wiicre H = the head of pressure of the orifice,
m = the coefficient of reduction obtained
pjpfriment,
V = the mean velocity of discharge,
-iid the pressure being supposed to be kept perfectly cotf
■lint, the first of the more modem hydraulicians to obtain
'^Iierimental values of m, on a scale larger than the
jiiviious very petty experiments, was Michelotti. His
^jieriments conducted at Turin in 1707, under beads of
I'lt'ssure up to '2i feet, determined coefficients of reduction
' jrying from 0015 to 0619, for eirculur orifices, up to
'J inches in diameter, and coefficients varying from 0602
'" 0'619 fer square orifices, up to 3 inches in length of
--!(Il'. The next important experiments did not so mucli
'iichde increase of bead as increased dimension of opening.
^I^'j-srs. LespinaKse and Pin, Engineers of the Langnedoc
'inal, 1782 to 1702, made experiments on rectangular
"I'enings, or sluices 4'265 feet broad, and having heights
'■iiying from lo75 to 1'805 feet, under heads on their
"litres of, from 6'2 to 14'5 feet ; the coefficients deduced
^'Hcd from 'Syi to '647, the mean being 0"G25 ; they
■iso observed that the discharge from two sluices opened
" one time side by side, was not double that from one
-lice. The next important experiments were those of
I'iiucelet and Lesbros, at Metz, in lt26 ; they deduced a
law for the determination of coefficient of discbarge of
rectangular orifices under various proportions of bead of
pressure and depth of opening to width ; these coefficients
reduced by Bankino are given in a tabular form in Part 4
(if Table XII', at page Ixxxii. of the working tables. The
In \t important experiments recorded were those conducted
60
by M. George Bidone, at TariD, in 1886, on orifice» on
parts of which the contraction was suppressed, the exbme
of suppression being a case in which the whole of tbe
contraction was suppressed by fitting an interior shoit
tube to the mouth of the orifice : his resulting formula of
discharge was for rectangular orifices —
Q = i» A >/2yH(l+ 0152 p
and for circular orifices.
Q = mA v/2yH (1 + 0-128 J)
where n is the portion of the perimeter jp, whose contrac-
tion is suppressed.
About this time also some further experiments were
made by Castel and d' Aubuisson ; and some by Borda oa
orifices in sides not plane.
The results of all these experiments show that the
extreme limits of the value of m, are 0*50 and 1*00 for
orifices in all sorts of sides, and under all conditions, and
are 060 and 0*70 for orifices in plane sides : also that the
general mean value of m for orifices in a thin plate is 0*62 ;
this, however, is perhaps more true for small circular orifices
than for any other class of them. In this case therefore
V = 0-62 X 8-025 n/H = 4975 v^H,
and for rectangular orifices of a similar class, the values
of m, ranging from 0*572 to 0*709 given at page Ixxxii.,
must be applied to the general formula
Y =z m X v/2yH
in order to determine the mean velocity of discharge,
which when multiplied by the sectional area gives the
quantity discharged per second.
In the special case in which the reservoir of supply,
still being kept at a constant level, is seriously affected by
relocity of the water supplying it, the discharge i
rifice will be augmented on this account, and then
[ V = ^vsy/H-
W'\ = ffi v^2yH + W,
B "W = the initial velocity of entrance,
r the speciiaJ cases in which an open canal is attached
pe orifice at its exit, in such a manner that the sides
wttom of the canal are continuations of those of the
the coefficient of contraction remains the same,
hit when the head on the orifice is less than 2^ times
Sleight of the orifice : in this latter case the coefficienl
' have to be materially reduced. An extremi
ItpTen by Poncelet and Lesbros, being one of a discharge
through an orifice 0'164 feet high, under a head of 0'118,
gave a value of m = 0'452, while without an attached
cbannel the value of m was = 0613 : further, when the
level of the attached channel was exactly at the same
Wei as the floor of the reservoir of supply, the value of m
Was reduced to 0'443. The law of reduction of coefficient
Qecessary for these cases is not yet given in a definite form.
The inclination of the attached channel, when less than
one in TOO did not affect tlie coefficient in any way, but
when increased to one in 10, had the effect of increasing
the coefficient from 3 to 4 per cent.
The above includes all the general deductions about
jrifices that are likely to be of any use to the engineer ;
i more practical collection of coefficients of discharge for
orifices is given in Part 4 of Table XII., at pages Ixxxi*,
and Ixzxii. ; and the value of the expression I
ven, for various heads, and for all the values of m that
Bre commonly used in Table IX., pages xxxvii. to xlviii.;
some explanatory examples also follow that table.
.es
62 I
It may be observed, however, that although the minatiae I
of discharges under certain experimental conditions have I
been sedulously preserved, there is yet considerable doubt 1
what coefficient should be used for the laiger sloices or I
openings that occur in practice. It is no doubt onfortOf I
nate that experimentalists should differ, but at the same I
time the circumstances under which the amount of cUs- |
charge from a sluice is an important consideration only
occur generally to those who are capable, and have the
opportunity of determining it accurately by experiment
themselves.
The ordinary coefficient for a sluice of moderate size, for
small lock or dock-gates, or mill-gates, is generally taken
at 0*62 : that for a narrow bridge-opening, which maybe
considered as a large sluice, at 0'82; and that for very
large well-built sluices, large wide openings out of reser-
voirs continuing at a level with the bottom of the reser-
voir, and large bridge-openings of the modern type, at
01)2.
The term II, representing tlie effective head of pressure,
is difforcntly estimated in various cases : in ordinary cases
of sluices, supplied from a reservoir above them, the head
is the difference of hvA between the surface of the water
in the reservoir and the centre of figure of the sluice ; but
when the sluice is drowned, that is, has a perceptible depth
of water standing below its exit, but above the sluice itself,
the head is the difference of level of the water above and
of that below it ; in bridge-openings also, the head is the
difference of water level above and below the bridge.
The most recent experimental determination of coeffi-
cients of discharge for head-sluices supplying small channels
is that of d'Arcy and Buzin ; the results of these opera-
tions will be given with the account of the mode of gaug-
ing adopted by them in Chapter II.
Unjces mtTi rnoulTipiecea aftaded were even in tlie time
f tlie Romans known to have a greater discharge than
ritboat them. In order to effect this increase it is, how-
wr, necessary tliat the length of the attached or addi-
jonal tube should be twice or three times the diameter of
the orifice, otherwise the fluid vein does not entirely fill
■ the month of the passage. The experiments of Michelotti
|ttl Castel determined a mean coefficient of discharge for
fclindrieal mouthpieces of 0'82, the extremes being 0'S03
d0'830; the singular effects produced under some cir-
instances by the application of cylindrical mouthpieces
s more curious than useful. Conical converging mouth-
■ pieces increase the discharge more highly : the experiments
on them of Castel, engineer of the waterworks of Tou-
Jonse, are exceedingly interesting; they demonstrated that
inder varied .heads the coefficients of discharge and of
Velocity were practically constant for the same mouth-
i'iece, and that for the same orifice of exit the coefficient
'-•I discharge increased from 083 for a cylindrical mouth-
piece in proportion to the increase of the angle of conver-
gence of the mouthpiece employed up to 0'95 for an angle
"f 13j°; and that beyond this angle the coefficient of dis-
iiarge diminishes to 0'93 for 20", and afterwards decreases
Miure rapidly. The length of mouthpiece employed in
tliese cases as well as in the former was 2^ times the
diameter of the orifice. Some experiments by Lespinasse
on the canal of Languedoc showed tiie enormous increase
of discharge effected by using converging mouthpieces :
Ills mouthpieces were truncated rectangular pyramids 9'69
feet long, the dimensions at one eud 3"4 x 3'2 feet, at
the other "44 x "62 feet, and were used in mills to throw
the water on to water wheels ; their oppo-site faces were
inclined at angles of 1 1* 38' and 1 6" 1 8', and the head em-
liloyed was 9'59 feet; the experiments resulted in deter-
64
mining a coefficient of discliarge vaiying from 0*976 to
0-987.
Conical diverging and trumpet-shaped mouthpieces still
further increase the discharge from an orifice : the experi-
ments of Bernouilli, Yenturi, and Eytelwein have tiirown
much light on this subject, and showed the coefficient to
lie between O'Ol and 1*35. Venturi concluded that the
mouthpiece of maximum discharge should have a length
nine times the diameter of the smaller base, and a fliare of
5^ 6', and that it would, if properly proportioned to the
head of pressure, give a discharge 1*46 times the theoretic
unreduced discharge through an orifice in a thin side.
Over/alls and Weirs.
An overfall may be considered to be a wide rectangular
orifice in an ultimate position, where the head on the
upper edge is zero ; and its discharge may be therefore
computed in the same manner as that of an orifice.
The discharge of an orifice is according to the parabolic
theory —
Q = «* X f >/"2y X tt7 (H y H - h v/T)
where h and H are the heads on the top and bottom edge,
and d and w are the depth and width of the orifice ; if
then H = mean head on the centre of the orifice, and the
orifice becomes an oferfall, this formula becomes
developing this, and putting wd =: A, the sectional ftrea,
Q = ..A|v/-27H(l-g^-^.)
and as rf is comparatively small, the last term is = 0, henoe
Q = »i A f v/"^^; and V = /;z | y/JyK
?^here H is the head on the sill of the overfall.
65
The value of the coefficient, m, varies according to the
in of overfall. It was determined by M. Castel, at
olouse, by a large series of experiments : and also by
smcis, in the Lowell experiments referred to in Chapter
, on Gauging.
rhe experiments of M. Castel showed that, for the
urate employment of a general coefficient of discharge,
\ dimensions and conditions of an overfall should fall
ihin one of the three following classes.
1st. When the length of the overfall sill extends to
\ entire breadth of the channel, atid the head on the sill
less than one- third the height of the dam or barrier, the
fficients remain remarkably constant, varying only from
64 to 0 666. Hence generally for this case, m = 0'606.
2nd. When the length of the overfall sill is less than
t entire breadth of the channel of suppl}'-.. but is greater
m a quarter its breadth, the coefficient lies between
\ two extremes of 0*666 and 0*598, and is strictly de-
ident on the ratio of the length of sill to breadth of
mnel ; — ^hence it is for the foUowing relative breadths :
Te breadth.
Coefficieut
Pelative brcadih.
Coe£5cieiit.
•oo
0^666
•50
0^6 13
•90
0658
•40
0609
•80
0 047
•30
0 600
•70
0^635
•'2 5
0-598
•60
0^624
3rd. If the length of the overfall sill is equal, or even
y nearly equal, to one-third the breadth of the channel,
\ coefficient remains very constant, varying only between
9 and 0*61. Hence generally for this case, which ispar-
ilarly favourable for gauging small streams, m = 0 60.
In other cases, that is, when the length of the sill is
3 than a quarter the breadth of the channel of supply^
^0
66
the coefficient depends on the absolute length of sill, and.j
requires determining specially : it increases from 0'61 to
0'07 in direct proportion to the diminution of absolute
lenj^li of sill.
With reference to the three cases suitable for practical
purposes, the experiments of M. Castel showed that whea
the sectional area of the overfall was less than one-fifth of]
that of the normal section of the channel of supply, the
effect of velocity of approach in the channel did notj
modify the value of the coefficient : for other conditioDflij
the modification necessary was not determined in a very'
satisfactory form : — the new equation for mean velocity
of discharge being changed from
V = m f ^IfiL
into Y = w I v/ iff (H + 035 WJ
where W = the surface velocity of approach, not deter-
mined from observation, but from its assumed ratio to the
mean velocity, perhaps therelbre the modification of the
coefficient, w, by other authors into a new coefficient
;;/
. = »'(('4)'-(h)'}
where // is the head due to the velocity of approach, and
H is the head on the weir sill, is a preferable arrangement.
For the special cases in which channels are attached in
continuation of the sides of the overfall, the coeflScients
in the experiments of Poncelet and Lesbros were reduced
by 1 8 to 33 per cent. If, however, the fall to the channel
is more than 3 feet, no reduction is generally made in the
coefficients.
It may be noticed that the head on the sill used in the
above expression is that in the centre of the overfall, which is
independent of the rising of the water at the wings, a pheno-
menon to be observed in almost all cases of weir discharges.
"La aH the above cases, it is supposed that thin edges, as
f metal sheets, or one-inch waste-boards, are used ; for
1 or round lopped crests, the coefficients will require
iduction. See the coefficients given in Part 5, of
ible XII., page Ixsxiii.
Obnirucfcd Overfalls. — When obstacles occur on the sill
f an overfall, as dwarf pillars or blocks, a deduction in
Z discharge over the sill is made not only on account of
■e reduction of section, but on account of the contrac-
■Bons resulting. Francis's formula is applicable to these
rcunistances in cases where the length of weir sill equals
r exceeds the head ; — it is
Q = |tfV¥"(^-0"l « H)Hf
where n = the number of end contractions,
= '1- when there is no central obstruction,
/ = length of weir sill,
/ H = A the sectional area of discharge,
and m - 00228.
In case the weir sill has the same breadth as the
channel of supply, » =: 0 ; and in that case
Q = 3-3:32 /H^
This, it will be observed, varies from that of Castel, which,
under the same conditions, gives Q = 3'557 /H*"
Parlly Dromied Overfalls. — When a weir has its tail
water above the edge of the sill, it may be treated as a
combination of an overfall with an orifice; the upper portion
down to the level of the lower water as an overfall, and the
lower portion from that down to thesUl level as a rectangular
orifice, and the discharges calculated separately for eacli.
Using, however, the same value of H in both cases, H
being the head due to the overfall, that is, down to tho
level of the tail-race. ^H
6* M
I
68
. Some fiiriher valaes of ooeftcienti of weir disehaige
are given in the acoonnti of ganging in CSiapter H
To aid in the computation of diseharges from oyerMi,
the velocities of discharge dne to various heads iod
various coefficients may he obtained from those givm in
Table IX., pages zxxvii td zlv., by redudng the velodtiei
there given by one-third; the results multiplied by the
section of overfrll are then the required discharges. The
method thus adopted enables the same table to be used in
computing the discharges of both orifices and over&Ik
A table of weir coefficients is given on page Ixzxiii., and
some explanatory examples on pages xlvL to xlviiL
11.— EFFLUX OB DISGHABGB FROM FKISHATIC
VESSELS OB BESEBYOmS.
The following formulse given by d'Aubuisson may be
considered useful for reference in the cases in which they
are required in engineering practice : —
First Case.
(1st.) When the reservoir empties itself through an
orifice.
Velocities. — The ratio between the velocity at the orifice
of discharge and that of the water in the reservoir is in
the inverse ratio of their sectional areas.
Head.-^lf H = actual height of water in the reservoir;
A •" the height due to and generating the velocity of dis-
charge, and A and a are the sectional areas of the rese^
voir and the orifice.
Then A = ^^^[ .
A — Pi a .
Discharge. — A reservoir emptying itself through an
orifice in a given time would discharge a volume equal to
half that due to the head at the commencement, kept
69
constant during the same time. For an example of this
applied to locks, see example 4, page xlvi.
Time. — The time in which a prismatic reservoir empties
itself is double that in which the same volume would be
discharged if the initial head had remained constant.
The time of descent, ^, to a given depth, e? = H — A
and the quantity discharged in a given time, t,
isQ = A (H - A) = ^•'"W^ (y/H _.^|^)
and the mean hydraulic head, H, under which the same
quantity would be discharged in the same time is —
Where H and A are the heads at the beginning and end of
the time of discharge, the reservoir receiving no supply
during that time.
(2nd.) When the basin or reservoir receives a constant
supply during the time of discharge.
If. y = quantity supplied per second,
/=:time in which the surface will descend the depth,
wlien there is no supply, or ^^ = 0, this equation resolves
itself into that previously given.
(3rd.) In the case of there being no supply, but the
discharge instead of being effected through an orifice is
conducted over an overfall —
Non-prismatic reservoirs are extremely difficult to deal
with, and the inTestigation of any special case would be
comparatiTely useless.
Second Que.
When one reservoir empties itself into another.
(Ist.) When each of the two reservoirs being exceed-
ingly large practically preserves its own level, the com-
municating sluice being below the lower snrbce of water;
then if H, h, are the heads —
the discharge Q = ma v^iy (H — k)^
(2nd.) When the upper reservoir being exceedingly
large preserves its own level, and the lower reservoir
having a definite area (A), receives the supply through a
sluice of a section ((/), required the time in which tbe
surface of the lower basin will rise to a certain height.
If H, h, be the heads on the lower surface at the be-
ginning and end of the time, /,
ma s/tg
tliis formula, like that previously given, is useful for
determining the time necessary to fill a lock chamber:
when ^ = 0, or tlie levels become the same, tbe case is that
of canal locks, and the sectional area of tbe sluice may be
determined from this equation.
(3rd.) When neither reservoir receives any supply, and
both are limited in size, if the surfaces are originally at
different levels, and the communication sluice is opened,
the surface of one will rise and the other falL
If A, B, are the sections of the two vessels,
H, X, the heads at the beginning and end in A,
h, y, the heads at the beginning and end in B,
a — the sectional area of the pipe or sluice,
t = time during which the sluice is open.
71
if it be required to know the time in which the two
faces will be level; in that case, a? = y = — ^ . ^ ,
L then
^_ 2AB y/H^:^
ma (A + B) v/^
This formula \& convenient for determining the time
cupied in bringing the water in the two chambers of a
mble lock to the same level, by means of a sluice of
aown dimensions.
12.— THE APPLICATION OF THE WORKING TABLES.
The use of the greater portion of these twelve tables
las already been indicated in the foregoing text ; they
lave for their object not only the reduction of labour
n calculating quantities, but also to serve as a check
)n any calculations of the same nature that may be
rapidly made by engineers in dealing with quantities of
«rater. Table I. gives the amount of the force of gravity
in diflTerent latitudes, and may occasionally be found
of use in pendulum experiments, and in such calcu-
lations in which the ordinary value of ^ 32 2 feet per
second, generally applied in the hydraulic calculations in
the form of \/2y = 8 025, is not sufficiently exact.
Fables II., III., and IV., are of use in calculations of
J^ater supply from catchment areas, storage, flood dis-
charge, and waterway. Table V. gives some velocities
isual under certain circumstances that are occasionally
'^quired, and as to which the memory cannot always be
-J'usted. Table VI. affords a ready means of reducing or
converting gradients and angular slopes into the forms
^ost usually required by hydraulic engineers. Table
*^II. gives mean velocities of discharge of open channels
^' all sorts; these have, however, in conformity with
rii0.1»Tii r)ni'-ti<e, t'» i»e Tn'ulirled bv coefficients suited to the
jiarticular case under con>idcration ; the various functions
of mean velocity can also be easily deduced by the aid of
this table. Table YIII. gives discharges of fall cylin-
drical pipes and tubes, and the diameters and heads cor-
responding to discharges ; these also require modification
by suitable coefficients in the same way. Table IX.
gives velocities of discharge of sluices, the same taUe
serving also for weirs by making a deduction of one-third
from the velocities there given. Table X. gives the I088
of head due to bends in open channels and in pipes, and
the rise of water due to obstructions in open channeb
and rivers. Table XI. is a table of equivalents, affording
the means for a ready conversion of quantities often
entering into hydraulic calculation, such as total into con-
tinuous quantities; and, especially intended for use in
calculations of storage, town supply, and distribution of
water in irrigating land. The latter portion of this table
consists of conversion tables for English and metrical
measures. The greater portion of Table XII. is a col-
lection of all the experimental coefficients necessary in
ordinary hydraulic calculations ; they have been arranged
in this manner in preference to being distributed through-
out the tables, in the belief that it permits of greater con-
venience in reference : part 6 of this table is a small
collection of hydraulic memoranda^ principally for purposes
of conversion, and also of weight and pressure, intended
to aid in rapid calculations ; and part 7, consisting of useful
numbers, having the same object, also serve for readily
applying powers and roots to the coefficients that have now
become so important a part of all hydraulic calcidations.
These tables and data have all been calculated and re-
duced by the author, with the exception of those at pages
Iviii and Ix.
I
73
The Appendix to the Working Tables consists of a few
miscellaneoas tables and data, giving information sometimes
required by the engineer in connection with hydraulic
works, the last being a table of British-Indian weights
and measures ; these with two or three exceptions, in
which the tables were made by the author, have been
taken from the best sources available, and rearranged in
a convenient form.
CHAPTER II.
On Field Opebatiovs ahd Gauoiho.
1. Direct meosarBment of diMharge. 2. Ganging hj rectangular overfidk
3. The meaenrement of Telociiies : different appliances and instruments:
flumes and gauges. 4. Gkuiging hj means of snr&oe velocitiai.
5. Gauging canals and streams bj loaded tubes. 6. The MissiMippi
field operations for gauging very large riyers. 7. I^d operationB m
gauging crevasses : and computation of coefficients for special crevarae-
discharges. 8. Captain Humphreys' improved system of gauging rivers
and canals. 9. General Abbot's mode of determining discharges on any
given day. 10. The experiments of d*Arcy and Bazin on the Bigoles
de Chazilly et Grosbois. 11. The gauging of great rivers in South
America, by J. J. R6vy. 12. General remarks on systems of gangingi
and conclasions therefrom.
1.— DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE.
The direct measurement of the discharge of a channel
or stream can be obtained by means of gauge-wheels.
The channel is widened until the water flows at a
moderate depth, less than five feet, over a horizontal
and carefully constructed apron which is divided by piers
into a number of equal openings. At each of these
openings a gauge-wheel is placed, which fits the opening
every way within a quarter of an inch. Sheet piling is
driven across the head of the apron and along the banks
^proaching it for some little distance, so as to force the
lole of the water of the stream to pass between the piers
id drive the wheels. The measurement of the water is
75
hiDed by the number of revolutions of the wheels,
ishoald be all coupled on to one shaft and be made
rdiug on a dial-face, and by the dimensions of the
eels, or spaces between their blades, as well as by the
ith of water passing over the apron, which is observed
nterrals of about five roinutes on gauges erected for
purpose.
'he method of obtaining a discharge by means of
g;e-whecls is ex]>ensive and interferes with navigation
rell as the passage of the water ; it is therefore very
r
-GAUGING BY HECTANGULAR OVEBFALLS.
he water of a canal or stream is made to discharge
If over a single horizontal dam, or over a series of small
rfalls specially constructed for the purpose. The dis-
rge over overfalls of certain dimensions, and under
ain circumstances, is known by many series of experi-
its to be correctly expressed by a formula, containing
required data and dimensions, known as Francis's
it is
r^-^
Q-Oly/HJH'
/ = length of weir-sill.
H = head on the weir from still water.
= number of end contractions.
le weir-sill is of the same length as the breadth of
nnel of approach, n - 0 ; if less than it, and there
intral pier or obstacle, « = 2 ; each central obstacle
iiig two additional end contractions,
y 27 = 8 025 and vi = -0228
Q = 3-33198 p- 0 IwH]^*
|;iv«s rebultb within one pi.T cent, of absolu.^
76
*
exactitude. The dimensious in this formula being taken
in feet, the discharges will be in cubic feet per second.
The following conditions should be observed in ganging
by rectangular overfalls.
1. As regards form of construction, the dam in which
the overfall or series of overfalls is placed, should have the
sills truly horizontal, and the sides of the overfalls truly
vertical : the dam itself should be vertical all along on the
up-stream side, but the sills should all be sloped off on
the down stream side at an angle of 45* or more with
the horizon ; all the edges of discharge should be sharp
and true, after passing which the water should discharge
itself unobstructed.
2. In order to obviate the necessity of allowing for tiie
velocity of approach in the channel, the area of the over-
fall— i.e,, the quantity / x H, must not exceed one-fifth
the area of the channel ; otherwise an allowance must
be made on this account, as given in the paragraph ou
Weirs, Chapter I.
8. If the velocity of the channel of supply should not be
uniform in all parts of its section, arrangements should be
made to make it so ; this can be done by placing gratings,
having unequally distributed apertures, all across the
channel, and as far from the overfall as possible,and letting
the water pass through them under a small head.
4. In addition to the above it is absolutely necessary
that the air under the falling bheet of water should have
free communication with the external air.
With regard to dimensions : —
5. Should the overfall not extend to the entire width ol
the channel of supply, there should be at least a difference
at each end equal to the depth on the overfall, so as to
produce complete end contraction.
6. When the breadth of the overfall is equal to that of
i stream, and even under all circumstances, the deptli
D the weir should be less than one-third the height of the
irrier.
[ 7. The depth on the weir must be always less than one-
3 of the length of the sill.
8. The Iiead on the overfall, H, should never be less than
i feet ; it is better, also, to make it more than '5 feet and
i9 than 2 feet.
9. The fall from sill to tail-water should not be less than
idf the depth on the weir in order to ensure a free fall.
The following practical directions suitable to streams
^d moderate rivers are given as examples, where ordiuary
are and accuracy is required.
Practical tlirections. — 1st. When the discharge is sup-
sed to be less than 40 cubic feet per second : —
Iilrst, according to the above rules, make H greater
"ttan 2 feet ; and H x / less than one-fifth of the channel
section ; let / be greater than "3 feet, but less tlian one-
[_tliird the width of the channel ; and, to ensure a free fall,
lage so that the lower edge of the sill may not be less
I half a foot above the tail-race.
Under these conditions the coefficient of discharge to be
"sed will be m = '623, and any error should not be more
'''an one per cent. Obtain the surface velocity (Vj and
''>e transverse section (S) : the approximate discharge will
''len he Q. = V, x S, and assuming a value for / as before
'^lentioned, obtain a value for H by means of the ordinary
'ormula, making use of the approximate discharge fur this
Purpose. H should be from 1 to 3 feet, and should such
■^ value not result, from the application of the previous
■Conditions, use another value for I, so as to secure this
Condition, as well as to retain the other conditions before
mentioned, When this is gained, the orifice may be cut
of the required dimensions in one inch plank well puddled.
of wliicli such (lams are usually made ; and as, ia practice,
the dimensions are not likely to be very closely adhered
to, they should be measured again when the orifice is
completed, and applied to the formula before given for this
purpose to obtain the velocity of discharge and amount
of discharge.
2nd. When the supposed discharge is more than 49
cubic feet per second, but still admits of being dammed: — -
Find the approximate discharge from the section and
velocity, when the surface of the stream is level with a-
fixed mark on a post or stone, at from 100 to 200 feet*
below the intended site of the weir; having previously
selected a place where the stream is regular in width ancSL
inclination, construct the dam so that the weir-sill maj^
be equal to the full breadth of the channel, square th^
ends of the opening with planking, and put a gauge »^
each end, with the zero at the level of the upper edge of
the sill of the overfall, which again should be from 1 to d
feet above the fixed bench-mark.
When the water is up to the mark, read the height on
either scale ; take their mean, and use it as a value for H
in the weir formula before given to obtain the velocity and
amount of discharge. If necessary, obtain the surface
velocity of approach W, and make allowance for it as
before mentioned under the head of weir discharges, as
suitable for this case ; m being = ^66.
3.— THE MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITIES.
There are many cases when it is not advisable to
construct a dam or gauge by overfalls, and also cases where
the simple calculation of discharge due to the slope of the
river, and the terms of its cross section, would not give
sufficiently accurate results. Under these circumstances
79
vi'locity observations must be made, and other data
^c'tly obtained, so as to obtain from them the mean vel(
' ily of discharge, which, wheo multiplied by the sectioi
■irea, gives the required discharge.
In all cases where velocity must be observed, it is ni
|. sary to choose a straight reach of the river having a tolerabl;
■ uniform channel section ; it is also advantageous that the
" bank should admit of the measurement of a straiglit line
parallel to the general direction of the channel, and at right
angles to the line of intended river section of observation,
t'j serve as a base for triangulation.
For exactitude of result, it is also advantageous where
*-'ircumstances admit of it to use a flume, should the channeL,
^ sufficiently small to admit of it, as this ensures a pi
'wtly regular section of water for a certain distance, ant
^'Iftiits of more exactitude in the determination of the
^'^ctional area and that of the hydraulic mean radius. A
"Ume is a timber framework covered with carefully jointed
I'lank, forming a complete lining to the bottom and sides
•^f the channel for from 100 to 200 feet in length, having
^ perfectly equal section throughout ; this gives the means
of accurately measuring the dimensions of the stream, the
whole of the water of which is forced to pass through it
by means of sheet piling at its upper entrance. It pro-
duces no sensible disturbance in the flow of the water, and
does not interl'ere with the navigation or passage of water.
Velocity observations are then made on a measured length
along the flume to obtain the mean velocity, which, when
multiplied by the section of the flume, gives the required
discharge. A long and accurately constructed open aqi
duct in parfect order answers all the purposes of a
Should, however, no such opportunities for the exact del
mination of the water section present themselves,
comes necessary to resort to soundings. These are perl
80
best and certainly most rapidly taken by means of a sur-
veyor's 100 feet chain, vrith a suitably heavy leaden weight
attached to one of the handles ; some, however, prefer a
cord to a marked chain, and consider it better to measure
the length of cord with a tape at each sounding.
The determination of the position of each sounding can
in narrow reaches of rivers be best made by stretching ii
rope across the river, and measuring the distances of the
sounding points from one bank along the cord. In wide
reaches where this is impracticable, the sounding points
have to be fixed by angular observation and connected
with the base lino of triangulation at the moment of
sounding either by an observer with a theodolite on the
shore, or by one in the l>oat with a pocket sextant.
The fall of the water surface ut all states of the river is
one of the data generally required. To determine this, a
gauge post is erected, driven into the ground at each
sounding section, and the heights of the water shown on
them continually recorded so as to show all variations of
depth ; the connection of level between the two or more
gauge posts is made by levelling either from one post to
the other, or from both to a fixed bench-mark. In many
cases the iall of the water surface is so slight that the
ordinary 14-inch level, and staves graduated to hundredths
of a foot, of the ordinary surveyor, do not give sufficiently
exact results, when a good 18-inch level and staves reading
to millimetres might perhaps just answer all purposes.
The gauging of the exact water level, the variations of
which are frequently very small though still important,
often requires arrangements giving greater precision than
that given by a gjuige post, or a rod held to the water
level. The two instruments employed for arriving at a
very exact determination of water level are — 1st, Boyden s
hook gauge ; 2nd, The tube gauge, used by Bazin.
. Bogdens hook gauge. — With regard t6 gauges, it is
blown that the capillar}' attraction of water about any rod
i in it as a gauge for determining the water level will
rify readings ; to obviate this the well-known Boyden's
iok gauge may be used where extreme precision is neces-
Tbis gauge has a hook at its lower end, which can
trailed or lowered by turning a screw ; when the point
I the hook is even a thousandth part of a foot above the
■ surface, the water around it is sensibly elevated by
e capillary attraction, and obviously distorts the reflection
F light from the surface ; when the hook is lowered just
fficiently to cause this distortion to disappear, the point
f the hook must coincide with the water surface ; a true
Teading, exact within "001 of a foot, can then be read, by
■tneans of a vernier attached to the rod of this gauge which
i- ^aduated to hundredths of a foot. As this instrument
■ .'.imot be used effectively in a current, it is usual to put
^^^in a box in some convenient place which only coramu-
^^notes with the external water by means of a hole, or Lf the
^^nth at some distance off is the object, by a pipe leading
^^MD that place to the hole in the box ; auy oscillation of the
^^nter surface in the box may then be diminished or nearly
removed by partially obstructing the hole at will. Should
! "iffct rest not be attainable, a good mean position of the
I'uint of the hook may be obtained by adjusting it to a
■ii ight at which it will be visible above the water surface
'■'■T half the time. It is sometimes convenient to have the
iiijok made with a small semispherical knob on it, a levi
''tall' can then be held on it for taking a sight with
^;i>truinent.
The tuhp-gauge used by Baziii is, unfortunately, not
■bribed in detail, nor are drawings of it given in his
" Eecherches HydrauHques." It seems, however, to have
been a glass tube having a mouthpiece of only a milliioetre
the
I
Ma I
82 I
in diameter, and that it enabled variations of water levd J
of one millimetre to be easily read; and it is hence ez-l
tremely probable that it resembled in some respects tlia I
velocity fgauge-tube of d'Arcy, used for taking velodfyl
measurements, hereafter described. ' It is^ in fact, evidienl|
that an instrument on this latter principle, capable of in* I
dicating variations of velocity with precision, would alio I
indicate with exactness the moment of the withdiawdl
from, or submersion of its mouthpiece in, the water, anil
that this motion could be easily manipulated with il
clamping and a tangent screw. I
In addition to the above data, it is also advisable to take 1
notes of the nature and quality of the soil of which thai
bed and banks of the river under consideration are com- ]
posed, as these have an important effect on the discharge,
and to notice what amount of velocity of current is just
sufficient to cause erosion in them.
The different modes of measuring velocity are the fol-
lowing:—
Surface velocity is very simply measured by observing
the time of transit over a known distance or length of a
reach of a river, of any light floating body, a wafer, a ball
of wood or cork, or a partly filled bottle.
Mean vertical velocity^ or the mean of all the velocities
from water surface to the bottom under any point, in a
vertical plane, is measured by a rod placed vertically, having
a length nearly equal to the depth of the river, loaded at
one end, and supported by a float at the upper end. The
time of transit of such a rod will then give approximately
the mean velocity of the vertical plane in which it moves.
These rods or poles are sometimes made hollow and
weighted inside, as the painted metal tubes of the Lowell
experiments hereafter mentioned, thus obviating the ne-
cessity of attaching either floats or weights.
&3
convenient mode of observing mean vertical 1
rdocity consists in lowering from the surface to the bottom, \
md raising again to the surface any accumulative self-
fling current meter. This is an operation requiring
■v-me care; the meter must be sufficiently weighted,
if necessary, also managed by a cord from an addi-
,il boat moored up stream so as to ensure its moving
^^llically up and down; the lowering and i-aising of the
iiuter must also be evenly and steadily managed, so that j
till' results may not be falsified.
l/('i7M upcfional velocity can be approximately obtained ]
iii sraail streams and canals at one operation only by I
making a light covered framework nearly the size of the j
whole cross-section of the stream, and so arranging it by j
floats and weights that it will assume a vertical position |
at right angles to the thread of the current; its time of 1
transit can then be noted, and this will be the approximata I
Glean velocity of the section.
Sab-surface velocilies. — The following are means and i
appliances for measuring the force of a current, hut most I
of these involve the application of a special coefficient of 1
deduction due to the particular appliance, in order to \
obtain the actual velocity in feet per second at any C
depth : —
1. — By double floats.
A weighted float, consisting of ball, or cube of wood,.j
or hollow tin weighted with lead, is sunk to the required!
depth, being attached by a cord to a small upper float on th& I
surface of the water; the upper float being made of corkJ
light wood, or hollow tin, carrying a vertical stick, or wire.n
for convenience of observation, and the length of cord bein^ I
8o adjusted as to prevent the weiglited float from sinkin
lower than the depth at which the current velocity i
The time of transit of this double float, o\6tj
O't
measured ur a ealculated distance, is observed, and is sup-
posed to represent the velocity of the stream at that depth,
independently of any coeflScient of reduction.
Another method is to employ a pair of equal hollow
balls connected or linked together, the upper one on the
surface, and the lower one weighted sufficiently to keep it
at the cei*tain depth ; the velocity of this double float, as
observed on a measured distance, is supposed to be that of
the current at half the depth of the lower ball.
2. — By instruments of angular measurement.
A quadrant having a graduated arc has a string attached
to its centre, and a ball attached to the string, which is
immersed in the stream. The current moving the boll
produces an angular change from verticalitj in the position
of the string ; the velocity is then equal to the square root
of the tangent of this angle multiplied by a coefficient,
which is constant for the same ball only.
3. — By the indications of a balance.
A ball is immersed in the stream and attached by a wire
to a balance, which registers the pressure. Another very
similar method requires a small plate instead of a baU,
which is connected with the balance, and which is directly
opposed to the current.
The tachometer of Briinings is the best known instru-
ment of this type. It consists of a plate fixed at one end
of a horizontal stem, which moves in the socket of a verti-
cal bar, by means of which the instrument either rests on
the bottom of the channel or is suspended from above. A
cord of fixed length is fastened to the other end of the
stem, and, passing under a pulley, is attached to the short
arm of a balance, on whose other arm a weight is sus-
pended, being placed in such a position that the equili-
brium is established with regard to the force of the current
under observation. The position of the weight on the
I arm of tlie balance indicates the velocity ob-
, 4. — By the rotation of a screw.
A light metal screw, similar to that of a ship's patent
llog, will, when submerged in a current, rotate at a velocity
lipproximate to that of the water in which it is placed. If
n the axle of the screw a thread is set turning one or more
■worm- wheels, the uumber of revolutions of the worm-wheel
lirill indicate the approximate velocity of the water, from
■"which, by applying a coefficient of reduction applicable to
■the particular instrument, thus including all allowances for
■friction and other causes, the true velocity of the current
■may be obtained. There are several current meters of this
: Saxton's, Brewster's, and Eevy's, hereafter described,
■fere all modifications of this form. Some of these instru-
laients are not suited to great depths and high velocities;
lothera are made self-recording in such a way as to make
Jiliowance in the indicated number of revolutions for the
s of velocity by friction ; the latter is a great disadvan-
Ktlge, as it is always practically necessary to test each par-
aeular instrument, and make use of a coefficient, however
Uall it may be, in order to obtain accurate results.
The earliest now known instrument of this type is the
iydrometric mill of Woltmann, used by him in 1790.
The wings on its asle resembled those of a windmill, and
were square copper plates, set at an angle of 45°, having their
ties '1)82 feet and their centres at '164 feet from the axis
rotation ; for small velocities the size and distance of
; wings was doubled. In great depths this instrument
a attached to a bar and lowered from a platform between
o boats, and the instrument put in gear or out of gear
by means of a cord at any depth. This type of current
meter, from its convenience of use in observing velocity at
,• depth, has been re-invented many times. j
Mway
86
5.— Pitot's Tube.
This is a glass tube bent at the lower end ; it is sank to
the required depth, and its lower orifioe directed against
the current : the velocity is deduced from the difference of
level between the water in the river, and that in the tube
which is forced up by the current. The first improvemeot
of this instrument is that of Dubuat, who gave the oiifioe
of the tube a funnel shape, and closed it by a plate pieiced
with a small hole, thus considerably reducing the objee-
tionable oscillations of the water in the tube. The next
is by Mallet, who terminated the horiasontal branch of the \
tube by a cone, having an opening of 2 millimetres, and
made the tube itself of iron with a diameter of 4 centi-
metres; he also introduced a float and stem which, eleyated
by the force of the current, indicated heights on a graduated
scale. The last improvement was that of d'Arcy, here-
after described.
6. — Qrandi's Box.
A box, having a small hole in the side towards the cur-
rent, is sunk to a certain depth and withdrawn after a
certain time ; the amount of water in the box indicates the
velocity at that depth.
7. — Boileau's Air Float.
A glass tube of fixed length is immersed in a position
parallel to the current ; the upper end of the tube has a
conical mouthpiece fitted to it of any convenient size ; the
velocity of passage of a globule of air through the tube
indicates the velocity of the current.
Some of these modes of measuring velocity have for the
present practically fallen into disuse, on account of the
very limited range of their applicability ; others, on the
contrary, have been severally adopted by various hydrauli-
cians in modem times, to the entire exclusion of the rest
Modes adopted in Modern Practice.
K) On the Mississippi Surveys it was determined to ustf'
■o&t simple apparatus, so as to avoid the necessity
ing any coefficients of reduction to the velocities indi*
by them; and double floats were invariably used,
Be floats used in the Mississippi Survey were kegs without
iop or bottom, ballasted with strips of lead, so as to sink
■nd remain upright ; they were 9 inches in height,!
uid G inches in diameter ; the surface floats, when
ligbt pine, 5o x 5"5 x '5 inches, when of tin, ellipsoidB,
ties 55 and la inches, the cord one-tenth of an inch in
diameter ; for observations more than 5 feet below the
iurfiice, the kegs were 1 2 inches high by 8 inches in
*iianieter, and the cord nearly two-tenths of an inch ;.
neither the weight of the surface float nor the force of!
tlie wind directly affected the observations to any apprecirj
able amount.
(2.) On the gauging of the Parana and La Plata, by
Mr, Bevy, the screw current meter, with some alterationv
and improvements made by him, was invariably adopted.
For ordinary currents the screw used by Mr, Eevy con-
sisted of two long thin blades of German silver, having
a diwneter of G inches, and a pitch of 9 inches ; the
thread of its axis worked on two worm-wheels of 3 inches
ill diameter, one wheel having 200, and the other 201
t«th ; each revolution of the screw moved the first wheel
one tooth onwards, the second wheel moving one tooth.,
fDwards for each complete revolution of the first wheel
this allowed of the continuous reading of 40,000 revo-
lutions ; the two worm-wheels had graduated divisions
siDund their circumferences, corresponding to the teeth in
lumber and position, which were read ofi" at an indi
throu^li a glaits plate coTering them. A nut was idso
4
88
for clearing the worm-wheels from the thread of the axle
of the screw, by means of which the instrument was either
put in gear or out of gear bj hand ; a wire attached also
enabled this to be done from above when the instrument
was at any depth.
For strong currents, the screw-blades were shorter and
stronger, and made of steel. Some of the screws used
were only 4 inches in diameter. The divisions on the
circumferences of the wheels were found to be too near for
convenient reading; 100 and 101 divisions would haye
been preferred to the existing arrangement of 200 and 201.
These meters were generally used for observing velocities
of more than 10 feet per minute, their corrected results
being absolutely correct within 1 inch per minute of
velocity. They required extreme care and continual
watching : the slightest bend or damage to a screw-blade,
or any clogging or accidental tightening of a screw being
liable to vitiate results.
When in good order, exposure to a gentle breeze is
sufficient to keep the instrument revolving ; — failing this,
cleaning and oiling, or readjusting carefully, is absolutely
necessary. In order to keep a check on the observations,
a second current meter should always be at hand.
The principal advantage of this description of current
meter is the convenience with which it can be worked, and
its unvarying utility in observations at any depth of water.
(3.) In the experiments of d'Arcy and Bazin, on the
Rigoles of Chazilly and Grosbois, the gauge-tube of
d'Arcy, a development of the tube of Pitot, was gene-
rally used for taking velocity observations.
Pitot's tube, used in 173:2, demonstrated the principle
that the difference of water level, //, shown by the two
tubes, one vertical and the other curved, and directed
against the current, was that due to the velocity, and that
the latter could be obtained from the former, by making
ose of the formula V^ = 2y//.
The error in this was caused by the fact that the water
in a vertical tube immersed in a current stands lower than
the water surface outside ; the difference being a quantity
dependent on the square of the velocity immediately
below the orifice. In addition to this Pitot's tubes had
a serious disadvanta^ in that the oscillation of the water
within the tubes, whose orifices were of the same diameter
as the tubes themselves, did not allow the difference of
level to be correctly observed.
These objections are entirely removed in the improved
tnbe of d'Arcy, which has an orifice 15 millimetres in
diameter for a tube one centimetre in diameter : in addi-
tion to this the lower portions of the tube to which the
orifices are attached, have a small diameter, and are
made of copper : besides this, two cocks are introduced
which add greatly to convenience of manipulation. The
lower cock, which can be worked by a wire and lever,
enables the orifices to be opened or closed at any moment
from above, and thus allows the difference of water levels
of the tubes to he read off at leisure, after withdrawing
the instrument from the water. The upper cock, after
the water in the tubes is drawn up by the breath at an
upper orifice, shuts off the air, and enables the difference
^■of water level in the tubes, which is not affected by dila-
^V^tion or compression of the atmosphere, to be read off
^Kttbove against a scale.
^M This gauge-tube is described in " Les fontaines publiques
^B-dela ville de Dijon, 1856,"and drawings of it are given in
^■fhe "Recherches Hydrauliques" of d'Arcy and Bazin, 1S65.
^H In the latter, the vertical glass tubes are 1'25 m. long,
^^■Ihe two small coppr-r tubes below them being enclosed in
^^■Lcopper casing, 0'77 m. long, 0"06 m. broad, and 0011 "^^
90
thick, terminatinjj in a sharp wedge-shaped point to
reduce the effect of the perturbation of the current. The
tubes themselves are affixed to an upright of light boxwood,
which is graduated and supplied with a vernier ; the whole
instrument being attached to an iron standard on which it
slides, and to which it can be fixed bj screws at any height;
a handle turning the instrument directs the orifices in any
required direction ; and an additional movable wooden arm
is used to enable the instrum^it 'to rest bj means of it
on any cross-beam or timber from wludi the observations
are being taken.
In taking an observation with the instmment it is usual
to take a mean of three maxima and minima.
The following is the theory of the determination of the
coefficient of reduction /* in the formula Y =i /i ^ z^k
for any instrument.
If a single curved Pitot tube be placed in a current, first,
with its orifice directed against it, and recording a height,
A\ above the natural water surface ; secondly, when directed
with it, and recording a loss of level, h", below that of the
natural water surface ; and thirdly, when directed at right
angles to the current, recording a loss of level k"\ then —
V* V V*
and hence —
^ m -^ m
y/2^w+n = M s/iff (A'+ n^
d finding from tables the values of velocities V and V"
•rresponding to the heights A' -f // and A* -f i**; the
*bove eguations become —
hence there is a constant relation between tlie tkeoretio J
height — dae to tlie velocity of the fillet under consider. ^
9 '
ation and the quantities H, li", It"; and the coefficient ■
reduction can therefore be obtained for any sort or form I
of orifice by means of a few experiments; also, when once J
tLe coeflBcient of reduction for the instrument is deter- J
mined, it is unnecessary to make further use of the level!
of the water, in which the instrument is plunged, ia I
lii'termining velocities.
4.-0AUGING CHANNELS BY MEANS OF SURFACE
VELOCITIES ONLY.
The experiments of Messrs. Baldwin and Whistler on
discharges of canals of rectangular section are worthy
^' notice. They obtained discharges on the canals by
"'G^ns of surface velocities and flume measurement, and
'^ultaneously gauged the actual discharges by gauge
wheels, with the view of determining practically the relation
''^tween surface velocity and mean velocity, for channels of
* Certain size conveying water at certain velocities.
In one case the flume was 27'22 feet wide, with depths
■^f water from 7*52 to 8"14 feet, having surface velocities
from 3'07 to 3'34 feet per second : the observations deduced
^ mean coefficient of velocity '857, the extremes being
■83S and -856.
In the other case, the flume was 2994 feet wide, with'
depths of water from 7"G7 to 885 feet, having snrface'i
Velocities from 191 to 2'77 feet per second; the obseiva^
tions deduced a mean coefiicient for the surface velocity o£
■814, the extremes being 797 and -Siti.
In other cases, the data of which are not forthcomingj
the coefficients of mr/iice velocity were 'S'ia, 'S'iO.'^W^
»«*/ taking -820 as the mean of the five reauitB, \t caa.jj
4
U2
favourably compared with De Profty's ooeffident '816,
obtained from experiments on wooden troughs 18 incheg
wide, having depths of water from 2 to 10 inches, and
velocities varying from 5* to 4*25 feet per second. Another
point which Messrs. Baldwin and De Prony agreed in
determining was that their coefficients should be slightly
reduced for lower velocities and increased for higher. The
result is that the proportion between the surface velocity
and the mean velocity of discharge for rectang^ar channels
in plank, and within certain limits of velocity and propor-
tions of cross section, may be said for practical purposes
to lie between '8 and '85. Under similar local conditions,
therefore, the discharge of a canal of rectangular section can
be rapidly obtained by a few surface velocity observations,
the inclination of the water surface, and the measurement
of its section. The more recent experiments, however, oi
d'Arcy and Bazin show that the above law of velocity
does not hold generally ; and hence this mode of gauging
does not admit of general application.
5. GAUGING CANALS WITH LOADED TUBES; BY
FRANCIS.
Under the existing arrangements at Lowell, a dailj
account is usually kept of the excess of water, if any
drawn by each manufacturing company over and abov(
the quantity it is entitled to under its lease. In ordinar
times, occasional measurements are suflBciently exact ; bu
when water is deficient, frequent measurements are made
In the latter case, the following is the usual course c
'proceeding : —
A gauging party, consisting of one or more engineer
th assistants, is assigned to each flume where measure
.ent IS Decessary ; and arrangemeiitft ate so made that th
^bservatioDs for a single gauging occa^^ «Jdou\. ^si V^ssj
■ mm
miervals during the day being occupied in wortting out
le results, which are immediately cominunicated to the
mmiQfacturers, so that the machinery may be adjusted to
the amount of water they are entitled to draw.
The followintj are the dimensions of the measuring
lomes used, and the quantities of water usually gauged in
lem ; the depth of water in the Hume generally varying
imSto 10 feet.
100' long by 50' wide, 1500 cub. ft. per sec.
^ppletoa 150 50 1800 do.
Wll, M. C. 150 30 500 do.
1511 20 200 do.
"rescott 180 66 2000 do.
Boott 100 42 800 do.
iec.
I
The loaded tubes used were cylinders 2 inches in
''ameter made of tinned plates soldered together, with a
piece of lead of the same diameter soldered to the lower
'^nd, having sufficient weight to sink the tube nearly to
[the required depth, thus leaving generally about 4 inches
the water surface. A red-paint mark was made to
ihow the amount of immersion required, leaving a space
between the bottom of the tube and the bottom of the
canal of 1 foot. The tubes were of thirty-three diflerent
lengths, varying from G to 1 0 feet : six of each length were
provided for this purpose.
In order to adjust the tube precisely, it was placed in a
tank made for the purpose, and small pieces of lead were
dropped into the top of the tube, and rested on the mass
of soldered lead, and more were added until the tube was
sunk to the required depth, when the orifice at tlie top
was closed by a cork. The tubes were allowed to remain
floating for some time in the tank in oidei to imo'set
Jeak. If they leaked, they were taken ot\V- aivi ^eft.
^T-'
94
with water to discover the position of the leak, when the
leak was soldered and the tube adjusted again. Th<
centres of gravity of the tabes adjusted were 1"78 to 1*91
feet from their bottom ends ; and thus being low, th
tubes had a strong tendency to remain vertical.
The tubes were put into the water by an assistai
standing on a bridge below the upper end of the flum
a thing requiring a little practice to do well ; he stcx
with his face up-stream, with the tube in hand, tl
loaded end directed downwards, but slightly up-streai
holding it at an angle with the horizon, greater or lei
depending upon the velocity of the current. At a sigi
he pushed the tube rapidly into the water at the angle
which he previously held it, until the painted work n(
the upper end of the tube reached the surface of \
water ; he retained his hold of the upper end of the ti
until the current brought it to a vertical position, wl
he abandoned it to the current.
There were three transit timbers placed across 1
flume, the middle one equidistant from the other t^
their up-stream edges vertical, and distinctly graduated
feet from left to right. An assistant stood at each trar
timber to note the transits, the assistant at the mid
transit timber also observing the depth of water in
flume at each transit in a box close to him between
lining planks and the wall of the canal, which commu
cated with the flume by a pipe about 4 feet above
bottom. The box contained a graduated scale, divided
hundredths of a foot, the zero point being at the m<
elevation of the bottom part of the flume between
upper and lower transit timbers. The bottom of
flume was very nearly horizontal ; the elevations to obt
the mean were taken at 32 pomts, ?>^^^S ^^ extre
difference observed of '027 feet m oxv^ e.2ks>^- "^^^^ ^^
95
of the tube, denoted by the distance in feet from the lei
side of the flume when the tube passes the transit timbers,
"as abo observed and called out by the assistants ; the
mean course being obtained by adding the distances at the
upper and lower transit timbers to twice that at the middle,
iind dividing the result by four for a mean distance.
The usual method of observing the transits was by
meacs of an assistant carrying a stop watch beating
m quarter seconds, who walked down and recorded evei
P tramit himself; but when greater exactness was requirt
til electric telegraph made for the purpose was used, by
^>liich the transit observers communicated transits to a
-;ited observer from their stations, the times of signals
wing noted by him to tenths of seconds, according to
■' inarine chronometer placed before him beating half
^'^ccnds :— an assistant was also required to carry back the
tubes to the up-stream station. In the usual method
''efore stated, a party of five was sufficient for all pur-
1*0803. The observations were made at distances apart
*hout I"5 feet in the cross section, as may be seen in the
following gauge record for one set of observations, and
the mean velocities of the tubes for these mean distances
calculated and plotted on a di;igram of section paper
having the mean widths in feet of the flume scaled on
one side, and the other calculated velocities for those
widths scaled on the other; a curve joining these points
was then drawn on the diagram, from which the mean
velocity for each foot in width of the flume was scaled off
and entered in the record ; from these the mean velocity
due to the total width was obtained 3 431 1 feet per
second ; and since the mean section of waterway between
upper and lower transit timbers was = 41'70
494 = 3561 88 square feet, the approxiniate 4\'aii\v;
'^JJ X 35G-1SS = 865029 cubic feet per aeco\i,i.i
96
Oauge record of the quantity of water paeemg the Boctt meaeuriny
flume^ May 17, 1860, between 10.30 and 11.80 A.X., length between
traneit timbere, 70 feet, breadth qf ftwme 4176 feet^ length of
immereed part of tube 8*4 feet.
0-0
1-5
3-
4-5
6-
7-5
9-
10-5
12-
13-6
15-
6-5
18-
19-5
121-
22-5
24-
25-5
27-
28-5
30-
31-5
33-
34-5
36-
37-5
39-
40-
41-
41-76
00
10-
20-
80-
41-
41-76
2102
2-258
2318
2-473
2-373
2-593
2672
2800
2713
2-778
2-800
2-373
2-593
2-4:^1
2-280
2-201
2-077
2071
2-258
2-258
•3
1-8
32
4*4
6-2
8-2
9-7
10-5
123
13-8
15-2
17-0
18-0
19-7
211
23-4
237
26-5
27-0
28-6
2-414 31-0
2-500 32-1
2-258 32-5
2-672
2-431
2-4.56
2-500
34-6
36 5
37-5
40-1
2-500 390
2-397 41-2
2-047
2-642
2-174
2-273
2-295
*o
9-8
20-9
31-5
41-4
•8
1-6
21
4-5
5-4
101
10-4
8-8
109
15-5
18-0
20-4
17-8
19-0
20-9
29-3
22-1
29-7
25-2
26-5
34-3
30-
281
36-7
350
35-5
40-5
396
40-6
•4
8-7
19-9
33-8
40-6
g
-a
a
•65 8-510
1-70 8-481
2-65 8450
4*45 8-470
5*80 8-445
0-15 8-438
10*05 8-440
9-65 8-470
11-60 8*483
14*65 8-490
16-60 8-500
18-70 8-498
17-90 8*505
19-35 8-505
21-00 8*5*22
26-35 8-533
22-90 8-510
28-10 8-495
26-10 8-483
27-55 8-495
32-65 8-550
31-05 8*630
30-30 8-610
35-65 8-625
35-75 8-632
36-50 8-612
40-30 8-578
39*30 8*578
40-90 8*560
•45 8-471
9-25 8-580
20-40 8-605
32*65 8-635
41 00 8-610
• . • •• .
Mean 8*5294
PftxLacts of mean
▼elodty and widtliB.
2-078
2-198
Ac.
4
1
u
Cm
O
•43
Cm
O
0
2
Sdc.
2-504 X
2417 X
2-264 X
Sam
X 1 = 2 073
X 1 =2193
2-284
2*359
2-422 -
2*478
2-529
2-577
2-623
2-666
2-705
2-744
2*776
2-801
2811
2-798
2747
2648
2*514
2-363
2-242
2174
2-129
2*090
2108
2*135
2160
2 023
2-243
2-286
2339
2 371
2-413
2-453
2 453
2-513
2-530
2*541
2-544
« 2*500
= 2-417
1 ^
1 :
•76 = 1-721
101*523
Mean
101*523
41*76
= 2*4311
- ■l)| = SG3-59.
To obtain the true discharge from this upproxiinate
tesalt, an empirical factor, depeDding on the difference
[\>) between the depth of water in the flume, and the
dqitli to which the tube was immersed, divided by the
flepth of water in the flume, was applied ; the expressiou
ef correction being 1—0-116 (v^D— O'l). The value of
this expression for various values of D is given in the ,
attached table at p. 98. J
ia this case 1), the quantity before mentioned, I
8-5294— 84000 „, ., I
= — &-5294 ='^^'-^' I
md hence the true discharge 1
= 8(55-929 X j 1 - •llfi (v/^0T5:
Jiemarku on the application of this mclhod of gauging.
The preceding measurements were made in a flume
>laced below a quarter bend in the canal, which caused the
lelocity to be much greater on one side than the other. To
tviate this, an oblique obstruction was placed near the
Dwer end of the bend, which removed all the trouble in
oeasurcment due to tlie original irregularity ; the other
%m^Ding irregularities may be seen by plotting a diagram
»f the velocities. It is hence advisable in all cases to
squalize the velocities on each side of the axis, should
:liey require it.
In gaugiQga branch canal it is best to put the flume in
it near its off-take from the main canal, with its axis nearly
[larallel to that of the branch canal. Its section may be
determined by roughly calculating the expected discharge,
^ making it so as to suit a velocity of from 1 to 3 feet
Iter second; its length should not be less than 50 feet,
■'■ing 20 feet above the upper transit timber to enable
> to attain the same velocity as the water, and 5 feet
fthe \ov,-er timhcr, the transit course of 25 feel, tuu.-
9S
00)QOQOQOQOQPOOO»0>
QOQOo&aot^t^i>»t^c«^co
t>i'^i>»r>»r>»i>»i<^t<*csii>»
Cfi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi O^ O^ a Oi
^^l^gOg
Csit>»r>k|N.|S»Csif%t^|>.t>»t>.
O<-HC^00<<9iidCpt>Q0
?«J
*A CO Ot^^CO
C4 O 00 kO CO iH
-< 05 r^
CC Ol C^l C^ OJ ©!••- ,-1 i-i ^
QOQOOOQOXXQOQOQOaO
0)9>9>00d0)0)0^^0)
V^^COOI*^00
<^C^0dC«0d0d0dC^0)O
r^cs.ts»t<«.i^r^i>»t>.i>.i>.
oooopooooo
OOQCXOOOOOOOOX)CX)00
kO O »0 "-J* 'if' -*^ ••^ CO CO CO
OOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOQOX
C<*0^OC)0^0«CdOOO
^CT^ ^ff' ^^ ^I^ ^^ ^^ ^7^
OO CO o oo
^ L-T^ "^ t^
^^ ■^ ^J* ■^4
" ' o
O*-iC<IC0'^»C'^l>*0CO
»0 »0 »0 lO >C) kO »0 iC iO »0
oooooooooo
O0i05r-«CO*^0'^0»0
(MI>-COO^(MO^'^'-'X
lO'^'^'^COCOC^C^'M'-H
r-«cx>»oco*-ioaiOiOiCi
*0^00»0 01OiO0«0iO
•^•-HQOOCiOiCiOOaO
OiCiCiCiCiXOOQOOOQO
0)C^C^0)OOC3)0)O0d
0-^'MCO'^kO<X)l:^000
CI Ol <N iN Ca <N CI CI 'M Ol
oooooooooo
0^'MCC'^»0^t^ODCi
oocococococococococo
oooooooooo
OCOr-«»0 0 0^001Q
"X) O '^ CI CI -^ O OC Ol o
i-Hr^^iO-tCOCIrHrHO
•-'OOO'TOOQQO
OOOOOOOOOO
o
o
s?
O t^ IN. O CO
00 CO 00 CO o
, o c>
8CJioooci>»r>.^«6^»o
lO ^ t^ OD Ci
oo OO
o oo
OT-*<McO'^»o^i^aooi
oooooooooo
^
ir in 7 J or 10 seconds, can be tlien noticed by a practisi
eerver with a quarter second stop watclj
In gauging rivers by means of loaded tubes, flumes are
pt'nsed with, and marked cords may be substituted for
e graduated transit timbers, being supported from the
flttom if uecessnry, so as to be always visible; in large
tlTers triangulation observations are necessary. The reach
stoold be 50 to 100 feet long, and the bottom irregu-
larities may be removed or filled in to a certain extent
fceforehand, so as not to interfere with the poles, which
should, when immersed, reach to about six inches from the
Wttom. Boats will be required to convey the poles. As
ilie cross section will be irregular, it will be necessary to
[divide it into several parts, finding the area and mean
«locity of each division, and calculating the corrected
Bcharge of each division separately j the sums of these
Kited discharges will then be the true discharge for the
Brer at that spot.
L HEl-D OPERATIONS FOR GAUaiNG THE MISSISSIPPI
RIVER AND TRIBUTARIES, BY CAPTAINS HUM-
PHREYS AND ABBOTT IN 185fi.
Soundings. — The strength of the current, the depth and
width of the river, and the floating driftwood, all com-
bined to render an accurate measurement of the dimen-
sions and area of cross sections a diflicult operation on
the Mississippi. After various experiments, the following
system was adopted, by which accurate work was done
even in the highest stages of the river. The middle
stages were usually selected for this purpose, being pre-
ferable to the low stages, during which tliere would have
been exposure to oppressive heat and disease, aivi mote
favoarable than the high stages, when the
atteading nccarate measurement were greatest.
aivi mote
' 1* Jl
100
Preparatory to making a cross seetioii of the meryj
whether for general purposes of comparison or for dete^
mining a discharge, a base line, varying in length hm
400 to 1000 feet, was measured along the bank near the
water's edge ; an observer vdth a theodolite was stationed
at each extremity of this line. The one directed tbe
telescope of his instrument across the river, so as to
command the line on which the soundings were to be
made ; the othe? prepared to follow the boat with hii
telescope, in order to measure its angular distance fifom
the base line when each sounding was taken. Tk
boat, a light six-oared skiff, contained a man provided
with a sounding chain, a recorder with a flag, and three
oarsmen. The strongest kind of welded jack-chain wai •
employed, to which bits of buckskin were attached at
intervals of 5 feet, smaller divisions being measured with
a rod in the boat. The sinker, varying from 10 to 20
pounds in weight according to the force of the current,
was a leaden bar whose bottom was hollowed out and
armed with grease, in order to bring up specimens of the
bed of the river. The patent lead was also used for the
latter purpose. The boat was rowed some little distance
above the proposed section line, and allowed to drift down
with the current, the sounding lead being lowered nearly .
to tlie bottom. By this precaution, the deflection of the
line by the force of the current was prevented. When
the first observer, stationed opposite the proposed section
line, saw tliat the boat had nearly reached it, he waved a
flag as a signal to take a sounding, and then carefully
turned his instrument so as to keep the vertical hair of
his telescope upon the point where the chain crossed the
junwale of the boat. The recorder in the boat, seeing
-he signal, waved his flag to the second engineer to follow
the boat carefully with his telescoipe. Th^ man with the
101
nding chain allowed it to slip rapidly through !
is until the lead struck the bottom, when he grasped
chain at the water surface, and instantly rose to a
oding position. This motion was the si^al for arrest-
the movement of each telescope, and recording the
les. The recorder in the boat noted the depth of the
er, and the nature of the bottom soil adhering to the
I. By the angles measured at the base line, the exact
ition of the sounding, which was never more than a
feet above or below the proposed section line, was
ertained. The process was repeated until soundings
1 had been taken to give an accurate cross section
the river. Careful lines of level were then run up
ih bank from the water surface to points above the level
the highest floods, when such points existed, or to
Er convenient bench-marks. Generally, the triangles
e computed, and the work plotted before leaving the
e, in order to fill by additional soundings any gaps
ch might appear on the diagram.
At places where a series of daily velocity observations
Was to be made additional precautions were taken, and
two independent sections, 200 feet apart, were sounded
tvith the greatest care. Soundings, repeated from time
W time upon these lines, uniformly showed that no
«nsible changes took place in the bed of the river.
['he mean of all such sections, when reduced to the same
tage of the river, was accordingly always taken for the
rue cross section at the locality. The change in area
iroduced by any change of level in water surface could
lien be readily computed from the plotted section. To
letermine the daily changes of this level, a gauge-rod,
^duated to feet and tenths, was observed daily, its
orrectnesB of adjustment being frequently tested by
mn{>iu:ison with secure bench-marks. An accurate know
102
ledge of the area of the cross section on any given day
was thus obtained. The tables of soundings for each
cross section, which were all numbered, also denoted
the distance of the sounding from the base line, the
depth of high water during that year, and the nature of
the bottom.
Velocity Meastireinents. — Narrow and straight portions
of the river, where the form of its cross section approxi-
mated most nearly to that of a canal, where the waters i
of the highest floods were confined to the channel by
natural banks or by levees, and where the river at all
stages was free from eddies, were selected for the per- '
manent velocity stations.
The depth and violence of the river rendered the
measurement of its velocity, especially below the surface,
exceedingly difficult. Of all the methods known for
determining this quantity, that by double floats was
found to give the best results. The method of conduct-
ing these observations was as follows : — Two parallel
cross sections of the river having been made as already
explained, 200 feet apart, a base line of the same length
was laid off' upon the bank from one to the other, being
of course at right angles to both. This length was suffi-
cient to ensure accuracy without being too great either
for observing many floats in a day, or for avoiding local
changes in velocity. An observer with a theodolite was
stationed at each extremity of the base line. It is evident
that, when the telescopes were directed upon the river,
with their axes set at right angles to the base line, the
vertical cross hairs marked out the lines of sounding upon
the water surface, and that the time of passage of a float
between these lines was that consumed in passing 200
feet. Also, that if the angular distance of a float from
the base line when crossing each line of sounding was
nre^, its distance in feet from the former coulc! reftdCy
fc computed, aud its patb fixed. Upon these principles
observations were conducted. Two skiffs were sta-
ined on the river, one considerably above the upper, and
B other below the lower section line, the former being
lQ?ided with several teg floats. At a signal from the
igineer at the upper station, whose telescope was set
Ma the upper section line, a ttoat was placed in the
The keg immediately sunk to the depth allowed
y its cord, and the whole float moved down toward the
iWGr line. The observer at the lower station followed its
Htion, keeping the cross bair of his telescope directed
instantly upon the flag. At the word " mark " uttered
y his conipiinion, when the float crossed the upper line,
e recorded the angle shown by his instrument, and then,
itting his telescope upon the lower line, watched for the
rival of the float. In the meantime, the observer at the
qiper station, whose theodolite supported a watch with
k large seconds hand, recorded the time of transit of the
ist across the upper line, and then followed the flag
I his telescope. At the word " mark " given by his
sistant, when the flag crossed the lower Une, he recorded
' line and angular distance from the base line. The
lat was picked up by the lower boat. By this method,
the exact point of crossing each section line, and the time
of transit, were ascertained. When the velocity was not
too great, the time was noted by the engineer at the
lower station also, to guard against error. A stop watch
was sometimes used. As it was evidently impossible to
observe floats daily in all parts of the cross section, the
best practical method was I'ound to adopt a uniform depth
of 6 feet for all the floats; distribute them equally across
ihe entire river, and allerwards divide the resulting
^rtelocities into groups or divisions within which the j
104
variation of velocity was but slight; a mean lelabi?
velocity, and a mean relative discharge, for each divisioi
was then computed, the sum of the latter being as
approximate mean discharge of the river, which, when
divided by the area of the whole river section, gave a
mean relative velocity for the whole river. ' The resultmg
discharge, when multiplied by the ratio of the velocity at
the assumed depth (in this case 5 feet) to the mean
velocity of the whole vertical curve, gave an accaTala
mean discharge of the river for that place and day.
Computation of Discharge. — A separate plot of each
day*s velocity measurements was made, in the following
manner : — Lines were drawi\ upon section paper to repre-
sent the section lines, the base line, and the water edges
The distances from the base line to the points where ead
float crossed the section lines were then computed by $
table of natural tangents, and the points laid down or
the plot. Straight lines connecting the two correspond*
ing points indicated the paths of the floats, which wer<
of course nearly perpendicular to the section lines. Th<
number of seconds of transit and the depth of the floa
was inscribed upon these plotted paths.
The diagram resulting showed that the velocities ii
different parts of the section increased gradually and quiti
uniformly with the distance from the banks until tb<
thread of the current was reached, and, since these veloci
ties were found to vary but very slightly for distances o;
200 feet apart except in the immediate vicinity of th(
banks, the diagram of the daily velocity floats was dividec
by parallel lines 200 feet apart, the first being the bas(
Hne, and the mean of all the velocities of floats in eacl
livision taken as the mean relative velocity for that divi
sion and recorded. For the shore divisions, unless th(
Souts happened to be well distriWVeSi ^i^\To^\^ >Jti&\sv,*OiL>
105
lueaii reUtive velocity was assumed to be eight-tenths
that ia the outer edge ; a rule deduced from a suhdivision
and study of the velocity when thoroughly measured in
tlie«e divisions.
For checking and making interpolations for the defect!'
u'lservations of any day in a division, the day's work was
also plotted in a curve whose ordinates were the mean
Velocities of the diflerent divisions, and whose abscissas
were the distances of their middle points from the bass;
Hue.
The river channel being of a natural form, the sectional
iireas of all the divisions were unequal, and again the ratios
ijt these areas were not constant for diflerent stages of the
river. Each divisional area was therefore multiplied by
its mean relative velocity, and the sura of the products
v^'as then the mean relative or approximate discharge of
tlio whole section ; dii-iding this discharge by the total area
of the whole section, the approximate mean velocity of the
nver was determined. This computation was made by
'"garithms, and simplified by the use of a table, constructed
fur the purpose. In order to correct these discharges,
"iiich were those due to the velocities five feet below the
""■face, it was necessary to determine the value of the
ratio
in
4
u»
^.Q
(■317 H- Ob/) (lOr - r*)
^^TV'.
'""1 multiply them by it, thus getting the true discbarges,
■'IiIl-Ii, when divided by their corresponding areas of cross
"t ion, gave the final and correct mean velocity- The
""nerical values of the above expression or ratio were
"Attained in the following way, and put into l\\e foxra oi
ihe iable given.
106
The days on which obserTations were made were g
according to even feet of the approximate mean ve
already computed, it being assumed that the effee
the desired ratio, produced by changes in mean velc
less than one foot, might be neglected. Each groi
then examined in connection with the wind reco]
days were rejected until only calm days, or those on
the wind blew directly across stream, or those on
when combined the wind effects balanced each othe:
left. The resulting mean day in each group wa
equivalent to a calm day, so £ur as wind effect wa
cemed. The following mean quantities were then d
for each mean day by dividing the sum of the qua
by the number of days going to make up the mea
viz., an approximate mean velocity of the river (v), a
reading,. and hence a mean radius (r), and mean v
five feet below the surface (U), found by taking a in
the tabulated velocities of all the different divisions.
These values being substituted in the equation,
iT = Urf - (1 856 V)* (i^"^
putting also fif = 5, and making d^ = '31 7r, an<
b = — t^ = 1856 when D 7 30; the value
(D + 1-5)*
was computed and obtained.
Next this value of U^^ was introduced into the sami
tion again to obtain new values of U, first for a
rf = 0, secondly for a value of rf = r, thus getti:
ace and bottom velocities denoted by U^ and U^.
ting for these their values in the following eq
ther with those computed for U^^ d^ and r, the v
was obtained
107
1"^
<M.OO C* 00 CX> 1^ r-t CO
:(NOieoooo;c^'*
I'^coqooooKMC^ei
00900090
T^rHf^rHfHr^fHrH
1-02271
1-02389
1-02494
1-02519
05
0
0
■
'CO
t^'^oocoeoi^oQoo
icoi^ooica^oj
:coc^iooit>-t^^»o
.Gsl'NG<IrHr-lf-lf-li-l
00000000
•01142
■01337
'01518
•01604
rHr-«f— irHr- ti-Hf-Hi-H
rH r-i -^ rH
A
J
a
o
0
O
ft^ <M *:0 CO 00 »0 (M
CO Q -^ Gsl rH CO «-H
IS. CO »0 !>. Oi O rH
t^ts-OUOOOOOOOSOi
»0 O CC <M «0
O: rH Oi 10 O
OU ?0 <X> Ci o
t^ CO 00 CO 05
O^ C^ O^ O) O)
OCOOOCOrHCOCOrH
CilN.1— i^-^rHCirH
COCN'^^t^O'-^CO
lOCOt^t^t^OOOOOO
CO O CO CO
^ ^ 00 O
OC CO t^ rH
?o t^ 1>* 00
Oi O^ Oi Oi
rHTf<t^00O^i^»CCO
0^t^rH<NOC0^C^
t>-00Oi^Q0rHCOiO
CO'^»O^COI>»i^t>-
O CO »o -*
-^ <N Oi "^
00 "^ 00 <M
JO O 'O !>•
0*0 0)0^
1-00521
100721
1-00767
1-00760
100689
1-00773
1-00762
100756
1-00037
100307
100557
1-00706
0
8
•
00«rHrJlt^I^r-«t^
«DO 00 CO
CO
»C» Oi <N '^ 'M CO Oi <M
:t^^i0^i>-ooooq>
• OOC^OdOO^^O^C)
»C» 0 r-l (N
^
^.m.4
a> CO 0 00
3
QC 0 02 O)
Ci
CtfC^O^O^CdO^OO^
Oi Oi Ci Oi
Od
• • • •
•
o
i
00
l«
00^':oi>*Oir-iors.
»-T) rH <M Q C^ 'X) >0 -^
Oa»OOP"^00(M»OI>*
c<icO'^kO»c:o?o^
C^C.#C^OC^O^OdCd
o
o
C5Ca05000*:OrHCO
lOOrHOOOiCOO
OCMCO-^-^kOiCkO
0 00)^0030^^
^
OO-rf ^ CO
00 iC rH :0
CO "^ »o »o
Cd O O Cd
op C^ CO :o G<i c^
^ C5 Ol Cj 00 ^
"^ '^ <M -^
10 CO ^ '^ CO
r-i^CO'^'^tOt^CO
>o o
00 o ^ 00 ri
CO rH !>• <X> (M
8 rH iC CO »0
-^ o t^ p
00 "^ »b ^ i>^
CO
08
<
I
<
o
/
pO
H
:5
to
CO
pK
o
108
substituting the resulting value of U. in the following
equation : —
U« Ym
U. -^ U,„ + [1 + WfOe/HIOr-O-SSj (^^),
also those already deduced for v and r and 2,/alone remained
unknown ; by giving/ its value successively for each of the
various forces and direction of the wind, the table at
Page 107 for the stations was computed.
The approximate discharge for each day at each station
was multiplied by the ratio in the table most nearly cone*
sponding to its approximate mean velocity to obtain the
true discharge, from which the true mean velocity was then
obtained.
7.— FIELD OPERATIONS IN GAUGING CREVASSES BY
CAPTAINS HUMPHREYS AND ABBOT. '
The phenomena observed in the discharge of water
through crevasses, or breaks in levees at seasons of high
water, were —
1. That the effect of every crevasse, even though as
large as 327 feet wide and 15 feet deep, along the line of
levee, extends only for a short distance from the bank ; iri^
the above instance, it did not affect the line of motion oC
floating bodies passing 200 feet from the natural bank, orr
300 feet from the break in the levee.
2. Between the crevasse and the outer limit of its influ-'
ence there is always a movement of the water towards Jh^
break from all points below and above, which increasei^
towards the break, and rapidly diminishes on reaching th^
ground in rear of the levee, where it spreads in every direc^
tion, but mostly towards the swamps,
3. There is a sensible slope aloivg t\\vi course of this
109
In passing the break, whether by a cascade or no!
rater is higher in the middle oj' the opening than s
r side,
fhe following was the ordinary method of compu!
a discharge. Knowing, from measurements ma<
T the cessation of the flow, the high-water depth of tha
vpQ crevasse, which was estimated on the line of levee, ii
t) material excavation was made there, and on the batturs
h front of the levee, if holes were dug on the line of thd
Ibreak ; — the depth on the given day was found by subi
ItractiDg from this high-water depth the stand of the rivi
Ibelow high-water mark — a quantity which was alwayi
I known either from local information or from a comparisoijc
f of tLe nearest river gauges. Taking D to represent thijj
depth, and W^ the maximum width of the crevasse after '
ti>isation of flow; and knowing from exact information the
•hte of breaking of the levee, and that of the cessation of
iluw, the width of crevasse of any desired day could be
computed ; and the required discharge per second was then
a-^sutned to be equal to the continued product of this width
",tlie depth D, and the velocity (v) ; orQ ^ W, x D x v;
''"> velocity when D was less than 4 feet was taken
^2'S18 vD (Castel's weir formula); and when D was
17
jeatcr than 3 feet, v was taken = 10 -
the general
taulte for discharge corresponding to each case being
I Q = (100
Q = (100 -I
/■w-ioo\^/^ n\
■e » = number of days of discharge which have pra
^^^ed the given day, and N = total numVieT o? ^a.'^^l
iscJiarge.
h:
110
Coeffictent of eofrecti<m/or ipeeial enm qftfwamm:^
There are cases in which {he conditions of {he flow of
water were considerably modified ; such as wh^n {he leiA
was so far distant from {he livertiiat {he deptihat theedge
of the natoral bank was mnch less than that at the iM
of the levee ; or when trees, a growth of saplings, or ^/Sbxt
obstacles existed in front or in rear of {he break, botii of
' these causing a diminution of discharge. 80 when fk
reported depth of crevasse indaded that of previously
existing excavations on the line of lev^, in these cases
the resulting calculated discharge would be too high, and it
then became necessary to apply in each case a special coeffi-
cient of correction. The coefficient for crevasses flowing
into the Yazoo bottom was thus determined. The areas
of these bottom lands and their watersheds were as fpllows,
in square miles : —
Yazoo bottom
Yazoo watershed
St. Francis' bottom
St. Francis' watershed
Tennessee and Kentucky bottom
Tennessee and Kentucky watershed
The yearly rainfall in feet was —
At New Harmony, Indiana . . .
At West Salem, Illinois
At St. Louis, Missouri
Mean downfall at head of region
At Memphis, downfall for middle of region
At Jackson, downfall for foot of region ...
7110
6740
6900
8600
750
9500 J
Total.
34,600
392
402
5-18
• • •
4-38
4-4S
4-«9
feet
4-60
Mean for whole region
Giving total yearly downfall,
= 34 600 X 4-6 X (5280)*= 4 4*iT l^ft V44 000 cubic feet.
I obtain tlie total yearly drainage, the discharge at
Wambus, together with that of the Arkansas and White
Krers, was deducted I'rom the discharge at Vicksburg ; and
1 this also a deduction was made of the river during
le year between Columbus and Vicksburg being lower by
Imean difference of 6'8 feet throughout a mean width
(3300 feet for 5S9 miles in length; thus getting the
4 372 572 757 200
Channel drainage ... 09 786 004 800
Total yearly drainage 4 302 TS6 152 400 cubic
d ratio of drainage to downfall is hence
_4 302 786 152 400_.,,^^^^^,y
4 437 126 144 000
Next, the total rainfall for the Yazoo basin, area
13 850 square miles, for from 1st December, 1857, to
15th Jnly, 1S58 =• 3-64 feet x 13 850 (5280)^ =
1405 401 657 600 cubic feet; the mean rainfall 3-64 during
tliat time being determined by register at Memphis, 3"19,
and at Jackson, 408 feet ; applying to this rainfall the co-
cllicient of drainage before determined, the drainage froni
the Yazoo basin = 1 349 243 191 300 cubic feet.
The area of the Yazoo bottom was dry on the 1st
December, 1867, but at high water 15th July, 1S5S, it
li;id a mean depth of water of 3'08 feet over an area of
lisOO square miles ; having received between those dates
BOO X (5280) X 3 08 = 583 885 209 600 cubic feet,
md the dischai'ge of the channel of the Yazoo, the sole
intlet. was measured during this time = 1 408 665 000 000
inbicfeet. Hence. 1092 550 809 600 cubic feet repre-
aited the total quantity which, entering the Yazoo basin
ntween those dates, eventually drained off into the M
isippi; and the total amount of OTerflow from the
pnppi basin into the Yazoo basin was \ 002 5v)Q 'S'i^
I
112
— 1 349 243 191 300 — 643 307 618 300 cabic feet ; this
quantity as computed by the uncorrected crevasse formula
was —
1758 153 600 000;
hence the required coefficient of correction for the formula
equals the former divided by the latter = nearly •^. This,
therefore, holds good for the crevasses in the district for
which it is obtained, and the same principle can be applied
to any district.
8,— SYSTEM PROPOSED BY HUMPHREYS AND ABBOT
FOR GAUGING RIVERS, STREAMS, OR CANALS BY
MEANS OF OBSERVED MID-DEPTH VELOCITIES.
The details of field operation to be adopted differ ac-
cording to the size of the river. 1st. If the river be small
and considerable exactness be required, the boat should
be anchored at various equidistant stations, the banks
being considered two of them, and the station actual
mid-depth velocities measured by any of the known
methods; the number of stations being sufficient to
prevent the velocity of the water between any two of
them from varying materially. 2nd. In the case of a large
river, if the depth is uniform, sufficient accuracy may be
obtained by observing the times of transit of a large
number of double floats well distributed across the river
section, the kegs being uniformly sunk beneath the surface
to a depth equal to half the hydraulic mean radius of the
river. Should it happen that the cross section is not
sufficiently uniform and symmetrical to admit of this,
be site or reach is ill chosen for the purpose. The
esults should then be plotted and grouped into divisions
of equal width, and the mean result for each division cal-
calated, including, of course, mtetpoVaViedi \^ocs\Aft^ ^wJSSl
^^J" be missing.
113
' water in the river should be noted on a
aeut gauge-post during tlie observations, or before
ter. By this method the results obtained will be
first case absolutely, and in the second case nearly,
eted by the wind, no matter what its direction or
may be.
5 method of computing the discharge from these
rations will vary according to the accuracy required.
at method. — A close approximate result may be ob-
1 by taking a mean of all the different station or
on mid-depth velocities, and applying a coefficient
i for large, and "93 for ordinary rivers, to obtain the
velocity of the river. In this method there are
;auses of error which very nearly balance each other,
ly, the inequality in area of the different divisions,
he difference between the mid-depth aud mean velo-
in any vertical plane, and the above coefficients meet
errors. For a rectangular cross section, no coeffi-
is required.
tsjnd method. — If greater precision be required, a
accurate mean velocity of discharge of the river
nay be computed by substituting the grand mean of
le station mid-depth or division velocities for U,. in
blowing fonnula,
t_ r(l-08U, -I- 0(102*)*— 0046**1'
mala is deduced by substituting for U,„ its value
in the general expression,
n, = u„,
W
IneTng the resulting equation.
has been alread/ stated, when the mean taiJiaa
is 12 feet, i = -JSoG, and under any ciicuma'ta.'nRieal
ft
114
"^ , r-^i. The formula therefore frives at once i
(r + I'o)' ^
the mean velocity of the rirer ; and thia simple method H
quite exact in ordinary river sections^ though not i^]
cable to rectangular sectuMu^.
T/iird method. — Should however a very high d^;ree
accuracy be required for testing fonDul8e» or eoi
coefficients, an amount of exactitude affected only
instrumental errors of observation may be secured
substituting the different observed division mid-
velocities successively for Yd in the formula
r
V«, - Vo - ^ («v)*
and the results will be true values of the mean velocii
of the different divisions in terms of v* and knoi
quantities* The sum of the products of these expressi(
by the corresponding division areas, should be pi
equal to the product of v by the total area of the
section ; and tliis equation, involving v and v* and knOi
quantities, will give two positive values of v j the less
which, corresponding to the actual case when the velocii
is greater at the axis, is the value of the true mean velocii
of the river. This method, though accurate in principl
is probably not so good for ordinary purposes as the pre-]
vious more simple one, which neglects the latter attem]
at extreme accuracy and involves less observation, and-
consequently less instrumental error, as well as le*
labour.
.—GENERAL i3B0T'S METHOD OF DETERMINUfG ON
ANY GIVEN DAT THE DISCHARGE OF A LARGE
ElIVER THAT HAS BEEN PREVIOUSLY SURVEYED
AND GAUGED.
The previous field operations consist of a survey and
anierous soundings of a straight and regular portion of
tie channel between two bench-marks, A and B, fixed
jermauentlj near the water, whose relative levels arq
keeurately known. An accurate plan of the river between
iese points is necessary, the mean cross section derived
from the soundings, and a series of careful gaugings of
Kbe river on permanent gauge-posts. It is desirable that
tte course of the river between A and B should be as
itraight and regular as possible, in order to eliminate to
ihe utmost the effect of bends, although allowances almost
livariably must be made on that account. The points A
ad B should be well chosen, as far apart as practicable, and
istant from any eddy, and be placed where the current on
he bank flows with equal, velocities. The latter coindtion
I necessary, because water in motion exerts less pressure
ban when at rest, and if it moves rapidly past one bench-
Dark, and is nearly stationary at the other, a did'erence
if level independent of the motive power of the stream
vould vitiate the observations.
On the required day the water surface at each end of
the reach, A and B, has to be simultaneously leferred by
accurate levels to the bench-marks, to obtain the diflerence
iif level of water surface and the gauge depths. Nothing
aiore is required. A calm day should be selected.
The formula to be used is that given in the paragraph
on velocities :
I
■OOaii + (226 r. ./l)'
■094
116
the terms of which hare been already explained, excepting
s ; in this case s is the sine of the slope of the water
surface corrected for bends, and is obtained nomerically
by subtracting the value of i^ due to jeffect of bends (rufe
Paragraph on Bends) from the total fifidl between the levd
stations, and dividing the difference l^ the total distance
between them, measured on the middle line of the channd.
The method of successive approximation must be
adopted to find the value of v in this formula. The
following formulsB give the value of each variable in the
above equation in terms of the others and known quantities;
taking Z=:*93 v+167 y/ivBni assuming /?=:ld5W,
should it not have been measured —
s =
V 195r/ 195 ^s ' p + W
J . XTT 195 a ^s n
and /; + W = — ^ ^ ?
For small streams. — General Abbot modifies the above
formula into the following, where v' is the value of the
first term in the expression for v —
V = 1^ 0081d + (225r, ^s) - -09 ^b] -TTp"
or putting M = 008 Id and M, = ^'^
1 -^p
V = I y/M + 225r, >/b - ^/mV- M' ^V
in which the term involving M' may be neglected, for
streams larger than 50 or 100 feet in cross section ; and
for large rivers exceeding 12 or 20 feet in mean radius M
but not yJM. may be neglected. The following table
facilitates the application of the formula.
^^^1
H
n
"1
^^^^^^^^^H
_ J
1
11.
VM.
p-
M'.
Log. M'.
1
0-0037
0-0930
5
0-400
9-602060
2
00073
0-0855
6
0343
9-535294
3
00065
0-0803
7
0-300
9-477121
4
0-0058
0-0764
8
0-267
9-426511
5
0-0054
00783
9
0-2«
9-S80211
6
0-0050
007O7
10
0-218
9-338456
7
0-0047
0-0685
12
0-185
9-267172
8
00044
0-0666
14
0-160
9-204120
9
0-0042
0-0649
16
0-141
9-149219
10
0-0040
0-0634
18
0-126
9-100371
12
00037
0-0610
20
0-114
9-056906
U
0-0035
0-0590
22
0104
9017033
16
0-0033
0-0573
24
0-096
8-982271
18
0-0031
00558
26
0-089
8-949S90
20
0-0029
0-0544
28
0-083
8-919078
30
0-0024
0-0494
30
0-078
8-892095
50
0-0019
0-04a7
60
0-047
8-672098
100
0 0013
O-0369
100
0-024
8-380211
). — THE EXPERIMENTS OF D'ARCY AND BAZIN ON ^|
THE RIGOLES DE CHAZILLT AND GROSBOIS IN 1865. ^M
The details of the mode of conducting these experiments, ^H
hich were conducted in small channels under various ^H
mditions, with the principal object of ohtainlng coeflici- ^^^
its of reduotion due to various aurfacea of bed and banke, ^^J
118
cannot fail to be interesting to those inteiKidiiig to gaag« i
channels of any description. <
The canal of supply was Bief, No. 67, of the Canal do^
Bourgogne, from which the water was taken into a re*
ceiving chamber through four iron sluices, 1™ wide, and^
being capable of being raised 0*40*, having their sills O'60^^
below ordinary water level of the canal. This chamber
was 5-40" wide by 1400" long, having its bottom O'^flT^
below the entrance sills ; the gauge sluices opening fiom^
it into the channel of experiment were of brass, twdve in -
number, each having a section oi passage when opened of ^
0*20" X 0'20". and having their sills 0-40* above the botixmi-
of the chamber, and 0*40" below the sills of the entrance-
sluices before mentioned. These orifices resemble thoee^
of the type employed by Poncelet and Lesbros, and would,
according to them, require a coeflScient of reduction of
discharge of 0*604, provided that the effect of the velocity
of approach be neglected; in this case, however, it aug-
mented the discharge, and an allowance had to be made
on that account. The water in the chamber was constantly
kept at a level of 0*80" above the centre of the gauge
sluices ; an appliance for showing the slightest variation
of its level being continually watched by a sluice-keeper.
The channel of experiment was 450°" long before it com'
menced to bend towards the river Ouche ; it was water-
tight, and was lined with planks of poplar : its fall for the
first 200" was 0*0049 per metre, and for the next 250"* was
0002 per metre up to the bend, after which its fall to the
river for the remaining 146°" was 0'00S4 per metre. The
different provisional constructions for employing various
inclinations, and sections of diffierent forms, were made
in plank within this channel, the spaces being filled witi
rammed stiff earth. Nails were driven into the bottom of
the channel at various points to serve as bench-marks, from
119 I
■hk'h everj- variation in depth of water could be obtained I
'ith exactitude. Most of the experiments were made by I
ni*cessively opening the twelve gauge sluices, having on« I
] section and amount of supply in each case, and thu» 1
. e results were obtained for comparison in every experi-
mtiitt conducted. ,
The velocities were principally observed by means of ,
I'Aicy's gauge-tube, an improvement on that of Pitot ;
pot in some cases alao by floats. The latter were some-
kunes simple wafers, and sometimes pieces of wood or cork I
■fcighted with lead, 2^ inches in diameter, and 1 inch
Stick ; their times of transit over distances of from 40 to
PD metres were noted by chronometers indicating fifths of
pBconds, and the mean of five or more observations,
blrhich the float I'ollowing the course of the axis of the |
pihannel was adopted as finally correct.
TkefoUovsing wits the mode of determining the meamrement
of divckarffe at tkt- off4ake.
The coefficient of discharge at the four entrance sluices ^
*« determined by closing the lower sluices and noting the ,
Kme in which the former filled the chamber to a certain \
beight ; in this way the following coefficients were obtained
for a bead on the sill of from 0"55" to OTO", when one J
single sluice was opened at a time.
Sluice raised. CoeSicietit.
010" 0045
0-20- C-633
0-30- ,
0-40-
0-681
0-021
^Vlien the four sluices were opened at once to the full
litisht 0-40", the coefficient was 0-037, instead of 0 Oil.
It was hence evident that, in order to obtain a sufficiently
120
conBtaot diaclmrge, tliu use of the 8eco.;d set of tweh
slnices becanu- absolutely necessary. The conditions c
coDstructioD of the latter did not howcTer render the cot
traction complete, and hence the coefficients of Poncelt
and Leabrofl «ero not applicable to thein. In order to bai
effected thi«, a chamber large enough to entirely annihilat
all velocity would have been necessary, the sluices shoal
have been further apar* «"'' *heir sills should havf bee
at least O'&U" above the m of the chamber. Itwi
hence necessary also to d line the coefficients of dii
charge for these sluices b; ct observation.
In Jane, 1S57, experir were made with this objof
a portion of the channel was osed up, and filled by opei
ing one, two, three, &c., up twelve sluices at a time, ai
the Tolameti tlms discharged in a certain time careful
measured. The discharges per second were in these cas
from O'lOS to 1'242 cm.; and when each sluice w
opened separately the discharges varied between O'lOt
and 0'1057 cm., giving coefficients varying from 0645
0658. The irregularity of the latter was considered d
to the irregularity of form of the bottom of the portion
channel filled not allowing the exact volume to he calc
lated : hence a mean coefficient of 0*650 was adopted pi
visionallj for any number of sluices open at one tin
In 1860, it was determined to obtain this coefficient wi
greater exactitude, and further experiments were made :
the practical details were carefully reinvestigated : i
influence of the variations in depth of the bief or cai
of supply was eventually found to exercise no eflfect on I
irregularities ; the gauge used was supplanted by a gl
tube having a mouthpiece of 1 millimetre in diameter,
means of which variations in depth of water as small at
millimetre could be easily read. The results under th
' conditions were thus : —
For a discbarge from 1 sluice, the coefficient was 0"()33
2 sluices, „ 0'642
A „ „ 0646
4 „ „ 0-649
6 „ and upwards to 12 0'650
For a sluice raised only OlO" instead of being fully
opened, the coefficient was found to depend on the number
of other sluices open, thus: —
When 1 other is opened full, the coefficient for
the partly opened one is
5 and upwards
0-650
0-657
0-660
0-662
0-663
The determination of the coeffident for reduction for the
gaiiffe-luhe. ^^|
This was effected by three methods — ^H
. Ist — By comparing the velocities obtained by means of
J tube with the surface velocities shown by floats. The
pia according to the floats were obtained in channels 2
tetres wide, having a discharge furnished by five sluices
at a time : the results gave a coefficient varying
■om 0-9R1 to 1"039 as extremes, and 1006 as the mean
• all.
2nd. — By moving the instrument at a known velocity
in a mass of still water. The floats and the gauge-tube
—were drawn by men lor a distance of 450 metres, each 50
hietres furnishing a set of observations ; the obliquities of
Bhe course of traction furnished the principal obstacle to
^Briving at a very exact result. The velocities employed
Baried from 0609 to 30.34 metres, giving coefficients of
Bbduction varying from 1015 to 1'053 as extremes, the
^neneral mean of all being 1 '034 : this was coDsidered £f
124
of various engineers of the French Fonts et ChuBsees on
the Seine and S&one.
The second result was the following formula for Yelodtj:
XT == the mean velocity of discharge.
Y^= the maximum velocity observed in the secfacn.
~'=1 + 14v/A?orV,-U = 14v/SS^
or in the form most useful in the cases in which maximiim
velocities are observed as data for gauging,
U = V, — 14 v/BS"
Using values of A from 0*00015 to 0*003 the correspond*
ing values of «r become thus : —
A ^
000015
• ••
• • •
... 0-854
00005
• • •
• • •
... 0-762
0001
• • •
• • •
... 0-693
0-002
• • •
• • •
... 0-615
0003
• • •
• • •
... 0666
The above expression, involving terms not included
in that of De Prony for the ratio of maximum to mean
velocity of discharge, does not admit of comparison with
it ; bat is evidently calculated to supersede it entirely.
The reduction of both of these results to English
measures is given in Chapter I.
11.— THE GAUGING OP GREAT RIVERS IN SOUTH
AMERICA, BY J. J. RjSVT.
The most recent operations in gauging very large rivers
were conducted by J. J. Bevy : the account of these is
given in Bevy's " Hydraulics of Great Bivers " (LcmdoBi
I 135
bd includes a description of the method he adopted
■mining the discharges of the Parana, La Plata,
de las Palmas, and the Uruguay, from wliich the
g brief resume of operations is taken,
lems to have been a work of some time and
f to find a reach of the Parana sufficiently
for conducting gauging operations and velocity
ments ; a hundred miles of the river were searched
ssfuliy, but at last a reach straight for many miles
ad. Here the river was about a mile in breadth,
.soundings showed from o to 71 feet of water; a
Ced in the stream did not show a variation of level
rater surface of as much as a quarter of an inch in
four hours ; and the inclinal;ion of the water surfiice
nile, was practically nothing.
all observed by levelling for one mile with a 14-
el, on equidistant staves placed 300 feet apart, was
m "01 of a foot; it was therefere practically ira-
lunder the existing state of the river bank, which
I adapted for levelling, and with the instruments at
J carry out levelling operations with any efl'ective
as it would have involved ten miles of levelling on
{ground, and probably required also the use of
instraments.
86 line of 3000 feet was measured on the low-lying
k of the river, with a steel tape of 300 feet; and
ire set out at right angles at each end of it, to
le direction of a river-section- line for soundings ;
minent points in the neighbourhood and on the
tnk were triangulated and tied into this base line.
IS found that for the surs-eying and triangulation
ither calm weather or clear weather with a gentle
ffas absolutely necessary; — for current observations
tya only allowed of operations being carried on. \
126
The soundings on the lines of section were taken by the
lead and cord ; the length of cord was measured bj a tape
at each sonnding, each of these measnrementa taking one
minute, and the position of each sonnding was fixed by
angular observation, with a 3-inch pocket sextant giring
readings to one minute, on the two flags, one at each end of
the base line. The angles were observed in from three to
ten seconds each. The number of soundings taken in the
section varied with the necessity for them : it was neceuaij
to show, and hence also to find the points in the river bed
where there was a change of lateral slope, however many
they might be, but in places where this slope was regdu
and gradual, the soundings were not considered necessuj
at closer distances than from one-twentieth to one-teutii
of the breadth of the river. The section of the Parana,
where its breadth was more than 4800 foet, was sounded
in two hours and sixteen minutes, after all the preliminary
arrangements, drilling of the men, &c., had been properly
carried out.
In plotting the section, the position of each sounding
was fixed both by means of the complements of the
angles observed at those points, and the calculated dis-
tances from the base.
The velocity measurements were made with the screw
current meters previously described. As the velocities had
sometimes to be observed at great depths, the ordinary
method of lowering the meter to its position by sliding it
on an iron standard was utterly impracticable, and the fol-
lowing mode was adopted. The current meter was attached
to one end of a horizontal iron bar, 9 feet long, 2 inches
wide, and half an inch thick, which was suspended by
chnins passing through rings attached to it from a boat
moored over the required spot ; in order also to prevent
the current from moving the bar from its proper position,
■ ^^^ I
R from the rings of the bar were also attaclied to other |
i boats, one moored 100 yards up stream, the other 100 |
ds down stream. By these means the current-meter I
Id be used with good etlect in water up to 100 feet in |
>th, and in currents op to 5 miles an hour. Four i^ailors |
•e necossary iu taking current observations in this way. j
e observations of velocity were generally taken by an
nersion of the current-meter for about five minutes, the j
le observed by the watcli being generally a few seconds I
re or less, which were allowed for in the resulting cal- i
ated velocity per minute ; a second checking observation
s also generally made by an immersion of one minute.
e instrument was put in or tlirown out of gear by means
n wire leading from it up to the boat, thus allowing or
venting the revolutions of the screw from recording
fmselves on the dial faces at any moment. ,
[n the gaugings carried out, observations of mean ver-
H, velocity, giving the mean velocity in any plane from i
r surface of the water to the bottom, seem to have been
rferred wherever practicable. For these cases, in which it '
s necessary that the current-meter should be steadily and
!nly lowered to near the bottom and raised again to the i
■face, it was found necessary always to work it from a
itfbrm between two boats, placed 1 'Z foet apart, moored by '
ir anchors, and to have the two suspending cords marked
every 3 feet with alternately red and white marks, as |
ides to those lowering and raising them ; the cord attached j
the down-stream boat was not however considered ne- I
sury in this operation, the up-stream cord prevented the |
itrunient from going far out of the vertical direction. In j
?se operations the instrument was put iu gear by hand by
htening a nut on immersion, and put out of gear again '
a corresponding manner on withdrawal from the water. I
taking gnrface velocity obBenrations, the current- m^iet j
128
was screwed onto a wooden staff, 3 inches wide and half an
inch thick ; the revolutions of the screw oontinmng after
withdrawal from the water being at once stopped by hand
so as not to vitiate the record on the dial-face.
The determination of the equation of correction for such
current-meter was conducted in the following way. It was
tested at a low velocity by drawing it through a distance
of 189' 6'^ in the still water of a reservoir in a time of S'SO*
giving a velocity of 75*0 feet per minute ; the average of
these trials gave a recorded number of revolutions of 172»
or 68*8 per minute : in the same way also it was tested at
a high velocity, and showed -176' 13 revolutions per minute
for a speed of 183*64 feet per minute. The equation of
correction being that of a straight line, two points alone
are necessary to determine it : on referring these to rect-
angular co-ordinates on a diagram, and joining them, the
true velocity corresponding to any number of revolutions
of the instrument could be scaled off from the rectangular
co-ordinates to the resulting straight line. Or taking it
algebraically, if <r and y, Wy^ and y^ be the corresponding
pairs of co-ordinates for low and for high velocity,
then y z=, ax -^r b^ and y^ == aXy^ + 6 ;
where a = ^^^ ^ = 09962,
Xy — X
and b =1. +•''-- «3J»L£.= _ 6-811 ;
hence ^ = 09962 j? - 6-811,
or in the form more useful for obtaining the true velocity,
X, from the number of revolutions, y,
X = I0038ly -h 6-837.
On annlvino- to this eouatiou a value of y = O. we obtain
129
B a result that this particular instrament would ceal^
B«iord revolutions for a velocity of less than 6'837 feet. ]
er minute.
' iiirenl Observations. — In consequence of the rivers
bserved being tidal, and having a variable current, it
^•« necessary to moor a permanent observatory at a
i^xtvenient point in the deep part of the river on the line
r aection, and make hourly observations of the current
^ra it throughout the day and night. The tidal rise
t»d fall was also registered at every quarter of an hour j
arometric, thermometric, and wind observations were also
^corded.
The current observations, both surface, mean, and aub-
ajjace, were taken with Eevy's current-meter from a
Oiall boat moored temporarily fore and aft on the line of
Bction already sounded, its position in each case being
etermined by angular measurement with a pocket sextant
Xi the extremities of the base line, which fixed it within a
few inches. For this work two sailors, two anchors, and
creral hundred yards of line were necessary. The
■«irrent observations were taken at the surface, and at
Lepths of 4, 7, 10, IG, and 23 feet, the latter being one
fcot above the bottom. The mean current observations
■ ' made three times in each case, and were found to
L each other within I'G foot per minute in observa-
..-^iio ginng BO feet per minute. The time of day of the
BarreDt observations was always noted, and check observa-
&)QS were also taken from a fixed level, so that the ob-
|erred tidal variation might be applied, and the effect of
bie tidal wave — a disturbing cause far greater than that
3ue to the inclination of the water surface in the cases of
these rivers — thoroughly investigated,
^iconvenient mode was adopted for testing the strai^t-
I
ISO
ness of the reach of the river at the aection in whick
the velocities were ohserved. The centre of gravity iA ths
river section was found and marked on the drawing, and
also the centre of gravity of a section whose depths repre-j
sented the surface currents in any convenient mode,
feet per minute or per second; the horizontal
apart of these two centres of gravity indicated the
of effect of a bend in the reach at that section. In
Bosario section of the Parana this was -g^T of the
of the river, and the section was considered fGtvoi
in the Palmas section it was as much as ^ the width
the river, and this was not considered favourable,
cases where a very straight reach is not to be o1
the position of a section of observation is recommended'
be taken at the point of contrary flexure of two
curving in opposite directions.
The conclusions arrived at by M. Revy from his studf
of tlic current observations on the La Plata, Panift
Parana do las Pidmas, and Uruguay, were —
1st. That at a given inclination surface currents ait
governed by depths alone, and are proportional to th*
latter. 2nd. That the current at the bottom of a riyar
increases more rapidly than at the surface. 3rd. Thit
for the same surface current the bottom current will bs
greater with the greater depth. 4th. That the meia
current is the actual arithmetic mean between that at ih0
surface and that at the bottom. 5th. That the greateitl
current is always at the surface, and the smallest at tbt
bottom ; and that as the depth increases, or the suifaco
current becomes greater, they become more equal, until ift
great deptlis and strong currents they practically becoBtf
substantially alike.
5.— GENERAL REMARKS ON SYSTEMS OP GAUGING.
The foregoing brief accoxmts of the modes adopted 1
! various hjdraulicians in carrying out field opera-
DDs form a far better guide to the engineer about to
idertake the execution of gauging operations than any
Sitrary advice, or set of rules, could possibly be ; the
thor may, however, be permitted to make a few remarks
conclusion. It is, of course, assumed that the most
risable mode of proceeding in one case might not be
pjicable to another, and that the method of gauging
Id be suited to tlie general object, the place, and the
instances. When the object is of an experimental
, Laving scientiiic results in view, the experi-
list himself is the best jndge of the mode most
to his object. Most gauging operations, however,
for their purpose the determination of the discharges
jiver, or of canals, with as little labour and expense,
in as short a time as anything approaching to
Bcy of result will admit ; in these cases the amount
uracy required is that which fixes the mode to be
id.
The most rapid and least accurate mode of deter-
the discharge of a river or canal at a certain place
bne is that which dispenses with velocity observations,
:es use of a calculated velocity formula as a substi-
The dimensions of two parallel sections of a straight
of the channel are measured, the inclination of the
surface between the two is levelled, and the nature
piality of the bed and banks are noted ; these data
the discharge to be calculated by the aid of the most
a and most correct formula with a certain amount
proximate truth. The point now to be considered
182
.H( ; **■
18 what amount of exactness may be reaeonsMy
from the practical application of ibis method.
' The Kutter formula for mean velodty of disohatge
metres)i
V = c^y/ BS^ ; where c,=:
1+'
1^*1
seems theoretically to leave nothing more to be
except perhaps a simplification of form not sttainaUiB
the present state of hydraulic science. It is appIicaUe
channels of all dimensions, from the smallest distill
or rigole to that of the Mississippi ; and can be
to channels of any material, from weed-covered
beds to cut stone and carefully planed plank, the data
which it is most carefully based being those of numerois|
experimentalists. The functions or terms involved
only three, B, S, and /, of which the two former can i
most cases be readily and sufficiently exactly observed itj
practice ; the great difficulty, however, lies in the deter^
mination of the third function. An examination of ib
general and the local values of /, given at page Ixix. of ths
Working Tables, will explain this. Among the geneni
values suitable to beds of special construction, from wdl
planed plank to rubble, the value of / ranges from 0*009
to 001 7 ; and the gradations of roughness or quality d\
surface are clearly marked by the corresponding values of
/, the greatest gap being the difference between O'OIS fa
ashlar and 0'017 for rubble, a difference that can U
easily worked up to in practice without any likelihood of
important error. It would hence appear that there woali
be no difficulty in practice of determining dischaiges w&
fair accuracy by means of the above calculated velocity
133
lla for channels constructed in such arti6cial1
. It is, however, in the cases more usual iai
namely, in those of canals having earthen beds I
bonks, and in natural river cliannels, that the values 1
offer so wide a range of choice, that the calculated 1
irge might involve serious error as the result of the
ion of an unsuitable coefficient. For earthen canals
alues of/iunge from 0*020 to 0035, the gradations
bJch are far from being yet sufficiently definitely i
id; and for local values the range is about tba.l
It would seem, therefore, that in these cases it I
be necessary to determine by velocity measurement 1
ischarge of the river or canal under consideration, and j
i deduce a value of / suitable to it before the above; 1
id could be applied for obtaining its discharge at any. j
or place with sufficient accuracy ; or, iu other worda^
ictual gauging must be done before this mode of|
idure can be adopted. In the future we shall '
ibly have the values of this function more definitely
lown, and we shall then be able to make use of this
od more readily, and with greater confidence in the ■
; now we have only the present amount of inforraa- I
to guide us, and are hence unavoidably forced into a I
amount of velocity measurement as a means of I
ctly ganging canals and river channels in earth. I
Assuming, therefore, that velocity measurement is ab- I
ily unavoidable, the question next arises, what is th&.l
amount of it necessary in determining a discharge? a
(suits of Bazin, determining the relation between the- 1
»um velocity in a section and its mean velocity o£M
BTge, give the readiest solution of this problem. Hiavfl
olffi are for metres, I
^' = 1 + 14 y"A ; or v.- U = 14 ■/ RS" J
184
where V. ■■ fhe maTimnin Telooitf, and U «■ ibe
velocity of discharge ; and it is evident tibat by eoml
with this formula the more modem ooeflGuaenta of
we can with the aid of onlyafewobservationfl of]
velociiy, arrive at a mean disohaxge with lapidily, and l^
£Edr amount of aocnracy, and be afterwards able to dstap^
mine a discharge at any time under the same local eonfi^
tions by means of the ordinary calculated velocity finmdi^
and the Kutter coefficient already mentioi^ without fh^
use of more velocity observations. The reduction of theit
equations to English measures is given at page 38,Chapter L
It is extremely probable that this mode of ganging wiE
be more universally adopted in future, and that a huge
series of observations will throw more light on the rdaftka
of the maximum velocity to the mean velodly of dkchaigck
and enable it to be determined with greater accuracy thaa
is at present possible. Observers are therefore reoc»ii*
mended to keep in view in all gaugings conducted on this
principle, not only the sectional position of the maximum
velocity in a section, which may be confined to a single
point either in the middle of the channel at the surfiM^e, or
at a few feet below it, around which the velocities may
diminish in section rather suddenly, or may extend iriOk
but little diminution over an important portion of the
section, but also the locus of maximum velocity, or its
depth below the water surface, which may vary sensibly ia
a long reach of river ; this inclination of the locus, as weE
as the amount of section of very high velocity, being dsia
that will probably aid eventually in determining the ratio
of maximum to mean velocity of discharge with greater
precision.
8. The next mode of gauging that seems most iqpplicaUe
'ordinary rivers is one of the modes recommended by
ins Humphreys and Abbot. This, ho¥rever, involves a
where 3 :
135
greater amount of velocity observation, and at the eame 1
time requires the velocities to be obserred at a greater |
<lepth, for which all descriptions of current-tneters are J
not applicable.
The velocities are all observed at a uniform depth eqaal 1
to half the hydraulic radius of the section, and at equal 1
distances judiciously chosen across tlie line of section ; and
the mean of these velocities Uj jg taken ; — the mean velo-J
city of dischai^, v, is then obtained in the formula,
p= [( 108 TJ, + -002 i )*- -045^/7]'
1-G9
{r + 1-5)*.
This mode should, however, be limited to ordinary and I
fai^e rivers; in fact, the application of any of the Missis- 'j
ijppi data or formula; to artificial channels or small streama"!
cannot be recommended,
4. The next farther attempt at accuracy in river gauging
I involves a complete investigation of the whole of the velo-
cities in the channel section ; the velocity at every point
in the cross section should be known and plotted on a dia-
gram, they can then be grouped into divisions of the section
by vertical and horizontal lines within which the variation
of velocity is not important : a mean velocity for each divi-
■ion is calculated and multiplied by the area of that division
to obtain its discharge ; the sum of these discharges is the
discharge of the whole section. Such detailed observations
when carried out on an extended scale involve a larg^ij
•mount of labour, care, and skilled personal superintendence^'"
rat at the same time afford results not only valuable as
regards the determination of the discharges of the river
■pecially under consideration, but also as records of
hydraulic experiment aiding in the pn^Tess of science.
CHAPTER m.
Pakaoraphs on Various Hydraulic SuBncrs.
1. On Modules. 3. Modern Irrigation in Italy. 8. The Control of An^!
4. Towage. 5. On Yarioos Hydrodynamie Formnlas. 6. Inigriia^
from Wells in India. 7. The Watering of Land, a Canal Fdli. 9.Tkii
Thickness of Pipes. 10. Indian Hydranlic Contriranoes.
L— ON MODULBS.
Htdrauuc engineers not haying yet arriTed at a perfect moiik
for measuring the amount of water drawn off in an open chaimd
for irrigation or other purposes from an open canal or reservtni)
under a varying head of pressure, it is a matter of some interest ti
examine the older types of design of modules that have been use
at various times, and in various countries, before going on to tiios
of more modem form. The designs being necessarily simple, the
will be found perfectly comprehensible by means of descriptic
without the aid of drawings or diagrams.
Piedmont appears to have been the birthplace of modules, {
although irrigation is essentially Oriental in origin, owing to i
extreme reproductive power in hot climates, and though itw
introduced into Europe by the Moors, we do not find, either
India or in Spain, where portions of these works still exist, anythii
approaching to a module. The systems employed in carrying o
irrigation almost prove that they had not such a thing at all. ]
India the practice seems to have been to turn water on to a fie
until either the landowner or the tumer-on of water was satisfie
or perhaps rather until the landowner was satisfied that he coa
get no more. No doubt this was the best plan to start with, i
the object of irrigation was to water the fields sufficiently, and tl
landowner being the best judge as regards how much water wj
137
for his crop, this mode insured the observation of
• 'iper persons. This plan was, however, open to one very serions
■ Igection; when the landowners discovered that an extra amount
"f water beyond that strictly necessary for the crop was in some
Cases capable of increasing the amount of produce to a small degree,
they wonld take more water, either by stealth or otherwise ; the
■mount of perpetual squabbling on this subject would then have
been very large, had it not been for the fact that in Oriental coun-
IHas irrigation works were made by rajaba, emperors, or chiefs,
*hose despotic role and despotic institutions supplied a very prac-
tical limit in such matters — mora! or physical force ,
la Spain, under Moorish rule, it is probable that this useful aub-
stitate for modules was also in vogue ; but in tbo huertas or irrigated
Unds of Spain in more modern times and under Christian rale, the
Water being the joint property of several villages that combined to
keep the works in order, and legislated for themselves about the
distribution of the water, the first groat step, the just division of
tlie water on a large scale among the several villages, had to be
regularly carried out. The canals being comparatively small, a
proportional division was effected by equalizing the size of a certain
small number of outlets from the main canal into the sabsidiary
channels, one village thus taking a fourth or a sixth of the total
volume of water passing down the canal.
In Piedmont the conditions were different ; the country being
hilly, and tbe water taken from streams and torrents having a con-
siderable fall, water power was extensively used for driving com
mills. It is probable that there were a few water-driven corn mills
both in India and in Spain, but there such mills would be public
institutions, the miller being a servant of tbe community, generally
bring on a fixed income, or yearly pay, given either in kind or in
money by all the neighbouring villages using the mill. In Pied-
mont the mQls were tbe private property of individuals, as they
we at the present day in Europe ; bence it was there that tbo first
unit of water moasmement was arrived at — the amount of water
enough to drive a corn mill, which were probably then and there of
■bout the same size and requirements. This amount of water then
assumed a technical name, the raote d' acqua ; tbe same thing in
Lombardy being called a rodigine, in ModeOB a moeina, and in thA
thS
188
Pyrenees a nundan — ^ihe same circninBtanoeB in tarioos phsn
leading to the adoption of a similar onit of measurement, wUeh
was naturally rather variable. In Piedmont the amoont was goid-
rally about 12 cubic feet per second, and was supplied by an oofM
19 in. to 20 in. square, the water issuing free from pressure at tb
surface leyel. The next step was the introduction of a smaller
unit of measurement for purposes of irrigation for discharges under
pressure, the Piedmontese oncia ; which was a rectangular ooilet
6*04 in. broad, 6*72 in. high, having a head of water 8'S6 in. tbon
the upper edge of the outlet ; its discharge was 0*86 cubic feet per
second, and this was the immediate parent of the Piedmonteie
module, and, as far as we know, the ancestor of all modules.
riedmont€$e Modules. — These, the most perfect type of whiebii
that of the Sardinian code, were designed or intended to fulfil iha
following conditions: that the water should issue from the outlet bj
simple pressure, that this pressure should be maintained praeii*
cally constant, that the outlet should be made square in a thin plit6
having vertical sides, that the issuing water should have a free&ll)
unimpeded by any back-water, and that the water of the canal d
supply should rest with its surface free against the thin wall or
stone slab in which the outlet was formed. The following is a
description of the general type. The water is admitted throngb
a sluice of masonry, having a wooden shutter working vertically,
into a chamber in which the water is supposed to lose all its velocity
and is kept to a fixed level mark by raising or lowering the shutter;
the chamber is of masonry and has its pavement on the same
level as the sill of the sluice, the regulating outlet from this cham-
ber being an orifice 7*854 in. square, having its upper edge fixed
at 7*854 in. below the fixed water-level mark of the chamber.
Its discharge is 2*04 cubic feet per second. If a larger dis-
charge at one spot be required, the breadth of the outlet is
doubled or trebled, the other dimensions remaining unaltered.
Such are the sole unalterable conditions or data of this module ; all
its others seem to have varied very greatly ; its sill is sometimes
at the level of the bed of the canal of supply, sometimes above it,
and sometimes below it, in which case a slight masonry indioe
as made from the bed down to it ; the length and breadth of the
ber Tary greatly, the former from 15 ft. to 35 ft., its form
k circular, oval, or pear-ahaped ; tlio side walls splaying out-
fa Bometimea close np to tlie sliiioe, sometimes not till near the
kting ontlet, the object being to destroy the velocity of the
fe within the chamber. The lower edge of the regulating outlet
IDerally, bat not always, placed at 9'S25 in. above the floor of
lamber. The paved floor of the chamber is in many cases,
1 all, cootiuaed at the same level beyond the ontlet.
e practical advantages of this type of modnle consist, therefore,
■laving a chamber in which the water can be kept to a constant
Id, and from which the water can issue under a constant head '
■jressore through a regulating orifice of fixed dimensions. 9
rdanese Modules. — The modulo ^na-gistrale of Milan is the
improved type of Lombardian modules, the moduh of Cremona
the qiuulretto of Brescia being very inferior to it in design ; its
[pal advantage over the Piedmontese modules being the fixity
lension of almost all its parts ; in other respects it resembles
[lory much, the principal difTor'cnces being that the water cham-
alwaya rectangular and covered with slabs, and is hence called
iwvered chamber, that its flooring has a reverse slope in order
ieaden velocity, and that the masonry channel beyond the regn-
ontlet has fixed dimensions also, a portion of it being called
outer chamber. As to its general arrangements, the slnico of
•OHiIy has its sill invariably on a level vfith the bottom of the main
»DtI, which is paved vrith slabs near it ; the breadth of the sluice
)■ the same as that of tho regnlating or measuring outlet ; the
lloice gate is worked by lock and level, being fixed and locked at
Wj required height by catch lock and key. As to dimensions, the
Wrered chamber ia 20 ft. long, its flooring having a rise of 1-75 in.
W that length, and its breadth is 1-64 ft. more than that of the
Wnice of supply, that is, 82 ft. more on each side ; the lower sur-
■Mof its covering of slabs or planks is fixed at 3'93 in. above the
^iper edge of the regulating ontlet, which ia the height to which
•ie rater must be kept to secure the fixed discharge. In order to
SiQge the water in the chamber, a groove is made in the masonry
•0 M to allow a gauge tod to be introduced within at the sill of the
■Iniee, which will read 27-51 in. of wator above the aiU, ^ten
the^l
140
proper head of preBsnre exists; should it read more or lea
sliiice gate must be raised or lowered* The outer chamber i
in. wider than the measuring or regulating outlet, its total 1
17'79 ft.; its side walls, which like those of the covered chaml
verticaly have a splay outwards, so that the width at the f
end is 11*72 in. greater than at the outlet end, that is to i
is there equal in width to the corered chamber. To insure
fall, the flooring of the outer chamber is 1*96 in. below the
edge of the outlet, and has besides a fall of 1*96 in. in its 1
of 17-72 ft.
The total length of the module is nearly 87*76 ft., but its bi
is variable, according to the amount of discharge required,
tended to discharge a Milanese oncia magiitrale, the Milanese
which varies from 1*21 to 1*64 cubic feet per second accordi
different computations, averaging, 1*6 cubic feet per seconc
measuring outlet is 7*86 in. high and 4*12 in. broad, under \
stant head of pressure of 8*98 in. ; the breadth of the c(
chamber being 26*54 in., and the breadths of the open cb
18*75 in. and 25-54 in.
It is essential to the effective operation of the regulating
that the difference of level between the water in the canal an(
in the module be at least 7*86 in. ; and as the height of wa
the latter must be 27*51 in., the depth of water in the canal
never be less than 85*87 in. or 8 ft., in order to allow the m
to work properly. The following are the relative levels of the
of the module, referred to the bottom of the main canal
datum :
Inclies.
Water surface in the interior of the module 27*51
Upper edge of the measuring outlet ... 28*58
Upper end of flooring of open chamber . . . 18*75
Lower end of the same 11*79
Such is the type of the Milanese modules, the dimensions
suitable for a discharge of 1*5 cubic feet per second ; unfortun
in point of fact, the type has been rarely rigidly adhered to
thus its advantages as a universal, or even as a local water ^tai
have been comparatively thrown away in practice. Its use,
ever, established a discovery that was at that time very impoi
141
, that larger outlets gave a greater discbarge than that das i
proportion of tbeir section for small ones ; It was therefore
niued that no single outlet of a module shoald he made for a
irge of more than eight oncia or 12 cubic feet per second ;
when a greater diacharge was required, two or more separate
te were to he used in combioation. A gauge post was also
1 to be necessary in order to enable the water guardians tJ
tt the sluice aocuratelj. H
rhe principal defect of the Milanese modules is that, owing t^^
rnsh of water from the canal, it is nearly impracticable to keep
netant bead of pressure on the measuring outlet ; besides this,
I and fine silt vitiate tlie accuracy of amount of discharge,
nch are the comparatively ancient modules, the Milanese
1 magUlraU being the most improved one of them. Their
\ b&8 been very much adhered to in modern times ; that of
Bra. Higgin and Higginson on the Henares Canal may he con-
d as the greatest improvement that can be made on them,
UQt departing from that type. In this module, the entrance
I slaice into a chamber for destroying velocity has been pre-
Bd, but the exit is an overfall, and hence mors susceptible of
st measurement of discharge ; the means applied to deaden the
wity of entrance are again different.
I entrance into the channel through a wall is a passage
tin, ('6 metre) square, regulated by a well fitting cast-iron door
i by a screw; tho chamber is rectangular, 10'37 ft. long, by
111. wide below, 9'20 ft. above, the side walls haring a batter
1 in 6. The bottom of the chamber is horizontal and at a
"Wl 72 feet below the sill of the entrance sluice. To deaden the
wtion of tho water, a partition of masonry grating is built across
^ ehamber at a distance of 4 ft. from the wall, and 5 ft. from the
I wall of exit, it is 1*37 ft. brood, and has eight slits or ver-
I passages not cross-barred, each slit being 5'4 in, wide. The
r Laving been deprived of all action by passing through this
rement, enters the second portion of the chamber, and then
Ms ^ver a weir having an iron edge 6'56 ft. (2 metres) long,
d nearly on a level with the top of tho entrance sluice, or 2 ft.
e its sill. The discharge required for irrigation being never b
I 176 litres or 6-22 cubic feet per seconda^
142
weir Bill will therefore never exceed *5 ft., tbe doioe opening
1-97 ft square.
There are two small side walls hating a batter fimn sbo
either side of the sluice entrancoi these walls pnqjeeting in
main canal, in order to protect the entrance and prevent silt
accumulating there, which otherwisOi and perhaps even i
case, would have to be dug out occasionally. In order to km
chamber in proper working order, a keeper most be employee
a gauge post erected in the canal, with reference to which he 1
or raises the sluice, and keeps the water in the chamber s
at a fixed level.
It is evident that the changes may be rung on this spec
module to a great extent without effecting great improvemei
increasing the number and altering the positions of the sluice
overfalls, and modifying the arrangement for deadening the i
of the water. This has been done in many cases without i
result ; it is hence not worth while to bring forward other exai
of this type.
Although some of these are complicated in form, as wi
much varied in detail, the types are exceedingly simple ; thi
require the occasional attendance of a keeper for adjusting
according to the variation of pressure ; they are made of brici
and masonry, and consist of a series of open passages and co
chambers connecting orifices and overfalls. It is quite evident
except under special circumstances, such modules are far hi
the wants of an age that economizes labour, attendance, and s
vision wherever possible.
Self-acting Modules. — A module to be of any use now mD
the first place be self-acting. Nor, indeed, is this all. A
number of self-acting apparatus for regulating the supply or
of water have been designed and used, but three-quarters *of i
do not answer all tbe purposes required of them at present, i
are large, some expensive, others involve a large expenditu]
protective or additional large chambers, others are complicated
liable to get out of order, and others involve a great loss of 1
which, in the case of their application to irrigation canals of fi
fall, is an insurmountable objection. The worst of them ms
143
npiTxr nro/»finol ^
Baid to be those th&t fail in their maiii object in pro^ncing practical
Mcnrac; of discharge. With all those objectiooH to deal with, it will
not be neceBsory to do more thEtn make pnEsing comments on the
greater namber of them, and the principles involved in their design
and construction.
We will, however, first mention the requirements of a good
Biodale. The primary consideration is that under all ordinary oiif-
cumatances the discharge may be practically constant and correet,
liiat is, should not be liable to vary more than 5 per cent. ;
Secondly, that it should be very simple in constrnction and appli-
cation ; thirdly, that it should not be liable to derangement ;
(boithly, that it be portable, easily applied and removed from any
portion of the canal without involving mach waste or loss ; fifthly,
tliat it should not involve much loss of head, and that it should be
»ble to drain the main canal or basin of supply, down to a level of
one foot above its bed, and deliver water !f need be as high as
*itliin one foot of full level in the canal ; sixthly, that it be inex-
pensive, not costing in England more than about lOi., and moM-;
tbim ^5 additional for its attachments, slabs, cisterns, or cham-
[ bere, and setting it in place in working order.
I Tliere ore perhaps only three modules yet designed that mayj
r be said to fulfil these conditions ; these we will for the
term portable modules, and defer dealing with them until aftw
I'jmmenting on the others, or ordinary self-acting modules, sonie
of which have advantages or disadvantages worthy of notice, or
bttTe attracted special attention in any way.
lentil recently, the power of flotation was the sole means adopted
ID self-acting modules for obtaining an equal discharge under vaiy-
^S heads in the canal or basin of supply. The simplest manner
of applying this is perhaps in attaching or fixing the pipe or pipes
of supply to thu float itself, thus insnring a fixed head of pressure
"B tliflir entrance, however much the surface level in the supplying
iiaain may vary. So far as this, the modules depending on this
principle appear excellent, but unfortunately all of those Bettni
•"fective on account of other considerations. For instance, in "the
'"upended openiny," where the water enters through two horizontal
pipes into the body of the float itself (which is kept submerged
mt depth 1^ wmgbtH) and passes out of it through a ^qi
I
144
pipe fixed on to the lower side of it, the yeriical pipe has to slide
np and down in a species of stofBng-box in a masonry platfoim
below, so as to discharge itself clear of the water in the main ctnil,
and prevent the latter from leaking throogh into the well below the
platform, from which the modoled water alone should be drawn cXL
This is plainly a contrivance that would be defidctive for purposes
of irrigation; should the vertical pipe not slide easily into the
stuffing-box, the power of flotation may be entirely neutralized;
should it be too easy there will be leakage, and perhaps to a serioos
amount ; the loss of level is seriously great, the delivery level never
being higher than 1 ft. above the bed level of the canal. Modifi-
cations of this contrivance, having in view the abolition of the loa
of head, have been made by using syphons either erect or inverted, in-
stead of the sliding vertical pipe. They certainly attain that object,
but introduce new defects sufficient to render them less usefol fat
purposes of irrigation than the original suspended opening; they are
expensive, and difficult to manage, the action of the syphons is
liable to be stopped by accumulation of air, and their discharge is
not only practically low in comparison with their theoretical calcu-
lated discharge, but also is variable, as they are very liable to fool ;
tlieir adjuncts, chambers around and attached, are expensive. The
vertical pipe arrangement of the suspended opening is the principle
on which many water-meters, used by water companies for dis-
charging water in large quantities, have been constructed.
The same principle has been adapted to purposes of irrigation
in the module of M. Monricher, on the Marseilles Canal, con-
structed between 1839 and 1850 : it is intended to supply irrigation
channels having discharges of from 1*06 to 4*24 cubic ft. (80 to
VIO litres) per second as a constant supply. The details of con-
struction are as follows : A masonry reservoir 11*15 ft. by 14*76 ft.,
having its bottom at a level approximately 8 ft. below the bottom
of the canal, is connected with it by a rectangular masonry passage
having a horizontal masonry covering at the level of low water sur-
face in the canal ; a transverse masonry wall stops the action of the
water, which enters the reservoir afterwards by two passages, one
on either side, the wall and passages taking up a portion of the
reservoir space. Beyond two pairs of grooves for putting in stop-
planks for shutting off the water entirely during repair, there is no
146
Kt sluice or check to the free flow of the water. In the centre
the rectangalar reservoir ia a cylinder of masoury, having an
■-"'ii diameter of 2-30 ft., being 1-00 ft. thick, the bottom of it
ilt|irosimfttely2'00 ft. below the bottom of the reBervoir, and
' ilge aboul 2'00 ft. below low water canal surface. An iron
[' is made to fit the internal masonry closely, and to slide up
.'. a it, and to hang by a rod and adjusting screw to a wooden
■ Imported by two wooden floats placed clear of the masonry,
^of whichisl-64 ft. deep, 1-31 ft. brood, and 5-24 ft. long.
Bte are also two vertical bars iu the reservoir outside the floats,
kad dovm which the bur slides on rings. The adjusting screw
Ides the iron cylinder, which is about 5'8 ft. long, to be placed
that its npper edge may be set at any depth below the water
hee, so as to prodnce any required discharge. This, when once
3 and checked, is never altered. The whole is enclosed in a
sd building.
"he water of the reservoir therefore enters the iron cylinder
re, and flows out below ; the lower water being divided from the
of the reservoir above by masonry partitions, it rises through
masonry passage thus made into the masom-y water-course or
•piion channel, the bottom of which is not more than '75 ft.
W that of the bod of the main canal ; the channel section is
t ft. by 1'31 ft., having a small enlargement 8*28 ft. square at
Bontmdncement of the channel. Plans and details of the modttle
I tleseribed are given in MoncriefTs "Irrigation in Southern
ope."
3 this modnle, therefore, the section of outlet, viz., that of the
cylinder, is constant ; the edge of the cylinder rises and falls
lotation ; the loss of level is as small as can be conveniently
kined in modules of this principle of design, and if the cylinder
A, without much care or superintendence, be made to work well
he maHonry without leakage or friction to any detrimental estent,
t&ted by the engineers of the Marseilles canal, the amount of
soaracy of discharge cannot be great. It would doubtless be aa
troremcnt were some arrangement applied to this module for
renting silt from entering the reservoir, which most be liable to
bCbm with the working of the cylinder, and produce a greater
ect in this module than in many others. t\v&
10
masonry portion of the modole would require good workiiiiiuilii|l
and the putting together of the whole in good workiiig oider cm
sidcrable care. It is, therefore, rather erpeoime, and imiliiiiljlJ
not the element of portability. M
Tlie Suspended plug is like the suspended opening, a prinaj
that has been adopted for modules and applied in a very large ^^^iM
of ways, some of which involve complexity of parts and detdl
Its main principle is probably slightly more modem than that of fli
latter : both are decidedly old, but as these old contriTaneei m
perpetually being re-invented, a brief description of their prinen
may be of use to some, while comments on them may deter oUmI
from wasting their energies on an idea that appears to haT6 bed
fully worked out. I
The simplest case of the suspended plug is this. A ciiedfl
orifico is fixed in a floor at the level of the bed or bottom of fl
canal or reser^'oir, and a plug of varying section is suspended!
it, being attached to a float that rises and falls with the snrfiice J
the water; the annular water passage thus left open is madell
discbarge equal quantities under varying heads by proportioin
the section of the plug throughout its length ; the area of fll
annular opening l)eing in inverse proportion to the velocity of M
charge. To insure a free fall there is a well below the floor ioM
which the water falls to a depth equal to that of the depth of the flod
from high-water level of the canal. The depth of the float and J^
1
attachment to the plug prevent its acting at a depth of water of ]0
than one foot in the canal. These two points, which are seriori
objections to the adoption of this module on irrigation canals, hitl
been much modified in the more complicated modules constractel
on this principle, which will hereafter be mentioned. As to tin
plug itself, it is cither a conoid hung in a circular orifice, or a M
sided conoid of equal thickness in one direction hung in an orififli
which is rectangular laterally and of circular curvature transversely
in the latter case a fixed area is left open on the flat sides of tb
plug which has to be allowed for in the calculations for the sectioi
of the plug. The diameter of the plug in the case of the conoi
is obtained by calculating the areas required to pass the reqairfi*
discharge for various heads of water, as, from 1 to 10 ft. for eTcr;
147
rneheB, and dedncting these from the fixed area of the orifio8,
malnders are then the areas of the circular sections of the
w those depths from which the diameters are obtained. The
>tioid can he made of the same lateral section for all dia-
ls, the thickness of the flat aides being increased in direct
( following ifl an example of a module designed on the sub-
I ping principle, and is perhaps the simplest application of it
lal practice. It was designed by Don Juan de Ribera, pro-
of the Lozofa canal, or canal of Isabella Segunda, and is
n that catial mth good effect.
3 BO arranged that the size of the outlet diminishes when the
of water increases. The module itself is a long tapering
I plug. '524 ft, in diameter at its lower end, and is attached
drcnlar brass float above, which floats freely in the water
nasonry well 3"38 ft. by 3*94 ft. square and 4'16 ft. deep;
bottom of this well, which is on a level with the bottom of
sin canal and the reetangnlar masonry passage connecting
is a circular orifice 1'56 ft. in diameter, within which the
end of the module is made to work vertically, the plug and
being of bronze to prevent rust. Below this well again
lecond one, into which the water falls after having passed
;h the ring between the orifice and the plug. The entrance
rectangular passage lending from the canal, which is ooly
^w. long, is protected from silt by an iron grating,
^Bvered in at the top by slabs to the full level iu the
^BB well is also Covered in by a locked iron trap-door,
8 module friction is reduced to a, minimum; the module
freely from the centre of the float, and can bo slightly raised
ered in order to diminish or increase the discharge passing
h the ring or space between the edge of the orifice and the
but when a constant discharge is required it is finally
Ij adjusted, and then entirely left alone. The float is about
L diameter, having a thickness in the middle of about -9 ft.,
the etlgcB of '6 ft.
J module discharges one cubic metre (35-3166 cubic feet) per
utd is hence styled an horametre, the discharge being -2777
C8 enhie feet per second. The curve of the Tnolu\6 w
148 J
bronze plug is snch, that the roots of tlie verlioil abHinB wjafl
Tersely as the differences between the flqnaies of the radinB d fljB
orifice and of the horizontal co-ordinate. Henee, if the nqMH
discharge is given with a head of water of one metn, whn IjH
diameters of the orifice and ping are reapeetifdj *90 and *Ufl
metres, then, if the head of water be rednoed to *81 mehs^^B
diameter of the plog at the level of the orifioe must be *l4H
metres, as M
>/T : •^l : : (^Of - (IGIO/ : (•»)• - (-1653)*. ■
The lengths corresponding to the different diametora of the i^ifl
of the plug will, for a constant diameter of orifioe of **90, be fl
follows : — W
Depths from water snr&ce *10 *13 *16 *41 *77 ■
Diameters of ping -00 -0685 -0912 -1811 -UM
Depths from water snrfiEu^e 1-26 1*90 2*71 ' 8*71 I
Diameters of plug -1480 -1664 -1610 -1653. I
The principle being that the velocity of discharge through anonUl
varies with the square root of the head of water ; thus, taking Bfl
to represent the radii of the orifice and plug respectively, &e fin
charge per second I
H being the head of water, the value of the experimental coefficieiru
c, being for this case deduced, from a series of experiments of Dou
Juan de Ribera, to be '68, in accordance with similar resoBu
obtained in ordinary practice in parallel cases. This is probaUythi
modulo in most perfect accordance with theory yet designed ; it ii^
however, of small dimensions, and hence likely to be much affectel
by even the very small proportion of silt that would pass throogh
the grating. Its principal defect is, that the loss of level neees-
sarily involved in it in order to obtain a free fall would render
it inapplicable in a very great number of cases, where even a Cbv
inches of fall are of extreme importance.
The modifications of this type of module consist in putting tbB
float in a separate chamber, which thus becomes a silt trap, and
relieves the orifice from beiug affected by silt, the connecikm
betweeUf the float and the cone bevn^ oilhftT a chain passing ow
149
nmners or a lever : in these cases the plug iB reversed, having
iroader end upwards ; the friction involved affects the working
Im module and its accuracy of discharge, and, in the case of
re, the lengths of the arms modify the quantities employed
te calculations of aections of discharge. In some cases the form
be lower well assumes various forms, having for their object
rednction of the loss of level existing in the more simple type.
extremely doubtful whether any of these modifications can be
idered advantageous on the whole.
i»ing and FalUntf Skutlera. — Contrivances of this type are ge-
Ily suited for large quantities of water where great accuracy is
required. The falling shutter, as used on canals in England
Dotland, is an oblique shutter hinged below, and raised or low-
in front of an opening in the side of the canal by two floats in
■Bee, the water passing over the upper edge of the shutter in a
ttbly uniform volume. The rising shutter is a vertical shutter
out of an opening in the side of and down to the bottom of the
1; it is raised or lowered by means'of a float attached to it by
un passing over a runner, the float being in a separate chamber,
heving trunnions and friction rollers running in curved grooves
jcesses on each side of the chamber ; these curves require very
rate construction in order that the discharges may not vary
JT different heads, Shutters of this description having pres-
on one side only are very liable to stick, and get out of order ;
are hence very inferior in practice, although new ones uuder
nrable conditions can be made to work very accurately.
he above three types comprise the whole of the non-portablo
acting modules that have been much used in practice to good
ortable Self-acting Modules. — In this class we comprise such
nles as could be removed or replaced without much difficulty or
. There are three such modules that have attracted attention,
igh there are probably others not so well known.
he first is that of Lieutenant Carroll, of the Royal Engineers :
principle is exactly that of the well-known draught regulator :
peuare of the water is made to regulate the opening in the
160 I
one case in the same way as an inereafled dnui^ of air ii wJU
to partially close the opening in the other; aod tha ippiiirfMjB
the principle is excellent for the intended pnipoMH-^k euileifl
almost entirely of iron, is simple, effoetiTa, and adipili of mmI
without causing much loss or expense. Drnwinga af this Biifl
are given in the Burkhi ProfessiiHial P^ipara, ■
The second is a modificatiim of the faydmnlia lift Mgdrifl
invented by the late Mr. Appold, used to n^golate the denrtM
hydraulic passenger lifts under a yariaUe load | ii baa beeai||ll
to its new object by Mr. W. Anderson of the firm of EastooiH
Anderscm, and in some respects resembles the mode of lisBleia
Carroll : the velocity through the pipe of disehazge is, hewom^fl
this case made to move a suspended plate of ourved feim, laM
of an opening also fixed inside the pipe, and the opening if HkM
fore reduced by increase of velocity. I
In December 1866 some experiments were made wilk a Mh
Appold regulator at the request of Col. Smith, eng^eer to ■
Madras Irrigation Company, and of Mr. Clark, hydraulic eagnJ
to the Municipality of Calcutta. 1
In one experiment, in which the regulator was used to disflkad
water from a tank T T^^'square internally during 18 minutes; ■
surface of the water in the tank sank as follows, in one minute il
tervals: 8''A, 8i, 8A, 8i, 8, 8A, 8*, 8, 8tV, 8, 8tV, 84, 8f H
the total quantity discharged in 18 minutes was
= r T X r r x S' Sr = 197-22 cubic feet,
or about 16 cubic feet per minute.
In the second experiment, the surface of the water in the td
sank as follows, in one minute intervals : SVe, 8-/ii, 8i, &I, 8^
8H, 3f, 31, 3i, 3, 3A, 3i, 3tV, 8i, 81, 8A, 8A, 8«, ll
8'| ; the total quantity discharged in 20 minutes was
^rr X rr x 6' 8" = 323 cubic feet,
or about 16*18 cubic feet per minute.
In the latter case the heads at the beginning and the eai *
the discharge over the centre of the pipe were 22-8 fieet and 13*i
feet.
In each case the same regulator or module was used; i
151
aperture on the delivery side waa 5"4^| highi «d^ &"ii
or a section of 20"'35 ; the swini^er waa S''^ wide, nearly
ig at top and Ixittom; the case 5j wide, and the area for
asaage 8,^" x l|" = ll"-77in section,
of tlieee Appold's modoles are believed to be in nse on the
ddra canals of the Madras Irrigation Company. From the
!6nce of form that this module posBesses, being self-contained,
£rnally a simple iron tube, with an enlargement like a bos
middle of it, that admits of being attached or detached from
lee very rapidly, it would appear to be far preferable to that
lit. Carroll, and lees liable to damage in transit.
third portable self-acting module is the design of the author
work, and is named the Equilibrium Module. It consists
first place of a box or chamber, baviog an entrance and an
ice, and one or two air holes above ; within this box is the
ftding from the entrance orifice for a short length horizon-
d then turning vertically upwards ; this is terminated by a
;d, but has two or four slits or narrow vertical openings in
m, through which the water passes when the module is open
ffkiag. There is ut all times enough water within the cham-
above the level of these openinga, and to work a float
Ibem ; this float, working vertically, raises or lowers the cap
ides over the head of the pipe, and gradually opens or closes
its with the variation of the level of water in the chamber ;
must of course be below the low water surface of the canal
; of supply. The form of constraction adopted reduces to a
im the depth from the water level within the chamber
openings, which discharge above the sliding collar, and
rases the loss of head to be unimportant,
is also a small module, possibly only a quarter larger than
ppold module before mentioned, and equally convenient
irds portability ; it is simple in design, being actually
Store than one of the old types of equilibrium steam
.Applied as a modulo in a chamber imder pressure : it
' however, be made of any size, the adjustment of the
of the orifices of entrance, of exit, and of the slit-
being the only important points of variation. It
alflO, for rough purposes, be made generally of stone-ware.
I
I
163
and the pipe would then be square in aection and hara
two slits, the other two sides forming part of the box.
module slightly resembles the old qrlinder slnioe, vliieh ii
a modification of a double beat steam valve ; the latter,
is not so simple, being fiar more liable to ehoke or get out
order, one of its valves working within the pipe, and it
therefore not so effective in constant use as any of the
already mentioned are likely to be.
2. MODERN IRBIOATION IN ITALY.
The persistent increase of prices of the neoesaaries of
in all civilized countries has, during the last half-cent
been mitigated by improved communications — the railway
the steamer — ^with countries less civilised, bat more capsUe
production. That a further and wider extension of sudi odmnnh]
nications will continue to produce a mitigating effect we have littk]
doubt; but afterwards, what have we to look to? Manyof UmJ
expensive requirements of civilized existence admit of substitute!.
For coal we may substitute peat fuel or petroleum ; for bbM
hitherto necessary, others less expensive, obtained from pluiti
and grasses hitherto neglected, but now forced by research and
skill into the service of man ; but, as regards our more urgent
wants — ^bread and meat — ^there is not now the slightest pfobabili^
of any substitute being found that could materially relieve the
demand for them. We may substitute one kind of meat for
another, or one kind of com for another, as bacon for beef,
and maize or millet for wheat and barley : but this is merely
economizing by reduction ; so wc may safely assume that increas-
ing the production of grain and grass throughout the world is &e
principal mainstay in the future.
In highly civilized countries, where there is comparatively little
land fit for culture not already under cultivation, and where high
fanning has already been adopted to obtain increased produce, it
may be assumed that the best results have been nearly reached;
it is therefore to less civilized and more distant countries all over
the world that we must look for increased produce mainly, and,
163
in the first iost&uce, by increasing and improving th£< cultural)]
area.
Of all means of increasing agricultural produce, irrigatio
sUnds justly at the bead, increasing the yield of the very best
hnds, rendering inferior lands capable of yielding crops of a
superior kind, and apparently nearly nseless lands, sucb as much
of the sandy arid plains of India, of yielding good crops of different
descriptions ; the increased yield obtained by these means sup-
porting men and cattle, and causing, through the manure derived,
an additional source of increase. The derelopment, therefore,
of irrigation everywhere, its means and methods, its economical
application, and the investigation of its results under different
oonditioua, become subjects of interest, not only to the professional
hydraulic engineer, but of vital importance and consequent interest
to every being existing on the face of the earth. Leaving the
history and archfcolog^' of irrigation for the consideration of the
engineer devoted to such subjects, contemporaneous irrigation
has besides a still further interest for the capitalist, everjiliing
pointing to the probability that, in and for the future, capital
will be largely applied to works of irrigation ; the countries
wiiere irrigation is likely to be most productive being generally
incapable for the present of using capital of their own, and the
communications on which capital has been so largely utilized
having been so far developed as to set &ee a large capital for
other purposes.
The most interesting irrigation, therefore, will not only be
contemporaneoos, but that which is most instructive as regards
results. The project for the irrigation of a tract of land in Lorn-
hardy by the waters of the Lago Maggiore, being carried out in
1872 by a small company of local shareholders, under a concession
granted by the Italian Government to its engineers, Eugenlo
Villoresi and Luis Meraviglia, seems to satisfy these conditions in
every respect. The works arc not large, it is true ; but it does
not partake of the nature of an experiment, having an element of
stability in it, firstly, from being carried out in a country more or
less permanently irrigated since the Middle Ages, and hence iii-
stmctive as regards tl^o development of principles, and, secondly,
being the result of local effort fijroing itself forward,
154
raeeeeding by aeting with the wiahes of tba iwiwilriinn, iiid*>
pendently of foreign aid.
The eompftmtiye smallneBs of thit piojaek^ ftguB, kw ite advn-
Uges, in point of interett, from mllowiag • peifiMt dwdbpniwl
within itaelfy and is thus mora tnily inatrueUf is nhomig lAil
might be done on a large scale with laige e^ital, aad \f Ihe
application of the more extended prindplea not j«t adopleJ ia
Italj, bat already plainly indicated in the large Indian weike rf
irrigation. Some of the detaila of the aeheine and ef &e in-
tended resnlts will be interesting in compariwm wilh triailar
data for Spain and India.
The following information with regard to the Lago MiggiiKt
irrigation project, and local matters in eonneetkm with it» wu
obtained daring a visit in 18711, from or through the Diieetor
of the College of Engineers, the Director of the Sdhool of Agri-
caltoie, Signor Cantoni, and principally firom GHgnor YiDoMMi
himself.
The tract of land to be watered from the Lago Magpore is
almost entirely in the Milanese province, and is boonded by the
Naviglio della Martesana and the branches of the Naviglio Ghrande ;
its area is 216 234 acres and its population 459 166. It is peon-
liarly dry, from causes that have not yet been explained ; the
inhabitants either collect rain-water, or draw from wells 40 to 100
feet deep, and scanty in the best seasons, or obtain from the pools
of the Biyer Olona the water for their domestic wants. The
springs or sources of the Olona are now probably less prodactiye
than they were, and as its supply is cat off above, for irrigation
purposes for an adjoining canal, it is nearly dry in the region under
consideration, the eight or nine torrents running into it being of
little value. There are also eight torrents running towards the
river Lambro, towards the east ; but the whole of these, including
the springs and the Olona, are not sufficient for the irrigation of
1500 acres of ordinary cultivation according to the usual Italian
>ractice. The tract of land has a generally uniform &11 from west
to east, and from north to south, of *75 and '20 per 100 ; the soQ
is alluvial, and classified into four gradations of mixtare of sand
and clay, covered with a vegetable stratum 7 to 14 feet thick, and
occasionally more ; the most sandy portions admit of being irri-
I with good effect, anc! generally consist of pasture litnd ; on
I whole of the rest, however, crops are grown independently of
\ excepting the portioss covered with heather and woods, which,
a continutti cutting, have nearly disappeared. For the cropB,
I rotation in vogae is biennial ; in the tirst year a tirst crop of
Mt or rye, followed by autumnal maize or millet of Bome sort,
Aie second year spring maize. Very small quantities of vege-
lea, Sax, hemp, and ravizao (colza) are sometimes grown ; in
I parts of the wheat-growing land trefoil is sown among tlie
»t in the spring, so as to obtain a first cutting from it in the
nmn, and a second in the following spring, hut this is very
»]y successful for want of sufficient moisture : over a larger
is and mulberry trees are planted ; in all cases the
mi (rentiers, tenants) paying the proprietor in kind, or taking,
I the last case, part of the produce in payment for their labours.
I Now, even in its anirrigaled state, this is certainly not an unpro-
utive region ; there is no mention made of deficiency of crop, and
ft population is thirteen to an acre, although a certain proportion
t the land ia scrub, heather, and woodland ; and yet the iuhabi-
i have set to work energetically to irrigate and increase the
Over how large an area of the world is there not land
elding not one half of this without the slightest efforts being
s to introduce irrigation ! What millions of acres not yieldiiig
fcqaarter of this, in India, are allowed to remain unirrigated, or,
I the contemplative Anglo-Indians in charge would Bay, unin-
1 with!
I The introduction of irrigation would, under these as well as
noet any circumstances, involve an agronomic change, aud a
%fferent snccession and rotation of crop, to which in this, as in all
eases, a certain proportion of the cultivators and proprietors are
strongly opposed, although they must, from their close ricinity to
other irrigated lands, be fully aware of the advantages of irriga-
tion. It seems difficult to fully account for this feeling so often
shown in similar cases. Water has to be paid for no doubt ; bnt
there is more produced wherewith to pay. Is it the timidity of
entering on matters on a larger scale, and want of self-reliance in
adapting themselves to a new system ; or is it that unreasoning
obstinacy so generally ascribed to agriculturists? Whatever
i
may be, the difBoolty in this case seems to be partly met hj the
School of Agricnltare, established at Idan, Uram ufaieh mm
extended ideas on such sabjects are disseminated throng lectonB
and ready information within the means of i|Il«
The first agronomic change proposed is the redmotion of the
whole of the scmb, heather, and woodland into enltoiaUe soil; the
second, a great reduction of the yine-growing aiea fixr the pnrpoeei
of coltiTating com, the latter change being justified by the ftot
that the greater part of the wine produced in this region is of foy
inferior commercial yalue. The wisdom, however, of this latter
change seems open to objection ; as a better cultivation of the Tine-
growing area, combined with winter floodings, could hardly fiul to
produce a larger amount of wine. Assuming, howe^osr, that tUi
change is desirable (and several landed proprietors have adopted
it), it will, when general, reduce three-quarters of the m^
bearing area into cultivated or pasture land. The third agio-
nomio change is that of the formerly cultivated land ; the bieooiil
rotation having, under irrigation, to give way to a more com-
prehensive arrangement. A typical rotation has been laid down
which is quinquennial, according to the following table : —
I -i
n n
I s. 1 1 i -I I
I if P a a a s
S •■ : S S
I -I • I -3
as n n
» i M & $ i i
I I"
^ 1 I I S. 9 I I
i I •
I I I"
n n l:^
s n
S S M O S H
g s I I I I
^if
on
•§11
•3-3 1
n n n
6 I I ^ £" ^ I
158
It is drawn ap to suit a holder of fite aeres, with bis fiumly k
cattle. The quantity of maise prodnoed is one-thad more fh
that from land irrigated on the old syitem, and it anffideiit
support the family. The amount nnder pastnze is as luge
can be conveniently arranged, in order to seenre as mneh tnuii
for the soil as possible, and, in the ease of a fiye-acre plot, i
support two cows. The iriieat and lye grown will pay the lenl
the ground to the proprietor, and the spring hay the whole of
irrigation, leaving the remaining crops to the holder entirely i
The same rotation is suitable to a holding of any sise, worked
one family, the basis being the proportions of grass, grain, i
other crops, which are, taking the whole in ten parts:— t
tenths permanent pasture; one-tenth grass crop; three-tei
wheat and rye; two-tenths to spring maise; two-tenths
autunmal maizes and oil-yielding crops.
It will be noticed that neither rice cultivation nor marcite ci
vation — the well-known flooded winter grass crop of Italy — en
at all into the above proposition, being generally excluded f
the proposed irrigational demand. This is highly significant,
appears to point to the conclusion that such cultivation is ra
on the wane in Italy. Probably it is not economical on well-far
lands ; the winter grass .crop is believed to yield only a qua
more through flooded irrigation on the marcitorial system,
both this and rice cultivation are considered injurious to
public health in Lombardy, having been for many years forbic
within certain distances of towns, cities, and villages. In Porti
lands formerly growing rice are now otherwise cultivated,
economic grounds ; experience plainly showing that the produc
of other grain, and the support of cattle, are more remuncra
In this special instance, as returns are obtained from using
water for motive purposes, driving mills, &c., it is also extrei
probable that it is not only more convenient, but also more re
nerative, to use water during the winter months in that way.
With regard to the injuriousness of the neighbourhood of
iltivation, or of any swampy cultivation, there is still consider
3ubt. In India rice has been grown close to numerous mili
^ntonments for many years, without any detrimental efie
whereas, the neighbourhood of a sing\e i\ce '^«.\A\i Ssi «b fotk in
■
s
1
^
■
■■
Hi IB sometimes almost deadly, and anipe Bhooting for a few
vp over rice fields in Cbiua and Ceylon is almost certain to
lose fever. Medicul men have given widely opposed opinioiiB
0 this sabject, as well as on the effects of irrigation gene-
ally i from which, apparently, the only sound conclusion seems
obe, that irrigation, properly conducted, is perfectly innocuous,
mil that it is only when the drainage of the country is allowed
0 stagnate for a long time that injury results. This will per-
Mlj explain how it is that rice cultivation may or may not
» injarioQS, as in some cases the water is aUowed to stagnate,
aDcUcged and without flow, for a very long time— a perfectly
anecessary proceeding, which, producing an organic decay more
■spid nnder high temperature, is the cause of noxious miasma,
t wottid hardly seem, however, that in this special case hygienic
wsons alone would stop marcite and rice cultivation^ as it need
"t be carried on near villages — but rather reasons of economy,
ach a eouclnsion would, therefore, show that water is more
ooomicaliy expended on other crops, and that irrigation- water
hence becoming more valuable than formerly,
i^tfid land in the tract under consideration, the following four
■ta gopply the data on which it has been based :
■ Table
1
I
AlmK-hei.
Dtiliwd,
E,p«,drf.
1
Ueid*>.
Arabia.
Undo*.
Amble.
H«»da«. AiMt.
■s^
-antoni
'ommittee of Engineers
5 885
5 585
5 885
a 476
8 476
8476
8 665
8 411
10 404
9 323
8 454
11314
14 550 j 17 7afl
14 296 116 930
16 288 1 18 790
45 131 64 618
16 045118173
...
27490
29 091
9 697
5885
8 476
91t>0
1
160
Tabli XL
Quantity of eantinuoui water in cMe fa$i per Mecoai per aer$
neeesearjf far irrigaium.
Msudovkad.
AmUsliid. j
ForwKttr-
ingoMsiB
Tdajt.
FSorwsltt-
iBfOMia
lOdajt.
F^vitar-
iOdsys.
Do Bi^(i8 ••• ••• •••
Gantoni ••• ••• •••
Gonunittee of Engineers ...
' Total
•02404
•02362
•02691
01683
•01653
•01883
•01471
•01898
•01635
•01029
•00978
•O1O06
•07457
•05219
•04304
•03015
•02486
•01740
•01501
•01005
Tabli HI.
Area in aoree thai can he krigaiei hyone eMe foot per eeeond.
MsadovUiid.
AimUekDd.
Watered
once in
7 days.
Watered
once in
10 days.
Watered Watered
once in once in
14 days. 20 days.
1
De R^is ... ... ...
Gantoni ... ...
Gonunittee of Engineers ...
X ocai ... «.• ...
Mean ... ••• •••
41-46
4219
3707
59-22
60-28
52 91
67-78
71-26
60-95
96-83
101-80
98^86
120-72
172-41
199*99
297-49
40-23
57-47
6666 9916
Table IV.
Supply neceuary far each acre of the irrigable area.
Meadow ...
Arable (?)
Com (?) ...
Qaantity for
J Quantity for
Area in
acres.
Sandy soil.
Clayey soil.
Qoantity of
continnons
water neces-
sary for one
acre in
cabic feet
per second.
Product.
Qoantity of
continnoni
water neces-
sary for one
acre in
cnbic feet
per second.
Prodaet
1-48
1-98
148
cub. ft.
•02486
•01501
cnb. ft.
•03679
•02972
cnb. ft.
•01740
•01005
enb. ft.
•02575
•01990
4-04
=
•06651
or
•04565
1-00
=
•01346
or
■00924
Result adopted for eaJealation of supply to one acre : i
oil, -01S46 cubic feet: in elttyej soil, -00924 cubic feet.
To complete the calculations of this part of the subject, before
ring into details and comparisons, it may be said that, dividing
- ioial area under command into two classes, sandy and clayey
> iir, the total water supply required is ae follows ; —
Cub. ft. per sec.
For 47 674 acres clayey at -001)24 cubic feet = 440
„ 143 016 „ sandy at 01346 cubic feet = 1925
_Total 190 690 Total 2365
[ Deducting an already existing supply of ... 310
I Adding for irrigation in a lower tract of land 388
I Supply required ... ... := 2443 c.m.J
I Hence the actual supply of the canal is fixed = 2825 or 80.
lie whole tract amounts to 216 234 acres, this would show I
e than seven-eighths will be irrigated, and, taking the quan-i
kpproximately, the average supply over the irrigated area ia.'l
Mbic feet per second per acre, or is such that 1 cubic foot p
I will irrigate 90 acres, from which, according to Table III,»
e watering will bo once in 18 days or 20 in a year.
1 entering into these general quantities, the priuciples and!
k on which they are based require examination.
table I. the quantity of water sufiicient for one irrigation or
ing is taken at 15 000 cubic feet for pasture, and 18 170 for
rlond ; it cannot be doubted, by any one conversant with irri-
T-Btion in India and Spain, that this quantity is excessive ; the
iTis of both Piedmont and Lombardy have for a long time been
■ liingly wasteful of irrigation water ; they have had the unusual
lEtagfS of being able to get as much as they hke, and as ad-
■ d by themselves in Piedmont, the waste is excessive, a natural
,!r of having been provided with too much; in Lombardy .
:i, those that dare to raise their word in private against thsa
.iliuns of the past have expressed strong opinions that water a«tt.M
liiere be made to perform a much higher duty than at present.
The object of ordinary irrigation in hot climates is simply to
r the place of rain and soften the soil, and differs much
ttch ■
from the irrigation of lands in ooldAr regions, wlueli, partddsgi
the natare of sewage irrigation^ has tar its objeei the
of a fertilizing sediment rather than a supply of moistnze, snd
responds in Italy to marioitorial and rioe cnltiTBtian only,
latter description of irrigation being ezdnded from the project
data under consideration, the former alone has to be dealt wifli,i
for such purposes in India and in Spain a watering of 10 000
feet is ample, and would doubtless be enough in Italy also, eithflrl
pasture or arable land. One such watering represents a depth of
feet over an acre and is equivalent to a oontinuous supply
the year of -000817 cubic foot per second. It may be sud
under different states of climate, soil and subsoil, more water
be required even in hot climates, but to this the reply is thatai
number of waterings might be required, but not a larger Bopfij
each watering. In support of the statement that 10 000 cubie:
would be sufficient, it may be noticed that the learned and
Professor Cantoni, Director of the School of Agriculture at Mihi
who has been continually and is still prosecuting researches ia^
agronomic and agricultural matters, fixes his quantities lesi
than the previous data of the older Italian hydraulic engineers, n|
far lower than those of the Commission of Engineers (about M
eighth less) ; it is possible also that, were he not an Italian a
holding a Government appointment, he might be very much bd&
in his reduction.
With regard to the number of waterings, the amount allosf
appears, according to Tables II. and lY., to be 62 and 26 in d
year for meadow and arable land respectively on sandy soils, audi
and 18 on clayey soils ; but, as the canals are closed for deanni
and repairs during April and October, these numbers are redna
in practical application to 46 and 28 for sandy, and 30 and 15 i
clayey lands. Now, leaving out of consideration the fact that the
waterings are a half and three-quarters larger than would be reqn
site in India or Spain, their number seems excessive. In India tl
number of waterings prescribed on the Nageenah Canal, NoiC
West Provinces, is thus {vide "Hydraulic Manual," Part IE.): F
fruit gardens, 8 per annum ; for hemp, 5 per crop ; for rioe, indig
sugar, tobacco, grasses, and herbs, 4 per crop ; tot cotton, whai
barley, and grains and pulses, 8 per crop. In Spain tiie numl
KstenitgB in the year generally necessary are, according to Mr.
oWrts'e oscellent pamplilet : For com, flas, potatoes, olives, and
Bts.fi wateringB; fonaeadows and artificial grass, 8; and for garden
' K.*, 20 ; and these by no means show the highest duty obtained
ut in Spftin, for, in the clayey vegas of AJcanadre and Lodosa,
i-j'ji'cs are irrigated with '0014 cubic foot per second per acre
-Jungh the year, and only require doable or treble that amount,
-\, ■(M)4 cubic foot per second in very dry seasons ; whereas the
atcriog of garden land with twenty irrigations mentioned above
quires 'OlS cubic foot per second per acre. In both Northern
■jil Soathern India "01 cubic foot per second per acre is considered
and liberal gross allowance for all crops, except rice and crops
J on the fiooding or marcitonal principle, where sediment ia
I'lc-ct, while the net allowance per acre yearly appears to be
I'rom one-half to three-quarters of that amount.
• inevitable conclusion, therefore, appears to be that Italian
■ L' gives uDC-half too much water at each watering, and at
iiie-half loo many waterings, thus employing in detail more
luuble the water thai is necessary according to both Indian
-^lanish practice, the conditions of soil and climate being more
r.iiile in Piedmont and Lombardy than probably in either
• >r India.
i'li reference to the water supply in the gross, or water duty
■iie whole tract of land, the ultimate duty reached in clayey
.:^_cording to this project, is 110 acres to a cubic foot per
1. On previons old works the duty reached in Piedmont and
■.irdy seems to vary from 60 to 110, 90 and 100 being the
!^votirable cases, and 60 to 80 the more usual. In India the
duty arrived at was on the Eastern Jumna Canal, in 1864,
.1. res; on the Western Jumna Canal, in 1863, 280 acres; and
>. Ganges Canal, in 18G4, 140 acres ; and these on canals that
■I fully developed, thus pointing to a safe gross water duty,
-ling single waterings, of double that obtained in Italy. It is
■innately useless to mention these things to Italians, whose
of hydraulic grandeur and authority are contined to the Nav-
^-ij Ltrande and their old hyda'aulic authors and engineers ; to say
'. Oiem that there is a canal from the Ganges that is designed to
■ Tolomeof 7000 cubic feet, or 198 cubic metres peiBeconl.Vk.]
i
164
eyen now anwise, while to attempt to explain that inigation is lu
only Oriental in origin, bat that ignorant natives of India, led 1
militaiymen who cannot be called engineen in the dviliiedWeflta
sense of adepts at scientific constmetion, bat whose proper sphoe
the siege and the battle-field, have, in spite of a wonderful ebm
mistakes, sacceeded in carrying oat, not only the largest woib
irrigation, bat also the most economic distribation, woold be i
tensely absard.
The increase of prodace dae to irrigation in the tract onder m
sideration has been calcalated by a commission nominated by f
College of Engineers of Milan, acting on behalf of the OoTenuM
of the coantry granting the concession. Knowing the way in lAj
petty intrigae enters into every matter in Italy, one cannot in i
case, any more than in determining the amoant of water neeen
for the crops, expect nnbiassed data. Under similar dreamsfaaic
in England, no one woald think of curtailing the profits i
hampering the undertakings of engineers in this manner ; on
contrary, one would think, the greater the profit and freedom,
more likely would be the extension of similar works conduciye to
public good as well as to private interest in every way; petty idi
however, seem to rule in Italy. The data^ however, are interesti
and may possibly, after all, be accepted as tolerably correct. !
same amount of area has the value of its produce compared ui
dry and under wet cultivation, and the difference credited as
result of irrigation. The land is divided into four classes acn
ing to the degree of sandiness, and the results are given. Tl
for the extremes of sandiness and clayeyness are alone givei
detail ; they are as follow : —
^^^^^^B9~^^l
-
16S
I
Kb
«
^
1
<
-1 tC «<N
oo>
■=-oxoosr^O!oo
=J W *1 •* ^ 0.« r-. <M
O«C00DQ0OO(»tnCTimrHM
■~ O r* O o oi --0
^■*OT« coo— ■ ' *
ooooooooot^^to
»
\
1. oo
a o <N do oi w ■* : : ;
9-023
11-775
33-562
25-309
C 42-052
C 42-052
C 11-969
C 5-691
isllil! ^ 1
llliiiliiii ■■ -M
■*A(
;::::■:::
i: 1 M M : i:^34 1
si
II
•3...-. |s^
Irriaated Land.
Wteat
riai
Colza
Maize
Maize, aatnmna], 2nd crop
Pasture, three cuttings
Groaa
Straw
Erbfi qoartirola
Mulberry leaves
Deduct for diBaaters generally
Produce of
^
\a
^
1
L
■
■^«ooc>oac
<« OS 00 ea o r- «
O. UQ
OOO U
lli^
g I* t^ m i» ^ ,
illii : : -1
I" ' '-S o.sl'l'!
5^a
^^ ^ii '^
OW M
167 ^^H
The gross result from these data is the followiug increase of valui
• f crop dae to irrigation for the four clflsses of laud, namely:
£ I. d. Mean,
Irt for the most sandy — per acre 2 11 9-\
2nd .. .. do. 2 6 0 /
3rd „ ,. do, 2 2 0 r
4th for the moat ckyey do. 2 0 0 J
The results last given seem very small ; but it must be noticed
3ut very low values are given to the produce, in all cases only
Sirce-fourths the mean local value for the preceding five years
!,:^ applied; but they are useful in showing how Jittle results
.vithin the area under consideration. The principal point of
■ riance seems to have been, purposely or otherwise, entirely
'I'ld ; the yield per acre of wheat is assumed to be the same both
ii.r irrigation and otherwise. The maize, the staple food of the
r- ^isuntrj', is assumed to yield more than a half more, and the mul-
berry crop of leaves one-seventh more ; but the wheat is supposed
Oct lo be affected by irrigation. Now in India, where crops are grown
Imendent on the annual rain, as well as assisted by irrigation, the
ise of yield of grain due to irrigation is large ; cereals and oil
yielding from a quarter to a half more.
There can therefore be little doubt that there must be some
of yield of wheat also in Italy, and it appears unfortunate
A any profits due to irrigation in any way should be allowed to
IB unnoticed. If the object is to show as little profit to the
idholder, and hence obtain water at as a low rate as possible by
devices, it is a very shortsighted one, on behalf of the
toremment of a country, the sole result of depreciating the value
profits of irrigation being to leave the country uuirrigated and
hui impoverished agricultural state. Taking, however, the figures
by the Commission as relatively correct, these show that the
of irrigation is to more than double the value of the produce
idy soil, and to increase it by nearly two-thirds on clayey soil,
when the improved rotation of crop is adopted ; and at the same
jirove clearly that, if allowance be made for an increase in the
1 1 i-e of wheat per acre, and for higher rates for values of produi
(sUy, the value of produce dne to irrigation ia fuUj douHei
I
I
ue \
he^H
1
168 I
the luidB tlint benefit least by it. The importance of so ii
nrtiblfi « fact rcquii'es no comment, and it becomes a coi
baoB Eor calculating what amount of wat«r-rate conld be ea;
under » more correct valuation of produce. Taking, hove
present nl nation, which gives as an increase of ralac ]
£2 S*. U a moan, thou^'h, perhaps, it woald be more corro
mmej£8, to determine the water-rate per aero adopted, viz.,
and 7a. 6d. for Bandy and olayej soils, respeettnly, it voolt
thai the water-rate is fixed at a inioe aboat one>fifth of the
of Tslae resulting from the aid of the water, the landed pre
inotming at their own expense tlie costs of levelling ant
their land for irrigation, and keeping their own benches o
bution in a proper state of maintenanee. This is'donbtlee
low water-rate ; bat the oircomstanoeB under whieh this ii
projeet is being carried out are peculiar, and the terms of 1
cession are drawn ap to soit the case. But of this mo:
after.
The following is an abstract of the cost of the works of 1
Maggiore project :
Hesdworks £25{
No. 1. Main canal SO miles, section 604 square feet 21fi
2. „ 14J „ 820 „ 12f
8. „ 18 J „ 841 „ 102
Secondary canals, 182 miles in all ... ... 83
Keepers' houses .,. ... ... ... 2
Legal expenses ... ... ... ... 15
Engineering expenses... ... ... ... IT
Literest ... ... ... ... 50
Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... 5
Total ... JE880
169
Maintenance AnntiaUy
Headworks
Main canal 63 miles
Establishment and office
Imposts ... •
Total
... £1271
... 1822
... 2 400
... 4 607
... £10 000
Expense per Acre to Landed Proprietors,
Land occupied by trenches
Excavation in trenches
Boildings ...
Adapting the land
Annnal maintenance of trenches and adminis-
tration per acre ...
£
8.
d.
1
7
0
8
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
8 17 0
1 8
Details. — The headworks, which include a large basin, a large
navigation lock for communication with the Ticino, a roadway and
sluices, do not seem to have any features worthy of remark. The
main canals are constructed to deliver, No. 1, 2825 cubic feet with
a fall of -20 and -15 per 1000 ; No. 2, 1766 cubic feet with a fall of
•1 per 1000 ; besides 209 feet by 26 falls or locks ; No. 8, 580 cubic
feet with a fall of *18 per 1000; some portions are paved in boulder
work set in earth, or in ordinary lime, and in some cases in
hydraulic mortar over a bed of b^ton, with walled sides. The works
on the three main canals consist of:
2 railway and tramway bridges.
7 bridges for provincial roads.
65 smaller road bridges.
18 over crossings for rivers and brooks.
27 locks, mostly with bridges or outlets.
56 falls, syphons, and under passages.
9^ keepers' lodges.
170
The seoondary canak lure 16 in numberi of difimnt kiigihBaiid
BeotioDB ; they are generally of four Beotions.
Onbioftfliper
Feet Moand.
No. 1. With a bottom width of 18*1 oanjing 108
2* 99 9*o fi to
8. »9 6-6 „ 64
4. „ 8-8 ,, 80
They have an inclination of *6 per thonsand; and the works ood-
sist of 38 bridges and £eJ1b for proyinoial roada, 895 diatriet road
bridges, and 897 petty bridges.
The capitalised price of the water in the Lago Maggiore scheme
is fixed thus for total amounts :
£ $. I
Continuous water, per cubic foot' per second ... 689 4 7
Summer water ... ... ... ... ... 666 11 6
Winter water 22 18 2
Separating this into payments over the forty years in which the
project is to repay its costs, and allowing for 6 per cent, it
becomes :
£ 8. (2.
Continuous water, per cubic ft. per second (yearly) 41 7 2
Summer ... ... .. ... ... ... 89 13 2
Winter ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 14 0
And under the agricultural rotation adopted, with the quantity of
water necessary for each acre of sandy and clayey land, the pric^
of water per acre is :
£ 8, d. <• d,
Sandy, capitalised 7 14 5 yearly 10 8
Clayey, „ „ 6 5 11 „ „ „ 7 6
Checking the capitalised result per acre as follows :
£ 8. d,
Sandy 143 016 acres at 7 14 5 yields £1 104 088
Clayey 47 674 „ „ 6 6 11 „ 262 672
Total ... £1866 766
171
ft that the capitaliBed value of the irrigation effected per
'iban covers the costs of conBtruction and maintenance
ks, which is £1 280 000 : a further check on this is
' CBpttaliBing the value of the water per cnbic foot. The
Ital Bnppl; of the canal will be as before stated, 2825
; bat aa daring the first two years the amount to be
according to the concession, only 1553'!) cubic feet of
id 1059*5 cubic feet of winter water, from which 5 per
to bo deducted for loss by infiltration, the capitalised
lid be:
£ 8. d.
twater 1476 cable ft. at 566 116= £836 257
„ 1006 „ „ at 22 13 2 = 22 793
Total ... i;859 050
innal return under the same circumstances :
£ s. (I.
r water 1476 cubic ft. at 39 13 2 = £58 536
„ 1006 „ „ „ 1 14 0 = 1710
Total ... £60 245
|I8 for navigation are calculated on the basis that the
t compete successfully with the railway, when carrying
^f the present railway rates; and, applying this to a
)f 40 tons sent by either manner, the navigation toll is
t shillings per boat load, or about 3J(/. per ton : it is cal-
st such a boat would make 35 voyages in a year going
, the current, but requiring one or two horses to tow it Up
tj or full. On these principles the expected return from
lis estimated at £12,000; by others as follows:
'Tatti, engineer £15400
< Conte Annoni 15 200
(numission of the College of Engineers
Qkn 1800
tyt these data seems, by the evident nnderrating ^J
vigstion in the last one of tihem, \Xi "Ctatyn 'Sx^ ^M
172
on the oret-eiitimat«d Bupplj required for irrigation b; the Commis-
fflOD of the College of Enginoera of Milao, and etreogthens the
belief fcefore eipreasod.
The rotuTDS for motive power are Dot OBtim&ted, as it is probable
tbat Bomo time may elapse before it is utilized at all ; bat the
amount of motive power is thus calculated : 26 falle on 28 locks
having a total fall of 210 feet, baring a supply of woter, diminisbiDg
from 494 to 211 cubic feet, or a mean supply of 358 cubic feet per
aeoond. will give 2U0 borse power a., ich fall, or 5000 horse pover
in all on tbe main canal, and in the ime way 1000 or 2000 bom
power more on the secondary canaln. It will be serviceable for
thresluDg com, Bpinnlng silk, col and flax, paper, clotb, xai
other manufactures. Otber retunio
and grass-cutting, water for dom^
inpply of drinking cisterns foi
that may be expected amunuts to :
ay also be obtained from tai
use, waab-bouses, and the
. The totol annoal relora
By irrigation
By navigation
By other sources
£60215
12O00
3 765
Considering, then, the total cost of the works to be £880 000
And the annual cost of maintenance to be ... 10000
And deducting this &om the annual return of ... 76000
The remainder £66000
represents an interest of 7^ per cent, on the total cost.
It may be interesting, before entering into comment on tb^
abject of cost and return, to deduce the profit per acre that th^
Mcupiers of tbe land can obtain on the whole, assuming the previous
data of increase of yield and needful supply of water aa the baai^
of calculation.
The expenses per acre to the landed proprietors capitalised is-
tbe foT^goiog data may be reduced to annoal payments oTer the*
r years, allowing for i
d become thus :
interest on tlie capital of 6 per ceot.J
Land occupied by trenches
Excavation...
Buildings ...
Adapting the land ...
Maintenance of the trenches |
A.dniiniHtratioii of all sorts J
0 5
0 10
And the profit per acre is then :
Cortof
watar.
Total
■ VJne of
produce.
profit par
For sandy soil
Forclajtjy soil ...
Mean
.. d.
10 8
7 5
9 0
.. d.
6 3
6 3
6 3
.. d.
16 11
13 8
15 3
£ I. d.
2 8 G
2 0 7
2 4 6
£ .. d.
1 11 7
1 6 11
1 9 3
Bosides this profit, the landholder is mnch benefited by the
fffsct of irrigation, as the labour of ploughing, harrowing and hoe-
'ig ig much reduced, and again, as so much land is under paatnre,
''19 kbour there is reduced to nothing ; the soil also becoroes
'"Dch improTed in time, and the yield again increased beyond the
BiQoijQt calculated : for these advantages the landou'ner can again
'Jwnand justly from him an increased rent; and the capitalised
'^'ne of this increase of rent will be eventually shown in increased
^sleable value of the land. It is extremely unfortunate that no
'''*U arc forthcoming on either of these points, especially as there
'" snch a vast extent of land in Northern Italy that has been brought
"yider irrigation at different times which could have well supplied,
*t least approximately, sufficient information to have given a sound
I'aBifl on which io rest expected results of this nature. It seems
lideed extraordinary that Signer Villoresi, the engineer of the Lago
Ifaggiore project, who has evidently spared no pains in procuring
lad setting forth so much detaU bearing on bis scheme, should
Kd to enter into such an important souice qI ic,\.-ara.,.
J
174
To erery irrigation nndertakiiig than an tbiee dimj and bpti-
mate soorces of return.
1. The profit to the shareholderB, justly doe to fhem, the mjjt'
talists, directors, and engineers, obtained by ehaiging more bt ik
water than it actually costs them, although &r less than its nlni
as shown by results.
2. The profit to the landholders or ooeapiers, whose inoieiae of
yield, and hence increase of profit, after paying the water-rate fijad,
is due to the supply of water to the land in the first instance. *
3. The profit to the landowners by the impnrrament of thflir
property and land, from the oontinnons eflfoct of irrigation, andik
advantages of having water available.
Besides these, the indirect advantages are innumerable, having
their effect on the people and nation generally, as well as on other
nations ; but these do not admit of calculation : the three direct
sources of return, however, do ; and it is solely by means of
a careful investigation of their results that the true value of the !
water can be arrived at, with reference to and in proportion to
which, and not according to the haggling with the users of the water,
a just water-rate can be determined ; the success of the irrigation
project being principally shown again by a comparison of the cost
with the true value of the water.
Failing, therefore, to obtain information on the increase of valne
of land due to irrigation in Northern Italy, the following data for
Spaiu, from Mr. Boberts's pamphlet, will give some indication of
what the increase of value might be :
Dry Irrigated
per acre. per acre.
Rioja district rent 9«. to 12«. £9-6 to JEIO'2.
Zamora, Castile value £14 to £18. £85 to £41.
Near Madrid, 1st class land value £82 £128
2nd „ „ £20 £100
3rd „ „ £12 £72
4th „ „ £6 £60
Ampurdan, Cataluna „ £100 £200 to £800
Spain generally, 1st class land inc. of value 100 to 200 p. c.
f> ,f inferior land „ 1000 to 1500 p. e.
dM indicate that it 13 most probable that the valae of the
Kthern Italy would be at least doubled by irrigation.
i, again, where canals have, at least in a very incomplete
state, existed for many years, the profits to the land-
■verj' plainly ehown. A large portion, if not all, of the
•tracts watered by the Ganges Canal and the Eastern
ira Jumna Canala are, like most of the land in Oriental
the actual property of the Crown or goTemment of the
Mid the rent of the land in these tracts is newly fixed after
iriods — five, seven, or eleven years — the enhancement of
be land as it becomes brought under irrigation being deter-
those inter^-als and credited to the effects of irrigation, as
ke water-rate paid by the occupiers of the soil. Turning
to "Hydraulic Manual," Part. II., we find, among the
^ren by canals :
IjamnB Canal in 1846
water
rate.
£
12 175
Bjm.
hancement
£
14 966
Total
letunie.
£
27140
Jumna Canal
1845
29 888
37 000
66 888
[lanal
1867
136 S53
80 018
216 371
Sanal
1868
244 156
101 260
405 416
ehow that in two out of the three great canals the
Dent of rent is a larger sonrce of retnm than the water-
that it is only on the least developed canal of the throe
■ Less, and even then amounts to two-thirds of it. This
mbt, under what wo should call in European countries an
Dal state of afTairs ; and it is evident that under such
,nccs, where the owners of the works and the water are
owners of the land, they could, if they preferred it, give
gratis, and raise the whole of the returns by means of
uent of laud rent. In Southern India, unfortunately, the
prevails, of throwing into one payment the water-rate and
rent, so that one ia unable to distmguish between the two
jS returns.
ie whole, however, these figures, as well as those for
inoontastably that the Undovraar makes an immense
176
profit from the results of irrigation ; wherau fhe water owner hu
to haggle over a petty water-rate with the ooeapier, in, oirder to
make it possible to carry out the works at all ; or, in other wends,
every one profits highly from the water ezoept thoae throii|^
whose skill and management the water itf supplied ; and, more, it
seems likely that this state of things will oontinne nntil the
immense profits of irrigation are fully set forth in such a way
that ignorance of them can no longer be profiassed. When this
is done, a more adequate water-rate can be demanded, and will be
cheerfully paid by the occupier, and a seoond water-rate should
also be demanded from the landowner.
The necessity as well as the justice of a seoond water-rate
from the landlord has been yery recently shown in Ihdii,
although, of course, much opposition was made. There are
certain districts in India where the soil has been either f^liflnrt^
from the Crown by gift at some period, or has been put under a
permanent settlement of land rent in perpetuity, that cannot be
enhanced. In undertaking works of irrigation in such districts,
the GoYemment saw itself deprived of the main source of return
obtained in other cases, through the right of landownership, and
the difficulty was, therefore, met by an Act of the Imperial
Government at Calcutta in 1870, drawn up by General Strachey,
Inspector-General of Irrigation, which, among other matters con-
nected with the subject, ordained that a water-rate should be
paid both by landlord and occupier, and besides, that a certain
small water-rate should be paid by those owning or holding land
within an irrigable area, but declining to use the water or sell
their land. This Act marks an era in irrigational matters, and
points the way to the rest of the world by which carrying out
irrigation projects may be rendered, as they should be, sufficiently
remunerative to those that undertake them ; much praise, there-
fore, is due to the then Inspector of Irrigation for carrying out such
a measure, which must have originally met with great opposition
in a country like India, where the natives will haggle over giving
a halfpenny or a penny for every pound one may put into their
pockets, and where the English, having generally Msely so-called
liberal notions, would, in most instances, not understand the
justice and true liberality of such measures.
B principles and facts may be said to have establisbed for
re, in Europe and elaewhere, that a second water-rato can
demanded from t^e landlord after the laud ia fairly
t nnder irrigation, or, if alternatively, that the occupier'e
e can be increased, so as to Include the two rates in one
, leaving him to settle his own proportion of it with the.^
ing thuB pointed out how important an element of piofin
neglected in the calculations of the Lago Maggiore
,, having indicated its value, and shown how it might have
raised, let us return to the consideration of the cost and „
I data.
n, as to the works themselves and their design, there eeemsi
? Little deserving of special comment : from the remarlorfl
I the drawijig np of the project, the use of hydraulioB
< IB treated as a novelty in Italy, aud is mentioned i
',a adopted in Franco and Belgium ; this may be con^
the key-note of the iudigeuous engineering. Foi
meut of water, the old modulo mngiatrale of Milan, will
trale as the unit of water measurement, remainsil
ine state ; sluices aud outlets are also very primitive. I
I ourselves in England at the present time using the I
ffed locomotive of Trevithick and the cast-iron rails of'l
, and we can understand the progress of the Italian^ in
• ''snch of engineering equally important to them as improved
i-njnication is to ns; while, therefore, criticism, on Itahan
Tifering construction is quite oat of place at present: this
lion, however, does not extend to examination of the rosulta I
i.'.'ir works of irrigation. I
'[,r coiuplete scheme, costing £880 000, will irrigate 190 690
- ivith 247'i cubic feet per second, out of the 2825 of full supply ;
iig proportionately for the remaining 353 cubic feet per
: . -.M ril^ttviu, as the grand j'esult of the whole scheme when .
. ,!,_• iirdcr, an in-igation of 217930 acres, or a tract of 389^
.[■j.i.t! iiiili-s, ftllowinj; one-eighth as unirrigable, for the total cost
-that is, the cost per irrigable acre is a little more than ~4, and
be cost per square mile of irrigable tract is £2256. Referring to
Eoberts for similar information for Spain, we get :
1%
178
Oo»t per aen.
•••
• ••
• • •
ProYince of Madrid
Logrooo
Toledo
Gerona •••
Leon •••
Navam •••
Onadalajara
These are the resnlts of oarefdlly compiled estimaiea, tint
for all contingencieB as well as for liheial oontraetors' jHofiti^l
which there is no mention in the data of the Italian prqjecL
For India we obtain the following lesnlts on partly
canals.
VotalovUnj. Iin^itodaiML ftiek:
£ I.
15 6
716
6 5
8 6
7 10
7 0
6 10
Sq.
Ganges Canal, 1864 2 058 714
1870 2 402 438
Eastern Jamna Canal, 1846 ... 81 460
Western Jumna Canal, 1846 ... 119 405
Bobilcnnd Canals, 1864 ... 81 190
449 788
•••
421875
351 601
83904
16,000
497
1345
These show results of 8, 4, and 5 acres irrigated for £1 ; an
allowing for difference in cost of labour to the very utma
amount, one acre would be irrigated in India for £1, against i
in Italy, or £5 or £6 in Spain.
The differences in cost may perhaps be accounted for in ti
case of Spain, by supposing that the estimates for the works tJM
are for really good construction in the English style. In t
case of India, it may be remarked that the acreage there gif
is the sum of the acres irrigated, continuously, in the autoin
and in the spring; e.g., the total yearly irrigation or acres
of the Ganges Canal for the year 1868, given as 10784
acres, is composed of 60 664 acres continuous, 298 604 sprii
and 734 182 autumn irrigation ; this must then be carefii
borne in mind with reference to Indian irrigated areas ; but e^
after making allowance for this, the Indian construction seems
far more economical in prime cost.
Wtth regart
regard to mniDtenance, the annaal cost in the Lago I
Aggiore project Ib ilOOOO for 317 030 acres; for Spain there
« no available data, but in ludia wo have : — -
EifUb. and
±7 340
12 584
75 731
421 875
351 401
1 078 400
Eastern Jumna CannJ, 1846
Western Jumna Canal, 1846
Ganges Canal, 1868
oA the comparison indicates that, after making sufficient allow-
D(6 for difference of cost of establishment and labour, the foi-mer
ostium far less and the latter far more in Italy, that maintenance
mure in Italy.
I expense per acre to the proprietors in preparing the land,
jciifhes, &c., is £3 178. per acre iu Italy, against £G for com
knd, and £13 for garden laud in Spain ; but this is a matter that
iqiends BO mnch on local circumstances, that the comparison is of
iltle value. Nor again is the point of expense to the occupier
t great importance. In most laud fit for irrigation the expense
■miot be very heavy ; the work is done by the occnpier and Hb
nuilj or field hands during the time that would otherwise be
noccnpied, or at least comparatively so ; and the labour expended
I more than counterbalanced in perpetuity by the saving of work
t the operations of ploughing, harrowing, and hoeing on irrigated
BMUid, which is considerably less than in dry land.
The data of cost of all sorts, taken with reference to the
9eage, do not thus indicate any advantages iu point of economy
1 favour of Northern Italy over Spain and India ; it has not, of
nne, been possible to obtain strictly corresponding data, but it
IB been shown quite possible to draw undeniably just compari-
tua from those given, after making due allowances.
It may be urged that, to relieve the comparisons entirely from
tj doubt regarding acreage, it would have been better to keep them
ittrely in terms of cost, price, value, and return per cubic foot
ir second of supply ; of this there is little doubt, and it would
iTe been so arranged had snfficient data been available in that
rm ; there are, unfortunately, none forthcoming ior Spain, aod J
fL>r Indian returns, in many cases, the terms, cost, price, audi
^HM used without proper discrimination : t&ViQg IWb& i«i\.'QTQaJ
180
rigidly, the cost should be the expense of the works, or ctpitil
account, per cubic foot supplied ; the value should represent thi
whole of the benefits valued and summed per cubic foot, and the
price the simple water-rates paid. Such data, however, as can be
procured are as follows : —
Sapplj.
Toteleort.
Gotkper
eiibie foot
piTMOQIld.
peroliB
feet par
c«b. ft
£
£
I
2825
880000
307
42
4300
2402 4SS
558
44
956
194575
206
62
2800
119405
42
24
Ijago Maggiore project ...
Ganges Canal, 1870
Eastern Jumna Canal, 1870
Western Jumna Canal, 1846
These are not very instructive, as the supply mentioned is p»
bably not in all cases 'the supply actually utilised in irrigitki
alone, and the price yearly may in one case not include, as. li
should, the amounts obtained by increase of laud assessment
It must be remembered, also, that the data for Lago MaggioR
are those of a completely developed project, whereas in the Inditf
data they are, excepting the last, those of only partly or imper
fectly developed works.
That the water-rate of the Lago Maggiore project, 10«. 8(f. fa
sandy, and Is. 5<Z. for clayey soils per acre, is very low indeed
may be shown by comparison with the following rates in Spain
most of which are fixed merely to pay for repairs and guards, th
works belonging to the land without having any interest to par of
Water-rate per acre yearly.
Canal del Urgel . . . 19«. Brf.
Tagus Valley ... ... 10 per cent, of the produce.
Malaga ... ... 19«.
Lobrigat ... ... 58. 6(?. to 17«.
Aragon ... ... 48. to £1 78.
Cataluna ... ... 128. to 168.
Navarra ... ... 128. for four irrigations yearly.
Now Canals ... ... l8. 7rf. to 28. 4d. for each watering.
Frequent custom ... 10 per cent, of the produce.
If 10 per cent, of the produce determined the water-rate on tb
Lago Maggiore tract, it would be from £2 1G8. to £3 l8., instead o
7s. Bd. to 10$. 6d., and this wouVd \>to\>^\A^ be a &irer water-rftU
181
W auatgh htts been pnt forward to show how the project has been
tnndered of its apparent profits, by requiring too much water per
•K, and, besides, by underrating pointa on which the water-rate
id the estimate of the value of the resnltB of the water have
>eu based.
This happens to be of no importance whatever in this special
MS, as the association carrying out the norks consists of users of
IB water, occupiers and landowners, who make and take the whole
' the profits in whatever shape tbey may appear; their object is
< dear themselves of the prime cost of the works in 40 years,
id retain the works permauently as their owu after that time ; and
I they can do so by so fixing the rates as to pay only 7 J per cent.
1 the cost, this arrangement suits their purposes. Beyond this,
e coDclusions one would be liable to arrive at with reference to
JB sclieme, that Ts. 6rf. or 10s. 6d., are just and fair water-ratea
r Northern Italy, and 7|^ per cent, is a fair profit on such works
ere, are evidently false.
If tLese works had been carried out by shareholders not owning
holding the land, a really remunerative water-rate of as much
a half of the value of the increase of produce resulting from
rigatioD, which is evidently much more than .i2 4s. 8d. per acre,
old be easily paid by the occnpiers in the first instance, still
ning large profits both to occupiers and landowners, and from
e latter again the second water-rate might be demanded ; the
g>lu themselves might also he sold at some fixed price either to
li Government or the landowners for a hundred years, having
IsQy p(ud 30 per cent., as the preceding examination has shown.
rbeo it is considered that, even then the landholders would be
itUed to increase permanently the value of the produce of their
ads by one-half without any risk or investment, it seems extra-
'dinary that Italian landholders have not already largely invited
« nse of foreign capital for such undertakings and hypothecated
f^ lands with this object.
The preceding inquiry into the value of the results of irrigation
m, it IB hoped, have furnished ample evidence of the immense
ofita to all concerned that works of irrigation can produce, and .
|MpAtimted clearly that it is solely due to a want of careful iuNOft- ■
^^^^^Kfli^ hare been so much ignored bitketto. ^^^H
182
8.— THE CONTROL OF FLOODS.
The prevention of the sabmergenoe of land by inimditioiil bm\
overoharged rivers, and the drainage from Tnarahea and
land of the water that has been allowed to aoenmnlate omit^
kindred engineering problems that appear at first sifl^t to
bat little difficolty. Their theoretical eolation, when mereljoai
small scale, is ready and simple ; on a larger one, howeiv,
practical details broaght into these problems affect them to sodil
degree, that, althoagh the principles involved cannot be ssidto
sabverted, their carrying oat is fbroed into a oranpaiaAivefy
form.
Land liable to snbmergence from a river is lower than the
flood level, and in open communication with it; the
consist, therefore, either in lowering the extreme flood level in tbsi
channel by providing other passages for the water, partially di^ai-
ing it, or dredging out a deeper channel, or by warping np the Iioli
liable to sabmergence, or by catting off possible commnnicationil;
flood stages between the river and the land by means of embank*
ments. Submerged land, again, remains in that condition kt
want of sufficient natural outfall ; an outfall has, therefore, tote
cut, tunnelled, dredged, or enlarged to a sufficient extent to allof
gravity alone to do the work, should that be possible or economiciQf
sufficient ; in other cases pumps are indispensable.*
Lnagining, then, the case to be one of an area of a few hundred
acres, liable to inundation from a river with a moderate dediritj,
the application of these principles involves generally but little diffi'
culty as regards engineering, and becomes a local economic question,
rather than an engineering practical problem. Patting the cue
again on a large scale, a vast tract submerged by the floods of i
river having a very small declivity — the usual condition when large
areas are submerged — the dimensions entering into the works thst
would be necessary in adhering rigidly to the above prindpkfl
become so large, that their complete execution is positively im-
possible in most cases. Lei na adduce the embankments of the
183
,ii('es, the Miihanudtli, the Po, and the levees of the MiBsieslppi,
lich are not and never can bo complete and sufficiently developed
ineme, hy means of themselves alone, the absolute protection of
the IuiiiIb oq their banks from the devaatating effects of extreme
ods.
this it might be, thoagh perhaps rather thoughtleBsly, replied,
extensive works may be so costly as to be impossible, but
the application of the principles need not vary. It is, however,
at of fact also a matter of modification of the application of
pie.
» ease of a comparatively small river supplying the flood, very
', and in most cases totally, limits the consideration of the
to its principal point, the extreme flood level ; the catchment
a small river being tolerably nniformly sapplied thioughont
afall, its upper portions do not require very special consider-
; the declivity of the small river being tolerably rapid, the eon-
of the lower ranges of the river does not affect the matter
ly very important degree. Remote local conditions being com-
ively disregarded, and it being possible to cope with the flood
B required point both successfully and economically, the works
Ired are necessarily small.
1 a largo scale, on the contrary, the extreme fiood level, the
re, causes, and duration of the flood may be greatly affected
ly of the physical conditions of the entire catchment area
) r^on watered by the river and its tributaries, from the
ft hill on the watershed down to the currents of the ocean,
beyond the river's month ; and as these physical and meteor-
al conditions vary greatly throughout large countries, a perfect
of them as regards the country under consideration is
tely neceaaary in order to arrive ot sufficient information to
I one to propose measures for the mitigation of the effects
I flood. In other words, the natural drainage of the whole
, (uder any slato or circumstances, as well as everj-thing
practically affects it in any way, must bo thoroughly known
will be unnecessary to dilate on the pliysical laws
i8 of our sphere, matters best understood from studyii
works on jih_ysicsl geography to bo found in ao^
anfl
lyinfl
184
library : and a knowledge of these will hence be sssiimed. Th
detailed knowledge, however, of the physieal conditionB, and speciall]
of the rainfall of the region under conaideration, may possibly not 1m
obtainable from any book whatever. It is not sufficient to possea
meteorological statistics of observations taken at a few towns il
the valley of the river, and at one or two points or villages on Um
hills ; it is needful to know definitely what is the greatest amouni
of rain that ever falls in the region, the greatest area in it ova
which rain falls at any one time, and which portions of the am
they are likely to be at any time ; or generally how much wato;
when, and where, so that it may be practically accounted fbc
Detailed observations taken for many years at a very large numba
of meteorological stations are therefore requisite, and it is almori
painful to reflect in how very few instances are even a modeiaielj
small number forthcoming. As a notable exception to this qppt*
rent apathy, may be noticed the large number of meteorologial
stations in the United States of America, and the large sum
annually spent by their Government in obtaining such information.
Besides the meteorological data, a correct detailed topographical
and hydrograpbical knowledge of the whole of the catchment ofi
the river, based on engineering surveys and velocity observations,
is necessary in order to determine the discharge and the flood level
of the river at any time, and under any possible meteorological
condition. Ha\'ing all this information, we are enabled at anytime
to state what will be the results in rise and amount of discharge
of the river, corresponding to and resulting from any special rainfall
lasting for any usual or unusual time over an area, or detached
portions of area within the catchment basin, and the evils to be
contended with are then fully known before commencing to deal
with them and attempting to mitigate their ill effects by means of
engineering works of any sort.
To this it may be replied, that the expense of obtaining all these
data, and especially those of a hydrograpbical and topographical
nature, which cannot bo done except by skilled hydraulic engi-
neers, must necessarily be very large; and if after all this it
should be discovered that under any circumstances no engineering
works* could remove the evils, or even moderate them to an im-
portant extent, the expense would have been uselessly incurred.
185
' Not entirely so. Even shonld no works be attempted, the infer
aation can be made use of in the protectiou of human life, and in
thus mitigating the fearful effects prodoced by sudden and deTas-
tatiug floods. The extent of land liable to submergence nuder cer-
Uin conditions of rainfall in any part of the country being known
U) a practical certainty, the telegraph can he employed to warn the
inhabitants of an impending flood, and allow them to save at least
thuir own lives, and perhaps also that of their cattle and movable
valaables. It may be nrged that the terrible catastrophes resulting
in large loss of life generally commence with the bursting of an
embankment, which happens before the flood overtops it; doubtless
: IS 80, bnt it would be an important part of the topographical
„;;i^wledge to ascertain to what height of flood these embankments,
■iihich, when in sound condition, are in most cases only sufficient
protection against veiy moderate floods, are practically safe.
Timely warning could, therefore, be afforded in any case, and the
inhabitants would be spared the terrible infliction, in case of flood,
of watching the waters rising, and not knowing cither how much
higher they might rise, or to what height of flood their dama
might be safe.
But to proceed to the main object, the protection of the land, as
well as its inhabitants, when the matter is one of large extent and
importance.
The usual practice hitherto, notably in the case of several dis-
tricts in Holland, seems to have been, to construct continuous lines
'jf embankment along all the existing edges of the various channels
iif the river, and discharge the waters withiu them on the flooded
laud into the rivers by means of pumps. This caused no doubt a
c«Ttuin amount of mitigation of evil up to certain height of flood
level only; beyond that, it is sufficiently evident in theory, and has
been fully established in practice, that the means employed cease
to be a remedy, and bccomo a decided aggravation of the cause of
disaster, effecting an excess of external pressure on the embank-
ments. Besides this, as the channels of the river are under these
eircnm stances allowed to silt themselves up, not only the bed level,
mt also the flood level corresponding to the same amount of dis-
, is allowed to rise also ; a second aggravation of the evil.
^ Has t^htiiv^ imm^H^^igt^fif. these, .g
186
bankments canseB them to be exceedingly ooetly. Theie time
reasons will, it is hoped, have snfBoieiiUy dflDMHUtnted ths
Mlacy of employing the means, that are oecaaionaJly apprqpiiiie
on smaller works, to those of large extent.
Before entering into the subject of works baaed on better piin-
dples, let us first examine the conditiona of a flood under dxeam-
stances that admit of easy personal obsermtion.
Let us imagine ourselyes to be standing on the bank of an Indiin
river, as wide as the Thames at Hammersmith, in a numnm
season of unusually high rainfidl, the maximnm annual rainfall
being 74 inches, the day maximum 7 inches. The mansnn, or
periodic rainy season, has set in tolerably mildly ; the river swells,
increases in depth and velocitjr, and is discoloured at first ; thii
afterwards passes away, and the water then runs steadily, tokntb^
clear. The rain increases in the plains, and the Aj gives pros-
pects of a heavy storm in the direction of the uplands of the riier.
Let us watch the effect. The rainfiill of the plains, in fact the
downpour all around us, increases the depth and the velocity of the
river, but its colour is unchanged, in fact it seems nearly pure.
Suddenly a roaring of waters, like that below an overtopped mill
weir, is heard, and up stream we notice a white line of foam
approaching ; three or four minutes, and a flood sweeps by on the
surface of the river, like a wall of water 3 or 4 feet in height ; all
this water is muddy and dark with detritus. The waters after this
again rise still higher for twenty- four hours, but are yet muddy;
the low-lying lands near the river are submerged. We learn afte^
wards that a considerable fall of rain has taken place in the uplands
of the river, and that towns and villages in the plains have been
inundated.
Such is the flood, its subsidence is a matter of less moment;
and such is the type of flood to which those causing serious catas-
trophes generally belong. In this case we fully satisfy ourselves of
the rationale of the flood ; the lowland water rises steadily and
clear, going perhaps one mile an hour ; the upland water comes
down with a velocity of nearly six miles an hour and charged with
silt, — for where else is this velocity and this silt to come from
except from its course in the hills ? — and tops the lowland water;
the combin&tion of waters gradusllj docieasing in speed spread
ilrea oiit OTer Uie land in the first locality, where the form of
lel and hanks adiuit of it, and perhaps in moie than one,
even for miles beyond the natural bed of the river.
How is such a flood to be controlled ? Apart from the Dutch pi-in-
ulready shown to be fallacious on a large scale, there are only
methods, either or both of which can be adopted. The first, the
ivement of the whole of the natural drainage hnea of tlie country
sncb an eitent that the velocity of the waters may under such cir-
cnmBUnccs be increased throughoat the whole course of the river,
aud a little beyond it, into the sea or next large river, and so that
the nKtural bed, thus improved, may bo sufficiently large to carry
off uy previously known flood, without being exceeded. The
Kcond, any means of separating the upland from the lowland
wlers, holding or retarding either the one or the other, or portions
of either one or the other, and providing for their discharge either
Mparately in different courses, or at different times in the same
wterpourse. Let us first indicate the nature of the works re-
i|Diring execution, when the former principle alone is adopted : the
ptrCecting of the natural lines of drainage.
Tte ultimate free delivery of the water into the sea, or any way
" fiitirely free of the river, is perhaps the most important point of
ill, the low-lying lands on the lower ranges of the river being there
>i:i<reeslensive than elsewhere; to insure a free delivery, the main
"iilut of the river should be carried out to deep water, protected on
'"til sides by banks or jetties, against the shore currents, and 8o
'ii^i^d as to avoid as mnch as possible the retarding influence of
:i storms; through the delta, also, a single direct channel of
[■ruperly determined dimensions should be made and protected by
'luliankments; by these means the mass of water mil, in forcing
■■ way in this course to the sea, scour for itself a deeper bed at
'.'L' outfall and throughout the lower ranges of the river, and carry
1 floods more rapidly, improving the river continually. A further
iuiutage from confining the river to one channel ia that of the
.<< lomation of a large amount of land prenonsly occupied by
marshes, as well as by the numerons old channels of the delta.
In the middle ranges of the river the works to be adopted are all
sncb as will promote a more rapid discharge : the enlargement of
BttM bod wherever it is contracted or nnrrowedi the lemo'na.V oC
^ ■
()l)stacles, rocks, siimll isljiuds, silt deposits, shoals, or anything
that impedes velocity ; the straightening of the course wherever it
can be done to good eflfect ; the prevention of the deposit of silt in
such places as would be objectionable ; the deepening or dredging
of the bed in the requisite places : the whole coarse to be put
under a regimen that would remain constant generally, and besidei
continue to improve itself by scouring in contradistinction to its
former habits of silting up and causing its flood leyels to rise.
In the uplands, all the works which should be constructed an
those that have for their object the control of the detritus washed
down, and the prevention of its deposit at onfftTonrable spots. 1i
the silt could by any means be entirely prevented from being oanied
down into the middle ranges of the river, or into the plains, it
would be a great achievement; but this being hardly posribb^
palliative measures are perhaps all that can be adopted. Besides
this, the hills might be covered with thick plantations, which,
catching the rainfall, would delay its departure, prolong the dura-
tion of the flood, and thus lessen the amount of flood water pass-
ing off at any one time, or mitigate the flood.
The necessary works dependent on the second of the principles
previously mentioned, would be so greatly dependent on local cir-
cumstances that they can only be indicated generally. The
separation and control of the water from the uplands can b^
attained by making storage reservoirs at certain places at the
foot of the hills, and running all the water falling on them into
these by means of catchwater drains skirting the bases of th^
hills; from these reservoirs the water can be allowed to escape
under control into the main watercourse ; or, if practicable, ihe
upland waters may be discharged through very large catchwater
drains, independently of any reservoir, into some other collateral
watercourse that may be convenient, employing even, if necessary,
a separate outlet for the discharge into the sea of the upland waters.
In the case, however, of the main river or watercourse being
employed as the outlet for the upland waters, it becomes necessary
to separate the lowland waters from them as long as possible. In
order to do this, the arterial drainage lines of the plains on each
side of the main river require rectifying and improving; their
waters then have to be cut oft fiom \\*, %xid earned by two canals
be main rirer as far as some point where it majr
:liarge them into it through regnkting alnices,
into some artificial reservoirs or lakes. These
1 insure the additional advantages of perfeeting
^e of the country, and of having a good water
ion.
of the two principles thus described wonid insure ft
ind an effective control of floods nnder any procti-
aces. That such works would necessarily he expen-
■ doubt whatever, but they would still be less costly
ctive than the continuous lines of embankment
.he fallacious principles before quoted; the works
mprove the rivers instead of deteriorating with lapse
the gain by reclamation and irrigation wonld, apart
jllateral advantages, yield a profitable return.
4.— TOWAGE.
tsperiments show that the paU on the towrope of »
ithin practical limits, proportional to the square of the
that it varies widely according to the form of the
iming then g general formula,
R = fc T V*
the resistance in lbs..
: the displacement of the barge in tons.
water in miles per hoar,
kii the form of tho barge.
I small and LLuff barges of alx
, and for limits of speed
or genei
employed on the Danabe wire-rope sjstem, which have a leng
about eight times thuir be&m, and are about 287 toaB' dispUcemei
The limit' of speed for ahipa will be ibont 10 miles aa hoar, u
beyond these limits the remstuioe B mmld my with the fbuili
power of T: but within the »sanmed limiti, ealcnlationa m«jh
made oc the shore data.
The nomber of horses reqoiied to draw it tiain of barges m;
hence he readily dedaced. The beat pwfi>rmanoe of a diangfa
horse working 8 hoars per day, is asanmed to be at thfe speed o
2|- miles per hoar, when he will exert an average poll of aboa
120 lbs. ; sabstitDting this 'nine in the ahore formtila, we ol)tiii
for the tonnage that one hoiae will pnfl at the speed of 2-5 rmk
an hour in still water,
B' 120
In a current, the resistance or the pnll npon the tow-line m
increase as the square of the speed throagh the water, bat tb
horse in this instance moving over the ground is going at
less speed than that of the boat through the water ; and ih
is an important distinction, which must not be overlooked i
estimating the effect of a current. The mode in which tl
necessary correction must be effected will be best illostrated 1
an example.
Beferring to the last example, let us assume that the barge
113 tons' displacement encounters an adverse current of 1 m:
on hour, and it is required to know the reduced speed at whi
the horse will then go, assuming him to be performing the sai
average work per hour.
In the last case, the said work in mile-poonds was 120
2-5 = 300 mile-pounds per hour ; in the present case the p
upon the rope will be proportional to the square of the veloci
through the water (V), and the pull the horse is capal
of pulling will be inversely proportional to the velocity
which he is travelling (v) ; and the difference between thi
''■■• TeliMtties will be tho speed of the current (i',) ; wo '.
V ^ 0 + Ci where y, ^ J milo per hour
and Kv = 300 mile-poanda per hour
V*(V+- tP,) = 15-4
iihcLce B = 19-4 V^ and V* — V» = IS'i.
^living which we obtain V = 2'86 miles per hour, the speed of
■LJif boat through tho water ; — and the speed past land, or rate at
«liich the horse is going, will be 2'86 — 1 = 1'86 milee an hoar.
It will be observed from this example that the influence of the
ctirront is relatively less important when horses are employed,
than when steam-tugs, either paddle or screw, are nsed, the
R'uson being that in the lattc^r ease the reaction operates npoa
till! moving ciureut, whilst in the first case against the immov-
■Me tow-path. Thus, in the present example, if the horse instead
"f being an animal moving on the tow-path had been a steam
horee in a tug, the speed through the water would be the same,
whether the water was still, or ever so rapid a current. In this
ioBtSDce 2'd miles an hour tho speed past the land, which is
the useful result, would bo reduced to IS miles an hour in the
«i6 of the tog, instead of to 1*86 when horses are used.
The difference of conditions will be more strongly marked if
»e assume the current to bo 2-5 miles an hour, because then
it is obvious that the steam tug, capable of moving through
slill wat«r at that rate, would simply maintain its position if
il encountered such a current ; and although the paddle-wheels
or screw would be revolving at the same rate as before, the only
resnlt of their effects, namely, the maintenance of position of
llie boat would bo equally attained if she dropped anchor ; in
short, the whole power exerted would be thrown away. In the
instance of the barge towed by horses, on tho other hand, the
wLoIe power cxortod would be utilized ; and it may be shown
by the same reasoning as in the last example, that the IIS ton
barge would be towed by one horse against a current of 2'6
miles an hour, nt the rate of IJ miles an hour.
Obviously the same reasoning would apply, whether the motive
r on the toT-path were horeeB or a locomotiTe, or whether \
1!)2
the tow-path were tliepeiised wHIi, and a rope were laid down in
the bed of the river, and coiled rouud a dmin in a steam-barge
in the manner now gonorally admitted to be the most economical
mode of oondocting hea^^ traffic at a slow speed in rivers of
rapid enrrent and on still-water canala.
From the *Rbovo we may conclude that, in order to tabulate
for the effect of a current on tbe diminution or increase of speed
of a horse, we have to calculate the increased or diminished
value of Y the velocity throagh the water, and apply it in the
general formula —
inserting difilarent valnea for the ooostant b, whieh lie between j
■109 and -iGQ, according to the form of the barge. j
In the above case R = 130 Um. fbr a draught horse ; but for \
other animals corresponding values of B, with reference to their
beat continuona speed, can be applied.
Assuming a case of a current of 3 miles an hour, and that
the ordinary limits for the speed of the horse in towing a load
with and against ^tream, are 4 and 1 mile an hour respectively,
the Velocity through tbe water becomes 1 and 4 miles an hour,
and the loads 706 and 44 tons, the horse performing the same
average work, bnt executing the average pull of 76 lbs. with stream,
and 300 against it.
Tbe values required are given for the limits in the following
form.
For barges having 113 t^ns' displacement, and a coefBcient
6 a= 0'17, the results are as follows: —
With the cnmnt.
iDltUl
witer.
AguntttheeDHMt.
., = 30 2-5 1-0
V = 179 1-88 2-2
■ f, » 4-79 4-38 32
0
2-6
2-5
10 2-6 30
2-86 3-66 3-97
1-86 1-16 -97
/
V, = SCO 3-6
2-5
1-6 0 -0-5
193
Here r, is the velocity of the current, whether favourable or I
T is the velocity of the barge through the water.
Tj IB the speed of the horse.
Vj is the velocity through the water for the case in 1
ich a steam-barge is used, and is given to illttstrate the com- '
5.— ON VARIOUS HYDBODYNAinC FORMTTL^.
The resolls of the various formulie given for determining dis-j
oarges, according to various authors, vary very greatly ; and it i
cDce iDtfresting to examine them in a tabulated form in comparison 1
rith moBSored discbarges.
The following data of comparison are given by Mr. David Steven- J
OD, and by Captains Humphreys and Abbot ; they apply to foar '
El of river discharge, from a small stream up to the Mia-
ppi ; tbas including all limits within which such formulee are
itqulred.
1. For a stnail stream of 24 cubic feet per second. Mr. David
Stevenson made careful measurements, and velocity observatioue,
anil compared the measured results with the results of formulse.
I- Measured discharge ...
■-. By Dubuat's formula ...
!. liy Robinson's formula
■■. By EUet's formula
'. Ry Beardmore's tables
''. By Downing's formula, coefficient I'OO
7. liv Leslie's formula, coefficient -68 ...
32-60
36-90
46-40
38-92
41-23
28-04 .
i. For a river of 2421 cubic feet per second. Mr. David
StereoBon and Dr. Anderson made velocity observations on the
Taj, at Perth, and the comparisons are thus :
1. Measured discharge
By Dabuat's fonnti]
8. By Bftbineon's formnla
4. By ElletH formEla
fi. By BearJmorc'e Ubnkr fotinnU
6. By Dowuiug's formula, coofficioni, !■
7. By Leslie's formnla, coefficient, '
It is onfortuuate tbat iu these two cases the hydrftul
which wonld ensble hb to eztand the «Hiii»riKni to other fbn
•re not giTen.
8. For ftluge river of 81 861 eabio fiset par seomd ; the i
Om QaeU VUnkm, Baeuared ^ Ur. Deitnoi, wan u £dUowb:
Area of RWtioii IS S04 vltlth S81
IDbehuge Si SM pttbiMfer 89B
Meut Telocity a-01B6 uMBtolini HepQi 11
Blo^ . . >00OOU8r
The following are the results due to these data calcnlated b; yi
fi>nniilsB for mean reloeity of discharge :
1. Meaanred discharge
2. Young's coefficient ...
8. Eytelwein's coefficient
4. X>ownlt]g'B coefficient...
B. Dnbnat's formula
6. Girard's formula
7i De Proof's canal formula
8. Yoong's formula
9< Dnpoit's formnla
10. St. Yenant's formnla
11. Ellet's formnla
12. MiBBissippi new fOimnla
4. For a very large river, the MissiBBippi at Carrolton
tteMared data at high water in 18(1, wem,
Area of section 193 968
Discharge t U9 948
Mean velout; 5-9238
Slope -000 020 61;
Width 9653
perimeter 269S
depth 186
I oorrespotidiDg results, which are kept in terms of mea
ntity to reduce 6gures, were,
Measured
Yonng's coefficient ...
EyteUvein's coefficient
Downing* 9 coefficient
Dnbaat'B funntik
Girard's fonnuta
De Prony'B canal formnla
Yonng's formnla
Dupuit'a foimuia
St. Venant's formiila
Kllet's formnla
. Mississippi new formula
s-24oel
8-5898 j
3-8434 i
2-7468 ]
4-8148
3-7271
3-2741
4-8762
8-490r ]
8-0461 '
A t:&refal examination of these resalts in foar cases of rivers
■niiot fail to be instmctive ; bnt before entering into comment _
n the discrepancies and their peculiarities, let us also examine tha J
Dg list of total discrepancies of mean velocity in thirty cases '
, streams, and canals of all sizes given by Captains Hum-
I and Abbot in the Mississippi Report, which would, no
, be more instrnctive wore the cases classified as to size.
^The total discrepancies are :
^ Measured mean velocity of discharge discrepancy
I Toang's coE'ffidont ...
LEytelwein's coefficient
t Downing's coefficient
t Dabaat's formula ...
[ Girard's formnla
[ De Pronj's canal formnla
, Toang's formula ...
. Ihipnit's formula ...
[ 10. St. Tenant's formnla
11. Ellet's formula
. Mississippi new formnla
tUuB
_
last table of dcrepancies it appears that the MibbIb-
196
sippi new formula is by far the most correet, and after it tl
formulee of Dupuit and Downing, while the two worst are il
formulae of EUet and Dubuat ; but then it must be rememben
that the greater number of these thirty cases are those of large to
very large rivers.
In the fourth of the previous cases, a very large river Hk
Mississippi new formula is by far the most correct, and then ood
in order of correctness, Dupuit, Girard, and Downing, while EDJ
and Dubuat are again the worst. In the third case. Downing i
most correct, then Dupuit, afterwards the Mississippi new formuli
Ellet and Dubuat again the worst. In the second case EUet an
Dubuat remain the worst, and the best are Bobinson, Beardmoi
and Downing. In the first case Leslie and Dubuat are best, ai
Downing worst.
It will be understood that the formula mentioned as Downing
being more familar to many under that name, is really that i
d*Aubuisson, but applied to English measures.
The inevitable conclusion from all these comparisons is that d(
one of these formulro is correctly applicable to rivers of differ^i
sizes, nor holds its ovra equally as regards correctness throughout
For the few and special cases in which the discharge of an extremeN
large river is required, the Mississippi new formula would necai
sarily be used, in spite of its form being rather unwieldy ; and k
the same way Dupuit* s formula for a large river. But for ordii
general purposes the thing that the practical hydraulic engini
requires is a formula tolerably well suited to all cases and of
simple form, so as to admit of easy rapid calculation. The
simple type of formula is that of Downing or d'Aubuisson, whicK
gives for mean velocity of discharge
V = 100 (RS)*
where R = mean hvdraulic radius
and S = mean hydraulic slope ;
a::d this, too, is the formula shown to have been generally the most
correct throughout all the comparisons and discrepancies, failinj
only in the very smallest streams, and evidently worse according w
the stream or discharge is less; this then is evidently the be^
forzDulfi for general purposes, and simply requires modification b;
experimental coefBcients to answct «\\ o\^\ivw3 it^x^ocoeisit^utB.
197
The fortunljB of Young, Eyt^lwein, Beardmore, ytoveiiBon,aiilj
lUe, all belong to this type, merely using other numerical coef
stB instead of 100.
I Potting Downing'a fonaula into the general form
V = ■■ X 100(RS)i
where c ^ 1 according to Downing,
• Tklne« of c, according to the other formuhc of the same type a
Yoang, for large streams
Neville, rivers, velocity<l'5 feet
>l-fifeet ...
Eytelwein, generally -934
Beardmore, open channels ... ... ... '942
Stevenson, for rivers of 30 cubic feet
„ 2500 cubic feet
Il.eslie, small streams
„ large streams...
DowDing I
Taylor [for open channels
D'AubuisHou j
From the comparison of the results of the formula! containing'"
) eoefiicieuts, we may then tabulate values of c that will be
lly correct, when suitably applied into the general formula.
I eomparisons before mentioned show that Downiug's coeffi-
l"00 gives too small results iu cases when the area exceeds
) square feet, witb a mean velocity of 2'5 ft,, or a discharge of
) cubic feet per second, and too large results for cases of
r data; that the Eytelwein coefficient '934 iu the same way
1 small above and too largo below discharges of about 2000
c feet per second : and the Young coefBcient -843 is iucorrect
Bverything above 900 cubic feet per second ; also that for petty
ms of 25 cubic feet per second, a coefBcient of about '600 is
rably correct.
^ is evident then that with a very large number of eases of care-
iasored discharge, this principle of determining practical
Dta in relation to approximate volume or velocity might be
V^ to further exactness ; allowances for irregulariti
Ifttcnl bends, and eo forth, being made independently of
ooefficaent, ne would be done in any case.
Some tabulated vulucs of c, determined in this way, enitab
oanals in earth in good order, are given in Chapter I., page 30
To apply this same principle to discbarges through pipes, ta
the Bame general formula,
V = 0 X 100 (RS)'.
Ab this fitimula becomee more conveuient in practice in tent
■ of the pipe (rf), it hecomeH for lull cylindrical i
the diameter
and tabw, when B b ^ '
- V»o X 60(dS)*.
And again as the actaaldiBoba^iitbe^DaDtity most often wai
this is
Q = A<"= « X '7S54 d* X 50(82)1.
»« X 89-27 (Sd*)*;
and transpoaing this
Taking, then, an e
the variona formnba,
Ample i
order to compare the resulti
Let Q = 18'57 cnbic feet per aecond
8 = 1 in 1276,
and the resolts then are for diameter :
1. By Dabnat'B formula
2. By Neville coefBdent -228
3. By the above formula, coefficient 0*23
4. Young's modification of Eytelwein ...
6. Beardmore, coefficient '2S6
6. Hawksley (in Box's tables)
7. De Prony and Darey
8. DeProny's modification of Dnbnat ...
9. Gemey
4E
Besides these, there are Tery many anthers that would \
results for diameter very much below that of Young ; it ai^wars i
that none of these formnlse apply equally well to both hi^ and
relooitieB of discharge, Blthongh it la nofortanate that a BofiSoiei
199
namber of data arc not forthcoming to dctermiue correotly^
-luits at wbicb it would be advisable to change the coefficient,
_o aboye comparisons while showing the merits of tlie TarioQS
aix in certain cases, also point to the very evident conclusion,
a rariable coefficient of discharge is necessary both for rivers,
cl:.muels, and pipes; and that it must be suitable both to the
liaa^uKions and the conditions of each particular case. The best
pode now known of doing this is that of Mr. Kutter of Bern, which
y applied to Englieb measures in Chapter I. of this Manual : the
Ines of coefficiente being also given in the Working Tables.
6.— IRRIGATION FliOlI WKLLS IN INDIA.
There ia unfortunately a large number of Indian ofliciats that
idieve tliat irrigation from wells in Itxdia is more pto&tahle than
■ligation from canals conveying the water of rivers and delivering
t on the surface of the land by the aid of gravity alone ; they
foar^y are men not likely to be persuaded to the contrary by
tpneers, however good their reasoning might be ; and, unfor'
itely, engineers are not always provided with facts and figures.
these latter, therefore, the following data may be of service ;
Iwy were drawn up as applicable to the years 1855 and 1870;
9m former by Captain Baird Smith, the latter by the author.
Campariaon .of Irrigatioti hi/ Wdls with that by Canals for a\
Diatrid of 1 500 000 acres in Northern India in 1865.
i
By wellB — Capital : —
Wells costing i'20 each, for 10 acreH
.. £3 000 000
Machinery, etc. (and bullocks ?) ...
... 1 000 000
£4 000 000
Annual expenses: —
300 000 men at £S a year
iJJIOOOOO
1 200 000 bullocks at .£1^ a year
.. 1440 000
10 per cent, interest on capital ...
400 000
£2 740 000
200
B; oanalB : —
(aHBumiiig the data of the EaBteru Jnmna Canal).
Capital:--
1 600 OOO acres at 5b. an acre £376£»O0
Annaal expenses : —
Water rent at 2». an acre £160 000
WateroDurse repairs at 7rf. an acre ... 43 750
Labour at ^2 83. per annum 72000
10 percent, interest on capital 37^00
£203350
Cotnpar'ison in favour of Canah.
Capital 1 to 9 ; annaal expenses 1 to 13.
Saving effected annually 2^ millions. I
Compariton of Irrigation by Weilt with that by Canalt u
Northern India, for 1870.
Data. — The Eastern Jamng Canale in 1864-65 had coat IG
pei acre irrigated ; the Western Jnmna, np to 1868-64, hitd to
12«. : hence asaoming 208. for a leas favoorable canal.
By oanal : —
Capital expended on a developed canal should
notexceed
Betnm levied by water-rate, dnes, acd increase
of land aBsessment
Working expenses
Net profit 60 pet cent.
By wells : —
Capital expended on a well 10 feet deep with
machinery, &c., to irrigate 10 acres at a
cost of £30, gives a cost per acre
Working expenses, inclnding interest on prime
ooat ... ...
0 15
0 6
0 10
Compur
in favour of CanaU.
I GipiUl 1 to 3 ; anaual expeusea 1 to 4.
Kj&Ttiig effected aiiuually ou a district of 1 500 000 acrea, i
le profit of 50 per cent, net, allowed in the last comparison,
■dratdy been exceeded on the Eastern Jumna Canals; nor is
I nearly so high a profit as might have been effected had the
t been carried out steadily, continnouelj, and by experienced
^eera, under arrangements that would have caused or forced
^landholders at once to utilize all the water, or sell their lands
B that would do so.
Iher important data in connection with irrigation canals are,
I sanng effected by doing away with remission of land assess-
t in famine years, and the value of the produce and cattle
a years of drought ; the indirect advantages to the country
[ the Government, resulting from increase of produce and of
Jstion, are innumerable. Well irrigation, on the contrary,
I at the time when it is most wanted, the ordinary wells,
' lieiTic shallow, drying up in years of drought,
lu the Hydraulic Statistics are »ome data having reference to
gittion from wells in different parts of India. ^
7 —THE WATERING OF LAND,
llie following ia the usual mode of classifying crops with
^ord to their special treatment under irrigation. 1. Grass
meadows, or natural meadows of gramineie. 2, Dry grain crops
or cereals. 3, Leguminous crops. 4. Root crops. 5. Those
»}iecially requiring more water : rice, indigo, tobacco, sugar,
bamboo, water-nuts. 6. Garden or fruit crops. 7. New plan-
fus, and trees.
iculiorities of climate, soil, and water will generally affect
amount of water required for irrigation probably more than
the species of crop. In England meadows of grass land, or
Italian rye-grass, are those that generally profit most from irri- k
ition. The usual plan is to keep the land flooded to a depth ^|
2U^
two inoheB during the moaUis of October, November, December
aod January, for twenty days at a time, and then to l^t the
water drain off from it for five days, before patting it again nnder
water. In frosty weather, bowever, the field should always remaiu
flooded. In February and March the fields are flooded for eigbl
days at a time at night only ; at the end of March the land is left
dry ; and in Uity the grass-crop is cat. Irrigating fields in England
in the hot weather is liable to produce rot in abeep, bat does sot
harm eatUe.
There are two metbods of laying out the courses or cbaunelB
jn EngUah fields :
1. The bedwork syBtem, applicable to flat land.
2. The oatehwater system, applicable to steeper country.
According to tho former, the land is made into a series of leiy
flat ridges, having a general direction uoarly at right angl^ to
the channel of supply, and being never more than 70 yards long
and about 40 feet wide, the inclination of the ridge itself Imnng
a fall of about 1 in 500, and the inclinations of the sides of
the flat ridges varying with the retentive power of the soil, from
1 in 100 to 1 in 1000 ; the crown of the ridges is not neces-
sarily, therefore, in the middle of the breadth of the base of the
ridge. The feeding and drainage channels are generally from
20 inches wide at their junctions to 12 inches at their ends.
The catchwater system used in Devonshire and Somersetsliire
consists of a series of ridges made aeroas the general coarse of
the water, which hold the water op, and retain it over sneceB'
aive long strips, the water passing slowly round the end of oM
ridge to the lower land above the next ridge, and bo on. Hu*
is necessarily far cheaper than the other system — about ibal^ and
'^n be carried ont at the cost of about five pounds an acre.
Throughout the world generally, there may be said to be oolj
ioor methods of distributing water on or throogbont suriMat,
of which all others are mere modificationa. In all eases it is
best that the land should have one general slope Hhroa^aot,
the irrigation channel ronning along the head of Hub iiope, the
main catchment drain along the bottom.
Tiie first method is that to which the Eln^sb bedwwk gydfga
•203
^, tho field being prepared iu furrows and ridges alternately J
En>m the bead to tlie foot of the dope, either in the direction of fl
tbi; fall or makiug an angle with it, according as the quality of!
thi> soil and the general slope of the land may require ; these
lit farrows, being from 10 feet to 50 feet wide and only a few
iachea in depth, receive the water from the irrigating channel,
vhicli will then cover the land nearly up to the crests <if the 4
Tidies, or in fact entirely if need be.
Tile second method is very similar to the first, but the water,
ia9t*fld of flowing in the furrows, runs in Uttle trenches cut along I
tbc crests of the ridges, overflows the sides, waters the slopes, and j
draiQs off in the furrows down to the maiu catchment drain. Ths 1
ridges used iu this system are generally w^ider than those of ths I
first system, and have a greater lateral inclination.
The third or commonest method for applying water on a small I
>n\c is to distribute the water in little trenches around small I
squares and rectangles of land, allowing it to permeate throughout. I
&e anrface enclosed, which must be very nearly level with the I
vaUr in the trenches.
TLc fourth method, most commonly adopted in Spain, Portugal, i
mi India, in cases where much water is required to remain on the '
l»Dd for some time, as for rice-cropa, or many grain and other
CJopa in their early stages, that could not thrive on hard baked
mil, consists in levelling the land into a number of nearly flat
"qnsrea and rectangles, divided from each other by small ridges or ■
hrarf mud walls, to hold the water on them. The number of rect- I
ingles depends on the fall of the ground ; the water is allowed to I
lotr in at some comer or temporary break, and flow out in the same I
'uy on to the next rectangle when it has remained suthciently long. I
As to soil : — For the surface, the most permeable is best, being I
lOflt easily warmed, and allowing the water to arrive at the roots [
' the grass most quickly ; a retontive surface-soil causes evf^)»
ition, and cools the land, which is generally a disadvantage, I
lOugh not so under some circnmstances ;— a subsoil of clay, being 1
'tentive, is an advantage iu very dry climates, as it economise
iter. In hot climates the soil is of inferior importance to t
y of the Bilt transported and depositod.
all the wAttt- as distributed, a mode more likely to fci a^ptedit
present, noir that modules are lees expensive and more cifi>ctJTe
tlutn formerly.
3. By area of land irrigated, or by crop.
TIuB baa the fullowing disftdviiDtftgeB; the laad to bo irrigated
iB BilwftyB TOrying in amount, and this cannot be watched in detail
oontiantU;, nor can the landowners be trnsted to state trntiifully
the UDOOnt of acreage over whicli water has been distrlbntfd,
' The onip oau also be varied, so as to nse more or lesa water, wi
the payment by crop also would be nseless against cheating. A^iun,
in a good raany aeason the cultivator might try under these cir-
oumatanceB to do without the canal water, thus causing the v^iies-
rate to be precurious.
8. Water distrilmtion by rotation.
Ao irrigating channel of fixed dimension, giving a constant fixed
discharge, passes through the lands of several proprietors ; a period
of rotation la fixed for this channel, from 6 to 16 days occordiugts
the crops, the former for rice and the Utter for meadow land, u,
for instance, in Italy. Each landowner can then bare tbe whde
volume of the channel tnmed on to his land once in the total
period of rotation for a certain number of hours, as from two to
forty or fifty according to the amount of land he owns.
For example. Let ten days be the period of rotation, and let
him reqnire twelve hoars' Bupply once in that period. His name iB
placed on the hat, say sixth, and he gets his supply tnmed on tt
a fixed honr and turned off at a fixed hour also. If the channel
gives twenty cnbic feet per second, his amount of water is equiva'
lent to a cootinuoas discha?^ of = 1 cnbio per second
240
In this way intermittent supplies admit of mntnal comparison.
Last with regard to the cultivators themselves : — Whether oi
the Continent, or in England, the fiirmer is generally a grumble:
under any state of afi'airs. In India the cultivator invariably com-
plains, although his assessment is veiy small by comparison vritt
the local circumstances ; if he grow two very moderately good cropi
in the year, it wonld only amount to about two and a half per cent
per annum on the value of the produce, and he can therefore well
afford to pay large watei-r&tea, especially since both the yield and
EDaiober of crops jirodnced on irrigated land is doubled, ftnd
lughest water-rote is smaU in comparison with t.lie expense of
ing wells and roieing the same amount of water by animal
r thronghont the year; he (injoys also tho advantage of living
r a goTerumcnt that remits the land assessment, and dis-
B food i^atis in years of famine, while not demanding more
it in years of plenty. If tho water-rate ia in some just
1 to the increase of produce and saving of expense result-
1 the irrigation, it matters not bow large per acre the rate
■ tppear to be. If the irrigation is applied to suitable land in
■ A way that the natural drainage of the country is not inter-
I with, there can be no detriment to the health of the culti-
.; this can, however, be rarely carried to perfection in octoal
To this it can be replied, that the population will thrive on
vwbole and increase largely, which may be considered as a
r on that uc^onnt, and that landowners who prefer going
^ can always do so and part with their land at a premium;
1 always commanding a ready sale. A compulsory water-rate
md that is under water command cannot be considered a hard-
■ ly any one that considers the subject in a fair, unprejudiced
iner; the privilege of being able to obtain water shonld be paid
fcr.sad Binoe the same principle has always been applied to town
y of water, for which every inhabitant has to pay whether be
it or not, there ia no reason for leaving the payments of water-
Meiii th« cootitry to be optional. Wbetlier both the landowner
' Ud tiw occapier should pny separately for the advantages they
IhjiIi reooivo is a point dependent on the local tenure of land ;
iinder ordinary circumstances they donbllcsa should do so, the
■iijopier being benefited by increase of produce, the landowner by
n-TOftse of rent ; but in any case the whole of the advani
'lyuld be paid for.
itagflJM
■ orl|
8.— CANAL FALLS.
Tiint a full of water at tho headworka, 'or at any part
'"Dul. should be allowed to remain unutilized, appears, in these
'•■'}' of expensivo fuel and costly motive power, to be a very
r^iiufol waste of a valuable advantage. One's natural tendency
in to drviHc means and ways of using everything, ami to \«\^ii6
that there coald hardly (mat circumBtances under vltui
would be neoeBsai7 to arrange for the destruction of the
uid Telocity generated by a fall of water. Grinding
preasing sngar, oi- extracting oil, are requirements
barbaroas coantries, by which such motive power coold be easilj^
ntiliBOd, even if it were available for only four months in ^le
year. In spite of this, however, it aeems rather frequently to
occur, that in distant countries the engineer baa to devise means
for destroying the (Effect of a fall of water ; this occurs, generally,
either at the heaclworka of a canal, where the water entering tiu
oanal in flood seasons has a great head of pressure, or at certain
points in a canal where, owing to the inclination of the coontt;
being steeper tbctn that due to a convenient velocity ot canil.
current, it has been fonnd necessary to concentrate the super-
abonduit foU : the Ganges Canal and the Bari Doab Canals hare
many such examples. In either case, as the fall is independent
of navigation of any sort, which has to be condncted in a speciil
channel of d6tonr, the problem is one of economy. The nataral
means would be to break up the force of the water by both lateral
and -vertical breaks and angular obstacles, and to oppose the
remains of the velocity by a pierced breakwater, beyond which
the water would issue with so small & current as not to be able to
cause any damage to the bed and sides of the canal, or to cause ^
any prejudicial eA'cct to navigation.
The breakwater, iiivolviug an enlargement of the width of the
channel, and, if a rock fouudntiou be not available, requiring
artificial and carefully made foundations carried to some depth, is
necessarily expensive, and is hence generally dispensed with,
except under favourable circumstances.
The fall itself is generally a modification of one of the three
following types : —
1. A uniform, or a broken general incline.
2. A vertical fall with gratings.
3. A vertical fall with a water- cushion.
The most primitive mode of managing such &Ub of water was
to conduct it down an incline, made as gradual as possible, and
break up the velocity by a series of steps.
A long reach of rocky bed oSei^ a uiTi-^ciTi\«at o^^portomly fiv
209
-nclioD, which could be hewn in the solid rock. la \
)r oases, where it would require building on artificial foanda-
IB, the expense would be verj' great ; and, even if the inciine
M so made that the resulting velocity were not high, the edges of
I trettda of the st«ps, even in good stonework, would soon wear,
A tlie maJDteDauce of the fall would also become an important
im of expense. Apart from these objections also, this type is I
KBtisfsctury. Although the treads of the steps maj be set with
correct reverse inclination, so as to oppose more directly the
dined direction of motion of the momentum of the water ; and,
though a farther improvement may be made iu giving a more <
uaiderable reverse inclination to the treads, and by allowing t I
up proportion of the water to run olT laterally and wind down I
Iu Uepe ; yet under all circumstances the inherent defects re- I
Dun ; the steps cannot accommodate themselves to the variation
uS the quantity of water passing down the fall ; if the steps are
RnaU, ihoy fail to receive effectively the over-falling water when the
kmomit increases, and become then comparatively valueless; if
tit- steps are very large, the rise and tread of each step causes the
iiy acquired from each step, which it mnst be remembered
uses in the ratio of the square of the height of the step, to
Lfy much increased, and to become veiy destructive to the
:'...i lie work.
i'Le next improvement on the inclined type of fall is tho ogival
till a^d on the canals of Northern India ; iu this the general slope
qI descent from the head to the foot of the double curve is from
out to six to one in nine ; the upper one-third of the slope being
til' chord of the upper or convex curve, which is tangential to the
surface of the water in the upper reach ; and the lower two-thirds
<'/lhc slope being the chord of the concave cur\'e, which is tangential
iu tlic convex curve above, and tangential to the horizontal line at its
l"Ber extremity. The height and length of the fall applicable to
*Dv special case is determined by equating the discharge of the
"pen channel above with the discharge over a weir. The principle
»bich this form of construction asserts is that the water at the foot
of thedescent, being deprived of all vertical action and delivered
WixoDtolly, will not cause any damage to the bed of the channel
aio
In outmlR vheie it u reqnind tint the ^aebMKgt thould mud
perfeetl; nniform and anaflbetad by iU &I1 down the veir or inclin
theBO ogival fklls mnst neoesflBril; bare their aUlfl nised above ti
lerel of the channel-bed of the nj^er leuh ; u woold also a iaU
nnifonn alope.
Carres on more carefoUy «limi*i»tajl prino^oa have also tiei
tried with the object of effiaeting some improranent, hat the aim
tages resulting appear oomparativel; small. Then earres genanl
effect no docfat aome aanng of masonty in etunpaiiaon with th&tl
a single onifbrm slope, and probably deliTer the water with bl
destmctiTe result than the latter; they are, bowerer, atill espeoa*
and the action of the water deliTered is imther ooncentrsted, u
hence destrnctiTe. Ad attempt at eoonomy on soeh falls has Im
made by narrowing the &11, and thus jUtniTiiahiiig the amonntl
masonry ; bat the results, oaoaed by the increase of action i
well BB irregularity of effect of the water, reqnire grcnter expend
tnre in repair; they present also the additional dib^advuDU^
that daring repair the whole fall instead of a part has to bi
stopped.
In the above cases of inclined falls it is supposed that it has beei
found conTeuient to concentrate the fitll in a oomparntiveljsboi
length ; in other cases, where it is spread over a long reach, it i
usual to attempt to annihilate the velocity resulting at the foot o
the incline by introducing a reach of canal having a reverse slope
and in cases where a greater length still can be allowed for th
incline, to break it up into portions of descent, each followed by I
portion with a reverse slope and then a abort horizontal ten^
thus opposing the accelerating effect in detail without allowing ill
resnlts to accamulste. In sach work the bed of the channel must
necessarily be paved ; if the velocity do not exceed 10 feet or 11
feet per second, large rough convex boulders, laid dry, form thi
most suitable paving ; and even up to 16 feet per second the bsbW
method maybe adopted if very large' boulders alone are ussd;
beyond that velocity the boulder work requires packing with shiu^
and pebbles, and grouting with good hydraulic mortar.
While the above arrangements may destroy a great deali)f A*
velocity, there is perhaps almost always a certain amount of it still
remaining at the foot of ike inc^na, ui&. diusild the «>imt>a1 at tlui
311
happen to be in soft soil, further arrangemeots, tail-wallE
vood spurs, or piles, are hIso necesaary.
Bart Doab Canal tail-walls offer au esamplo illustrating
. tho arrangeoieut being genevully as follows : At tlie foot of
Li>:liuo the bed of the chanuol is made horizontal for some
ice, and the banks are theu splayed outn-ards in a curved
lutil the top width of the channel at water level is one-half
ftliaii before: this, ginug additional waterway, reduces thff
U^ ; tbo channel is then narrowed to nearly its normal width
iDs of dry boulders on each side, which project into the stream
1 inclination of 1 to 5, and slope longitudinally with a fall of
50 from their commencement, where their height is up to faU
-Icrel, down to the level of the bed : these are, of coarse,
submerged at full supply, and prodnce the effect of con-
ing Bud directiug the current to the middle of the channdl.
otijectioDS raised to these tail-walls as employed on the Barr
< Canal, is that they do not appear to answer their purposes
iently completely, and it is supposed that by giviug the whole
igement, both tlie enlargement and the reduction of section, a
er length, it would fully answer all purposes; this, however,
i tidi greatly to the expense.
nnieal falh with ijrat'ufjs. — ^This is, perhaps, the mort
ic and convenient mode of dealing with a canal-fall. The
of the fall is not raised above the bed of the upper channel
the whole section of passage is hence unimpeded by reduo-
; thfi grating, which may be placed at any slope from 1 in 8
JB 10, presents a largo perforated surface to tlie action of
Wster, thus keeping the upper water up to its proper level,
distribating the effect of the falling water passing through
1 & long portion of the bed, diminishes the action to such att
U as to render it harmless. The gratings are supported oo
I bearers, which again rest on masonry piers or iron stanchions,
ed ftt about 10 feet intervals along the edge of the fall or
The higher a fall of this description is, the more truly the
falls and tbe more manageable It is. These gratings require
occasionally, and hence necessitate the attendance of
■; but aa freqaently there is a lockman to attend to the neigh
lock, for the navigation passage near the fall, thovp v
\V
tie
» i
'J
m
.♦
212
no additional expense inonrred on ihia sMotait, as one mm
attend to both. This type of &U admits of oomparatiTely
Tariation in design.
Vertical JalU with water-euMhiom. — This is the fonn gen
adopted by nature in discharging water down a fidl ; the acti
the water scours for itself a basin, which fills and forms a ni
water-cushion, the scour continuing until an equilibrium is (
lished between the force of the descending water and the r
ance offered by the depth of water in the basin. The fall
has a tendency to approximate to the vertical, the force of
and spray from the fiftlling water making it slightly oyerhan
and in some cases eyen causing a retrogression of £all, and
cidently also a retrogression of water-cushion, thus giving
elongated form ; the scoured silt, or debris, is deposited in tb
of the stream lower down.
The most natural mode of designing a vertical fall with ^
cushion for a canal would perhaps depend on a considerati
what sort of fall nature would make for herself under the s]
circumstances and conditions of the case, and what improvei
or modifications of that would be necessary. The objectio
allowing nature to make her own fall and water- cushio]
these : — first, it requires time, and this, in some, though i
all cases, is an objection in itself ; second, any want of I
geneity of the soil or rock would result in an irregular foi
basin, which might become almost unmanageable; third
scour and silt deposited in the channel below would be a 6<
injury to it ; fourthly, the retrogression of the fall might
tually undermine the weir or dam, and cause its entire destrnt
But this latter objection might be very easily counteracted h}
tective measures.
In cases, then, where these four objections can be ren
or are unimportant in result, there is no reason why a na
or a slightly modified natural fall should not be adopted. ^
the soil is firm or of homogeneous rock, a great deal oi
objection disappears, a certain amount of excavation and
ming can then be so made as to aid in the natural action
lateral encroachment may be easily provided against ; a tole
regul&r basin can then be economvcsW^ iii%A&.
213
As to ihe form of baeiu best Enited for a water-cnshi
mudth in plan should be rather n-ider than the extreme breadth
it the railing wuter, as the wind may bear the latter considerably
Is one side ; the leogth, again, will probably vary from 1| to 5
fenes the breadth, although it would hardly be advieable to make
11 quite rectangular in form, ae the comers would be filled with
li>s water; the pear shape, therefore, is perhaps the best, and
■Tiainly that most generally met with under natural conditions
iLjmogeneity of soil. There would probably be no advantage,
ij if if were economic, to make the basin very long ; the full
. si.reme depth may be terminated by a reverse slope at once,
,' Jefleeted velocity thus obtained producing a greater degree of
iLjess than the passive effect of a longer continued full depth.
Tiie main point, however, is to determine what depth of wate?,
r,'^ceasary in a water-cushion. The velocity of delivery is
ii'Ir dejwndent on the depth on the weir sill or fall above,
height of fall down to the surface water in the basin : the
jiiance is the depth of water in the baain, and the quality of
ji* uiaterial of which its bottom is composed. If, then, the depth
k' calcnlated by equating the forces for a depth producing equili-
I'nam just clear of the bottom, we obtain an expression, involving
liWi an assamption that tlie bottom is perfectly indestructible,
rcms, therefore, impossible at present to determine abaolul
' actual depth necessary ; and hence the practice is to
^approximate calculated depth, and see bow this answers
'puse, altering or adding afterwards until it appears to
1 factory.
I lie formula generally used for this purpose on tbo canalt
rbera India is —
Pd = 1-.5 J~T, X i/ A,
d = the depth of water in the baain ;
ft, = the total height of fall, inchiding Aj ;
J, = the depth or head on the weir aill.
This is probably very limited in its range of application ; for, i
^iplying it to tlie well-known case of the projected Maaur reservoj
dun, designed by the engineerw of the iladras Irrigation Com-
paoy, it yields results very small in comparison to that allowed by
E A, = 43-5 and A, = 6 feet, the_
214
calculated value of d, suitable to a brick bottom, is alxrai 18 fte^
while the engineers have allowed for a bard rock bottom a depllj
of water-cushion of S3 feet in this instance.
In a second instance of the same case, the fonnnla gives tm
values of \ «= 16*81, h^ «= 8*66, d = 12*54, which is veiy mnJ
less than that allowed, 16*19 feet, also in hard rook. 1
Major MuUins, the Consulting Engineer to the Madras InJM
tion Company, when commenting on these cases in the Prooeafl
ings of the P. W. D., for April, 1868, refers also to a weU-knoil
natural fall as an illustration of the insufficiency of the aboM
formula. The Bajah Fall at Oairsappa, with values of A, = 8*21
and h^ = 15 feet, would, according to that formula, require a depti
of water-cushion of only 108 feet for brickwork, or 72 for Bfanfel
a depth nearly a half less than the actual depth, 180 feet. 1
In a smaller natural case, in hiUs in Berar, coming under tki
observation of the author, for values h^ =s 26 and h^ a= 1, thi[
depth, according to the above formulae, would be for a brickw(»lc
bottom 7'65 feet, and for stone 5*6 feet ; whereas, in the soundest
of basalt, the actual depth was as much as 8 feet, or more than
a quarter more than that calculated.
It would; therefore, appear that the above formula, apart from ;
its varied coefficients for brickwork and stone, is generally def6^ ^
tive, and that, until a very much wider range of experiments and
observations is made, it would be more advisable to approximate
to such depths as are obtained under natural conditions, than to
follow any formula for determining the depth of a basin serving
as a water-cushion.
In practice it would rarely be necessary to construct a water-
cushion of very great deptli, the fall, if over a weir, being gene-
rally easily broken into three or four portions, and it being adyan-
tageous to do so, as the catch channels are convenient for affording
a supply at various levels; probably, therefore, the above-men-
tioned case of 43*5 feet of artificial fall may be considered as
the extreme for which a water-cushion would be required. In
the future, too, the waste of such a large amount of useful motive
power will be deemed a barbarism, an additional reason that there
is not much probability of the above case being exceeded.
-THE USUAL THICKNESS OP WATER-PIPES.
I tliickDesR of a water-pipe is a matter depending on prao-
ioaaiderBtions, beiog comparatively little affected by the
delermiDation of what it ahould be in order to resist
Kssore brought on it ; and is, like a very large number of
B-CttUed calcnlations of the engineer, made almost entirely
I prescribed custom. The following notes on the
fUm in vogne are, hence, not given so much with the object
cidating the principles as that the formula tbemBehea, Talua-
B tfaey seem, shonld be available for reference.
e largest scale on which a water-pipe to resist extreme internal
6 is made is that of tbe cylinders of hydraulic presses : in
hthc extreme working pressure is limited to 4 tons per square
t the extreme permanent strain allowed in actaal working
t only oue half of that ; and tbe thickness of tlie cylinder or
■ tg determined by the formula of Barlow —
0 -P '
• t and r are tbe thickness and internal radius of tbe cylinder
C is the cohesive strength of the material, and
P is the internal pressure, both being in tons :
meml principle asserted in this mode of calcalatioD being
i strain on the material is greatest at the internal surface,
; beyond, the extension varying with the square of the
) from the centre.
An examjile of the application of this formula, to a 10-incb
ttst-iron water-pipe, ia given in Box's "Hydraulics," tbe resulta of
»hich are as follows : —
AsBumiug the cohesive strength of cast iron to he 7 tons j
Jijuttre inch breaking weight ; the extension E, on the inside i
W the moment of rupture, for a length = 1,
E = -000 165 W + -000 010 3 W x L = -001 G59 7 ;
ni the extension at any distance from the centre ia in tbe ratio
uf tbe square of that disUuce to that of the inside ring.
216
The strain, at any distance from tbe centra, is then
from the extension by the formula —
E
W
^{
+ 6416)-^ 8-01
•OOOOlOSxL
and the mean strain on each theoretical oonoenfafic ring of
is the average between that at its extenial and its internal
ference ; the bursting pressure has then the same ratio to
mean strain as the thickness of the pipe has to its radius ;
tabulating these for a 10-inch cast-iron pipe, they are : —
niiekncM of
MataJL
BtwB an tha MMd.
FnMHnL
Mu.
Mia.
Mmm.
1"
7.0
£•26
6-130
1-226
2
7-0
409
5-402
2161
8
7-0
3-26
4-827
2896
4
7-0
2-65
4-358
3*485
5
7-0
2-20
3972
3-978
6
7-0
1-85
3-647
4-337
7
7-0
1-60
3-373
4-722
8
70
1-37
3137
6019
9
70
1-19
2-931
5-275
10
7-0
106
2-749
5-499
-
The practical empirical rule, however, that is given by Box for
the thicknesses of water-pipes is —
= (<'j^-.o-«) + (^),
where H is the head of pressure, and d is the diameter of the pipe,
and it is according to this, that his table given in the Appendix of
Miscellaneous Tables is calculated.
The theoretical mode of arriving at the thickness of a water-
pipe is, therefore, about the most unsatisfactory of processes;
and it would probably be useless to enlarge on the topic. In
actual practice, the dimensions of cast-iron water-pipes are about
those given in Box's table ; or have a thickness of one-fifth the
square root of the diameter, and a little more to allow for defects
in casting, and inexactitude of bore. The dimensions of the
details of the sockets are also given in the second part of Box*s
table, and are very convenient for reference.
217
Flnnged pipes being now so rurelj used, excepting for tempera
pur|>oses, the details of their usual dimensions and weights, give
by Box, BIO omitted in the table given.
While in the case of cast-iron pipes of all sorts, there has
aHavB been a tendency to theorise, and to base a thickness on the
lairs of pressure, and extension of material ; in stoneware pipes,
':'if has been almost entirely disregarded, and a thickness is
. L;c-rally given them that is established entirely on practice or
-.Hial custom, and often varies according to the caprice of the
potter or manufacturer. This is generally accounted for by
ssying that earthenware or stoneware is a very variable material
■- fiords strength, while cast iron is honiogeneoua, and is
I rv much alike in Bubatance: a little reflection, however, will
-'mw that this is hardly a sufficient reason. Onrefuily made
'trtneware, after a very careful selection, may be, and often is,
■ ii'eedingly equable, while the variety of qualities of cast iron,
-more especially since its high price has brought such a large
iinonnt of very inferior material into use, — is now very marked ;
ime cast iron being known occasionally to fall to pieces from its
Ioirn weight. In spite of this, the manufacturers of stoneware
pipes still consider them aa unsnited to the discharge of water
under pressure, or for drainage in cases where the outlet is
liable to be stopped : and although they can make pipes that will
ewily bear a head of 40 feet, yet do not recommend them,
"llepng that the joints cannot be made to atand any pressure
' !ill. There is, however, no reason to doubt that under skilled
'<i{>erintendence and management, stoneware and fire-clay pipes,
as well as their joints, may be well enough made to serve most
efficiently for the distribution and drainage of water under low
heads, and that a considerable saving of expense may ha effected
by dispensing with iron in such cases.
■ 10.— INDIAN HTDEAULIC CONTRIVANCES.
In India a large variety of mechanical contrivances of a ver
simple nature are commonly ased for raising water from rivers o
wallBor oat of foaod»tiotiB of bridges, that are generally unknoi^
218
to the Enj^iflh engineer. His natani tandenqr irooU be to ui
the appliftnces best known to hiniy sndh as a windlass and bodsil^
a common pump, a lift and force-pump, or a winding-i^ duii
carrying iron vesselB ; of these the last only is my well known in ;
India in a more simple form, as a chain of pots or leather bt^k
Pnnips are purely European in origin, even a windlass is a cob- :
paratiye rarity; and since such things are not always milaUei
often becomes necessary for him to adopt the natiTO mesns of
raising water and to learn what duty may be expected from Uudl
To aid him, or rather to save him needless trouble in measuriig
and calculating the duty, the table given in the Appendix to ib
Working Tables, based upon data originally furnished by K. Li- ,
mairesse, of Pondicherry, for Southern India, and in the BoodM .
professional papers for Northern India, and in conjunction wiik
others by the author, but modified and put in a form intdSgiUi
to the English civil engineer, may be found useful. It mwij
becomes necessary to give the meaning of a few of the Indiss
names of the contrivances, and state the mode in which thej
are used.
Baling is one of the most primitive methods of raising water,
but the English mode of filling and emptying a vessel or a bucket
is not in vogue among the natives of India. A large flat dish of
wood bark rendered water-tight, or leather stifiened by a frame,
has two long cords attached to it at opposite sides, the other two
ends of the cords being held by two men, who generally prefer
sitting down to their work, and together allow the dish to dip in
the water, nearly fill itself, and then raise it, send it forward with a
swing and let it empty itself above ; this can be done with a rapid
and continuous swinging motion that is sometimes quite sur-
prising. This method is of coarse only applicable under certain
conditions, such as clearyig foundations of water, and such cases
as allow of su£Scient room for the swinging; the lift is seldom
more than 5 ft. though sometimes 7 ft. ; but a series of such liils
can be easily adopted.
The beam and bucket, or balance-pole, in its various modifi-
cations, is also a favourite contrivance for raising water firom welh
by hand labour ; the lever, at one end of which is hung the watei
ressel, generaUy a large ewrtlieTiwwMi ijot, is counter-weighted a
219
Ilher end bo as just to allow the force of one man to raiae the
I when foil. The lever is often a beam natoraily very thick
t end, and requiring only to be carefully hnng or supported at
;'.'. most convenient point for a fulcrum. In Southern India this
■ I iple reauhcH its fullest development in the picotah ; where a
:■ large long tree, or a very large pair of trees bound together,
beconufi the balance-polo, to work which a man walks and funs!|
Uckwards and forwards along the heavier arm of the lever,
Lhjiiiig off, when necessary, on to a raised stago ; for this wo A
, ial men, thoroughly accustomed to it, are absolutely necessary;
managing the vessel, the other the balancing. The size
' picotahs is sometimes extremely large, and the lift con
: tly very high.
'\'hr dal or jantu is a contrivance for raising water from 3 ft. tOi
: liigb by means of a wooden gutter moving on a pivot, beingf
' rf, or a double lever of the second order. There are several
Urns of this contrivance ; in the simplest, one end of the single
pill*r is raised by a man with a coril or lever and cord, until the
Mtsr mns out of the other end of the gutter into a trench; in the
Jniible gutter there is a wooden partition in the gutter immediately
(hove the pivot, and the water runs out through holes on each.
mip' iif it in the bottom of the gutter into the trench ; sometimeH
■■■ are worked by cords, and sometimes by means of the weight
' luan and a counterpoise at the end of a long lever attached.
i f:o mot is an arrangement worked by oxen ; it generally
■ists in a water vessel made of a complete ox-hide bound on
■' I "ooden ring.for an opening, raised and lowered by a cord
njEfliiin o^^'" B pulley, and fixed immediately above or projecting over
Ihp well ; the bullocks going down an inclined plane made for the
Purpose, when dragging up the water vessel or mot, which has to
lie (bagged to one side on arrival above the mouth of the well and
emptied by a man. lu Southern India there is nn improvement
CD this which dispenses with the man for emptying ; the lower end
of the mot tapers out to a considerable length, and has a smaller
cord attached to it, which by means of a suitably adjusted catch
causes the mot to emp'y itself on arrii-ing at the proper height.
The contrivance generally called by Anglo-Indians a Persian
lore properly a chain of pots, is almost identical vdtb
I
I
r
1
220
that ased in Egypt, Nobis, Syria, AbjuranlR, known there •■
wkia ; its adraatage is that it will raise water firom an; iaf/H,\
means of Haffitnent animal power. In India it ia generally
mndi of the followiug description. Two panllel endless ropei^i
onited to each other by ruaga of wood or of rope, pass over a Te^
tioal wheel and hang down to below the water sor&ce in the well;
earthen or leathern resaels are attached to the mngs, which Ht
diargfl themselves into a trongh throagb the vertical wheel, whiA
IB a donble frame-work. Motion is communicated to the ailett
this Tertioal wheel from a vertical shaft of wood that is tamed bj
a pair of bollocks, by means of two wooden wheels working into
each other. The npper end of the vertical shaft is kept in positioi
by a very heavy beam or tree which rests also on two sopporti,
generally mnd walls, beyond the sweep of the circle in which Hit
oxen walk. The principle of this rather rude bnt effective oontd-
vance was donbtless the basis of the donble iron chains of poti,
vrith brass bodteta holding abont a gallon each, that were used b^
the Bomaos, and hence also the remote ancestor of our modem
chains of pots having chains of jointed iron bars, skeleton sii-
spoked or hexagonal wheels, and buckets or iron casks of the most
improved form; or again, somewhat like those used and worked
by steam power on the Metropolitan District Boilway to clear tke
line of water.
The true Persian wheel, with which tho chain of pota is boh*
times confoanded, is a wheel with a hollow tyre, and is an inferiot
contrivance, suituble only to small lifts.
Beferring to the table given, the details of which have been
reduced and modified in order to show as much as possible wbrt
comparison may be drawn in favour of each machine, it will be
noticed that the full amount of work done and power exerted is, in
the first place, giveD for all cases, under a theoretical condition tlu>t
never occurs in practice. In each and all of these machines, acertiin
amount of work ia wasted by leakage, spilling, faulty constraetion,
or inexactness of form, delay for small repairs, and many other
such causes. To obtain anything near the truth, therefore, *
coeflBcient of reduction that is purely empirical most be applied.
Some of these coefficients are given in the Boorkee profeagionBl
papers, others are obtuned tiom qUx«i aaoKMS ; they may tea oni
221
^s in dealing with such rough machines be applied equally to
rk done and the effective power exerted ; but as the latter is
ncipal object under consideration, the amounts under that
nlj are reduced. The final quantities, therefore, are more
illy useful.
results may not at first sight appear to admit of much
ison being made ; certain things are, however, plainly in-
by them, the most marked one being that all such rough
lie contrivances used in small lifts involve a great waste of
as well as of water, much intermediate time being lost
a the lifts, and that the machine itself, when on a large
being more properly made and more carefully worked is
-e effective. This is shown most on comparing the effective
of the North Indian beam and bucket (12) with the
m Indian picotahs (1, 2, 8) ; in the mots, on the other hand,
rantage is on the side of the North Indian, probably from
ng an additional man, although it is probably obtained at
(at an expense. The chain of pots more exclusively used
them India appears to be, under theoretical conditions, the
effective of all these contrivances. The data given are,
le very variable nature of such things, too rough to allow
comparison being drawn between such contrivances and the
ivilized arrangements ; but they may, however, be of use
}e unacquainted with Indian contrivances when first called
leal with them.
HYDRAULIC WORKING
TABLES.
TSOt^-^rHCOr^tJ
ssss
3 1
i :
I !
S I
11
TABLE IL— Pabt 1.
Total quantities of water equivalent to a given reinfidL
Rainfall
in feet.
Cable feet
per acre.
Cable feet
per
sqoare mile.
BabfiOl
in feet.
CaUe feet
perften.
CBbiefal
•qoan nilft.
1-
43 560
27 870 400
(in
1-
48 560
27 878 m
•9
39 204
25 090 560
(11")
•917
89 900
25 555 200
•8
34 848
22 802 720
(in
•883
86 300
23 232 000
•7
30 492
19 514 880
(n
•760
82 670
20 908 800
(J
26 136
16 727 040
(n
•666
29 040
18 505 GOO
•r>
21 780
13 939 200
in
•583
25 410
16 262 400
•4
17 424
11 151 360
(6")
•5
21 780
13 939 200
•3
13 068
8 363 520
(n
•417
18 150
11 616 000
•2
8 712
5 575 680
(n
•333
14 520
9 252 800
•1
4 356
2 787 840
(3'0
•250
10 890
6 969 600
(n
•166
7 2(^
4 646 400
(I")
•083
3 630
2 323 200
•09
3 920
2 509 056
•08
3 485
2 230 272
•07
•00
•05
3 040
2 614
2 178
1 951 488
1 672 704
1 393 920
For decimt
remove the p
qnantities.
lis of an inc
oint in the ec
h of rainfall
)rre8pondiiig
'M
1 742
1 115 136
•03
1 307
836 852
•0-2
871
557 568
•01
436
278 784
Ul
TABLE IL~Paet 2.
in cubic feet per second tbroughoat the year, eqaivalent to
annnal rainfiJl over one square mile of catchment area.
Doal
bUin
Diflchaiges in
eubiefeet per
■eoond.
Annual
rainfall in
feet.
Dischargea in
cnbic feet per
second.
Annual
rainfall in
feet
Diacharges in
cabio feet per
second.
•1
•0883
2-1
1-8550
41
3-6217
•2
•1766
2-2
19433
4-2
3-7100
•3
•2650
2-3
2-0317
4-3
3-7983
•4
•3533
24
2-1200
4-4
3-8866
•6
•4417
2-5
2 2083
4-5
3-9750
•6
•5300
26
2-2966
4-6
4-0633
•7
•6183
2-7
2-3850
4-7
41517
•8
•7066
2-8
2-4733
4-8
42400
•9
•7950
2-9
2-5617
4-9
4-3283
1-0
•8833
3-0
2-6500
5-0
4-4166
11
•9717
3-1
2-7383
55
4-8583
1-2
1-0600
3-2
2-8266
.6-
5-3000
1-3
1-1483
3-3
2-9150
6-5
5-7417
1-4
1-2366
3-4
3-0033
7-
6-1833
1-5
1-3250
3-5
3-0917
7-5
6-6250
IG
1-4133
3-6
31800
8-
7-0666
17
1-5017
3-7
3-2683
8-5
7-5083
1-8
1-5900
3-8
3-3566
9-
7-9500
1-9
1-6783
3-9
3-4450
9-5
8-3917
20
1-7666
40
3-5333
10-
8-8333
TABLE IL— Pabt 3.
DischaigOB m cdHo feefc per ncond, iininiilwil li
(24 hovn) ovsr n^Miinmt wi
n
Fort
mj wtoMlh hit Mi iijprt d
'I 1 wj -osj-or I'M [-oej-o* j-otloip
1
32-26
29-08
26-81
OaUa
22-58
Up..
19-84
18-lS
1240
»S!
6-41
>
2
64-52
58-07
51-62
45-16
88-72
IS-S6
24-81
I9-1M
IHO
8
92-80
83-52
74-24
64-96
66-6!
48-40
87-12
87-84
18-SC
4
129-0
U6-1
108-2
90-80
76-40
6^60
61-80
88-70
26-80
i
161-8
145-2
129-0
lis*
96-80
80-64
6irK
4840
S»2i
6
193'S
174-2
154-8
136-4
1161
»6-78
77-40
£8-06
38-!«
7
226-8
203-2
180-6
168«
lU-5
112-9
90«0
67-78
4S-U
8
258-0
282-2
206-4
180-6
164-8
1290
108-2
77-40
61-e«
9
2904
261-4
282-3
203-8
174-3
146-2
116-2
87-13
68-10
10
322-6
290-8
258-8
225-8
198-5
161-8
129-2
96-77
64-60
1'
For ■ d^ij nusfaU in fart ud dedmali o(
■0833 -075 -0666 -0583 -05 -0417 -033 -026 -016 -«
1-0 1 -9 1 -8 1 -7 1 -6 1 -5 1 -4 1 -8 1 -2 1
1
26-89
24-20 21-51
Cifaicbrtixrt
18-82 16-13
uoad.
13-44
10-76
8-07
5-3!
2
53-78
46-40
48-00
37-64
82-26
26-89
21-50
1613
10-75
3
80-67
54-60
64-63
56-47
48-40
40-33
32-26
24-20
1613
1
4
107-6
96-76
86-00
75-25
64-60
53-78
43-00
32-25
21-50
11
5
134-4
120-9
107-5
94-08
80-64
67-22
53-75
40-32
26-87
1
6
161-3
146-1
136-0
112-9
96-78
80-67
67-55
48-39
33-77
K
?
188-2
169-3
160-5
131-7
112-9
9411
76-25
56-45
87-6!
11
8
2151
193-6
172-1
150-5
129*
107-6
86«5
64-50
43-0!
2
9
242-0
217-8
198-6
169-4
145-2
121-0
96-80
72-60
48-40
2
10
268-9
242-0
216-1
187-4
161-3
1344
107-5
80-66
58-75
2
TABLE III.— Part 1.
Chiide for oapadiy of reservoirs and snpply from gathering
grounds.
■pply required,
mxing 240 days
r ei|^t monihfl.
1
Contents of
leMrrdr to hold
tliat lapplf.
Saifftce of that
reeerroir if 8
feet deep on the
average.
Oatohment area necessary
to fill that reservoir in
fonr moQths, having one
foot available ralDftill in
that time.
Cnb.ft.par
miiomd.
Cubic feet.
Square feet.
Sqnare miles.
I
20 736 000
6 912 000
•7438
2
41 472 000
13 824 000
1-4876
3
62 208 000
20 736 000
2-2314
4
82 944000
27 648 000
2-9752
5
103 680 000
34 560 000
37190
6
124416 000
41 472 000
4-4628
7
145 152 000
48 384000
5-2066
8
165 888 000
55 296 000
5-9504
9
186 624000
62 208 000
6-6942
10
207 360 000
69 120 000
7-4380
1-3444
27 878 400
9 292 800
1
2-6888
55 756 800
18 585 600
2
4K>333
83 635 200
27 878 400
3
5-3777
111 513 600
37 171 200
4
6-7222
139 392 000
46 464 000
5
8-0666
167 270 400
55 756 800
6
9-4100
195 148 800
65 049 600
7
10-7655
223 027 200
74 342 000
8
12-0999
250 905 600
83 635 200
9
13-4444
278 784 000
92 928 000
10
N.B.-^Tho next page will contain two examples for this table.
VI
Example I.
A disobarge of 18 234 cubic feet per •eooui Is wnalmd dming e^
months of the year from a reservoir wbibh ia ta be eupplied Ij.i
catchment area yielding an availalble xainlUl of 1'8S fbet during A|
remaining fonr months ;«reqnired the cootenti of tiie
the size of the catchment area*
Obtain from the Table the quantities doe to 1 fbofc of nxn&U,
Supply, cubic feet
Contents of lewrvoir,
Oatehment aiHt
per second.
oalriofeet.
■qnara mfleL
10
207360000
7-4880 .
8
165888000
5*9504
•2
4 147 200
•1487
•03
622080
•022S
•004
82944
•0029
18-234 378100 224 8*5623
Catchment area for 132 feet of fall = ^^^^'^^ = 10274 sq. miles.
1-32
Example 11.
A catchment area of 21*963 square miles, having an availaUs
rainfall of 1*32 feet in four months of rainy season, supplies a resermr
which is to hold water for eight months' supply ; what should be tie
full contents of the reservoir, and the supply in cubic feet per seoondl
during the eight months ?
The proportionate catchment area for an available rainfidl of cm
foot will =: 21*963 X 1-32 = 29001 square miles.
Area
Contents of reservoir,
Supply, cub. ft.
cubic feet.
per second.
20
557 568 000
26*888
9
250 905 600
120999
•001
27 878
•0013
29001
808 501 478
38*9892
TABLE m.— Paet 2.
Qnide tar acreage nnder irrigation, and for population ander
water-sapply.
11
AtfiO
At7B
At 100
At 160
At 200
Ataso
At 800
"ti^r
«CTM per
cab. ft. per
kcrcaper
"iHr
"^r
KiuDbw
of icra »l«ted.
1
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
2
100
150
20O
300
100
600
600
3
150
225
300
450
600
750
900
*
200
300
400
600
800
1000
1200
5
250
375
500
750
lOOO
1250
1500
6
300
450
600
900
1200
1500
1800
7
350
525
700
1050
1«0
1760
2100
8
400
000
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
9
450
675
900
1350
180O
2250
2700
10
500
750
1000
ISOO
2000
2500
3000
•8-S At 6
At7i
DtltoiU
At 10
per head
d«Jy.
At 15
per brad
daily.
At 20
gallona
per head
dailf.
At 25
gaU0D«
perheud
dul;.
At 30
e>iioiui
per head
Fopnlittioa mpplied.
1
107732
71820
53866
35910
26033
21540
17955
3
215*>i
143640
107732
71820
53S6G
43093
35910
3
323196
215460
161598
107730
80799
64639
53865
4
430928
287280
215464
143640
107732
86186
71820
5
538GC0
359100
269330
179550
134665
107032
89775
fi
&16392
430920
323196
215460
161598
12D278
107730
?
764124
474740
377062
237370
188531
150825
118685
8
861856
574560
430928
2e<7280
215404
172371
143640
S
969588
ti40380
484794
323190
242397
193917
161596
lo
1077820
718200
538660
369100
269330
215464
179550
Jf.B.—Tilie next jMif^c will contHiii oxpluniitory oxninplcii
• ••
VUl
Example I.
A combined irrigation and water-worik adieme jields 18^
cubic feet per second ; what amonnt of land and of popnlation ootid
it snpi^j, at the rates of 150 acres per cabio foot per aeocmd, and 7i
gallons per head per diem, if one-fonrth alone is to be used for tiia
water- works ?
.The snpplj available for irrigation will be ma 18*234 — 4-558
=sl3-676cnbic feet per second; and from Table IIL, Part 2, we obtm
the required resnlts, thi
Cubic feet per second. Population.
4 287 280
•5 85 910
•05 0 591
•008 574
4*558
327 855
CaUo feet per seoond.
AcM
10-
isoo
3-
450
•6
90
•07
10-i
•006
•9
13-676
2051'
EXA.HPLB II.
A town has a population of 40,000, requiring water supply at 15
gallons per head daily, and has suburbs to the extent of 1,400 acres
requiring irrigation at 150 acres per cubic foot per second of supply:-"
what catchment area will be necessary to provide this, if the anniul
rainfall is GO inches P
According to Part 2, Table III., the supply necessary will be
For population.
85 910 1
3 591 -1
489 -02
40 000 1-12
For irrigation.
1 350 9-
50 -04
Total
cubic feet
per second.
lOlG
1 400 9-04
Now, assuming that out of 60 inches annual rainfall, 30 can b^
ntiliseed after deducting for all losses: — we find that according t(^
Part 2, Table II., this is equivalent to a supply of 2*2083 cubic feeO
|)er seoond from one square mile, hence the minimum catchment
^^ , .„ _ 10-16 . ^ .,
necessary will = o:^?^ = ^'^ square miles.
IX
TABLE IV.— Pabt 1.
Table of flood discbarges in cubic feet per second, due to catchment
areas in square miles, and corresponding to a coefficient n=l
in the f<nrmnla •
Q = n X 100 (N)*-
For local yalnes of coefficients, see Part 2, Table XII.
4» '
e
la
6
Flood
diaduuge.
Flood
dwduvge.
Catchment
area.
Flood
diichaige.
Catchment
area.
FJood
discharge.
•01
3
11
604
41
1620
71
2446
•02
5
12
645
42
1660
72
2472
•08
7
13
685
43
1679
73
2498
•04
9
14
.724
44
1708
74
2523
•05
11
15
762
45
1737
76
2549
•06
12
16
800
46
1766
76
2574
■07
14
17
837
47
1796
77
2699
•08
15
18
874
48
1824
78
2625
•09
16
19
910
49
1862
79
2650
20
946
60
1880
80
2675
•1
18
21
981
61
1908
81
2700
•2
30
22
1016
52
1936
82
2725
•8.
41
23
1050
63
1964
83
2750
•4
50
24
1084
54
1992
84
2775
•5
59
26
1118
66
2020
86
2799
•6
68
26
1161
66
2047
86
2824
•7
76
27
1184
57
2074
87
2849
•8
85
28
1217
58
2802
88
2873
•9
92
29
1260
69
2129
89
2898
30
1282
60
2166
90
2922
1-
100
31
1314
61
2183
91
2946
2-
168
32
1345
62
2210
92
2971
3-
238
33
1377
63
2236
93
2995
4>
283
34
1408
64
2263
94
3019
5^
334
35
1439
66
2289
96
3048
6-
383
36
1470
66
2316
96
3067
?•
430
37
1500
67
2342
97
3091 .
8-
476
38
1631
68
2368
98
3115
9-
520
39
1661
69
2394
99
3139
10-
I
562
40
1590
70
2420
lOO
3162
TABLE IV.— Past I— e<jn(wiii*<l.
jl
Flood
diNhwgS.
ji
Flood
di«h^..
P
1
FlMd
dl»b«p.
1^
Flood
110
8397
410
9112
710
18 751
1250
210S2
120
3625
420
9278
720
13 900
1500
2410t
130
3860
430
9443
730
UOM
1750
27 057
110
4070
440
0607
740
14 188
2000
29 907
150
4280
450
9770
750
14 332
2500
36 3S5
ICO
4499
400
9933
700
14 475
3000
40 S«
170
4708
470
10 094
770
14 617
3500
45 501
180
4014
480
10 255
7S0
14 700
4000
50 297
100
5117
490
10 415
790
14 901
4500
64 013
200
6318
500
10 574
800
15 0^2
5000
59 4C0
210
5517
SIO
10 732
810
15 183
5500
G3 867
220
5712
520
10 890
820
15 324
GOOO
68 173
280
5900
530
11046
830
15 463
6500
72 391
240
G098
540
11202
810
15 003
7000
76 529
2fi0
6267
650
11 357
850
15 742
7500
80.593
260
0175
560
11612
BGO
15 881
8000
84 590
270
G6C1
570
116C6
870
16 019
8500
68 525
280
GS15
580
11819
880
10 1S7
9000
92 402
290
7027
690
11791
890
16 295
9500
06 418
800
7208
000
12 123
900
16 432
lOOOO
100 000
810
7388
CIO
12 204
910
10 568
320
76GC
020
12 425
920
10 705
20 000
168179
830
7743
G30
12 575
930
16 841
80 000
238 285
310
7918
OiU
12 721
910
16 970
40 000
2S2 855
350
8092
C50
12 873
050
17 112
50 000
331 370
3C0
8205
iiCO
13 021
900
17 240
CO 000
383 360
3?0
8130
670
18 169
070
17 381
70 000
430 332
3S0
6007
080
13 310
980
17 511
80 000
475 6S3
890
8770
090
13 4C3
990
17 649
90 000
519 615
400
8941
700
13 009
KXW
17 783
100 000
5(»84l
XI
TABLE IV.— Pakt 2.
d diacharges from catchment areas with a coefficient n = 8*25
and corresponding waterway for bridge openings.
(By Colonel Dickens.)
'Si*
^'&^
•8
tchment area.
Flood diFcharge,
co-eff 8-25
11
•
Feet.
5
Flood water-
way.
Na of J
opening
1
00
Height
pier.
square miles.
Cub. feet per sec.
Square feet.
No.
Feet.
Feet.
•0016
6-5
1-5
U
1
•0031
11-
5
2-25
2
n
•0047
16
5
3-
^
2
•0078
22
6
4-5
3
li
•0126
31
6
6-
1
3
2
•0260
52
6
10-5
4
2f
•0626
103
6
18-
6
3
•1250
173
6
29-
7
4
•2500
292
6
49-
10
5
•6000
490
6
81-
12
7
1
825
137
2
12
6
2
1388
200
3
12
6
3
1881
270
3
14
7
5
2 760
400
3
16
8
7
3 560
507
3
18
9
10
4 640
663
3
20
11
20
7 804
8
975
6
20
10
30
10577
8
1322
5
24
11
50
16 605
9
1734
5
30
IH
100
26 094
9
2 899
5
40
14i
200
43 884
10
4 388
7
40
15i
300
69 481
10
6 948
9
40
16i
500
87 255
10
8 725
9
50
19
1000
146 737
10
14 673
15
60
19
1000
246 780
11
22 434
16
60
24
1000
334487
11
30 408
20
60
26
;ooo
490 636
12
40 886
20
76
27
)000
825 000
12
68 750
30
75
30
)000
1 387 746
13
106 749
40
76
35
)000
1 870 962
13
143 920
45
80
40
)000
2 695 690
14
190 256
50
90
42
)000
4 639 274
15
309 285
60
100
50
Z11
TABLE V.
Comparatiyc, nsnal, and safe bottom yeloGities.
Feet per
aeoondi
ttmi.
Slow riyers
Ordinary riyers •..
Rapid nyers
A man's walk
Horse trot
Racing speed
Winds
OtORBS ••» ••• ...
Hurricanes ••• •••
•33
2-25
10^5
4-5
10-25
88
10-26
52-76
117-26
Sailing ships
Sea Bteamors •••
River Bteamers
BailwayBi Bnglidi ...
IV Amerioaii
Sound at 30*
Sound at 63"
Air into a vaoaom.
Bar. 30^
17 •
SO
S6
47
iO .
S7
1090
1122
•
1344
Feet pet
MOODi
Limits usual for canals ... •••
Limits for rivers and canals just navigable
Limits for irrigating channels ...
Limits for sewers and brick conduits
Earthenware drainage pipes ... ...
Maximum tidal current measured
Best velocifcies for pipes, so as to get a 1
maximum discharge under pressure )
lto4
3to4|
lto3
lto4|
25 to 85
Safe maximum bottom velocities.
Feet per
second.
For soil clay
For fine sand ... ... ... ••• ... ...
For coarse sand and small gravel
For gravel as large as beans
For gravel one inch in diameter .. .
For pebbles one and a half inches in diameter ...
For heavy shingle
For softer rocks, brick and earthenware
For hard rock ... ... ... ...
•25
•5
-7
1-
2-25
8-83
4-
4-6
6 to 10
'I'
TABLE VI.—Part 1.
Ordinar}^ limits of channel gradients.
R^iprocal of slope.
1 in 500 000 Least canal slope to produce motion.
in 6 000 1 ^i^te of tidal navigation for large canals,
in 5 000 \ ^^ ^^ most deltaic or inundation canals,
in 2 000 ( ^^ ^^ most canals.
in ^ IWl ^
in 1 000 ( ^^^^ ^^ smaller canals, channels.
^ ^^1 Fall of most rivers,
in 500 3
^ ^22 i Fall of torrents,
m 80)
Mazimom gradients.
1 in 50 Ordinary railways.
1 in 30 Turnpike road.
1 in 20 Public road.
1 in 16 Private road.
1 iii 8 Maximum for an ordinary carriage to ascend.
1 in 4 Mft-Tirnnm for beastfl of burden.
1 in li Maximum for hill walking.
Various slopes.
1 to 1 to i to 1 Chalk ; dry clay.
1 to 1 Compact earth rubble, dry set.
1^ to 1 Gravel, shingle, dry sand.
1^ to 1 Average mixed earth, dry.
If to 1 Vegetable earth, dry.
2 to 1 \ Sand dry.
2 to 1 > Minimum for slated and tiled roofs.
2i to 1 / Maximum for back slopes of rammed earthen dams.
3^ to 1 Maximum for breast slopes of rammed earthen dams.
4 to 1 to 3 to 1 Wet clay, peat.
JVLB. — ^Wetted soil requires a less slope than dry soil generally.
TABLE VI.— P«r 2.
Redaction cf gndients.
PBllinfMt
FulbM
81^(81
FdJofmuiD
Krmil..
8kT.(8)
FtflofMuin
loaik.
•0000100
100 000
-0528
-00055
181S
2-904
■000 0133
75 000
-0704
•0006
1666
3168
■000 0150
fiOGO^
-0792
•000 65
1638
3333
-0000200
CO OOO
'1056
•000 66
IBOO
3.62
-000 0250
40000
•1320
•0007
14S9
3-G96
-0000:100
33333
•1584
-000 75
1833
3-960
000 0333
30000
-1760
•0008
1260
4-224
-000 0350
28 671
-1848
-00086
1176
4-488
-0000400
2.5 000
-2112
-0009
1111
4758
-000O160
22 222
•2376
-000 96
1053
5-01«
000 0173
21120
-2500
-000 0500
20 000
-26«
-001
1000
5-28
-000 0000
1C06C
•3168
-00110
909
5-808
-000 0700
14 296
-3696
-00111
000
6-S61
-000 0800
12 500
-4224
-00125
800
66
-000 0000
11111
-4752
-00143
700
7-54
-ooooa-47
10 500
-5
-0016
666
7-M
-000 1000
10 000
-528
-00166
COO
8-8
-0001111
9000
•58G6
-00175
571
9-24
-0001250
8000
-6600
-002
500
10-56
■OOO 1420
7004
-7500
-000 1-128
7000
-7543
-0001500
6606
-7920
-00226
444
11-88
-000 16(il>
6000
-8800
•0025
400
1320
-000 1750
5714
-9240
•00275
304
1462
-000 ISiH
5280
1-
■003
333
15^6t
-000 2000
5000
1-056
•00325
308
1666
-00333
300
17-60
-000 25
4000
1-320
-0035
286
I8^48
-OOO 3
3333
1-584
-00375
266
1980
-000 333
3000
1-760
-004
250
2112
-000 35
2857
1-848
-00426
235
2244
•0004
2500
2-112
-0045
222
2376
-000-15
2222
2-370
-00475
210
2608
-0005
2000
2-640
-005
200
2640
TABLE VI.— Part 2— continued.
Redaction of gradients.
XT
-
Fall of one in
FaU in feet
per mile.
Slope S.
Fall of one in
Fallinfeet
per mile.
200
26-40
•015385
65-
81-23
53
IIK)
27-78
•0155
64-5
81-84
181-8 ■
29-04
•016
62-5
84-48
55
180
29-33
-0165
60-6
87-12
32
170
3105
-016667
60-
88-
16&66
31-68
•017
58-8
89-76
50
160
33-
-0175
571
9240
153 8
33-32
-018
55-6
9504
57
150
35-20
•018182
55-
96-
142-86
36-96
•0185
541
97-68
13
140
37-71
•019
52-6
100-32
133-3
39-60
•0195
51-3
102^96
)2
130
125
40-60
42-25
•02
50-
105^6
^3
120
44-
•021
47.6
110-88
117-6
44-88
-022
45-4
116-16
111-1
47-52
•023
43-5
121-44
)1
110
48-
•024
41-7
126-72
105-3
50-16
•025
40-
132-
100
5280
•026
38-5
137-28
•027
37-0
142-56
95-2
55-44
-028
35-7
147-84
>6
95
65-57
•029
345
153-12
90-9
58-08
•03
33-3
158-4
il
90
58-66
86-9
60-72
•031
32-3
163-68
55
85
62-11
•032
31-3
168-96
83-3
63-36
•033
30-3
174-24
80
66'
•034
29-4
179-52
76-9
68-64
-035
28-5
184-8
I
75
70-40
•036
27-8
190-08
741
71-28
•037
27-0
195-36
71-4
73-92
•038
26-3
200-64
^6
70
75-42
•039
25-6
205-92
66-7
79-20
04
25-
211-2
m
j^
HH
■
^^^^
^^3
<ri
i
TABLB TI.— P««T 8.
1
J
'sr
Ratio to OM
fNtUld
dadnubtM
100 Int.
•sSr
BUiatooM
m
r
67
«16
5° 80'
...
481
r 15'
46
5- 4a'
10
...
1" 30'
39
.034
5'45'
■a
1° -15'
33
6"
9-5
■M
■r
28
■061
«• 15'
;..
m
2- 16-
25
...
e-ai'
9
.-
2- Stf
23
095
6° SO'
...
<M
2° 45'
21
6- 43'
8^5
.-
3°
19
■137
6" 45'
■6M
S- 15'
18
■161
r
■74S
3° 28'
17
...
r 7'
8
...
3° SO'
■1S7
r 15'
■ew
3* 35'
16
r 30-
■856
3- 45'
■214
7* 36'
7-5
...
3° 49'
15
...
7'45'
■913
4"
■244
S'
■973
4- 6'
14
S" 8'
7
...
4- 15'
■275
8- 15'
1^035
4- 21'
13
s-sc
1^098
4- 30-
■308
8- 45'
65
1164
4-4.5'
12
■sm
9*
1^231
6=
H6
■381
Sf 16'
rsoo
5" 12'
n
9° 27'
6
...
S' 15'
■420
Sf SC
...
1371
6' 27
10-5
9- 46'
...
I'M*
XVll
TABLE YI.— Part ^--ctmtinued.
Bednction table for angular slopes.
solar
opa.
Batio toone
peipendieiilar.
Bedactioniii
feet and
dedniAb for
100 feei.
Angular
Slope.
Bfttio toone
perpendicuUr.
Bednction in
feet and
decimals for
100 feet
• 52*
575
•••
17° 6'
3-25
• ••
»
• ••
1-519
17^30'
• • •
4-628
• IS*
5-5
• • •
18*^
• ••
4-894
• sc
• ••
1-675
18° 26'
3
•••
f 47'
5-25
• ••
18° 30'
• ••
5-168
O
•
•••
1-837
19°
• ••
5-448
• ly
5
• ••
19° 30'
• • •
5-736
i" 30'
•••
2008
19° 59'
2-75
•••
[•sy
475
• ••
20°
•••
6031
8*
• ••
2185
21° 48'
2-5
• • •
e 80'
• ••
2-370
23° 58'
2-25
•••
P82'
4-5
• ••
25°
• • •
9-369
iP
•••
2-553
26° 34'
2
• • •
S»15'
4-25
• ••
29° 44'
175
• . •
arao'
•••
2-763
30°
...
13-397
4"
4
2-970
33<> 41'
1-5
• • •
4" 2'
•••
• t •
35°
•t*
18-085
4" SC
•••
3-185
38° 39'
1-25
• . •
4' 55'
375
• ••
40°
••«
23-396
5*
• • •
3-407
45°
1
...
5' ac
• t •
3-637
50°
• • •
35-721
5-56'
3-5
• ••
53« 8'
75
...
6*
• ••
3-874
56^20'
■66
•••
ff*30'
• • •
4118
60°
t ••
50-
r
• • •
4-370
63** 26'
•5
••t
I
©^
isCS -^r^oe;
p^ ffij ^ iO »o CD ^ r* t^ t^ QQ 00 o^ o 03
i r- QO m -^ I<> u? £- CD <» IQ CO to -^ U3 A i-H e4 -« lA
r^eoS^ -jg^StMcoS^ !:->-(
js^'ipSr-i^Scpoi, 60
oK»_ ,_icJ«'*25^ 'PK'^
® tM^f'^I^'iP.'-'O^ m^oSt-.QOOJ.^'T'
p [N. t;^ !>. f^ (>) p t- iH Tf <D CD S ■* T
- do -f <b -* Oi 0) t^ O ■* IS. es dii as OJ 5
O W* "3 « U3 (O O t". t^. t.. 00 00 00 00 C
ra iO Q lO "O^S
I'll
III
illlllilllHIIIilL;
]l«%§S§isgigS||i§3|!
Iflsigflll. liSsiili!
J •■arsQt.M ^oii^n os^oi'* ifcj^c
» C4 C4 (M C4 <M OS «
L-S A £> O A ap U3 ^(M Qt«T-*'«tOCO^OlC0
>,* a< ks -A M e* i-t oc o * r-i cs w m o t- ^o
i^-^^ejn nesAei coocp9> acoo^'o
'^'C^^'^ w^iorj qc*55j oioioco
t^^St^oc ^ww'* ZiStAlvSb OfHCiep
c; w«««'*'*'*'*^ ** ^^ 100 lisibio
£,rt rt ©JIM S «03^ ■* ^ 10 16 !3 (O «b (O t»
Hi
MS»rs'*i.t"^i>ct3i. -•e«w-*i-^(ot»Qo«
eo (D IN CO -*■ o >fl •-- <^ ©I CO p; CI tf 3J -^ oa If
ill
5 CO CO O? O !>. M OJ ■* •* d M t^ -H ■* t^ O W (C
IP ^
s
^
e
s
f
3
9
■a
I 5
6l 9199-^ 99 0109 09 09 09
g09^^a0O09^;DQD
CO ^ O CO r^ ^^ r^ r^ ^li
69e9G«e9O969O9Ol6l0l
:;t ; a.tCi<«a009^C)Q9iOgD
2 oi '^ r* Ci oi ^ « S i-« o5
C o ^ o ^ ;s ^co to t^ts.
I 2
; 5
I
01010101090909010909
1-1 4 ^ 00 Q 09 ^ >0 t^ts»
CDQ0O09iO£^adi-H00i0
c>»t>»QoaoQpGoapooA
09090109090909016101
5
! S
CtOl45I^009iiit^OQ9
oioioioioioidioioioi
09£^ ^ 00 f-( CO tv OO 01
O 0» OOOOfHHH
d96i09Odeb6bmmd6db
55 , ^ '^ ^oicit^'*o»^o9
^3 ^« •••■••••■»
O9oioio9sc»eeoo8coo
r^^Q^OCOQCOiHiO
Q0i-«^^Or-l^OOiH
«-IO909O9O999C0»0:^
j»_ _»_ j»_ _»_ • • _»_ _»_ • ■
CO 00 OO 00 00 00 CO 00 90 00
Ol
I
S 01*5 X -
-^ oi 01 oi r
S5o
5 00 3
• • •
:o oico
COr-4QQDCOeO«-iaoiOQ!
O09^t^O00CPaCH^
^)u5aCaOCOCOO;0£wN
socococosoeocccQOCoo
O T O »-5 C -^ X 51 ».5 X O 55
51 5l>*C^«^C'rt>»C'*t>«
C ■S»--^"i^t^t^t^X3tX
Q =5 ^ C5 "^ ^ 51 ^O X
_«_ _«_ J»_ • • • • • • •
• • ■ • <• • ^? ^P ''9' ^t ^C* 'v ^
51-* -5 51
51 •- C "^
— — 51 51
• • • •
-^ '* -^ -^
51 c r. t^ "^ 51
I 51 o 3 rt 1^
*• "• »• »« T ^*
■ • • • • •
'^ '^ -r -* '•* '^J»
C -f- X — »-5 C. 51 -c ri ^
o A-t il5 :^ -^ ^5 r>. i>- r* X
5 K 'i- ^
-*^ »■- »-5 4-5
--»• 51 Ci -5 — rN.
"-^ n rr X rt t^
51 51 r: r: '^ ^
fci *.5 «i v5 v5 *C
?: X 51 t^ -^ v5 X ^ '^ w
51 -.r — ».5 o -^ X cc t^ ^
•^t o :c ^^ i>* £>. !>• X X a
•■t V5 15 »-5 »-5 ^5 *.t »-t »-'5 ^
5— X $
-— 51 ri rt
!>. r*» c*>. t>*
— X ^ — X ^
"* "-^ *t ;r vr 1^
— t^ C5 ->r 51 X "* c 2
XX r- o— — 5ir:?3
l'>* I*^ 1^ X X X X X X 3D
jr— ?5CX5irN«Ci5lC xccoiot^-^^^-'t't
— .-t^r:c^r:t^ — r. c; — xx5i-*-^r5xxj2
rt r? — t^ 51 -T"^ rt r. "^ x r- c- x ^5 o "t w t>. f;?
X c 51 rt o *^ r^ X X ci ri r. r. Ci Ci c: ob t^ «o »?
0X^51-^ -ex ^51;^ ^X0 51t5'-,CX O ©JS
51 51 r: r: r: rt rt ^ ^ -^ ^ -? .^t »^t ^t 1-5 ^t- e jg g
51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 d 01 ?<
\ »
-^ k^ »^ fc^ k^ fc^ fc.^ fc.^ kT* t^
• % "^ •* •* *• "^ ** *■• *■« ^•p
— 01 r5
K5 -e t^ X C5 .
• • • • \. B^
m^ «^ «<^ aA 0^ Pm
2-809
2-828
2-848
2-867
2-887
2-906
2-925
2-944
2-963
2-981
3-
3-018
3-037
3-066
3-073
3-091
3-109
3-127
3-145
3-162
2-979
3-
3-021
3-041
3-062
3-082
8-102
3-122
3-142
3-162
3-182
3-201
3-221
3-240
3-269
3-278
3-297
3-316
3-335
3-354
3-185
3207
3-229
3-262
3-273
3-296
3-317
3-339
3-360
3-380
3-674
3-697
3-719
3-741
3-763
3-785
3-807
3-829
3-851
3-872
,^ ito CO ^ ^ 'yz GO cf^ CO CO *^
4-025
4-050
4-074
4-099
4-123
4-147
4-171
4-195
4-219
4-243
4-6
4-527
4-556
4-682
4-610
4-637
4-663
4-690
4-717
4-743
4-866
4-898
4-933
4-966
5-
6-033
6-066
5-099
5-132
5-163
5-196
6-229
5-261
6-291
5-322
5-364
5-385
5-416
5-447
5-477
6-968
6-
6-042
6-083
6-124
6-164
6-205
6-245
6-285
6-326
6-364
6-403
6-442
6-481
6-519
6-657
6-695
6-633
6-671
6-708
^2-
m
CO 00 11^ 03 rH i-l 00 -* Ol OJ »0 (C I>- Jt^ t<. [«. I^ 1>. CC
inwtociitoaoaoacio-* oioo>(N-*>o'0'*ci
if eo IT" o 00 !p -^ c^ o oo tp CO <0 ix) A oi oi tp en
tb t» O N « "b r. d> rH ei -j so oc <h ~i w ■* i> dc
ililiiiiliiUiilllf
CO u3 in ua to '41 M i-H r-i CD Oi <o t^ tO t-i a> t^ fO m
1
jisiii ii
oo m 09 o s oa e> £-
'41'^ -^i •« & i>- ^• do db a <
.!
|iisiliili§SiS?§|S.II
K C5 (O 5^ t^ m o> ■* ■OS >* s' r^ S
^ rv t^ CO OS 00 CO O) Ci oj , T?*?
tit^aoooqod)S,Oo (p_t7io»»i.H_
rj S ■* iri -^ 35 tF wra ■*■* — «o <-"«
Hi
d'oS'^OOOCC^
^M^ toil
easss
o^^c^i^ coco ^OOu^OO c
*5tiej **'?'. ^^■?'»':^ '. -
t^ m ■* i r- ^- O ^- M c» 6 1^ ''2
_H— •t-j.-i do ■*5'* OS m r-o C-S
M M e^ W M ■* m A "O to (S r» >**
ExFLiNATOKr EXAMPLES TO TahLE VII.
A riTer liaa a hydraulic radina of 5'2 feet, a hydraulic
! and a oroaa aectioa of 1000 square feet, reqnired the
uming a f'rictional co-efficient of "03.
By Table VTI. the nnmodified mean velocity of discbat^ = 3-225
fct per second, and by Part 3 of Table XII. the value of c the
coefficient suitable to this radias and slope is '668, hence the true dis-
dharge = cx&.xQ=(>6x 1000 X 3225 = 2128 cubic feet per
EhuHPLE 2. Suppose the river mentioned in the last example to
hare a hydraulic elope of 0015, the remaining data being aa before,
required tlie discharge.
In this case the inclination not being one of those given at the heads
id columns, make nae of the tabular number corresponding to the
l^dranlic radius, which is 228*03, and multiplying it by V'OOIS, an
mmodified mean velocity of discharge 8-87 foct per second is obtained.
Taking the suitable co-efficient e from Part 3, Table XII., the true
discharge = c xAxV = -65x 1000 X 8-87 = ^765 onbio feirtl
ind.
ExAUPLB 3. A oanal is to have a cross section of 250 square feet, a
hydntolic radius of 4 feet, and must discharge when in perfect order i
ftnd regimen 500 cubic feet per second, what is the hydraulic slope']
iieoessary, and what will its discharge be when it wears itself ii
state resembling a natural channel, if we assume the other data to r^T
main the iiamep
From an inspection of Table VII. and the table of co-efficients for
urti&cial channels, it appears that for the given radius a co-efficient of
753 and a slope of '00018 would nearly satisfy the conditions ; assum-
ing -753, the mean velocity becomes 2 Gb and the slope '0001 75. The
dtflchai^ for a natural channel would require the oo-efficiont -632, and
would = -63-2 X 250 x 2lX) x s/ 000175 = 418 cubic feet p
second.
XZVl
TABLE VIIL
For Ml cjlindrioal tabes — ^Pipes, Sewen, Ac.
Pabt 1. — Discliarges in oabio feet per eeaoxid.
Q = 0 X 89-27 (Sd>)*
Pabt 2. — Diameters in feet and deoimala.
^'^^■^ (1)*
Part 8. — Heads for a length of 100 feet, in feet.
1 Q*
H = ^ X -0648 ^
being values of the corresponding formnl®, when c ^s 1.
N'JB. — For more correct results, apply the values of the co-efl&ciei
(c) given in Part 3, Table XII., in every case, using the table of usefi
numbers, Part 7, Table XII., for powers and roots.
The tabular numbers extend the use of the tables to any slope.
Some explanatory examples follow this table.
xxvu
TABLE VIII.— Part 1.
Discharges through fiill cylindrical tabes, Pipes, Culverts, <&c.
1
liameterB
For slopes of one in
TaboLur No.
to be multi-
plied by^s
for other
slopes.
n feet.
100 150
200 300 400
500
1000
Discharges in cable feet per second.
[") -083
•008
•006
•006 -005 -004
•004
•003
•079
J") 166
•04
•04
•03 03 -02
•02
-01
•445
n -25
•12
-10
•09 -07 -06
•05
-04
1^227
4") -33
•25
•21
•18 -15 -13
-11
•08
2-519
5") -416
•44
•36
•31 -25 -22
•20
•14
4-401
G'O -5
•69
•57
-49 -40 -35
-31
-22
6939
r) -583
102
-83
•72 -59 -51
•46
•32
10-206
8") -66
143
1-16
101 -82 -71
-64
'45
14-251
n -75
1-91
1-56
1-35 110 -97
-86
-61
19-128
{/') -83
2-49
2-03
1-76 1-44 1^25
1-11
•79
24-895
r) -916
316
2-58
2^23 1-82 1-58
1-41
1-00
31-594
2^)1-00
3-93
3-28
2-78 2-27 1-96
1-76
1-24
39-27
1-25
6-86
6-60
4-85 8.96 3-43
307
216
68-601
1-5
10-82
8-82
7-65 6-25 5-41
4-84
3-42
108-216
175
1591
12-99
11-25 9-18 7-95
7-11
5-03
159-095
2-
22-21
18-14
15-71 12^83 11-11
9 93
7-02
222146
2-25
29-82
24-35
2108 17-22 1491
13-34
9-43
298-505
2-5
88-81
31-69
27-44 22-41 19-40
17-35
12-27
388-078
275
49-25
40-22
84-82 28^48 2462
22 02
15-57
492-489
3-
61-21
49-99
43-28 35-31 3061
27-37
19-35
612105
3-25
74-77
61-04
52-87 4318 3738
33-44
23-64
747-744
3-5
89-99
78-49
63-63 51-96 44-99
40-25
28-46
899-990
375
106-94
87-83
75-61 61-74 53-46
47-82
33-81
1069-397
4-
125-66 102-63
88-84 72-55 62-83
56-20
39-73
1256-640
4-25
146-28 119-42
10338 84-32 7311
65-39
46-24
1462-262
4-5
168-69 137-76 11926 97-39 84-34
75-44
53-34
1686-886
475
193-10 157-70 136-52 11148 9655
86-36
61-06
1931-028
5-
219-54 179^26 155-24 126-75 109-77
99-18
69-43
2195-436
5-5
278-61 227-48 19700 160-85 139-30 12460
88-10
2786-060
6-
846-31 282-76 244-88 199 94 17316 154 88 10951
3463130
^ 6-5
423-08 345-40 29913 244-23 211-51 189-18 133-77
4230^262
7-
50913 415-70 36001 293-95 25457 22769 16100
' 5091 322
1
XZYlll
TABLE ynX— Pabt 2.
Diameters of ftill Pipes of small diadhairge and Iiigh indiiiaiaoD.
Diiebazgctu
FiirdepM«{
BMia
ilii
enbio feet per
!il A""
Moond.
100
150
200
800
I 40O 600 1000
v^i
•
|j*«
PiMntwitohH.-
•
•1
•28
•25
•26
•29
•90
•82
•86
•0916
•2
•80
•38
•86
•88
•40
•42
•48
•1S08
•8
•86
•89
•41
•44
•47
^0
•67
•1421
•4
•40
•43
•46
•50
•68
•56
•68
•1594
•5
•44
•47
•60
•65
•58
•60
•69
•1748
•6
•47
•51
•64
•59
•62
•65
•76
•1875 '
•7
•60
•54
' -58
•62
•66
•69
•79
•1994
•8
•63
•57
•61
•66
•70
•78
•84
•2104
•9
•66
•60
•64
•60
•78
77
•88
•2215
!•
•68
•63
•66
•72
•76
•80
•92
•2300
11
•60
•65
•69
•76
•79
•83
•95
•2385
1-2
•62
•67
•71
•77
•82
•86
•99
•2474
1-3
•64
•70
•74
•80
•86
•80
1-02
•2556
1-4
•66
•72
•76
•82
•87
•91
1^05
•2681
1-6
•68
•74
•78
•86
•90
•94
108
•2706
1-6
•70
•76
•80
•67
•92
•96
1^11
•2776
1-7
•71
•77
•82
•89
•94
•99
1-13
•2844
1-8
•73
'79
•84
•91
•96
1^01
116
•2910
1-9
•76
•81
•86
•93
•99
108
118
•2973
2-0
•76
•83
•88
•95
1-01
1-05
1-21
•8035
21
•78
•84
•89
•97
l^OS
1^07
123
•3095
2-2
•79
•86
•91
•99
104
1-09
1-26
•8153
2-3
•81
•87
•93
1.01
1^06
111
128
•3209
2-4,
•82
•89
•94
1-02
1^08
113
1-30
•3265
2-5
•83
•90
•96
104
110
116
1-32
•3318
2-6
•85
•92
•97
1^05
112
117
1-34
•8368
2-7
•86
•93
•99
107
113
1^19
1-36
•8422
2-8
•87
•95
100
1-09
116
1-20
1-38
•8472
2-9
•88
•96
102
1-10
117
1-22
1-40
•3521
30
•90
•97
103
112
118
1^24
1-42
•8669
For special cases modify ihe discharge by a co-effident (c) before
appljing it to the table, to find the diameter.
■
^K
3
r
^
■
TABLE
VIII.-Part 2-
onlmued.
1
itnet«ra of full cylindrical Sewers, Drains ol
lai^ discburge ^|
and low inclinatioi
I
||i|
■
Fot Blopca of one in
^^
■
500
1000
1500 2000 2500
3000
4000
h'^\
DiAmetere in feet.
■80
■92
■99 1-05 1-10
1-14
1-21
■23
1«6
121
1-31 1-39 1-45
1-51
1-59
•30348
1-21
142
1-54 1C3 1-71
177
1-88
■35692
1-39
1-59
173 183 191
1-99
210
■40045
1-52
174
1-89 2-00 2-09
217
230
■43780
1-63
1-87
203 215 2-25
234
2-47
•47096
174
1-99
2-16 229 2-40
2-48
2-63
■50092
1-83
210
2 28 2 42 2-53
2-62
278
■52840
1-92
2-21
2-39 2-63 2-65
275
2-91
■55389
200
2J0
2-49 2-64 276
2 87
S04
•57773
2-08
2-39
2-59 274 2-87
2-98
3-15
■60018
215
2-47
2'68 2-84 2'97
3-08
3-27
■62144
222
2-55
276 2-93 307
3'18
3-37
•64166
2-29
2-63
285 302 S'le
328
3-47
•66096
2'36
271
2-93 311 3-25
3-37
3-57
•67946
2-42
278
301 319 3-32
3-46
3-66
■69723
2-48
2-84
308 3-27 3-42
3-54
3 75
■71434
2-53
2.91
316 3-34 3-50
363
384
■73086
2-69
2-97
3-22 3-42 3-57
370
3!)2
■74684
2-64
3-03
329 3-49 3-65
378
4-00
76232
311
3-57
3-87 4-10 4-29
4-45
471
■89655
:
3-49
4-00
4-34 4-60 4-81
4-99
5-28
10059
3-81
1'38
475 5'03 5-26
5'45
578
1^0998
4-10
471
5-11 6-41 5-66
5-87
C-21
1-1830
4-36
501
6-43 575 6-02
6-24
661
1-2582
4-60
5-28
573 6-07 6-35
6-58
697
1-3273
,
4-82
6-51
600 636 6-65
6-90
7-31
1-3913
5-03
578
6-26 6'64 6-94
7-20
7-62
1-4512
6-64
7-62
8-27 876 9-16
9-50 10'06
19149
7-81
8-97
9 72 103O 1077 1116
11-83
2-2520
r special cue
ea, modify the diachiirge by a co-ofEciei
1
og
it to the table, to Sad Uie duunetar.
^^
I
TABLE Vm.-PART 3.
Sm&ll Pipes. Heaila for a len^^ of 100 feet.
For dUmetcn in
I««t.
S
ih
Fordii.
chT,.!.
-083
■166
-25
-333
-416
cubic Utl
|.-3
t«rNC«DlL
(1")
(2")
(3")
m
(6")
HI
Head of ntar in
fMt.
•1
IGl
5.04
•664
-157
■0616
■000648
•2
645
20-16
2-654
-630
•2064
•002592
■3
1451
45-35
5-972
1-417
■4644
•006832
■4
2580
80-62
10617
2-525
■8256
■010368
■5
4«31
125-97
16-589
3-937
1-2899
-0162
■(>
5801
180- .56
23-888
5-669
1-8575
•023328
-7
7900
246-90
82-514
7-716
2-5283
•031752
■8
10318
322-48
42-467
10-078
3-3023
•041472
■9
130C1
408-15
53-748
12-754
4-17;ll
•05-2488
10
llil24
60389
66-355
16-746
51-598
•0648
11
19510
609-70
80-290
19-053
6-2433
•078108
1-2
23219
725-59
95-551
22-075
7-4:»l
-093312
1-3
272.50
851-56
112-140
26-611
8-7200
-109512
1-1
31004
987-60
130-056
30-863
10-1132
•127008
1'5
86-280
1133-74
149-299
35429
11-6095
■1458
1-C
41278
1289-94
169-869
40311
13-2090
■165888
17
46-599
1466-22
191-767
45-507
14-9118
■187272
1-8
52213
iro2-,59
214-992
61-018
10-7177
■209952
1-9
68209
181902
239-542
56-844
18-6268
■233928
2-0
64497
2015-54
265 421
62-986
20-6391
■2592
21
71108
2222-13
292-627
69-442
22-7546
■286768
2-2
78042
2-13880
321-160
70 212
249733
■313032
2-3
85298
2005-55
351-020
83-299
2729-52
■342792
2-4
92876
2902-36
382-206
90-099
29-7203
•373218
2-5
100777
3149-28
414-7-20
08-415
32-2487
■4050
2-13
109000
3100-20
-148-561
106-410
34-8801
■438018
27
11754S
,3073-32
483-730 114-791
37-6147
■47239^2
2-8
126415
3030-46
520-225
123-452
40-4527
-508032
2-9
135005
4237-67
558-048
132-.127
43-3937
-64496S -
30
145119
4^34-96
597-197
141-717
46-4380
-5832
For special caBCS modify the disohargo by a co-efGcient (c) Wore
a])j)ljiiig it, to fiiiil tlic head nei-cHaary.
TABLE Vin.— Part S— continued.
Pipes. Head for a length of 100 feet.
XXXI
For diameters la feet.
berto
d»for
ten.
rdi»-
cgaaia
•5
•583
'666
•76
•833
teCMt
'
^it
aeeoad.
^6'0
(7-)
m
(9-)
(lO'o
lit
Headol watei
' in feet and decimals.
•1
•0207
-0096
•0049
-0027
-0016
•000648
•2
•0829
•0884
•0197
-0107
•0064
•002592
•3
•1866
-0863
-0443
•0246
•0145
•005832
•4
•3318
-1535
-0787
-0437
-0258
-010368
•5
•5184
•2398
-1230
•0683
-0403
•0162
•6
•7465
-3454
•1772
•0989
•0580
•028328
•7
10163
•4701
-2411
-1338
-0790
•081752
•8
1-3271
•6140
-3149
•1748
•1032
-041472
-•9
1-6796
•7753
•3995
•2212
•1306
-052488
1-0
20736
-9594
•4921
•2731
•1612
•0648
11
2-5091
1-1608
-5954
•3304
-1951
•078408
1-2
2-9860
1-3815
'7086
•3932
-2322
•093312
1-3
3-5044
1-6213
-8316
•4615
•2725
•109512
1-4
40643
1-8804
•9645
•5352
•3160
•127008
1-5
4-6656
2-1586
1-1072
•6144
-3628
-1458
1-6
5*3084
2-4560
1-2597
•6991
-4128
•165888
1-7
5-9927
27726
1-4221
•7892
•4660
•187272
1-8
6-7185
3-1084
1-5943
•8Q47
•5224
•209952
1-9
7-4857
3-4633
1-7764
•9858
•5821
•233928
20
8-2944
3-8375
19683
1-0674
•6450
•2592
21
9-1446
4-2309
21701
1-2042
•7111
•285768
2-2
10-0362
4-5377
2-3816
1-3216
•7804
•313632
2-3
10-9693
60761
2-6031
1-4445
-8530
-342792
2-4
11-9439
66260
2-8343
1-5729
-9288
-373248
2-5
12-9600
6-9961
30755
1-7067
10078
-4050
2-6
14-0175
6-4864
3-3264
1-8459
10900
-438048
27
15-1165
6-9939
3-5872
1-9906
11755
•472392
2-8
16-2570
7-6216
3-8579
21408
1-2642
•508032
. 2-9
17-4390
8-0683
41883
2-2965
1^8561
•644908
3-0
18-6624
8-6344
4-4287
2-4576
1-4512
-6832
For special cases modify the discharge by a co-efficient (e) before
fyplying it^ to find the head necessary.
d
1
■
m
^B
—■
■
i
TABLE VIII.— Part ■i-conlinued.
1
L
jicalSefl
era or Tnnnela, Head for a length of 100 feet.
e-S^fe .
IV-
■
For
«a-g1|
9m in
a ,-5 .si
biGC»e4
3
4
5 6
7
H»d of «ter in feet
1
■0003
■00006
■00002 -000008
■000004
■oe
2
■OOU
■00025
■00008 ■000033
■000015
■26
3
■0024
■00057
.00018 -000075
•000035
■58
4
•0043
■00101
•00033 -000133
■000062
I'M
5
■0067
•00158
■00052 -000208
•000096
1'62
6
*009(i
■00228
■00074 -000300
■000139
2-33,
7
■0131
■00310
■00102 -000408
■000189
3-18
8
■0167
■004O5
•00133 -000533
■000247
I'lS
9
■0216
■00513
■00168 -000675
■000312
625
10
•0267
■00633
.00207 -000833
■000386
6-48
15
•0600
■01434
■00466 -001875
•000868
U^-IS
20
•1067
•02531
■00829 -008333
■001542
25-92
25
-1667
•03955
■01296 -005208
■002410
40-50
SO
■2-100
■05695
■01866 -007500
-003470
58^38
S5
■3267
■07752
■025iO -010208
■0O4?23
79-38
40
■4267
■10132
-03318 -013333
■006169
103-68
ir,
-5400
-12815
-04199 •016875
-007875
13122
.'.'")
■6067
■15823
■05184 -020833
-009639
162-00
■8067
■19143
■06273 -025208
■011663
196-02
-9600
■22781
■07465 -030000
-013880
233-28
11267
■26736
-08761 -035208
-016289
273.78
1-3067
■31008
•10161 -M0833
■018892
317-52
l-MOO
■35596
■11664 -046875
■021C87
364.50
^0
1-6678
■40500
•13271 053333
■024675
414-72
85
V9267
•45721
■14982 ■060208
■027856
468-18
90
•216O0
•51258
•16?96 ^067500
■031230
524-as
ns
24067
■57112
■18714 075208
-034796
584-82
2^6667
•63281
•20736 083333
■038555
648^
10-6667
2^53120
1^82944 -333333
-I54221i
2592^
i
24-
5-09530
1-86624 .750000
■346998
5S32^
, ■- -i"!^
ml oiisca,
nodify Uie discbftrgo by a co-efficient (f) Ufewt
Iiljing It
to find the head oecesB&ry.
^^^M
^H
^^^^H
ZXXIV
Explanatory Examplbs to Table Vin. m
Example 1. What is the discharge of an enamelled 3-iiicih pqM
haying a hydraulic slope of 1 in 400 ; and what would be its letst ftfl
discharge when old, irrespectively of sectional obstmction P a
By Table YIII., Part 1, the tabular dischai^ is "06 cubic feet pM
second ; and by the Table of co-efficients (Table XII., Part 3), for von
smooth sarfaces, including smooth plaster, and enamelled or gli^m
pipes, the co-efficient e for a pipe having this slope and a hydrMiKa|
radius, which for cylindrical pipes running full is one-fourth of tkl
diameter, is '84, the discharge when new is s= '84 x *06 = "05 cnbiel
feet per second. I
If preferred in any other unit, refer to Table XI., Part 2,byiii8peek>1
ing which we find it = 18 gallons per minute. I
When the pipe is old its surface will not be rougher than that of |
ordinary metal, and taking the co-efficient for metal with this slope
and radius to l)e '01, the least discharge is = '61 x '06 = '037 cubic
feet per second, or 14 gallons per minute.
Example 2. A masonry culvert has a diameter of 42 inches, audi
slope of 1 in 200, what is its discharge when running fuD ?
By Part 1, Table VIII., the tabular discharge is 63*63 cubic feet per
second, and the co-efficient for this slope and a hydraulic radios of '875
feet will according to Table XII. be I'lO; hence the actual discharge]
will be 110 X 63*63 = 70 cubic feet per second. '
Example 3. What must bo the diameter of a cast iron pipe to
discharge 20 cubic feet per second with a slope of one in 500 ?
By Part 2, Table VIII., the tabular diameter will be 2*64 feet and
the hydraulic radius 'GG feet ; turning to the table of co-efficient^
(Table XII., Part 3), we take c = 1*03: and assuming a modified
Q
c
obtain a true diameter = 2*62 feet.
discharge ~ = 10*4, and referring again to Part 2, Table VIII., we
c
Example 4. What should be the dimensions of an ovoidal bridf-
work sewer to discharge 50 cubic feet per second with a slope of 1 in
1,000, the sewer flowing two-thirds full ?
The co-efficient to modify the discharge through cylindrical into
xxxv
\i for oToidal seweitt of the usual type mnning iwothirds faHl is
• 35
lerally assiimed to be = ^ctttt?. = 'S9 ; bence tbe first modification
"^ 39-27
discharge will be *89 x 50 = 44*5 : using tbis and referring to
rt 2i Table YIII., we get a first approximation to a diameter of 4*19
L Secondly, referring to the table of co-efficients, Table XII., we
bain a co-efficient e, corresponding to a hydranlic radius of 1*05 and
dope of '001, = 1'13 ; and modifying tbe discbarge a second time
44*5
becomea = -y;tq ^ ^^'^ giving* according to Part 2, Table VIII.,
I? feet for the diameter of a cylindrical sewer. Hence the dimen-
na lor the corresponding ovoidal sewer will be
d diameter of top circle = 3*97
— diameter of bottom circle = 1*98
— radius of each side circle = 5*96
Sd
— depth of' sewer = 5*90
Example 5. A series of enamelled pipes has a total head of 80 feet,
d consists of 3600 feet of 8-inch pipe, 2100 feet of 6-inch, and 600
Bt of 5-inch ; required the discharge and head necessary for each pipe.
Assoxne any discharge as 1 cubic foot per second, and obtaining the
parate tabular heads due to it, divide the total head in the same
nportion.
•4921 X 36 = 17*72
17*72 X 30 ^ 92 = 5*77
2*0736 X 21 = 43-55
43*55 X 30 -J- 92 = 14-15
61598 X 6 =i 30-95
30 95 X 30 -r 92 = 1008
Total = 92*22
Total = 30*
nd modifying these by the squares of the suitable co-efficients, obtain
;tnal heads for a first approximation.
5-77 ^ (*95)* = 6*41 6*41 x 30 -f- 39*22 = 490
14*15 -f- (*87)« = 18*62 18*62 x 30 -r- 3922 = 14*24
10*08 -f- (84)* = 1419 1419 x 30 -f- 39*22 = 10-86
Total = 39-22 Total = 30-
1 xV'3b
id the discharge =: — — = *57 cubic feet per second =213 gal-
>/92
D8 per minute.
KxupLB 6. A diBchargfl of 300 galloaa per minnte is
tliroagh a Banes of ordinary iron pipes oonq>oeed of 800
7-uicfa, 300 jKtds of 6-mch, and 100 yards of S-inch
head required for each pipe F
By Tables of eqairalents (Part 2, Table XL), 300 gsls. per
= *8 cnbio feet per second, and the corresponding tftbnlar beads
Part 3, Table YIII., can be taken as a first ^proxinMUi<n, at
modifying these by the squares of the snitable oo-eflSoients gt*CB j
Table XII. we get the trne heads thus : —
Length> Head. Trae Heads.
7 inch -6140 x 24 = 14-71 14-74 -i- (-eeV = 33 50
6 inch 1-8271 x 9 = 11-94 11-94 -*• (-eS)' = 29-85
5 inch 3-3023 x 3 = 991 9-91 + (-61)' = 26'78
36-59 feet Total 90*13 :
XXXVll
TABLE IX.
GKves velocities of discliarge in feet peif second for sluices, and
fices, due to various heads for certain co-efficients, also theoretical
iocities to which any co-efficient may be applied ; being an applica-
Ko. of the formula «
V = m X 8-026 •H.
lere for orifices H ss depth of centre of motion of orifice.
THe same table also applies to overfalls, weirs, and notches, but in
is case using the same general formula, H is the depth from still
ihter to sill-level, and the velocities given in the table must be reduced
r one-third to obtain velocities of discharge for all sorts of overfijls*
For values of (m) the co-efficient, see Parts 5 and 6, Table XII.
This table can also be used for the converse purpose.
HMdiB
oo-jvFivuun.
?orut<inJ
For ButM
ForvdMU]
^sr
-SE?"
dm.
!•
-9
8-
7-
6-
6-
TdgalttM ol Hm
l-n-
■01
■80S
•722
-642
-562
-482
-401
-02
1185
1-oai
me
<7»4
'681
■sa
•08
1-390
1-251
1-112
1178
-884
■M
M
i^eos
l-US
1-284
1-123
-868
■m
•05
r794
1-615
'1-435
1-256
1-076
-897
•06
1^966
1-769
1-573
1-376
1-180
-981
•07
2-123
Kll
1-698
1-486
1-274
HW
■08
2-270
2043
1-816
1-589
1-362
1I3S
■09
2.108
2167
1-926
1-686
1-445
ISM
■1
2538
2-284
2-030
1-777
1-523
1281
■2
3-589
3230
2-871
2-612
2-153
1-m
•3
4-395
3-956
S616
3-078
2-637
2-198
■i
6^075
4-568
4-060
3-553
3-045
2-53!
•6
5^675
5108
4-540
3-973
3-*)5
2-887
•6
6.210
5594
4-973
4-351
3-730
3108
•7
6-714
6-043
5-371
4-700
4-028
33SS
■8
7-178
6460
6-742
5-025
1-307
3-569
•9
7-613
6-852
6-090
5-329
4-668
3801
1
8-025
7-223
6-420
5-618
4-815
4-OU
N.B. — For OTer&llfi, reduce the tabalar velocity by one-third.
TABLE IX.
XXXIX
1
■
CO-EFFICIBNTS.
1 Hcftdin
1 iMi.
For wide
bridge-
q^enings.
For lock
BluioeB.
For special
weirs.
•
For weirs
generally.
For orifices
generally.
For spedal
weirs.
•96
•84
•727
-666
•62
-55
1
Ve]
lodties of D
iachaige.
1 -01
•770
•674
•584
•536
•498
-441
1 -02
1-089
-953
•825
•756
•704
•624
•03
1-334
1-168
1^011
•926
•862
-765
•04
1-641
1348
1-167
1-069
•995
•883
1 -05
1-722
1^507
1-304
1-186
1-112
•987
•06
1-887
1-651
1-429
1-309
1-219
1-081
:
•07
2-038
1-783
1-543
1-414
1-316
1-169
•08
2179
1907
1-650
1-512
1-407
1-249
■
•09
2-311
2023
1-751
1-604
1-493
1-324
•1
2-436
2-132
1-845
1-690
1-574
1-396
1
•2
3-445
3-014
2-609
2-390
2-225
1-973
•3
4-219
3-694
3195
2-927
2-725
2-418
•4
4-872
4-264
3-689
3-380
3-147
2^792
•5
5-448
4-768
4-126
3-780
3-519
3121
•6
5-968
5-221
4^519
4-140
3-854
3-419
•7
6-445
5-640
4-881
4-471
4-163
3-687
•8
6-890
6-030
5-218
4-781
4-450
3-948
;
•9
7-308
6-395
5-535
5-070
4-720
4-187
•
1
1
7-704
6^742
5-834
5-345
4-976
4-414
NM, — For overfallfly redaco the tabular velocity by one-third.
TABLE IX.— continued.
Hetdin
Ittt.
OO-IFPICIBNTS.
Forutml
.dodtj.
Poriunw
For
Telodtfot
'"•ET-
'SSf
?a>
1
-9
■8
•7
■G
VtlodtiMcf
tMint.
1-
80250
7223
6-420
6-618
4-815
4
1-25
8-9722
8-075
7-178
6-281
6-383
4
1-5
9-8286
8-846
7863
6-880
8-897
4
1-75
10-6101
9-564
8-493
7-«l
6-370
6
2-
11-8461
10-214
9-079
7-944
6-809
fl
2-25
12-0375
10-834
9-630
8-426
7-223
0
2-5
12-6886
11-420
10-151
8-882
7-613
6
2-7r>
13-3079
11977
10-046
9-316
7-985
6
3-
13-899?
12-510
11-120
9--30
8-340
6
3-25
14-4673
13-0-20
11-574
10127
8-680
3-5
15-0134
13-512
12-010
10-509
9008
7
3-75
15-5403
13986
12-432
10-878
9-324
4-
1005<Xl
14446
12-840
11-235
9-630
8
4-25
16-5439
14-890
13-235
11-581
9-926
8
4-5
17-0235
15-322
13-019
11-916
10-214
8
475
17-4901
15-741
13-992
12243
10-484
8
5-
179444
16-150
14-355
12-661
10 767
8
5-25
183876
16-549
14-710
12-871
11033
9
5-5
18-8203
16-938
15-05a
13-174
11-292
9
675
19-2433
17-319
15-305
13-470
11-546
9
6-
19-6572
17-691
15-726
13 700
11-794
U
6-25
20-0625
18-057
16 050
14044
12-038
W
CU
20-4598
18-414
16-368
14-322
12-276
11
675
20-8496
18-705
10-680
14-595
12-510
IC
7-
21-2322
19109
16-986
14-363
12-739
IC
7-25
21-6079
19-447
17-280
15-12(J
12-965
IC
7-6
21-9774
10-779
17-582
15-384
13-186
IC
775
22 3400
20-107
17-873
15038
13-404
11
8-
22-6981
20-428
18-158
15-889
13-619
11
N.B.—FoT overfalls, i
e tUc tHbulor velocity by one-thii
■
■
■
n
r
^
1
1
t
TABLE lX.^onCi»tted.
\
■
CO.EFPICIENTS.
did
For wide
brid«e-
openingp.
For lock
For ■pedal
For won
Fonpeoid
(W.
Unices.
w^.
eenondl,.
(^tniiT
oriBoe*.
■9l>
■84
-727
-666
■02
-55
7-704
6741
5-836
5-345
4-975
4-413
25
8-614
7-537
6-525
6-976
5-662
4-934
«
9-436
8 256
7-147
6-546
6-109
5-420
n
10-192
8-918
7-720
7-071
6-5S2
5-839
10895
9-533
8-253
7-558
6-936
6-241
«5
11-556
10112
8-754
8-017
7-461
6-621
so
12-181
10-659
9-227
8-451
7-867
6-978
■75
12-776
11179
9-678
8'8fi3
8 251
7-319
13-344
11-676
10-108
9-257
8-618
7-645
■85
13 889
12-133
10-521
9-685
8-825
7-957
40
14-413
12-612
10-918
9-999
9-308
8-258
75
14-919
13054
11-301
10-350
9-635
8-547
15-408
13-482
U672
10-689
9-951
8-827
!5
15-882
13-897
12027
11-018
10-257
9099
50
16-3*3
14-30()
12-380
11-338
10-554
9-363
75
16-800
14 695
12-718
11-661
10-846
9-622
17-227
15-074
13-049
11-952
11121
9-865
SS
17-652
15-446
13-372
12-247
11-400
10113
m
18-068
15-809
13-686
12-534
11-669
10-351
75
18-474
16-165
13-994
12-817
11-931
10 584
18-871
16-512
14-295
13-092
12188
10-812
!5
iO
19-260
16-853
U-690
13-362
12-439
11-034
19-642
17-187
14-879
13-627
12-685
11-253
?5
20-016
17-514
15-162
13-886
12-927
11-467
20-383
17-835
15-440
141*1
13164
11-688
e5
20-744
18-151
13-714
14-391
13 402
11-889
So
21-099
18-4fil
15-982
U-637
13-626
12-082
75
21 M?
18-767
16-246
14-879
13-851
12-287
21-791
190G7
16-506
15-117
14073
12-4S4
1
I
i^
-for over
alls, reduc
ethetitbi:
lUr veloci
y bj one-t
bird. 1
1
■
For uno*
-.£"
■SE?"
VKtml-
1
■»
•8
•7
•6
•8
T
•IsaUHtf
Kakv.
8-86
S3051
20-746
18-Ml
16-185
13-831
UW
860
S3-397
21-057
18717
16-377
14«38
U-M
8-76
23789
21-365
18-992
16<17
M-MS
u-m
a
24-076
21-668
19-261
16-858
14-445
12W
M5
24'«>8
21-966
19-586
17-086
14-645
12»l
9-50
24738
22-261
19-788
17316
14-841
12-887
975
25<159
22-553
20iH7
17-Hl
15035
12-5a
10
25-378
22-840
20302
17-764
15-227
12689
105
26005
23-404
20-804
18203
15-603
13«B
11
26-617
23 955
21-293
18-631
15-970
13-306
11-5
27-215
24-403
21?72
19-050
16-329
13-607
12
27-800
25-020
22-240
19-460
16-680
13900
12-5
28-373
25-535
22-698
19-861
17024
14-lM
13
28-935
26-041
23148
20-254
17-361
14167
18-5
29-4*6
26-545
23-596
20-646
17-697
14 W
14
30-027
27024
24021
21019
18-016
15«tS
1*5
30-059
27-603
24-447
21-391
18-335
15-!»
15
31-081
27-973
24-864
21-766
18-648
15-HO
15-5
31-694
28-434
25-275
22-116
18-956
15-7!7
16
32-101
28-891
25-681
22-470
19-261
16-MO
16-6
32-59S
29 338
26078
22-818
19-655
16-W
17
33-089
29-780
26-471
23-162
19-853
16-644
17-5
33-572
30-214
26-857
23-500
20-143
16-786
18
34-048
30-643
27-238
23-833
20-429
I7<Si
lB-5
34-518
31-066
27-614
24-162
20-711
17-SM
19
34-981
31483
27985
24-486
20-988
17-480
19-6
35-438
31-894
28-360
24-806
.21-283
17-710
20
35-889
32.300
29-711
25-122
21-583
17-9M
y.B. — For over&llB, reduce the btbulor velooitj faj ono-third.
■
■
■
■
D
r
■^
1
HBI
1
r
r
r
TABLE IX.—eontimed.
4
CO-EFFIcrENTS. ^
1
din
For wUe
briJg*-
opemnp.
Porlock
For .pcciol
For vein
or oriliFei
Fot«pwi«I
*■
Slnieei.
■ndra.
Eenemlly.
gtnemlly.
TOn.
■96
-84
-727
•J66
■62
■55
V
docities of
DbcLanse.
iS
22129
19-362
16-762
15-352
14-292
12-677
50
22-461
19-654
17014
15-582
14-506
12-867
22-789
19941
17-263
15-810
14-718
13-056
2!{112
20-2-23
17 508
16-034
14-927
13-242
25
23*J1
20'502
17-749
16-256
15133
13-424
50
23-746
20-778
17-987
16-473
15-336
13-604
24056
28-049
88-223
16-689
15-536
13-782
24-363
21-317
18-455
16-902
15' 734
13-958
fi
24-964
21-844
18-910
17-112
16-123
14-302
25-562
22-358
19 355
17-727
16-502
14-639
>5
2«126
22-860
19-791
18-125
16-873
14-968
26-688
23-352
20-216
18-515
17-236
15-290
27-238
23-834
20633
18-897
17-591
15-605
27778
24-306
21042
19-271
17-940
15 914
■£
28-307
24-769
21-442
19-637
18-287
16-222
28-826
25-223
21-836
19-998
18-617
16 614
■5
29-337
25-670
22-222
20-352
18946
16-807
29-838
26-108
22-602
20-700
19-270
17-094
B5
30-331
26-540
22-976
21042
19-588
17-377
i
30-817
26-965
23344
21-379
19-903
17-655
1'5
31-294
27-383
23-706
21711
20-207
17-929
'
31-765
27-794
24-062
22 037
20515
18-198
■E
32 229
28-200
24-413
22-358
20-815
18465
32-686
28-600
24-760
22-676
21-110
18-726
■5
83-137
28-995
25-101
22-988
21-391
16-985
33-582
29-384
25-438
23-298
21-688
19-239
•5
34 021
29-768
25-771
23 602
21991
19-491
"
34-454
30147
26 091
23 902
22-251
19-739
VJI.
^jffl^W
ce the to
jidar velw
itjbjron
B-third.
1
^
OO-SPFIGHHTB.
^-ar
^sc?"
20-5
21
21-5
27-5
26
28-5
20
29-5
SO
30-5
81
31-5
3i
31-5
40-525
40-921
41-312
41-roo
42-084
42-405
42-843
43-216
43-588
43-956
44-320
44-6S2
45-041
45-397
45-751
46-101
46-449
46-794
47-137
47-478
32-702
33-098
33-490
33-877
34-260
84-647
36-012
35-383
35-750
36-113
36-472
36'379
37-180
37-530
37-875
38-218
38-558
38-890
39-229
40213
40'537
40-857
41-176
41-491
41-804
42114
42 423
42-730
29-768
80-112
SO-458
30-797
31122
31-452
31-778
32-100
32-420
32737
33-049
33-380
33-G67
33 972
34-275
34-569
34-870
35-164
37159
37-435
37-709
37-982
25-489
21-801
18-168
85743
22-066
18-M
26-047
22-327
18«ll
26-848
22-685
isao
26-646
22-840
10681
26-943
23-098
1»8«
27-232
23-342
1M!1
27-520
23-589
19-657
27-806
23-834
19-861
28-088
24-075
2O061
28-367
24-315
20-26!
28-644
24-553
2O460
28-918
24 787
20-656
29-190
25O20
2OB50
29-458
25-250
sum
29-725
25-479
21-8S!
29-990
25-706
21-4!1
30-248
25-927
21-606
30-511
26-153
21-7M
80-779
26-374
21-978
81-024
26-692
22-160
81-277
26-809
22-340
31-628
27025
2!-5!0
31-778
27-238
22-681
32 025
27-451
22-87S
82-270
27-660
23-050
32-514
27-869
23-SS4
32-756
28076
23-387
32 996
28-282
23-568
33-234
28-487
23-739
/f.B.—For oreifaUs, reduce ttio toV«i.\B.T ^elwatj by one-Uiird.
Uf
^M
■
1
>
TABLE JX.— continued.
1
CO-BFFICIEKK.
Par wide
n biidee-
P«rl«ck
PofipeeUI
Per Tdre
Pot orifloee
FortpeoM
OEffioiogi.
Blaieos.
weiw.
genemllj.
gen'tftUj.
Tfrin.
•96
-84
■727
■see
■62
■55
Velocities it Dieoherge.
i 34-882
30-522
26-423
24-199
22-528
19-985
35-305
30892
26-737
21493
22-701
20-227
35723
31-257
27-060
24783
22-971
20-465
36-136
31-619
27-373
25069
23-337
20702
36-544
31-976
27-682
25353
23-601
20-936
36-94S
32 329
27-988
25633
23-868
21-228
37-347
32-679
28-291
25-910
24-120
21-390
87-743
33-025
28-590
26-184
24-375
21-623
38-134
33.367
28-886
26-455
24-628
21847
38-521
33-706
29-180
23-?2*
24-878
22069
38-904
34-041
29-470
26-990
25125
22-288
39-2^
34-373
29-767
27-253
25-371
22-506
39-660
34-702
30 012
27-514
25-613
22-722
40-032
35-028
30-324
27-761
25-854
22935
40-401
35-351
30-604
28-028
26092
23146
40-767
35-671
30-881
28-282
2G-328
23-355
41-129
35-988
31-155
28-533
26-563
23-563
41-488
36-302
31-427
28-782
20-891
23-766
41-844
36614
31-697
29-029
27024
23-973
42-197
36-923
31-956
29 274
27-253
24-170
42-548
37-229
32-230
29-51?
27-478
24-376
42-895
37-533
32-493
29-758
27-703
24-574
43-240
87-835
32-754
29-997
27-925
24-772
48-581
38-134
33-013
30-234
28-146
24-968
43-920
38-430
33-270
30-470
28-365
25162
44257
38-725
33-525
30-703
28-582
25-355
44-591
39-017
33-778
30-935
28-798
25-546
41-923
39-307
34-029
31165
29-012
25-737
45-252
39.595
31-278
31-393
29-225
25-925
45-678
39-881
34-526
31-620
29-436
26-113
-For over
fiiUa, reduce tlio tabjJ^ X^kwlj^hj QQS
"^^fei.
^M
i^^
xlvi
Explanatory Examplis to Tabli IX.
«
Example 1.
A.n orifice 6 inclies in diameter, haa its oeniare imder » head of
feet of water ; required its disobarge.
For a circular orifice using *62 for a co-eflioient, the vekxUf
discharge is 11*121 feet per second, and tlie sectional area,
to Part 7, Table XIL, being "1963, tbe dischaige =s '1963 x 11*121
2*1836 cubic feet per second.
Example 2.
A rectangular orifice is 8 inches broad and 4 inches deep, and ii
under a head of 4 feet 3 inches ; required its discharge.
Since the breadth is greater than the depth, a special co-efficient ii
required (See Co-efficients in Table Xll.).
jr H 4-25 „ . ^ , D -33 ^
Here — = -^^ — 7 approximately, and j^ = rgg = -5.
These require a co-efficient *612, which must hence be applied to the
tabular discharge for natural yelocitj due to the co-efficient 1*00 .'.
the discharge = 16*544 X *22 X *612 = 2*227 cubic feet per second.
Example 3.
The fall of water through a bridge, having a sectional area of 500
square feet, is *05 feet ; required the discharge.
Take *96 as a co-efficient for a wide opening, and we get the
discharge = 1*758 X 500 = 879 cubic feet per second.
Example 4i.
The difierence of level between the upper and lower ponds of a
canal is 6 feet, and the communicating sluice is 2 feet square;
required its discharge.
dng the co-efficient *84 and height 6;
lischarge is 16*512 x. 4 =s 66*048 cubic feet per second,
le efiectiye head gradually decreasing, the mean discharge due to
eight is 33*024 cubic feet per second.
the lock is 60 long and 20 broad, it will hold 7,200 cubic feet of
r, and at the above rate will be filled in 218 seconds, or about
t minutes and a half.
AMPLB 5. Required the diameter of a vertical pipe to discharge 2
: feet per second from a reservoir under a head of 30 feet.
ing the co-efficient *84, we obtain from the Table 36*923 as velo-
>f discharge.
2*
e section will then = ^^ -^^ = 05417 square feet,
i will require a diameter of 3iy or practically, 4 inches.
AMPLi 6. Required the length of a weir to discharge 5696 cubic
yer second, at a depth or head from still water to sill of 4 feet.
Ith a co-efficient '666^ the tabular velocity of discharge is 10*689,
which one-third has to be deducted to obtain the mean velocity
icharge over a weir*
noe V = 10*689 — 3*563 = 7*126 feet per second,
he section = -k-ttt^ = nearly 800 feet ;
7*126
) the length = ^^^^ = nearly 200 feet.
uiPLE 7. A river passes over a drowned weir : the upper level
iter is 3 feet above the lower level, and is 4 feet above the sill of
eir, which is 100 feet long ; required the discharge.
B upper portion may be considered as a simple overfall with a
H =^3, and with a co-efficient *666 : the lower portion as an
), with the same head, but a co-efficient '62.
i^ording to the Table the velocity of discharge for the one is
— 3*086 = 6*171 feet per second ; and that for the other is
feet per second. Hence the discharge :
=; 50 (6-171 X 3 + 8-618 x 1) = 50 x 27131
=s 1356 cubic feet per second.
e
EuifPLX 8. It is required to raiM ttm vppet portion of i
feet by meuu of a drowned wedr across it. The rivw haa » <
of 812 onbiofeet per second, and a width of 70 feet; wfaftt most be j
height of the dam — let, neglecting velocity of approach ; 2nd, i
it at 2'5 feet per second F
1st. Let d = depth of sill of dam below Uie lower water.
Then V = velocity of npper portion, or tme over&ll ;
^ i velocity for head 1'6 to a co-efficient "GGG ;
= 4-364 feet per second (&om Table) ;
and V IE velocity of lower portion of orifice ;
= velocity for a head 1-6 to a co-efficient *62 ;
x= G'109 feet per second (from Table).
Then the totu] discharge 812, is as in the last Evamplg
= 70JV X 1-5 + V X rfj =70(6-646 + Jx 6-109)
hence tf = 1^ = -827 feet
2nd. Taking into considoration fhe velocity ^approach and
fying the co-efficients {vide Tabic XII.) accordingly.
The head due to velocity of approach 2-5 feet per aecoDd, for a <fr
efficient -8, is from Table IX. about -15 feet.
Hence the modified co-efficient for overfall will be
= -eecjci-)^ — (-1)*] =-745
and the modified co-efficient for orifice will be
«» V [ 1 + ^ [ = mV 1-1 = -62 X l-04i9 = -648
llaking nse of these two co-efficients instead of -GGG and -63 aaii
the first portion of the Example, wo obtain other valnes.
V = 4-891 ; and V '= 6-385
hence?!^ =11-6 = 1-6 V + rfV = 7-S41 + d x 6-385
*''^''=SS = -667 feet.
kHx
BENDS AND OBSTRUCTIONS.
TABLE X.
PuET L— Giving loss of h^i>d in feet dne to bends in pipes corre-
io certain discharges. — (Weisbach formnla.)
PiBT IL— GUving loss of head dne to bends in rivers corresponding
\kk certain velocities.— (Mississippi formnla.)
Past HI. — Gtiving approximate rise of water in feet dne to
<4»tniciions, bridges, weirs, &o.: — (the whole section of water
Vein^ s= l)y and corresponding to certain velocities. — (Dnbnat
ti
i s
> ■£ -I
rH rH r^ l-l ©I nOvn^H
?
1
i
i
i
l^li|||jl
1 *
2Sgg||g|g|||
isisiitii
' ■>
iiiiiiiij
J
Ii3ssi|y|
s
3:f5gsa?gg?||
igiiiiiii
1^
Hssspiigjui
SSSgSgxfeS
iSssssEii
-
T-
IssSssSss
5
-s^sSSiii
3
SS?S33?|g?jg
:^ ?5t?!i^'^^i
.M
^=-. . ?««^=.?«;'S
MMW-*■^^6^.4^
«-!
Sss??,l¥s?=j
22S^Sg§*.
I
CiTCCffcCvircccr
li
TABLE X.— Parts 2 and 3.
Part 2. — Bends of Bivers. (Mississippi formula.)
For deflections of
10^
n
20^
n
30^
60°
2n
90°
3n
180'
6d
Lofls of head in feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
_
•0006
•0025
•0056
•0099
•0155
•0224
•0305
0398
•0503
0622
•0009
•0019
•0037
•0096
•0037
•0075
•0149
•0234
•0081
•0168
•0336
•0503
•0149
•0298
•0597
•0895
•0233
•0466
•0933
•1399
•0335
•0671
•1343
•2014
•0457
•0914
•1827
•2741
•0596
•1194
•2387
•3581
•0755
•1511
•3021
•4532
•0933
•1865
•3730
•5592
•0112
•0448
•1007
•1790
•2798
•4028
•5483
•7162
•9064
11190
Part 3.«— Obstmctioiis (Dabnat formnla) when the hydraulic
slope is less than '001.
For percentages of obstruction to whole channel section.
•1 -2 -3 ^4 -5 -6
1
•004
Rise
•009
resulting ii
•018
1 feet.
•031
•051
•089
2
•015
•034
•070
•120
•203
•355
3
•035
•085
•158
•270
•456
-798
4
•062
•150
•282
•480
•811
1-419
5
•097
•236
•439
•752
1-267
2-218
6
•140
•341
•634
1080
1-824
3193
7
•191
•463
•862
1^470
2-484
4-346
8
•249
•602
1126
1-920
3-245
5-677
9
•315
•766
1-426
2 430
4-107
7-185
10
•389
•956
1-758
3-008
5-070
8^872
BXPLAHATOKT EXAM PLH TO TaSU X.
EXAKP!.! 1. A BsrieB of pipes h&re to diadurge 5 gi^na
aeoond; there are 1 Lendii in the portu>n (hat oonsiBts of S>ii
pipe, i in tliat of 6-inoli pipe, and 8 in Qiat of 7-inch pipe ;
the total loss of head on acoonnt of these bendiF
From Table XL 5 galloUB per aeoond a '8 cubic fiset par >
and taldng the heads aepftratel; from Table X.
7 bends in S inch pre 7 x 016 t= -3IS
4 „ „ 6 „ „ 4 X -080 -e -120
8 „ „ 7 „ „ 8 X -010 = -080
Total low of heed = -515
The head on the pipes moat therefore not only ba snlBcieDt to ft
*8 cnbic feet per second throogh the pipes onder ordinary conditM
bat mnat also be increased by '516 on accoont of bends.
EuvPLB 2. A river has one bend of 20°, two of 30°, and one ol
90°, what is the total loaa of head expended in overcoming these bends^
when the velocity ia 5 feet per Beoond?
From Part 2, Table XH.
1 bend of 20° gives I X -0233
, 90° „ 1 X -1399 =
Total head expended =
■1399
-2564 feet.
EUKPLI 3. A river having a hydranlio slope lees than -001 has ila
section obstrncted by the piers and abntments of a bridge to the extent
of one-fifth, the normal velocity being 3'5 feet per seoond, what is ttn
rise canaed by the bridge?
By Part 3, Table XI., the rise will be -12 feet.
Jf.J?. — For rivers having steeper gmdiente, apply a coiroctioi
the formula given in the text.
liii
TABLE XT.
TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS.
Part 1.-
2.-
3.-
4.-
6.
Equivalent supply from total qnan titles.
-Equivalent discharges.
Equivalent velocities.
Equal discharging channels.
-Conversion tables for English measures.
6. — Conversion tables for metrical measurcFi.
TABLE XI.— Part !
Bqoirmlent Bvpfdj.
Continnoiu n^lp]7 in onlnc £wt per win will inlo total %
■^rffi"-
a»ii._.vrtTi.
Mkl^mmmd.
FwS
BWDtlw.
ForS
■««
JSi
9w»
IteJl .
315 360
•06
■04
■02
■CIS
■018
■01
630 720
■12
■08
■04
■oao
■026
■«
916 080
■18
■12
■06
■045
■0«
■03
1261440
■24
■16
■08
■060
■053
■04
1576 800
■30
■20
■10
■075
■066
■05
1892 160
■36
■24
■12
■090
■080
■06
2 207 520
■42
■28
■14
■105
■093
■07
2 522 880
■48
■32
■16
■120
■106
•08
2 833 240
■54
■36
■18
■135
■120
•09
1 million
■1903
■1268
■0634
■0476
■0423
•031710
2miUioiifl
■3805
■2537
■1268
■0851
■0846
•O63430
3 „
■5708
■3806
■1903
■1427
■1268
•095129
4 »
■7610
■5074
■2637
•1902
■1691
•126839
5 ■•
•9613
■6342
■3171
■2378
■2114
■15854S
6 „
11416
■7610
■3805
■2854
■2537
■190249
7
r3318
■8879
■4439
■3119
■2960
■221969
8 „
1-5221
1^0147
■6074
■3406
■3382
■25S678
9
1-7123
1^1416
■5708
■4280
■3805
■285388
10
19026
1^268d
■6342
■4756
■4228
■317098
TABLE XI.— Part l—eontinued.
Equivalent Supply.
ions supply in cubio feet per second throughout a month that
. equivalent to a certain number of waterings in a month.
ita
at
iter-
to
re.
feet
K)
10
K)
K)
K)
K)
K)
X)
K)
X)
k)
'6
L2
t8
^4
SO
'>6
)2
>8
>4
At 30
wmterings
per month.
At 15
waterings
per month.
At 10
waterings
per month.
At4
waterings
At 2
waterings
per month, i per month.
Atl
watering
per month.
•1157
•1041
•0926
•0810
•0694
•0579
•0463
•0347
•0231
•0116
•1
i -09
•08
•07
•06
•05
.•04
•03
•02
•01
Monthly
0579
0520
0463
0405
0347
0289
0231
0173
0116
0058
050
045
040
035
030
025
020
015
010
005
snpply in
•0386
•0347
•0309
•0271
•0231
•0193
•0154
•0116
•0077
•0039
•088
•030
•027
023
•020
•016
•013
•010
•007
•003
cobic feet per second.
•0154
•0077
•0139
•0069
•0123
•0062
•0108
•0054
•0092
•00^6
•0077
•0039
•0062
•0031
•0046
•0023
•0031
•0015
•0015
•0008
•013
•0066
•012 •
•0060
•Oil
•0054
•009
0046
•008
•0040
•006
•0032
•005
•0026
•004
•0020
•003
•0014
•001 .
•0007
•0039
•0035
•0031
•0027
•0023
•0019
•0015
•0011
•0008
•0004
•0033
•0030
•0027
•0023
•0020
•0016
•0013
.0010
•0007
•0008
N.B. — In this table a month of 30 days is assumed.
TABLE XI.— pABt ^-Mttinued.
Eqairalent Dischu^es.
per second, p«r minnte, nnd per day, into Cabio feet per '
second, per minnte, and per day.
?cond.
P.t minnU.
Per day o( 24 honrt.
\
Cabie ft.
Oallaiu.
Cabio ft.
(Hllwu.
CoHctMrt.
-01
6
-06
8640
1385
•03
12
1-92
17280
2772
■05
18
2-88
25020
4158
•06
24
3-84
34360
5543
■08
30
4-80
43200
6929
■09
36
6-76
51840
8315
•11
42
6-72
60480
9701
■13
48
7-68
69120
11087
•14
54
8-64
77760
12473
■16
60
9-62
86400
13868
i
■03
10
1-60
14400
2310
1
■05
20
3-21
28800
4619
■08
30
4-81
43200
6029
5
■u
40
6-42
57600
0230
i
■14
SO
8-02
72000
11S40
■16
CO
9-62
86400
13858
■10
70
11-23
100800
16168
i
-21
80
12-83
115200
18478
■24
90
14-44
129C00
20788
3
■26
100
16-04
144000
23097
■186
69-4
111-4
100000
16040
■371
115-7
222-8
200000
32079
■557
208-3
334-2
300000
48110
■742
277-7
445-6
400000
64150
■028
346-8
556-9
500000
80199
1114
416-6
6673
60OOOO
96230
1200
486-
779-7
700000
112278
1-485
555-5
89M
800000
12S318
1670
624-0
1002-5
000000
144358
Ms5t;
604-t
U13-0
I miilioii
10031)8
1
^Jl
■
■
■
1
Iviii
1
TABLE X
.— PaiiT 3.
V
Equivalent Velocities and Heada for Natnral Vdocitiee.
Mcond.
PmI
mlnDtc
UllH per hwd of
honr. w»t«r.
Feet ptr
Fert
MiJ«p«r
hour.
ha
1
60
•6818 -016
35
210
2 38ti6
■n
1-1
615
■7500 Olit
3-6
216
•20
lU
72
■8181 0-23
37
222
"21
1-3
78
•88C3 ■0215
38
228
■2-2
14
84
■9646 an
39
234
■23
1-5
90
i-oaas 036
4
240
2-7264
"25
1-6
ee
■040
41
246
■26
1-7
102
■045
4-2
252
■27
1-8
108
■051
43
25S
■2B
19
114
■0511
i-i
264
■30
2
120
1-301 ■0(13
4-5
270
3-0672
-31
21
12(J
■069
4-6
270
■33
2-2
132
■076
i-7
282
■w
2-3
138
•088
48
288
•3E
2-4
144
-092
4*9
294
■37
2-6
ISO
1-70G -098
^
300
3-4091
■3i
20
ISO
•103
51
30«
■4i
2-7
162
■115
5'2
312
-4£
2-8
ICS
■124
5-3
318
-44
2-9
174
■131
5-4
324
■4!
3
180
2 048 ■14.1
5-5
330
3-7500
■4;
81
180
■151
5-6
836
■41
3-2
192
■IGO
5-7
342
•a
3-3
198
•170
58
348
■5:
34
204
■180
5 9
854
•5.
3-5
210
23866 191
6-
380
4089
■51
lix
T^BLE XI.— Paw B-^eontinued.
Feet
CoRBdg.
Feet
Comdg.
'Miper
p«r
Miles per
heed of
Feet per per
Miles per
head of
■oand.
mimitt.
hour.
water.
■eooincL
minute.
hour.
water.
61
366
•581
9^2
552
1-324
6-2
372
•603
9-4
564
1-380
63
378
•620
9-6
576
1-460
6-4
384
•640
9-8
588
1-500
6-5
390
4*2045
•660
10
600
6-818
1-564
6-6
396
•680
10-2
612
1-624
6-7
402
•701
10-4
624
1-644
6-8
408
•720
10-6
636
1-764
6-9
414
•744
10^8
648
1-836
7
420
4-771
•766
11
660
7-500
1-892
71
426
•787
11-2
11-4
672
684
1-930
2-032
7-2
432
•816
11-6
696
2-092
7-3
438
•832
7-4
A AM
•856
1V8
708
2-176
12
720
8-1727
2-252
7-6
450
51136
•879
■■ mm\^ mm
*
13
780
8-8636 2-6531
7-9
456
•896
W *r
^t>^ ^^
^••^ \^
14
840
9-5454 3^0625 1
7.7
462
•926
■ ■
^k^^aS
^ mm^^
15
900
10-2272 3-5156 1
7-8
468
•952
w ^^
^fc >^ x,^
%^ \^ mm
16
960
10-9090 4 1
7-9
474
•975
^^ • ^^
17
1020
11-5909 4-5156
8
480
5*453
1
■A*
18
1080
12-2727 50625
8-2
492
1052
19
1140
12-9545 5-6406
8-4
504
1^100
20
1200
13-6363 6-25
8-6
516
1-146
30
1800
20-4545 140625
8-8
528
1-212
40
2400
27-2727 25
9
540
61363
1-265
50
3000
34-0909 39062
ill
■-His
a 1=
^■S
•I £•
li
■si
|t
ir* M
CBIH^H
s
rt
^ fri M n -^ >3 4m^ IK 9 .!< OB -^ do s m
g
SI
5
^s^lliA*slil£ll5i
a
8
3
'^
M
??SSSSSSSS8?8SS¥?
rH - (N N w w « ■* ■* lo U5 as ^ 00 a
9
SK??S||^|,|3||g|g|
S
S
g
SSS SSK SiSK S S S
I
fi. -'
"8 3 , „a
.a
J — o « CO «
3 W-'-^'^
S 9 S-*
a. .a
s.
' «6art
oSwS
gr-MB
OiCfflW
;,ssa
^ feflM> 1.'^'^^ 1.'^"^ %^^^
Ixv
.S
II
>00»00»00»00»Oi-i
-*^ r-l fH fH iH C4 Ca O^
»
3
^
It
S OQQOOOQQOO
3
i|
0
• •••••••••
»00»Or-t^r-lt>»(Mt>.CO
i-HC^CC^^O^ts-ooOiO
^ OS ^ QO
2^
CX)05|
O t>» CO
fH d^cio^ woo
«p rH iN-ea op
-^ 6: w do ^ IN- T^
<M <MCOCO
^^i$
s ^
"-S i-HCO-^^t^OiOCsICOiO
"S2 CO<r>qi(M»O00<M»O0CrH
S 6 ooo^cOf-HOiooo^co
^^ OOOi— IrHi— IrHOIC^fJl
S rH©»C0^iO^t^000>O
I
p
S05 CO OOCMr^
^»0 CO (M ~
i-H O CD
Oi t>» >o
OsO)C^C)C:»^00Q0QQ00
Or-t<MC0'^»OC0t>.050i
^
o?
3
.g
s «
CO ^ (M
Ci
Q 00 CO "^ Oi O
^ QOCO
§- W wr r^ r-^ CM CM CO -. .
CM'^COOOOCM'^OOO
&<M^
00 CO CO CO
CO '^
»OOrHCOJOt^OiCl
i-H i-H fH r-« I— I (M
M
oocmcoo-^oocm:©
CO O CO t^ O CO t*
^qocoi>r^op'^
§ S ibo^rHiN-cMdocbcb'^
i-Hco-^^t^oaocMcoiO.
1
3
•a
r-IOQCO-^w^COt^XOiO
45
.5^
gl
.9
■0
caoot^^Jf^'^co<M<r>io
»OfHl>>C0Ci»Or— tt>»C0Oi
r-IC0'<f««Or^05r-tCM'^»O
• • • ■ •^ • • a • •
OOOQOOr-ti— IrHr-t
rHWCO^»OOt^CX)OaO
kO o
cO t> O "^ t>*
»o
o »o o >o o
f-H -^ 00 r-t lO
»OO^i— lOGQt^CMOOCO
'^Oicocx)<Mi;*»7'^p^
>CCOrHC. $5-4«'MO00
O'^OlCOOOCOOCC'ltN.
CMCiv.O'MOOiOrHOC
5 i':6cMOi»?5oiQOiOr^oc^
° OrHr-^C^COCO-^OiO^
3
5 r-4 <M CO ^ ^ ^ J>-X Oi O
.f ^^
TABLE XI.— Put
MMturet t^ Water S^fptf,
A nlorinK <n
CDbic fcM per
A w«t«rin| ta
cntnc in«t« p«r
'-:b-
nlBcfMt|«
10000
=
700
1000
=
I4SB«
9000
=
630
goo
K
128SS
8000
=
660
800
=
114U
7000
x=.
400
TOO
=
9998
6000
:b
420
600
E=
eses
5000
as
350
800
B>
na
4000
=
280
400
s
57U
3000
cs
210
800
B
<SSi
2000
C3
140
800
=
S8M
1000
=
70
100
=
1488
A iipplj in litre* A aappl; in eobte
per Kcood p«r feet per Beeond per
hmtkre of >ere of
200
1-60
100
•02856
-02142
•01428
■01021
■00714
■00357
A nopplT in cnWc A mpplj "» !*•
feet i>er •eoond per per »e™J f"
■ere of hMtMti'
1 litre per second per bect&re i= a duty of 70 acres per oniric W
per second.
■01 cnbic feet per second per acre = a dnty of 100 acrei pw ^
foot per iecond.
A hectare ia eqoal to 10 000 square metres.
A litre is equal to ■■
of a cnbic metre-
Ixvii
TABLE XL— Paet 6— wn^tnwtfi
Measures of Pressure.
1
^nare inch into kilogrunmea
Kilogrammes
per square centimetre
ler square oentimetro.
into lbs.
per square inch.
•0703
1
14-237
•1406 1
2
28-475
•2109
3
42-713
•2812
4
56-950
•3515
5
71-187
•4218
6
85-426
•4921
7
99-663
I -5624
8
113901
) •6327
9
128-138
3 7023
10
142-375
Measures of Heat,
^
•
•
•
^
•
^
!s
1
5
1
a
c
s
t3
S
^3
s
•fj
2
£
1
1
a
6
1
1
^
S2?
200
680
25«
770
30°
86°
36-5
20-5
68-9
25-5
77-9
30-5
86-9
41
21
69-8
26
78-8
31
87-8
45-5
21-5
70-7
26-5
79-7
31-5
887
50
22
71-6
27
80-6
32
89-6
► 54-5
225
72-5
27-5
81-5
32-5
90-5
59
23
73-4
28
82-4
33
91-4
► 63-5
23-5
74-3
285
83-3
33-5
92-3
68
24
75-2
29
84-2
34
93-2
24-5
761
29-5
85-1
34-5
94-1
95"
40°
104O
45«
113°
50O
122°
^ 95-9
40-5
104-9
45-5
113-9
55
131
96-8
41
105-8
46
114-8
00
140
97-7
41-5
106-7
465
115-7
65
149
98-6
42
107-6
47
116-6
70
158
99-5
42-5
108-5
47-5
117-5
75
167
100-4
43
109-4
48
118-4
80
176
101-8
435
110-3
48-5
119-3
85
185
102-2
44
111-2
49
120-2
90
194
103-1
44-5
112-1
49-5
121-1
100
212°
/
\
\
Ixviii
TABLE XIL
Paht 1. — Co-efficients of fluid friction.
»»
if
>>
»>
*i
2. — CoH^fficients of flood discharge from catchment areas.
3. — Co-efficients of discharge for rivers, canals, and pipes.
4. — Co-efficients of discharge for orifices.
5. — Co-efficients of discharge for overfalls.
6.— Hydraulic memoranda.
7. — Useful numhers, powers, roots, Ac.
Ixix
TABLE XII.— Part 1.
efficients of fluid fidction, being the values of/* in the formula
given in the text.
(D'Arcy, Bazin, Ganguillet, and Kutter.)
(From the "Cultnr-Ing^nieur," 1870.)
General values.
—Well planed plank.
— ^Very smooth surfaces, plasters in cement ; assumed to be appli-
cable also to enamelled and glazed pipes.
— ^Plaster in cement, with one- third sand.
— ^Unplaned plank.
! — Brickwork and cut stone ; assumed to apply also to metal and
earthenware pipes Under ordinary conditions, but not new.
^—Bubble masonry.
) — Canals with bed and banks of very firm gravel.
5— Bivers and Canals in Earth, in perfect order and regimen, and
perfectly free from stones and weeds.
iO— Bivers and Canals in Earth, in moderately good order and
regimen, having stones and weeds occasionally.
S— Bivers and Canals in Earth, in bad order and regimen, having
stones and weeds in great quantity.
■ •
Local values,
019— The'Marseilles Canal.
022 — Bigoles de Grosbois.
023 — Tauber Alpbachschale, Bhine.
024 — Linth canal. Hiibengraben. Hill-streams.
025 — Jard canal. Seine. Neva.
026 — Seine. Haine. Bhine. Speierbach.
027 — Mississippi. Bhine.
028 — Saone, Salzach.
029 — Danube in Hungary.
030— Bigoles de Chazilly.
031 — Limat, Zurich.
038— Maras.
*035 — Simme.
TABLE XII— Part 2.
Co-effloUnts of flood diecharge from catchmeiiit
Fob the fOTmals in TaUe IV, hrt 1, abo ghw Ib te tad
doDt (d) can Iw 111 liiil wid snM^
^, M it dapenda <» Om amng* ■i^'^
ntum, tl» qnalitj, inoliiiation, aad tiis
The TBlae of (his o
of wiUun looal limits otdj, i
local downpour, the erapontioii, On qnalitj, :
sition of the snrFace of the area under consideratioii ; it hsB luftS^
been determined for vei; few diatrictB, and not soffioiently utiM
toril; for some of those. In some cases, anfortnnatel;, donbtfnl Bm
marks have been used to obtain the flood gradient, and the Tdooiti
calcnlated according to very varied formnhe ; in others, the obsbi
tiona caused b; bridges and embankments have vitiated all the bv
of calculation of discharge.
Vatattef
For very large Indian rivers near their months ... 08 to
For Oudh generaUy ... ... ., ... 1 to
The Madras Presidency, the whole Caveiy 7 v- o.
The Oodavery, Kistna, Tnmbaddra, Pennair, Vigay )
The Chittanr, Palanr, Manjilanthi, Varhasanthi below ... 5'
For the Kanhan River, Cential Provinces, according to
the highest flood yet known, less than ... „. 5-
For Bengal and Bahar, rainfall 2 to 4 feel^-Col. Dickens
gives a co-eificient of ... ... ,,. .., 8'25
The Upper Cavery, Tambrapnmi, Gadanamatti ... f jr
For some rivers in Berar and the Central Provinces,
according to calcnlated velocities only „. ... X6' to
Some inrther data for Indian rivers will be fonnd is lbs Statutiw.
s s
? ? ?
? ? 5 «
51 5
IS s
s ?
^
1
f
f ^?
1^
iz
1 --r
1. -'
1 ^?
: 6"
fil
ni
tl ^
s<i
III
ll
if
3
8
i -I
S .1 =
■i 1
9 <p ' S> 5} qp
o o o
o o c o p
? 9 $ S §
8 S
o o -? 9>
s ?
$ t
f I?"
a . .
I is
I ^^
II
3 ? »
? 3: !s $ ^
S 3 3
8lp
p a
f ^ i s s
§ s s s § ? §
S '$
s s
I
HI
Ml
all
ll
s s
s I ?
''^ I^ T. »T — I». iT -r •*! 'T"
'M — H :2 o c ~. r. c: r'. r^
• •
.2 ►*
o
lo
.S ^
o
s
0
CO
u
o
PE4
C^
Ci
cx>
CO o r; "^ o '-^ »':■ -f^ cc CI
Cli— 'O'OOCiOOOO
C5
1
<N
o
i-H
C5
iC
CO
CO
<M
iH
rH
1— 1
l-H
o
o
Oi
Cd
Ci
o
a
O
O
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
rH
rH
iH
rH
r^
O
-^J*
8
r^
"*
<N
<N
rH
rH
r^
r^
i-l
o
Od
Oi
o
Oi
O
Oi
Ci
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
iH
i-H
iH
rH
^
00
CO
Ci
t^
CO
0^
rH
o
o
O
r^
o
o
Oi
Ci
Ci
o
Od
Od
Cd
Oi
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
iH
*~*
«H
i-HOOOiCiOiOiC5C500 00
o »o
rH O
t^TPrHOCiCiOO 00
OiCiCJOOOOOOO 00
oo*ocooa&ooooi^ r^
OiOiCiOOOOOOOOO 00
cocOf-HCiOOi^i^r^ o
OOdOOOOOOOOOQO 00
OiOCiOOOOOOOOOO 00
f-H Ot 00 ^ >0 ^
Oi 00 00 00 00 00
s s s
8 JO
fK)0[VA 10 J
c^ CO io r^
O O rH 01 CO
kC 00
O "
oooooooooSosp«2
Ixxix
u
4
•
O
8
*
00
lO
oi
00
lO
CO
«
c^
o
o
o
•
9
•
00
■
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
•^
^
Od
59
<M
lO
r-t
00
o
c^
cq
p-i
o
o
rH
o
o
Od
Cd
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
V •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
iH
1-^
•
»
8
-^
o
t^
CO
CM
r-\
o
Oi
o
00
^5
Cd
o
00
00
00
00
00
l>
t>
rH
•
rH
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
'
t^
lO
0)
C4
Oi
CO
c^
1-^
o
o
Oi
05
rH
o
•
•
m
00
t
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
m
•
CO
CO
t^
r-k
00
kO
rH
o
o
Oi
00
00
o
o:
Cd
00
00
00
00
00
t*
t*
t*
rH
r^
o
8
I^
-*
1-^
o
Oi
Oi
00
00
o
o>
00
00
00
00
t*
t^
t*
t*
•
rH
"*
0)
-(fi
00
CO
CO
o
Oi
00
00
t^
r^
.s
iH
•
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
•
•
•
•
•
P4
o
*^
§
CO
CD
C9
t*
•
C9
Oi
00
t^
t^
CO
CO
iH
•
•
00
•
00
•
•
•
•
•
£
e^
"^
o
kO
CO
1^
00
t*
t^
CO
lO
W5
r-<
•
•
00
•
00
•
00
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1— 1
-^
C9
o
t^
CO
wa
lO
t}*
-^
r^
00
00
t*
l>
t*
t^
t*
t*
r^
•
•
•
•
■
•
•
•
•
o
C9
o
00
CO
WD
-^
-*
CO
00
00
•
00
•
•
•
•
•
^
•
•
o
o
00
CO
-^
"*
CO
CO
CO
CO
00
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
on
CO
^
CO
<M
cq
(M
r-\
rH
00
•
•
m
•
•
•
•
•
•
g
CO
Q
l>
w^
e^
CO
^
00
^ ' ^
u
5» w
•g JO
X
Q
?^
rp
o
o
ri!"^ 9r^
mofiA log
3
3
3
8
5
5
s
8
8
3
8i|a
•
•
•
«
<P -^ !£> !p S ^
3 3
« o o
■
■
3 S
§
?
s
*?
s
?
?
s s
s
3
s
s
S
s
?
5 ?
3
?
?
?
s
?
s
3
EO
s
«
s
s
s
?
«
s
?
?
•a
a
?i
s
a
a
s
?
>!
Si
Ixxxi
TABLE Xn.— Part 4
fficients of Discharge for Orifices, being values of m for the
formula in Table IX., and given in the Text.
V = w X 8025 >/ H
id According
b' to Ex-
I. perixncnt.
•572 ") Rectangular, length 7 depth, (L "7 D) ; see next
•709 ) page.
•62 ^ Orifices generallj.
'66 Sluices without side walls.
•7 Canal lock gates and dock gates.
7 ^62 J Undershot wheel gates.
•8 Velociiy of approach in a channel.
*83 Sluices in lock gates.
•84 Large vertical pipes.
•9 Narrow bridge openings.
•94 Large sluices.
•96 Wide openings from reservoirs.
•96 Wide bridge openings.
'96 Orifices with converging mouth-pieces.
!• Large orifices with diverging mouth-pieces.
1*3 Attached diverging mill channels.
iodification of the co-efficient m^ao as to include the efibct due to
city of approach ;
Let h =: head due to this velocity only,
then m =Wa/i_i_
fn is the new co-efficient to be used.
g'i
TABLE Xn.— P*BT i—eontinued.
Co-efiicieuts of Diachargo for Orifices — eomttniteJ.
Table of eo-efficiente of Veloci"^ "
when tlifi depth (D) is less
"■'[aeharge for Rcct&ngnlar Orifif
ho wiath (W) for a head (H),
D
D
D
D
0
H
W
W
W
W
w
w
= 1
= ■5
5
= ■15
= 1 .
= ■0.
•05
. iM
f M._
709
■10
■660
6>8
•15
■638
•660
691
■20
•612
■640
•659
68S
■2&
■617
■6»
•659
GS!
•30
•622
■640
•658
676
■40
■600
■626
■639
•657
671
■50
■605
•628
■638
•655
M7
■60
•572
•609
■030
■637
•651
664
•75
■585
■611
•631
•635
•653
680
1-00
•592
613
•634
•634
•650
65S
1-50
■598
•616
■632
.632
•645
650
200
■400
•617
■631
■631
•642
641
2-50
■602
■617
■631
•630
•640
643
3-50
■604
■616
■629
•629"
•637
638
400
•605
■615
■627
■627
•632
627
6-00
■604
■613
■623
■623.
•625
621
800
■602
■611
■619
■619
•618
616
1000
■601
■607
■613
■613
•613
613
The above was dedaced by Kankine frottt reealts of oxperimente
Poncelet and Lesbros.
y,B. — When H 7 3 D, tbo centre of figare may be considered
centre of motion.
Izxjdii
TABLE Xn.— Part 5.
ficients of Discharge for Overfalls, being values of m for the
formnla applied in Table IX., and g^ven in the Text.
V = I m X 8-025 y/ H
?. 1 = length of weir sill : L = length of dam, or breadth of
el : H = head on sill : D = depth of notch.
By
men'
Expert-
ataUste.
.(. (Broad-crested or flat- topped dams
I Dams with a channel attached
•595
•662
Weirs with 1-inch crests when 1 =s or 7 L ; the
^ exact value of m being = '57 x lOL
Overfalls when I 7 _L and < L
4 "3
Y-shaped notch, when 1 = D
'2
'26 Y-shaped notch, when 1 = D
T
•552 •
Weirs when 1 =: L, and H 7 ^ height of the barrier ;
in this case the velocity of approach must be
considered in addition.
'666 Weirs generally when 1 s L and H < j- the height
of the barrier,
modify the co-efficient m so as to include the effect due to
;j of approach,
h = head due to velocity of approach only ; —
H
n} = m
o-^)-(4)
^ is the n^w co-efficient to bo used.
oaing Table YIII. for oyerfalls, always diminiBh the Telocity of discbaii^e there
y one-third ; thia alone admits of the use of the same table for discharges both
es and orerfalls.
TABLE Xn.— Pjjrt &
fijrAvnlw Memoranda.
Feet X
Feet X
Sqnwflfect x
Square feet x
Cnbio feet x
Cnbio feet x
Cubic feet X
RainfaU.
Feet of downpour
Feet of dowii[>our
Drainage areati.
The diaiaage firom
collecting 1 foot
'015 TB Onnter's obains.
-0(X>I9 = Miles.
*1I := Square yards.
■001 = Acres.
6-23 = GaUons.
■779 = Bnsliels.
•037 = Cubic yardfc
X 193600' ' cubic feet per sqnnre miln.
X 30'2'5 ■■ cubic feet per acre.
1 Bqnare mile 1 win irrigate 176 acres b
yearly | daty of 200 acres, will su
47,580 iohabitantB at a i
of 10 gallonB daily, will }
■8833 cubic feet per 6«
t^onghoot the year.
Vclooitioa,
Feet per second
Feet per second
Feet per second
Feet per second
discharges.
Cnb. feet per sec.
Cub. feet per sec.
Cnb. feet per sec.
Cnb. feet pel
Cab. feet pei
Cnb. feet pei
Cub. feet pel
Cub, feet per sec.
■C8 ^ve miles per hour.
60 give feet per minnte.
20 ■ '-
give yards per minute.
< 1200 give yards per hour.
< 2'2 give cubic yards per minnte.
< 133 give cubic yards per boor.
< 3200 give cnbio ;ards per day.
< 6i give gallons per second.
< 375 give gallons per nunnte.
< 22 give thousands of gallons per lio
< 500 give thousands of gallons per i
< 2400 give tons per day.
Ixxxv
TABLE Xn.— Part &— continued.
>ic feet.
GhJlons.
1-
=
6-232
-1605
=
1
1-8
ss
11-2
35-943
s=
224
1 cnbic inch
B=
•0036
and weighs 62*32 lbs.
and weighs 10 lbs.
aed-weighs 1 cwt.
and weighs 1 ton.
and weighs *0361 lbs.
Lnid ounce weighs .437*5 grains.
Ftoj ounce measures 8 fluid ounces, 46 minims.
iiYoirdupois ounce measures 8 fluid ounces,
lb. Troy =5760 grains =6319'54 minims of water,
gallon =76800 minims =70000 grs. of distilled water,
lb. Avoir. = 7000 grains.
All comparisons between measures of capacity and those of weight
re made with distilled water at a specific gravity of 1, temp. 62^.
Pbessure.
H = head of water m feet H = P x 2*31.
P = pressure in lbs. per square foot P = H x 62*32.
HOESB-POWEE.
HP = 33000 lbs. raised 1 foot in 1 minute.
= 884 tons raised 1 foot in 1 hour. .
leoretical HP = -113 Q x faU in feet.
The drainage of 10 square miles collecting 12^' yearly gives
&P for each foot of fall.
For pumping engines of the best class, allow HP = '142 Q H where
= quantity raised in cubic feet per second, H = height in feet.
MUls, — ^An ordinary mill will grind 1 bushel per HP per hour ;
r each pair of stones allow 4 HP nominal.
Towage.
The general formula referred to in the text is
R = 5 T. V^
where B= the pull on the rope in pounds,
T = the displacement of the barge in tons,
V == the velocity through the water,
5 =: a co-efficient varying with the form of the barge,
from -109 to -369.
" \'at\ii in IM I'm 101 In In liiliiiaiiMlaiiailiilii
2i2t^g-*«'eo ^"S(oc-ocis;^-
SSSS ©^■9SSSoo9
S|
SSi
Ilii sSisisgis
S5S2 !;£^
=00*00
33 o^lSs
lixxvii
1
Jiiiliiilllii
1
1
10-
6-666
5-
4-
- 3-883
2-867
2-5
2-222
2-
1-924
1-852
1^786
1-724
1-667
1-613
1-563
1-616
1-471
1-429
1-389
1351
1-316
1-282
1-250
1-220
1
i
a
'J
3981
4682
5258
5743
6178
6571
6931
7266
7679
7698
7816
7930
8042
8L52
8260
8365
8469
8670
8670
8769
8865
8961
9054
9146
9237
1
^
0032
0O87
0179
a313
0493
0769
1012
1369
1768
1950
2143
2347
2562
2788
3027
3277
3539
3813
4100
4399
4711
5036
5373
5724
6089
1
1
1
6310
6843
7248
7579
7860
8106
8826
8624
8706
8774
8841
8905
8968
9029
9088
9146
9203
9258
9312
9364
9416
9466
9615
-9664
9611
1
1
1
4642
5313
5848
630O
6694
7047
7368
7663
7937
8041
8143
8243
8340
8434
8527
8618
8707
8794
.8879
8963
9045
9126
9205
9283
9360
1
1
i
3162
3873
4472
5
5477
5916
6324
6708
7071
7211
7348
7483
7616
7746
7874
8
8124
8246
8366
8485
8602
8718
8832
8944
9065
T
^*
1
01
0225
04
0625
09
1225
1600
2025
25
2704
2916
3136
3304
36
3844
4096
4356
4024
49
5184
5476
5770
6084
64
6724
1
<!
1
0078
0177
0314
0491
0706
0962
1256
1690
1963
2124
2290
2463
2642
2827
3019
3217
3421
3632
3848
4072
4301
4537
4779
6026
6281
1
i
-314
■471
■628
■785
■942
1100
1257
1-414
1-571
1-634
1-696
1759
1822
1-884
2-011
2073
2136
2199
2-262
2-325
2-388
2-4.50
2-613
2-576
-s,!,a»s.,* ,,s?sg«,-2sss^sssg.s
2000 Sto 3 SndSce
SfflommosoaS
|§|2i|
9>oSs@t<.r>aca)«
1~ « 00 •-< ■* I-. CO Q «
-1 ■* I«. CO Q to u> ■* t^ i-l r-" O) t- OD to to »0 (O O 13 *
C3 g> n ^ ffi 9 c
S3 3ssa
som-^tDOOoei
--orowoS^tDQOoSn
III
b CT O ip r- Ol^-!
oooooiooo.^
£ « & 22 ml^-H u| OW»rH(0 (NOOUIWO I^»ft«|-H<
:^ T "t" -T* r' '^ T"7"7* 0^090 00000 0999c
ts. fj -iP t- 00 1> rt CO p -^ ffl i-" 01 S ^ —1 15 r<. t>. ■* cj m § 10 CO
r. M^ 1-1 1> 05 01 us Q to i-i Q o 00 1^ 10 m O r^ ■* •-" i>.-*io(OcS
o> O -H i-i (?i oj eo ■* ■* ■« » t-. r- 00 OS o -h >h eii eo w-Jiiraui^
3 iH i;~ S 9 o 3 rt oj wQorteo^ ootoicoo oiSSosp
Soo o ^ '* S 351 *"* gioiwS'M -^«-*MiiD 6ot->^>o
rtM — i-HoiSoieo ^-*<si^oD o>-ic^ior~ o««joo^
5 M 10 t^ CJ -J M 10 ID 00 i-H 1* r- CJ <-" -iji m 00 O c-
br^coe^r- OQr-5 g^i— oso cn--0*^ §SS*S
OS 3i la S t^ CO 5
S8 SSS
isdDMdb-*0'J?m
2ggj^-
n ■* t/3 M (c Q ■* m e; I
O go « -H OT^iftWQD I
^ Q m «^ Qcbtbcaei 1
III
sssss SgS5S
9^3$^ ?s?si SSS^S $
SSc
1
•0385
•0370
•0357
•0345
•0333
•0323
•0313
•0303
•0294
•0285
•0278
•0270
•0263
•025<
•0250
•0244
•0238
■0233
■0227
■0222
■0217
SHSSffi s sss
SSESS S iS3
lllll
3-*-*->3 S5
1%
>
'S3S
iiili 1^
1
SSRSi p. s^s
SSSS2
iissi
w si S w w
B
ssililsi
iiSsI
ssssa
^%
"^
0-1 =
?|f|i||§
ssssa
) rH 0-1 « 1.^ to cp q>
;gS SSSSS
isssi
(» ci O 91 ri
1?
11^
S^w mSm^5
S-^S 92ISS2 aSJ'^ffS ^iQO»o»«o oar^i-K
A S^'")^^ oo^mSn ^EviSr^n p-i-4<st
j^S SmS§S ?§SSii ^mSm^ ^5^^
D93A C'iic^OJ&>0> 0>0-o)^3^ ^^£0^0 Oa^^C
OTiiM'so looiaoo nosEO'^rH At«.«^m Wf-tOI
-•o7v>^ csNOAt^ co-«nMf-4 S«FIo« ■vsSS
M N 'Tl IN (N W W N -H -H rH r-l i-H rH i-l O CS O O C OOOI
00009 ????? ????? P9P99 ^??l
V l^ IS. t^ ^ 00 do oci A A SI 09 ^ c
RSs!E2* S*
13 us us lo ta la la u3 M latsiew totoccttco '
sss:
ifi-rr'M — M i-ioo(MCj-" oioiiQwea wpsopoo"* Qcooeen
115 ^iMi^-* ^octofc-- oD&^eaS neoSSob aur.M
rfoi^'f'o'i ogpt^<cts usigtor^QO oi--iJ«cb ^tooo
esss?! s;sss aassa sssss sgsss
aiigs ss?3J? S33S? »?;»?? ???? ■
K TO r- OD o r- IS ■— w 00 Q O Q r- ■* 01 ■* t* op o ci i^ -4 -^ o
J^i»r*So o-i-*'!ci^m •-'M'«"-i« ci--'m*2> S-ci — ^3
ckmoicjm P5WWTOM ^^.^M''* ■*'0"ii--!i.-s lan-^Sd
-*'*-^-^-^ ^ ^ ■* -^ ^ ^ ■* ■^ ^ ■* ^Mi-*-^-* .^^^1^^
ODOoe^MW •*•?») o tococpgoo -ft^i^-sioo o:n*s
ft OSOS ClOJC
tsoi-f^Q "--^oitow taos^-jo cJSSW"' offs^--c
t-eioci-f iQ'^^oci «ior*m-H w^ticoo N*3xi
i3i3^o-i t5t»"it-.t- t-t~r.r^ao ooaooocciS cicSoSJ
^^!*SS wS3S
no S4 n is u
llO-'-M -^a^-CCO i^im'^fpi-. CCO-->C<3^ L-StoOCOr'
-lox-^ "f'-'S^'i oM'ipei i3S^^«> i--*^^^
M ^ Cl Cl Cl C* (M W rM OI Ol ©I Ot ^1 (M »! $1 C4 IN OS « M M M
IP
at».oooao 5*SS2^2 22;2Sffi2 5?S3E52!5 tot^eoao
.t«.i-~^>co ODOCOOiTO xooococis c:c:o>cna oiosciSO
APPENDIX
OP
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND DATA.
Bbtainino Wauii.
Masokrt Dams.'
Thickness and Wkoht of Pipes.
Duty of Htdraumq Machines.
Indian Hydraulic OoNTRivANeis.
Constants of Labottr and Cartage.
,"ir
inSCELLANEOUS TABLES AND DATA.
Formalx and Data far Retaining WaJU.
EKtiactod from vBriona articles by J. H. E, Hart, Esq., C.E.
/( bH )
General equation for breadth of base, x = '\/ "1 3 ,e (« ± gi) f
liere H := total horizontal pressare againet the back of the wall.
fi ^ the ratio of its sectional area to that of a rectangle of
equal height and breadth.
K ^ the weight of a cubic foot of the wall.
qx = the horizontal deviation of the centre of reaiatance of
the baae from the middle of the base.
^x = the horizontal devintton of the centre of gravity of the
profile from the middle of the baae,
) FoTTerlical rectangular sections, n ^ l,j'^0,«^ A/l T~n J
V^ For plumb-faced trapezoidal sections of a top thickneea [f)
= ('-^
vt
) V* (« + /)/
l3 w (y - J)
I For plnmb-bftclted trapezoidal sectiona of a top thicknesB (0
r + t ., , _ (x — i\
'=Vi^
■Id ,'
H +
Kl)'l-I
'(! + *)
The limiting value pf g to avoid the etiat«nce of tension in the
lUaoni^ is \, bat its limiting value in actual practice is \. In
peeitl caaea, since it mast not be so great as to cause the maxi-
■kWD preasore (P) to eiceed the safe reaiatance (C) to cmahing of
ifafl material, its values correapond aa follows to tho valuea of — , where <
P ,
> = the mean pressure per unit of surfaco of baae, = aum of the i
jrertieftl forc«e -^ area of the base ; and P Is less than C.
? = },«. i iJ.¥.2i ¥,¥.¥,1
If I =^ tbieknees of a vertical rectangular wall to analain a horizontal-
topped bank,
*, =1 do. for an indefinite anrcharge,
J, ^ do. for a surcharge nf a height c,
where h = height of the wall.
UlfiCELLANEOUB DATA-
Oo-effieitnU/or Eartk Pnmtn agaitut oiufoot ir Ungth nf nrfkol- 1
haektA WaUtJoT varunu angUt ojttpott iff earth.
For ugles of npoee of 2?° 80° 83°
Co-effioientB of cBrth preeBnre.
'iS'.ursX'* *!!}■'«« ■'" ■"'•'"' •"' *" ««
'■"4w^'.'!!»' -3" •»« -32' ■«« -Si'S *»
HoriEOntol preBBon} H = coefficient x wmg^l of 1 cnHo foot X If.
For walls haviiij; Bloping bocks the horiBOntal pressara it oM-l
vemently detenuibed b; Xeville's well-known geometrioal
which givM (he ()OBition of the ptuie of w;'^"''niini pnesaie, ai
hence aleo the TKlnes of e the indinatiim of that plane withibeanj^
of repose, and Athe eectional area of effective pre«nre, in the gvnsi
expreDuon for horizontal thnut, H = A tan e x weight of 1 CHtw
foot of the earth.
For water preesnre H = 81-2 X 1^.
Workipg Load* or tajt untU of preuwt adopted in exiMling i InictirA,
(EVom Spon'i *' Dictionary of Engineering.")
ToniooOt
■qqinfaot
Soft rock fonndations ... ... ■■■ ... 9
Concrete... ... ... ... ... ... Z
Earth '. li
AshlBT masonry, limeBtone, Britannia Bridge ... ... 16
. „ „ granite, Saltash Bridge ... ... 10
„ backed widi mbble, Peniston Viadnct ... ... 6
Rnfable masonry, sandstone in Abei-thaw lime, Pont j Pridd SDf
limestone in chalk lime, Barentine Yiadnct ^
in hydraulic time, Almanea Dam ... 12'S
Tnlsi ... ... 8-9 to 64
Brickwork, London paviorB* in cement. Charing Cross
Bridge 12
„ Btaffordshire bine brick in cement, Clifton
SnBpeneion Bridge ... ... ... 10
„ red Birmingham in liaa lime. Railway Viadnct 7
Cement mortar ... ... ... ... ... 20loSli
Lime mortar ... ... ... .. ... 2} to St
• ••
111
MISGEIiLANEOUS DATA^conHnued.
Table of WeigkU of MateriaU
(From Spon's " Dictionary of Engineering.")
Angle
of repoie.
Specific graniy.
•
Weight of a
cnUofboi.
7
30°
to 40*
1-96
120
3t
15
to 20
217
135
ommon dry
46
1-64
102
3lay and sand
54
1-5 to 1-7
07 to 106
37
1-5 to 1-9
96 to 120
B^arden
36 to 45
1-4
70 to 90
ry fine
34 to 40
1-4 to 1-6
84 to 97
amp
34 to 40
1-9
118
» loose
39
2 2
139
and traps
3 to 2-4
187 to 165
red
216
135
x>mmon
1-76
110
ttock (London)
1-84
115
»rk in cement
1-92
120
in new mortar
^
1-87
117
in old mortar
1-52
95
new
1-61
100
isonry
2-34
148
»
8-05 to 2-25
190 to 141
masonry
2-75
172
aes
2-54 to 1-86
169 to 116
, new
1-9
119
old
1-42
89
oes
2-67 to 1-38
2-9 to 2-5
168 to 88
180 to 157
weight = \ that of stone + ^ that of mortar.
weight s= ^ to { that of stone + ^ to ^ that of mortar.
afe working load for masonry and brickwork is that for the
ised ; bat in ordinary calcnlation, 5 tons per square foot for
rk and rabble, and 30 for ashlar in cement, is generally allowed.
MISCELLANEOUS DATA-^<mrri.«*rf.
Z)iiiw>UH»u Of TrapKMidal Matonry Dam», having botik /new iolfaniij,
Jot height! up to iO/tfl. (liy the Author.)
Height or i^am
Thidmen nt top
Tbicknen at bottom
Front batter
BmiIc batter
J«reB
GochI rubble. Inferior nibble. Bdc
Dimmtiont of TrapetoiJal MMonry uami. havinij the water fate w
Jbr h«ighti up to 40 /M.
Weight of masonry per
cnbic foot
140 lbs.
1201bfl.
lOCIti
Height of dam
H
H
H
Tbickneas &t top
•24H
■26H
■28H
Thiclcnefls at bottom
■«H
■51H
■US
Water face
Tertioal
Vertical
Tertiol
Onterface
1 in 4-25
1 in4
linSM
Sectional ana
■36H«
-875^
■433*
Weight per nnit of length
SOH-
45H»
42^
' 104H
90H
7m
416H
360H
sm
TheBe data apply to the same limiting valoe of q, the ratio to w
breadth of the base of the distance along it from the foot at "l"''
the direction of the resultant presBore cats, which is taken it oM
third. A slight modification of the above section may be nnd li:
heights up to 50 feet. For lofty dams, the process and n4« '
Banldne for obtaining the dimensions of dams with cnrred profil'
nnder different conditions yield coirect resnlta by means of abort iT
simple calculations.
MISCELLANEOUS DATA- con* inu*i.
IM, Sixet, amd Weights of Catt Iron Pipa. (Box.)
Safe ThickneBS for Varione PresBures.
HwdofwtMinfert,
'
FotOw
100
250 j 600
750
1000
ThickncninbcbM.
■2?
■28
■29
^
■31
•33
2»
•3
■31
33
■36
•37
a
■31
■33
35
■37
■41
32
•33
■35
3H
■11
■44
as
•37
•39
«
•47
■51
37
■39
■12
17
•62
■57
3fl
■42
■46
51
■67
•63
11
•44
■48
65
■62
•69
13
•46
■61
69
■67
■75
«
•18
■53
fi3
■72
■81
«
■50
•56
66
■76
•86
lit
•54
•61
73
■85
■97
n»
•59
■68
H3
98
1^13
57
•61
■75
93
111
129
ti
•69
•81
1
IJ2
123
144
M
■73
■88
112
1'36
160
«»
■81
l-OO
129
159
189
■75
•89
111
147
1^83
219
and Weights of Socket Pipes for a Head of 200 Feet
without
Depth
of
Lead joint,
Average
Avemee
w>i}{bt of
■ocket.-
»cket.
Uii.!., d«,, ..Igbt.
pipe.
btndj
f«l
liicba
Ibt
cwt. Iba.
c
3
42
28
6
3
i 1 14
56
30
6
^1
1 1 1^6
67
37
9
A 1 a^s
1 8
45
9
1
A 2 *■
1 6C
75
0
4-
A 2 S-
2
84
9
4i
.•,', 2 65
2 66
87
9
4»
A 2 77
3 12
1 25
9
41
A 2 8^2
3 bO
1 58
9
li
A 2 lO'l
4 28 1 74
9
14
A 2 ll-o
4 98 3 84
9
H
A 2 15^
6 66 3 105
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES— continurd.
Hydraulic Maekiaei: — Return of Motive PoKtr.
Dedncod &om Marin's Experimento-
Lift pnmp ...
Force pamp
Fire engioQ
Chiseae whool
Flash wboel
Wirta pnmp
Stotx pomp
Leclerc ...
■181
■640
Piatti
Apptild
Gwyiiue ■••
Girard
Yertical lielix
Uontgolfier ... I
Calign^
Foes
Darlige's balsince ...
Beltdor ... ..i
Hnelgoat
Pfateuh
lunioi tBTtrt.
Ot
oh ...
( At Ivry (feeder alone) ..
At Ivry (three piimpa)..
At St, Ouen
At Lisbon (Farcot)
Solid piston pnmps
Vaacile's Gre-engin
Gray'fl oscillating
■600 •«
■613 I -9*
(From Neville.)
Jvershot wheek ...
Breast wheels ...
■76
■52
Barker's mill ... J
•16
■3.1
VerT wide breast-
Ballysillan Tortez
■75
wheels
•70
Tremont vortex
■794
Undershot wheels...
•83
Montgolfier's ram
■fi.'i
Floating turbine ...
■38
Eaaton and Amos ram ..
■w
Impact tnrbine J
■16
■40
Wat«r-pre88aT« engines...
HS
IT
il
1
8
J
CI » o o o o o -s
Soo-ijOOTi^oi-oa^i^ Sod co-*c
5SJS5
O O Q O ■* O « O Q "S '^'S^'*^
3SS
*?N^
ill
1 .1 Ji .2 "3
s,3ia
MISCEIiLiJraOUS DATA-
'ContiHued. ~^^B
CoMtanU of Labour. fHnret.)
■
Eabthwobs.
^
Excavator's Work per cubic yard, in termfl of
«day'«laboronOl«
for diflerent descripttons of soil.
Days of a Laborer.
Miteruk
Sotl.
Uodtmt.
D.J..
D«t.
Excavuting onl;
...
■OW)
■100
„ in rock ro«|nii |
S -
LlgbL
Hc»7. W«
TUrovring 5 feet higb, or
:ks ...
■048
•055
Pilling bwTOWS
■045
■052
Bemovisg with whiKlbor.
yards'
distance
■026
■030
Tilling at backs of walls
•048
•0£S
.Ramming earth in H-iuch
•040
„ „ 12.inch
■025
Levelling earth from barrow-heaps without
throwing
■012
■020 1
■019
Levelling and trimming slopes per
a. yard
to -030
Turf 4 inches thick, cutting and stacking
only, per s. yard -OiS
„ „ reeodding only, per s. yard ... '065
Days of driver, horse, and cart.
Removing 220 yards distance, per c.'yard '035 to '040
Each additional 220 yards „ „ '020 to 025
y.S. — The vertical transport of »arth is eqoal to 15 times the
horizontal distanoa when barrows are used, and 12 times when b
and carts are employed.
Days o
Q Indian Coolie.
Ecavating down to 9 feet, carryiog to 25 yds.
in a basket and depositing np to C ft.
Excavating down to 15 feet „ „
Add for each 3 feet more of depth or height
of delivery, or for each 15 yards' addi-
tional distance... ... ■■• ... ..•
Sand. QnnL Bu«
1-25 2.00
200 2-75
IX
laSCELLANEOnS DATAr-eonlmiMi.
OonUMU of Labour. ' (Hurst.)
BKICSXATBBS' WOBX.
me in days of 10 honrs in which work can be performed.
One Bricklayer^B Laborer. ^^^
increte, wheeling and throwing from a stage, 1 c. jd. in *800
ortar with a shovel ... ' 1 c. yd. in *720
rse png-mill mixes 25 cubic yards of mortar ... in 1*
p and stacking bricks without moving, per 1,000 ... '150
„ if handed to him „ *100
bricks for facings • '300
down old brickwork in mortar, cleaning and
g*** ... ..• ..• ••• •*. X C« yCl* Ul 4JL V/
One Bricklayer and Laborer. Daji.
k in mortar to walls, exclusive of face work, 1 c. yd. in '320
in cement ••• „ *373
in mortar to covering arches „ '410
fiat joint in mortar and raking out mortar
... .•• ••• •.• ••• ... xs. yci. in xXv
flat joint in cement and raking out cement
..• ••• ••• ••• ••• 1 Bm yd. in *170
iuck in cement and raking out cement j oints „ '258
ith stock bricks on edge in mortar ... „ '%86
„ „ in cement ... ,, '100
id jointing in cement 3-inch drain pipes 1 1. yd. in '024
„ „ 6 „ „ '048
„ „ 9 „ iy •069
„ 12 „. „ -098
„ „ 18 „ „ '150
One Bricklayer only. Days,
each fair face to brickwork and pointing per s. yd. *080
each £Eur face in malms or facing of superior
..• ... ... ... ... .*. per B. yo. xxf
each fair face in malms, circular to tem-
• •* ... ... .•• ••» .«. per D. Vu. xov
iting to brickwork ... »v ... „ *i35
.. yy ... ..• ••• y, OOv
CGLLAITEOTT'S DATA—^ntinueJ.
Cbntlanli of Lalour — (Hnrat.)
MlSOKS' WOKX.
Days of a Laborer. Dqk
Bobble Stone. — Filling barrows per cobio jfard iW
„ RemoviBK 25 yards, and rsturmng „ „ "Ott
„ Unloading barrowa „ „ ■O)
„ Taking down o
mortar.
■
cleaning ant
„
• 3
BrMking stono to If
- 'a
Do. do. granitu m
„ «a
SprMdiog tbe same for nu
... per square yard OS^f
D.j,0
Laborer.
M>
BnbUe nuwoorr, dry in fo
... per cnbic
j«ri Ml
M H in moit
tiona...
» n
all beds .
J ...
> ■«
„ „ in cement
do.
„
„ -ill
12"
oo arses,
rubble with chisel -drafted
margit
a ..
„ 21»
Cobed Btoue hoisU-d and set
in mortar ..
.1
.. -n
11 " !■
D cement ..
»
„ 'Ml
Days of a Mason only. Dijb
Ad3 to rubble masonry for each fair face ... per aqnare yard 090
„ „ if hatnnier drexsed ... „ „
„ „ if curved ... ... „ „
Squariug 2" flags for paving „ „ ■07!
,, 4" „ ISS
Days of a Mai
n varions sorts of Btone.
Caen. Paitknd. <}niii>*' '
Wbolo sawing, or axing, per square yard "270
Plain work ) „ „ -540
„ circolarj „ „ -900
Sunk work 1 „ „ -676
„ circolarj „ „ 1-035
Moulded work | „ „ 1-386
„ oircolarl „ „ 1*800
■540
1-J70
•765
1-800
1-396
»1S0
1-080
!-lSS
1-575
2-9S5
1-800
8-S2S
2-700
4405
B ^U
ifl
■391
■521
■625
■781
1^25
1-663
2-083
3-125
4-167
6-25
16
■556
-667
■833
1111
1-333
1-GG7
2-222
3333
4-444
5-333
6-667
IP
12 *
-521
-694
-833
1-042
1-389
1667
2^083
2-778
4-167
5-556
6-667
8-333
^■B ^ S^^^"^aO^Q"^'~<^"
p n ^ ^^.si^su.o
^^K' £ f nS''So^°°S^^°''~' ^M
B ^ - ^islisiliisg
■1
7
■893
1^190
1-429
1-786
2381
2-857
3-571
4-762
7-143
9-524
11-429
14-286
- Illililiiiii -
1 IS,. ai..S2|2g "
i 1 1 IPSsiliSg^gi
■ j ! i 1 1 i i i 5 i 1 ? g ? g
Si-P- S S Sis ■« S & ^M
l-B-l ^SS"""-'""""- ;
lii 3 = = = --- = = = = ^
^^HrilMhitfH
mSCELLANEOnS BATA-
Indian Coinage, Wai^*, mud
The redaotions from Indlftn d&ta id the ■triJriJM an bawd <»'tl
BMomptioii that the Bnpi ia eqaiTalent to two ahfllingg, uid lb
Man or Mumd to 80 lbs. avoirdnpoia. To aid the reader in anyndin
ttona from oasn&l Indian data he may wiah to make, the fidlowiig
eqniTalentfl may be naefol.
The Rapee is the basis of BritiBh-Indiaa coinage sod weighfc, ind
ita weight is called a Tola.
£. *, A- Qniu^.
1 Pie = 1 and weighs 33)
1 Anna = 12 Pie ■= \\ and weighs 400
1 Rnpee b= 16 Annaa = 2 0 and wei^is 180
1 Uohar = 16 Rupees = 1 12 0 and weighs 160
The estaUished Britisb-Iiidiao weights are : —
1 Tola = = -41143 oc Avoir.
5 Tolas = 1 Chittnk = 2-0&n4 ol Anrir.
16 Chittoks = 1 Seer or Ser = 2-05714 lb. Atoct.
40 Seers = 1 Man or Mannd — 82>2857 lb. Avoir. :
The Seer is nearly a Eilogrtunine.
1 ib. Troy weighs 32 Tolas, and 1 lb. Avoirdnpoia 3889 Tolas.
There are no measores of capacity, liqaid and dry goods bang
eetitnatod by weight.
The meaeoresof length are the English yard or gas, andtheEcglisli
mile, which has now superseded the very variable kos.
The moasnro of surface, the bigha, is not yet generally superseded
by the English acre, its value io different places is : —
In Northern India 3025 a. yard*. I
InOrissa ... 4840 s, yawU.
InTirhnt ... 4225 s. yards-
The English acre . 4840 a. -pait.
In Bengal ... 1600 b. yards.
At Ban«w-a8 and > 313^ 3^ „rds.
Ghazipnr ) '
The Madras Kani 6400 s. yards.
At Bombay ... 3406 s. yards.
The local weights, the seer, man, and kandi, vary everywhere in
Southern India ; in the towns of Madras and Bombay th^ are
thus: —
Madras. Bombay.
ISeer = i visa = lOoz.Av. 1 Seer = 11-2ob.At.
40Seera = lMan = 25 lb. Av. 40 Seers = 1 Man = 2Slb.Av.
20 Mans = 1 Kandi = 500 lb. Av. 20 Mans = 1 Eandi = 560 lb. At.
The other local wuighia and measnres are both Tolnminous and
doubtful, vaiyiu^r in almout every district.
fDRAULIC MANUAL.
PART II.
OOimSTINO OF
HYDRAULIC STATISTICS
Am>
DIAN METEOROLOGICAL STATISTICS,
FOR THE USE OF ENGINEERS.
COLLECTED AND REDUCED
BT
LOWIS D*A. JACKSON, A.I.C.B.
LONDON :
^ H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.
1875. -'
HYDRAULIC STATISTICS.
GftATITT AHP TeKFUUTUBI.
BzAZimcs o? B1YXB8.
Wmhb utd Gubvbs of Induv Bi-
DnCIIABGES OF ISDIAN BlVBBS.
Bbimp Accounts op Indian Bivebs.
Fdiaxcial StATinica of Indian
Canau.
Canal Statistics.
Beiip Accounts of Indian Oanals.
I Data of English Beservoibs.
Spanish Besebvoibs and Dams.
Financial Statistics of Indian
Besebtoibs and Tanks.
Bbief Accounts of the same.
Watekwobks of Indian Cities.
Ibbioated Cbops and Plantations.
Watebings and Wateb-bates.
Descbiftions and Analyses or
Wateb and Silt.
[1]
'>i/namie Force oj Qravitj/ at tie Sea Level, and tke
Mean Tomperahtre, fir varioui Latitudet.
Onritr.
Utltnde.
gen
... 32-2526
79
&
58
ad
... 32'2«5
74
32
19
65
30
0
34-38
betlands)
... 32-2173
60
60
45
27
25
0
40-28
... 32-2O40
55
58
41
...
gh
... 32-2040
55
57
0
46-64
„, 32-1908
51
31
8
50-74
... 321895
51
2
10
32-1820
48
50
14
53-65
z
... 32-1691
a
50
26
57-82
43
36
0
53 03
", 821GG8
43
7
9
rk
... 321C00
40
42
43
... 32-1380
35
0
0
Good Ho
je . 32-1403
.. 32-1412
33
33
55
51
15
39
Cl-3
aneiro ..
... 321121
22
66
13
Dflgar ..
",', 32-1147
22
20
82
9
0
19
75-10
18
53
0
80-60
'." 321050
17
56
7
... 320917
10
38
56
3one
... 320927
8
20
28
...
n
.. 32-0959
7
55
48
6
68
0
80-90
«a lale ..
ste
"; 320930
0
0
21
1
41
34
81-50
iBcdinUi
e work-
... 82-2
■m
Uil
i-iti
%
ill
III
li
It"
^is
isssi
? a S S S a g s
too oS5— 50'?'=
gog g^g^^
1 1
Hi o °
i ! i2 ;? I
i -a s z s
•S 0 I S. I
o 5 M „ .2
& S" -I 1 E
■3 s ^ g £
O m EH tS pq
ii
i ■
IT"
1^
■3 5
w
■^^^
} ii^-iil ^l
i
; ^ ^2
I
I
I -^--
I -^
I I
a I
s a s 8
III
I I
■5-gJ =-3= r.So"
■a -3 s = ■;- ° - = £ ■- §
J I I 1 I t i I I I '
I I I S = j I i - 5 i
ili^jiljlir
Ihe Ara(H of the River Baeini of JnJia.
[5]
EuHKa BiBm.
Sqam
Sq<ut>
mil«.
mUce.
1
... 372 700
Ganges
... 391100
Desert ...
... 68 700
Sabanrelcha ...
.. 11300
... 22 400
Baitarani
.. 11900
rar and Kach
pe-
BraliiDani
.. 15400
imlu
... 2? 600
... 15 500
Mahanaddi ...
..43 800
kda
... 36 400
Godavari
.. 112 200
i
... 27000
Orissa Coast ...
.. 22 200
era Obatfl and Coast
Ci,roGiaiidel Coast
.. 10 300
ies
... 41700
Lake Pnlicat ...
... 6700
nnatti ...
... 9 500
Lake Eoler ...
.. 3100
emBanaa
... 6300
dnr
... 1800
Eistna
.. 94500
Penuar
.. 20 500
Total
... 629 600
Palar
.. 6 800
South Pennar...
6200
BdBMUI BlBIH*.
Vellar
4 600
»di
... 158000
Qg
... 18300
Kaveri
.. 27 700
... 62 700
Vaiga
.. 9800
an Basins
... 29 700
Tambararari ...
.. 3 600
iserim Coast
... 14200
Vaipar
.. 3900
Total
... 375 700
Total
.. 705 000
mapntra ...
... 361 200
"""^
ra
ll
•i t^atoi^o^tc
9 =SS
■1
si
■2 si
?.5«
I ls°s§l*"
S<NS%
l|51l||l 111 I iil
I SJ|1.|J i|» I H
— J a a ^ 5* [(■ a j3 a ^ 's * a ;t
[7]
JFbll in feet per mile of Indian Eivers.
NOBTHSBH InDU.
If Omng^,
tttSokerial . . 1*5
from Gnrmaktesar to
60 miles south . 1*25
SbttipaT to Allahabad 75
%i^Bhagiratti
for 190 miles ; between
Rajmahal and Mir-
lapnr . . , *281
WmJmnna^
at Agra . 1*25
near Sakkar *75
Hf &», in the Punjab,
at Lahor-road bridge 14*
tHiMarkanda,
atHassanpnr . 2*72
fie Mdkanaddi,
lower 100 miles 1*4
next 100 miles . . 2*2
Southern Ihdu.
ie Oodavarif
Sironcha to Palmilla . '5
Encbampilli to Dama-
gadiam .1*0
Damagndiam to- head
of delta • . '5
throngh delta to sea . '5
ke Tranhiia,
TaUodhi to Sironcha,
90 miles . . 1*0
keWitrda,
above the Wnnna . 4'0
below it to TaUodhi . 10
51* Wainganga^
Kampti to TaUodhi,
192 miles . . 2'8
VieKiMtna,
Bezwara to sea . .1*0
Southern Indu.
The Tambrapumiy
at Strivigantam 2*5 to 3*0
The Tungabaddroy Dhar-
war . . . 2 to 2*5
The Warda^ Dharwar .
2-
The Maljparha, Belgaum 1*25 to 15
T^e Gatparhay Belgaum,
below Gokak • 1*
to 2*
The Nira, funa,
above Handishwar
4*6
The Indarauni, Puna
2*75
J'he Bhima, Puna,
Sarwali to Deksal
2*75
The Siena, Sholapur,
above Undogaum
2*75
The Krishna, Sattara,
above Kursi . •
4-7
Kursi to Bahej .
1*9
Bahey to Yerla .
1*4
below Yerla
•6
The Koina,
Helwak to Karrar
1*3
Karrar to Babej
•4
above Bamnoli .
6*0
The Terla,
•
Krishna to Chickli .
8-8
The Mann,
Diguchi to Manswar .
6-6
The Kaveri,
above the Kalernn
8-5
thence to Seringham
3*5 to 20
Seringham to sea
10
The Kalerun,
from the Kaveri to Se-
ringham . 31 to 1*6
Seringham to sea 1*6 to '6
lI^^^^^^H
C8J
Flood dUcharget of Indian Eivert, according to ta
ri^n, r.p^t
CtoluUBt
PlMd
DW-rp'lli
Am.
JUmAmtgt.
..-To. "-
i!
8q.^
lo.
a ft. PITKO.
C. n-pa
.
NOHTHltaN ISDU.
Ganges &t Rajmabal
21
JO
1350 000
4-7
11
Combined Mitlumaddi and Ka.fr
inri in flood of 1834
w
1850 000
27-6
t-e
Jamna at AUabah^vd
m
1 333 OtKJ
11-3
2'
Son (Benpil) at cauaewny
Indne at Sftkkar
[10
1700 000
50-0
1-
w
380 000
15-2
U'3
Son (Punjab) at Lahor-roa
bridge
w
96 0l>0
26-6
i
Markanda at HasBanpur, 1843 .
S&; at Rai Bareli bridge
ixf
w
47 838
39-8
I-
960
16 500
17-2
I-
Sai at railway bridge
2-W
12 000
50-0
2'
Gnmti at Laklinftn bridge
Gomti at Saltanpnr bridge ...
IiOni at milwaj bridge •..
2 000
22 366
11-2
US)
3600
39 00Ct
10-8
n
120
4000
38'3
13
1
K^liani at Laklman bridge ...
360
17 758
49'3
2-1
i
Morna (Bt!rar)at railway biidge
2U
122 715
581-
»)
Nalgaiiga at railway bridge ...
213
153 S46
722-
14
South EBK Ihdia.
Oodavari at Rajamandn
120 000
1350 000
11-2
2-3
Kiatnu at Bezwara
110 OOO
1188 000
10-8
1-9 I
Tumbadra at Kamul
20 (HIO
270 000
135
Hi '
fnveri at Frazerpett
reri at Seringharo
415
IIIOOO
2673
12-5
28 000
472 500
16-9
2
neratNellor
20 000
359 100
18-1
2
iratArcat
3 700
270 000
74 2
5-7
inbrapnrni at Palamcotta .,
687
189 000
324-0
16
iiettnr a,t AIHgyapandrnpuram
486
29 700
60-8
3
Vigay at Madura
KanjitaDtlu at Balagnnta
1600
43 200
270
2
90
10 800
1215
4
29
28 088
972-0
23-
Varhazaiiamatlii at Periacolam
41
8 100
202-5
5-
Irriti (Malabar)
3
36
149 850
4460
19
* Sea ^tff* iz. uid In. «( wmkiug tkUw '
C C
<s
■Vl-il
ilOA|i\uu(Iuio;3
e«
< o i -S o .2 _g
a-l as*
:D -* -* O '^ kO rH rH CD CO "^
o o rH :o
D«rH r-l 1^ 1^
o ""^ oi <M :o t^ O
C4 O) CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
» CD <M <N <N <N <N <M ei
rHr^COCOCOCOGO COCO
I
M-
lO <>i »o o
i"^
rHCX)"^OOCQM5'^Q
rH iH iH 00 Ca lO -^ 05
^
•S ^ 5 ►
SQ0D0q*OCOC^CD»O
0»0^<^CO'^05'*»-"
CO !>• C^ rH kO rH
I
1
- OOP ^
Ol o
0<0 rH CD 05
t^ 05 ^ !>• CO
CD £^ CD rH CD
r-f 1-H ^ r-t r^ r-i
Sao
I
II
o
OOQO
O O ^ »o
O rH(M CD
CO CO 05 rH <N
ei cDO
\o '■£> o^
kOlO •
^«
00
O C
CO Oi
CO o *o
»0 (N CD
CX) t^
lO t>. -^
o5
<NCD
rH CO
A S 5
0QPL4 W
o
o
~ o o o s
Uuhnnuddi Serius, Total 18200
T),e Rioer Jamna.
6 Juno 1872
Maudftwnla
w
6 Juno 1872
Bud
It
29 July 1H72
ChaogBoa
14i8
19 Dec. 1872
Bailwaj bridge
SI
19 Deo. 1872
West Ghat
!0
19 Jan. 1873
Railway bridge
25
20 Jan. 1873
West Obat
The Biver Sallaj.
S9
Jnn. 1856
2i
i Feb. 1857
1 of Canal.
;
41
26 Jan. 1859
..
41
20 Dec. 1869
.. »
4(
21 Jan. 1861
t. »
4.
IfS. —There is reason to believe that these are in ezceee.
[11]
Di9chafge9 of Indian Bivert — continued.
2^e Eiver Bavu
PlAoe.
DIachugM
incubio
feet per
second.
1872
Shahdera, Lahor 94 miles.
703
1872
Alpah, below escape 147 miles.
879
1872
Bhatdah
509
1873
Shahdera
687
1873
Alpah
478
1873
Bbatiah
271
,1872
Sidhuri
7689
1872
»
13452
1872
»
1866
L873
i>
2 296
1873
19
3579
,1872
L872
1872
The Eiver Bia$. — ^At Naushelira.
7 498
8 797
3 464 at Pakhowal
19 Dec. 1872. 4901
19 Jan. 1878. 5 117
The Eiver Indta.^At Kalabagh.
.871
21220
Jan. 1873.
.872
18 657
L872
21 878
.873
20 781
.873
18 657 at Den
i^Ghazi-Khan.
20 541
.873.
The River Kuram, — ^At Kalabagh.
545 (inclnded with the Indus discharges).
The Eiver Indue, in 1872.73.— At Dera-Qhazi-Khan.
72
'2
12
'2
Average gauge readings for each month.
6-27
732
9-28
9-81
r^
Aug. 1872 7-97
Sept. 1872 619
Oct. 1872 4-85
Nov. 1872 3-98
Dec. 1872
Jan. 1873
Feb. 1873
Mar. 1878
3-46
355
823
3-68
1
i
|li.lr|f,i|isi
a'
pi!
' 1
1^ ^PP
1? - ? 1 1
S. - ^ o
li
w
Is g i g i S
* - - -
i 8
i®
|s 3 1 H 1 1
1 i
J, 1 s i . 1
3, «.
n
|5 3 S 1 ^ S
3 S
1
.a
e
1
: : I : : :
1 i 1 = ^1
^ 1 1 3 1 g
i _
n
II
[13]
1
1
^ ■ i 1
1
iim
<i 1 . 1 II 1 1
Hi
=1 g 1 1 11 2 3
li « s i II i 3
H
1* S S SSS |S s g?
1
^ It i 111 1 - ^
£ tS p Wo(£ >. CL,
i
11 iK iiiiir
[15]
1
i
1
1
■a
b3
ml .
- PM
S :
s. ■
'—• ■ \
j!|
1 s
1
s
1
SI
1 i
1
1
iilmi
1 s
o
!
fc
H
» 2 S S
g
1
e
tl
1 B
o
Z lE M o
:
1;
E ■
g
ir
^'1
ii
li
p
[W]
The ImJm» at Attock, certain reoorded TsboitiM am M bitoira,
In hot amtaaa, opposite tort, ydotity 18 tnilM aa boor.
At tnimel Bit*, in cold seaaon, 5 to 7 buIm aa hour.
Do. in hot season, 13 to 14 milea aa hoar.
Snrftce velocity at centra^ Dec. 1869, 9 milee •:
The rise of ordinary floods is from 5 to 7 feet in 24 bonn I
and is 50 feet above cold weadier lereL The flood of 1841 «
feet above cold weather lerel, and that of 1858, 80 feek.
Snra Bieer, at the I^or ud PMbawar.road bridj^ 7
of Peshawar, the wsterwa; allow^ is 180 Uneal feat In tiie I
JuIt, ISlU, the flood rose 18 feet in 5 minntes, and had a
velocity of 151 ft** per second. The soil of the bed conmsts, fiist, of
18 feet of silt aod loose sand, then S feet of firm sand resting on cUj.
iSi>M Sirer, IVnjab, at Labor and Peshawar Road, baa a cstchtnent
area of 573 sq. tiiiles ; maxironm flood depth, 15'; mean velocity, 8 to 9
feet per second ; slope of bed, IV per mile ; calcolatod mean relod^i '
13' per second; 9ood discharge, calcniatcd from sections, 91000 cnldi)
feet per t«eond =^ \" over the catchment basin ; the perennial streHS
ia never less than 1' deep. Bed at surface 'foonlders ; at 11', conglo-
merate blocks ; ikt 16', a hard, dty fonndntion ; width of river at site
Um', hot a little above only 750 ; clear waterway of bridge, 9iS
lineal feet.
Tie Jamna. — At the Sirsawa bridge of the Delhi Railway, 87 mil»
SE. of Amballa, the waterway allowed ie 2376 lineal feet; st Uiii
place the Jamna is constant, for six months, from April to September,
being snow-fed ; it rises in ^larch and falls in October ; at the ate tliB
soil is gravel and coarse sharp sand, above the bridge sit« it connsls
of large 141b. boulJerd. Its flood velocity is 8 miles an honr, aeoat-
ing the bed, canying along the bonlders and depositing them 80
feet below the onlinaiy bed of the river. In 1S67, the river rose is
flood to two feet above its banks ; iu 1868, 14 inches above that again.
The floods of the Jamna at Allahabad were recorded by Mr. Sibley,
s 1961 to 186S, obaervatioDB being taken daily at G a.u. and
he extrflme Toriatton of ordinaiy level within the five yeara'
uw waa 2 Feet; the extrome variation of lowest level waa
also 2 feet. The lowest water occurred between the 19th
April, when the rise from snow melting begina. The gi'eat
to the periodic rains generally begins on the 19th or 2l>th
le highest flood generally occurred between 22nd and 26th of
the highest flood recorded wae in 1832, a little higher than
861.
L. high flood 161-6, 8 days over 155 and 4 days over 1(30.
Li ... 141-5 lowest recorded flood.
B. li. ... 155-
B. L. ... 152-5
of ISCl were exceptionally long in deration. — The lowest
Sood was 80 feet above low water level, the averse 40, and
nnm 50 feet : the maximum velocity meftfluring 950 feet in 81
s 12 feet per second, and for 12 daya being more than 10 feet
id. At the period of greatest discharge the mean surface
Kas 10 feet per second, and the mean sectional velocity
vr second ; the sectional area at that level being 145 000
jt, the discharge per second waa 1^ million cabio feet.
ver supplies the Eastern Janma canal with about 1065 cubic
lecund, the Western Jamna canal with abont 2500, and will
dy the Agra canal with 800 cubic feet per second.
Markanda at Hasaanpur, in 1859, by Mr. C. J. Campbell, C.E.
ridgo site, where the banks are well deflned, ie about three
ow Hassan p or.
1577 feet
channel
tares
slope ...
looi^
e
1845 ...
' flood depth
J of bridge
»f roadway
of the bed is
t per
6-15 feet per second.
, 35 -370 cubic feet per second.
, 47 838 cubic feet [jer second,
10 feet.
, 6 to 9 feet.
1 073 lineal feet.
24 feet above bed.
Sand and silt for 40 feet in depth.
k
(18]
Tbe Son Ricer, in Bonga], U 425 miles long, rising near Anna
Eiuitak in Central India, the first 325 mtlea of it« coane an
rocky conntry ; it emerges from the Kaimor hills &t SJuitu.
miles from its conflaence with the Ganges at Patna ; the tad Ilfl
miles being in the plains. The river is three miles brood at TeLotloi
and generally in the plains is two miles in breadth ; for eight mm
in the year the stream ia a qnarter of a mile broad. The etti
flood discharge is said to repreeent 2\ inched of rainfall over tiia*
catchment area in 24 hears (the heavy floods norer ezccedii^
days) ; in this state half »*•■' wni"' U thrown orer the ooondyb
Hasaanra. The lowest c dry aeasona is 400) csliic
per second. Daring the i ■ referred to in the talilo iif &k
charges, the rain Irom Jon' :>er inclusire wad at SJiatabi^
21-3 inchos; at Bahar, ] it Patna, 196; it is gc
85 inclies at each ; thong! a following the rainless jmr til
fall at Patna was 50 fnohe.
At Dchri, a town 69 ; Patna, are the headworks dt tii
Son canals, and the oanm irasd Tmnk road. The cbaniri
of the river here varies i miles in bretidib, and baa a
of &om 1'75 to 3 feet per mile, ana iw flood rise, or difference between
■nmmer and higb-flood level, is from 14 to 20 feet ; its discharge viriaj
from 4000 to one million cnbic feet per second. The bed is composeil
of shingly sand to a groat depth. i
It is nnfortunate tbat the diagrama of tbe gangiogs of tltis TiTBt*
as well as those of tbe Ganges, the Kodra, the Kara, Panpnn, Dtv-
gauti, Chandarprobab, Soramnassa, Morhar, and Sara, recorded by tha,
engineers of the Son canals in 1872 and 18*3, are not yet availabla.
The Gonget. — Tbo discbarges of tlia river given in Oie tsU(^
obtained from Bcordmore's work, were taken nnder tbe follova^
conditions : —
1st. Tbo qnontides at Benaros yrcra taken from a section by Prina^
on the 25th April, 1S29, after a long int«rval without rain : tbe ana
of the section was 48 G5U sqnare feet, the width 14*^0, the mean dqitk
34-75 feet, the mean veloci^ 23-5 feet per minnte; the maxiiainii
discharge at the same place waa computed, when the river was 3l>04
foet wide, and bad on average depth of 58 feet, and secfJonal ana
175 000 square feet, the mean velocity being about 44^ feet per minata
2nd. The ganging at Kot, near Balliab, was taken by Ldeutenant
Garforth, in the first week of May, 1S5I), when the river was at ill
lowest; the seotional area waji 587C square feet, width at waler-Iere
'XiS feet, menu Telocity 111 feet per minute ; tbe maiimnm velocitj
:^ mid-ch&nnel was 198 feet per mmnto, which greatly exceeded that
1 olher pUtces where the river was deeper; tho maximnni depth in
' III setTtion was 9'42 feet in a narrow pluve only 120 feet wide, the
fcmainder of the section varying from 4 to G feet ia depth.
3rd. The gtiaging at Sikrigoli was taken on the 0th March, 1829 ;
b-t this place, 3L> milos above the delta, the Ganges has received the
Oogra, the Gandak, Kusi, Son, and other rivers, whose united volDme
W Inqnently more than that of the Ganges proper, Jamna, and other
^fflaoots which form the river at Danaras. Tho data for ganging were
fallows : breadth about 600(J feet, depth 3 to 5 feet, sectional area
La 0(X) square feet, mean velocity aboat S6 feet per minnte ; in extreme
the breadth is about li) 000 feet, mean depth 28 feet, sectional
U I.NJO aquare feet, the mean velocity being about 440, and the
CUOfoet per minute,
Th« Gauges seems to have preserved its general course for ages
down to Suli, Si miles below Rajmahal, where, at some period within
4ba range of tradition, some alteration in the banks caused it to bo
Averted from its former wosteni course, now known as the Bhagiratti
aa for ns Naddia and as the Hnghli (not an indigenous name] below
it. to its present eastern course by Rampui'-Bauliah and Jellinghi
■ tiiL-h joins that of the Brahmapntra to form the Megna estuary.
There is a lamentable want of available accurate modem informa-
L iLS to the physical conditions and disehargcB of this river.
The Damuda. — This river rises in the Sonthol Hills, its upper portion
ud its trihutariea being comparatively unknown ; it becomes a single
Mid defined channel at about 23 miles above Raniganj, and passing
through the coalfields of that tract, enters the yellow clay of the
delta near Burdwan, 52 miles bolow Raniganj, whence it continues to
Seltmabad. At Selimabad, 16 miles below Burdwan, is an old branch
of the Damuds. which flows into tho Hughli above the town of that
Rftme ; but the present coarse is by Ompta to the Hnghli, opposite
■ iilta, a length of GO miles, This river is interesting on account of
floods frequently inundating tho country ; remedial measures, the
..|>rovemcnt of its embankments and the damming up of tho old
bruich, were unsuccessfully attempted in 1857 by various miiitaiy
BgiiieerH. Thcr« is a large amount of Governmental correspondence
n this snbject, but no valuable hydraulic data ; in fact, the velocity
bblca of tho Aoods give as a maximum 77 feet per second, or 5
nilw an hour, or less than half what it must be. In 1872-73 Bom«
k S
bjdisalio obeervationB were ma^e by the civil cngineerB emplojeil
on the Otissa canals, bat t)io rtMurds are not yet available.
The Dmiiuiln, with a catchment basin of 7000 miles, ha* ■ fl«4|
discharge representing '125 inch per hour of nunfiUl.
21« MihanaJdi and itt Tributariei.—'Redaced levels of (he Bdoi'
ftnd low Water sections of the Mahanaddi for the last 200 miles.
At
SonpOT
Barmnl Pass entrKoce
Do exit
Eantaln ... ...
Baidesanr
Chirchika
Natui
Eattak
Uonth of Katjnri, Jaipor
Month of Uahut&ddi
Mean Sea Level
0
3655
8J«
. &}
S16-5
175 S
n
215-5
175-S
, M
165.5
ISM
, 107
1»5
11«
. 115
189-6
eM
. 135
fl2-5
m
.. 144
77-5
S5^
. ITS
37-5
IS-i
The TributAiies of the Mahanaddi.
Diitanoe Wiillh
Kaligiri..
Baidessnr
Kantiln
Bentpara
Salki Above Boad 120i
B^ Dayah 136
Mimi Lowpara 141
TeJ Sonpor
200 Alluvial.
320 Eocky above
SOO Sandy and
rocky.
Ditto.
Ditto and
Very rocky.
Sandy and
rocky.
143 3470 Ditto.
465
400
The Mahanaddi and Eatjnri have in high floods velocities of 7 ftt
per second. At Nart^ the Mahanaddi emerges from a rooky ridg
only ^ mile wide into a wide basin, 3 miles broad, and 4 miles Ion
reaching to Eattak. The head land of the delta at Nar^j divides tl
Mahanaddi north of town from the Eatjui sonth of town. Tl
W^tt .
r bffinenta of tlie Mahft&acldi &» ita luDy conntry, and ma;
■Kid to be oneiplored.
From gttugings at Kattak it appears that the ordinary embanked
vlinnnala of the delta could only carry off a flood rising to 20^ feot on
*i»o gauge, and half a flood rifting to 27 feet— iiecoe the dovaBtatlon so
oflen caused ; a flood over 20j feet may last seven days, although they
T«nwin at full height for only 12 hours. There is a sounding of 80
feet of wat«r in the bed between Baidessar and Dewakot, being 16^
feet below mean sea-level. The Bauki reservoir covers an area of
15<'i square miles, having a mean flood depth of 20 feet, and gives
cne-tliird of the relief from flood that ia required. Total flood dis-
charge from 27th July to 3rd Anguat, 1855, 761 billion cubic feet ;
of which MS billions can be carried ofi' in the river channelB, leaving
21C billions in 7 days ^ iOO 000 cubic feet per second to be provided
for by reservoirs, cuts, and special arrangements.
The historian of this river is Captain HarriB, who laboured many
yvars in eDdeavoaring to mitigate the cfiects of its floods.
The Godavari rises at Naasik, lat. 20° 0', loog. 73° 47', and passes
south of Anrungabad, through native territory for 450 miles, nntil it
joins the Pranhita at Sironcha. Its basin is about GO 000 square miles,
ci» including its tributaries 120 OOO square miles. Above Sironcha it
is nnnavigable, and had a discharge in February, 18G6, of only 300
Cubic feet per second. Prom Sironcba to Palmilla, about 33 miles,
the fall of the bed is '5 feet per mile, and this part of the river is
navigable ; the Pranhita baving contributed a discharge of 726 cubic
feet per second (Feb. 1866). From Palmilla to Enchampilli is a
barrier of rock 14 miles long ; known as the second barrier of the
Codavari, above wJiich the river is 1300 yards wide. From Ihicbam-
pilli lo Dammagudiam, 70 miles, the river has a fail of 1 foot per
mile. At Dammagudiam there ia a barrier of rock S miles long,
known as the 1st barrier of the Godaveri ; at this place the river is
1700 yards wide, the discharge being 1S78 cubic feet per second in
May, and 9375 cubic feet per second in January, having a current of
3 to 6 miles aa hour. At Gollagndium, about 20 miles below this
barrier, the discharge in Feb. 1866 was 2825 cubic feet per second.
At Polaveram the river emerges from the hills, 80 miles below the
1st barrier, and 20 miles from the town of llajahmandri, which is 4
miles from Dowlaishwaram, the head of the delta : for these 104
miles the fall is about 'S feot per mile. At Falaveram the river gorge
is only S'tO yards wide (February, 1866), but the floods rise to 60 feet
al(ovc the February level ; very high freshes occur three times iu tin
1
(22]
maiuanaad lut for four (fffive days; tbegenonlreloeitjcf tfaeit
then being ■> miles an hour. Tlio river is na%')gable from Sira
dowawonis, excepting at the barriers, ilnring tbe
from Decombor to Ma^. It has three muiaTigable tribatUTM;!
ladrawatti, joining it above tbo 2nd burier, whicli is 300 milea ta
diMcbarging 150 cubic feet per second (Feb. 166(3); the Sih
miiea ioag, dinchnrging 600 cubic feet per second (Feb. 1866), I
joining it below the 1st barrier; and the Jal, 100 mtlea long.
From Sironcha to the let barrier the river channel has do f
manence of form, it shifla i and forms large bank
shiiting shoals ; the banks are ib rocks that occur are Hod*
stones and Bomctimea limoator the 1st barrier to the hadol
the delta the channel is comp manent, the banks are bmg^
. the ssnd is large and coarae uiring a powerful carrmtts
displace it, the rocks are m^ d form natural groins, whidi
aid in giving pcrmanenoe to From the delta head domt-
wards the river mns in a m ment, 6' to 24 feet above At
level of the country ; Ha bed per mile, tbe sDmrner wilff
surface ■" feet per mile, and the digu u^^ surface 125 to 1'50 feet pa
mile, down to the month, 40 miles below. In the delta the river,
when in full flood, has a width of 2j miles, and a sorface velodtj of
4ii miles an honi ; tbe rise of surface varies from 20 to 50 feetj tlw
last two feet of rise being never maintained for more than two honit.
From the middle of June to the middle of September tbe Tolnme il
always more than 12O0O cubio feet per second; daring the rest of
the year 3i".Ml cubic feet per second is considered its ordinary minimam
supply. In excessively dry years the discharges have been as foUom;
December, 16 875 cnbic feet per second ; January, 8<)47 ; FebroMT,
3825; March. 27B2 ; April. 2047; May, 1687; first half of Jam
1500 cubic feet per second.
I%e Upper Tributariet of the Qodacari, that together form ttf
Praubito, which is i)0 miles long from Tallodhi to Sironcha, are thi
Wardo 250 miles long, which rises in the Satpnra range, and afler
being joined by the Wunna at the falls of Dindora, becomos navigable
for tlio last 100 miles of its course ; the Poinganga, which rises in tlu
hills south of Bcrar, and afler an unnavigable course of 320 milM,
joins the Warda above Cbanda ; and the Wainganga, which rises is
the Satpura range north of Nagpur, takes a coarse of 430 mileB,
unnavigable, and joins the Warda at Tallodhi. The Pranhita is like
the lower portion of tlio Warda navigable for throe months in the
year, from Tallodhi to Dowalmarri, whore there is a barrier of rodi
^^Hp long ; below this to Sirondia it is navigable for Toar moaths.
^^^■B of its bed ia aboat 1 foot per mile, §o nlso is tliat of ths
^^^Bin ita navigable portion. Above this tlie Warda falls i feet
^^^3e, and the Wonoa 2 feet per mile. The Wainganga bas a fall of
^4t> feet in 19'2 miles, from Kamptito iti moutb, or 2'8 feet per mile.
In lHi»4-ti7 an attempt was made by Col, Haig, aided by Captaina
ftn\» iIm and Jackson, to open a navigable commanication from Din-
■nk to the coast ; it was, however, at last abandoned, on ftccount of
bk «zcefisive expense.
n« Kiitna rities north of Sattara, Bombay presidency, in latitude
US', and enters the sea 35 mtlos SW. of Masntipatam ; its catchment
»rai being 30 000 aqnare miles, It is a perennial river GOO miles long,
-entering the plains at SO miles from its mouth, and there becoming an
important river, is ntULzed in irrigation. In the dry weather, from
V--T.tnber to Jnnc, its supply is very small, being derived prinoipally
. springs in its bed ; from July to October it varies mach, even
■ ^' as much as 10 feet in 21 hours. In full manaun there is ft
tiint stream 20 feet deep, the crest of ita banks is from 20 to 40
in height, and its section from Ij to 2| miles broad. At
A ara, the head of the delta, 60 miles from the eea, where are tho
' ontlying spurs of the hills and the anicat or dam, the river ia
I yards wide, and has a depth in dry seasons of from 5 to 6 feet,
-■ernge freshes of 31, and in highest freshes of 38 feet. In the
■Ji'ltn it mns on an elevated ridge, having an average fall to the sea of
1 foot per mile, varying from -0 to 1"1 feet; the fall of the country
on both sides towards the sea being 1'5 feet per mile. The irrigation
of tho delta, commenced by Captain Orr, provides for taking off
8600 cubic feet per second for each aide of the river, bnt these
works are still in an incomplete state ; the irrigable area on each bank
being capable of utilizing 32 000 cubic feet per second daring tha
teoBon of cultivation.
The tribuiariei of the Kiatna.
The Tungabaddra, tho most important tributary of the Kistna, has a
length of about 213 miles from Gutal, where its upland tributaries,
tlie Tnnga, the Baddra, and the Choardi join the Worda, to i\M
JBDction with the Eistna, at aboot 81 miles below Karonl. These
fooT npl&nd tribntariea drain an area of 3?54 sqnaro miles in the
; of Maisur, a portion of which is hilly oountiy, 1
dawnponr of 185 inches, the remainder being plains with a dow]
pow of only 21 inches.
i
Of Uioae, tbe Warda, dFaining 610 aqnara miles, bas
small anicats on ite feeders ; its ordinary mausan discbai^ is
MannitJ to be 50O0, aad its maximum flood diaebai^ 30 00
feet jwr second. The Haggri — joiued by its affluent, the
Haggri, wbich falls into it near Sluk^mnru — feeds the large Ejn-
kaira aod Aladdak tanks in a comparatively rainlesa district, and mij
erentaolly alao enpply an intended large reservoir at the Maori Em-
wai pass, where ita discharge has been ganged for two yean, giving y
an onlinnry manann diechargo 4500 and as a maximnm flood digduifi
50 000 cwbic feet per second.
The Tnnga, after being join Baddro at Endli, is joined lij
iba Choardi at 10 miles above , and at Horihar iteelf
Snlikcrri ; the maximum flo ^ of the combinatioD of Ibl
tiiree at the lai^ bridge has been determined to it
207843 cnbiu feet per sec c ordinary mansnn dischugt
roaglily calcnlated to be v
At Wallabapur, at\er a 5 railea, the TuDgaboddn il j
joined by two tribntarica, ant Oth mile by the Saggii, alhr 1
which it posses Sunkesola at iia u uiie, and Karaol before joinlBf 1
the Kistua. At SunkcEala are the hcadworks of a series of canali, |
flowing thence to Caddapa ; and Wallavapor is the proposed site of '
headworks for a high-level canal, tbonce passing Ballari to Eontnl
In order to afl'ord further snpply to those canals, it was propoaed to
mlargo existing reservoirs and make others on the upland tribntaricsof
this river ; and with this view some gangings were made on them for si
months, from June to November 1865, giving the following reanita:—
8q. milea. Hillion cub, ft. laohee nm oC
The Tnnga, at Shemnga ... 950 229 6G2 108
The Baddro, at Benkipnr ... 884 125 928 03
The Choardi to Maddak tank 486 54 000 SO in flooda.
The Haggri, at Herinr ... 1400 1 350
The Tnngabaddra at Wallabapur 356 940
The Tungabaddra at Snnkosala 569 700
The proposed reservoirs on the tributaries, intended to store it*
aboTo snppliea, and render the present Tungabaddra canals peremM
ftre the Mudaba on the Tunga, the Lakkawali on the Daddra, tbe
Masuj- on the Choardi, and the Mauri Ennwai on the Hi^gri.
Fnrther information about the upland tributarioa is given amoog
the tabnlar data of the rivers of Maisnr.
[25]
Sc pinner rises in Kaieur, alxmi 180 miles above the Madras
A»j-bridge, down to which point its catchment area is -tSOO aqaaro
■■i- At Pemr, where its upland tribataries Lave joined it, tha
tuutnel is larger and becomes iinportant ; from this point its coaree is
bent 110 miles in length, without having any important tributary, to
■ jonctioQ with the Chittravatti abore Jamalmagdu, where the
■Icbment area of thp latter stream is 3325 square miles : the
flood discharge of the Chittravatti is 23 100 cable feet per
id its ordinary mansun discharge is about one-tenth of that.
Lboot 40 miles below this its tributaries the Knnder and the Papagni
it, the one having; a catchment area of 3000, the other of
-100 aqnare miles : the latter has a maximam flood discharge of
. : i i cobic feet per second, and an ordinary mansun discharge of about
tc'Dth of that. At 32 miles below this the Sugaler and the Cheyer
■ L. il. At 18 miles below this, and at 70 miles from its debouchpieut
\ato the sea, ia Somcshwaram, where the river leaves the Western
glials, the site of the proposed headworks for a deltaic canal to irrigatfl
ihe Nellor side of the delta. The total length of the river from Ferar
io the sea is about 270 miles. Its upland tributaries in Maisur are
ililiied (see tables of the rivers of Maisur), but for the rest of its
x>arse down to the head of the delta the river now flows on unimpeded.
Dd the Kondcr, at 25 miles above its jnnction with the Pcnnor, is the
Bajoli Dam and sabsidiary headworks of the chain of canals from
BnnkeBala to Caddspa ; the tributaries of the Kundcr are also utilized
in the same way, affording irrigation to the large valley of the
Eundcr.
For the greater part of the year the Penner, as low even aa the
Ujdms Railway bridge, is dry at the siu-face, though at from 1 to 4
fitt in the bed plenty of water can always be found. The ordinary
iuiuison floods are 6 to 8 feet deep ; the extraordinary floods, 13 feet
At the bridge-site the river is 1550 feet wido ; the soil is clay for 5
feet, gravel mixed with clay and kunknr nodules for 4 feet more,
rcBting on a layer of sand, anperimposed on hard, dark greeu koukur.
lie Eaveri rises in the Western Ohata, and has a catchment area,
together with its delta, of 32000 square miles. It is fed by both
niansans, and i(e volume is abundant from the beginning of June to
te end of December. The discharge on the ■Ith December, 1833, at
the head of the delta, was 16 875 cubic feet per second, according to
Col. Cotton : but in high flood the discharge is as much aa 320 G2o cubic
lUil |ier second. From January to May the discharge is small, muoU
mob J
kn Stbn 16 000 ealnc feet per aeoond ; tbongh then are &«diBt<ii
HrfoK and April due to local BtonoB. Above Senngham, in Taiiji
KkTori litivideB itaelf Into the Kaveri and the Kala-on branches, wiak-
inigatc the delta, none of the water reaching the eea. ; thU 1
the gTbnd anient of Seringhani, constructed by the Telinghi
mnote antiqiiitj, and restored and remodelled by Col. Cotton,
1880 and 1S3G. The elope of the main stream obore the biihctliai
ia 8*6 feet pc^r mile ; from tliat to Seringham, that of the Kslemsk
2 feet per mile ; from Seringham to the sea coast, its average alcosJl
1 foot jier mile. The geaerol main Kaveri branch it -i fett
pormilt; lesathanthatof the J lefore 1830, 12 622 enbicfttt j
per seooud was utilized in in the Ksveri branch, indUM j
cabio feet per second from Q, or 16 4:74 cnbic feet p« j
noond in all, out of 16 87f> , the works conatructed by I
OoL Cotton, utilized 93 ?d c second from the Kaveri n^ {
'7S00 from the KaJerun, the ing as nnch from excen u '
the foi-iner from deficiency. )oL Sim made a regnlsdng
dam acrosa the head of the 1 lowered the Kalamn daa <<
2 feet, since ^¥heIl the regimen has been perfectly under control Tha
Kalernn is now not only a channel of irrigatioa, bat is also the gent
drainag;e channel of tlio delta; the Kaveri ia a channel of irrigation
only, its entire volume being subdivided into small channels, tuA
entirely utilized, although in its upper portion it is a mile in widlL
Infomation about those works ia given under the head of the Kalenm
deltaic canals.
The Tributariet of the Kaveri, consisting of the Upper Kaveri, Uw
Somavatti, Hemavatti, Lachmantirth,and Lokani, join above Serinn-
patam. Their combined marimum flood discharge at Bannor, bdo«
that town, has been roughly determined to be 239 000 cnbic feet p»
second ; the ordinary manson discharge, for a depth of 8 feet, ia
abont 30 WO cubic feet per second. The other tribntaries are Um
Kabbaui, the Arkaval ti, and the Shimsha ; the maximnm flood di»
oharge of the Kabbani at Nanjengod is calculated to he 63 TOO cnhic
feet per second, its ordinary mansun discbarge about one-tenth of
that ; tbo maximum and ordinary mansun dischargee of the Arkavatti
kt the Mangadi-road bridge are calculated to be 50 000 and 3500
mbic feet per second ; the disohargei of Hm Shiasha are aasomed to
be identical in qnantity with the latter. Some farther infbrmatian
about these tribntaries ia given in the data of the riTen of Maieor.
Tke Ihinhrapurni, rises in the Weetem Ghats, having its prinopd
(S7J
b in tlie valley of Papanasean, dntiiia a large tract of hillj and
tnd eonotry under Ibu iuflnencc of botli raansoDS, and falls into
k Bontih of Taticorin. Its catchmoufc area ia 200 square miles J
D for 20 miles is in foreat covered monntaius, where the raio' J
f from 20O to 300 incIieB ; and for 70 miles in pUina at the fooH
t hills, where the rainfall is from 20 to 30 inches ; for the ■
J" of ita coarse it receives a rainfall of only 18 inchea. Its
■ P^ttuiaeean, and that of its tribntary, the Chittar, at Knrtallam,
d for their beauty, and are considered sacred. There are
e Bnicnte on the Tambrapumi, four on the Chittar, and two
I itaonemabuar : in addition to tliat now nearly constructed at
intam by the English. Its floods commence in 7une, whea j
Wvn sometimes 10 feet deep, and frequently recur during tlu
or during the north-east maosun. The i
Itiie hills keeps a hot weather stream, at Strivigantom, of a
)iibic feet per second, and never less than 198 cubic feet per.^
in March; during tho six months the discharge i
00 oabic feet per second. The amount of its discharg
ibr irrigation ia thus estimated in the Govenunont i
■c. = 58 320 000
c.= 28 382 400
to 3 feet per i
225 days of lat crop at 32 cubic yds. per e
45 dnya for 2nd crop at 15 cubic yds. per a
46 days for 2nd crop at 7j cubic yds. per s
J depth at StriTigantam 7 feet, fall 2j
y 5 to 5*6 feet per second.
p Upar. — The discharge of this stream has n
e any observed velocities mentioned in the Madras government
. bat its flood discharge has been thus approximated to
lation. Its catchment area is 342 square miles, and it is
1 that there is a maximum rainfall in 24 hours of 8 inches
e-fonrth of it, of 4 inchea over another fourth, and of 2 inches
indor, and that the stream carries oQ* one-fourth of this,
(■fourths bebg lost by absorption and evaporation, This gives a
■discharge of 8850 cubic feet per second.
w
A UST OF THE PIiraCn>AL CANALS OF DiBU.
yarthern India.
PCLLI PBVltOPEO.
Sinir.
Source.
catsM
TheWertem
Jamiia Canal
The Janina .
. 2372
TheEftitwv
amna Canal
The Janma .
. 1008
TheGugMA
nd Lower G
s The Ganges .
. 5100
The Ban Dot
b Canal
The Eavi .
. 2201
m
MOPSLLraa.
Cuulsi
d in Rohilkwid.
UNO
EUCnOM.
The Sarhind Cuiial
The Satlaj .
. 3000
TheAgiaCaruJ
The Janina .
. 20U0
The Oriaaa CanalB
The Mfthanaddi varioui.
The Son Canal
The Son
. 5300
The Sakhar Canal
The Lidus .
. onknowa.
Northern India.
The Upper Sntliij Canals
iggregate length
234iiiitM.
The Lower Satlaj OaoalB
„
41s „
The Chenab Canals
„
222 „
The Jhclam Canals '
„
nnlmftWIL
The Indus Canala in the Panjab
,,
577mil«.
The la&m Ca
jials in Sind
„
nnknown.
Perennial Canalt in Bouikem India,
The Tnngabaddra Canals (not yet rendered pereoniaJ) ... 3i
Inundation Canatt in SotUlum India.
The Deltaic canala and anicnts of the Kadiaa presidency.
Minor Canals in the Bombay presidency.
The anicnts and channels of Uaisur.
■
11
iPiis '
U : =
1
■
Ifei!
r
1
■C CO Oi W Cl o
P5
Ijiii!
«i
«»i
"3
■si
* S O 51 3 S
5
S
ss
2
*l
=3
J3
i
S5
1
__.
£SoS
"o"
PSg
en
<1
SK^S"^
1
fe
•a
f- CO ifl « O -}■
|SS3
i
^«
S
s
■tJ
g.^fflg««
?>
■^I^Clt-
s
7"
7
■B's
»-S™t
a)CifCMts-i<
~
f-l cc. ■* »1
Ssss
JC
Ol-H
OD
fli
:=II5§mS^
o
^
gg
3
gEsass
OS
=3
|s--
1
=3
• S°
i
1
.
oetDODMCXl
~
o-H>nci
~
1
S
t-iilO (OCS
R O
3
aui(M-o
ei c»
1
i
.s
1
it
Si
i3
g»
=3
1
M oe r- (N to 00
m
(^
■*
■■*
.■s
1
m^SSSS
1
8SE3
^
■|S3
s
3
■o wa M t.
no!o-* w
Ol
.&-»
1
'^
Si« "
§
■ra-c
^
r
3
<
oo^(rt-H
_s_-
l-^"30
ift DO
■E.|-<£
:i^-tS^^'
t-
Sgss
fe
SS
^
^' |5"
S*"
K
<M(0
=rt^
M
=j
i*
«rt
■H
««
= = = : = : =
^ ; : : : : J : =
1 iiii ■•= ■
i:|i| ^ III :
F4s|t
sspj^ig
1
k
1
■
^H
■^^^■^H
t»
.^M
i
I
<«uoal<,
Kim
Uinct
BMO.
Zljj
«M1
t £
19U>| 933
£
1136
111
t
1136
lu
lOMI
_
_
8
uo-a
-.
»
-1065
-loe
i«n-«
_
„
- 514
-514
laM-n
_
_
-2SS2
12 000
9468
UU-M
a*
u
- »I5
12 COO
11055
I8H4
I8U
in
-8875
12000
9125
teB«
_■
_
-2S8S
12 000
9417
ISIM)
„
„
_
- 556
12000
1144t
isa»«
Wi
«
Boa
8479
- 219
12 000
11781
laaut
_.
„
_
9337
- 733
12 000
11266
leu-u
_.
...
10206
—2118
12 000
9883
i«>a-a
„
...
10 797
—1186
12 000
10814
iea»<
7»i r»
S0S5S
0982
7roi
12 000
19 701
UM-K
90S^ ?03 . W290
10874
3652
12000
15 652
I8S-M
asis2i fmTat
47M
9 759
12 000
21769
IWMJ
SKI U
UN 106
9489
9642
12000
21642
lS7-ffi
3171 317
112 sae
10170
19 797
12 COO
3179?
IS3»«I
4d04 M)
117663
8 227
13913
12 000
25 913
I6»-«
<ae 63
1
118 SSI
9314
16 568
12 000
28568
i«<a-u
sue; S12
121781
9 224
19 634
12 00O
31634
ISU-U
i2is; m
123 lU
9530
19 937
12 000
31937
im-ui im isi
125877
10847
20 279
37256
57536
I8U-H Ml U
126802
10314
18 7S5
37.256
56041
SM-W S«« «
127092
16927
9104
37256
46 361
SU-K 1 ;!» 172
128 982
14161
15 727
37256
52 983
i6«-47 6 cr? 1 56S
135 2S7
13196
17092
37256
U34S
^^I^^B
1
[31]
W Financial Slatistict of CanaU.—Panjah.
Abstract of R«BtiIts on tlie Weatom Jarona Chuii].
!
Capitja OuUij.
Working
Kxpenae..
Direct
BeTenne.
Total
EWuni.
11
t!
irrigatri.
OripMl
Woiki.
11
ToUlW
end of
yew.
r^4s
655
S.
55
13S888
10 539
&
18 529
55 786
41
J-49
6 050
60£
142 493
12 468
18 491
55 747
41
MW
2 087
209
144 788
14117
17356
54 611
38
>-51
342
34
145164
13 793
16 732
53,988
37
1^2
11248
1125
157537
12 548
19 856
57111
SO
1-68
7 550
756
165 842
15 008
17647
54 803
35
1-54
6 871
687
173 400
12 603
21928
59185
38
i-&o
1931
195
175 547
10 297
18 983
56 239
32
5-56
984
127
176 057
12 424
21871
69127
34.
5-57
1956
2C1
178 874
16 938
9 386
46 642
26
r-58
491
81
179 446
10 064
12 754
50 011
28
9-59
1838
261
181545
16 313
16 032
53 888
30
)-C0
2 222
330
184096
20 317
10 316
53 573
30
^1
3 721
493
188 810
21865
24470
61726
33
454 292
-G2
8906
1185
198 401
22 250
18147
S6 404
29
372 680
-63
4 096
1449
203 946
17 426
17 580
6484S
28
303 361
-M
6 845
4 618
215 408
16 408
23 297
60 563
30
851 537
-65
10 019
476
225 904
21179
—5 710
31547
15 434964
-66
903
859
2-27 660
20 285
28 477
65 733
20 ,307 963
-67
446
304
228 417
23150
34 229
71485
31
447171
-68
1795
304
230 677
28 711
66 313
103 569
45
331 037
-69
10 716
5 606
216 989
24102
39 574
76 830
33
iS6878
-70
7 939
7 955
262 884
38 979
74405
111611
45
406 642
-71
4816
11474
279 173
33 873
116 884
154140
69
462 707
-72
5 780
13 084
298 036
37 645
71651
108 907
39
444 3SS
-73
3454
9 895
311 693
40118
62182
99 438
33
351 821
■
^^^^^^^
t32]
Abstract oF Reunite on the EMteni Jama* Ouwl
1
i
Cipiul OatiMi.
Wotkinj
Direst
Iiulireet
Rebmi.
IT
OrigiDKl
Work*
ii
11
Totjillo
end of
JMt.
1823 to
1830-31
JSI 124
12 676
£
43 800
1
i'
£
£
1
1830-31
to
1S4C-47
{49074
4 907
97 781
97S22
i!1454
1847--18
1485
143
99 360
2 503
14065
_. 1
x:
1848-49
3 254
S2d
102 939
5 055
a
1849-50
3460
346
106 745
„„, B183
f
1850-51
301
30
107 079
7392
15 914
1
1851-52
2 558
250
100 893
7720
13079
1
1852-53
3 057
306
113 256
8279
17 325
1853-54
6 315
531
119102
7 872
14 993
1854-55
16 376
1688
137 066
9 665
14 479
1855-56
12 691
1637
161 994
8188
9 088
1856-57
5180
601
157 865
13 640
12 997
1857-58
1351
223
159 440
7 691
6646
1858-59
2 260
337
162 036
9 265
12 483
... 1
>i(
1859-60
393
81
162 510
10 675
20 924
... 2
7i
1860-451
873
141
163 624
11376
28 941
...
... 2
1!
1801-62
003
3 071
167 298
11305
22 873
... K
li
1862-63
13«
-300
168 343
8 518
25 686
3800
29 496
13 1
m
1863-6*
1218
1732
171283
10 799
23 217
6 000
29 217
11 1
u
1864-65
3 366
432
174 081
12 618
36 539
0000
42 639
18 2-
ji
1865-66
2 876
1612
178 469]13061
41463
6000
47 403
20 1
i03
1866-67
2 844
2 269
184 582'l2 247
43131
17 769
60 900
27 i
Bi
■-68
4 930
1816
191 328
14 208
56 560
17 769
74 329
33 1
^t
^9
4 904
1246
197 479
15 488
50 621
17 769
68 393
28 2
4)
i-m
2 779
282
200539
16 508
65 728
17 769
83497
34 I
9l(
.870-71
2 324
303
203 166
18 006
60104
17 769
77 873
30 2
12:
I871-™
1973
-204
204 935\l9»8O
\5\Wl«»\\T1?aWTO!i
24 1
k;
'S'a-fsl
1805
—654
206 177W«1S\!.6«a\M''"''¥''*A'^V
[88J
Fnumeial SUfHiiics qf CanaU in the Panjab.
cconnt of the Western Jamna Canal, to the end of 1872-73
DeUiL
Works.
H>rory Works (to xaaintam
ppijl'y ••• ••• •»• •••
of JXtfld ••• ••• •••
mty WorlcM* 1. Main Canal
d DrBQches ••• ••• •••
ams, and regxdating works ...
dls and weirs ••
[jneducts ••• •••
icaues ••• ••• •.. •••
ipply of tanks
>ad bridges ••• ••• ...
lildings ••• ... •••
hworJe. — 1. Main Canal and
Skncnes ••• ••• ••• •••
3. Drainage works
Maneoui*
1 Main Canal, and branches •••
distributing Channels.
mry works. — d. Irrigation Out-
o ••• ••• •••
Previoufl.
•••
mditore on general works np
1863-G4
•••
Total on Works
BTABLISHMlirry GENERAL.
stion ••• ..• •••
•uuive ••• ••• •••
• ••
• ••
Total on Estabmshment
Tools and Plant.
Total on Tools and Plant
•••
•••
•••
•••
lednct fluctuations of suspense
lance : for stock, sales* and
canoes
•••
... Total
3 316
2 487
9 060
248
563
1555
1679
201
18 542
1714
1312
40486
•••
194 341
234827
•••
•••
• . •
56 645
1407
292 879
5158
In 1872-78
.78
29
1017
336
•••
•••
•••
•••
330
948
138
2 877
576
3 453
908
4430
5417
10 755
19
14 228
-572
Total.
78
8345
3504
9 387
248.
563
1555
1679
350
19 490
1714
1450
43364
576
194341
238 281
•••
•••
•••
67400
1426
307107
4586
Total Capital Outlay. £1298 0^7 \\a^^^ \%\\^^^
im
Ruanrial Slatistioi *{f Oanah M Ik Pa^ai.
0«|ntal ncRonot of Uie Uori UtMb Cmna), to tbe «d of 13724
Detoil.
Pmlow
In 1872-71
1
Works-
£
£
a OortiifZanJ.
?333
C. JUuMHy «)rb.~l. Main Canal Mtd
a. Dmiu and reiriilatuia worin ...
ft-FaUaandwefii ...
75 798
155
137242
6675
i
17Wa
;
rf.Eaoapos
15 474
S, Dnun^« worlu.,.
247S
fi.Rondbri(l^u ...
103 601
M
1
6, N»vtg»,tiiiti works
.18t»4a
Z.Milla
1267
-\
S. Boildinea
£2014
S^
t
1. Main Canal and
■W2 7M
S893
4
a. Dminago works ..
7101
'
.*>. Navi^tion ChanneU
8103
J
E. MiteellaneoM
M7M
'«
Total Main Canal and brancbas
5 507
921 -271;
11398
as
Distribnting Channels
n. OoU qf Lnnd
3 567
J
C. Matonry icorkf, d. Head slniecs nnd
regn^ting works
6. Falls and weirs
6 34.3
11194
113
1
«. Aqnei^ncts
141)32
1
rf. Img^ition outlets
6113
815
D. Eartbwork
Total on Works ...
Ebtabubiimekt, Genkr*],.
78 1)0"
2+3
7
I WJS 492
12 569
loi
Direution ...
1761
ExecQtivG
113->4
Medical
Total EsTARLrSHMENT ...
Tools and Plant
51
202 71 r.
13 166
21
40 85:t
70
4
Profit and loss
4477
Total Capital Outlay ...
29 592
"23
■I
1 819 129
25 828
I3J
[35]
^tmaneial SUatistien ofOanaU in the North'West Provinces.
^Bfskal aoconnt of the Eastern Jamna Canal, to the end of 1872-73.
DetdL
Previous.
£
...
103
645
158 737
In 1872-78.
Total,
£
14
686
182
49
590
158 737
Works.
Main Canal.
3£a9onry loorks. Syphon
x^ficuf'e ••• ••• ••• •••
Snildin^s ••• .•• ••• •••
. SUirthworks. Canal banks
I>raiiiage works — sheds ...
Otiier works
£
14
583
182
49
44
• . •
Total Main Canal ...
Distribnting Channels.
The cost of these is not shown, they
were made by the caltivators ...
1. 3fiuonry works
r* .£of^hlffOTK ••• .••. ... ...
MHjaCSmOO ••• ••• •.. ...
Other works ... ... ...
159 385
45
8 936
872
683
120
220
•••
160 257
683
120
265
8 936
Total on Works ...
168 366
1895
170 261
ESTABLISUMENT.
Direction ... ... ...
Execntiye ... ••• ... ...
2 328
26 600
180
250
2 508
26 850
TotAl on Establishment ...
28 928
430
29 358
Tools and Plant
Profit and loss ...
Fl actuations of suspense balance
Less Receipts
621
20
7 000
42
• . .
—1119
—6
663
20
5 881
—6
Net Outlay ...
Add Simple Interest
204 985
243 272
1242
9 310
206177
252 582
Total Capftal Outlay ...
448 207
10 552
458 759
1
1
1 ^
[36]
Financial Stoiittict o/Oanalt in the NvrlK-Wgit Prmtnea.
Capital acouuDt or the Oivnges Canal, to tho end of Wi
DcbiL
WORIB.
Head w«-ka ... ... •
C. Matonrv teorki. Wears ...
Main (^nala aad brauchoa
B. OtMfqfLtaid
C. Matonry woriit. Falls wiij
Bridges
Navigation works ...
Buildings ... ...
D. EarlhiBorJes. Canal em'
&c
F. MiieeUaneou». Loss on I
Escapes ... •••
Drainage worka ...
Other works (f ) ...
TotaJ Main Canal and brancbes .
Distribnting Channels.
Preliminary operations
B. Cost of Land
C. Masonry works
D. EartWorks
Other works (?)
Total on Works .
EsTABtlSeKEHT.
Direction ... ... ... „
Executive
Remodelling
Total on Establishment ..
Tools and Plant
Profit and Loss ... ..•
Unctnations of ejupense-balance..
Leas Keceipts
Net Oim.AY ...
Add Simple Interest
Total Capitu, Octut ...
1557
1077
1850
8H!
11 W
1»
IW
55 0R1
232 302
16 671
10 725
7101
109146
2 576 730
1 941 670
7101
91993
_988B
28 4482eoai
116 660 i2 058;
[37]
meud 8iaiUtic9 rf fke Deltaic Canals of Southern India.
of approximate reeults ttom, remimeratiye works of irrigation^
I and channels^ exdusiye of tanks, in the Madras presidency.
Name of
Anient
Up to end of 1872-78
For year 1872-78.
Percentage of
net profit.
t.
Total
Capital
Oatlay.
Total
GlOflB
Income.
Intereat
k Main-
tenance.
Grow
Prooeeds.
•i ...
Gt>davari
£
544788
£
3 427 377
£
36 023
£
214304
32-7
•••
Kistna... ...
358254
782199
24660
69303
12-5
•••
Pennar
93395
89142
6 200
8954
2-9
>at**.
Fonranicuts ...
12411
32133
743
8846
63-2
lata*.
Palar
21493
23 233
955
5723
.root
Palar
75086
34139
3 718
2648
Ibial
Palar
96579
57 372
4 673
8371
3-8
root
Poini
15420
34987
702
641
loss
Lrcot
Alliabad and
Cheyar
20207
24450
1407
2542
5-5
JPCOt
Vellar and nine
others
52055
395 809
4961
33321
53-8
iroot
Lower Kaleron
12974
1 106 873
2 399
41193
Lower Kalenin
43974
66118
1892
1967
Upper Kalemn
24066
1 757 088
1165
67083
Total
Kalerun
•
81014
2 930 079
5456
110243
128-3
jpoly
Nandiar
7855
9640
406
944
6-8
tor...
Four channels...
22961
24288
3 216
2844
loss
•
•••
Yenamakal * ...
4250
5408
296
141
loss
-The capital oatlay does not indade deduction for wear and
, in some instances, the cost of the distributaries. The interest
cent, on the oatlay np to the beginning of 1872-73.
m
^^^^^1
■
4
m
m
mittutnal Slatuliet for !864-65 ^ tlui ^mImI
ti
i7aZ3
of Maititr.
Rl
DifUMD.
Riren ntiliMd.
t
IM
— 1
■Do.
I.-Maisnr
Kftveri, Laohmantirth, Bhimslw, Nogn
4tU
S«
n.— Hassan
Kareri, Bimavatti, Yegacti,
la
bmndies, Sbimaha
232
51
III.-Kaddur
143
3<
IV.-Naggar
The tribub Tungnbftddra
3«2
.31
Total
1203
37;
I.-Abt M&iBur DivieloD.
Kamc of Anicut
h
1
i
j
Fmm tLs K..Br7.
Milo.
C. fi. p MO.
ic™.
£-
Sriligram
13
40
HKW
1200
Mirlao
■to
151
COtX)
4 545
IE
ClmndmmcatUi ...
24
123
4 920
3690
IS
Tippur
22
83
3 320
2 490
(■Iiikdeomj
75
448
17 820
13*i0
6(
Diivroi
B
78
2 920
2190
VijjianadcJi
35
2-10
8600
7 2(to
3!
<)
90
3600
2 700
llamaHfimi
31
118
4 720
8 540
Do
30
118
4 720
3 540
U
Tnlkad
IS
16S
6120
4 690
li
From the lacLmflntirth.
lliinngod
17
ass
13 400
10 050
1!
Katini Malwadi ...
14
140
6 000
4200
HargaiilitiUi
12
150
GtKX)
4500
Do
17
224 ■
8 960
0 720
Sagnr
20
CholenhaDi
6
!!!
From the Sfcimslifl.
Maddttr
12
56
2 24(1
1080
1
Prom ihc Ndeu.
LMhrnanpara
Total
4
135
5400
4050
J
401
2G77
107100
S0.W5
24<l
AveraBeairtr cobic ft, iHit
Mcond of disc
^-
I
4rt
£30
'
[39]
jumcial StatMes for 1864-65 of the Anicuts and Channels
of Maisur — continued.
U. — ^Abstract for the Hassan Division.
Name of Riyeni.
Nomber of
Anicuts.
Number of
Channels.
Length of
Channels.
Bevenue
realized in
1864-65.
chi ... ...
ivaiti
ch of Yegachi
isha
4
2
8
4
1
Miles.
15i
53
112^
46
5
£.
472
2010
2821
588
19
Total
...
19
232
5910
[. — Abstract for the Kaddor Division, including Chikmaglnr.
Names of Rivers.
Number of
Anicuts.
Nomber of
Channels.
Length of
Channels.
Revenue
Tealized in
1864-65.
iivatti ••• ,,, .,,
1 •«* ... •..
'y* •«. ... ••.
ttmdisamudram
66
1
6
1
75
1
6
• • •
Miles.
120i
H
13i
2
£.
3086
23
340
7
Total
64
82
138-
3456
— Abstract for the Naggar Division, Shemogah and Kaddur.
I>istrict.
River System.
Number of
Anicuts.
LT
^ar ...
idrag
kwali
arpnr
logah
aanalli
ikerrai
itapur
tara
• • •
• • •
{
. . .
. . .
. . .
• . •
1
Sheravatti
Warda
Sheravatti
Tnnga
Baddra
Tonga
Warda
Choardi
Warda
Tunga
Tungabaddra
Baddra
Warda
Choardi
Sheravatti
Biranji
Total
46
22
19
7
15
2
22
8
3
22
3
4
4
4
5
64
Length of
Channels.
]
Miles.
8J
14
4}
17
63
Revenue
realized in
1864-65.
01
8
11
77i
'
2r»0
362
£.
878
75
69
518
406
183
900
22
5
135
600
371)1
m
1
StttuHea ^ Jfrigation from Iha Waten 3amna Qm^. 1 1
,
Aorca«e ImskMd.
-A ■
-• : ll
11
1
1
t
1
i
IGlo.
1872-73 2125
1802
202 370 1
49150
351820
i
46to
ien-72! 2W7
IMS
187 647 2
56 738
444 385
h
70 kr
lero-?!
2067
1797
2issas 9
M172
462 707
ISk
1S69-70
2372
6-2 078
496 542
■sj
Ills
1868-69
2277
1
88 208
486 878
f
SiU
1867-68
1499
1
44150
831 037
1:
3110
186C-G7
1833
...
*■
36 068
447171
.15
«8li>l
1865-66
1615
01692
397 963
It
S7I1
1864-6S
1800
87 291
434 964
:1
1863-64
12&4
...
']
351537
r
The area of doable cro
about 13 per tMnL of tlwM^
acreage.
1
Irri^ting capacity Taried
in 1871.
Mileage of canal open from 18C0 to
30 600 «OT. in 186410 S3I!»I
1873— Main 102
StatMies of Irrigatiim from I
« Eaitem Jamna
Canal.
II
■a
Acn»B. Imgttod.
•51
T«r.
II
1
i
1
'
iiii^
"hita
1872-73
1050
998
79 699 1
04445
184154
625
1M
1871-72
981
95 p.0.
72 40* 1
20 345
192 749
610
lUloB
1870-71
956
98 p.c.
98 112 1
14 603
212 715
608
1869-70
100 p^
119 16S 1
31904
251067
606
1868-69
98 f.c.
102 141 1
71960
274 101
603
1867-68
9^* p.c.
78 606 1
03 938
182 544
596
1866-67
1068
100 p.c.
82138 J
57117
239 555
596
1865-66
80 225
30130
160 355
h^
1864-65
1025
117 770 1
17 770
225 266
602
1863-64
932
71 129 1
10 202
181 331
602
1862-63
1043
184232
602
. — ^1
Irrigating capacity, 1858 to 1873—250 000 acres.
Mileage of main canal, 1862 to I»r3— 130 miles.
[41]
SMutiei qf Irri^aHon from the Bart Doab Ckmal.
3
2
1
0
S
7
S
5
4
2
^t
0
OQ
1838
2073
2201
1948
1899
1532
1688
1431
1228
1340
1450
1387
II
0. ftpLMC
1208
1950
2069
1578
1649
1193
•••
•••
Acreage Inigaied.
96 718
76412
88 643
115 524
85 519
106043
92 699
91378
66370
64195
59476
I
132 078
210 658
190 567
118403
214315
156 085
135 753
84 602
126 313
70167
66540
S
228 796
287079
279 210
233 927
299 834
262 128
228 452
175 980
192 683
134362
126016
134362
MUet.
716
712
710
710
706
696
671
623
581
554
409
area of double cropped land from 1870 to 1873 was 8 per
f the whole acreage.
Lge of canal, from 1860 to 1873. Main, 140 miles ; branches,
!8.
StaiuticM of Irrigation from the Ganges Canah
3
2
1
01
9
8
7
6
5
4
0.*
0
0. a
00 "5
C.ft.|».
4787
4191
4300
5100
4946
3952
3940
4314
4026
4028
4850
o. ft. p.
4221
76 p.c.
89 p.c.
90 p.c.
94 p.c.
86 p,a
89 p.c.
•••
•••
•••
Acreage Irrigated.
247191
232 688
266 683
341846
344 267
185 137
181 658
176 544
161 835
97 538
90 693
i
437979
373 867
499 931
438 560
734132
348 319
453076
396 585
404682
352 250
114 912
685
606
766
780
1078
533
634
573
566
449
205
170
555
MUes
3228
3078
6143071
406
399
456
734
129
517
788
605
•«8
3069
3112
3040
3089
2777
2440
2337
2266
Inches.
33
36
38
28
16
46
26
.ge of canal, 1862 to 1873. Main, 519 miles ; branches, from
1866, 127 miles ; 1867 to 1873, 135 mUes.
kting capacity, 1 205 000 acres, during the above period.
m.
ii>-
fir ie!%-n.
■iJJBniSal
1
J
Wnn
lu taa
. CX.U1.
Bu( DouOuu. ]
1
fi
If
n
1
April
2359
Cab. fL
231
Cab.lt.
8125
1878.
^iril ..,
CbKfL
8198
1060
im
May ..
2S83
»*
1968
lUj ...
220B
low
lui
Jane ...
UK
288
2156
J«. ...
2146
MM
IM
'j,„, ..
2310
225
2090
W, ...
1776
850
9H
* August ..
■-■142
si;2
15^0 August ...
\7'X>
708
102!
1 Si'iiU-mliiT
10.2.1
143
1477 Sejitember
UWO
501
142.
Average
22»4
335
16!>1' Average
201S
798
124
nMi.
RabU.
I-7J.
, (VtuU-r ..
2413
313
1^72.
•20C0 a-tober ...
2202
?S9
121!
Sovember
254.>
374
2106 November
209.J 1
915
118(
Decomber
IMl
3D0
1»4S December
1640 1
471
116!
i^^rs.
1242
341
' 1873.
inn Jaunaiy ...
i
7*t2
217
5Ci
Fi l-ruarr ,
1S72
241*
102a FebTMPy ..
gsu
49
1*31
-Maivh .,
2i.<4
l:.2
Il';i2 Mareh ...
2S42
125
22 r
1 A\ orai^'
201,-.
311
K'^ A\-eT»gr
IC.57
401
1191
2i;.-.
3(3
ii...» Avcraee 1
ISS? '
I-.20
l-2a
[43]
vimafe Acreage of the Irrigated Crops of the Western Jamna Canal
in 1872-73.
Kharip.
1.
Plow.
t2.
42 034
Lift.
Total.
unkDown
1260
Kt3.
r
»•• •••
x>
ants-
Ik
44 281
90 210
••• •••
tan eons
tables
al
m4.
• •• • ••
••• . • •
■ • • . • •
w^a •••
• • • • • •
■• • •• •
•• • • • •
ne •••
•■ • • • •
ilanooas
bal
Its 5.
w • . .
Kharif
6 317
!..,
96 646
unknown
unknown
43 294
43143
391 44 672
5 919
172
unknown
96129
305
170
unknown
15
25
114
6 489
unknown
Cbops.
Babbi.
Flow.
6 261
102 907
4021
41
312
698
2
237
404
4
74
56
28
unknown
6 880
189 8^10
182
2
35
195
•' •
68
6 1
• • •
3
85
2 1
unknown
4 203
43
347
893
2
305
410
4
"17
141
30
unknown
4 617 11 497
4 069
12 530
4 069
202 370
Class 1.
Total
Class 2.
Total ...
Class ^.
Wheat
Barley
v/a vS • • • ...
Toria
Tobacco
Poppy
Coriander ...
Metbi
Other grains
Miscellaneoos
Total
Class 4
Masnr...
Chena...
Cham...
Javi
Lucerne
Grass
Miscellaneous
1001
Lift.
unknown
236
unknown
3 700
84
3
... • • .
16
691
282
19
467
346
5
479
23
848
115 098
1786
Total
unknown.
1237
iinknown
8 908
320
«■•
61
755
1
384
• • •
338
unknown
5 486
93 599
3 602
19
528
1101
6
863
23
17186
10105
•••
Total
Class 5.
Gram ...
Fallow
Floodings •••
Total Rabbi
Kharif
Grand total .
1520
45
1831
210
111
16
244
7 704
120 044
189 840
309 884
159
51
10
20
61
•• •
unknown
17 280
125 202
1679
96
193
230
172
16
unknown
17 524
92
2 231
10 485
29 406
12 530
41936
7 796
2 231
10485
149 450
202 370
351 820
— The total* of classea are correct; the detailed acreages are evidently incorrectly
claaufied in scYeral instances, the crops under Clnssea 2 and 5 being dissemiflaled.
1
i
■
■
■
■
B
m.^^
i
\^^.
w
1
Jtn^ ^ am Inif^^i Onft cf tl, Ecltr, J«.m<, Cn^ i, !«»;
ca«»
.^
•~ i
CkM.
VWw.
lib.
TgtaL
H<r».
UlL «
Gaidn }
2
>
1006
242
1248
1279
"i 1
S<w»x»...
1
2s'i
27*426
Bin
4
S7<
37 751
llai>i
4
3b
2 576
Mudn ~
4
«
30
Suwsk „.
9
9
4
Jo<»«r
9
179
J
Cl««
4
35
s
Wk«it
S
„
70814
0U>
S
„
...
883
18 580 H
am»
s
.«
2 379
S6
B.ri.T
3
.«
„
2G4S
6S1 i
Urd J
4
38
7
35
5S1 t
i
UcKli
4
3
2
5
Umr
3
1274
£
PBrn.
3
2146
14B ]
AHm
3
...
2
560 ]
1
•l,«™
2
2
US
24
"ies
117
Dtunera
2
S
"u
;;;
"u
16
27
i
Cl»m
2
"215
"24
"239
...
Cottoo
3
J 936
896
6832
i
Smi
4
3
...
3
1
I-digo [
3
4
19«3
239
2202
2
41
1
Tobuco j
2
2
'"92
"40
132
20
...
Opion .,
2
2
1
liannl
3
51
UiuUnl ..
3
...
"1
2
"m
'"m
1456
161
W«te f
IlTig.ti01. t
Totida ..
4
659
"so
749
4
...
...
434
43
72 758
6 941
79 699
83 520
Z0 935 10
83 520
20 935
104 455
(
toudToM ..
156 278
87 876
184154
[45]
^ ike Irrigatei Oropt of the Ban Dodb Oanai in 1872-78.
n>
Kauiv.
0BOT8.
Taw.
UA.
TotaL
Flow.
lafk.
Total.
• 1.
w •••
••• •••
8688
225
28829
470
6
264
9158
231
29 093
Sugar-cane...
Clou 2.
Gardens •••
Rice •
Total ...
OrcbarcU ...
Wheat
Barley
Linseed
Sam ••• •••
Safflower •••
Poppies
Tobacco ...
Tokhmbalaiiga
MiBcellaneoiis
Total ...
QnnxcL ••• •••
Masnr... •••
Sinii ... ' ...
Fallow
Miscellaneous
Total ...
Total Babbi .
11
117
7
1
7
• ••
12
124
7
Wal...
29054
270
29 824
124
7
131
mZ.
••• •••
Qm •••
780
24879
169
461
1314
76
2 658
9
25
467
856
27 537
178
486
1771
820
84866
4 291
22
731
•.•
475
56
t*.
415
53
14 751
164
3
226
...
58
13
262
873
99417
4455
25
967
...
533
69
t*.
677
•otal...
27 604
3225
30 829
«*^
9158
1434
7 762
5800
1049
«
1841
424
791
182
14
10499
1858
8 553
5 432
1063
••• •••
91476
15 530
107006
••• •••
laneoTiB
••• •••
7 370
174
14182
768
1578
78
1
686
17
72
7448
175
14868
785
1651
*OtBl •••
24 705
2 702
27407
Ehsrif.
BabU .
90051
115 683
6 667
16 394
96 718
132 077
24072
855
24927
flUkl mm^
205 735
23061
228 796
115 683
16 394
132*077
f.
I*
■
BI
1
■
Acreage of lie Irh^ateil Or^g of lie Oamfct Omai
in lers-i
J
Ouri.
Kiuur.
-]
ClHi
Flow.
Ufi.
Tool
Flow.
UB.
5
Qvden prtv
Ja
dtuw ...
3
752
4 95(
2 974
i7ign
Sngu^owie ...
1
S71
68 397
IC
'
1
TVhoat
3
11
29
I fig 392
73 Si^
i
Harlpy
3
2G
85
77 on
75 690
18
Oats
3
80
S
1
Rice
2
S81
26 762
12*
157
MaiM
4
!24
578
1
Jowar
3,4
80
1015
i
Chena
3,4
822
434
'40
a
1
Mama
4
roc
1827
1
3.4
TO7
3150
. 1 701
5SS
1
'Gram
3
15
3
18
13 32(i
3 872
i;
^
Peas
3
4 938
176"
1
1
Arlmr
4
37
&
Hasnr
3
38
"'l5
MiswlIaneouB [3. 4
""ll
'" 1
"is
1728
67
1
1
Cham ...! 4.
124
2
12G
Lnoemo ...3,4
8?
25
112
75
15
s.
MiscollanooDB 3,4
17
1
18
1477
67
I
CoOou ... 3
6 722
1239
7 9C1
1
San 4
199
GO
259
Flax 1 3
114
18
"•
UiHiellaneotia
3,4
'778
"ll
"769
146
10
1
Indigo
3
97 267
31513
128 780
1
MiHcellaneouB
3,4
586
16
602
18
"■3
1
Opium
2
10
21
31
2 094
4 636
a-
TobaCM ...
2
76
78
154
41
77
1'
UiscoUoneons
3,4
...
134
1G2
Oilseeda ...
3,4
...
141
2
WatcrnntB ...
2
"" 3
3
...
WsMo in-iga-
tion
, Totals ...
4
648
495
1143
141
132
191948
55 243247191
275 054
162 92s
s
2?5 054
162 925J437979
G
nmd Total ...'
167 002
218 108685 170
[47]
Brief Accounts of Indian Canals.
The 'Western Jamna Canal is the oldest of the perennial canals
iC l^ortliem India, the most fallj developed as regards its powers of
■si^^tioii, and the most remunerative. It has, however, been carried
m ill a most desultory manner, and even now is not complete. In
K821, the capital expended on it was £14 216, and from that time
feo 1833 the progress was next to nothing; in 1835, the capital
■Mooant was i^3 168 ; but in 1836, £62 225 were spent, raising it to
jClOO 000 ; from that time to 184!6 next to nothing was spent, the
'Moocmnt at that date being only £119 405, according to the returns
^brmerlj given. The present capital account, given in the accom-
statistics, gives different figures, owing to an entirely new
; but the same rate of carrying on the works is clearly
. jBhistrated by them. In 1853-54, this canal had arrived at a very good
of development, after more than thirty years had been passed
spending £175 000 on works. Up to 1872-73, the capital account
£311 693, but even yet the canal has no permanent headworks,
and the drainage works necessary for the healthy control of the
irrigation can only be said to be commenced; and half a century
. Ins elapsed since the British first took the matter in hand.
The canal is of Musalman origin, having been projected and
earned out on a small scale under the Mughal emperors. Its head is
at Tajawalla, on the west bank of the Jamna, 13 miles above Dadu-
pur ; the supply being conducted from the head along an old brand)
of the Jamna to Bhilpur, thence by an artificial cut into the Pattrala
HQ torrent, and then along the latter, down to a junction with the
Sombe torrent near Dadupur, where a dam and regulating head for
the supply of the actual main canal are sitiiatcd. After 102 miles of
main canal, it divides itself at Rer, into two main branches, the Delhi
branch, 75 miles long, tailing into the Jamna near Delhi, and having
distributaries aggregating 100 miles in length, and the Hansi branch,
which is 108 miles long to Mingnikhora, and has 141 miles of distri-
bataries, in addition to its sub-branches. At the Joshi regulator, in
^0 11th mile of the Hansi branch, is the head of a sub- branch, which
'OSes itself in the sandy desert near Rohtak after a course of 4<3 miles.
^^ the 13th mile of the Hansi branch, is the head of thc.Butana
I
f
[481
rab-hmxA, 18 ttUea long, down to iU 1rirtireati(»i into two
ona 11 tlie otiur € nule« long.
At HinginUiwa, tiie 108th mile of llie inatn oanal, is &b bad
tlw Bdudim aab-braucb, 32 miles long, and of the Darin sDb-bw^i
which !■ 18 mileB locf^ down to its bifurcatioti »t Ranuii^, nbcoci
it beoomn two otaiinola, cacb 10 miles long.
In addition to the various bnncLes and distritratanes, there m
CMCifW floti from the main canal amounting to 55 mUri in leogtli, ut
61 milas of MOqvea, cuts, and drainage linee &-om liie Delhi Inn^
It is klao prapoacd to make a new branch from the 5?th miUd ll»
Buin iran^ to B&owani.
Am rvgKtiM thfl width of tJie canal, the main lin« varies fmm SCO U
120 feet, Nid tha brauchca from 100 to 1 0 ; the depth is variable, &t
fbll mpplj deptti at Dadapnr being 4-3 feet, and the lowest my^J
about half of thnt,~thc velocitir at Tajawalla is about 17, ttcd M
Dadi^nr with fbll snppljr 4'14 fe«t per second.
The tract imgntcd is 120 miles by 10.
In 1837-38, a year of famine, the acreage irrigated was 306000, th)
prodnoe saved being valaed at £1 4/62 BOO ; and the eetamated rabt
of the irrigated crops on 351 820 acres in 1872-73, being £2 021 BIL
In 1846-47, 351 501, or (3G0 902 P) acrea were actnallj watered, sad
the following works were completed ; main canal 445 miles, exchidiiig
diatribatariea ; bridges of viuioua soria, 240 ; main hesdworka, I ; stop
damB, 12 ; aqoediLcts, 2 i weira and falls, 0 ; eacapes,4; lookB,2; iirigft-
tion ontleta, 672 ; inlets, 3(! ; station houses, 68 ; besides depdts.milU,
and workshops. The gross returns in 1846 amoonted to 55 per ceni
on 'die capital. The irrigating power of water on this canal is higher
than that of any canal in India, having sometimes reached nearij
300 acres per onbic foot per second of sapply otiliEed.
While the Western Jamna canal yields the most favonnblo resohs
as ragards its powers of irrigation, this appears rather to be due to
natural condidons than to skilfdl management. In 1819-20, before
British reoon struct ion, the tract irrigated, 992 square miles, yiedded
£200655 in water tate, while in 1850-51, the tract irrigated WM
1015 sqnare miles, yielding £242 177 in water rat« ; tita iimiiaai cf
land revenue in each case amonn^g to £41 521, and t^ advaatsgd
due to British militaiy management over a qoarisr.of a oentaiT
appearing very small in this particalar.
The capital account of this canal was altered in flie year 1863-6^
by debiting it from 1%% wV^ a a\iBXft ol vxytnutK Cm ««taJbHshmait
and ooatingenoiea, thoa cbangms fti" ra«a ^i™^ S-^W^ ***^ ■» «»».'«»
[45]
', 181)4: — tborc is also some doubt about the establlahment
laether tliey shonld be 10 or 13 per cent, on the cost of
ng the whole of that period.
-65 the average monthly discharge for the year waa
feet per aecond ; in the Kharif season, 1791 ; and in the
on, irrr cnWc feet per second.
the valne of the irrigated crops being fifty times the water
I was resolved to increaae the water rat«s, and this was
1867-68;— in this latter year the ralnEall was exeep-
'ourable to the cnltivator, the result being that only two-
breadth of wheat of the preceding year was irrigated ; bat
a increase of irrigation of 7436 acres of sugar-cane, the
np.
« of the principal irrigated crops o
Ibllows :
n this can
18(10-81. isfii-aa.
1862-«3.
S annual... 2'3 102 33 782
44 730
■) ( 4496.5 58 578
5 ^'^^^ [ 43 706 33 558
67 925
25 549
>bi 181208 148 317
111 129
145 234
lS8*-aS. I8«(Kafl. 1888-67. ISBT-HS.
•.annual... 29 786 34028 19 773 27 209
57157 51517 62 071 39 455
62 684 104 796 98800
1477 1805 1315
(j 57 157 51 5
kharif } 77 738 62 6
( 1 131 14
bbi ...
163159 126 293 150 233 100 937
Col. Crofton proposed, with an estimate of £214 267, to
head, to complete the drainage workt< and the dia-
Indri to Dellii and Jhind ; it had huuever been dis-
1867, that the swamps near Kamal and on the Delhi and
les were absolutely necessary ; — the former having existed
in consequence of the canal froni Barin to Kanial con-
Ipally of natural channels.
it state of this canal as regards works, financial condi-
Pigation, is shown in tlie tabular statistics.
n* Bmdm /bmm OuuJ is goaenkllj- 1
Vte WmI«ri Junna CanAl ; — it wss oonfllractvd in about (]
tima imI tlw mb* maBner, boiiig mi cM, rally dovetniina, *
■wmummnHxt pamotftl emul: il« coat was aboat tiro-tliir^ 4
■nngv ttTic«i»d «m«g« kbovt one-balf of that of the 1all«r. I
lAu ■ iiliBBliuu and ralM^gvawnt of on old natiTe work, cona|
I7 Um BritU m 1823.
TIm Ihwiarw Junna ' ' *~' — ■ its eapplj from the Jan
Khanmh, aad pafiirn it d bvd of (he Jamna for foorg
tn Nrnjaalnlir, wlwra is l iag Jsm i«-itli 30 sloicea anl'
«r tlia main canal. Ir ten ntilcs il< crosses the mo*
drttiiMg«at right angles. ns at each of the ttiiTeDt«,Bi>2
CDOtinaca oa Uie liigti li ottutry. on the watershed bd
the HimiaB and the Ji canal is in emfaankmeat t
miles, its water level 6 to 12 feet above the Icrd^
ctnmtrj. The naal a^ ndsts of 130 miles of cfauiBi
625 of distribalariea. wi net !20 miles by 15.
To 1830, water was admitted throngh its main canal, ^tersne
ditnreoD works of £3L 124; in 1837, the capital account had iov
to £46 000, and in that yev, which was one of famine, it 71
£10084 in water rate, and about the same amount in incteased
rerenne, or in all aboat ^20 000 or 44 per cent.; the acreage thai
only 96 000 ; the valae of crops eared hy irrigation was £488 41
eleven times the cost of the canal. In 1846-47, the captlal so
was £31 460, and the acreage was 106 705, yielding £12 175 U
rate, and £149((5 as increased land revenae, or as gross retnrUi
cent, on the capital. The works completed up to that time w
follows: — Channels main. and branch, 465 miles; irrigation a
136; dams, 11 ; drainage ontlets, 1 ; aquedncts, 7 ; bridges, 71;
and escapes, 26 ; lalb, 14; mills, 12; workshops and staticHl b
As to the amount of irrigation effected by this canal in its 1
Btagosofdevelopement, comparatively little is known; in 1832-4
tract irrigated was 276 square miles, yielding £248 177 in wate
aud £136 742 increased land in revenue ; while in 1850-51, tli
gated tract was 497 square miles, yielding £384 919 in water ral
the same amoant of increased land revenue as in 1832. A p
of the canal was remodelled in 1854, and new escapes were
which have since formed injurious swamps: In &ot, even ti p
the necessary drainage wotks can hardly be said to have been
[51 j
TrotolSe year 18(53-64 the wator rates were ealmuced,
! to distribntariefl carried ont by Government, and
k niniiitonance ; certain improvemeats were also eiFccted by
arks. At this period, a largo amount of water was nsually
Vitract, 288 villages taking it in that manner.
I of the principal irrigated crops grown, of which the
by, and indigo form the greatest portioQ of tho Eahbi, op
r crop, was as follows for four years: —
K
1884 -fl6.
1865-68.
1888-87.
1887-68.
■.one, unisl
28 530
23031
20 817
2G987
W -Ui, -,!
23O20
33 091
37122
41345
I» ..j"'""'!
14 405
2 887
5 080
2G4G
b»t and barley...
73490
74327
139 267
96 489
iri-72, the gresB retnma amonntfid to nearly 80 per cent. <
itftJ. The data of the works, the finance, and the irrigation f
reus will be found in the tabnlar statistics,
Gange» Canal, commenced in 1843, and opened in 1854, ia tho
f the large perennial canals of Northern India, made by the
. It may ho considered at present to bo like tho Bari Doab, a
reloped eaual, in contradistinction to tho Eastom and Western
canals, wliich have their irrigation fully developed. As it
o be the fate of so many Indian canals to be allowed to remain
rtially developed condition for a long time, their result* when
stage are natnrally interesting, although they do not admit of
imparison with those of completed canals.
principal head of the Granges canal ia about 2^ miles above the
tonn of pilgrimage, Hardwar, or Handwar. In the first IS
r its coarse tho canal passes the Ratmu, the Ranipnr and the
orrenta, the former torrent passing through at the same level,
! two latter in masonry snperpassagea over the canal. At the
le, above Rurkhi, the canal crosses the Solani river in a masonry
ct; tbe embankments of approach are about 30 feet above the
and are 3 miles long ; the aqaednct itself is 920 feet long, in
trches of 50 feet span, and 30 feet in height. From this point
s the main canal nearly follows the watershed between the
and the Jamna for abont 181 miles to Nanun, throwing otT
'sand cuts for irrigation and navigation. From Nanan the
branch, 170 miles long, continues to Etawah, where it falls into
npa, and the western branch of the same length contiuuea (
,[S2]
Khanpor, where it fulls into the OuigM. There are also t*o
bmnchos, 83 nod 10 milos Iod^ respectively. This cuijd u
eito 1 it ciimi'd a enppiy of 5100 onbio foet per socond in IS/Ov
uliliii'd 'M prr cent, of it ; benides this it hue nn irrigating aipKii
1 M."- OOO nrnw. As to dimensions, the first foar miles from li
arc in nntumi riiAtinul, a hraiieh of the OivDgcs. From M&yapM,»l
the artifiritd cmuvI bt'ginB. and for a dislauee of 50 mile!), Ilio «uil
a constant bottom widlh of 140 feet, a depth of 10 feet. Mid aJ.^1
bed of I'S feet per mile. From the 50lh mite where the F»»
hmneh tukna. off, down to h mile, where the GulMiibUk
hmiK'h Uku off, the boUocn la 130 feet, and the detitfa 9
from tliu ofllake of the Bu r branefa to that of tlie propMi
Koel branch, the bottnm « IIO feet, and the depth B I
thence to Xanan the depth be same, I>ut the bottum bra
rariea from 1)6 to 80 feci Utahgarli branch is nt pn
83 miles long, the Boland ch -54 miles long ; the KW^
and Elawah bmuehcs are t in bottom width at their heal
diminishing gradually to Si leir lower extremities.
Of the details of the works asi originnlly contemplateil, tliere
UBpIe giv-cu in the large work of Colonel Sir Probj Cantley. ihei
ngner and coostmctor of this canal, of whose enei^, patieDce,u)i
perseverance, it ia impossible to speak too highly, when reflecting
the diffieultien. both political as well as other, that he had to encoanUr
In spite, however, of tlie lar^ amonnt of money and energy
upon tliis canal, it is a pnrticulnrly nnfortoiiate one. Its vrorki n«
once stopped for some time, owing to the caprice of a GoranM
Oeuenil, who wished it to be made into n purely navigation anal;!
vas defective in several important respects, the inclination allowed t^
its bed was far too high, its bol rvtrogresscd and its (alls were dsmage^
BO lliat it could not carry its fall supply nntil about l$t>6, nhena Ui^
additional outlay had been made. Id fact, the whole of the cunti
main and branches, had to be remodelled throughout ; and the distn^
butaries had been so badly laid oat, that hnudreds of miles of tho
kave been abandoned at varioae times. The remodelling of lie CM*
commenced in IStH, is now going on ; and it is to be hoped tbst il
will eventnally carry the full supply originally intended, withont ift
creasing the capital account , now £2 605 1 78 to mach beyond^} cool
While 4700 cubic feet per second ia the higbeet Mnoont <^ n>ivly
ntiliced on this canal, it la probable that eventoaUy it may riae aa I
as 5500, the supply for which it was originally deaigned and iiiteb<
being 6750 (or 70O0F) ntlnc feet per aecond ; ahoaH it,
nodelliog, arrive at that irrigating power, it will tLeu lia\
t the eupjily of tbe Eastern Janina cana,!, at a cost <
B times as much tlint of the latter.
e of the principal crops irrigated dnring four j-eara w.i
[S3]
ISRt 35.
1385-60,
1S8B-67.
1887-88.
De, annual
.50 l.W
58 416
46 338
55 232
kharif J
22 46U
23131
30 539
30 36B
42 026
10 406
19 094
5 616
35166
47 714
70 48?
76 684
nd barley
338 971
362 679
400 444
319 715
ththirds of the ii-rigation effected by this canal is fiusli, or
t the grouiid surface, the remainder is delivered at a low
■ater being raised to the surface bj native meclianical
In order to catry ont tbe irrigation of tbe whole of the
)&, it is proposed to make a secondary headworka at Rnj-
Qangee, and to supplement the Ganges i-anal by new works,
jower Gauges canal, estimated to cost £1 82^ 000 in addi-
irorks were commenced In 1872, and £54 43'J spent in
: daring that year.
, the expenditure on works, the retoms, and the irrigation
lal daring late years, are given in the tabular statistics.
J)oab Canal, iVom the Ravi in the Panjab, is the funrth of
rennial canals uf Northeru India.
if-developed canal, undergoing a proceHs of remodelling,
siniilar to tbe Ganges canal. It was commenced in
m origiiuil estimate of JJSSOOOO, and tbe gnjati:r portion
canal and works are now finished ; as no account of the
ia forthcoming, it will be best to describe the pro-
itnplated,
ia taken olT from the left bank of the Ravi near Madho-
L length of 28 miles throws out the Kasnr branch at
^h mile of the Kosur branch, the Subraon branch takes
(O branches will be 90 and 0? miles long respectively, the
; into tbe Easur nulla at Aljowan, tbe latter into the
at Subraon. The portion of the main canal from the
Kasnr branch to that of the Labor branch, which is situ-
ftSnd mile near AHwal. is deeignated the Upper main
■ 24 miles long. The remaining portion of the canal,
1 of the Labor bi-uncli lo the Vahn escaptr, into which the
tH]
o&nal ta^ W the Iiower main bntncb, !» 88 nulea long,
town of Aturilsftr, tind ilisclmrgcs itaclf through tbe Vabn oof*
tlic Uavi. The Laiior branch from Alitrnl puses l«bor, aiul tultl
ttiu tUvi at Niaxbeg, 1) miles Movt Ijihur: its leitgth is wi)l nikft
The section of each branch is oa follows ; —
BnaJ^Bthckd. DnudlhUtall.
112 120 112
20
Bntl4>m. HcM. Hifhafc t
3-3
Main ling
Uppor tnain br«ncti ...
Lower main braucb •>.
I^hor l>ranch
Upper Kasor brancli...
Jjovror KaEur brancli...
Snbrkoti bmncli
Tiiu higbcBt deptUs I
cubic fret per second, U
onOdU: tkvnitMui widt
Tbu ni<:ui vclouiljr, wi
per second, nud thnt with &u averogo at-pth of 4 2 feet at the canal
is 4 f<<rt per second.
Tbo (iiuml IB capable of irrigating G54 OCI acres with ful] eupplj
■ duty of "JIS acnis jk-t cubic feel per eecood.
The distribuluries Juid OBCapes are as follows : —
K) with the fall aapply of
wiUi the lowest recurdedsi^
) wetted section at fall anpp^
pljr dej'th of iO feet, ii £3 k.
Pron
Main line
Kuiober «t ToUl
15 93
Alalibpar ..
Upper main bnuiob
10
75
Gulpur ..
!»
Lower main branch
16
25fi
Sirkian ..
6
Uhor branch ...
..
23
291
Aliwal ..
11
Kasnr branch ,.,
SubraoJi bmnch
}
r VaJm
t Naizbeg ..
IC
In the neighbonrhood of Pathanlcot, there are two hill torrenU. tb
Jennnh and the Cliakki, which with their brunches cross the liM i'
the canal, and had to be diverted.
In IHi'itl it was found that the cost of the canal wonid notbelfi*
than Xl 3.>0iiW">, niid work was therefore conceulraU>d on the finl
55 niiles down to the Labor branch. la 1859 water was admitted
and it waa then found that, as in the cose of the Oaoges canal, Qt
declivity of bod allowed was too great, the consequence bdng ezlCB
Kive chnuucUing out in tbe sondj tracts and deep holes below tb
^kjh; it was also discoYered that tlic niiiiimiini snpply of lie Ravi,
lated to be 12753, was actually only 1 111 cubic feet })cr second,
less than the works were designed to carry.
In 18G0, a native canal, the Hasli, yielding £84 985 by direct
B, and £80 3S7 by enhanced land tax, was incorporated in the
t of the Bari Doab canal, which then yielded nothing.
1870, or eleven years after the above-mentioned discovery, the
lling of the canal was commenced, and the Kasnr and Subraon
proceeded with, bnt as an additional supply from the Beas
wed fresli works, the estimate of the canal and branches rose to
OOOOOO. Progress in the remodelling was going on in 1872-73,
the headworks at Madhopur were nearly completed. At present
aggregate length of main canal completed is 212 ont of 247 miles,
of distribntaries, 692 miles. In spite therefore of everything to
Bb contrary, the irrigation from this canal in 1872 brought in a gross
■Ann of J^l 876, or a net return of £50 216, or nearly 4 per cent, on
mioapital.
•" THie acreage of the principal irrigated crops grown during four
was as follows : —
1864-65.
9 878
29 212
3 881
97 722
1865-66.
9181
53 564
5 236
69 827
1866-67.
9 156
57 615
12 511
108 707
1867-68.
10 600
63 691
21 101
122 720
Sngar-cane, annual
Rice \ f
Cotton .../''^'''"M
Cereals, rabbi
The estimated value of tho irrigated crops grown is as follows, for
fe^veral years : —
In 1860-61, £256 024; in 1861-62, £307 238; in 1862-63,
ei92 668 ; in 1863-64, £241 969 ; and in 1872-73, £913,706.
Details of the works, the finance, and the irrigation from this canal
tee given in the tabular statistics.
The Minor Canals of the North-West Frovinces.
The Dun Canals consist of five perennial canals of an aggregate
length of (^ miles in the Dera Dun, a valley of the Sawalikh, or lower
Himalayas, north-west of Hardwar : — they consist of —
Miles
long.
Dincharge
in 1872.73.
Supply
utilized.
Opened
in
Aci'eage
in 1872-73.
The Bejapur
11
C. ft. p. 80C.
39
C.ft.p.80C.
30
1840
Acres.
5432
The Rajpur
12
11
9
1843
2736
Tho Kuttapatthar
19
33
17
1854
28
The Kattanga ...
13
25
15
1859
20
The Jakhan
12
15
9
1863
11
'I'l.o :un asre of irrigated laud was not fnllj meadiired nntil 1S67.
The distrihutarit's have an aggregate length of 67 miles. Ail
time the eapital outlay amounted to £54 365; the direct and ii
returns for that year were i^351S and £475, of which £1862
rent, while the working expenses were £2514; in 1872-7SOi0i
expended was £57 253, the direct and indiieet refcanui ftr At^
£1791, of which £2390 was mill rent, and £475, aqi Qm
expenses, £2504; the acreage irrigated in each of ihaM JMI-
thus :—
Khtrif. BslM. fM.
1H67-68 4334 7654 11986
1872-73 5217 8785 14001
The water rates were rednoed in 1871, thus OMuing a
loss ; but in the future these canals will, after the
in progress are effected, yield higher letama.
The Eohilkand and Bijnaur Csiielff.— These oonsiaiof a:
ancient badly-designed lines, which are worked at a loss rt
though after remodelling may yjeld veiy good reenit: — ^they an
The Baigml group ••. ••, 106 milei.
The Elitcha Dhora group ••• S2 ^ .
The Paha „ .„ *« „
The Eailas
The
The
The capital outlay up to 1872-73 was £103 600; the direct, indiredi
revenue and working expenses for the year £3438, £2261, and£olS
respwtively ; the acreage, Kharif 21 204; Rabbi 344i6; Totid oSfiW
acres. The length of distributaries was increased from 180 miles ib
18G7-0S to 294 miles in 1872-73.
The Sarhind Canal ^ from the Satlaj in the Panjab, is a perenniil
canal now under construction. It was originally projected by Sr
William Baker, in 1840, the detailed project was submitted bf
Colonel Croflon, in 1802, and estimates for the works to the valae o(
£2 980 427 were sanctioned early in 1872.
The headworks are at Rupar, a town at the foot of the hills. At
the 3Sth mile (these are canal miles of 5000 feet) the main csnal
en.)sses the Grand Trunk Road, and the railway from Ludhiana to
Ainhala. At the 41st mile the main canal ends, and the feeder line
and the combined British branches take off. The length of the com-
biucd British branches is te be 3 miles, after which they will divide
Nchtor J * f
• ••
13
88
n
n
\ Cbobar branch, 125 miles long, and tlie Bbatimla branch J
I long; the former of tUese will be navigable up to its SIflt I
mce the Satlaj navigation channel will take off and after & '
5 milea tail into the Satlaj. The feeder line, which i
a of the main line, will be divided into three sectionB by
I of the Kotia, Oaggar, and Choa branches of the canal,
i; to native states, which take off on the right side of the line ;
ingths of the three sections of the feeder line being 14, 16, and
i]ce reppectively, while that of the three branches are to be iX), Sfi,
2ii miles. The end of the feeder line is to be the point of
itiott of the heads of the Choa branch and the Putiala navigatioi
ich. The latter will be 6 miles long, and will tail into the Patialf
■h ncnr Patiato. The Choa branch will 'for the present tail into
Gafrgar river, although it was proposed to connect it with the
Rtem Jamna canal bj a navigation cut 55 miles long, joining it
ndri.
"his canal Iwing partly for the beneSt of native territory, one-tliird
its cost will be borne by tliree native states.
Jp to the end of 1870-71, the capital account amounted to £185 667, '
irliich half was expended in works; to the end of 1871—72, |
5 leo, of which £17G 260 was on works ; to the end of 1872-73, •
1 315, of which £425 078 was expended in works, independently of
bliehment 1 of the latter sum, £240 613 was expended on about
million cubic feel of earthwork, and £107 010 on bead and regn*
ig works,
bis canal with its branches will be G54 miles long, and will irri-
783 000 acres in a most neglected tract of country.
(a jtgra Canal is like the Sarhind canal, a perennial canal under
truction ; it will irrigate a tract on the right bank of the Jamna,
reen it and the Khari Naddi, from below Delhi to the Utangaa I
r below Agra. I
be total length of main canal is to be 140 miles, its bottom widtt) 9
le head, 70 feet ; its supply will be 1100 cabic feet per second in .
Rabbi season, and 2000 cubic feet per second in the Kharif '
un, requiring respective depths of 7 and 10 feet. The irrigable ]
is about 1:200 eqoare miles, of which abont one-tenth is uncaU
ble waste, and one-fitlh is irrigated from wells. ,
lie supply of the Jarona at Okhia having lately been found to fall J
sionally below SOO cubic feet per second, in May 1870 having been J
472ttud in January 1871 only 76t> cubic feet per second, tho supply J
[58]
of the Hindi icli is c&\ able of giving 300 cubic feet, will
used in supple mcutiiig the cnual, giving nltcgether 800 cubic fe«t u^
ccrtnio miniinum supply, according to which tlio depths needfnl
savigatiou tLre detormiiiod.
The fall of the canal from the bead to the .S2nd mile is 5 fist per
mile; at thie point is an overfall of 5'7i'i feet, and beyond that to tin
Btith mile, the gradient is 1"0 per mile j after which it vari
•33 to 1-00 feet per mile ; below tiie ll7tb mile it becomos a tdntpla
distributary.
" are as follows; —
The diachargsB
nd Telooitie
Mileage.
BiJOl.
Uead to Si ..
70"
70 to 80 .,
80 to SSg ..
«$B to 95| .,
85g to 100 ..
24-2
70
'elocitiei.
Diiehujti.
( 1-82
i2-3(>
( BOO BOD.
1 2000 niix.
(2-25
(2-76
( 587 „
U2*>2 .,
J 2-29
(288
( 574 „
|l23i) „
(228
12-82
( 485 „
(2-27
12-75
( 429 „
I 910 ,.
(2 2d
i2-C9
f 326 .,
( G70 „
(2-20
(2-62
f 270 „
( 535 ,.
(1-24
[l-41
f 176 „
I 309 „
(1-22
( 172 „
I 303 „
From 100 to 117 miles the bottom widths vary from 21tol8fe«t; I
the depths from 3-7 to 5-2, the velocities from 1-5 to 23, and the do- I
cbargB at the 117th mile is from 130 to 203 cubic feet per second. ,
The hcadworks at Okhla were begun at the end of 1S68, ani •
generally open iu ls73 ; thoeopplomentaryheftdworka on the Hinita
below the Kailway Bridge, are connected with the former by a rasd
having B, bottom width of 24 feet, and discharging 291 cubic feet pffl
second with a depth of 5*6 feet; it is 9 miles long, and enters d«
Jarana at one mile above Okhin, whore tliere is a lock to prevent tbe
return of flood water. The distributaries have discharges vaTying
&om 140 to 25 cubic feet per second ; tbe principal works, bridge^
eacapaa, and weirs are comparatively inexpensive. The total estuMt^
- ooBt. of the Agra canal is £M0 78S, of which £12i 200 is tint <<
[5011
krica ; tbe total tirea of irrigation is caJculnted at 704 (lOO ncros, }
I probable net income when the irrigation is fully devolopixl
1 to be £5i;i/5, in addition to £if)00 from Ba^-igation and
r abont 10 per cent. net.
» tlie end of 1872-73, the capital acconnt stood at £132 267, .
I X302 69a WHS incurred on acconnt of works and plant,
1 eetablishnient, this amount having been spent in five
I Of the above outlay, JE30131 was spent on plant, £106414 1
Siwork, £80 OU on faib and weirs, £37 73G on bridges, and j
>a buildings, and the remainder on niiscullancuus works.
The Orina CanaU.
if main canals in tbe Orissa delta for navigation and irrigatiout 1
with head works and diatribataries.
The headworkn proposed for these canals consist of three weirt
amra the Mahanaddi, the Eatjnri and the Biiropa, 6tOO, 3900, and
SSUfeet long respectively ; the two first 12'5, and tJie third y feet
i^; thcj are of modern design, having movable iron stanchions
Bi dhntt^TS, that admit of being lowered to allow floods to pass over
hum. The canal for the irrigation of the central delta, between the
Ifchaaaddi and the Katjnri, is taken off from the right Rank of tlio
ilaltsiiaddi weir, and a junction canal will connect it with the KatjurL
he Taldandah canal also takes off from the right flank, and raus to
Ktdoudah, the limit to tidal navigation, and it, with its branch, the
Uchgong canal, will eventually irrigato ISo OOO acres of the central
elta 1 they can now irrigate 30000, being in use for about one-third
' thdr lengths, or S2 miles of each. Two canals are led off from the
«3Mpa weir: the one from the loft bank is the high-level canal, de-
gned for navigation from Kattak to Calcutta ; of this the first 32 miles
' the river Bralunaui arc open, and the greater part of its diatribu.
ries for the irrigation of 80 000 acres are completed; the other from
e right flank of the Boi-opa weir, intended to irrigate tho country
'tween the Mahanaddi and the Brahmani, is called tbe Eendrapara
n&l ; it is 160 feet wide and 7 feet deep, and is intended to irrigate
0 OUO acres of the northern delta, at a dnly of 120 acres per onbi
Jt per second of supply ; tbe distributaries have an aggregate length
171 miles, and wilt irrigate 85 000 acres; and its Pattamandi branch
URg off on the fourth mile, and running to a port on the estuary of
3 flrabinam, will irrigate 113 000 acres.
Tho prtMCiit estimate of the cost of thoic works is i^2 698 'ZiK.', tuid
^ *t» iat«Hded to in-igaU) 1 600 000 aereH.
I
[60]
The Midnapnr ctina], opened in 1871, connects Uidaapnr with tii
water in the Hughli, IG mileB below Calcntto, and forms a conunnd
CatioD between that river and tlie Kusi, Rnpnarain, and Damnda. I
will be ^2 miles long, and will eSect the irrigation and drainage q
200000 acres: it is now capable of imgating 72 000, bat iU di&lrilnj
taries and drainage channels areBtiJl incomplete. Its estitoiited cost i
X931 000.
The history of the Orissa Canals is as follows: —
The preliminary designs, drawn np by Col. Sir Aitimr Oottof
I May, 1858,
irrigate 2 250 000 acres. A c
Company in Jane, ISGl, and
million as a first issue. Si'
were di-awa up afterwards
estimate amounting to tw
irrigation one and a half n
hour per acre.
Certain initiatoiy works
t iiaOttOOO, and intended H
as granted to the E, I. Irrigitioi
tvna raised to the amount of out
'eliiuinary designs, and eatiinktii
ol. Uundall by May, ISfiS; tbt
I, and the proposed amount oI
I, at a duty of one cahio yud p^
latod in detail, tims: —
1. Head works, comprising the naii^ weir, the Uahanaddi
anient, the Beropa anient, and the Kattak head-
works, ISOU'long X 7i' high ... ... ... £IG599{
2. First Section of High-level Caaal, 32 miles from the
Kahanaddi to the lirahmani ... 56 449
Its distributaries, 112 miles for S7 000 acres ... ViHtH
3. Kendrapnra Canal, iii miles, Kattak to Fabo Point ... 33S3I
Its diBlrihutarieB, 1 80 miles for 270 000 acres ... 40 50£
4. Midnapar Canal, 48i mik-s, Midnapar to the Hughli ... 15234
Its diatribntaries, 160 miloj for l-tS 600 acres ... 22271
5. Tidal Canal,firattwo reaehes27miks from theRupnarain ^ll!
30 per cent, for stores and management ... ,„ IC059
Surveys of general scheme, purchase of a fleet of boats,
London Offices, and preliminary expenses had already
coat ... ... ... ... ... 123931
Interest already paid to shareholders ... ... 112471
Total estimated cost oi initiatory scheme
[«'J1
*^iiat«d renim. N'avigation to repay establisli me nt and manage-
nnd the irrigation of 505 500 acrea, at 5 Ra. per annum, to yield i
■ return of 36 per cent, on the £6QTi 848, and deducting 5 per I
I'lr repairs and mftintcnance, 31 per cent, net ; or 21 per cent, oa ]
!:llLun of total expenditare estimated.
works were begnn in December, 1SG3. Irrigation was first J
i-li; in December, 1865, waa first taken np in April, 1866, and J
I to yield retnrna in October, 186G. Navigation began to yield J
■;i in March, 1865, The Company sold the Orissa undertaking I
' 'roember, 1S67 ; the works constmcted and returns being as i
III' total araonst of work done by Slat May, 1867, under the heads I
ol the preceding estimate, waa — 1. Hcadworks open, bnt not O'
plete; 2. High-level Canal, 10 milea open, 12 nearly ready, and 17 1
»11m of distribntariee open ; 3. Kendrapara Canal, 30 miles open, to a 1
raduecd width, and 7~ miles of d is tributaries open ; 4 Midnapur
Canal, 28^ miles under construction, 10 nearly ready, and 46 milea of |
dijlribntaries open; 5. Tidal Canal, 27 milei open without locks.
Vuer waa then available for 153 400 acces nf irrigation.
Between May and December, 1867, further work was done on the
*han canals, details of which are wanting, aa well as 23 miles of [
•Mfflpleted work on the Taldandab canal. Tbc expenditure, up to I
October, 1867, was as follows : —
Expenditure— on works up to June, 1867 ... JE620 000 J
., from June to October ... 187 936 j
„ from Oct. to Dec. 1867 ,,. not known, I
Total cipendod on works in India .,. ... 807936 1
Total on all acconnts ... ... ... 8S48611
Balances ... ... ... ... ... 58 67t
Receipts— not including Govt, loan of £120 000 ... .£943 532 1
Rctnms from irrigation in October, 1866, and February, 1867.
At5Rs. — 1U67 acres and 573 acres ... £ 821
At 3 Ra. ... 1018 acres and 2r)72 acres ... 1077
At I^ and 1 Rs. 261 acres and 1183 acres ... 188
Total, 6674 acres irrigated ... £2086
s time water was available for 00 000 acres.
im
at U>o Cii>i nf Ocbiber, tSr>7.
•007 ftOKS, kk 5 Rs. t)m
UH5 „ „ 8 313
3S5 ,. „ 2 77
1799 „ „ 1 ... «*^' "■-•*.• ... M
SGoo „ „ } ... .». A. ... m
Totel 9686 MM '« » ... ££^^
Wkts^feMSOOOwrasBtokn^Talaa £2SW
At this liiH! watOT- wu ftnOdiltt fcr 1S8 boo aens.
Botanu from BaT^ptiaB, beBi&uifi^ IDuch, 18€3.
Daring 186S, £476 ; 1804, £^M3; I86S,<10S9; lS6e,£IU5; tn
1867, to Slrt Aognst, £1669. Totel Nsrigatian Retimu 59^
Total ntuns, otiiiaA
Own not mined
£13 n;!
At the tune of aale, Uu Co^n^ Kad watac amulable for 200miO
aorv, which at 5 Ba. per acn woaU jriald £100 000, or about 10 per
eent on'tho total expeaditnn^ bad the caltiyatora taken the wahir ; »
however tlvf did not, and the Act had not thco beeii issaed (pctsied
in Febnaij, 1S70) to reooror rates from hod brought ttaivr wiitf-
conunand, it woold have been unwise to extend the works, and Clw i
Companj were tiien forced to sell np at par to the Ooreniment
From 1S67 to 1873, these WMks have been carried on by th« PgUia
Wwka Department On the Ist April. 1873, the capital acoonnla itooi
thns:—
The Mahanaddl Project, inclading the Biahmani and
Baitarni Series ... ... ... £1221577
The Midnapnr Project, indnding the Tidal Canal ... 69SBU
Total £1917389
Tlie sUte of the works was tiins in 1872-73( —
High-lerel Canal...
Kradrapara Canal
Tnldanda Canal ...
UnohgoDg Canal...
Miiinapar Canal ... 24
Tidal Canal 62
37 -0021 7M0d
40 -0032 313000
271 00*2 ■»
6 -0040 j
24 ... 13S150
^11
£
SlilS
2116
i
till
11500 SOOO-
The expenditure mentioned doeB not include oslablishment nof^"*
jpvcrportionnto cost of headworks. — Tlio euppiy provided for the areas
'VVU ftt the irrigating dnty of one cnbic foot per second for 133 acres.
The discliurge passing down tho Kendrapara canat varied from 50D
^mbic feet per second in August, to 126 in JIarcli, and in tlie liigh-
&«ord mnni from 351) in Jnly, to 1X5 in March ; each of the cunals tvere
•closed for repair for aboat two months in the cold weather.
In IStll), the water rates having been lowered from 10b. to 2b. per
acre, thu gross revenue amounted only to £i41; in 1S69-70, it amounted
tii£5235;in 1870-71, the acreage actually irrigated waa 22 128 acres;
and in lfe71-72 only 11 0o2 acres, demands for water rate being aban-
doned by the revenne collectorB, and only £1 772 being actually ooUccted.
In the year 1872-73 the total acreage of irrigation was only 4753
HOTS, jiflding ^4263 in water rate, and the navigation retorae on a
tonnage of 154 422 tons amounted to £4750 ; the total receipts,
including £1481 from varions other sources, amounting to £10S93,
thd highest year's revenne yet obtained.
Tht Son Canala. — These conetiluting a portion of the Bahar project
of Colonel Dickena, are designed to provide high-level navigation for
iDJ coilea from Mirzapnr on the Ganges through Dehri, the lieadworka
oil tiie Son, to hlanghir on the Ganges, and to irrigate the country on
tifith banka of the Son, between this line of navigation and the Ganges,
I'lieWcstcm main canal, fi-om Dehri to Mirzapur, wiil be 125 miles long,
mil will command tho irrigation of an area of 2100 square milea ; tho
i"istem main canal from Dehri to Manghir, 170 miles long, command-
'ii;'30(K) square miles. The main canals are designed to carry 5300
'nl>io feet per second, with a depth of water of t* feet, and a bottom
'tidth of 180 feet; in the Eastern canal tho fall from tho Son to the
''sripes, of 123 feet, will be overcome by a aeries of locks. It was
'>fi[:inally intended that these and other works should have been
'■■ifriod ont with English capital, ander the Eajit-Inilia Irrigation
'-'oiapany in 1867 ; — they were however commenced in 1870 by the
Public Works Department, under Mr, Levinge, aided by about
twenty English engineers.
The Western Main Canal was nearly compleled to full dimensiona
' r a length of 22 mites by the end of March, 1873 ; and its bridges
111 siphons were in progress. The Eastern Main Canal was then also
;iriy completed for eight miles. On the Arrah Canal, which is to be
" ' miles long, and will irrigate 430 OOO acres, gronnd had been broken
...ur CO miles; and sis looks, two bridges, and seven i^iphona wore ii
HBpgri ss. Oij th.' r'ifna Canal, wliicb w\U lie ft\ mW«, \w\^, wr.i.-d
CM]
itT^ste 890000 acm, ttro-thirdB of tiie mrtliworic wu enntal
in 1872-73.
At the hndvot^ tbe nuuonr; well blocks of the nppier breMt-*^
of the weir werv suuk right acroaa the river ia l!47i)-7[, ud is
1871-72 tboM rf the lower breast- wall, as well &s parts of the
•nd onder aluoes nsd head locks ; tha stone being brought bf loco-
notiTM from qoBtries scren miles off.
The following is na abstract of the eslJmftte of cost of the wotki >—
£95 milea td Ugfa-Ievel main ranal at per mile, £4000 £\ ISOOOD
240 miles of nuun irrigation and navigable canal, at £3000 7£OO0a
928 milea of main irrigation distribotanes ... „ £500 464000
361 000 MTM irTi^t«a in detaU „ £2 ^OOO
S26250acrwaf ftiinor dninage works 8e. 130509
Headworks 225009
WoAahc^l, »Mter, Ac 'UOOO
lance at 12-
Tools and pUct
410SMi
8OOO0
£3 7751)00
To«*L
£U£493
251 SS7
£697079
1 eBpmatSf
The capital aoconnt is as follows: —
Wor)u kad Pluil. EiUbliibmeDt.
Up to lat April, lsr2 £366 03»i £77 Ua
During 1872-73 210951 40635
Up to 1st April. 1873 £578 987 £118 091
The Son weir is 2^ miles long and 8 feet high, and
int«r«sting fts an example of the most modem ccmstmction, exHUting
like the wein on the Orissa canals, also deugned hj civil engineen^
a vmst improrement over ei^iything jet done in works of this clsas in
India. It is ftohMe that these canals will be partlj open in 1875.
Tke SmitJtJtmmd Canalt, from the rivers Betwa and Daasan propOMd '
'7 the lat« Captain A. H. Bagge, of the Bengal Engineers, still remsa
■ projects nnder contemplation : detuled surreys were, however oo»
Aeuced in \^7S.
TRB IXrXPATIfUl CUilA OP THE PAXJAB.
1. The XoKvr &ithj mmJ CI«iw6 OnMli.— The (sanals frtnn the Lone
S»Uaj are 19 in number, and have an aggr^ate length of 418 mila;
thoae from thcCbenabare 13 innnnbar, andhaveaiinggr^tateknglk
of 233 mile«;— t:h« w\uAe of Uiew, Axcc^ng 19 miles, wen eon-
ilruotod and in woArag (odw »fc ft« i™» «* "ii^ ^rtfa^ wmmtDCM.-.
^Uiew oaaals varies from 5 to 36 feet, and their depth of
I diatributarieB, irrigation being
' private water-ci
V from 3 to 11 feet ; tliey have t,
Ged direct trom them by meaue c
6 miles
Brendth.
33J feet
60 „
Depth. Diatribnti
35 feet"!
-|,
Th£ Vpper Satlaj CanaU a
heKaJtora
be Ehanwah ...
he Upper Sohag
ba Lower Sohng
le first was constmcted by the British Government, and opened in
. The second was constmcted, for a leiigth of 133 miles during
■eign of Akbar: it was reopened in 1843, and extended by the
ah Government for 18 miles from Dewalpur southward ; 25 miles
stribntsries were aUo constructed at that time. The third was
!rDct«d by the British Government, and opened in 1S55 ; it has
distrihataries belonging to Government, 12 miles in aggregate
h, and two to landholders of 16 miles, or 28 miles in all ; a new
TTM completed in 1S71 to servo as an alternative entrance to this
[, for occasions when the river sots in on the old head. The
h was constmcted by a landholder shortly after the British annei-
. There is also another canal, called tlie Nikki, about which
cnlors are wanting,
23e Jkelam CanaU. — There are 19 inundation canals from this
in the Shahpnr district! thoy were purchased from local funds in
Tho dimensions of two of them are as follows : —
Iicngtli. Mena breadth. ATerago di
17 miles 18 feet 6 fe
Shahpur Canal
Sahiwal Canal
19
10
The India Canah are 13 in number, and have an aggregate
b of 577 miles, varying from 9 to 97 miles in length ; they are ail
1 from the right bank of the Indus in the Dera-Qhani Khan
ct, at the Bonth'Westem corner of the Panjab frontier; their
th varies from 11 to 60 feet, and their depth of water from
1-5 feeti they have branches, but none of them have separate dis-
•wy channels, They were all, except one of 07 miles, the Dliundi,
ng at the date of British annexation ; but branches to the aggre-
ength of 32 miles have been added since, half the expense being
by tho British Government, and half by the proprietors of the
ifited. In addition to the above, two canals, the FasllwaJ
tC6]
and the Masawah, hsTe been comitmeted and Maintained bj pni
entorpriBO,
Thorc are also some cnoals m the districts of MuiAffargsrb. VeiAm
and Bnnnu, about which no iDforination oxists in the record.
In nddition to the canals, there axv a number of embtmkmi
aggregating a length of 3S tnilca, in the neigbboarhuod of Dna-Q
Ehon, that were constructed in 1S54 and 1863 for tlio porpi*
Bhntting out overflowa in the rainy season, which used annnallj uSi
taie large tmcts of country, and neoessitato remisaians of Gorerui
land- re Venn 0.
The financial resnlts ai
n 1872-78, were aa follow
fc of the Ponjftb Inniiil8.tJwi Ci
Lower Satlaj
and Chenab
Upper Satlaj
(average)
Jhflam
10 520
2 122
no
lfi621
18 04t>
4fl-l
Aere»ge irrip(«il a 1 iiS
EhMif- I Et.bbi. T
74 914^ 60 44G 13
133 81S iTSWlS
i'iid 1
Of the acreage irrigated by the Lower Satlaj and Chenab C
20 per cent, was lift irrigation. The mean discharge of the 1
. Satlaj Canals was 1742, and that of the Indus Canals 4107 cub
per second in 1872. The Jhelam Canals are nnder the manag
of the collectors.
TUE CltULS OF THE BOMBAT FkESIDEKCT.
3^e Sakkar and Shaidadpur perennial canal, from the Indus ii
commenced in 1861 with an estimate of £72982, was opened in
it is 63 miles long, will irrigate 140000 Sinditm bigas of land,
expected to yield a revenue of £210 000.
Tfie Sind Inundation Canalt are of native origin, their nam
lengths are as follows: —
West of the Indus.
The Sind
The Ghar
The Western Hara
The Bigari ...
He&d.
21 miles below Sakkar
23 miles below Sakkar
27 miles below Sakkar
unknown
66 3bn
2bii
70 300 1
4S 40f
1 of tb ladut,
Saateea Nara, Ron, improved in IBHO. Atrei.
ffitran branch of the E, Nam, British, ISOmifes, irrigatee 1S7 000
Thar branch of the E. Nara ... „ gg 000
i'aUali ... Natural branch of Indna irrigating Haidarabod.
ig very doubtful whether a large proportion of tbeso canalti are
apro\'ed nataral chnnnets ; there is very little information ahoot
rigation effected by them ; they will probably be made eventaally
nre as distributaries to perennial canals, having their heads at
iT, at Jbirk, '250 miles belon it, and at Kotri.
f Jamdii Canal, in Eandeish, was commenced with an estimate of
00, and was opened in 1S09.
! Krithna Canal baa its beadworks at Karwar, in Sattara, ita
ate waa £38 133 ; in 1872, 32 milea of canal were finished, and
acres irrigated, yielding a revenue of £955.
B AhmaJiiagar Canal, estimated to coat £21 941 was opened
e 1870.
^uov« comprises the whole of the oanaU of the Bombay Preai-
^Rbformation about tfaem is very scarce.
I '
W^Pllmbaddra CanaU. — The principal headworks of these canals
b( of a weir across the rocky bed of the Tumbaddra at Sunkesala,
feet in length of clear overfall ; tho section variea, but is every-
i 8 feet broad at the top, the alternate stones of the coping being
i thick, 8 feet long, and weighing each Ij tons. The mortar used
nml Iconkar, except for the coping which is in Pori^land cement.
height varies from 6 to 26, averaging IB feet; and the highest
ered flood rose "J feet over the crest.
s main features of the canal arc as follows : — tho first 7.1 milea
;signed to carry 3000 cubic feet per second at the head, and, alitor
igwilh one-fourth of this for irrigation, to convey the remainder
gh the Jletakandal wat«rslied catting at its other extremity.
1 19125 cubic feet per second can be discharged into the Kali,
37'5 carried down the continuation of the c-anat. Of the 1012' 5,
TO taken np at a fresli offtake at Jntnr, and .175 at Kajuli,
Lg 750 for irrigation below Koddapa.
) minimniu section of the canal in the first 75 miles lias a 00-feot
n^brendth, with 2 to 1 aide slopes. For the first 40 miles, the
The Cakals of tbe M&dbas Presidexct.
[68]
611 u aBaftaH to a nutxiiniim depih of inter of 8 Teet, below t^
to oee of 9 fcc-i. Tb« gndient of the ctuuit ia gcmeralif fttm ii
■5 feet per mila, bat m one or two de^p onttiogs 1 -5 feet Belov
7&tb mila, tiie natonJ wittfrcoanes of tlie Kali aod tlie Ei
becone tho main chuLOel of sapply. The 1st branch channel '
tlw tmaal frou the 7'Sth to the 95Ui mile ; it b&s a head elniw
lode ftt LoekuMala, from which it is mi irrigating chaimel 6 bwt
for the fink 4 milcA. with k flow of 337*5 oabic feet per
Bdow tint it ie A still WAt«T caoal, of a minimain depth of S
ud a bottom faN*dth of i-ii fe^, bariiig a bll of ISO feet, oTerooowl
1^ 7 dooblo and b single locks, of chambers 120 x 20 ; the pfkt
fell of » doabk lock being 21, and of a single one, 13 (eeL DiiiiA
Iwanch -'»»■""■' forms the canal, from the Jntar weir at the 95tli mOiv:
to the 146th mile : it is adapted for a depth of 6 feet of water down to
the 1st irop lock at the llSth mile. The weir is 6 feet biosd at tk
top, on fmaidfttious of ^hale ; it has head slaiece. scouring sIdim^
uid Ml entraiwi' lock, with a water cushion below the falL Irrig^tiao
ocMM at tha UOth mile. From the llSth to the 146th miie the aid
consista of level reaches with 5 feet depth of water, having 17 locb
to overcome a &II of 1S6 feet, the maximani fall in an; single lock
being 14 feet. The bottom bn-adth thronghout is SO feet. The H
branch channel, from the Rajoli weir at the 1461th to the ISOth mile,
baa also a bottom breadih of &0 feet, and with 5 feet of water mO di»-
charge 375 cubic feet per second. The Rajoli weir ia made of linw- ,
atone rabble. Mid bnilt on rock ; its top thickness is 5 feet, ita baal
batters 1 in 2, and its lower face is vertical.
Across tiio Penner at Adaiumajapilli are the headworka and oBtaki
of tJie projected continuation of the canal to Nellor ; the weir is lamij
fotmded <m wells in sand ; 8 miles of this canal are open, and isfftj
S7-5 cnbio feet per second for irrigadon.
Tha Hindri aqaedact, carrying the canal 90 feet broad, and 8 M
deep, at an elevation of 32 feet over the Hindri hj foorteon 4tL-feel
vcbes, is an important work. No modoles are used on these canals,
The ordinary hnnd sluices are of two sizes, one 5 feet broad, and of
3-75 feet lift, tie other 1-5 feet wide, and 1 foot hft; each is worked
by turning routtd a vertical screw that lifts a cross bead, to which the
oast-iron shutter hangs, each turn of the screw raising the shatter
1 inch and being easily worked in cast-iron grooves by one nsn
against an average bead of water of 6 feeb
The oost of Uie canal for the first 75 miles averaged £8000 a nak
ftad tar the rest of its oonrae £2900 a mile.
[69] >
X hiB 'i'uml)ii<iilra project wna first brought forward hy Col. Hiiviland ;
*»»a ranged out by the Madras Irrigation Company, baring been
kttiimc«cl QDder the auspices of Lord Derby, and sanctiouod in 1861,
txtitaate by Govemnient officials amounting to one million sterling ;
B hcadworka were opened, and water admitted, in 18G4; as tbe worka
aU not be completed within the estimate, a loan of £lXK) 000 waa
de to the company by the Govenuent in 1866, under the condition
,t these works should be completed in Jnly, 1871. They were
tnpleted by that date, 216 miles of canals and 377 miles of distri-
iteries, commanding 91 567 acres, being opened. In 1872—73, the
Tta^ commanded waa 156 570 acres, being in excesa of that neoes-
xy, when taken up, to repay the 5 per cent, interest, namely 130 000
, The actaal ncrcagc irrigated and relnma up to the present timB
nad thns:—
In 1870-71
1 478 Bo(
■es, yielding £897
„ 1871-72
9 980
3541
„ 1872-73
9 505
5020
., lB73-7i
19 791
8161
The small acreage in 1870-71 was due to tbe damage to the canal
snoaed by nnprecedented storms ; and for which insufficient escape bad
Diwn provided. In 1B71 this was repaired, and the canal improved,
Utd in 1872 water was again admitted tliroughout the whole length of
Qu eanal, to a depth of from 2 to 5 feet. In 1873-74 the canal carried
B75 cubic feet per second, or .50 000 cubic yards per hour, having a •
depth of 4 feet of water throughont.
The eventual irrigating power of this series of canals is assumed to ,.
he limited to 250 300 acres of rice cultivatioD, at a duty of 2 euhin
yards per hour per acre, in places where tbe waste water ia lost, and
of H where it is again taken up by the canal ; this is, however, on t
knppoaition that theae canals remain dependent on the rainy seasoa
mppliee of tbe Tumbaddra; should storage reservoirs be employed,
at intended, to reader the canals perennial, this acreage may be
doebled.
lit Qodaveri Deltaic Wttri* were commenced in 1847; the bead-
Works consist of a long low dam at Daulesbwaram, the head of the
dttlta, where tbe river is (iOOO yards wide, from which channels are
teken olT for the irrigation of the eastern, central, and western portion
o( the delta. The irrigable portion of the delta is 2500 square miles,
Im 26 per Dent, for waste land, or 1 200 000 acres. The water
— - ^"iiy^W
■nilkUc U 13000 colacfeet ps anad m te flood Muii
Jah-, Angnn, September, and Octoho', b^ 3000 m •
dsn^^ ibe Ten of the jnr ; the fon^ will, at fkt dn^ id
u 1 cubic foot per secsond, ungate 480000 mam el nta, U
uifaedatTof ISO acna, inigate 380000 Mns of m
two-thinU of tlw deha, or MOOOO ao^ bmj be in
vof^ are coBi[deted; at praacnt ^w tot ~
i^^ 717 acsca, or lev tbaa onA-ddid.
Tlwdam couina of aerefal portku of laaaonir irok n
b«i^i v'f 12 feet abore the riTer bed, trnkn bj^ Jalaada a.ii
ii 'M:i^}i to «*.■> ftet, and canoHitod I7 eartbaa mbwakm
IHsIrshwaiam pomcm id 4875 leet long^, fimded on wd
tiiinewr. and son); 6' ; it is I^ tUdk, «n».--.tn>g oT a oora
sari ^iiioeil br a csTtaia waB 7* b^ and 4' feet tbick ai tbo I
a gas-'UT cosma^ardMrf Ml ay hc^ a^ *'**«i*; tbawu
of crk=:ped stone is 1^ Inad and 4' tbii±, tba a|mm W
sii^ir^ saooei; on ba«b fhaki an nawmj wine-walk ai
Ei,^:*. oa ihe kft ^auk a lock, bad^lnoea to tbe cbauwl, aa
jl-icw :Vr sill. The Rail: iwtion is 2S62 feet tong, but im
<■: T.-^fl^ s:.=e. The MiJdiir portion is liiS feet long;
Vi j--*iwi.-»ra pon:;3 2C-S4 teet long, baring a lock and head
Ti:» ij,;:LiE i=:'n»ji-ecta a» 7->:o feet long, and the length i
W4'.".* ;:."*•■ iixi. Tic t*tvuve height of the dnm nwy ij^ i,
l_v '2'i :\>t: ly r;caE^ tf r'.aEks held in the groorea of t
«aa..*rd». ■-"■' *4iit« arl 10' apart.
T-i* -.rrvjs;:^'E of the «a$Tem portion of the delta is provi
br ic- =;;"« of main '.^^^lisdinal ehaonel. 4 miles of main tn
ohai=(l. r:- ciilf* of Eiain branehes bj Samnlkotta and Corii
a scries of ;ai«Iit-r iransTene channels, making on the who
!r,;os.ii>d txti-isions, i^ miles of main channels, from wb
\ i'.'jtjS- watorwarees will be sopplied. The supply for this
•■ ■' :b.c ilrita will be *'<».• csbic feet per cecond, or eoongh for
S.-7VS of r-Ii-*. which is ihroe-ftiaiths of the coltnrable area,
■•l:■.<^ irr-irat-oa of the central portion of the delta is providec
:rc R.-i'.'.: i-har.ivcl and irs iiarsverse lines, which amoant to 9
■..: '.oi;i;;h. sr.d other ch-winol-i 70 miles more, in all 160 mila ■
the bs^iicl-^s of the Ralj channel crosses a minor branch
Western OodaTari. io the Gannanm aqnednct, which earn
csbio feet per At-omd. and irrigates with fnll snpply 26000 1
ri.v owt of a oatturablc tiact of A>000. If this system of cl
^■j._-.icd at itt'.l s-vfly ACO cubic feel per secmid, tbey wonld I
^^bftto 160000 acrea of rice and 120 000 of sogar-cane, oH
^^^tS80 000, or five-seventltB of the cultnrable area, 352 OOitm
^^^KinignlloD of tbe western tract of the delta, is provided for]
^^^buti channel breaking off into a series, baving an aggregatafl
^^^Bof 154 wiles, an extreme neatern cbaiiiiel' going to the Colairl
^^^Bth a corresponding not-work of cbannels will amount to lOO '
^^Htheae main ctiamii;ls, with others of various surts, will in all
^^Hfc to 460 milt-B for the western tract, and will be capable of
^^^Uly irrigating 2S0 000 acres ont of a cultnrable tract of about ^
^^^■briginal estimate of Colonel Cotton for these works, in 181'3, J
^^Hfed to £120 000, and in 1649 this amonnt had been spent andJ
^^^kn&l works half completed ; a new estimate for £240 000 waa 1
^^Bopted, and in 1S53, £15UO0O bad been spent. It seems thatl
^^^b the irrigated acreage was 127 320, yielding £11 351 gross J
^^^K and in 1664- was 202 111, yielding £12;! 187 gross income, 1
^^^■rkjng expenses being about £26 390, and the net inconig 1
^^^V, OP about 20 per cent, on a capital outlay np to that time, of 1
^^n<70 000. I
^^^kreeent financial state is shown in the tabular statement. Of. I
^^^kress of the works, or of the development of irrigation there is]
^^^W satisfactory account forthcomiog ; it would appear, however, I
^^^knarter of a century bos been spent in canning out- only one- 1
^^Hf the intended irrigation in a district where the natives are 1
^^Hlcgly anxious to take up water, and that the accounts ore still I
^^Bd in obscurity. I
^^BC£«^na Deltaic Works, designed by Captain Orr, were begun in I
^H The anient at the head of the delta at Beswara is 3750 feet J
IK', S05 feet broad, and has a height 21 feet abore the bed of I
M river, or 21 feet above dry season level of the water ; it has I
nder sluices on the flanks. At this point the river is Q to 6 feet I
■ep in the dry season, and 30 to 40 feet in the mausnn season ; the 1
rerage flood is 2^ and the highest 31 feet above ordinary low water. I
n the Arj weatbex, from November to June, the supply of the river I
BO Bioail, being principally due to apiirgs in the bed, that the dry- ■
Mson irrigation would be unimportant ; in the rico season the stream I
, continnoDS, and is 20 feet deep. The irrigable dellaia area on eacli I
ink is 1 250 <}00 acres, requiring 31 250 cubic feet per second ; eacli I
liuuiij head however provides only 8800 cubic feet per second in tb^l
Onttieri
T GHotnr Bftnk
rice seftsoB, the chwinel having a bre&dtli of 90 trd of «
10 feet depth of water, and a fall of one foot per mile. The J*
of the channels are thus: —
LcngUi. SappI;.
Uil«. C, rtpr.MO.
Irt Western channel 50 1200
2n(l Coutral channel 30 720
3r<l Eastern channel -15 1850
On t^c left, or Maealipatam eido : —
lit channel '" 1500
2ad Drog cbaimel — 1000
tol^ with Rome otim a
i the total snpplf d
it per second. The «
rat of an acreage o!
ince asenme that onlrUin*'!
The revennc in 18!
t fi"rt"i^ittl condition ia
of development of irri
At present the chanoels m
to convey enongh supply fct I
It ftppeare that there are
mentioned, 290 milea of cha;
rice seBJton amounts to only
irrigated in 1872-73 was ah-
pouiblo with the full snppl
fifths of the irrigation is n<
£8800, and in 1863, £MQOvi
in the tcibolar statistics.
All records of progress of works,
on these works, are entirely wanting.
being enlnrged and widened, in order
the irrigation of 430 OOU
Tht Fennar Deltaic fTorkt were commenced in 1849, and openrfia j
1855 ;— tliey consist of an anient at the ferry at Nellor akrat ISM
feet long, and the main or Saj-vaipalli channel from it, with diatri-
bntariea irrigttting the right tract of the delta ; that on the left bu^
being high laud is not irrigable. The supply of the Pennor beiogpTV'
carious, tUc Kellor and other tanks are utilized in keeping water io
reserve luid supplementing the chaAncla. In 18.°>7 the anicat n
breached for 282 foet ; and the repairs were not completed until
1861. The acreage irrigated in 18(J3 wns 32 87* ; the acreage in
1872-73 is stated to be 169 073; but it is probable that this is »
mistake, and includes irrigation not dependent on the anient, mon
wpecinlly os tlie gross proceeds for the year amoont only to £89M;
iee tabular financial results. It is now proposed to enlarge tha
channels, and further develop the irrigation.
7%e Palar Anieut and Worki, in Chinglepat and ITorth Arcot, um
to be in the same 6nancial condition as the Pennar works ; see tabolir
moial results. There is no official record
Initely anything about the progress aod in
[73]
ivaiiable for ascertaining
igation of these works.
Zfte Poini, AUiabad, Cheyar, and other anicats in North Arcot have
nr finantnal reaalts giTcn in the table.
He Tellar and other anicuta in South Arcot yield the very high net
ofil of 63 per cent, on a capital outlay of £52 055, which probably |
es not include the whole cost of the works. There ia ao ijiforma- j
in about them available.
The Kalerun Deltaic Works are an improvement and enlargement of
ry ancient native works, made under tho Telingi rajahs. The grand
licnt of Seringham wad in 1804, when Tanjor was ceded to the
ritiBh, a solid mass of rough stones, 1080 feet long, 4d' to GC broad,
kd 15 to 18 feet bigh ; this gave irrigation both along the Kalerun and
« Kaveri, on the former 1 65 000 acres, on the latter 504 900 acres, or
» 900 in all, which must have utilized, at tho duty of 40 acres of rica
■Itiv&tion to 1 cubic foot per second, at least 10 747 cubic feet per
Kond of supply, of which 12 622 were required for the Kavcri, and
125 for the Kalerun irrigation. In point of fact, however, the total
olnme in December, 1833, was 16 875 cubic feet per second, of which
Dly 9375 went along the Kaveri, and as much as 7500 along the
^aleran. To remedy this an anicut on the Kalerun was made be-
ween 1834 and 1836 by Col. Cotton ; it was 2250 feet long, and
' thick, it« height 5-3 to 7*3 feet, made of brick, capped with stone,
lie foundations 3' deep, built on three lines of wells 6' deep, and 6*
1 external diameter ; the apron 21' broad, and 1' thick, of stone in
ydranlic cement ; tliere were twenty-two sluices, each 2' wide, by 3"S
igh, to clear the bed of silt. In the year following its construction 240
wt of the dam were demolished, but were instantly repaired. In 1843
SditioTtal sluices were made, giving a total clear lineal waterway of
30 feet, but these produced little good ; and it became evident that in
amedying one evil, the works were causing another, the Kaveri was
kely to suffer &om excess of water iu the same way as the Kalerun
Md previonsly.
In 1845, Cot. Sim made a regulating masonry dam, 1950 feet long,
ctaBB the head of the Kaveri, and lowered the Kalerun dam for a.
engU) of 700 feet by 2 feet, this put the regimen of the Kaveri ancl^
(alemn perfectly under control. The Kaveri channel is now a channdj
if irrigation only, it is sub-divided into small clmnnels, and its entire'
rolume utilized ; the Kalerun channel, besides gi\ ing iiTigation, is
I
[MJ
main dmnage oluuinel of the delta. The tmg&tJon &om these msil
ia the moBt ootnpletely dovcloped possible, and the rotarns cnarmott
profitable ; the n&vipition, a matter of verj inferior importance
Bncb a oonntrj, oii the contrary, Buffers &oni the liuus and tho sft
depoait«d ahove tbem ; — in fact, a lock on the Kalenin dam had tait
tnmed into a donbk- sluice.
The Lower Ealtrun dam was mode ia 1837, over the Kslenio, at 70.
miles below Seritii^iiiiiii, the head uf the delta, nitb tlie followkj^
object. At that time the Upper Kulerun dam had forced bo maJi
water into the Kaveri, that the vr tlir Kiderun vrtu much low-
ered, and a large amount of land vwix uat of water coramaiiii
the object therefore was to raise r in the Kaleruu, and recow
the command of it. The loi Lower ICaJerun dam ia 1900
feet; its section conHiats of 1 wells, 6 feet deep, having ■
sand core 3' X 4' i» the n kI ocer, with 4 feet of st^
masonry above thorn for l.ho fo and a body wall above 7i feet
high : when tiie w.it«r lovul re e top of the anient, the dqith jj
of water in &oat is 7} feet ; ii ider sluices, giving 69 ihiai
feet of waterway, imd an tipnm m rear 24' broad, and 3' thick. The
channel head above this dam takes off water for the irrigation of s
district, eight milea below, in South Arcot : and hence, though ll«
principal object of this lower dam was not attained by it, it lias fe(
effected a useful purpose. In 18G3 and ISt'^ three very serious breacliei
were made in this anient, the water leaking through, and probaU;
also, under the wt'Us, which seem to have been can-ied to abont half
the depth necessaty in such a situation, and were unprotected by soy
retaining wall or apron in front : it appears that in these cases the
irregularity of the bed caused the current fo impinge and conoentnts
its effects on the portions of dam that gnve way.
The acreage irrigated has been materially increased, as well as saitd
from ruin by the former works: before I83G it was 670 000; in 1S50,
71C 524 ; and in 1872-73, 748 673. The increase of prodnce effected
by irrigation in tliese districts varies from ono-6flh to one-eighth tliB
gross produce of rice, or five to seven bushels of unhusked rice (pacB)
per acre. The Govemmeat revenue in wliich the water rate is merged
is two-fifths the gross produce, and varies in value from nine shilliogi
in Tanjor to twelie in Trichinojioly, and fourteen and siipenM in
South Arcot, haviinr an nvei-ngc over the whole of the districts of twelfS
shillings. The increase of annual revenue due to the works would, there-
fore, on 78 000 acres amount to about £t7 000, while the Oovemmest
returns for 1872-73 show a grcws return of £110 243; see tabular etttif-
C7S]
It iii probable, therefore, tbat a large portion of this latter soia is,
' ■ vBpeakiDg, dtie to the works of the Teiingi rajahs, conatrncted
Col. Sim pnt the regimen of the rivers under control. If thia
•.iise, the percentjigti of net pro&t due to the Britigb works mnst
i Ljoed from 128 to 51 per cent, on the assumed capital outlay of
' 1 1. With reference to thia latter sum, it appears merely to
liiile the cost of the three dams aad headworks, and their recoa-
a and alterations from 183t3 to 1850; if, however, we place to
Tip capital account the cost of uhannels and irrigation works depend-
■ I! those dams, which seems according to some accounts to amount
. '1 h74 on original works exclusive of repairs, this raises the
1^.1 acconnt to £172 1^88, and lowers the net profit to the more
m>M>nable percenta^ of 24.
Apart, however, from the matter of returns, both of finance, of irri-
ption, and of works, in which it is hoped the Madras Presidency ia
■wmmencing a new era, it is an undoubted fact that the complete oon-
*rol and utilisation of so large a river as the Kaveri, at so early a date
M» ISlfl, within ten years after the original commencement of tha
lesteration of the works, are results not known to be achieved on
•Of other irrigation works in the world np to the present time. They
niatvt lasting honour on the names of Colonels Sim and Cotton,
'" f Anieutt of Madura. — The Snnili, the principal tributary of
\"aiga, joining it after a course of 36 milea from Oadalur, is
entirely atilized in the irrigation of the Kambam valley; there are
■en anicnta across it, with channels and tanks ; the first is situated at
fcilf a mile from Gudalnr, whence a canal on the left bank irrigates
rice lands for 5^ miles, and eventually falls into the Kambam tank:
tile others irrigate a nairow strip of rice cultivation on each bank
Ja the lower part of the Kambam valley. On the Vaiga itself are two
BUsonTy anicDts, the Pernni and the Ohitnni, situated '2'2 and 18 miles
(wpeclively above the city of Uadnra, which are said to have been
built by two favourite dancing girls, favourites of one of the Nailc
kings of Madura : the channels from them are in bad order. Below
the Chitani there are no dams, the slope of the groond allowing
tliaanels to be taken ofl' without the aid of anicuts. The supply of
iw Yajga is so deficient in its lower parts, in the Kamnad, that any
jTigation from it is only on a very small scale.
The supply of tbo river Gundu is very small, the local r^nfaU
b«ing only 18 int-hea yearly ; on it, cast of the town of Kamndi,
L^ailae Icoiu tko sou, is an auicat largo dtim, made of loosely built
[76]
■tone ; ft chnnnel from it tAkca its water to the Kallari lake,
river Yaipar are seveml stone aoiciita, and on its tribatvies a
Btorage banks ; the amoiiat of imgation effected from theae two h
riven is unkiio'nrn.
Tie Anieuit of the Tambrapumi. — There are Beven anicnts on
river. The first ia the Tlialay anient, juat below the falls of
Msam, it is renewed annually with stakes and brnebwood; it baa tm
ohanoelB, one 10 miles long on the north bank, and one € miles long m
' the Bonth, each ending in a ts ' ""' oond is the Nathiasi anient,
6 miles bolow the former, it ooient strnctore, consistii^
of I&Fge blocks of atona pla ly across tbe rirer, and ii
468 feet long j only one cha rom it, for 12 miles oo the
north bank, which irrigates ielding a revenue of £1297.
The third is the great Ka it, built of eat stone, it ii
d feet hi^h, and has a top v ; it has alao a large rongb
i^ron varying from 05 to idth ; the anient is dinded I
into two pieceH by a rocky aanol trom it on the sooth J
side is 22 miles long, irrigi. es, and yields a revenue flf %
dE17 981; the Kannadien channel Hows throngh the town of Semn- ,
liahadevi, H miloa west of Tennevolli. The fourth is the Kodag«a ',
anient, six miles below the last, it is 2287 feet long, of cut stooa I
roughly put together ; it haa one channel from it on the north sub h
10 miles long, irrigating 5+33 acres, and yielding £til06 of revenne. !
The fifth is the Palavnr anient, 2 miles east of the town of Serun-
Uahadevi, it is 2532 feet long, its channel on the south aide is
26 miles long, supplies bi tanks, and terminates near Palamcotfa, and
irrigates 2865 acres, yielding iSitJS. At a mile and a half below the
Palavnr is the sixth or Sutamelli anient, 2 miles east of the town of
Semn-Mahadevi, divided by a rock into two portions, it« channel on
the north aide is 14 miles long, anpplying two distributaries, passing
through the town of Tinnevelli, which irrigate 1806 acres, yieldiog
£3299 of revenue.
The seventh anient, 18 miles below the last, is the Murdnr anient,
27 miles fi-om the sea j it is of horseshoe shape, 4028 feet long, and
supplies a channel on either side ; its escape weir is of beantifnlly cat
stone work. Its channels run in and out of several large tanks, Md
irrigate U 4O0 acres, yielding a revenue of £17 700. Below lhi»
anient ore four channels, irrigating 42S0 acres, and yielding £-i'?BO of
revenue.
The total amount oi iiTiga\.\aa. e&^i^^i^ \t j \Iai»ii ■a»!ijvi%-«<iiu'«
' " ''-^ ncrps, fielding £56 828 i the repairs only coBt IJ per cent, on
' It English Anient at Strivigautam, 12 miles below Mnrdur, will
. i-iy long, fi' high, and 7^' broad, founded on wells ; it will in-igate
lAl acrea on tbo oortb and 16 OUO on the sooth bank, and supply
- . iL-orin with water ; it was coninienctnl in 1869, on an estimate of
»:S3160[ in 1873 £76 878 had been spent on conBtrnotion ; it is, there-
Bbre, probably nearly completed now.
The estimated amount ol' water from this river that ia utilized for
Strigation is given in th« brief account of the river Tajabrapumi,
-I«ge[26].
The Anicl'ts and Channels of Maisdr.
General deteription of Work*. — The ordinary atone dam or anient in
Uaisnr varies from 7 to 25 feet in height, it consists of a mass of dry
n^ble, faced with large atones, placed on a rocky site; the front
easing of stones 3^^' x Ij' x 1'; the rear aprons of large atone blocks
V X 3i' X 2', each atone projecting for one-third of its length beyond
that above it, or about 2^'; the interstices are filled with small rubble ;
these worka are unstable and leaky, allowing all the aummer discharge
to esc&pe, and only supplying the channels in season of flood, when
again they arc easily damaged and breached ; the dams are curved and
point up stream, having a length about double the width of the river,
ilu" crown is lower near the head-sluices to relieve the pressure against
■1 in flood. The bead aluices consist of rough stone uprights, 4 or
t apart with stone caps over them ; the openings being stopped
lib brushwood or earth filling; they are very inefficient during floodH,
which frefjuently enter uncontrolled and make breaches.
The citannels are rough trenches generally following the undulation
of the country, and very badly levelled and set ont ; the irrigation
water is taken direct from them through cute made in their baidcs, the
escapes for aurplos water are made in the same way ; the channels
loffer much from silt brought down by cross drainage, also from breach-
iug by the same canae ; although there are rough atone silt dams as
fell as Bobdly conatrncted outlets at low levels for holding up and
aconring ont the silt from the channels.
SetuU: — The financial reaulta. aa shown in the tabular atatiatios,
^ipear meagre in the extreme ; the causes being that not half the
hrignted land is aasessed, and that the irrigation water is surrcpti-
ttoDsly taken. It appears that if all the irrigation were paid for, the
.tsakM of the Maisur diviuioa would yield &Q&d(l(l, wa&. ^Conub (i\ '^^k.
y
[79]
111
Hi
nr
ill
ill
r
i
I
in
s3«
SSSS3
^ S p O r' O »s.
§000100 OOQ
OQS^Q U3 O O
Bsai>
5cS J^;
Nil
»
1
^^^^^1
l»
vM-Wii
i
S 5 1
. . . .Sii .3 1
"3 5 S
• • • '§33 ■ * S
1
^
1 = : =
B e = : : s ; 3
.?
*f
1
^
'
i= ;s
g s s s ; £ 2 «
■3
i
"A ^
1
ns 5 s s
gss^sasss s
*
^
ir - -
J
1
■S : : :E
ssssas .s . s
■
• • • =
oooo«« ■« - o
f
. ■
g
^
c- . "SCi
I
J-3
= - 1
- = =1 =1 =lla
V
i
1
1
i 1
1
.!
1 i
]
11
E 1
IS ,
E -3 =
i
S
" I 1
1 1
1
o u a. ^
'
i
i
a" ^
» «
[81]
>
3
»
a.
GQ
a*
GQ
OQ
'd
o
OQ
'd
o
OQ
03
OQ
o
d
O
03
S 5
O CQ
t3
no
O
•
o
Oi
•
a.
O
o
OQ
o
M ng
S ^
o
&4
'd
•3
'd
d
tS &
'd
I
•d
/
no
O
'd
O
1
d
V
'd
o
OQ
K^^^^a
*
•—I
d
s
s
i
2
.£3
.a
o
1
8
I
o
II
a
o
OQ
^ i-i 00 r^
?C> Oi O 00
to CO 00 ^H
^
o
Xi
I
00 iC
• •
o
o
do
05
CO
8
^ Oi 00
00 Oi r^
O "^ CM
CO <M
rH O
GO
i
1
r
1
o
i-H
90
•
o
O
^
00
CO
•
4
4
^
»o
'^f*
00
09
C4
<M
>o
^
f-i
fH
04
J*
4!
lli
%■?■:■:
= 8 !;
t
1
^Ij
=• — : «
'^~
1
1
iHll
i = : .
1
Nl
: : e
■ M
1 Z
1
ll
1^
Ij
13
s 1
11|J
Pttt
1
•
1 c
1 a i
3 ::j
a 1 5
■s-
III
5
J 5 4 i
3
1. t
1
is
1
f
J
1.
11 ^M
s »
1-
ii isi
=J 2
4
i
i
11 - ^
■ "
|i ; : ^
fj
Is 5 S :
s s
a
11 i 1 i
S :
1
I
iiUi
1 ■
1 3
II
If
Is s s s s s s
■go t^tCt-.oiSi-'**'!--
s s
3 S
S S S 3 :
S; S S S S
ffJ r- O O 0>
^w^SmSSmSS
SSI
3 S 5 S :
S S R S S
^ ^ $ I
=4 si
\
£84]
i
n
If i i 1 1 1 i i
\>
I
|i s i s i 1
5 1
1
•
-Mil
E S
li'ir
2 :
l|i^
ill
li liisiiiss-
1
t
1
1 |t8sias«i =
i
s
I
If iiliiiili .
-■
1(1 i'isgiiil
i\ti
^ I '^ ^ ^ -I
3
ll
I
IT
w
11
1: M^
I 1!
? L
i
i
^. = : if i
i
US rH O O -O
'* i do o : jj
:
to
S
s 1
1
•« • • i 1 S i
S
:
1
^Siia :|
i
1
H
'li^iii
1
limn
''llliis
1
«»
m
-|S||8S
1
S
m
^jssggs
:
:
II 1 1 1 i 1
1
ft
i|ii
mm
III
00 e-j £ CM 'O CO
Hi
ill '%%%
III
^s i i i i i
Cl to I^ t^ t~ CO
I ^ 1
9 '
lllill
-; ei m -* rt ■£
1 i
L85]
[86]
J><ita iif Ihe XainrHntk SgHeti
MaI&I'B ElVEO SlBtEK.
riYenwi
thairnS
taU.
I. Kistiid Riror ..
UUci.
6U
n. Pakr
47
III. Pennet
107
IV. Pennar
3
V. Kavori
t^
VJ. Weatoni Const
overs
]
TdUU tor Haimr and
DeJact for Cnrg .
Tolsl [or Mumr otilj .
Amoont of
tank*.
Total ««,
W. 1
S<l. nilea
4814
8q. mUM
6 217
lic^i
1036
1036
1040
2280
1319
1441
5 760
1S81 1
16287
2»UM
1795
1795
10 982
16 287
27 269
Data of the Maitnr Tank Syttem—continueJ.
MilauB TAirr SlWKH.
Uncier wst
nnil E!>rJ<n
riltivatioD.
on repnir*
other tbu
tb( ABUeram
ehuitiftg.
kmmt
From 1837-38 to 1841-42 ...
Acres.
1 705 1-50
£
47 018
t
9401
I'l-om 1842-^ to 184(5-47 ...
1 849 759
43 225
8615
From 18t7-i8 to 1851-52 ...
2087 929
68 64*
11729
From 1852-53 to 1856-57 ...
2160 309
70 021
14004
From 1857-58 to 18G1-62 ...
2 1G9 040
80 762
16152
25 years' total outlay
2lt9 670
11987
25 years on channel repairs ...
57S37
2 SOI
^5 years ou tanks only
242133
•!»(J8S
[87]
Brief Accounts of Indian Reservoirs.
Itf Delhi and Ourgaon Irrigation Works, — These works, consisting
iJces and reservoirs, have for their object the irrigation . of the
ikrj south of Delhi, and in the Gorgaon and Bohtnk districts, a
it deal of which is broken by small ranges of low hills. Attention
directed to these districts by the fearful famine of 1860, and the
emment of the Panjab then ordered that works should be com-
oed to relieve the fearful destitution and starvation then existing ;
country was therefoi*e examined, and surveys and designs made by
L. D'A. Jackson, then assistant engineer in sole charge, for the
itraction of storage reservoirs in the Gurgaon and neighbouring
riots. The larger reservoirs and artificial lakes in tlie Delhi dis-
be, originally constructed by the Mughal emperors, Akbar, Firoz
li, Aurang Shah, and Firoz Toghlak, have been reconstructed and
awed since British occupation,
'he natural basins are : —
• The Najafgarh Jhil, filled by the Sahiba and its affluents.
I. The combined Kotila, Chandni, Malab, and Rajira Jhils.
^hese collect the drainage of the surrounding countiy, and saturate
land submerged ; the water is then drawn off by escape channels,
I the beds of the jhils are cultivated. The superintendence of
se works was originally under Mr. Batty.
the artificial reservoirs, twenty-four in number, are formed by
banking natural ravines, or outfalls of natural lines of drainage;
sy have weirs .and escape channels ; irrigation is thus given to the
ids above the embankment, which are cultivated after submersion,
id to lands below by means of the supply given through the
lannels. The names of these reservoirs are :—
In the Delhi District,
1. Tilpat.
2. Palara.
3. Yahia Nagar.
4. Chattarpur.
«>. Khirki.
C* Naryanah.
7. Toghlakabad, No. 1.
^' Toghlakabad, No. 2.
^- Bijwasan.
^' Aurangpur.
!• Ambarheri.
2. Badli.
In the Ourgaon District.
1. Tharsa.
2. Gwalpahari.
3. Ghatta.
4. Pattri ICatal.
5. Kala.
G. Raisinah.
7. Bar Gujar.
8. Dahina.
9. Nand Rampur Bas.
10. Bahari.
11. Jhand Sarai.
12 Garhi Harsaru.
13. Banarsi.
Both thejhils and the stomgc reservoira an
thoir snpply on the ftimnal minfal], and mBay of tbem bein^fhtlfe
tlio loss from evnporatiL>n is verj great : unfortanately also, aevml
tlio reservoirs eotiKlract^d in uid nLortlj after IBtU nere ycijU
live, bolli iu level and in alignmeut, their execution baving It
eiitruHtod to native clerks of tUo colieottire' law courts.
Even nnder these extreme difUidvimtaKeSi the works piud is UiS-
ai much as 10^ pur cout., nltliongh the water rate was ivna
only two yciiirs before. Of the total ocreajfc irrigated id ISIJ-i
Iu 919 acreB were under ree qnartera of which w«rc »hi
and li}8 acres in grass; ta being supplied bylhercMnn
aitd 8421 acres by the hils. The estimated vnlmi ■}(
crops of the year waa cspective of the plantations, bI
lit present consist of I4
Tke Bandalkand I>-
it consist of five lakes mi n
voira in the Ha
nirpn. .
in the Jhansi, districts ; ihej
iinrortcinately remained
control of the tax collectors,
little ia kiion-u u
r the n
rreci „....
ant of land irrigated by the
certain amonnt
a irrigated free of
water rate, althongh an incn
land rate is levied on it.
The nam
ea of the tanks and Ukes are:
MilHnf
VOaot
Dtdtrt-
Aent
Dtetrt-
butarie..
iTTlgited.
liuUilM.In
In JAanti.
Kucha Bhawar .
. 3t
7
Thannah 5
Bama Sagar .
. 6i
260
Tikaman 1
Knchni ... .
. 16
164
Paswaratank
Pachwura ... .
. 11
10
Kirat Sagar ... j
Total .
. 39
441
KallUn Sagar ... i
Bijanagar tank
Phnlbagh .... 2
In Hamirpur
Belft Tal tank
Bejanagar, three
7
176
Desrapnr, fonr .
. 2
254
Total ... 19i
The former works irrigate the land of thirteen villages, the
that of EJxty-one j about three-quarters of the crops grown are a
inclading rice and one-fifth sugar-cane. Some approsimate fin
results of these works will be found in the tabular statistica. It
contemplation to increase the irrigation from these works to i
[831
i Affra Irri^ttHon Work$. — Tliesc worke consisted maiuly of the
ihpnr Sikri Biksin, and its cliniitieli) tlie Kbairagurh and Bai-kol,
were supplied with water by the Utangant torrent. TLe latter
I Jaipur, flows through Bhartpur, and enters the Ag^a district
1 miles east of Fattahpur Sikri. The revenue derived was not
V frojh the water that passed ijito the channels from the overSow
I Utangan, but from the cultiyation of a portion of the area of
a itself. The irrigation from these works being very irregular,
objectioDs having been rased against them on sanitary grounds,
e works instead of being improved, were abandoned in 1865, At
■hat time the capital outlay had amounted to £22 312, and the total
lirect income was £11 077, independently of increased land r
•hich probably amounted to aa much more ; the yearly direct inc
^Hn'ed between £100 and £1*.'0, the working eipenses from £600 to
SI200. It would appear therefore that, as also in the more recent
aee of the Agra canal, irrigation from which is not to be allowed
vitbin S miles of Agra, there are some traditions of local magiatrat«B
tXaz collectors that are opposed to irrigation,
le Sajputana Irrigation Workt in Mhairwara and Ajmir consist of
i iHunber of reservoirs, or tanks, having banks generally of earth,
hongh in many cases pitched or faced with rubble, and having masonry
reirs and escapes : they were made or reconstructed under the orders
if Colonel Dixon, the political agent, and had the beneficial effect of
lOttting the rather troublesome population of those districts, and
ncreasing it from 39 058 in 18S5 to 130 282 in 1845; the cost on
iriginal works being according to old accounts only £24 111, from
[8:J5 to 1846, and resulting in an increase of annual revenue of
in 300 in addition to £9«80 obtained annually till then. The
'ollovring are data of these works according to old acconnls : —
Tink. BurfiM, Content!, \^^ Tsnlt. B'lrfuce. CcntantiL ^Jj;"**-
Acnri. Cub, Y.r,l». Ac™.
Lnsani ... 27» 5 014400 273
Loharwai-a 161 3900000 ,..
Eabra ... 182 4 302 222 204
l^alikankar 182 3 099 090 437
Dorathu... 167 4 701660 ... ^
Btreme depths varying from 15 to 28 feet.
I 1867 these works were examined by an officer of considcral
■iperteiicc, f'aplain K. .1. Home, R,E,, awl tUu (w:e<ia.ftW
Cub. VMd.,
Ac™.
S«ni«gir
109
2 834(188
Tarwajft ..
. 218
387 200
364
Rnpana ..
. 25
,',24 080
36
Gobana ..
. 3.1
2 684 586
250
i
C»1
their financial reanlts, vrhicli wore then conwdereil
entirely it^djaatcd ; it is from his report tliereforc that t
of flufcTicial rcaulls given in the tahalitr Gtatistics bus heci
In ooiiaequenoe of the nnmber of tanks, nine varying bo conaidemUy
from Ihat for which the more recent rctnnia are given, namely, sii,
it is impossible to institute a. perfect comiHiriaon between the two tela
of returns ; bnt it is perfectly evident that the gross return of 4" per
eent , shown by the older returns, may hf gcnenilly correct. It appean
also, according to other aocoi ' '' Tie total nnmber of taoks in
HhuFwiiTft must be consiJe J covor a total area of Sl^'i
acres, unil irrigate 14 >J26 ar
■ In thu other 8tat«a of Ilajf idor native mlers, there baye
donbtlens bi>en a largo numb in fact, the strong sffiiii^ o!
laos between the Seljatdan tfaisnr and Rajpntann wcnU
lead ono to believe that tl i been a strong similari^ in
condition of the two conn r le still covered with tanls,
and it is hence probu.blo thai as also as mnch develupcdin
this i-cspect as its physician . Jid limited rain&ll allowed. I
InUduipur there are still one or two magnificent lnkoa,and ic Slanvar,
Jaipur, and Bliartpur, there are traces and ruins of large reservoiis,
in BOmc cases nearly obliterated hy drift sand : the primary cause of
the decay of these states was doubtless their proximity to the seat o;
govemnient of the Mughal emporora, who plandered and devastated
them; and it would at first sight appear surprising that nnder Britith
anzerainty they have not recovered and rcconstmcted their large and I
nnmerosd refiorvoirn of irrigation. The causes are prolmbly these:
these states do not jot possess the coniidcnce of the British capitalist;
&ud hence, in order to carry out eilcnsivo works, they would have to |
borrow from native bankers at an interest of 10 or 12 per cent., |
while the works under good management would probably evontaallj'
oidy pay 1?, and in a partially developed state only !) per cent. : in thfl
second place, in order to design and esocut* the works really well, they
wonld require the services of skilled civil engineers. On this lattw
9oint, difEculties arc thrown in the way by British officialism. I"
onner times, Englishmen and Europeans were prevented from entering
into the service of native priuecs from fear of (heir using ilicir skill in
assisting in military operations and rebellion i^ainst the British Oi>
Tcmment : at present, although this fear can hardly be said to exist, the
tradition still remains in the minds of the British political agents, msny
of whom prevent the native princes from engaging the servioM o(
iadcpcnilent Englishmen, ^nA W x«m«i«\ti^ m fti\t t^ldiahly wesk
[91]-
i an elective bar to the development of tigiicnlturo,
jntljr to the mntcrial progress of native Btates.
inht nj the Bombay Presiilenei/ are comparatively very few,
f little infonnation about theu available. In the district
1 tLe Nnrbada valley, is the lake of La<^lima, a tank three mill
pmrerence ; — this with 105 other tanks have been restored si
ptisli Dccitpation The Chnli tank on the Chuli ra?ine, and
^hwBT tank an the Chapra, both in the Narbada territory,
^lored in 1.846 by Captain Trench. In Gnjrat a reservoir pro-
I connection with the Tapti, intended to irrignt-e 194000 acres, is
Jt C&rricd out. In Kandeish a storage reservoir. in the Grima valley,
i] the Mukti reservoir, near Dhulia, are being constrncted : the latter
B a catchment basin of 50 square miles, which with a rainfall of 16^
thes, will collect 477 millions of cubic feet, of which the tank wE
Id about 34<i rflillions. The Hartola tank in the same district :
arly completed. In Dharwar, the MadJak tank has recently bee
i.-lracted; and some storage works in the valley of the Yerla,
■ y^aryof the Krishna, are being made. The Kkrnk tank on th
: il.-i, n tributary of the Bhima, in the ncighlmurhood of Sholapur, wi
implotcd in 1S69, and supplied water for irrigation in 1871. Tl
ttowing are the data of the original project, which was carried oi
r F. D. Campbell, Esq., C.E.:—
''riiclimeiit area 141 square miles, minimum annual rainfall 1
Fkiod discharge of Adila river 37 000 cubic feet per second.
^BADod lastdng five days gives 11 OoO cubic feet per second.
^B of Adila river 7 feet per mile, or 1 in 754.
Whg. of reservoir (ij square miles, maximum depth CO feet.
Contents of reservoir 21i22 millions cubic feet = tij inches oti
fttohmcnt area.
Calculated maximum velocity over waste weir 10 feet per secoiii
Waste weu- discharge 250 x 5 x 10 = 12 500 cubic feet p
Kond.
Total length of dam 7200 feet, inclnding 2730 feet masonry.
itaiimuni height of earthwork 72 feet, or 7 feet above flood lino.
Height of masonry 3 feet alwvo highest flood, exclusive of 3 feet
•rapet above.
Ernporntion of " feet deep during eight months ^ 750 millioi
llkic fret.
ifcatiUacd residue in botloni of tank 20 milUons cubic tcct,
CM]
It hae three oanala of diBcliarge.
i. The lowest, pereunial, '2B miles long; ita Iiead is 20 Teet «li
the level of the bottom of the tank, having a discharge of ■H cubic I
per eeconi], an area irrigttble from it of 2S square milea,
912 millions trabic feet.
ii. The next for a four inontlia'
diechar^ of 42 cnbic feet per eec
21 sqnaro milcH, 4 nonllis, 435 milli
mpplj, 18 miles long, ia^Bg
□nd, an area irrigable fram it
ons cnlnc feet.
iii. The ne«t for a four ""■' sapply, 4 miles- long, hariiig-
dischai^e of 21 cnbic fe«t
10 Bqaai-e mites, 4 montljH,
one 4 rannthB" channel will
The duty of water for r
per aecond, and that for all
Acreage nador comraanti
The Water rat« for pert
crops 8b.
The Calculated coat of t.
id, an area irrignble from it
>nB cubic feet. The disofaarge
iisated b; the mansun sapplj.
a fixed at 96 acres per cafain ft
!ther at 150.
I is I6a., and that for one Ml
i ilOO 937, inclndiog 15 p
cent, fop eHtiiblishment; the probable gross revenue will be cvenloallj
fill 820, and till! cost of maiutenance £232-3, at 3 [ler cent, on the out
lay; this will yield a net revenue of £il491, or ',' per cent, on tbi
capital expended.
Tia Tanks of Ilai^arabad are extremely numerons, tbe whole of tin
eastern portion of this state, which consists of black cotton soil, ii
thickly studded witli tliem. They are all of the Madras tj-pe, BimiW
to those of the ncigbbooring districts of Kamul and Ballari, wA
are believed to be in a very bad Elat« of repair. There are aluoi
few large artifieitd lakes, aB, for instance, the Hosen Sagar nat
Sikandnmbad, and traces of others, that at one time must hnie
supplied a largo amount of irrigation. There is unfortunately no illfo^
mation avuilable as to their number or effective power, HaidarabeJ
being an independent state extremely jealous of external interfercnca
Latterly, however, the Nizam has engaged the scrvict-s of two M
three Eriglish civil engineers, and it is hence very probable that 111
has also commenced the rcpiur and reL-onstmction of those tanks, vvi.
the view of redeveloping the irrigation of hta province.
The Trmkt of the Central Frovinees and Berar ar« like those o
Bombay, comparatively few anil generally of small size ; the Kanhai
reservoir jiroieet, whicl^ u\vnV\cs n,&\ot!n^CTcwKNo\i;<wvering 41 sqnar
K VUiTih cunnl 14S mites long, aud minor chtinnela of 400 milue
» nggregnte, is tttill not commenced, lu Bcrar, a fertile cotton
■ province that would g'ain cnorniouBly from the advantages
intion, the tanks aro few, small, and in a neglected condition:
B time imagined that any large storage projects for irriga-
, tliis prorince would bo perfectly impracticable owing l« tha
vtion of the country; yet in 1870, three large storoge ret
•rcre prtiposed at Donad. Balajior, and Akola, as well as eevt
• ones, by a civil engineer appointed by the Government
Moi^t of these projects were then set aside by the proviw
1 of tlie Public Works Department, a military man totally die-
3 the advantc^es of irrigation ; it is, however, now probable
I nnder futui-e more enlightened auspices, Berar may be changed
P a well irrigated and permanently prosperous province.
Kn« Tbat* of the Madras Prttideiiey are exceedingly i
% BOrae of them are of immense size. They were made under the
fl of the Telingi rajahs. In the fourteen districts of Madras
aid to be 53 OOO tanks, having probably 30 OOli miles of
ikmcnts, and 301) 0(XI separate masonry xvorks, weirs, and
9, yielding a revenne of £1 500 000, and having a capital sank
hem of 15 millions sterling; yet in 1853 not one now tank had
n made by the English, while a very large proportion of them had
a allowed to fall into disrepair.
I, The Viranam tank, a very ancient work, has an area of ,3S eqnare
s, and an embankment 12 miles long ; it is still in full operation,
d secnres an annual revenue of £11 453.
|.Tli« Chcmbrambakam tank in Cliinglipnt resembles a large nataral
9, its embankment ia more than three miles long, and it has six
with a total width of 676 feet of escape ; it supplies
BlOOO acres of rice cultivation. This tank was enlarged in 1867)
ift cost of £41 000.
IThe Ifodrantakam tank at Chinglipat yielded a gross return in
lD72of £lSd7, and a net return of £1607 on a capital outlay, pro-
Uy spent in repairs or reconstruction, of £2243.
1 The Knvcri-pak tank in North Arcot is also of great antiquity ; it
■ fed &om the Paler river, and has an embankment nearly fonr miles
ig, revet«d with stone along its entire length ; it irrigates about
In 1872 its banks were much damaged by an extm*
inary flood, and some repairs were therefore made. There is a laigo
mber of tanks in die deltas of tlio large rivers of Madras, the
irrigatiou from which is anfortuoatelf mixed np with that fivm
■ deltaic canalu iu the official repurts and retnrnB.
In Tact, tilt! paucity of triuitworthj statistics of the Unb I
ICadiHs, on which fho ngricnltural prosperity of eo large a porfMnH
India isdcpeodent, and on the repairs of which all capital jadiciim^
■pent aeema to yield from SO to AO per cent., is most sarprislng,
Tk« Tanki of Xaitur are of native origia ; they ore exceed;
nnmerons, the whole country being amply eappHed with irrigntioa Iji
many scrieii or chains of thee however, owiu« to the
fignmtion of the country of s idling in a few casea. Thq
are in a very deteriorated i 1 have soETered greatljitwi
Bikiag up and want of n >d management. The 1«#
uaoniit of water ntihzed in ur, is indicated in the
of the rivers of that provi fortunate that the irrigilti
acreage due to tanks and sscpambly minted in offitui
records. Maisur, oUhougl eleratod fiom 2O00 to 30(ft
feet above mean sea level, uik zception of the Unload gr
rainy traels of the Western (jtiats, a snjall amonnt of rainfall, tliiii
forcing water storage as an absolute necessity on its popalatit
on the other hand, has the disadvantages of a sandy, and benis
leaky soil, and comparatively steep BuHace slopes, the longitudinal
■lopes varying from 10 to 20 feet per mile in the flatter portions, sod
60 to 80 in the steeper portions of the country, and more rapid trant-
verse slopes; the former enhancing the cost of storage, the lalta
diminishing the breadth of irrigation from the cliannels of distribntion.
Stone is abundant, and is worked into rough forma, though too bard
to be dressed for ordinary work. It is a gneiss of horizontal cleavage,
Thick splits into sheets 3 to 24 inches thick, and 25 to 3o feet lonj,
and is excellent for sliihs and pillars, too bard to he dressed for ordinMj
work. For pitching, natural boulders are used, which are generally very
ronnd. Clay, on the other hand, is very rare ; and lime is gencrall/
to be found only at great distances, and is hence often dispensed with
in anicuts and overfalls, which are made to depend for stability on tha
size and position of the boulders.
According to the returns of 18-53, there were 26 450 tanks iu Maianr,
of which 410C were large irrigating reservoirs, 13 737 small, and 8609
unirrigating, i.e., in a useless condition ; giving ahont 1 oflective tank
per sqanru milo in tlio trrOBs ; the nrca of Mi(l.,ur Wing 27 2(13 sqiwre
miles, of which tiu per cent, is under the tank system. Is the serca
districis of Kolar, ^here Mxn er« moderate conditioni - (^ rainbHi
A no Tery liirgc reservoirs, there were 3611 tjinks, of which 2960
n<B irngKting, giving 1'07 lunka to a square mile, and an approxi-
aAo a%'emge (juaatity of wet coltivatioa of 10 acres to each tank.
a the coinparalivoly minless tract, comprising portions of sii
i»tricl», on which the annaa] rainfall varies between 10 aud 20
nclics, there were lOOf tanks, giving 0'31 irrigating tanks per
ic|aarc mil;, and 2"5 acroa of wet cultivation as an average to each
amk. Afler that time a certain amount of money was spent in
evp&irs. In 1866, however, the EiecntiTo Engineer of the Bangalor
DiTiaion had reported that fully half the tanks under bia charge were
brraclicd ; in Chittaldrng 285, or one-third of the recorded nnmber,
out of order ; in 1'omkur, 530 out of 1124 ; in Shemugab, 2496
cmt of 4520 ; and in the Maisur Division, 705 out of 1109. Hence, it
■ppcars. that there were in all about 1500 larger tanks requiring
rrpnir at a rate of £300 each, and 3000 smaller at £150, and that a
total ontlay of £000 000 was necessary to put them in good order.
In 1872-73 as many as 249 tanks were breaebed. The Irrigation
IVpnrtinent of Maisnr is now dealing with the matter gradually, by
■ '-S^^ '''" '*^''s up to a certain standard of repair, and then handing
..' ni over to the aaperiuttndence of the tax collectors; by theae
.u;in8 it 18 hoped that the tanks of MaiBBT will be economically
I'jiigbt into good condition.
Among the very large reservoirs requiring special notice, are Uie
' N LTgar Sniikerrai, on the river of that name, which has a margin of
' ■ Hit 40 miles, and an embankment 1000 feet long, 84 feet high, and
foet breadth of base ; the Maddak tank on the Yedavatti, whose
iibankmcnt is 1220 feet long, and 90 foct high, having a breadth of
,-o of CGO feet; aud the Motitalao, on a feeder of the Lokani, having
: embankment 117 feet high, 22-1 feet long, and a breadUi of base
:' 375 feet. These are in specially favoured situations, between two
i I> guarding the outlets of largo valleys. The proposed Mauri Cunawai '
mid Kombarcattai reservoirs have similar sites.
Ttption ((f an average Maisur Tank. — Length of dam } to IJ
; 18 feet high, 12 feet top breadth, 60 feet base. Front revet-
ment of rough stone, with a batter of 1 to 2, its facing 1'5 to 3 feot
thick backed with the same thickness of loose rubble ; sltiicos 1 to 3
to each tank ; section of vent 21 foet X 2 feet, length 30 to 120 feot,
inLm of section sometimes barrel- shaped, sometimes rcetangalari they J
■ ^iil off from the lowest point in the tank. Inlet cistern 3 feet higJ
■ • feet square, outlet uiatcms the same ; p[agpol«lHul gibbed sto
orific«; escEipo weirs 1 U>4forcacli IadIc, 30 to 3uO feel wide, miide
largeet stones, vr&ter front 3 to 9 feet deep ; dam Btaaat 3 feet
4^ feet higl], which wlica dammed give 2 feet mora water; wing
3 to 6 feet high, converging and oftcrw&rda diverging ; toil pansd
etoping for a long dtHtauce or borizontaJ : & lower stone wall m
times placed across the tail at some distacce oS* to inlero^ k
the escape water, which is taken ofi' by a eliamiel.
mhtg Watencorkt, by Henry Conybeare, M.I.C.E., and
— Walker, C.E.
( the firet of the Indian cities to cany out for itself
B on Bt modem system, and call in the aid of English civil
• to design and saperintend their execution.
B5^ Mr. Henry Conybeare determined that the Vehar baain,
valley of the Goper, was adequate to the collection and storage
the water that would be required for Bombay for some years ;
rlta were therefore confined to the formation of one artificial
md their execution entrusted to Mr. Walker aa Resident
ter ID ISoH. The catchment area was 3948, and was capable
ig extended by catchwater drains to 5500 acres ; the annual
I 124 inches, of which it was calculated that six-t«iiths op
tehee would be available, would in these cases supply 6(500 mil-
ir 90O0 million gallons. The storage capacity allowed was 10 800
I gaJIons i deducting from this the loss from evaporation, which
Dcbes per month for the eight dry months of tho year, would
t to 1000 million gallons, the available supply would be 9800
18. As the annual rainfall on the gathering grounds greatly
cd the annual consumption of Bombay, it was evident that the
^ronld continue to rise in tho lake from the commencement to
td of the rains, or for three montlis, leaving only nine months'
uption to be provided for. Hence, the reserve allowed in tho
was equal to 9800 — 3700 = 6100 million gallons, at an allow-
if twenty gallons per head per day for a population of 700 000
; oine months, and was thus nearly equal to two years' supply.
en filled up to the level of the waste weir, the maximum depth of
ebar lake is 80 feet ; it covers an area of 1394 acres, and stands
et above the general level of Bombay. The three dams by which
ater in tho lake is impounded are as respectively 84, 42, and 49
1 extreme height, and 835, 555, and 931) feet in extreme length
g top, and they altogether contain the following quantities as
; earthwork, 406 066 cubic yards ; puddle, 55 059 ; broken
onder pitching, 1983 cubic yards j and pitching, 53 617 square
, The top width of dam No. 1, which carries a road, is 24 feet,
Jiat of tho two others 20 feet ; the inner slope of all three
akments is 3 to 1, the outer 2^ to 1 ; the embankments were
led to be formed in regular layers less than f> inches thick,
ed, pniuied, and conBolidated. The puddle walla are 10 f^t
I
I
tos]
wide at tbe top, and baltor 1 hiB
excavated through tho Huriace rock and past oil Bor&ee sprin
tlio fioiid basalt bclon' ; the slopes and tops of tlie dams were (
with 12 inches of stone pitching over 12 incliee of broken stom
The wAst« weir is 3-SB feet long, and has a top width of 20 feet
with ashlar. The water is drawn &wm the reservoir throngh b
provided with four inlets, at vertical iotorv&Ia of 16 fcot, having
meter of il inches, and provided with conical ping seats faced wit
metal — tho plugs being snspendod from a balcony, and wott
cranes at the top of thf e inlet in nse is EnraionDta
nroQght-iron straining' id with No. 30 gnage copp«
and fixed to a conical nto the inlet orifice in die
manner as Ibe plags, ( able of being raised or lowei
pleasure ; the strainer jf 54 square feet. The stni
eo affixed to the cage i its being changed in ten nt
from a boat, and a p or the cage. At the bottom
inlet well, and exnctlv nee to the main, is anotbo'C
seat, into which a sii age, having a sarface of 90 i
feet of No. 40 gauge copper- wire gaoEe is inserted. The objects (
arrangement were to utilize the whole bead of water, inclndin,
due to the depth of tho lake, which would have been lost had the
been strained at the outside foot of tbe dam ; and to avoid the
heavy sluice- valves, in positions in which it would be difficult to
them. Without this, the utmost head obtainable would have be
sufficient for a distributioQ by gravitation alone. No filtration ui
meats nor sludge-pipe were considered necesBary.
The suppy main traversing the dam is 4L" interior diameter, a
metal 1} inches thick : it is laid in a level trench excavated in th
and filled with concrete : the portion traversing the puddle tn
supported on ashlar set in cement, puddled to a depth of 6 inche
then arched over with four rings of brick in cement ; two tea]
washers being affixed transversely on the pipes to prevent any
from passing between the pipes and the paddle. At the slmce-
situated at the outside foot of the dam, the lai^ main, 41 inc
diameter, bifurcates into two mains, each 32 inches, which co
for a distance of nearly 11 miles to Bombay. The supply is distr
through tbe town by branch and street mains in the usual waj
hydrants are self-cloaing, and of a design tliat admits of their c
either with or against the water preasure, the coanberweights
adjusted to tbe resistances at the various levels of the town .* the
ralFes, 32" diameter, are so cosstmoted aa to be capaUe of being
1 under the severest presBore, with a very trifling exertion of
B smaller valves arc on Underhay's system, which admits of
nl of the valve seat and valve, without dietnrbing the laying
vtioa of the mains. The water is delivered under a presaura
165 to 180 feet. The actoal delivery of water commenced in I
The original estimat* of these works was £250000; '
b, inclnding interest, was £G55 000. The result was a supply
Bot water to Bombay of 8000 instead of 3800 million gallons
inging in an annual revenue of ^38 000. At present, in 1873,
> population has increased to 800 000, the supply per head
to only 10 gallons daily, and an additional supply is required.
Iirojocts, having Uiis object in view, have been proposed by Mj*.
Aitken, Captain Hector Tolloch, and Mr. Bienzi Walton, C.B.,
1 Engineers, and a very large amount of time has been spent '
nag them.
|kdn<
The Madras Waterworks.
fcr the Water Supply of Madras and Irrigation t
W. Fraser, C.E., Esecutive Engineer.
■iginal estimate of the works was as follows : —
dam across the Cortclliar stream ...
itb head and other sluices, bridges, and
ottier requisite works, for 8^ miles, hxna ihe dam
to Cholaveram tank ••
le enlargement of this tank by raising its embank-
menta 18 feet ... ... ,,, ...
channel 2 j miles lironi Uie Cholaveram to the Ked
Hill tank, with aloices, bridges, and other
Tlie enlargement of this tuik by raising its embank-
ments la feet ... ... ... ... •■>
A channel from R«il Hill tank to the Spur tank in
Madras, with sluices, bridges, and other works ...
ipensation, superintendence
r it, by
En consequence of alteration of design and increase of rates the
iseqnent revised estimate amounted to £104 2l>4.
The dam as erected was 469 feet long, and 6 j feet high at crnt^
■ [loij 1
^^BS^'l acres of rice, at 700O per sere, yielding £GOUO, at lis.
^^^k and 33 millions for water supply. Asgaming that the
^Hdd of Madras will iocroase from 170 OOO to SOO OO), and will
^^Bi supply of 20 gallons per head daily, their wants will not
^^HkZ million cabic yards per annum. The distribution of the
^^^Bply from the Spnr tank forms a Eeparate municipal under-
^^B the municipality of Madras agreeing to pay 1 rupee per 1000
^^Hrda of water taken from it.
^^Kriginal tal«a of work per oubio yard were— earthwork of all j
^^^fc to 4 annaa; puddling, (j to 8 annas; revetment, 8 annaa; |
^^Hirk complete, 3 rapees to 3 rupees 4 annaa ; thus, quarrying i
^PParing, 1 rnpee 8 annaa ; cartage, 2 j miles, 1 mpoo j building, '
^&ae. These rates were afterwards increaaed.
iPfce capital outlay up to the end of 1871-72 waa £104 772, but
'>•• further sums were spent during 1872-73 ; from which it would ■
. ' l:at the Madras waterworks are now nearly in perfect working
. . the income and cost of maintenance up to 1872-73, was £222
' i-.'JU reEpfictively ; and during 1872-73. £1510 and £6ti7.
Tlie Calcutta Watcrivurks.
wigned by W. Clark, C.E., in ise,*), carried out with alterations by '
— Smith, C.B. The intended daily aupply, 6 million gallons, '
Qaiieral Degiyn. — The water is drawn from the river Hughli at Pultah,
mites from Calcutta, through an iron suction pipe protected from
k cnrrent by an open iron jetty, the suction boxes, 36 inches, being
rentd with an iron sheet perforated with one-inch holes. The first
pnes are situated at Pultah, close to the river; they are three
mber, high pressure, double acting, eipanaive, condensing, of 30
P., nomioal h feet stroke and 30 feet lift, and pump twice a day
ring low water, for five hours each time, into the settling tanks
Iw to them. The settling tanks are six in number, each being 200
500 feet, arc used and cleaned in regular rotation : it takes ons
>ntb to clean one, the deposit of mud being very large, oven as much
one cubic inch to the cubic foot, or 1 part in 728 in bulk when dried.
I ticwerer this has to be removed from the settling tanks in the fluid
itc of soft mud about three or four times daily, the above proportioi
bulk amounts to or from 4O0O to SOUO cubic feet of mud daily from
nilUoii gallons of water. For cleansing the bottoms of the settling
a are arranged in a series of corrugations 48' 6" wide ; on each of
Ma drain 4' wide by 1' 3" deep is formed, into which the water
I
I, &B coarse &euig genemlljr alongside of a Iiigli road. Ths
) (all from PulUli to Calcutta, a distance of 17 mileB, is about
Tliis covered reaervoir, intended for storage in emergency, ia
E 200 X 20 feet, of which IC feet ia available for storage, hold-
H milKon gallons. The bottom consists of a aeries of
■ 15 feet span, and two rings thick, turned on a floor of 6 inches .
rete ooTCred with a byor of aaphalte. The outer walls are 2' ff^'U
LiplaHtered with cement. ^
1 this reaervoir engines, three in number, and similar to those
, any two being able to carry on the work, pump during
ptiroe the supply required for tweuty-four hours for the northern
D of Calcutta into the tmnk-mEiina, and during the night-time
■required for the southern division of Calcotta into a covered
r at Welliogton Square : for both these purposes the engines
B water from the bottom of the reservoir to a height of 50 feet
ft tlie bottom.
^rAttiion. — The distribution is effected from the store reservoir
a two divisions. Ist. A 30-inch inlet-main from the works
ii to the canal aqnednct, thence continued up to the Circular
1, 1408 yards. 2nd. A 2-t-inch main from the junction of Circular
d and Comwallis Street to Wellington Square iSGi yards long.
»lii« pipe serves during the daytime as a main to supply the northern
n of the town at a low presauro of 50 feet head, and at night to
« tank at Wellington Square ; whence the supply of the soathem
D is carried on by engiaea under high pressure.
» engines at Wellington Square are three ia number, and of
r principle to those at Pultah and Tallah, bat are of 75 H. P.
; any two will do the necessary work, the power being tliat
B»ry to distribute the full daily supply in six hours from the level
f the bottom of the reservoir to a height of lUO feet above the
, Of a total lift of 120 feet. The work actually done by two
e engines, in ordinary practice, is to raise 1^2 gallons at each
te, at a speed of 20 revolutions per minute, or in thirteen hours
ll three tons of fuel, to raise 3i million gallons under a lift pres-
B of 60 feet.
For the low pressure dirision there is also an auxiliary 18-inch
, 13i5 yards long, and two 12-inch mains, both together 2980
rards long. For the high pressure division, the auxiliary and lateral
nk-maias are — one 24-inch main, 220 yards long; throe IB-inch
ins amoonting in length to 3810 yards; and ben 12-tnch amounting
length (o Ci'i},^! yanls; exclusive of two trunk-mains 12-inch and
[104]
9-uicUc
of the n
Sontheni DiTisioa ... 220 3840 B-bSS 1465 H
NOTtbera Division 1408 1664 1344 2980 ... jM
Total 1108 5084 5184 US65 1465 M^
These mainB have alao dbtrict senrice mains in loops or eeddoi
clositblfl by vftlvea aa fol'""-- ^" *''e low pressure division tliejo
13 in numl>er, in the li, division 26, consisting of Ik
following le^ngths in yai
r f %' Tjdnt.
Lowpreasnre 1830 6 414 1912 24
High pressure 2214 17 212 833G 48
Tlie water-pipea arc I along the streets on the ■
opposite to that of the i; are in 9 feet lengtiis, snd
the weights naaaltjr adi
The total length in jards ol luc luains are as followa : —
Tnmt muni. Loop maliu. TaWl.
Low pressure Dirision 10 596 24 064 31660
High pressure Division 14 110 42 964 5707*
Totals 21 706 67 028 91 734
or about iiii miles.
The inclinations adopted are as follows :— I^m Pnltah to TIM
1 in 5500 ; slndge culvert, 1 in 500 ; river water culvert, 1 in 1600
clear water cnlvert, 1 in 1000.
The loop system being adopted in all fatore extensions or nei
district mains, dead ends are altogether ayoided ; bo that on openia
the valves connecting these mains with the tronk-main, a free dicnli
tion must take place thronghont; the loops cannot be connecb
together, bnt additional pipes can be inserted into any of these loq
to obtain an extended distribntion. The pipes allowed are folly ii>
to distribute 12 million gallons daily, or double the amonnt at prese;
required. It is intended to keep the pipes constantly foil under pn
Bore, so BB to obviate any necessity for cisterns.
Besides the above supply for Calcutta, the works will give erentoa]
a supply of 120 000 gallons daily to the cantonment of BanM^
involving an elevated tank 50 feet high, 4660 yards of S-tnch im
^itS ft supply of 60000 gallotie to the cantonment of "nam-C
r a pressure of 50 feet through iiiJOO yards of 6-inch pipe.
) total coat of the water delivered in Calcutta, half at 50,
f at 100 feet pressure, is eHtiraated at about 30 OUU gallons for £
very of the roaio snpply commenced in 1860.
e estimated prime cost waa —
Price and rent of land taken for tho works ... £11 082
Machinery and Works, engines, filters, reaer-
voire, pipe to Tallah 37? 838
Trunk and district maJna, valves and hydrants,
after deducting for valve of Bome received ... 106 676
Total,,
Engineering and contingencies 15 per ceut. ..
Snpply to Darmckpur and Dam-Dam
, 405 596
. 75 000
. 10600 ■
i581 096
%e annnal expenses are estimated at £75 964, inclusive of £57 060
krepayment of loan, at 10 per cent, on cost of works.
Tie Ambajhari Reservoir, constructed by A. Binnic, M.I.O.E.
e name of the projector of this scheme, which is an enlargement
ft native tank, is not mentioned in the official records : it was chosen
D among other projects for tho supply of Nagpur, by Mr. Ilinnie,
^860, and laid before Government in the two following forms : —
i^ect JTo. \.— Water Supply of JVA^ipur.— Popnlation, 84 000;
tehment area, 6'6 square miles, bare and basaltic, having an annual
bfall 40-73 inches, mansun rainfall 37'52 inches. Proportion run
Q an average mansun '43, minin
^be evaporati
mbay, which
■, hence all I
a for Nagpi
i be 2-5 feet
lowed 7 gall o
s based on Conybeare's measurements at Vehar,
2'5 feet in eight months of dry season, or \ inch
made for 3'5 feet in eight mouths as a mosi-
The rate of silting determined from obsen-ation
80 or 90 years ^ '375 inches annually. Snpply
per head daily, and aa this is all wanted nearly
e time, the pipes are made to deliver 15 gallons per head
There is no filtering arrangement, but strainers of copper-
gauze are used, being fiied in wooden frames ii '
. The siphon is 2-5' in diameter, length 185, riao 15, fall
tion : air pipe 3" diameter. The siphon joiui
:!
[IWJ
are turned and bored, flongea packed with wood, bolted and
with honp iron, bolts and waahere. The majtimiun head is 78 (■(
or Stliis, per nquare inch, hence the pipes are teeted to 1301k
per sijuare inch. The formnia used for the discharge of pijiee il
Young's Eyt«lwoin, v = 50 . / /- —- \ There are sconriiig
nlves at low points. The embankment is in layers 12 inebes tiici,
inclining inwards 1 in ti, ret«ntiTe clayey material alone oaeili il>
■ anrfacea of hard material, covered with 12" of rough hand pilching; iu
alopos are outer IJ to 1, in a foundation is stoppeil «iid
benchi^d. The escape woii rabble, its sill of angle-im
3 X -t X i welded and ho i. The waste wateivoiirbe i>
Iff, broad at bottom with s. The main pipe is carried ro
wftlls of mbble, or in a bed I feet thick, stepped icb tht
emkuakment ; in the valve lid in concrete. Pipes »!»«
13 inches diameter to have caulked with span yarn, uid
lead driven in with oanlkii of less than 13 inches tnnted
and bored, fixed with Ron All pipes to be tested nndn
preasnro by hammer 7 lbs. woi| jus Smith's process applied
to all pipes inside and out afl«r fitting. Distributing pipes to bear on
Bolid ground, in trenches 4 feet to 2j feet det'p, filled and rammed.
The paddle wall in the centre of the dam is 5 feet wide on the lop,
and lU below, and Si/ high, made iu layers of 8 inches.
Project No. 2, combining Irrigation tcilh Toum Supply. — Siphon B
in last project ; irrigation duty of water, 200 acres to 1 cubic foot per
second; acreage 1121, for eight months excluding waste land =
116 225 280 cubic feet in all, including 747 acres for twelve months i
diatribntion effected by a largo irrigation pipe with wide joints,
giving- 7'9S cubio feet per second to start with, «iid d^cre^ng i"
diameter bo aa to give only 2-32 cubic feet per second for water sopplr
at the city S miles off; the intermediate'points of discbai^ fb^iirigv
tion r^ulatiug the discharge and diameter of the pipe between Umo.
this arrangement hUowb 793 — 2'32 = 561 cubic feet per wcond for
21 acres of irrigation, and prevents an ezcesaive supply &om bong
cen in the city, as it might be in an open channeL The dischai^
d hence the sizes of the small irrigation outlet pipes are calculated
a if they were independent up to the reservoir ; sloice oocks are pro-
vided at the branch ontleta. A. ganging and regulating apparato^
worked by a table of discharges calculated for every -01 foot of ran
for submerged orifices and weir, controls the whole supply.
The details of the above projects were drawn up in 18€!4, the hroK'
tlM
ictioned in April 1870, and the coatemjilated irri
The eatdmatee amounted to £32 535 ; the reservoir was
1 October 187"2, but ibe distribution was not carried out by
I. The reservoir has a top surface of 370 acres, and
of 257'5 million cubic feet, of ivbich 240 millions, or IJ
ns, SJre available.
B cost of escavttting the puddle trench, including pnmpin)^, was
I, at the rate of Is. per cubic yard ; the cost of puddle, £QG59,
i. per cnbic yard ; the coat of embankment, in 1 foot layers
uid watered, waa £4277, at Sjd. per cubic yard; the
ntfs for pitching were from 5s. to lOs., and for turfing, 2s. per
llMt anperlicial feet; the total cost of the ontlut, including straining-
in.T, foot-bridge, well and valve house, was £2893, and that of the
I nfie weir, £821 ; the ral«s for ashlar, basalt, rubble, and concrete
I -lug from 278 to 54s., from 10s. to 16b., and Ss. per cubic yard.
The distribution source ia a public one, the water standards being
jilaced IW yards apart along the streets. The main pipe was 4 milea
long and I'l feet in diameter, and the distribution pipes 10 500 yards
' ill.' and 1 foot in diameter; the pipes wore delivered in Itombay at
i" is. per ton, and in Nagpur, at £11 1+b. The works were completed
«ithin tlie estimate, and a supply of 15 gallons daily per head can be
iimiiilAined in years of extreme drought.
1
TkiAiola Pnyect for Irriijalioii and Water Supply, bi/ L. D'A. Jackton,
A.I.C.E., Executive Engineer for Irrigalton in Berar. J
le proposed works consist of — fl
\ A reservoir formed on the Moma river by a masonry dam and
earthen embankments east and west of it.
Ji irrigation channel 5 miles to the first watershed, and 3 mors
to the third watershed to the east of the river, and irrigation
mnels 15 miles to the west of the river.
■ Klter beds, drinking and bathing basins, with a fountain at the
town gate of Akola, with pipes to it 1^ miles in length.
S Uatonrjf dam 625 feet long, extreme height 36 feet ; area of
snperstmctnre down to 30 feet '3H', and of foundation
Wlow that 21A ; strengthened by buttresses 50 feet apart from centre
•e centre ; the wing walls rise to S feet above the sill level and reri
'he embankments, which ore 8 feet wide at top, slopes 2 to 1 and 3
»Bd have a section lO'S H ; length of eastern wing 2751,
afreet.
tl08]
Reserrotr, extnme length aad bi«ftdtli about 2^ tuilee, area of
•prend 2300 acres : of which I'XKJ are undar caUiTatioit, and on
th«iro aru only a few amall huts.
ConteutB available for perennial irrigation, cnUc feet *11 055
Available for town Bnpply „ ... 58427360
Waato or Btanding water „ ... 8 843139
Total contents „ ... 4783213330
Beside this, there will be B'—il-W^ fijf moninn irrigatioii in seMon
of extreme drought at le es the alwve tot«l from (he
perennial flow of the rirei
I
2. Chttnwl.— Section 45 slope 1 in 3000, discharge V*i
onbic feet per second belov nnd level in section. la tasX-
orn channel 8 sapcr passa' iring section of 60 Eqnareliisl
Mid discharging 150 cnbit nd ; 8 road crossings ; 2 wia
pftssugea through embank feot pipes enclosed in muonrj
onlverte. In western cha aaaages, 12 road cnMiingi,aDd r
2 under passages. The small trenches of distribation to be made hj
. the landowners, aided, if necessary, by loan.
3. Toicn eupply. — Pipes 4 inches in diiimeter, having a fall of 1 iii
500, and discharging '25 cubic feet per second. Beds and banns em-
vated in rock, with walling above gronnd. Filter bed and baSiiiig
baain each 50 feet square and 10 feet deep. Drinking basin octagonil
having the length of each side 40 feet, and having a jet in the centn,
the water for which will be purified by a filter on the ascending prin-
ciple passing through perforated walling and tiles, then large ud
small pebbles, aand, and magnetic carbide.
Data. — Catchment area 220 square miles, minimnm downponr 12
inches of which 6 inches run off, give 3066 million cnbic feet in a;eir
of drought, and fill the reservoir six times. The extreme flood (l»-
charge over the weir sill, using a local coefficient of 1 2 for the formnls
Q = 12 X 100 (N)), = 67 200 cubic feet per second; and assnmiii;
I flood velocity of 13 feet per second, this gives a flood sectioD of
3170 sqaare feet. The waterway allowed is 8 x 125 = 5O00 square
feet ; the measured flood sections are in snpport of this.
Land under water command on the east bank 45 square miles, «wt
30 square miles; total 75, all fertile ; the perennial supply for irrp^
r
during the eight dry months is 410 million cubic feet, or 19-5 cubic feet
^r second, which at a duty of 200 acres will irrigate 3l>00 acres.
*TLe mansun irrigation supply for four wet months exceeds any
diemand that is likely to occur; the probable maximum acreage for
^UtOA will be about half the irrigable area, or 20 square miles on one
link and 15 on the other, being in all 35 square miles or 22 400
aene; the channel of supply is designed to carry sufficient to irrigate
"tte total area of 75 square miles.
Out of Worki and extension on the west bank £31 301
Compensation and Road diversion ... ... ... 1 000
Brtabliahment and contingencies 20 per cent 6 869
je39 170
Probable retnrii, when the works are fully developed : —
Perennial, t.«., 8 months, 3900 acres at 14s ... SZ 730
Iffansnn, t.^.^ 4 months, 22 400 acres ^t 4s. ... 4 480
7 210
Cc^ection, repairB, establiabment, 8 per cent. ... 577
>
r
Besolt, a net return on capital £40 000 of 16i per cent. £6 633
Or, deducting capital spent in town supply, a result of 19 per cent,
n tiie outlay on the capital spent in irrigation, independently of the
vaterrate charged to the town.
Tlie das^fication of water rates for various crops is that adopted on
fte Ban Doab Canal, but the rates themselves are doubled, as the cost
of kboorin Berar is double that in the Bari Doab. Hence the rates
iMomed for Berar are,-7-lst class. Sugar-cane, JSl 4e. ; 2nd, Rice and
gttden produce, 198. ; 3rd, All ordinary field crops, not elsewhere
neniioned, 10b. ; 4th, All millets, pulses, and grass crops, 6s. ; 5th,
A single watering, Ss. These may be expected to yield mean rates of
148. and 48; at the leasts as it is most probable that sugar-cane will be
tttensively jgrown ; all the sugar in Berar being now imported.
[110] ■ . ..-
iKRioinD Cbofs, WtTMMoaM, AID WtfB Bum
The Watmrutg qf Onft im t^aim.
The following data of Ur. Owags Higgin, OA, In U
Gsta the amoant of w>t«r reqnirad tat onip* in tli> iiB{
tricts, whore tiie wmnal nun&ll ezo^ting of Omwdik ii
'12 inches onlj.
In Valencift, bom the Jnoar, riM ...
S-00
'0!82
Id Valencu, from the Tnria, oU ...
86
-OUl
In Gnndia, lype of old
■80
■0118
InMuroin>ndOriIiiel>,old
•7*
■OlM
In GnnuU, old
«
■0041
Esla and Henares, new
•*S
■oou
Lowest duty in Spain genenllj, sew
•SO
■oon
The practice of watering unul in Talaaoia ia, fbr be
watering in 8 or 10 daja ; for maiae, beam and hemp^ one ie
fur potatoes, one in 21 days ; for cereals, one in 30 days ; th
amount givco at one watering in ordinary soil is 500 cnbic i
hectare (7060 cabic feet per acre), and the fullest ever gii
(988i).
The fonowing daU of llr. Roberta, O.K., in 1867, are b
support of the above.
ATcnga urtn&l iraUr dntf in
FetKc.
r.ri.«.p™.L=c«.
perfatct.
LitfM.
nriooi euiAli.
In Valencia
■25
De las Cinco Villaa
In Rioja (low clayey)...
•20
De Tamarito ...
In Marcia, Alicante, )
Aragon, and Cataluda )
100
Del Henares ...
Del Bsia
Cereals 4 grasB generally
■25
Del Tajo
Hnertas or gardens
•75
Del Ebro
All other Unds
■50
DelnabellaSegnnda
In extremely dry Beasons
100
The practice of watering is — for cereals, &c., 4 to 6 waterin,
for meadows 8, and for gardens 20 ; oach watering being i
2 inches deep, which = 550 cnbic metres per hectare, and
ceeding 2J inches, or 7 centimetres, which b 700 cnbic >
hectare. The average number of watoiinga in a year givt
in Valencia is 12.
[Ill]
Wtf Waltving of Crops in Fra
Om data given with reference to the Marseilles canal, in a pnper
iby Mr. George Bennie before the Institution of Civil Engineers
65, it seems that in Danphine, only one watering per week, of a
I of 3 centimetres (1"18 inclies), is given on heavy lands ; but on
soil, and with the object of making up for losses by Itltration, the
1 allowed ia 10 centimeti'es (3'04 inches) ; in lower Languedoc
Boosilloa, the sfime practice of irrigating once a week, bat with
t of S centimetres on heavy, and 10 on light land ; in the
Isle of Provence the same as in Bousillon for field crops, bat a
IT quantity for garden crops. There are, however, localities in
gnedoc and Provence, where this system is practised only daring
or two months, or for two or three times in the year,
le irrigation furnisbed by the canal of St. Julian, on the Durance,
0 hectares (8fD acres), at Cavaillon, Vaucluse, was 538 272 cubic
M a week, giving a calculated depth of watering each week of
ntimetres over that area ; and this is in support of an average
supply actually utilized of 10 centimetres once a week.
□m data given by De Cossigny in the "Notions Elementaires snr
rigations, 187i," the watering season, iu the south of France,
to the Ist of April to the 1st of October ; on ordinary land in
mce the depth of watering usually given is 8 to 10 centimetres,
;fa)B is supplied once in ten to twelve days during the sis months ;
hta amounts to a total quantity of \h 552 cubic netrcs ^ 1 litre per
■Bcond per hectare, as a continuous supply : garden crops require
ratoring once in five days, and require a supply of 2 to 3 litres per
pcond. The extreme limits are ^ litre as a minimum, according to
i. Pareto, and 4 litres as a maximum, according to M. Uangon. For
arioUR soils the same amount of water is given at each watering, bnt
be waterings are more or less frequent, varying from once in five
laya for soil ibur-fiRlis sand, to once in fifteen days for soil one-fifth
land. Summer meadows require a depth of from 5 to 10 centimetres
kt efich watering, or a continuous supply of from i to 4 litres per
lecond per hectare, or an average of from 1 to 2 litres per second ;
dtbongh they can, according to M. Mangon, utilize and profit from as
nnch as from 34 to 50 litres per second. For winter meadows the
ninimum supply advisable, according to M. Zeller, is a depth of IS -
centimetres at each watering, or a volume of 1300 cubic metres^
twenty-four hours, which is 16 litres per second per hectare; \
Biaximom which they can utilise is 1700 litres per second ;
sptu oi La ^
metres A^l
otore; ^^H
xoaA ^^1
hectare, ii ae of the Fniirie Habeaurapt; and .-ui nvcn^
■llow&nce IB iron. iO to 50 litres per second per hectare, Ritw
are considered to require a permanent depth of from 16 to 90
oentimotrea on them, in some coses aa mnch 4*) centimetres,
ft continuoTts sopplj of 1) to 2 litres per second as a minim
permanent BtagnatiaQ of the wat«r is considered very unlieall^.
Host crops in the South of France, more eapeciallj- fodder sad
crops, reqoii-e or preatly profit from irrigation. Oleaginous pi
and arborescent cnltivation -*- --' lire it Vines are floodaj
to a standing depth of 10 i ad kept thos for a monli
winter ; this destroys the p nd renders the rinea b
fruitful in the folloning sn
Tie W. t in Italy.
According to old data, tb duty in. Piedmont and Lom-
bardy was from 60 to SO s f. p. sec., in some cases frot
90 ba IW), and ran-ly 110. looted by the anther in It^||
in 1672, the duty uodor or ances is considered to taagt
between 80 and 110 on the ...woi. .^_ works. The occasion of tie
ejtecntion of the Lago-Maggiore project by Signori ViUoresi and Uen-
viglia, led to a re-o lamination of the subject ; and data were furnished
by Signor Cantoni, Director of the School of Agricultnre at lltilao, uiJ
by a special committee of engineers. The principle adopted is thai
of the French, namely, that the amount of each watering to an,Uiul
should be identical* and that the number of waterings alone ahoold
Tary with the soil and the crop.
The following are means of results determined by De Regis, Cantoni,
and the committee. The amount necessary for meadow lajid at escii
watering is 15 046 cubic feet, of which 0160 is utilised, and 5885 is
absorbed ; the nnmber of waterings given roHes from one in 7 to one
in 10 days, thus giving a duty of from 40 to 57 acres per cub, f. p. bcc;
Bandy lands requiring 'OSo cub, f. p. sec. per acre, and chiyey lands -017.
The amount necessary for arable land at each watering is 18173 cubic
it, of which 9697 is utilized, and 84.76 ia eipended : the nnmber of
iterings given varies from oua in 14 to one in 20 days, thos giving
duty of from 66 to 100 acres per cub. f. p. sec; sandy lands requiring
015, and clayey lands '010 cub. f p. sec. per acre. The average of the
irrigable land under the Lego-Maggiore project, amounting to 19369(1
acres, requires a supply of '012 cub. f. p, sec. per acre throughout tie
year, or a duty of 90 acres ; th« mazimnm dnty for clayey araUe ku^
being fixed at 110 acres.
[113]
iffoied Crop! of lie Panjab and the value of ore acre of
produce in ISTZ.
n* V«>t«ni Jvnu Ctnil, 1873.
'-cane — Saccbaram officinarum
-Go3Hypiam herbiiccum
•Crotalariajunoea
-Indigorera tinctorla ...
r — CartliamiLS tinctorios
c — Cnrcnma longa
entale
Sinapis campestrii
nd — Linum nsitatisainium
imnts — Teopa bispinosa ...
lOco — Nicotiana tabacum ...
— Papaver Bomnifernm ...
^-Coriander
n
— Ptjchotis
— TrigoneUa fcenugrcectini
— Holcus orghnm
li — Italian millet ...
fa — Penicellaria epicata ...
, — Panicnm miliacenra ...
— Zea majB
eat — Triticnm vulgaro
ley — Hordeam cwLostti
— Avena eativa
a. — Cicer arietinum
inr — Ervum lena ... ...
id — Dalichos piIoBus
Og — Phaseolas mnngo
th — Phasoolna aconitifolius...
nme — Sinji Medicago sativa
ntiy grass ...
— HoIcQs sorghnm
200
20
120
6iOO
2800
240
5GO0
CtiOO
400
400
1G80
IGOO
1520
1520
leoo
1520
1120
1200
1440
400
1440
1440
1440
3200
4300
32'Xi
1
■
■
K
^^
[IW
i!
II
i|
HI
^i|j
i
II
ill
H
If
r.|.
illi
s
^■5.
»
s-s.f
' ts
a
J
:«.
-=
— -■ .
.— ■
f
1-^
1
1
1
1"
1
~—r-
S- X
?
e
•3 _
i
3 i
;
1
_w
J. a
M S
1
i
i
5
^1
J ~s
'^
1n
^ ■"
"¥ o
■-I
^
-^Tl
1-
1
J
i
1
3
it
i
i -
1
1 _
<S
i
^ *.
V
g
s-
B
•^
s
5
(S
1
5
B
s
;3
1 f
S
i
a
^
fl
IJ
n o $
w
■
■
r
[115] ■.
w~
Hiii ^
O « X M K %
Ei'l
S23S53,_^S^
28 Feb.
31 March
31 Oct.
15 Sept.
15 Sept.
31 March
K
li-sl-s ^U
■^^U.^^ OmO
L-J = 31 ^ — -* Ol'-*
(Mi* M — . — 9)<-4
March
March
May
June
Octobe
H^
April
May
Jan.
May
Sept.
Sept.
_,„_.^^ „
sssaa ssa
cj .^ ji b ^ u^C ^
1
■si-ii ^
» ■* X o o , O » !0
&d6S a.
- -«4 --
1
Nov. to
Sept. to
Sept. to
Sept. to
October
April to
1 15 Sept.
1 15 Sept.
! 5 Oct.
25 June
15 Sept.
U April
.^IMar.
.31 Mar.
H
Mmi
June
June
April
Sept.
June
Dec.
Oct.
Oct
1 25 April 25
1 26 May 26
8 Feb. 11
25 April 1 5
12 May 26
do.
15 Oct. 27
15 Oct. 29
15 Oct. 29
1
Feb. to
March t
May to
June to
May to
Oct. to
~
u
ffl
■3
fi
s
3
s
1
1
Ik
'i
lilllllJl
u S
1 i
i
■
^B
■
^H^ 1'^
[110]
Experiment* in Walartaff Cr&pi qf Wknnt and Riee o» rt* Avf ■
Doab Otnol, by E. 0. Palafr, O.K., i"i» 1871.
The avernge of the erperimente niado and labnlated show tlnl
ftvorage depth of 0-24 feet on the wliole surfooe, represpnts b tbi
watering of Ihc average soil of the district nnder conBideration,
foreaniiy soils 031 feet, and the Rraonnt of water netwMaiy for I
average watering of one a
Wheat in a dry season n
paring the land for plougbi;
standing crop of 80WJ cnbic
aary for each acre of wheat
Rice requires ten flood
eikch flooding is the ami
average of which, given
feet of standing water '. u
reproBetits the quantity o
' 43 5i'.0 = 10 454 cubic firt
I waterings ; the first, for pit
lO pnbic feet, and funr for d|
42 i>00 cnbic feet in eJI dm*
Tionnt of wat«r neccBMKj H
iry to saturate the mil, fl
) 24 feet, together with 61
'^ feet in depth over anK
, or 0-76 X 43 500 =3261
cubic feet ; and the quantity necessary for a crop of rice is, tlierefoWi
320 "00 cnbic feet.
The land nnder consideration principally consisted of holdiops
an average of 52 acres, requiring 22 acres of Kharif, and 30 of lUbh
irrigation ; for such a farm an irrigating outlet or pipe 04 feet
diameter, working under a head of 0'4 feet, was found Bnfficieot;ttii
dificbarge being 0'3323 cubic feet per pecond, and allowing the fcnnB
eight days to prepare hia 22 acres of Kharif ploughing, and elevfli
days for the 30 acres of Rabbi ploughing. Aa the beat season for tw
purpose lasts about six weeks, ond the outlets are allowed to fio«'li«
eight days in the month at the utmost, this arrangement fJlo"*
t-jvelve days of constant flow during thftt season ; and thos a Binj*
pipe, irrigating only 27 acres per day of twcntj--four hours for plotp
ing, or 5'4 acres of standing crops, is snfiicient for all tli
required in keeping up the irrigation of a holding of 52 acres.
These data are apparently in support of the amount mentioned i"
Qlficial returns as the average supply per ncre given on the Ban D"*"
Canal, 44000 cubic feet; the latter probably including also ringle
waterings over a certain amonnt of acreage.
[117]
'••
The Canal Plantatiotu of the Panjab,
Western Jamna CanaL
r Babal'-Acacia arabica
1 — Dalbergia sissa ...
; Mulberry — ^Morus alba
/ecijneia Luna ••• ••• ••• ••• •••
-Sizjgium jambolannm
— Melia azedarach
Acacia speciosa
-[Elena cnnia ••• ••• •••
Ax^acia leacophlcea
boidarachta Indica ...
Bambnsa stricta
ftiangifera Indica
b China — Moras tatarica
Ficns religiosa •.%
meous of 80 descriptions
Numl
ber in 1872.
394 718
• • .
119 611
• • •
72 626
a ' .
33 789
• ••
17 214
• ••'
16 764
...
16 870
...
11 755
...
7 205
...
7152
. • a
4 911
• .•
3 774
• .•
2130
. • .
2 004
Total of all sorts
Giri Doab Canal.
809 797
Bj
n — Dalbergia sissn
-Acacia arabica
•• •
...
•••
1
>fnmber in 1872.
... 451 566
... 173124
••• ••• ...
...
•••
71710
I y ... ...
•*•
• . •
54458
Ax^cia speciosa
])edrela tana ...
• * •
...
...
47 292
31853
... ... ...
...
• •«
16 735
Prosopis spicigera
et — Ficus caricoides
...
•• •
...
11651
9 760
1 •• • ...
• • •
• * •
6178
— Pmnus padus
••1
...
4 887
— Melia sempervirens
•Dodonnoea barmaniana
...
•••
...
5 066
4850
jizypbns flexnosa
• . •
••\
•••
4 689
—Bombax heptaphyllom
uieous trees of 83 descriptions
...
•••
8 013
•••
Total of all sorts 955 567
I
J
(118]
The Cropi of Oritta and their Wateriagt.
The Lato Crops, watered between June I and December 1 >—
On pfluod from
Ongnranjfn*
1. Sartid rice ... April to Feb.
3.
Laghnrice ... MaytoNm.
2. Bijali rice ... May to Oct,
On groniid from
Ongnadfaa
1. Sngar-cano ... April to Jlnr.
?■
Yams May tc Fab,
2. Tnnnerio and ) .
wand plantain AVhdejcu.
The Early Crops watered 1
mber 1 and June 1 :—
OngKBii.
On peand bw
1. Dalna rice ... Feb. to
•obaeoo . ... Kov. to Apr-
•2. Wheat Nov. tc
Jori&uder ... Oct to Feb.
•S. Barley
•4. Gram and peaa „
>nionB and l „ ,
6. Achuu cotton Nov. U
chua castor oil Nov. to Feb
The Diy Crops not requiring .. ■
&■
are: — ^
Late Crt>}m.
Earlg Cropt.
1. MimdiiL.
1. Wbite kuUhi,
2. Birl pulse.
3. Bluck kultUi.
2. While rang.
3. Harar chaitra.
4. Jlustard.
4. BliLck mng.
5. Linseed.
5. Jute and hemp.
Both Season Orvpi.
6. Haldiya cutloti.
1. Harar nali.
7. Hnldiya castor oil.
•2, Til.
TolseB generally.
N.B. — The crops marked • are n
»rely c
nltivated.
The nsnal rotation of the dry t-rops is, 1st year, Biyali rice (whict,
like Laghu rice, can be prown without irrigation), followed by pulses
kalthi, mng, linseed, or mnatard ; 2nd year, cotton, tonneric, ginger, or
aagar ; 3rd year, follow.
The conntry cotton is an annual ; of oil seeds, castor-oU is the only
one that profits from irrigation ; pulses and linsoed suffer from rBin;
ginger anil turmeric require only one or two waterings ; sugar-cane is
Bometimes planted as early as f ebnury and cut in K^ovomber. There
is a coarse species of rioe grown in swampy tracts called boro dbaii-
The yield of Somd rice, the staple crop, is said to be donbled bf
irrigation, and amoant« to 10 cwt. per acre.
t of Water required Jbr tke Irrigation of Bice in Orma, jro»
the Experimenlt of Mr. Jamea Kiinher, C.E.
I Balagnrriali Plot of 51'3 acres was irrigated by means of &
L Toot square, and a field ohannel 700 feet long thorefroia. The
■tents were initde in the year 18/2, irhich had a total rainfaJI
irrigating season of 53 inclics. From the 7t!i to 14th
P,872, the water ran with '5 foot depth in channel, and a head
, the discharge for those seven days being 9G.5 584 cnbic feet
) cubic feet per second; gauge readings being made four times
ron eiich side of the field sluices. Tbe readings reduced and
1 averaged to give a mean daily head ; from this, the
t of opening, and the number of hours open, the daily dis-
8 calculated. The total results were thus : —
I wnonnt of Witter given 2 885 00(i cub. ft.
lirrigsted 2 368 028 sq. ft.
Aniit of water represented vertically 1-213 feet,
amber of hnors irrigating ... ... ... 674 hoars.
uty during actual irrigation of 1 cnb. ft. per sec. 4(5 acres.
frtnal duty on the area of 1-19 cub. ft, per sec. 54-3 acros.
Bimilar expcHincut was made on the Srimuntapor Plot, but in
hislanco nearly doable the water actually needed was used in
nler hi obtain as much silt as possible ; this then gave a duty daring
ctoal irrigation of 1 cubic foot per second to 38 acres over forty-eight
nys.
[n the former caeo, however, the irrigating period was 074 hours, or
wcmly-eight days. Now the worka generally are designed to give tha
uno quantity of water bnt spread over 120 days, hence each cubic foot
f water from the canal might be made to do 'j'jf = 4 times the duty
hown in the present experiment ; and taken this way, the daty capable
f being efiected would be 4 x 40 = 184 acres per cubic foot per sccuid ;
r, taking an average of the two sets of experiments, of which the latter
»ms of little valae, in combination with Ihe former, of 152 acres per
ohic foot per second, Bnt an average of tbia sort cannot so well be
etermined from an isolated plot, as it could bo from utilisation of the
'hole of the discharge of a completed distributary. The most. useful
»alt in this case was the absolute amount of water per acre taken
■om the channels, which was ?J.h*oii« = 53 40C cubic feet in the firat |
ue, and very nearly double that in the aeoond.
H^^^^^H
^
■
■
■
Tke Unirrigatei Crop* tf Bmvr.
TT*i»l i*t*
of wxrinc.
i
1
1
1
1
1
na Jmrat Khuif, or ttzlj drj
cmpa.
an-.
Dw
IbL Ik
t Cotton, GoBsypinm hor-
ba«nm fl
120
150
iix) m
t Jowftri, HolcuB aorghnj 7
120
160
m a
t Bajri, Holcus spicalua 4
00
105
m m
Til, Sesamum oriental 7
90
105
m m
t Rice, Orifw Buti™ . 5
i;o
105
m w
Aiubari, Hemp ... . 3
90
120
eObmOi
Baru, Flax , 2
60
90
IWtaOi
tBhsdti 5
60
75
120
Math .. 5
90
105
8)
Holag , S
90
120
80
• Udidh
7
90
105
m •,
• Hag, Phaaeolas mnngo
10 JQiJ
i
105
120
300
*Tar
'
5
90
120
180
t Ginger, Zingiber oflici-
July
12
?00
1000
UW)
Hed pepper, Capsicum
Th* itmjtX Ekbbi, DT l4t« drj
cropi.
tWieat, Triticam vnl-
t Tobacco, Nicotiana ta-
22 Sept
5
105
135
200 3JI
bacum
Sept
8
90
160
200 «
Kardi
26 Sept.
5
90
135
120
Lakh ■
fl60
Gram, Cicer arietinnm
160
Juwfls
Marar, Errnm leas !"
9 Oct.
5
105
135
80
■ 80
tVntana
Giuimol J
160
80
Hongh data of increase of yield to the above crops by imgatiM.
Jowari, one half more. | Rice, foor times more.
> one qaarter more.
BajH, one quarter more.
Til, one half more.
SmM"
[121]
The Irrigated Crops of Barar.
kjat or Wet Oropt grown on
ti perpetually iir^^ated or
pi damp by run.
Usoal date
of lowing.
Be, Zea mays
per, Capsicum perenninm
gan or Brinjal
limng
ja, Cannabis satiya
••• ••• •••
••• •••
5
OQ
I
g
Produce per
acre, eiLcIuding
straw, &c.
•••
IJnly
on, Allium cepa
lie, Allium sativum .«
lii,Trigonella fenugreecum
rots, Daucus carota
id
••• ••• ••• •••
um, Papaver somniferum.
gmurla ••• ••• •
?ura ••• ... ••* ••• •••
eat, Triticum Yulgare ...
^ar-cane, Saccbarum offici
narom
ig of Goor
91
25 Sept.
9>
INov.
••• •.• ••• •.•
••• ••• •••
md ...
•li
"ai ••• •*. ••* *•* ***
9!^aia ...
iwala
••• ••• ... •••
•.• ••• ..• ••• •••
••• ... ••• •••
9>
f}
Days.
5
7
7
5
8
7
6
7
8
8
5
5
6
5
Mareb
ntain
I, Piper betel
lit trees
.« ••• ••• •••
••• ••• ••• •••
••• ••• •••
... ••• ••• •••
»»
•»
23 May
•••
Days.
75
105
120
90
150
37
37
30
75
135
75
75
90
105
Days.
105
370
370
120
150
120
120
120
75
135
90
90
120
120
12
7
7
7
8
5
5
•••
•••
300
37
40
75
90
90
37
360
•••
300
75
80
90
120
120
75
450
Average. Max,
lbs. lbs.
100
2000
4000
800
1600
•••
•••
...
•••
•••
1200
10 20
..• •••
240 •••
300 ...
1600 7500
•*.
•••
•••
400 trees.
•*•
••.
•••
•*.
[ISS].
Well Irrigation in Barar.
1. The following crops are watered datljr in fie Iiot Bsason, aoil it
intemlB of from one to Bevcn daja tlirongliCFiit the reat of the yecr
aa reqnirtd ; Engar-CBne, pan, ptanl^n, bengau, sng, bliaji, and greea
Tegetablo produce ; when the angar-cBae is one foot high, the mpplf
of w»ter is reduced.
2. The followiBg crops arc watered once in three days in tbe hrt
ind at intervala of fron seven days tLroughost tbe
m, onions, garlic, ptrennkl
, cbika, cbakut, sangciuiwaii,
hie gardonB.
e in three or fonr days at tS[ '
>ric, ginger, ratala, goradn,
moe a week generally : Mng
ala, aangmurla, and rajgm
t fifteen days; maiEc, tlim
reok ; older trees.
reat of tlie year as required :
pepper, bhoimug, fenugreek, Ca
and the common produce of
3.. The fo)lowii)g crops arf
oeasonB, guncrally : aiiise, e
pendia, wnngi.
4> The fallowing crops e
of goor, bbend, karli, tnrai,
5. The remainder are: wub.
waterings to tlie crop ; yoniig Irnit trees,
four or five times a year.
The ordinary condition of tlie irrigation in Berar, is thas : —
The wella hnve an average depth of 30 feet, and are eacL worked
by one pair of bollocks for nine hours daily, which raise a leather bag
(mot) containing SOU lbs. of water. They can thus water half an
acre daily well, but for a continnance cannot keep watered more tban
3 acres of ordinary irrigated crops. The prime cost of a common
onrereted well is £30, the bulbckg ilb, gear £5, ina11£oO: thediil;
expeDditnrc is, feed of bnllocka Is,, labonr of two men, at Is. eaA,
in idl 3s. ; or about £50 a year.
Produce of Crops at the Experimental Farmi in
Yield of clean cotton in lbs. per acre.
, 1870.
mraoU.
SheagMii.
Pmmoti. 81n*g*«-
1S4
ee
Hinghanghat
.. 180 h(,
66
150
Dhfirwar ...
.. 14 2-t
Manured land yielded 430 lbs. of clean cotton per acre.
The followuig were the yields of other crops: — Jowari, 538 lbs.;
wheat, 745 ; gram, 312 ; muth, 300 ; linseed, 278 ; peas, 408 lbs.
In ploughed land, jowari yielded 660 lbs.
[123J
r Oropi of rte Madrat PrcsiJency and their Seatong.
Sorghum vnlgare
Penicillaria spicata ..
Peniaetnm italicura ...
PBnicum miliaceum ..
Triticum valgare
Oriza saliva
CfyanoB indicos
Cicer arietianm
Phaseolus aareos
Phoseoliis tnungu ...
Phaseolua aconitifolius .
Indigorera tinctoria ...
Curcuma longa
Ziugibov officinale
Rubia cordifolia
Cartliainua tinctorius...
Papaver aomnifcmm ...
Nicotiana raatica
Corchorua capsnlaris
Linum nBitatiasiiuDin
Crolatuxia pincea
HibiscoB canoabinua .-
Rici
September
September
July ...
July ...
July ...
July ...
July ...
July
July
September
September
... SinaptB, three varielii
... Sesamam orientalu
lilli ... Coriaudram ...
... CucurbiCa maxLma
... Tricosanthus
„. Tngonella fomngrHinr
,m... CitrulIuB
... Cucumis sativus ...
... Cncumia me!o ...
... Anetbuia airwa ...
Dec
November
August ...
September
October ...
November
October ...
January..
Cotia
December.
January.
January.
December.
October.
October.
April.
February.
December.
December.
March.
March.
February.
February.
February.
March.
Mai-cli.
A,,ril.
January.
Six mcnths at aay time.
August ..
Auguat .,
Spptember
January...
December
July ...
July
July ...
February
December
Maj^h.
March.
November.
Fiibroary.
March.
December.
December.
October.
July.
July.
March,
t tort* of rice ure grown in tb« Madrus Prcaideacr : one
anoUiirr is Ufl a long time (Uading ; bnt that abore-mctitiaiiMl
U period being coiDcident wilb Llie nin; EeasoD.
et>]<l
tl2*]
WATER RiTES AND WATERINGS.
The Pahjab.
On the Sari Doab Canal, from 1862-63 to 1669-70.
For all crops, per acre per crop .., 2r. 6a. 8p. or
Lift irngatioD, one-luilf tXe.
1. Sugar-cane, per acre f ... ...
IL Rioe, ]ier acre per cro ... ,,, ... i
Garden produce, per i tar )
III. Kbbrif crops. Coti igo, turmeric Besa- ^
naam, watcmutB, i ards, fruit trees ... 1
Rabbi crops. Whe ted grain, linseed, [
Barru, taniniirB, mustard, opium, tobacco, tuklimba- i
langa, eiiftiower, chillies, vegetables, per acre per crop i
TV. Kharif crope. All millets, maiee, and crops, not else-
where mentioned
Rabbi crops. All palses, all grasses, fallow lauds, and
crops not elseirhera mentioned, per acre per crop ...
V. Single waterings, and Habbi crops not requiring water
alter December, per acre per crop ...
For lift irrigation, onc-balf tbo above rates.
Aver«g« suppljr per tuoro, 44 000 cabio feet.
On the Wettem Jamna Odnal, from 1862-63 to 1866-67.
M. i.
On all first class lands, per acre per crop 2 3t
On all second class lands, per acre per crop ... ... I 4
For lift irrigation, two-thirds the above rtktes.
Since 1866-67 the rates have been identical with those of the
Qanges and Eastern Jamna canals.
On the Delhi and Qurgaon Irrigation Work*, from 1862 to 1870,
the rates were for grass crops, per acre, 5d. ; and for all otiiar cniF*r
per acre, 9\A.
The North-west Protinces.
jea and Eagterit Jamna Canals, from 1862-63 to 1865-66.
■. d.
igar-cane, per acre per year 8 9^
■ait, nnraery and vegetable gardena, all cultivated
grasses, rice, waternuts, ajaweo, and similar herbs,
per acre per crop ... ... ... ... ...
Indigo, cotton, tobacco, wheat and oats (Rabbi), per
acre per crop
Barley, all pnleea and millets, maize, safflower, oil
seeds (Kharif), per acre per crop
From 1865-66 to 1867-68.
irdens and all lands, taking a perennial sapply, were transfei
I Class II. to Class 1 ; and the rates then became for Class Li'
Od.; II.. 6a. Od.; HI., 4s, 6d.; IV., 38. 4d.
[nee 1867-68, the fruit, vegetable, and narsery garden prodi
tavebeon transferred again into Claaa II., but the rates for thi
Oasses have otherwise i-emained the same as before. For lift irriga-
n'op, the rat«3 have always been two-thirds of those by flow.
The other soorcea of revenue are, for watering cattle, 12s. per 100,
KT year ; sheep and goats, 4s. ; supplying tanks, rent of com milla,
■le of grass, timber, fuel, and (rnit, fines for trespass, &c.
Bypr garden produce, sugar-cane, and firat-clasa rice, 2s. 6d. per
B.crop ; for tea. Is. 3d. ; for wheat and inferior rice, li
tr. F
-Dun Cmah, from 1862-63 to 1865-66.
\
■m 18G5-Cfi to lS67-f
B. .1.
Tea, angar-cano, garden, and perennial watering, per year 10 0
l-Hrst-clnss rice, tobacco, opium, and watemut, per crop 6 0
II. Indigo and cotton per crop 4 6
"Y. Inferior rice, wheat, oats, and other crops... per crop 2 6
From 1867-68 to 1871-72. tea and sagar-cane remained in Class I-,
,he garden and orchard produce being tranaferred to Class II.; bfl;
r the various classes remained analtere
■r
[126]
SinM lH71-72> the nto for t«& baa i
watering ; leaving snt{ar-o&Rc alone in Claas I. ; the ratc-s C
prodnoA on somi) of the Diia cnimlti has been lowered.
Fbr litl irrigation, the rates have been alwayt) two-tbirds of tt
Inflow.
Bokilhand CemaU y^t
L Garden and orcbard per crop 4
H. Sugar-cane, tobacco, opium and watemut, per first watering I 0
m. All eerealH, pulses, and (
... per first watering fl H
In Classes ri. and III., hal
For lift irrigation, the r»t«
those for Sow.
The rmmber of vaterinf
n the Kaginab CaniJ is:-
per year 8 waterings.
Hemp
per crop 5 „
Bice, Bagaroani?, ind
Oaltivat«d grasa«§ i
per crop 4
Cotton, cereals, and p
per crop 3 „
NATiOiTiON Tolls is No
^TUEBN IkHLI.
The Wftlern Jamtia Canal transit dues are tabalatcd according to »
most complicated code, the rates for various sorta of timber varyir^
from Is. 3d. to k\ per score for the whole cooree of the canal, with *•
rednction for intermediate distances; the rates hj weight being aboit
6d. per ton for the whole course of the canal.
The Bari Doab Canal transit does are : —
For rafts of all sorts of tiiaber ... l^d. per £10 ralne at starting.
For rafts of bamboos }d. per thousand.
For rafts of firewood, hemp. Box,
and grass Jd. per 4 tons, or 100 mans.
For raftis of reeds, sirkanda ... Jd. per thousand bundles.
The GangM Canal transit does, dnce 1672, have been :—
For boats, per month 9 0
Bafts of logs, par mile per 100 ooblc feet. 1}
Bafts of sleepers, &c, per mile ... » » i
Baft« of bamboos, per mile ... ... „ „ i
Bafla of firewood, per mile per 1000 „ |
S^a Sattem Jamna Canal n ivrj ^U\a ^leA ten xa^ngJaaa.
[187]
Water Ratks and WiTEHtuas in Southken Indu.
tAt Bombatf Presidency there ie generally a combmed land i
1 RSsSHRniDnt. The canala are divided into three Borts, a
lafied according to depth of soil, in cubits of IS inches, and v
■rapect to their special advantages and disadvantages. So advantaj
• considered to arise from more than two cubits in depth of eoil, i
auinot imbibe and retain more effective moistm-e ; the disadvantafje
■ken into consideration are the presence in the soil of kankar, cofl
■rad. loose or stiS* soil, excess of moisture, and liability to be flooded,
n A moist climate the better and ivoree descriptions of land are con-
dered more on a par, the latter benefiting more from, moiatore than
le former.
The general osset^sment, per acre
I For nniirigated or dry crops
p ordinary irrigated or garden crops
r special irrigiited crops in some phi<
k rates allowed on the Mnkti project are : —
VoT sagar-cane, 50s. ; for rice, 203. ; for wheat, 10s. per acre.
1 those allowed on the Lakh project and Bhatodi tank are : —
■ Tor perennial, or 12 months, irrigation, per acre 18a.
B7or wet and cold eooson, or 8 months' ii
' For mansim, or i months' irrigatio
ITie amonnt of watering c
Itlvation is: —
dered necessary per square yard <
i cnbio yard.
fc For rice crop
Hpor BDgar-cano ...
B. good well will keep irrigated from four to six acres of inferia^
irden crop.
In lie Madraa Presiilfncff there is generally a combined land i
rigation asaessment. Tlio consolidat*^d revenue, inclnding the n
,te, is two-fifths of the value of the produce, but is sometimes lea
K:to the market price of rice.
H^^^^^^l
[128]
1. <!. ■. 1«
For anirrigttted or dry cropa
* 0 ]
For rice
9 Gta\€ jA
Sngar.ftttltemiiemtio, iroulilbesometimeaasmacliaa 120 ll
The water rate ullowed by Goverument
on the Turn- 1
bftddraC»ii»l of the Irri^tion Company ia ... 10 0 to IS fi|
In Itftimir, the general rat« per acre ia
12 OtolS ff
The general allowance of water
ce crops in the Madi-aa Prem-
dency is 1 cubic foot per second <
y to 40 acres ; to sagsr taaa,
gram, pUntoiD, and garden c
to 120 acres; ordinary field
orope are rarely grown in place-
rrigation is available.
When comparing the water
roguo in different parts of
India, the averai^o wagoe of
bonror, or coolie, ehonld fat
ximate data ^—
borne m mind. The followir
In Xortbem India ..
.„ 3d. to 4id. ,^
InBarar
... 6d. to9d.
In the Bombay Presidency ...
... 6d. to9d.
In the Madras Presidency ...
... 2id. to3!d.
InMaisur
... 3d. to6d.
[129]
DuoMRioii tiTD Amlisib or Watir.
n o/ SUtptr 100 000 port* of water brought dou* by tariou$ r
{BeAued/rom Htjptoo^t taHt.)
MeuFnportimi
m^"
Uini.
Antboritj.
t&nr.
A
Bj
wdght.
,a|i.
Bsi]^ tt Camdton...
20
CO
MiM. D. anrrey.
at Colambiu ...
40
7U
...
.. ..
at the mrraths...
«
BO
Ur. Meade.
.,
* 91
68
...
Mr. Sidell.
atNewOrteue
S3
8T
1S8
Pro£ Ridell.
Mr. Homer.
u 1874
...
...
140
7
Mr. Fowler.
iw River, China ...
...
333
SitG.SUunton.
.«•
fl«
100
Mr. Ererest.
tili, at CalcuUa
08
138
470
26
Dr. Macaamara.
CoL Tremenheere
radtU
333
33
66
17
Mr. Login.
Mr. Tadini.
le, atLJoDs
fi
Mr. Sur^ll.
at Aries
BO
4^15
U
M. Subour.
at Bonn
0
8
6
Mr. Honier.
nne
IS
IB
76
...
Mr BaumgarUn.
w
10
21
07
-
a, at Boaen
a
4
...
M. Marchal.
">
4
10
0-8
-
itbe
a
...
U.MarohaL
-.-t^ir
...
1
4
(11
Hi.LtaMiR.
_
I
[13
I^H
■
^H
']
^B
J>a/fnt 0/ |A« Water a»d Sitt of ll>t ifOe b, 1874, by i?^. Z^tMf
JbIjIO.
&axBMl2
Sepi.SO.|or
O^IIM
0-OOM
0-0100 U
o-oioo
0-0071
0-fllTl »
I
^ .
G-1I3
4.423
1-030
4-afi(i *■
0-917 I 1^
U-ffMik ~. ~.
Soda
fl-7M
11687
nsoi
ni
1
rotMsa ^.
I'ooa
1-BOl
4-121)
n
CUoiinB
O&Sl
0628
0-209
M
S
1
Sulphuric add
H'SSS
1-837
1-«M
^
rhoqiLoric odd ...
...
Ml
a
Nitric wad
noe
tM
Silica alumina and oxide 1
of iron /
0-701
0718
112B
i-m
1«
Organic! matter
1000
1057
IIM
1020
Ml
L Carbonic add udlosn ...
4182
8-610
4-281
4T54
1»
ToW Holid nuittCT on ar^o-)
nttion f
80-300
16-3811
ie-601
l»-*«
m
0-eao
eose
8-114
e-729
18414,
lSO-743
B-914
4e-!43
4-
fiOU
17-848
14fl-lS7
54-257
37
The average percentage of the BedimentH; deposit from all the above k
Ji^anic matter.
... 14-61
PoUBsa
Phosphoric acid
... 1-78
Sod*
3ulpbDric acid
... trace.
A In™™.
Chlorine
... trace.
Peroxide of iron
Lime
... 206
Silica
MagneBia
... 112
Cubonic add and loaa
The Kile water owes its fertiliidng power not only to ths qoanti^ of u
nitroKeaeons orgnnic matter, tl\e mmbla dlieates m potaasa and soda, m
ot phosphoric andof lUbic adAm%kie^(«.VBi.Va,'LiABQ\a'ikMt«u(caB*adaEj
which are charged with pUt«pti»tea mi4 dkalmt -aoiatea.
[131]
HH'
-SSI-? ^ —
-Itfll
tz mu
^ li=:
: V
J
- ^ia:
41
S|S
-J
If
1 1
zn nil*- zv.^ u?,h'^z^
.1 . .
-3 5 <>
■
^1
|~^^^^^^H
i
i
•5-
1
■»
1
i
r
m
3S^ i i = iS'sssfss.:
ii-i.Ms?p-.j=.^
-H
^SSoooolS^^jg^Sg.
^m
t,Hl^Z,,^U,,Z:
ss^ ;|-:i|ssi|iE;|,
•-iiji
J J? : : : ; jgSJ j |g3.
^M
IP : i ; ;|"iig?i?S
1 1
M|i.Mi::|M M.
1 « g
; i|i 1 ill I ;|= -ill
ituli'li".!^.
iitipii:!!'
lllUMliilUiit;
f
t
t
•1
I
I
I
I
I
c
ti
*^
r*
•
03
o
ei
*-'i
'v^
-^
>':
O
X
l"^
^
i^
Tt
r^
T<
;-!
u
--*'
/-H
c
1— t
^
c-
■^
c:
i—t
f— (
"1
<
0"3 ^
"^^
"^^
<H
1— t
—
—
«-»
1 «i^'-
— .
X
4>
rH
^V^
i^^
!>•
i"*
r5
CJ
^
c»
o
»o
o
•^^
-w^
X
35
•5-5-3 !
X "^jt
e
f;
g
>ww
f-t
X
1<
X
OJ
Tjt
•
•
•
1 ■ — '
■••ii* »-»
"♦*
P«
p.
4^
f-t
f-t
f-t
CO
CO ^»
O
00 CO »o :
00 05
bO
CD
• • • s
* * • OB
5
"**• « oi :
• • • •
t^ »H O •
• • • ■T* 'CO
<0 9i
Of
OB
0)
00 00
^ i'* t'- t-»
CC t* »Q OO
00 00 O <>> CI o
o
•^ a
aO
d Ol
00 to
CD
Ol CO 00 o
• • ■ •
to ^ o
<N
•^ : X -<* « CO
• • • • • •
X • CO <N iH
<28
• *
C* CO
to V S O Q>
(N S3 Q S3 d
• o 3 o o
d h d a
>o o to to
X -^ rj« fH
• • • •
O i:^ O O O to
"^ t* 00 Ol CO Oft
"^ to i-t 00
CC Q> 9 9
CO a a a
• o o o
'^ H H d
t* t* o
• • •
'paqsiugon
SISA'piUB
aO CI
OB SB
aO Ol
Oft 9 S ® $
<N d p d d
* o S o o
d£ d d
O "^ cs
t>» o o
• •
^ o
O O O fc* <M t»
«>■ ** X CI CO -^
5_ *****
X -^ Ol »H
<N lO
o 2 a> a> S
® S 2 2 S
* O OS « o
d ^ £ d
rH CD to
• • •
X »H O
?»^- ScoT^r"
!-• CO £ »0 rH "^
fH S.
OC Oi
X >b
fH ! S
»0 "^ iH
«» »H CO
• • •
to to
• • • • X CO
• • • •
CO
Ol X
to aO
e*
CO
X
''^
O
•
•
t* "^ d
<=
''^
:•-•
CO
cc
»o
•
o
O
to CO
•^
<N rH
■iU Is
X to
-^ Ol
OS 9 O 9 Q>
CO fl a d d
* o o o o
d d d d
00 ^^ 00
t* X »
• • •
o o
"^ -f iJ OS i-« to -^
CO O '72 T* CO CO o<
•^00 3 to fH rH
M-O
535- 5
to
• •
CO to
00
to Ol 00
iH -^ I'.
o
CO
to
'^ OJ
CO "^ » rl<
• • ■ ■
"^l* « »H
00 CO
00 ^11
CD
Tjt to OS O iH Ol
»HCOt^ r»OCO»HOl«Oc^
»0 -^ CO CO fH »H
4>
I
O o
o •
o w
•s|-|Jis
0|2
=3 o'Sid
.^ S 9 9
e a d ^-b
So •
o
!.s|
Jill
^
5 S «
00 "t^
^«*-i«S- o
3 dl§§§ d
o o
0)
II
J" .S ^ OB d
9a
coo
o
&•
n
P
to
iH
TS
9
•«
X
•«
CO
• as
d
o
00
i
CO
<1>
A
o
H
f-H
u
CQ
P
•"?5
•^
<*j
CO
cS
ft4
"2
OB
Ph
^
AitO
«
A
• a^
CO
-s
P
o
^
»-H
»H
fH
-S
»l^
•«
*»
S
a
C8
o
>-
»H
•c
t*
c«
M
• M
-S
CD
d
o
v»d
O
m*
,d
PiS
►t
•^
pO
^
Tji
k>
iH
FT*
TS
a
9
§
^
•b
00
►»
rH ■
(
-o
»i
94
Ol
P«
rH
e
i-H
rH
to
•■,
H
O
iH'
g
•k
o
S3
^•
1
Ol
Ih-^- ^
[134]
-J ?||i : £!-; s!;ss|'
IS 'ill i r-i -SI-"
^iiiiii P nni m ss^«-
4l|||!i
s|||ii||i|s; 'i'S 1 PI ztmp __
4m '1 si ^ |sS SSsi^H 1
^illllillis ? ESS E!£S£p°
■iiWilt
1? g fjj J?J5?|1 1
■ill =11- i^4 S°i lass's::
-3p|3| is "-ifl |2| S3'iS£2 ;
-Sjijllj if ■^;! = | |23 SS^gSSS -
^MiMls; !^;i ; i-i ii|s?|5'
-IWII
S£ * i ^ i ■: zH S^ 'izh '
-III ii |v^ ^"" 1 jsi ii=S»^s
^lliiii
ii 5— tz- s£p:p
i 1
■3 "^ a .§
m
Zt^ 'I ■' iS^SSS i?3 'i
!«il
tt^ ' : ' ^SSj-iS^i-SS*
mu
£g5|||i|3|j?j|?s|
till
2s?il^=s::s.g^s-s^
fill
s^'Hil|2i'?i^2'i
hi!
.--1
S-ill^|SS3s|32^S
Pi
g5?|||| JS||?ggils
m
St" i|; '-Ztt iS2 iS :5
irn
; jS = |= :?g J : J :-,a SS
i :
1 1
■;l-i!"i
llllllljlllllllll
"< V
=i|iwiii
ss 'lih g2? sispii
'-f0l n ?||h PI s|"M
'lj#l
SE ^ilil iH zMH'
1
1
■5
1
-Jilill
^1^11
Is ^--
S S 'i "S'
41
is ?
M. .!|.!|.
^iiiii
si
rs sPrP
^iifciii
-If-H
i-t =srsii
>[ 1
44
■mi
SS 'iill i?i mm*
s 1
1
- Illlill
SS -"= i-s Ig^ss-
^_
^ ilH
jl •=|f|= g?j IsissS^
3
: - \ ■ ; ;.gg ; : 1- ■ ■ i ; i ; i
S| |S-.. 8 2 1 .
1 jiiiiiiSIt:
a
^^^^^H
^^H
1
tl3?
^m
[
^^
mf AtialyiU of Ike average Will Watert of Statioai i
acatrJing to variout Anal^iU.
Northern India,
Qraioi
p«g»llDQ.<.r
1
h
»«.
Piteal
paiflnTOOM.
Cbuiutiir ud
TdUI
VoUtne
Chlo-
MH ...
May 1808
a7-4
27
2-0
0-60
Indiffereat.
h>n
M»y 18fl8
18-2
0-98
0-8
OST
Very nboletome.
*
May 1^06
123-3
3-8
28-0
...
VerybBd.
ilpidl ..
Sept. 18B7
28'9
8-6
00
0-61
Pure and good.
iHu
Deo. 1808
6S-3
1-4
8-8
068
Veiyljad.
Inr
Dec. 1800
668
CI
160
Good.
fuUEbm
Apr. IBfiS
BT'S
1-6
5-8
0-47
Fair.
luuiKhim
Mar. ISOU
«7
1-8
8-7
002
Fair.
1
...
7B0
7-B
tmk.
Very Iwd,
n
Dec. 1867
8if6
3 0
10-8
0-61
Fair.
Jill. 18IW
45-4
41
iia
047
Bad.
I»d
Jan. 1867
18-0
1-8
1-8
0-17
Good.
ftE«i ..
Apr. lt-09
S4-3
!i2
4-0
0-ft4
Doubtful.
^ ..
Ang. 1861)
361
a-6
6-7
0-44
Very foul.
laM ..
Mar. leeo
831
1-1
80
Fair, but bard.
im
Deo. 1808
9&-0
1-3
2-8
Good.
UI
Sept. 1880
84-6
1-4
4-3
Hard and bad.
l«« ..
Sept. 1808
SU-2
5-5
10-3
0-31
Very bad.
^^..
Nov. isor
311
2-3
8-7
Bad.
ilpir ..
May 1808
aio
10
41
0-70
Wholesome.
r- ;;
Nov. 1807
351
4-0
3-4
0-58
Whokaoine.
Ang. 1808
200
ai
6-7
061
Bid.
■
■
Hril
[139]
lUi
00 rH
ss
01 CD
5«o
^ 05 ^
o 3 .
P Q o
55
QOO
00 '^ Oil
555
<M OCO
1 o3,
«s -^ a o 2
o
ts,Oil
55
^*HQO
CO CD 00
555
GQO ^
?a,|
^1-
<\
^"•00
00 rH
CO o>
555
lll'o
^llofe
&
I
1
8
1
8
J5
S
CO »c
55
Oilts,
« o
'^OO
CiOi rH
555
CO JC^ Jt^
09
Sod
fri « © g
*oJ2 o o 0
HeitO
JiC rH
55
Ci o
iC t^ «o
555
00 O Q
2 o o
<1
. ■ • • •
» • • • •
§»
»4
Jo 6
S.'
1 -^ ^"^ rf
rill
3
9
J7 o o
o fl
^Pfip^
.9
o So
I
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
: 08
• • • • •
4 • • • •
•5 • • • • 1
f>s • • • • .
r<0 • • • • •
fe : : : : :
S* : : : : :
^c • • • • •
^ : : : : :
4
o8
'S3
*C^
fill 1-1
[1«]
PMAoiMr.— The drilJdiig'WKtflr is obtained b; open canal fromtti
rirsr Ban% which also fills merrolrs; the watar is excdleot,
■ometimM mitddy ; the MBerroira ore frcqaeutly drained, bnl mo
&t)g8, ftlso !^rpk& an gnsti folia, Potamogcitons and CoaferTf .
Th^ Pnkmwmr Miarsk being Bpecialljr lenowned for iu mt
effects, an aooocnt of the flora that Utrira there wilt thereforo ba
iDterest. On the higher groond, which is covered with saline dl_
nacence, grow Bevora] species of Salacdacen, Frsnknia polTeralndi
Tamarix, Salix Babilonica. The ordinary plants that grow in
aroaad the mirsh are : — Epilobiam, oocasional ; Ljcopns, Bbimdaat ii
parts ; Lippia nodiflora and Herpetu monnsira, about ditches ; ntiiofr
laria, rare; Eclipta ereote, not onoammcm; Bannncnlas aqoatiliiua
Bannacnliu soeleratos, common ; l^mnanthemam cristatam, a
of Liam; Typha angostlfoUa, abundant; Nelitmbium, cnltiTatd^
Batomus, rare ; Ssgittaria sa^ttafiilia, Alisma eqaisetnm, two
of Jancos, rare, Of Sedges, the following are oommoa :— Cjrpcai
exaltstos, Cypicas mnoronatas, 3blaooch<»te pectinata, Scupus
timoB, Carix Wallichiana, Gleoduru paliutris. The common
abontand near the wat«r are: — Agroetia alba, Polypagon monspeli
AndropogoQ Bradlii, Cj-nodon dactjlon, an Arundo, a Saccharam.
The following are the floating and submerged plants :~A Ceratoplijl-
lam (demersam?), Potamogeiton crispns, P, pnaiUns, PotamogeiloB
plantAgenens, rar« ; Hydrilla verticillata, Uarsilia qnadrifolio, Cbaia,
most abundant ;, Nitclla, occasional ; Confervee, profase. Two speoM
of Biccia, a Semno, and an Argola, are abundant in some places.
Zftfl Welt Water of the S/ationa of ike Bomiay Pretidencg.
Bombay. — Welt water brackish, containing a large quantity of limft
also sea salt. Vehar reservoir water is coni^idored very par«.
Sallara. — Wells and tanks in trap rock ; the gninea worm is funnd
MalUgaam. — The wells reqaire clearing from sediment once a yew,
and would otherwise become unwholesome.
Selyaum. — Well water clear, good, soft and wholesome, contains
chlorides, sulphates of lime and magnesia, and a salt of iron. Fnc
from taste and smell.
Akmadabad. — The well water, after long use, is apt to' induce disttie
of the spleen, which the nver water does not; the former has*
higher specific gravity thun the latter.
[1«L
. — Well water dear, soft, and of good quality ; it contailM
ktes, phnepbabea or nitratea, nor an^ Baits of lime; it an
—it cODtftinH principally chloride of sodium, also carbonate
L, and a faint trace of lime, but no iron.
tirahad. — Moat of tlie wbHb are so salt that Ihey are unfit for nas,
■ from the same well varies considerably in Baltness, beinj
mea palatable, clear and bard ; that (i-om a wholesome well vta%
0 contain, alter evaporation to dryness, orgaiiic matter ii
Kirtioii of 1 in 200, as well as chloride of aodium and anl
alumina and potaaa, besides other chlorides and sulphates. 1
—Well water clear, agreeable, devoid of smell, almost i
ganic matter, with an inconsiderable amount of saline <
ingredients.
—Welle supplied by percolation from the tanks ; water
md, sofl, pure, nninjurious, and eolonrlesx, when bltercd has a
c gravity of 11300-4 and contains 30 grains of solid matter to a
r microscopic examination waa found ia contain no organi^j
natter beyond a little shiny film. Tbc tanks contain Flosatjufe, as w
fl ordinary grasses and rui^hes, and among the infusoria the enca
aled amalie oscillatoria, and mdogoniam ; in dry weather, when t
loaa decomposes, the malaria is most noxious.
Sural. — There is not a single well fit for drinking from within tl
tation. All are impi-egnat«d with sulphuretted hydrogen.
Hyderabad in Sirid. — The wells are supplied by innndation from tl
ndtis. The water is said to be soft, good and wholesome, a fell
rolls only brackish : yet the wells swarm with animal life,
noet wells in Sind, they may be exhausted by an ordinary Persia
rfaeel in twelve hours.
Dhanear. — The well water has tbe repntation of being very good an^
rholesome, but also to give rise to guinea- worm among the natives, f
Diiilin. — Weil water good, soft, devoid of smell, of an agreeaUl
Mte, but of a rather blue colour.
Serur. — Well water hard, but good and wbolesoraej it contuns |
ittle lime.
tnagherri. — Well water very good, as soft as rainwater, and fi
H taate or smell.
»SD or HTPRAm.lC aXATISTICa.
INDIAN
METEOROLOGICAL STATISTICS
FOR THE USE OF ENGINEERS.
PAGC
Mean Monthly Rainfall i
Day Maximum Rainfall 25
Humidity and Evaporation 31
Additional Meteorological Tables 43
Remarks 54
Ouyot's Table for Finding Humidities . . . .71
i
( ■ )
■"H'I!S
ff
*I-CI
i
.;.
t
o
-w-nis
it-Ei
I
S
b
is
1
i
6-g
i
K
•p
r
U>Jpo,J
*.
:
S
t
*»ed
s
!]-«.
»
i-
it
i
-«nH
1
t
fc
3-
b
t
I
■j^gui-H
9
t"
it
i
•^
-ion!t«a
1-
ti-o,
^
3
"
j
-«Soa
^
..^.
1
i-
r*
a
--as™,,
1 1-6
J
S
«
s
\
-«t«n"»H
2
ii'ti
i
5
.8
<
•tpw
i
ii-Si
r
a
"
i;
-ioiftrura
:
it-«
=
i>
«
J
^
ii-fi
s
R
■^
is
•JO«f
3
Si-ii
i
4
i
■""('•ovm
:
11-6
■?
s
:;
R
■i!an3[»3
■:
tE
s
■?
*
s
■pn.|iIJoSnrs
-
,-S
^
a
i
■■31103
♦
95
^
!,
m
•.Bj.tipUV
%
fr-i
5
i'
K
i
i
■fmS
R
..
5
j
A
s
■unj,o<3
:
9,-S.
C
i
'ra»3!U.v
5,
9
-
is
'*
=
'DUtpnfl
e
St-t.
♦
■i.
a
I
i i
Li
■UOA
i^^
4
i'{
i^
1
•»n*o
*
♦
S
t
€
j
-Oq™.™
4
t
i
S
e;
b
T|.a™<.«X
K
+-£
?
t
r
^
■"w-r
o.
{
"s
ii,
6.
1
T«~S
a
s
■■
*
«
5
■^-djrB
E
i
?
I
?
b.
■rputi[3
s.
I
^
¥
■-
%
2
*■
"
?
t
»
..dtS
1
9'
p
{
•
s.
■mAUn
5
+1
?
1
^
¥
-.nJi«pf
5
.,,
S.
f
S
i
•ni"^
1
6
s
£■
X.
s
'ipiefl
^
9-S
I
t.
\-
■iSmfy
g-i
.*
i
^
j
'U»v
5;
□ 1-6
-
s
■s
■ftiwJipT
J
9
?•
£
k
-!.«.,r
•s.
«-s
^
■j
2
j!;
-ir,d,u«>o
s
9
Vl
■i
S,
-tUFU(H
■s
0]-£
■
*
:
j5
I
i
Ei^
3-
i
■J
■SuoiiiMS
i
9-S
I*-
i
c
t
■qeii«N
..-..
i
"
s
S
Si-£<
-.
^
£
t.
•guoSn^N
Er-ii
i
t
t.
K
1
i
fi
JO -ON
hi
|,a|
H
a
^^nm^H
(4) ]
;-^ 1 -«-«„ 'irtvrrstu-jjl
■■4
; ! - rt. '""t.?^!,?:" 4
Toiiuta
■J
~ i -,v-<».. r:;rir^-r:i^5
-.fandwona
-■£
» 1 "=^6!,. ?t;.Sb;i:;ijr' ;
■iinnonwin
■J
i r* 9~^ f? ^!"^»^p .
-mdirt-qa
-?
; -'-rjsir".
■ITUIllO
-■"
■If
S "««-o.-+ , 1
■qai^iimH
Ij
» 1 "=,-.!.. TS^;;?!?.-'; ;
-,,H8.h
-^
^ i - .i,. s'":'?,:,:;!" i
■f
■uKtir;^ uoj
S
s
■ninara
-s
I £ :ro!-9!.. «"TJ||Si:S'- s
■inJroptH
-y
^ i . .!.. "'rr';;jvi':°'' j
■o*M 11^'qi
■^
• J . 6!,. "rrr^s^^'fvf ^
■und
■■J
• :r . .!.. "^'S^SJIttii: j,
PUce. )
i
in^tlfeiiiiiii
^^^H
^
1
TinpI*"N
•^-2 , „ 69S.
■S -5. ■ " *«»")
*-t;ir||,j£--°,5_
■guoaiaino
•3 -•" o « 6981
-3 -5. " " "*■'**
■»fliS
-S-S, ^ - 6981
-sj:&r£|a^- ^
•5-S. . ♦ 698'
.J .5. " "°J»S
•5-& ^ 0 «9g.
■.«.a
•ling
-=3. -g, g * ttgl
-'-^is.S'siJ.ir-' ft
•!q8i«ll
---aiii;s-'"'R
-3Dltl(iC()
----s-S'S'-:*' ■ s.
■H^soa
*P ? r -r^f r"f y T~ .
■joMuta
-3-r . ^ 6911'
'""--^1'?=^"^' if
■HHtiniH
--»i «■«« oi- ■ «
■■Pl'W
-0 -<^ 0 ^. 69g,
- "-"« i>i^2*- ■ i
■^df.«KI
"'"^f ?*1--"^ S
■jnJtutHug
.*.«•" 5 .,„p,„^
■ -iii.b™i- - j.
■.o»r
---- 0 « 698-
'""■"CSS**"' "
■raqgtoi[>!i|
•?-3 .0 69g'
•:-Jfli£S!.". ■
■"""I'D
-•-JsstcarKi-'i
■indrupiK
■3 ■£■ - " "°-'**
~™DSi":S,i">' ;.
■uns
■ ^ -^ ? - "y^
'■"""irfjss;"" j.
■«n,«ta
'---"?■?»- 1"^ i-
' -fu^aiuni
""^:i;m£S"' j.
■Ut«p.ffl
:i:J s -Si--"Jist^-i.|^
L i
J i 3 ^ '™'''
itiiilMii
■■L J
■
■
■
I
^^1
(6
)
unia
"I'J
i =
"Ml
•-t,£i;{?Kjrc;
1
•ao-TCTs
4 "
tig.
•-TSSiibKi:
•"JnqS
i i
i =
6«.
HCipi,
:;?,5-:t.5S-:j-
■a„oSo.N
i a
6«.
■ioJtjj.
■■s -s.
: S
6,g.
'-iiS^liitl?
■ra»q<«0
i r
69,.
•"---fbj?*-'
■urfpuO
aioj*,
--■: KJi Jh w-
i
I
-Biniod
■•":*iK"iJ'
■i<['oey
6„,
aioj*!
'.'.^fttlVt."
-^iniHutH
i
■3
ligi
■Jo^»B
6SK.
698'
ainpq
■""d-.'i :^;|
? ♦
US'
sjopq
p T- rr? .'~^p■? rf
■i«"3i;|;|
^ =
69gi
-"'""-'^SSg.t'
{
1
-jndinan(a
; J
69HI
■j^h3uo„
■1 :?
698 .
'■-■-'rrfSi:-'
1
■nnjtdunip
; s
'-■••*« iE^t'
■«id«to
I';
a J
69t.
6981
anysq
,,„„.„^,^p,.
■I|«1V
£* s'P-S ^3^b H-
-.lo
•j-i'
s -
aiojjq
.„...p,p^jjj:
■»wj
-e--
t 2
a«y»q
""2 ■-•-••
|i
■q^JIV
•s -s!
5 =
698,
''■^titxxiii
-ti«*Mu.
: 2
4m.
■<■ l^Z'Ji.l%V.
ii
J J
i i
IWJV
ijiMi:
-pwiupccH
:i:i s "H^.. '.">"''>Ti;?.p.- 3
id«,vl>™oW
■j;s 1 -«"!■ ""^"rssr"" j
■mo^pSl : -«-'♦«' -'^p^^^r^^^^'^p «
— vi;j:: ^ .t::; --^^^^'^^-^^
■pE]n'™'iv
;::° I -«-»v ".-■"■st^"- i,
■J<"lf'H
.2 ;» 5 ^''g-i^' *i«io- ■ ■ k
■rpo«a
■nT"ia
:j:j 1 -.=-«.. "-— r:r='^ .
.,^« -.:-.|.| -.^",. "■^"Si-SfS"' j 1
■Xrqinoa
■mas
■i-": £ -.!-«., ^^'^jES.irsK'-^ ;
■nmd
:?:: 1 -ir "'■"^n^'iss' i
■jnipnunj
;;:J 1 - -•-'■^KSS.rjr'-r j^
■VWVIfi
:f:5 1 r««... "-s|:??^;' J
;k:i i " '♦-•<' ■ ■ ---i8s'=--' i
THiUrs
-'•■I 1 »«-»,. •^'-esajcjr' s
•iod-IoHS
■uKlgnqna
■«1«,05|
:|:^ ^ C6...S,, ^^'^?t,s?j;%j^- ^
■.qSpeyrn
:i:g 1 -«-"jt. ■"- ™:?iriX'^=*- jf
'<u.r9|>a
•r-s 3 " it-.tg, -™*«« -
■iwueqa
■r-K ? it-+tgi -"*.-«-«« V,
■,,»>o,^
;|-| 8 *«-9.«. "^^^ri^lS^?-" ^
i
i ! t s S MM I
( 8 )
fpSs? J^SSl;;
5,-J i
ell,* sl-s- ■ ■ jMse =:*■>:
(9
)
\
•»S«TO
■^•a -
pop
"^J^^^"-" S¥;
■«d0H3
P PP
i^S * ij " ■" ■" 8 ? s.
-S.--S. : ,
pop
"cji;;;:^' =■=?
Tpoiiia
i i i ~
p p p
■S.iSfJ-"" ?=^
■a'T.'o
■s -s ' "
pop
"iiffS'' R-r
* -"ponra
■s ■: -
p p p
"SSJ"""' =-"
•uio*!I^3
-3. -" - »
■S -K =
i
?*
■t"!I!»3
: : ■S "
9 9 P
"fsc^i"-" ^'is.
■u^ITO
: : ; ~ .
99?
'StSSt." JTiS,
s
a
■jtiu»3
■2.-- : .
P P :*■
rjrsiii:' zs?
K
tn"^
-R-C « r.
pop
1
s^s-''" "™
■P»»B
: i i . !
P P P
°;;p.5;^rpp p.sa
1
■iisKiia
•5 ■= '" - '
9 9 9
3p?o:»<?*pp *3j^
i.
i i ; » f
pop
.J„., = p.O .J.
c
■idtucmia
■5-; ' "
,
«*o-- - -r
.
-.puuutta
:|:^ ^ " ••
p PP P^J^.;^^.•'P ^'-^'g.
&
i i i - ■•
pppp-^j.j»PP 5,2.3.
Ti»a
; : i " 5^
i
•jnJ.t^
:!:* ^ - ^
ppo.^^P^^^^pp 2^,5
(
i
.a,.rf™
:^:|l *" -^
■''■''i'*bb.i:.'Sir°° S5.S.
1
•!P»a
1
•ni»ta
■2- -^
■"■"^J.rr-rr.'-PP «s?i
(
■i«»a
^^ ~3; « " ''-''° "^ £,!^3a£." ** 3'2'S
1
i
s
^n ; M b JgS =?B8
3 J i
2 1
in'i.
--•5 ; ^ PPPPP ??■■• hr*PP "f-:
■ijntftO
;J '.♦ = - ^^^^^t"^i^f^ =*^
■nStvO
^S
; - Pfp.-pjr^rfr." j-j j
/<*.o
■y , „ pppppj-„,.p.= j,j|
■»pOf)
■?"'!
^ 1 « PPPPP p;;^?-r;7 PP "j
•(»p»o
■ r. P1PPP !^?;r r-rr? ttZ
•.m--Poqo
• ■ ■
•a -a ,
ppp^p J^j^*_p jOj j
-alJosO -Js ysj
PPPg^r^-PPP -St
='^''t.-:xjS'^?? sti
TTOU3
PPP ;t_P |*r!"pp 3tS
-»<A>dz
p,,j.j^jpp ?;?
••H^a
■8 -it
^^ "ii^vJT'^"" -"■
■n|npinn,a
: ; 1 - .-
op p« fv«.*r PP j:S
■«*jn,(I
"3. !$ : ♦ ■" p f f ■:;n.~"^ -r-" ■" s^ «
■"^["{0
■ i i « p pp p p i^^i; r-p p p st;.
•lofota
•3 •;
; ■ « °°p^^'%.t^t.i:^f^ t-s
■inqaiiia
;; ■ r. pp. pp p r-;;'-'? p-p p m-
^(m^oa
i - pppppy,g.^^r.pp „jj.
Wf'^a
i i : »- ''*'°-° *■ Ei SSC^ «**
■[[■^•a
-,.. , . ,„...J,J„P, ,,,
■jptmq^
: ; ; t. p p p p p ^ |t - ^i^p p «o.o
■tmira
■J:| i - '''■°"SS|,f'!" J5S
■=da^3
;i i - '--^jstK- ==?
1
^
;
3 1 S
1
iif.
ll Mi
( " )
■v^m
*P £.gH
■p«ni
» « ■ *~ ^ ** ^^^Cv^"^^*
°* *;«
■onBiwnra
1 : i » P P P P .- ?
IT- 1.
.,0 »^«»
■iin«an«rs
; ■ : .. P P P P P-f
•!f^«!I*5I
lit* ppppp-rritjn
°<! C^il
tP^
i I ; ^ PPPPP^rjrr
= P r^t'
■iffnTi
i i i - ■" ■"'"•-?■; J"
"P 2":: 3
^
■'loi'M
: 1 : _ PPPPPJScr
° p ss a
-I^
'-'« i * ppp PP-;;y;^j;fPP j-* a
1
1
■<»r«iP'Ti
i i i - p..pppjy.-P.ppp *»s
■ipoitqf
:!!;'.* i - """""tii"
°p ^•ss,
1
■«™.f
;|;J 1 - ppppp.pjp.
op S:;-^'
?
TP«^
■=-g : ~ ppppp!-£;;gp
;p J^?
1
■jedKpBI
•J-: : . PPPPP„P.P
"P — =
t
■punSuBH
;::: ^ - -"'•fij^t
"p itt
§
■nioH
;5,;5 ^ - °-°''°'!;;;i;i:
,p ™,
i
■liODOH
■i'-i : . "'^-saii:
•r a™K
t
■)t*JTH
; ; ; « PPP°P^-P;;^P
i p ^""5
i
TMU.H
S.-S. j * '""'Jtii!
■p ay's.
1
irfutH
■^ "^ ; ,. '"-PPP^SIPr
•P JSJ
I
■3[0|CH
i : : « ^^^^^i;:;;:^^'
^ P S^!i
I
■mFH
■ 3 I : - pppjirj^iic
"J* R'S E.
I
'I^flnO
•2,-3. : , pp.oppj,jjp,j
3 P n "^^
1
' M i Mil
■J 1 Jill
■1 1 J 1 iflt^s
4 J 5 Z A^E-<S^
Jitj
(12
)
■«'(P»W
i ^ i - ""'f!|-- .=.
■mfM
1 ; I „ Jlpppp j^pijrrP? J-'
-8-9
■zT-i
■! -J
« ppprp i;;s^^j^? ss:
■"*t™m
; » '''''*-'*° 2;-"" **°° "fi
■uothnt
;i:5 i " ■°""?|.|.?i" "s;
-tp<ni*H
i ; i « ppppp JJ^r p;p P9? "jj
■«>»»nTO
-i-S,
■S ■!
'P P 9 >• r f^r^^p P •■»
■""TOT
, :
> P P r r- r .^•*> ■■ !• P ™*
■»J"I"I»W
-*-5
'■"""'^s^*'' m
™<ni«w
, pp p l*y,^^p._
a ;jtM|
•»nm
ip p p^ JrSk"*'
» :s;
ftnt
"■"KtCI-
' ~'i
•ta^n
■S -K
'■°'-°Ki.iS."'
" ??s
-rann
i ; ; „ PPPP.^gj;..
:?:j ■: - "'"jij:r
^i"^, '■ " ^■"■""■KiS.**!^"
- s«
■an[,n„
• ■ ■ "^ pp ppp j^j^j^p p p p J»o
: ; : « pppppj^,-^pp ,«.
■n*oituna
1 1 : t- *•? !* J"-" £^^2 2.f P ii%
« "« * ** ° "-"^ S,*i;C.C>"-'' -""
ilinunU
.^ X ; '- °°°°"?;?;r;i:£° -*"
.■IIPWT},
-=;-s , _ ppj-pp^rs;?!:---- ^si
■qHpo.l}a
!- ;1 § " "''"p" J??"u"° --■
1
h
•1
1
1 1 ik m
iiis!!IJ III
( '4)
tipts
; i i - '•*'°S'"'5rvn'~"" S!-
■u»q8TO"U
"«£ i • *'*''' "^ ir.?^^? yj-
iniMnU
■ : r, Pf>PPP?^Jj^r;PJ> ;:^
•n-l-ron
i : : ♦ P PP P f? F-^^^:*? «-
■X.q<.U
; : I ^ P5,ps.s^jj^S,5 j.j
■Kunimmi
1 . , „ pp.ppjr--;,,, ;:;
!■"««
■S-:
pppjPi:i*pP srs
■K-i
ppp^!;rPi;rP :"•:
loaf's
Ti
•'■°^3,r;;;r" -!«
■ijncpy
-y-l
"■""^ ili!,"?''-' --*
■mnj
-5 -r
."?? P-P J^rrp yr;
•im[iiiiny
•S -R
""■s.cxir" ^-•■
■«mj
■8 -r ' "
""J'-lkJ"' Si:
■inpd
i ; : .~ ^ '^ ° ° °-r* CJ;"'' ° "*"
•mwa
.i .1 ^ "^ P .op Pr ;j^~ p r;;r .op ^^-g
-nni»d
; 1 : ^ p p p p «-^^ , J., p »j.
■XOUJIYJ
i ■ ■ » PPPPP.;;?-?'P?P yj*
■4rju«j
:::j i . :^ppp":PK" =«
•MpitJ
i I ; » P P-"*-" f^**^ ^PP S.*S
■pnlrenj
1 ! i r- ^ *" '^ *•" ■pITiJI^r*' '' -**
-«,d«pmj
^*'J * p-" ° ^-^ •;;-;kC-S-°^ -'■*
■[[inmj
;J;= ; .. ppppp^|.^^j,pp 5.^;
■»41'"J
1 ; . _ '*PP P^ttCti^^^ ■*"
1
lltJ 1
i
lifi
1 ^j
J.i|
Jii
Hi
Mi
( IS )
■inJuains
'f"i : " f P P P P-iii^-JJ-"-** S'tg-'
■""-^s-s
'.z:l i " -°ppp-";pp^:-'^- ■=:?
luns
-2-s. a - ??^p?r;.-3t,C"p ssa
-" -S : ^ p PP p i- p-p-f r"i;> s~p '^^t^
■indoppiS
-j-| , - .•p.»3.:.;gJi;t"-° «*
-"-""^
ill- -*°-''PP'ti6,-''°p s^*
■rt«S
:l:; 1 - P'rr.-JJ-pf!' 5S1
-ri«S
;J;j 1 ■» ppp;p^?.jjf!.p — ,-
■^!S
: : 1 - "-tjgur- ^-^^
■IKIOIS
.„-= 1 « S.j.ppj-^J,,, ;^«
■lodtioifs
l^f'M
III-" pp-*^f-5:v.P;Sv;'* S-"
-mnrioqs
1 , ; t. popBO- J, J.jp.- »•-
IpuoSuqs
1 i 1 . ?ppp?i:;Jii''' s-'
■Bn.Jwqs
I 1 1 » ip-pptjj;???? 3Jt
■jndcipus
1 1 i » Ppppp|gyJ5pS :^^
■ioitir^S \ : '■ '■ "^ 9 PP P ^^^f^ IT-^ '' ? ^ Er S 1
•Joo«»S
-S -* : t^ ppjip p," p« J. j<«p "■'t-
•5 -S ■
■pncnts
III" ppppp>r^p-p? :5y$
■UMUUMLES
•■S.-- ; » .p5„*_^^p-»» JjJ^
-■"-J 1 - "pppp 2:2, j^ j^"p -2s
■unieS
-S-- , - ..pp,«..pj-. ...
tloSjrs
~^'3, : '^ ■ ''^° ° °S,-rt^t,t-°-** -"^3
1
J ^ K « Aiiia
li:
i
11 si!
( 16 )
•*^s ■ " "-"ni-s^"^ ~-
: ■; J 1^ 9 ppp ? j¥ rr rpp r«
IBtift,
i • i . ?'?-''';tS3JP-'' SiJ
■u>t*M
; : ; * P P PP Pr-^^r^r P 9 tj-
-u*tjfc : I : „ P9?99 ^^^■' ?"
■P J£t
"•« 'ft '• " S"???
' !:s^ :rc
.p „.
—"-il'.t
pp
= ? rr;"? j|
pp r:t.
•wv**
i i
pp
°3.J:"^£,
-? r-J
■to!A
p?
-z.v%i^
-' ::S
■»I»P»1A
pp
' r:-?t.: ^
-? m
■1»»-!A
p?
:tt^vz
' :1:
•««P«A
! :
rr
"^'^Ziit,
"
" r:»
pp
».;?? jp
° rJf
wiqifl
: : i .> P P P P
Dyjr- r-.- -
• :-8
■awjRBn
i .y * PPPP
°s,";r'
=
" =:s
•■™»i°"i
; ; I ^ pppppp^^^r-P
" trs.
■i»««.X
; ; : . ppppp;P!^pp.p ;.j
■om*u.
:;i:| ^ - """iirsEK^' cii
t»Wi
, , : . ""^jriS"" ..s
•B-nu.
■ ■ ; - P^PPPJS.rS.'""-*' ""'*
■«ot«LL
'Z'Z, '■ " p PPPP J;g?.j :".-p 005
•»P*os
~1'1 t " ^°^^''z^Cit^^° "-a
•anldmos
1 1 : r. ?9PPf t^P;^^Vf P P ■fip.*
1
1
J
i
kk^
Mill ^3^
iliiil m\
.. .->.
^
( 17 )
■"""("d
;*;: 1 •* -^-"si 2^::^
^„.j,|,,.« *
ipUfJjHK^
"Ii« ^ " «>■ S'-"!*-^
..^^ppp _
■HIM
•^;|; ; - B*!i p^E-f*"
rfin?' a
■irf«d
;* ^* ^ «6F-«g. rPi-.^.
iTiTbi^-"'** "
1
-.onqpni
:l:^ I -"-^'^s- -;r=^^-
"tjjr-"-"^ -
£
■induuij
-^-J ^ ^6i-Siti pi«¥^
r^r-.^p-o-o *
■jiWOiiiv
-S-J 1 „«_i!8, 2-r-*^
'tu*?-" ^ ° -
■E[KilBV
;ri 1 —^-^o- '^■'k"
yj.p.j, ,
■ripa
;^;^ ; - '*«' •£•'^2
^^^pppp _^
■Fi?n»N
;3-| J .«-9*8. tn^i^^zt^-^'t.
•iMpori
:|:| § £«-s8' **^?
■ppiJny
"S^S " - "'»' -°^p°
-r.J.p r-p .. s
TTUtlV
:|:^ ^ " "" ■"''^■^
-;.j,j.p„.
i
■^v
;|:r s " '^8' -i:°"
--.p., p. .
1
•^as^til^i
^E'^ J - fifr-gt-s' .*p-°p
liSf J'-" »
^
-J(lJj|T100
H =: - 'Ss' t---"^
•*5.^^t *■•* -o
1
■■[^la
:i:: ^ - - .-^
^^tS.*"-"-" !^
liuuiifil
♦~^ § .« gS--frSgi PPPP
p.„p.™p,.
■B-Iim«H
::-.| i - ■'.. !:'-•--
^ii"'-""
■q«am«v
;:;| ! - 'is- t,E<"--
vlr«.Sil" i
■JoJi-njO
•l-l ■ •'"'''" ^t:'"
'ttiii'n
•nntng
• y -r s " '^"''"' - ■" '" "•
rt?,st," ft
1
111
I ^' ii=
IS
!
^^^^^^^1
I ■«)
■I'i !™N
-.1:1 1 -•-".■ .-::
rs :?■:;,;'
•pni«'j
."• !; : . «J-»J' '^f
■rjvKr'
•.ndBKj
i ■ i . «>-W •!••'-■••
"'■r^rsr
•iniBnia
•'ir^v'
■a»>lD<K
; . sm, rr?-
.p..jj„.
"- ~ »!-'!!■ -^
•^nsEU
t,|. r.- P
-"-siiU".
;^
"" k*il"
•• «i-g9g. prr
"*s.[S!,r
ii-»9ii ■;•?'■
■j-rriti
,u™»
-prq.qr||V
■"S-S. ^ „.i-g98' :*p■^'^*P^■?^J
■"•"'fin
:^:! ^ -•^-m. -^^:^rc?::i^
.(Jt8.ii.iy
!?!l a -•^-'W- ?>r-F~-?-r;j?^P
■«»v
■_^^_^ ^ « »^-gygi P-T*'
r-^^s-r?
■n»J«a
;:;p k -•'-"«■ "-■^t-^r^^^i:
•WOT
■nvv
--I ■"""■■ --':^?:-
tl^^a
:«;; J --m. ri^p-jj-jj::
■MiHiBra
•?■? 1 ""'■"" -s'ft.tnr'
■aujjtHa
■»■;= 1 ,.,^„, ■PTf j;gj:r
1
•ill ""^ U ^
3 J 3 1 111
H
iM
( "9 )
■suHir
: 1 : « rrpt-r-* ??■?-?
.»!- ;„»
•uoinm
.= .. , , ...,..,..,
P.- ..«
■J«il|iqS
.; I ; ^ r*Pr.^-P?;-r =^P
P.+ 2-.^
■juino
i i i •» ■"'SJC^SKJS-"
^-* ?5S.
■mriJ4f
'1^'T, ■ * -''it*" *2*^^"
p.* r-^g
-niiu.ili««y
;;:J 1 - ??:,?-*2s5r
■' .- ? : i
:;;| i - e-s:'?!:;?^
p !^ Sis.
■"^■"Li
■?:i s - -st^-'-ji'aS'
.»■■' s-s
■icin
-s-= 1 ^ ^pn:':^tji*
?* rp>s
■jndwpjnO
; : i ■" :n"!:s;st£"
■":' ^SS
■-o^'-S
::;| 1. * rrr-:!;tft--
p^ K-t
-anuuiV
;r;| : - 2::^^:c:sr
■•-" sii
■luSor^
l-.i : - jtsrsjjtr
°: :•»
■™d.^iiB,H
-rS; : - iifrttiZi'
"■'- ay?
■Jl!I.Ul!ll«[f
:|:| : - ^rj-rss.-t'
!■* •S'SS
■»1"!S
:;:: . - .sjjst:t-js'-
■»* jiK
■.uqpni
;|;i I - 2 2-r''tr£s''
P-- K'J
■»[Kiaiv
:|;| 1 - -S"S5S,JS"'
<■- 'i.ZS,
■«i;s
; ; ; • "-■-"■";;?--■■
pf r»2
•3[oi(oa
^f;! i • -"''STij;"
p» ^„«
■IBSIH
-•S-S , , „^„,^,,j,.
'■p t--
■[01.(5!
:|:r : - :-*^t£!;r
p." Si-a
■ooigino
:|;S i - r— s£^r
P-- JIS,
•IRPQ
.„-- , , ,„.™5.j.
■°^ *-"
il^i iiS
( JO)
■——=
r
" f»-«H"
-'^fs^wi:,!:: ■:
.
-i-4
: 1=^1.
"""'r'iirriwL :
s
:?:£
1
- st-at-
-rs.tjt:j::r" i
J
■= -t
'f—t-
"'-"rr'cj's :
5
^.
Si
s,
-It-ri,.
S'^rsrifK*; ■.
,- ,b
ri-r-»
!ll
liUi-rll8ll J
'It
< " )
s
;£:5 : ^ --ij^Kj-.^*
L
"J : ! a •"'"'■rs^iiKH:-" a^R
V
-^-i
fl
-•x-a I 8, _-,jp,.j^-.,» «^5
V
:5:J i - ■"■-^sjc-jjCb.r- 8^?
3
."r:! i ~ rsscEiibiii^t^'S!
«
-S ■" 1 _ p^p pppopp op^ 2^ 1 :
n
.':;| i - "':itiit.t:iit-'' '
a
-8-S. ; .„_,s„ p-ppp.j,-|;j.-. J,
lA
.'h^i ■ "«^">' '"'iStltiU" s
"S
■t-'l " ""-"" "SiSiSitKi'-'* ?
a
-° ~2 8 s-<ss-itgi !'''2gj;ti:°"'£,i:=' 3
3
'.i.i 8 -ss-ssii p's'^r'iiakSS.i;: »
IV
ll;!" ; -,»-«„ -s"."ritjsr:r*
-
~S'- 8 -" 6s-isg, f p ^iTi Ji^^S^J^ J*.
■I
i 5; ^ '-ii-iif ? P r-p^^rsT :"r p ^
4
;|;° s, -.9«s. ■p""!"rf:,55:e>!
«
:-.| ■ -'IJiJ' -:'.*''ntt^it■i--^
:Z]: : -'•-"«' E-i-'E-rt-Cuift
d
:;:| ' -:i:13; -'^fsj-sri^ s.
'S
'r-l ^ ~'^'*" "-'"f'^rsirsi: »
V
'J;^ 1 -•♦-"■■ '*™tf5:sLrtJ' ?!i
: i
ill
r iliiiMiilJiii
^^^IH^H
( 32> 1
"r * s •"89t9i''*'j-'^r
,,.^.„,|
■adfi,
•3 •£ *
•-^=-.i
:::: : - ■'.■ -"'•
?p ;;
■.l[3UO]lS
;| 1 : . w-t).. r-ffJ
:£.ns'
,-, .;
■ipoiiO
:|:.t s ' >9-^< <■"-
s i;?rt.
" Si
■'H("«M
; : i - ligi .- r p r
ri;s:-;'
PP n
■jndStN
■! ■ j 5 2 ...
=■? ^ff
P " i :
-»»ru«ia
-= 1 : . .p.
■ta"b
?P «
a Jt43<i»n
: ; : ^P P
-Jir?
PP JJ
TUOJg
:-:?r
"iiuSi-
,_. ;:
■H[..pB!V3
" m ^ "S^
•ttf-;
-.-r J
■("I'K
■s'l ' -■'"
•rt-:;i;-
PP M
■indurqing
-" ~f ; - itg. .. p p p
"IJ-P-Pr
PP vs
■'IP"«W
;r;r i -ip-isii •-'•^'p
"Rsri-
9 ? - :
■uoptuiin
: : ; - i^si ^.+ pp°
rtr^ '
PP W
'?."- 1 - ■''■ ""'°
:K^t
?•? -83
■inijg
. - '" '• * 89-»9Si P ^P P
**Cv;"S,
PP s:
■Jnd[«lrr
.""'1 ? " "-''" ""°"
°n^t
PP *:
■.ndi(3u[ut,vj
'« ^ ■ " '*8« SJP°
PP tr.
prqrfunlsoH
;r ;; r J $r"f f-f ^-
*ii«.i
-rr »i
■t«pu»qi|
:,:£?- ■'■' t^ ' '
° ?^s;t.
.. .J
■ei[«j(K
i i : - u„ i^''
^v^^i^
•°° !,;
■lioujra
'3; "» ^ " '^*' "P r p p
I *£*"
PP «
■i.«.S
:*;* 1 - 'iv p.*p-
-?^?='
rr^ x:
iliJSi
ritfi
ij i
III.
-uonas
•s-'c ' "°'~^" '°'""'i.:iSv'° '"*
,Tn«<i
■: i ~.i,'n- ■°^----?,-:;jC"' 'ss'^
.-."iSPH
•»
t ■ f«>-9Mi !"?^!-!'.r-rti;"''" i-s
;5
.IBdipilH
.:
,-«j,i«a
■8
J 1 -oi-,„. j'.-.-psr^Kc,-- ts,?
■uoiins
J i = =I-o!l. !-.-.-r<.^?^J?.-.-!< i-i
•S
S . ►ij-tM, ^-t."^tStr■-■"^^4
.■mdniiiK
■3;
■3
1 i -./-„!' j-f-f??'!;!;""" 5--
.-Jrd
■J
•s
» 1 ^=i-»„, s-— .•.•;t,r:j-'- s^"
■q"nv
■J
■8
^ ~ .«-!„, .■'^•...o.-jjy'j-.;.-? -Si
.•oorfrunj.
■8
r S- =.:-=,„ ^s-.-j;jj,P- ,ss
■rotpina
'8
1 J -«-!„. pi'^'s'^iir.:!;''" "--
.■-{--S
•S
;; 1 ♦ £s^j, -''PP^'?t3:b^l;?"•'' -"*
THinoA
■J
■2
1 § * oi-SM, ^p-?? j;t,; J'"'" iSK
.TtfflD
- ; * oi-s,ai P'Pr-y^r?^^ "Tjr-p ^2-s,
,i«..a
■8
^ J « oi.iM, .".-;?.- J ».j.-.»- ." --i
T.4dn„f
'j
1 y -z,-!,„ ■?p._rp^rF!-r.~r - - 1
.■J«rt*K
■S
■8
= i S oi-i9i. »."r-PP?-?.»!.» »-»:
■a
.•pHOd
:f
p ! "oi-89g> ^? :*?-.- r;;'^.-?^--."'? fs-^
■P«i
-U.PU1!«S
;i:;
J 1 8 «»-rtti '■*;."i:j;^'5.""" »"S
■PH
-urpueaiq
:'i
; s. 2 .:-„„ i-.-jrw^^.j^.^r s-;-
i
iUlzlMmf'
(24)
H
-n,t™.i
_ 'i'S'-tCiCi!."" !
-fuiqs
ill- ":!^?III-r2'-
■pl^
;;;*i- ""--Ssjr'?
■inJuW
;;;||..«,.. i5Sis.iU|U^
■i<.«i
::;- ''■°"£jH£«'^
■i«U.
■BRmptH
p p p !" ^ 5.T%'£ t?^ ^ ° <
oioniXciix
■; "^'-i-DSSjrS'!
■ooy
.^.^_ _^__ p,ppj^.;^j„,, ,
■»pnu3H
;:;: i- .:,. "•"-bS-sj??":
■"!"»fl
:;;=:- .^.. "'-iil??r:r:'
■«na.ni
;|;j-;- .,.. -:-:f|jr:ct:'
>
■^(woputs
;2-- , - „„ ''^•"Si.urjiS'
;=■»:- „„ -'■"h.KHs.iit-v
■qtX^v
:,::-.- .<.. '■"■-■-iSiSfc-^-
■^»\~: = ' ^^ '""f^iH??f'
1
liil -V lliiiitill J
( 25 )
DAY MAXIMUM RAINFALLS.
LONG CONTINUOUS FALLS,
AND SPECIAL RAINFALL DATA.
N.B. There are not any Day Maximum Returns for Bengal Proper.
Day Maximum at Calcutta about 5 inches.
General data for extraordinary rainfall in Southern India, exclusive of
very extraordinary cases.
c
9
O
so
J3
e
9
o
H
e
For the tbeltered tible-landi of Balari and Kadapa
For the average of Plaint like that of Tinnevelly,
Ramnad> Trichinopoly, Eastern Coimbator,
and Western Tanjor
For the boKS of hills sheltered firom the S.W.,
Imt more exposed to the N.£. mansun j and
lor a table-laind like Maisar not shut out from
the N.£. mansun
For plains and table-lands of Haidarabad and
Nagpur
For plains like Tanjor, South Arcot, Chinglepat;
^r the plains of Oantur, Nellor, Rajahmandry,
Ganjam, and Masulipatam
For the hills of Kadapa, Nellor, Gantur, Rajah-
mandry, Oanjam, and Masulipatam
For hill summits well exposed to the S.W.
mansun
Inches.
75
•9
i-o
>-5
i-o
1*2
»'4
2*0
125
1*5
17
a*5
»-5
x«
a*o
30
%'0
a*4
a7
40
30
3-6
41
60
37
45
5*o
75
40
50
6*o
80
12*0
15*0
III. — Bombay Presidckcy. — Special Rain&ll Dae
Day Maxima of Five Sutioni id Ten Yean.
.8
J
■S
.K"
.1^
^
s
JJ
S
J
-
1
t
1
s
5
1
A
5
1
4
Selgium
.54
J-»9
»S!
i-o?
.>5
(-18
J-01
s-Ji
IW
^
^
i
I
■5-
s
s
1
3
S ?
Pun.
r-
JIO
1>
s
'75
i-rf
TV>
s-oo r.S|?-)oj
P
1
s
i-
R
^
s
1
1
•<
J
~ .
7-3 >
6-08
Si6
8-14
3S«
to*
g-ol
rfs
lo-S'
,511 in«
S
1
S
*
I;
^
S
^
■<
}
£ £
2"
s
?.
n
S"
"2
"1 =
0-91
i-30
I-4II
S»7
»S7
»»
.J ..,4
t-n
1
J^
1
^
I
1
i
■»
*
D.™
g'.S
a-j6
354
,«.
177 »-8a
.-.s
S''S
S'3
|i)
Mih.
lulahwir...
. IJ'ofiln.
a in *4 houK on md S«pt,, lijj.
April.
„ „ n oci., 184s.
Utm
yMulUj ...
. IJIO
Bom
»y
. 9*3
■.>».■'«■
, in , h.., .. ,. J.nc ,I„.
. in,6h..„inj.l,, ,IJ,.
, ini4linunon9Aug., tl6g.
"
[n<«?)..
. I4-00
( 2; )
V. — North-West Pkovinces and Oudh.
Day Maxima ;n Six Years.
■
(19 )
VI. — Madras, Maisur, and Curg.
Day Maxima at Madras between 1822 and 1857.
ft
inches oo 4th November, 1822.
„ 29th October, 1825.
„ 9th May, 1827.
„ 27th November, 1827.
„ 3iit October, 1836.
„ 20th November, 1836.
„ 27th December, 1845.
99
»
99
99
99
Falls at Bangalor.
icbes in 24 hours in Sept, 1852.
in 35 min. in May, 1859.
in 24 hours in Sept., 1859.
in 24 hours in Aug., i860,
in 15 min. in Sept, i860,
in 40 ndo. in May, 1861.
in 24 hours in Sept, i86i.
in 24 hoan in Nov., 1861.
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
17*00
20-58
1145
790
6*22
12*21
n 12 hours on 2i8t October, 1846.
n 24 hours on 2itt October, 1846.
n „ 4th May, 1851.
n „ 4th November, 1851.
n 5 hours on 20th November, 1856.
in 12 hours on 24th October, 1857.
18*04 in 24 hours on 24th October,. 1857.
Longest Continuous at Bangalor.
10 days in July, 1859.
10 days in August, 1859.
10 days in August, i860.
9 djys in August, 1861.
Dodabetta 4*30 inches in 24 hours in May, 1852.
Shemuga 2*00 „ „ in April, 1859.
Shemuga 4*00 „ „ in September, 1859.
Chittledrug 10 days continuously in April, 1859.
VII. — Minor Provinces. — Haidarabad and Barar.
larabad . . .
I Station ...
I Town ...
lai !!!!!!!!!
ll
la
1863.
170
972
1864.
00
2'20
1865.
1*90
3*56
6-30
• • •
2*67
1866.
2*65
2*50
430
• • •
4*22
1867.
2*05
2*21
6*40
« • •
i'6o
1868.
274
287
4*35
4-05
4*59
1869.
2*27
3 '60
4*53
3M0
1870.
2*00
4-30
7*20
4-65
• • •
7-40
491
4-27
Max.
3'oo
4*30
7'ao
4-65
356
740
491
972
Longest Continuous Falls at Sikandarabad.
7 days 2*32 inches in 1863.
6 >9 S'SO 9f »864-
O „ 2*11 „ 1865.
7 „ 1-17 „ 1866.
5 days 1*53 inches in 1867.
7 99 3*»3 99 1868.
8 „ 338 „ 1869.
TABLES OF
HUMIDITY AND EVAPORATION.
( 31 )
i - 6S-Hg.
S = si-ifrs' ?..£■£■?
" oj-gSgi CiJSR
; S H MM i ij :.^ :
:r: I -
S. - «!■ R-XSS
*^i«. t.rs«*sss;"a
' I
— -tlf
T«iq«-m
■-"JI!A »J
-::-. -..-«,. i-.u-. .
SMS!
-W">|«3
■o'KwWl
' * J - Sill jis :i!.s^f.tiss
•a -s.
-p*<]»n|«rH
!! . » " "^''' 'i;»js.s^i""
■wwa
3^ _ 1 -isi!,i «*sl'isst;kK
.^Kjrj,
1
^-
1
J-
J
1
I
i
^
:;
J
i
( 33 )
■uSv
■ f
_ s • sss'sasJ'Ss.sis, ?
■°""n»i
-s,
••8
•!"^r
-f
^ J «■ ii?,s.fs'»;;J'i-»si J
i«i"miv
■■s
* |- ■? ■e.'iKSSS.f.'SLtSSK K
■«d:,H0O
■■4
■•8
■ J ■< 'S.SSJS.WS'S.KS.K S
™irwo
•■s
» . " .♦..«„"«.-..-.^ .
■ntwd
-J
* 5 - %'S,=,?Si;;'R'^J3. ^
■4«»lH«nH
-wp-W
.„
^ S - iiS^S5,3;si3J'5.i- ;
■iwia uoj
"'
_ -S * ^•^SSR^5»£'fi"!i ;c
•nffitf
■i
J - " !5SK54^5.*^J!; R
-»»innowux
.'
..».,.
■»|[»0
..
" 1 ■• xzssssssssus s
J
1
J
11^ ■— iii41i«lia V
j^^^^^H
^H
(3+) "
i
TPt^lI
■ttJiUrfl
■s - -, „
-jXli
• ?■«
— "■MiSBpipjlBBH
■i~U.N
•: -R
5-r:s5'S'3,!i5>;i^;-s
■niMS
•S .R
■^.
■s-a
js.s.'s;?:;.???!;;
■»puiq3
:::: ^ ^ — '
■pniTauipoH
;': r - «==.-,....«:
-"-E - ^
■J.8.S
;*; 1 : ^^^^ =■?-.-.;.«:
T".W
= i a „ „.... ,
■nw«a
l '^ £ I i5.'jK'S,='!lF:511S.
■.■«.fv
:!:! 1 - .?=^=*^«==
i
■ -a ■ :S „
1 -1 -a ^
S S S 4 '-
^Ilfetoilit
■icjtm-a
s
:? '--- =.s.,. = ;:.....
f>
■i
° S „.tm. JSS^KSiJf.KXSS
.1
^ J «-i-t9t. s,iS,™5'S,t.s;itSi;
i
■ra3v
"
° J „.i-89ii s'Ssrs-j^MS's.i
■n"«a
■i
Z
•)"!W
"*
; s ..i-S)!. a%'s,?KSR^S'is-
■!H1^"H
■ s
J 1 -'i-Mii cs5.rrs«-^j-ii=,
■"•{'a
-3
]; a --1-191. ^■e.^is.ssiif.sss
'i"nv"V
•^
; 5 . ■'-'1. iS,ss«^as!;^TS,
■n»"I"l3
-3-
^ I ,. 1-4,1. &S.iJJSS5,a-l!,SS
■ana
-?
]|' 1 a «9-091. J'SS,»SJKSti-!iS s
■iH3ur5[
■?
" f 2(9-=)!. ^^JJS-SSf-S^lSK 3
1
■it^asBtt
-^
~ S 2 '9^.. SSi-SiS.ffSi-tl'Ki s
-ninj
•a
-■2
° 1 S S9-»9!. J'X&SS.S.SJJSSii' 1
■m«ai^
•a
J 1 s v=9i. ssrs-'jssssitsij s
i
1 J 1 1 .-' Illiliilllll 1
N
1
^^^^^H
1 36 1
1
■--l^
-.Z : "•'-"I" SS-S!rS!»i-E.S55 s
•itfts
I r 1 " ■'"°^' «??s«SR?.;s ■
i
-«^
T.J 1 -.l-i»Ii S,y»JJS5iS5«S s
ip«rt~n
.'=".= 1
S.S.r5,a?«5=« J
•nttBR
■R -e:
sys.'s s? iisisi ;
'wm
■s-s
.5-C
2.is=,a^5si5M :
.S.K
ssss,s.aisssss.t Ji
•jMrn
:::;' — 1
-nouutqa
■«TM
_^ _ J "lij,,! tS,SlHS,SSf;SS2, 5
■JMumV
'l'~ : -.!.!„. is-j: i's.s^s.sKJ ;
1
1
e
1
■i,™tv
^\i "^-tMi jsss.js^scK=; ;
l-^f
I, ^ i -ti-m' jKrrsiSs.jRs.'!. i
^ ■ ? ".£-,„■ i.2,ji!!,s£;ss;is ;
1
( 37 )
1
•niptM », Kuiuu iliptomq iu< too an w»qx
{
■lUuaa «j fiuiau aip in [upnpui it qiXi|v Jo XjipitunH
XiitUDaS ui 'i^ji JO) asuuoid tiqi io) (Ujtuai Xiipiuinq aq j.
i
i
■»irf=.a
•^"
" 1 " 'J-9SI1 KS'^a?,ixsi'"«s ;
I
&
■nitnnfl
-s
• s
^ ? - .l-.ii. KtSl^-S.^SJ-'SJS i
1
■t|0W
■1
•8
^ 1 " .I-.i,i E-S.'SilSS.iS.KSSS i
•iloHinn
•8
; 1 " .i-u,. s?i:j3-isi-sjsi i
i
i
I
■ind,,a
■8
_ i " ,i.o/,i ^sa-syisc-iiKsj s
■epneqa
•^
S^""- «^^«---.^=^^= :
>'
■jnd2tN
::
^ 3 " .i-ii. ■JES-SS-e.Ci'JrlfS.t s
3
■iuo»s
■5
^ 1 " ii.oi,i jasssi'.sf.ics'j i -J
■1«'"t«d
-s
• s
- 2.
1.
I
1
■ a
* r ■ u^'n ir JIT'S M^5«s .J
a:
iul:^ imM !
. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
( 38 )
■rj«diK.o
■?
• S J JJiERSSSfiC;
-8o,,.(,Kl
-n
; j . •EcsKjs.iag.cc:
■Ji;)8uo|V
t
; i J «.»5*SJSJS4.- ,
■lUHd
■J
" R J s-s.'its.jirissj
■*io
•3.
;
-'—"--•---
■j-iduiiHoa
■J
-
i-JMt.ssj5i;j.«
■■(J.quH»H
■3
■!
•J
s.2*sjrs^^.*5;
■"H>I!S
SKSMSSi-ssi;
■n«a
"i
^ ~ 1 T.i?.^SSS-SSi--^
.™f
■ "
^ 8 J .TJi'seji^i-siti;
•om^ra
■"
= ? . £S£S-£-£S^e;;.»
■8uoJciiiii3
.:
f- S, ^ ;L;;SS^SSSStj?.;
■P"'l»i "8'S
•s
~ ' 1 r:f.r,S^SS£ss:^r:
ipaiiD
'S
* ^ • ssiSfMjjriL^s
■JLioj Mirj
■8
• S
J ? « sr-ssxa^-£ss^-
■<1'^1V
■S
: -. I -^^^a^^^^^.-.
s
E
iftJ^Bll
( 39 >
Evaporation Data.
Bombay, 23 Years.
m
76-5
<
1
W)
s
E
s
f
1
.s
1
1
>
t'r;5r.T iiSiifc -"L-s=l
„
llilii !H?|i
p p p p p O p . . P P p
1
-
rsflf F?5?r?
■Smpootb»O03
QiiquxluMJ.
1
|,=.sS.*K U?H? '■
I
mn. mm ^
i
:
•Sst-SSS f-f-E;?.^-
™«
■saiSK ZiSiiS
11
i
^
rJJss jSSSa
? s
■a
s
jj-ssj sy^-KS:
^
' " ' ■
o*
:
Ti??h ??ihi.i
i
F
jM urn
1
J
^^^^fl~^
( 4» )
^
kPORATlON AMD CoRRESPONDIMO TEMPERATURES
AT Red- ^I
HILL, Madras. By Mr. Ludlow, C.E.
m
Toul Evaporation
Dally Mean In
Rainiill in
■
inlntbei.
'"''*"•
.
1
I..«k.
Heptn.
l.u»k.
InoF^i.
B-ri..
rii
9-911
I4'7J
■409
■S67
1-39
o-
I
u-ig.
14,151
■374
■476
117
»'SS9
c
11771
15-079
-406
■500
1.14,
559'
r
10-079
tl'ooS
■317
■386
.19
7'°47
put....
7-10 s
8-465
-3sa
■411
I-.7
1-890
^_
ii>
anj
5C
6+-
"174
■469
i-ij
17-116
1
^
Tempcnture of Water
Temperanire of Water
in Tinlc.
Temp
...„.
btHt.
latfa.
At lop.
A,bO,.=..
ln,»u.
■"-
ir?
86s
S91
Sji
lo6-8
7«-4
i
>C1
79J
gi'B
lit -7
84-1
Si-o
8i-i
78-8
loi-j
78-!
77-1
m-
799
8.-9
83-0
8o'6
97'3
77-0
««...-
go'4
Ei'o
S.-7
So-i
98-4
76-6
""
Bi'o
.■•.
81-3
B3-0
.0.-.
77'S
B Madiai Obimvatoiy EvAPOSATioH Data.
V Mondiilr.
Unr d^r-
•413
■354
F<bna
T 'i°S
Auguit
September
October ..
■334
■IBB
■391
A^
K
H* Tool for rev, 115'g inchea.
SepKiDber
,S± member. iBSj, p.« rnulo virymg belv>«n i+-g .nd JS*
nchei i the
i
wiiiioni beiog nude on 60 lanki, nhots Kii&cti vaiied from ntii qnjiie
of lo Kie
J
)7 Mto, and *hoM deptlii vaiieJ ftom 6 10 iS'3 feel.
1
fc_
^^^C3
■\
( 4-J 1 1
THE EVAPORATION DATA AND THEIR CON. 1
DI rlONS OF OBSERVATION. J
1
The diu for Redhil),
for Pondicherry have beea
reduced to English mnu
le given by M. Lamain^, m
Vol.XVIir..fori869.of.
ej Poms « Chan-scc." Wi
regu^d 10 the former, it ij
the objcrvations in the op«.
wcrt made at about to
tose in the tank, and that the'
rcsulii jhow that the de.
o of evaporation in the open"
to that in the tank »
« diminution of the depth of
water in the tank. Th
nk went down in fi*-e monlhi
7S inches, in Jpi
cof 8
all 8j inchw; of which the
adopted in the old Bombay
and the Rurkhi data are not
tank evaporator accounted for only S3 inchei as lost by eiapontion,
hence only 30 inches were used in irrigation out of 83 inches in the
tank — i.e., three-eighths were utilized, and five^eighths lost.
M. Lamaireuc also mentions that the English engineers in the
Madras presidency also allow for a loss of water in irrigation by
evaporation of 3 inches daily per square yard of land irrigated.
The conditions and mode of observat
Observatory data, the Madras, Calcutta
explained.
The Akola data were observed by a military surgeon ; the evapo-
rator being a simple tin pot, about four inches in diameter, surrounded
by a little cotton-wool, and covered with a wire gauge covering to
protect the water from animals ; the water was measured every second
day in the graduated measure used for measuring rainfall.
The conditions of observation adopted by Mr. Conybeare at Vahar
are not forthcoming ; but as his data more nearly represent the actual
amount of evaporation from large sheets of standing water than those
of others, and have been confirmed by practical results, they are ex-
ceedingly valuable.
ADDITIONAL
METEOROLOGICAL TABLES.
■I ? t- f J ^
i o £ -S J! B- .
ill i|
< £ S Z Q
I
•«*wt
■-»«
?- Ilfllfllfllt 1
■tOv
TW^
4 - p^qfitiiiif
■"""m
^- lllllllil'
T-tf
^^ llfltllll
wMia
- mmui
-u»J[»0
- t.ff|!||ilf|l
■»«!i!?'ia
i: iffigiyHiH
■ni(8u«n
- Iffflllilfff 1
■™«j
- lilftillEtfli
.. lllllllllilll
1. IMiiytlllli
■mp|iS
.'I iifiiiiiiiiii
1
i\ itliilUUlU
45
•qSiqutWH
•A
VO
•
SO
M
•
so
so
•
o
•
00
OS
•
OO
so
•
00
00
•
00
p
ob
•
to*
to*
•
to
•
00
so
oo .
•
m
SO
'liffiuoj/^
VO
•
H
SO
•
oo
so
•
00
■
00
•
00
•
00
OS
•
to
00
t«
•
to
00
•
O
00
00
•
so
OS
•
•SuiijCira
%o
OO
•
O
•
so
<2
m
to
so
OS
•
ro
so
OS
•
to
so
o
•
so
•
h
SO
o
•
-ZiOtQ
^0
1
so
so
ro
•
c<
SO
•
OS
O
r«
00
•
00
•
to
00
•
to
00
•
to
00
to
•
to
00
to
•
00
M
•
so
■
OO
so
so
•
00
•Soo8e»iq3
SO
«
so
•
•
00
m
00
OS
oo
o
•
00
p
00
•
00
sn
•
00
■
O
00
SO
■
m
OO
so
so
•
•«MiiD|e3
^0
oo
•
oo
so
•
•o
•
o
00
M
00
so
•
00
•
00
to
•
to
00
■
to
00
O
•
to
00
•
00
•
•
OS
so
•
OS
luriii itSts
^0
1
to
•
s
b
00
•
00
00
•
00
•
00
■
to
oo
«
to
00
OS
•
H
00
OS
•
o
00
to
•
so
■
00
so
•
OS
•af«Mto
^0
OS
•
O
•
»
00
•
SO
OO
•
OS
00
so-
OO
•
to
00
to
•
to
oo
•
to
00
•
00
•
•
o
•
O
00
JttlOd MJEJ
SO
ro
•
•o
•
O
00
O
•
00
00
•
so
00
•
so
oo
00
•
p
00
•
to
00
o
•
OS
b
00
•
o
00
•qeXajv
NO
4-
o\
•
OS
SO
•
ro
•
oo
ro
00
00
•
00
00
•
o
00
o
•
00
OS
•
00
p
00
•
Cs
•
oo
nqedeSen^
*
00
«
so
M
•
OS
c<
•
oo
•
so
00
•
oo
00
•
00
•
00
•
00
it
00
•
H
00
OS
•
OS
•
SO
•
OS
•
t<
00
*supej^
so
o
•
•
OS
•
H
00
so
•
00
oo
•
00
00
oo
00
to
so
00
OS
•
00
00
so
•
00
•
oo
OS
■
00
•jirig lioj
iieuioauux
*oquio[03
^ to to ^ 00
• ■ ■ •
00 OS >^ f
t^ t^ 00 00
so w-j ^ |>» O
»« M O O
00 OO 00 00
OS O
r<« 00
o
00
OS
so
o
oo
I
t^sO f« u^OOOO toOsOO H OsOO
• •••••••••••
OO Ost« ^w-»«/^w^«r»tO*«0000
t^t^oeoooooooooooooo t^t^
■
H
00
so *« to
OOfltOtOMMMOMMO
00 00 oo 00 00 oo 00 oo 00 00 00 00
(+6)
•jfuno
7
-»*»ll
r
sleiistfeRfc^l f
■niStn
r
i
fJfc£££i:«fcfcU, -j
■Mpvi
T
ill^tlKsJ
•jrStS
t
5i5E?i5E^
■'•■^V
X
SlSJiSfcfJ i
•<ar
s
imiri^ii i
•m>^
.-
--a>'4'<Kv.-«n» ■
-'°"-----"'- '
■■P«B
i
■oMqj|Fi
-
i
jJ-KSiU-i^KsI 1
T""(f
i
^ „ „ ^ «„oo« [. «
iJEisJ.JsjjtKj' '.
■rnma
V
m^ZiStitSi 1
•»Ji«»o
-
i=£J£iri-:fcil i
■«n«d
■?
« ^ e;^3 = its-s Rj-^ I
I
ii\Uii\Ull 1
■5Jsi:::rifs =
I .11
( IS )
s
iit| rtsiss K^its
•m 1 aRi s^sssitcji
— « ^tS'S.S.'S.'SESL:,*
1
s
■■ml s i f: sts.s-ai;
™n| Kj^a's.&sats;
•"■ra| rEiis^sKEi};
I
1
••IB 1 r * C K K E s. s
■nnl ;2a-jes;s
■■"K ' ^ c r t R « J 5
}
■•■K ' s s ;; ff ^ S 4
•nw ILJIESCSS
■"■K * e c e 8. « 1
1
■"!« ■s.js.j^r;:;!;;
•.T« 1 S i J- S J Jf. : E K ! ^
™«| jli^KS :t.t.j:
i
■..«! tsxJi'i-J^SiH
•~«| JS C?.SK!:i:Ct.r
■i».k| KRJSJf.fLRESi
J
"IW 1 KSKSSasRS.S'i
-«| S S CKfiS'SEKSS
™m| liSSSKK'S.KS^C
1
<
■..J, »J%=^1E!^^SS
■"wl ■S.tJT'S.KlLCKEKP
■u,.„ 1 s-JSffr.fK-S.KCS
1
\ \ii\UU\Ui
(49)
■mma
?slsJII^I'S3,sr =.
■«™»H
* sR'SJSIsijlis 1;
■."!l«0
I .»?!«"-: rtJi SI? »
■••tfa
- 1 jjk??:??!.*! 5 ?.
'•wttm
I f.sft£ %%%.%:: ft S
■TOij
■C i^fSiStism -i
- .l??..Jf J.l?,ilii ^
t ffllP^ffSrh^f I
•txtc
I ^silirrri^:"?, k
■^1
: ■ .^ms?:-:i«^i.j s
■BinJTO
- ?.«;-??§ 11 si.ri 1:
z f%islli%iist -:
Tiraio
t tlilltSltJlp -i
•Jniod-IM
« nfFirriHHi
l-'W
: ts?f'?i.itf.ifs s
■omeditetA
» sS?:kllSfSrt% -"
/
1 IllikaUili
1
i^H^^I^^H
( so )
■-'i-.-r
■ £ £ i S n I? Uil
•—kI i 1 i 1 t E 1 If 1 .".:
■^\i iiis i ii iiii
-,..-,
- i E i ? i: ? fe 1 1 ii
•Ji«-ii
s i i ^* sn
■nxtd
i 1 £ i = 1 S S 2
I III ilm
1«1!— H
1 n 1 f 11 i
«f
r £ i i^f i II fe £ n
•UUfl^
t 1 ?E n 1 1 r Mi
1»«<>»D
: tiilSlllfJI
TpMO
i jfifHi^tii
— .
- li ii it i iiS)
■••TW
- H HUiH 1
1
1 H^M'MiJ.
( S" )
^?!SS*^'s.*'3?-SI
i.ti'S.'i'i"^^^ t
S^ss'ss'i'a-"^'
s ft s > - ,
1 ^1^
1 I s s « » > s ,
ISSSSSSSS'J'S,'
|SSSS„„„„'S,St
'i'ssssssssi
I i* * * t'S 'S,
_ t ■ i J i i
«~8
i
J SS-Iiiii-tSSSt
■.ndp,,r
-
J f^r^ruj^S's.si:
■indftN
-
5 llllllllllil
i
■ira.rv
■i
^
» EC % ^ is s >
i 2 " Z Z Z Z
Si: K r?.1! IS
•minif
I
3
7
«
4
'uty
X
jl
■npiJna
'
Miljisllllll
1-
^ ~ V S z "■ ^KS"*" *"
"^1
tuniis
'
js s,K4»s---"as:
:s
■o.d,™o
"
^ S S a S £^ 1^ 5^ « s s s s
5-s
1
J
■3"!i!f«a
-
.J sjy^: = fjri:*;
■jiijSiUM
i
Ti
J 5,2?5'»-K??.;'3.S
■«"l»d
■t
3 I||j?»"f5'=|j£
^ SS-C?"^^^?^'*?!
1
\\ \xv^SMSa
\
( 53 )
? ? ' ?-9? •.
i- 4 i
' ?. f
:^ t -
gr ?•
■ 1 ? *
/ ^ I £ A£ S < S ^X< » iii 4 & ^
GENERAL REMARKS
METEOROLOGY OF INDIA.
eads of mean monthly
'eryihing available that
ind irrigation engineer.
rainfall for each place
,.J2e annual rainfall in ail
The returns given, under
rainfall, and day maxim
would be of use to the
The maximum and minim.
would have been givcji wit.
cases, as in those of the Bombay Presidency, the Punjab,
Mysore, and the minor provinces, but unfortunately they were
not to be had. For the Madras Presidency, no mean monthly
returns subsequent to 1861 are available. For Bengal and
Burmah there are no day maxima procurable. In all cases
hundredths of an inch of rainfall have been rejected, as in
the first place they are unnecessary to the engineer, and in
the second it would be aiming at a refinement of exactitude
beyond the present powers of meteorological observation
generally throughout India. As regards mean monthly re-
turns, since it appears that the cycle of rainfall, in which
maximum and minimum annual falls in India occur, is about
ten or eleven years, the average for this number of years may
be considered as practically correct ; anything beyond that may
therefore be considered unnecessary, and anything less as
incomplete in that respect, and serving merely as a useful
approximation.
The rainfall data given for years previous 10 1861 were
( 55 )
ixtracttd and reduced from a Pariiuniciiciry Blue Book pi
'lisheil in 1863; thuse fur years subsequent Id 1861 were
reduced from yearly returns furnished by the ineieorulogical^
reporters of the various provinces of India ; or rather froi
such of them as could be procured, including the latest sup-
plied by the India Office in 1874, All returns made by
s under the superintendence of the civil officials, Anglo-
[ndiaa magistrates, and hence not under the control or
inspection of meteorological reporters, or other qualified
arologists, have been generally excluded from these sta-
listicsj those fur Bcrar, reduced and examined by myself,
fcrming the sole exception.
Xhc position of the places mentioned, latitudes and longi-
ndes, have, when given vi-ith elevations, been generally
E>bi>iined from the yearly returns of the meteorological re-
[1 other cases, that is, when the elevation is not given ,
with them, they may be cojisidered as mere approximations
intended to guide the reader. As regards the nomenclature of!
^e places, a serious difficulty in a country where there atv
Qo less than twelve main widely-spoken languages, it has been .
bund impossible to adhere rigidly to one system ; that of Sir^
William Jones, being strictly phojietic, and when once learnt^
free from all doubt, is undoubtedly the best, and has hence
leen generally adopted ; but as so many pUccs, as, for in-{
nance, Bombay and Calcutta, have fallen into an Englisfa!
form, and might hardly be recognized in the Jones form oE
blumbai and Kalkatta, the old established matmer of spcllinn
^ese and a few other names has been adhered to, '3
As to the grouping of the rainfall stations, it would no
doubt have been far more correct meteorologically to collect
3 natural groups, as shown in the table on the follow-
ing page i but for many reasons this has not been considered"
Rdvisable at the present stage of Indian meteorology, and
hence the following terriiorial arrangement has been generally
tdhered to : — ]
I
( 56 )
I. India generally, irrespective of Province.
II. Bengal (under the Government of Bengal).
III. Bombay and Sindh.
IV. The North-west Provinces.
V. The Punjab.
VI. Madras (under the Governor of Madras),
VII. Minor Provinces — including the Central Provinces,
Berar and H ' " Oudh
Mysore and Kurg,
British Burn ejlon.
In some cases, however, the arrangements of (he
meteorological reporters, si : data for places in the
Minor Provinces will be i d up with those of the
nearest large province, as f ne North-west Province,
M^isur with Madras, and 1 Ceylon with Bengal.
TABLE OF NATU
PS OF RAINFALL
tio.
Giour.
PoUTIOH,
RA.»rA.i
1
■a
ii =
i
■3
.3
S
I.
IntuUt Ceylon,. ,.
79 to s\
%■>
11
111
90 to 100
118
iKS
IV
Thi W«. C™., « ... Bomb., ...
66 to 76
Kn
S tors
77 to 78
Belgium ..
i6 to .;j
74 to 77
VII
The South Ceotnl. or KiinOi
;^,;:;!'
ir. li
M
IX
Naiik
»1
X
The CcDtnl, or Nigpui
XI
The North Cenml, m MMinlAbu
»3i to 154:69 to 75
XII
10 toi7i[9ii| to 9^
?K
XIII
»1
to .6 ;8,i to 9.
D"»PUr ..
to«6 :85 to 85
The Benpd Hill, «... Bh.g.Ipor..
'■\
tD»3 [87 to 88
4f
ElrdwM ..
'i
to 14
iSlto R8
.,«
•J ':ti
76Jto 79
41
XX
The Northem, or Delhi
96
XXI
The North Wdtern, or Lahor
Tht WeMero,Dr ladui
IS 103°
71 to 73
9
3'
( 57 )
As to ihe laws of the irregularities of rainfall over the vast
continent of India, and their causes, nothing has yet been
positively determined. The phenomena of the mansuns, and
their causes, as well as those of (he existence of the large
compa»tiveIy rainless re^ons west of the Indus, have been
familiar to every one for many years; famines, due to the
periodic rainfall, being either in excess or in deficiency on the
whole, or at the usual period of high rainfall, the rains being
loo late or too early, have existed for ages, and have continu-
ally decimated the population locally, without the causes being
discovered. Sometimes the summer rainfall is thrown to the
east, sometimes to the west of the Bay of Bengal : — sometimes
it is scanty in Lower Bengal and abundant in Northern India,
and sometimes the converse. After a few years, when a
I uniform and trustworthy system of meteorological observation
shall have been extendeJ all over India, it is very probable that
these phenomena will be belter understood : at present the re-
cord of pressure, temperature, and wind, &c., of the Presiden-
cies of Bombay and Madras are practically inaccessible, and
those of Northern India being irregular and untrustworthy,
(he only records that are of any value for this purpose are
those under the control of Mr. Blanford, for many years
Meteorological Reporter to the Government of Bengal.
From these be has been enabled to discover a most important
law, viz., that the position of the circle of minimum baromc-
I trie pressure in Bengal in March and April does, in connection
with other meteorological data, furnish means for indicating
1 roughly the amount and the distribution of the mansun rain-
(all of the year, which commences in May or June. Wc
may, therefore, hope that in a few years it will be customary
to announce every spring the probable amount and distribution
of the summer rainfall over India, and thus save the large and
continual losses of crops now due to a want of this knowledge.
Another most important law of rainfall, discovered by Mr.
.'Meldrum, of the Mauritius, will probably be found to admit
of application to India. Mr. Mcldrum, of the Mauritius, a
giiully established ihc law that the yean of minimum aadf
maximum sun-spot frequency were coincident with those of 1
cyclone frequency in the Indian Ocean, and his lately esit- 1
bished the law of the coincidence of these years w:
minimum and maximum rainfaJI at Port Louis,
years of minimum sun spot frcaucncy arc —
>8i3
6 1867,
ucncy arc —
o 1871,
eleven years.
kpe of Good Hope, shows
generally, but the epochs
m-spot frequency ; these
to be the natural conse-
The rain-
and those of maximum s>-
1837 ,
denoting a cycle of bciw
Tall at Adelaide, Brisbam
a similar periodicity of
arc not coincident with
periodicities are, thcrefo
quences of the same law.
Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, Superintendent of the Depart-
ment of Science in Oudh, has attempted to apply these
principles to rainfall in India ; he states that the rainfall at
Lakhn.iu was 64-6 inches in 1870 and 65*0 inches in 1871,
each of these amounts being more than 22 inches above the
fall of the preceding year 1869, or the two following years,
l8;2 and 1S73, in which the falls were 41 and 34 inches i he
also paints out that the Madras rainfall records support the
same law ; they arc thus : —
InchM, Tottlf.
1843 — 41-
1844 — 45"
"845 — 39-
,847 — 81-
1848-
1849 — 54*
and show an interval indicative of a periodicity coincident
with that of the sun-spots.
While, therefore, it will probably be long before 1
Minimun
Maximum
( 1847 — 81- \
} 1848 - 40- f
( 1849 — 54- )
125-
>7S-
( S9 )
gical science and spectrum analysis togeiher combine to
Scover the nature of the connection sliowii by these facts,
Tieantime the knowledge of the periodicity of the
bufall cycle may, like that of Air. Blaiiford's theory prc-
rtjsly mentioned, become an invaluable blessing to India.
t present, neither of these theories can be considered as
tablished, indeed the petioiiiciiy of a cycle of sun-spot
frequency is not yet fully proved. All that is yet established,
as proving the connection between the solar-spots and the
meteorological conditions of the earth, is, that the years of sun-
spot frequency generally correspond to those of maximum
solar radiation temperature, of the black-bulb thermometer in ■
vacuo; while of the fact that variation of rjinfall is caused by
that of temperature there is no doubt. A widely extended
series of meteorological observations, in all parts of the world,
will be required before this connection can be made to yield
useful results.
n. EVAPORATION AND HUMIDITY.
Next to the amount and distribution of rainfall, evaporation
is among meteorological data the most important to the
hydraulic engineer. It is not sulBcient for him to know how
much rainfall may be expected at any time and in any length
of lime, he wishes to know how much of this has to be pro-
vided against, or how much of it he can utilise, after all losses '
by evaporation and absorption are allowed for. These losses,
then, require to be determined, not with any theoretical degree
of exaciitude, but with a practical degree of accuracy that will
be sufficient security against gross error or gross waste. The
large number of bridges in India that have been swept away ,
for want of sufficient waterway, and the large amount of
water valuable for irrigation that has annually been allowed to
evaporate in shallow tanks, are painful examples of semi-
barbarous engineering management, and ignorance of physical
and meteorological conditions. ,
4
The evaporation data given in the tables are exceedingly
lew in number, and have mostly been conducted on ^se
principles; they do not by any means truly represent local
evaporation as regards absolute amount, but arc relatively
useful, yielding ct-mparalive results, which, in combinatioD
with a few absolute data, and a knowledge of comparative
local nieleorologicai conf'-'- — - "le made to yield roughly
approximate absolute da
with this object that all
for India have been give
For example : — We
approximation to the c
comparative humiditic
data of absolute cvapo
large standing sheet of
Vahar, near Bombay ; they j
□umber of places. It is
mparative humidity data
npanying tables,
that we require a rough
Mcola, a place for which
The most trustworthy
ting evaporation from <i
ie of Mr. Conybeare, It
. ./ inches in eight months
of hot weather, or about forty inches in a year. Now, the
Bombay Observatory data give mean daily evaporation data,
which are among themselves and under their own conditions
relatively correct, although thetr sum total, eighty inches. Is
not true in representing absolute evaporation from a sheet of
standing water. We can therefore tabulate proportional mean
daily evaporation for Bombay that will be absolutely correct,
thus —
BoHiAr.
Compintivc
Alxoltite
Erapootion
Mtan daily.
Re'Mwt Humidity
■140
■iSO
-i8j
■z8s
■311
loS
■'3S
■ijl
:S
■»70
■MS
■IIS
■i+»
■\i\
■087
■lit
■076
■109
■33
■'35
73
73
75
75
84
8«
B7
86
St
71
7g
p •:::::::;::::;::;::::;:::::
( 6' )
I'ld assuming that the observed hamidities taken at Akul.i
nd at Bombay are daily means, i.e. of two observations in
^c twenty-four hours, at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m., they admit ol
omparison, and we can then tabulate the true evaporation for
kkota, thus—
Humidity.
Tnir
E»|»ra<i<in.
Enpondon.
->;i
3S
■119
■359
JO
■'79
■471
JS
■ij6
7*'
'7
■370
9*!
■47J
60
•197
iS
■x(.c
61
■33a
5«
-.69
■351
5'
■*'9
110
l.>.««7 ...
rcbruiT ■ .
MiKh ....
April
&:;::::;
AtfiM . .
Nuicmbct
DKtmbct
that the evaporation at Bombay and at Akula
Id be the same for the same relative humidity, viz , '130
'O, and the rest are iherefure tabulated in proportion to the
uive daily evaporation data for each month, getting a
annual cvaporjticm of 75'7 inches. This result, though
ssedly an approximaiio/i, is sufEciently true to be useful
I hydraulic engineer, and is infinitely better than the old
ice of basil. g compatisons of evaporation upon corre-
ling mean temperatures, or the still worse method of
ling that evaporation all over India is about the same. In
Way also we adopt a means of utilising the various evapo~
n data, taken under such different conditions, that have
generally hitherto thrown asiJe as useless,
the future, we shall probably have a widely extended
I of evaporation observations taken all over India, imder
f Mr. Blanford, now appointed to the new post of
jological Reporter fur India. If these are conducted in
trfccily uniform manner, whether the evaporators are
iinpots, double boxes, or masonry cisterns, we shall
( 62 1
poi^sess most useful data for purposes of comparison, iF 6t
relative humidities and the average wmd-movemwiO be
simultaneously observed } — and from these, and with the »4 iif
a few carerully conducted series of observations giving tbscdutcly
true evaporation, as from a sheet of standing water, wc tbaU
be able to tabulate absolute evaporation fi^m any place
India with sufficient accuracy to serve the ordinary purposes of
the engineer.
c;in be expected, a Urge
rimentt must be made In
is luiown at present, bvth
vaporation and the depth of
ind that between it and the
» of relative humidity ;—
enlighten us considerably
' cnay lose as much as hilf
1 India.
Before anything mor
series of carefully cont
order to ascertain more
the relation between thf
the evaporating vessel i
velocity of the wind, ii
we shall then have re*
as to the conditions ur
the waKr wc store fur irrigation
The tables for humidity are intended to aid the engineer in
determining evaporation data in the fore- mentioned manner;
they may also be useful to the agriculturalist who requires
certain hygrometrical conditions to suit various crops in dif-
ferent localities.
It is unfortunate that in many meteorological stations only
two observations of humidity, viz., at 10 A.M. and 4 P.M.,
have been taken daily ; their mean represents, therefore, only
the mean of the day, exclusive of the night, and is not a true
daily mean for the twenty-four hours. Such means arc there-
fore only comparative means ; the true mean is that of
observations taken at equal intervals through the twenty-four
hours. Those of observations taken six hours apart yield a
mean differing only two per cent, from the mean deduced
from hourly observations ; those of observations taken at eight
hours' intervals are far less correct. There are no means of
deducing a true daily mean from the two observation humidi-
ties ; these, therefore, only admit of comparison among
( 63 )
themselves. In some cases the relative humidities are
recorded as percenlages of saturiition, in others as decimal
fractions; it has been thought best to leave ihem in the'
form in which they were recorded, as this presents no
difficuliy.
A table showing the average monthly values of the tension
of aqueous vapour for sixteen stations in India is given among
the additional meteorological tables, which are placed apart
from those that are more useful to the engineer, viz., those of
rainfall, evaporation, and humidity.
The hygrometrical data arc simply inferential results derived
from observations with dry and wet bulb thermometers, no
direct determinations of the dew point by Danicll's or Reg-
nault's hygrometer having been practised. The calculations
have been made by Guyot's tables, which are computed by
August's formula with Regnault's constants. In Berar,
Apjohn's formula was used, and the results were hence less
In explanation of the various hygrnmetrical conditions thai
are thus reduced to figures and statistics, we may, for the sake
of those that wish to add their observations to the common
stocic in a useful form, oiFer a few remarks.
The wet and dry bulb thermometers used for observation
are suspended in the open air, in a thermometer shed, screened
from the wind, but exposed freely to the air, the object being
to ascertain the ordinary humidiiy in still, unconfined air.
The dry bulb thermometer shows the actual temperaiure of
the air ; the wet bulb being cooled by evaporation falls in
temperature, and the difFercnce of the readings of the dry and
wet bulb increases with the rate of evaporation, and this again
increases with the dryness of the air, although not in the same
ratio. The wet bulb is never cooled to the temperature of
the dew point, but both that temperature and the weight of
vapour in the atmosphere, and the relative humidity, are ob-
tained by calculation. The readings recorded are simply those
?a I
( 64 )
of the wet buib and the difference between those of the wci mi
dry bulbs, except at hill stations in India, where a barometric
reading is necessary in order to apply a correction. From these
readings, t:ilcen at six hour intervals, and with the aid of
Guyot's tables, useful mean humidities may be obtained.
The four most important hygrometrical elements are:—
I, The temperatuf nf iUp Hem point.
11. The actual amo
of air in the f
III. The amount of
mass of air.
- IV. Thcrehtived
The temperature
the temperature musi
saturation of the air
higher ihan th.u of the t,.
if after complete S:
' mixed with a c
Esory to saturate a cemin
dtty of the air.
int is that degree to which
1 order to effect complete
temperature of the air be
he air is not saturjted, iiid
1 the temperature of the air declines
ram must f.ill. The amount of water necessary to effect
saturation varies with the temperature : at 32° air is saturated
by a little more than two grains per cubic foot j at 42° by 3;
at 49° by 4 i at 56° by 5 -, at 61" by 6 } at 66" by 7 ; at 70° by 8;
at 100" by 20 grains nearly. The difference between the
actual amount of water in the air, and the amount that it
could hold at that temperature is the amount short of
saturation ; and the ratio between the same <)uantit!es is the
relative humidity. For example : — At the temperature of
32" if th-.re be one grain of water in a cubic foot of air the
relative humidity is 50 ; at 100° there must be ten grains
present, to give the same relative humidity of 50.
The furmulx used for obtaining these data from the readings
of the wet bulb thermometer and the difference of the wet
and dry bulb, are those of Dr. Apjohn and of August — the
latter are more recent and more accurate ; but to make use
of them it also is necessary to have tables of elastic force
of vapour corresponding to various temperatures, August's
( 65 1
fbrmulx, as given in Guyot's Tables, Smilhsonian Collec
862, are for lemprratures above freezing (1) and below'J
iczing (2) respectively,
113°—''
■43 (/-/')
(!)
i^o-i
x_i.
Inhere F is the elastic force of vapour at the dew point ;
/ is that of saturated vapour at the temperature t' j
/ is the observed temperature of the dry bulb;
(' is that of the wet bulb ;
id A is the mean barometric pressure which is assumedJ
: 29*7 for the plains of India generally by Mr. Bianford.
Having thus obtained F, the corresponding temperature atfl
le dew point can be gut from a table (Drew's Meteorologyj
T Guyot's cables) based on experiments on vapour elascicitie8J|
To calculate the humidity, obtain from a similar table the^
l^isiic force of saturated vapour (F') due to the temperature
/), then the humidity =
100 F
F'
i however, the humidity alone be requiied, it c
itained direct from Guyot's humidity tables, as
nemioned, without any calculation.
From Ijidian hygrometrical data, it appears that the
;aM moist upon the average of the whole year at aboi
KM., but this varies at different seasons -, the greatest moisture^l
<.hc day is at about six a.m., and there is a meanT^
«e about nine or len o'clock, both a.m. and P.M. The 1
itrcmes of humidity are generally the reverse of those of J
«mperaturc as regards time, except in June and July, when I
the moisture is greatest about midnight i in August and J
September the increase of moisture after midnight is very |
imall. The contrasts between the humidities of Madras and^
ibay --how the effects of the north-east and south-W
mansuns. The variations of humidiiy from year to year at
the same place seem not lo follow any law, and the humidities
for various places seem not to be affected by latitude or
longitude. The effect of elevation is everywhere deirly
shown by the almost proportional lower reading of the dew
point, less wa[er being present in the air, a nearer approach
lo saturation, and a hi"''"' -I—"-"- of huoiidiiy ; but beyond
this nothing can be infe it, and before any further
deduction can be made. rtcC determinations of she
dew point at various h will be necessary.
The places whose i state seems to be nearest
to that of England ar d DarjiJtng. Landaur it
the same elevation as [he same annual tempera-
ture of the dew poll >unt of wjtcr present in
ihc air Is nearly the s the amount of witer
necessary for saturation i-. s :is Ijfgc as in England,
the air is Jess humid. At all other places the dew point is i
great deal higher than in Englmd, and the amount of w^tcr
actually present as well as that necessary for saturation is
greater, so that the air is throughout the whole year, anJraoie
especially in the cold weather, much less humid. At cert^
places, Belgaum, Sattara, Mahableshwar, Dapuli, Bombay,
Thayatmyo, Calcutta, and the country thence to Banaras, the
air is only in the summer months more humid than in
England.
[H.— ON THE ADDITIONAL TABLES.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
The daily variation of pressure in India is extremely
regular; the minima occur at about 4 a.m. and 5 P.m.,
the maxima ai about 10 a.m. and 11 p.m., or, roughly
speaking, at about one or two hours before sunrise, noon,
sunset, and midnight ; the morning maximum being greater
than the evening one, and the evening minimum lower
than the morning one. The dilFcrencc between the mean
(67 )
daily readings selJom exceeds '2 inches, and ihe whole daily
range is gcnerjily less than -i inch. The mean change of
pressure from ye:ir to year is generally very small, and the
change from month to month is very constant in different
yeais, the maximum being in January and the minimum in
June, the pressure increasing and decreasing regulaily through-
nut the year, the difference being -26 in the Prcsiijencies of
Madras and Bombay, and -44 in that of Bengal generally.
LocaJly, the distribution of pressure, from the account of Mr.
Bbnford, is as fi>llows : —
Beginning with October, the month in which the south-west
Riansun terminates, the pressure is nearly uniform over
B»rm..h, Bengal, Central, Northern, and Eastern India: in
November, the pressure rises rapiJly over the whole of this
area, but more especially in two distinct areas, one being the
elevated tract lying south of the CJanges, including Bandal-
kand, Choia Nagpur, and a part of Nagpur, up to Banaras
on the north and down to Ciittack on the south ; the others
being an area in the Upper Panj.ib coinciding wiih the locus
of lowest mean winter temperature. The intermediate Gaii-
getic plains on the Gjngetic delta, the Malwa pbteau, and the
flats of Southern Orissa, fall outside both of these areas. In
December the general pressure is at its annual maximum, and
in January it is nearly as high, all over India, but the pressure
is less at Bombay and on the west co^st than in Eastern India.
It is probable [hat the fall of pressure with the approach of
the hot weather is less rapid in the Panj.ib than in the Central
Provinces and Bengil. In March, April, and May the maxi-
mum pressure is about Nagpur, and in the hill country about
Hazaribagh ii is lower than either on the delta and coast to the
e.isc and south-east, or in the Upper Provinces to the west and
north-west. In June, the setting in of the south-west mansun
is accompanied by a sudden fail of pressure -, greater, however,
in the Panjab than in the Nagpur region, so that the locus
minimum pressure is probably transferred to the former. In
. '^».Me„/-„,
t"-";'l Ubk-s
*yhich :
October
^ofembei
March _
'"™ of tke a,> , """''
"''">li aJJn,.. ,-. ' P'»« I
gularly with the
I to 9,000 fi:e[, uccorditii
HtJght.
( 69 }
elevation above mean sea Icvt
J [he folluwing table>: —
ti° to 36°
.. 16" to c
"ooo 3= to sr
3000 61°toi3i''
4000 itl°to 18"
Sooo "5° 'o '3°
le amounts given being maxima and minima in ihc year,
lere is also a regular monthly increase or decrease of high
' temperature, due to an increase of one degree of latitude.
For November.
, January ...
, February
)r April...,
, May ....
. June ....
. JuTy ....
, Septcmbi
October
+ o°4
+ o=-i
'he cfFect of longitude is inappreciable from June to August '
id for other months, westward stations have a higher day 1
mperature than eastward by a difference of about half a de-
ee for each degree of longitude.
Thirdly. As regards low temperature at night. The effect |
f latitude on low night temperature is almost inappreciable
Om May to September; but from November to March the
Feet is about one degree of temperature for each degree, and j
April and October the effect is about half that ; the northera
Hions being colder. The effect of an increase of one
igree of east longitude is greatest in places having less than
fteen degrees of latitude; it amounts to a decrease of more
an one degree and a half for each degree of greater east
Qgitude in January and February, to a little less than that in
larch, to three-quarters of a degree in April, and to one
larierof a degree in M.iy. After May a change takes place.
( 73 )
and from June to September those places with greater Mil
longitude are from a quarter to hjlf a degree warmer for cacli
degree of longitude. The fullowing table gives the decrease of
night temperature due to increase of elevation up to 9,000 feci:
Hdjhi, Decrew, I Hdght. DccnSK.
looo 1" 10 3|° 6000 13* to »«1*
looo si" 1° -'■'• ' """W 15° 10*9°
3000 sr ro " « 'T* '« 3S'
4000 81*10 I <o i9«io4i*
5000 to?" 10 1-
ihc amounts given being sima and minima in the
year.
Some statistics of n ure of the air, of the
temperature of solir It bulb thermometer in
vacuo, and of grass ra< >us places in India, will
be found ill the additional t-iui-..
WIND AND SERENITY.
The phenomena of the mansuns and general winds of India
being better studied from the charts of the large works on
physical geography than from any brief account that the limits
of this book would allow, it will be unnecessary here to enter
into the subject. With regard to local observation of wind
in India, comparatively little has been yet done. Mr.
Chambers' " Winds of Bombay " gives some valuable in-
formation for the year 1867 in a novel form; and the two
accompanying tables, taken from the report of Mr. Blanford
for 1873, comprise everything else that is of much value. A
table of serenity for a few places ts also given.
In conclusion, the Meteorological Statistics of India are
still too incomplete and irregular to lead to any very important
scientific result — in fact, they do not yet arrive at the
sufficiency required by the engineer ; nevertheless, a judicious
use of such data as we possess may, it is hoped, prevent the
recurrence of such difficulties as have so frequently occurred
from totally ignoring them.
TABLE
(Op Goyot, arranged by Blanford)
FOR FINDING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF
THE AIR,
VBOX THB BRADIKQ8 OF WET AND DRY BCLR THBRMOMBTERS,
8ATDBATI0N BKIKG 100.
FOR THE USE OF OBSERVERS.
1
1
re
n
■
■
En
1^^
1
■ ■
¥
Bdttive HwuUit? Tible.
■
f Ulow tko Frwitag Point, tho J>..lh coYBml with . FUm ol !«.
,„»
j,-,i-.
1-0 I't
SO
8:.
1
81)
80
■u
40
«
00
■
.:].■■.
O'B
7*0
.-,
,-,
.•■
.-.
li-
,t
■i.
1
*
4
1
i:
t:
]
11
!7 TS 03
IT TO Bt
« 77 «:
!>l 78 KB
0 TO 70
w su n
M M n
113 SJ T8
M S4 -8
M 87 SI
M 88 S!
M BO sa
H N M
M 89 SI
it
18 81
01 M
n 08
OS M
OB 111
70 OS
79 00
77 TB
10
16
30
(S
w
-«
71
M
S3
«s
JO
no
n
M
1
1
1
I
BO
1
1
1
1
1
1
f
I
1
*
s
11
IB
to
HI
n
at
m
100
100
1*0
loo
i«i
100
m
IDO
100
20
31
30
10
IS
St
43
30
m
so
to
17
IS
8!
11
:
!0
88
80
Si
50
in
•
n
to
11
la
IT
k_ . . _H
^^^^^H
BtlRlivo Soialdil; T»Ue. ^^M
i_
A
u
M
r
M
40
41
a
*T
la
u
n
n
M
tn
M
M
t-,/.-dUI.™»cf1F^«40r,Bun.
n
o'-o
o's
A
l-»
I'o
»■(!
.•■»
'l^
S
J7
M
«s
w
M
71
71
7t
I
a
M
K
Si
ta
u
M
ts
as
«o
00
71
u
St
»
n
«
«3
OS
BO
07
«0
71
A>
tfs
T«
t'-j
ovU
lou
100
100
H
M
»7
H
M
»
M
00
to
>1
M
n
m
M
M
U
K4
01
M
1
1
M
M
*1
ST
8T
M
»■
01
1
N
SO
Kl
K
M
M
U
M
8i
HS
M
M
9T
80
SO
80
1
1
SO
OB
f
f
1
fj"
80
Bl
01
M
M
78
7<1
TB
81
aa
OS
7( S
71 Bl
74 7
T« T!
77 7
TB 7
70 7
Bl a
u
u
40
w
M
01
»7
SO
00
el
«n
07
07
00
M
»
M
U
u
«
or
u
i»
ts
a»
00
n
«t
03
Al
OS
»
•0
It
u
u
00
n
*e
01
n
00
01
SI
n s
U B
« »
« <f
a a
" 30
e u
4* W
n H
M M
00 «
K U
M g
IT n
M M
M SI
SO M
gj fiO
« n
( -3 )
BeUtiTe HmnMitr T»bU.
t-f
wdl
^ni,
■0 of Wot iiud Drx B
u.„.„»
J
1
1
1
13
1
1
t
s's
4 0
i
§
I'd
f
i'i
8*0
!
oi
I
i
9--0
f
1
[_
s
K
s
n
9
"I
"7
E
re
^
a
71
-
1
a
j«
^
~iir
ot
BS
87
100
^
!H
m
88
97
83
BS
SO
78
70
l|
7i
71
TO
TO
08
BS
87
M
1
7V
100
or
Bfi
VI
so
8T
W
80
»l
TS
77
73
73
71
88
e7
83
04
T3
IIMI
sr
OS
M
SO
M
8S
sa
Bl
7P
77
73
TS
71
«0
37
M
<U
71
ion
or
80
Vi
so
BG
»!
«i
Bl
TO
77
73
78
Jl
70
ns
Oil
01
ri
100
BT
»i
Bl
so
SB
SO
81
Bl
TB
TT
TB
71
T«
-0
09
ta
83
-.s
100
BT
9S
•a
DO
SS
tw
81
8t
80
78
TB
Tt
7*
TO
CB
AT
83
re
lOO
or
»
BI
00
B8
SB
Bl
89
60
TB
TB
71
71
TI
OB
ilT
08
100
ar
OS
09
so
BS
BO
81
81
80
78
7(i
73
73
;i
W)
BS
•8
n
100
B
BS
BS
01
es
BB
Bl
Bl
SO
78
TT
73
T3
71
TD
88
M
;9
100
o;
B3
B3
Bl
90
67
SI
63
SI
70
J,
Tfl
73
ri
TO
C8
07
so
imi
»r
OS
B3
SI
8S
BT
83
B3
81
70
TT
T3
71
n
70
80
BT
Bl
10«
0!
Wl
B3
si
so
BT
83
83
81
78
TT
TB
71
TS
71
SS
«T
M
lUO
DT
u
BR
SI
ss
B7
83
S3
81
TS
78
TB
71
Ta
71
8»
m
S3
101)
b;
M
Kl
01
80
87
sn
S3
SI
80
T9
-«
"1
T3
n
TO
88
S4
100
»;
W
B3
SI
80
87
8S
BS
91
SO
TB
70
TB
79
71
TO
8S
»
IM
117
B.I
sa
01
SB
87
8»
81
SI
SO
T8
77
T3
73
Ti
70
w
M
100
or
»
S3
Bl
SB
87
Bfl
81
Bl
80
TB
77
Ta
71
Tl
70
w
ST
lOo
07
IM
e:j
Bl
SO
88
SO
SI
SI
80
7B
TT
75
H
71
Tl
BB
M
100
K
BS
«a
n
BO
BS
M
81
Bl
81
70
TT
70
74
73
Tl
T8
M
100
07
B3
ot
03
SO
88
80
84
88
81
78
T8
70
74
T9
n
TO
to
lou
PS
Bl>
SI
Bi
OO
BS
SB
Bl
83
91
7B
78
73
TS
71
TO
ftl
IM
M
00
Bl
K
SO
BB
BB
Bl
SB
91
80
7S
73
Ta
7!
T«
02
100
M
BO
B4
on
BO
88
K
83
83
91
SO
TS
TT
73
T4
Tl
7]
93
100
RS
B6
B4
S2
SO
SS
B7
83
SB
Bl
80
TT
>3
74
Tt
Tl
M
ino
oe
BO
U4
a%
SO
89
87
83
83
Bl
90
TS
TT
73
71
78
n
M
100
M
BO
S<
M
«D
M
87
B3
93
81
so
TB
TT
TO
71
T9
n
•«
100
as
'm
>«
Bl
BO
BS
Br
83
91
81
BO
TS
7T
Te
n
T»
Tl
*:
too
OS
H
H
Bl
SO
es
87
83
ei
SI
»
TB
79
TU
TB
73
TI
UB
IM
t»
BB
M
S3
BO
BS
87
93
91
Bl
81
TB
T8
-«
13
TS
n
»
100
K
BO
04
M
SI
BS
87
SB
84
81
81
78
TS
79
T3
VI
n
IIW
ino
M
Bll
91
ss
SI
BS
BT
80
84
S3
81
80
78
TT
T3
T4
Tl
m
100
08
s«
B4
«1
01
BS
8T
BO
84
89
81
80
79
rr
T<
Tl
Tl
101
100
as
M
01
K
SI
83
BS
u
81
88
SI
90
TB
n
T8
Tl
Tl
in3
100
BS
00
M
W
Bl
SO
SS
80
St
BI
SI
80
TB
77
TB
Tt
T»
U4
m^
M
OB
W
sn
Bl
SB
BB
BB
83
BS
81
90
IB
"
79
"
Tl
!
■
I
■
■
■
■^^
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
^M
ji
^
~
( 75)
1
s
1
»■«
• J
rf.
1»6
,1-.
11--.
la-fl
1!-J
la'u'is'o
IV
..
i«
lis
lio
ih
lT-0
i!-.
■
t
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
f
!
1
1
M
t8
ST
ST
SS
SB
SO
BO
81
1
f
I
1
f
1
1
£■
1
1
h
n
n
re
18
M
n
w
K
tC!
BS
sa
w
»i
»s
OS
»r
M
B8
ino
lUI
IM
M
m
u
w
OB
«8
M
TO
7»
M
SO
as
a
as
»
S3
ai
M
ss
S7
sr
aa
SB
sa
ss
w
«»
-0
71
as
BS
SI
«4
SS
00
ST
a?
ST
6S
as
an
t»
SS
«
SB
60
SI
ai
SI
«
SJ
ss
OS
as
S9
as
ST
S8
0»
DO
«0
<B
SI
ss
sa
es
as
es
ST
ST
so
a
01
M
SS
£1
ts
SB
SO
SI
SI
at
SI
S3
es
as
at
M
(0
IkS
ss
ST
SS
ss
JO
80
SI
01
ot
at
ss
<9
«8
4S
St
sa
SB
SB
00
so
ei
ei
es
ts
iS
IS
u
so
ss
ss
IB
SO
so
eo
47
«8
U
SS
01
SS
SB
SB
41
«t
4T
SO
St
SI
BS
OT
57
SB
48
IS
K
SS
sa
ST
ST
41
4S
4T
IB
48
4B
4B
OS
OS
ss
80
40
4S
43
48
SO
01
St
ss
00
40
41
44
4S
48
4T
4S
4B
SO
n
M
SO
41
a
41
u
a
40
47
48
to
01
u
sa
s>
M
»
OS
1
1
1
—f^^J
I
1
■
■
^
1
1
1
r
™
1
1
1
1
1
1,
!■ J
lelstiTe Homidlly Table. ^^^^^
\
\ ii-»
18'S
i.'o
iB-a
w-o
M-j
ti-0
1,'a
fJ-D
H3
as
!8..
M-'O
its
«-o
1.-
1
so-
1
ED
! ^
J 87
!'=
1 u
1 *0
r *i
''?
> u
' «
J *T
t ««
1 U
1 H
1 M
1 n
38
*3
t;
u
u
18
48
n
1
a
f
&
1
fr
f
f
1
^
1
BT
80
f)
U
41
U
t:
IB
"
u
49
8J
M
u
31
88
37
X
M
17
W
3S
38
87
»8
80
4E
«
IS
IS
88
34
40
40
40
41
43
4«
4C
30
81!
E
38
43
43
48
40
80
Z
as
88
38
ta
87
41
42
IS
M
18
W
z
38
86
88
88
38
38
40
40
4S
18
M
n
88
30
81
3*
80
40
40
41
18
17
31
n
83
aa
88
17
3«
38
J3
f4
18
18
31
31
3S
81
84
18
38
38
n
23
w
17
(8
M
80
81
»
U
u
14
88
17
38
88
88
40
H
u
u
M
87
18
*»
K
11
n
11
u
14
U
Sfl
30
87
88
18
40
il
u
M
S7
U
18
18
M
10
SI
u
u
S3
U
»
81
M
8J
17
88
48
11
U
M
18
«
U
IT
M
M
M
:
n
»
n
M
u
M
U
M
tt
88
!
r-
L J
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PABT I.
MANUAL.
Chapter I. — Eiplanation of the Principles nnd ForranliB adopted ii
ktion and applied in the Working Tables.
1. nydrodynamio TheoricB. 2. Notation and P;Fnibol8. 3 HainfaJI, Snpply,
and Flood Discharge. 4. Storage, 5. Discharges of 0|K.'n Channeis
and Pi|>e8. 6. Section of Channels and Pipes, 7. Other Theories
of Flow. 8. Velooities in Section. 9. Beuds and ObHtructiona.
10, Dischantes of Sluices and Weirs. 11. Discharge from Basins,
LocltB, and Heserroirs. 12. Application of the Working Tables.
pp. 1 to 74
Chapteb II. — On Field Operations and Ganging ; with brief Acconnts of
the Methods adopted h; variona Hydraulicians.
I. Direct Measurement of Discharge 2. Gauging by Rectangular Overfalls.
3. The Measnrement of Velocities : different Appliances and Inatm-
menta: Flnmea and Ganges 4. Ganging by menna of Surface Velo-
cities. 5. Ganging Canals and Streams by Loaded Tubes. 6. The
Misaissippi Field Operationa for Gauging very large Rivera. 7. Field
Operationa in Ganging Crevassea : and Compntation of CoeScienta for
special Crevasse-DiBcharges. 8. Captain Hnmphreys' improved system
of Ganging Rivers and Canals. 9. General Abbot's Mode of determining
Discbargea on any given day. 10. The Erpcriment* of d'Arcy and
BuEin on the Rigoles de Cbaziily et Grosbois. 11. The Gaaging of
great Rivers in South America, by J, J. R^vy, 12. General Remarks
on Systems of Gauging, and conclusions . pp. "4. to 135
Chaptek III.— Paragraphs on variona Hydraulic Snbjeota.
1. On Modules. 2- Modem Irrigation in Italy. 3 The Control of Floods.
4. Towage. 5 On various Hydrodynamic Formuls. 6 Irrigation
from Wells in India. 7. Hie Watering of Land. 8. Canal Falls.
9. The Thicknees of Pipea. 10. Indian Hydranlio Contrivances.
I pp. 136 to 221
H WORKING TABLES.
Tablu II.— Catch WEST. —Part 1. Total quantities of ivater equivalent
B tu a given rainfall
^L Part 2 Dwchurges equivalent to an annual rain full
^M Parts. Oischarges equivalent to udcL^BTavn^HNX
►
1 W ) TiBLE Of Ctl.tTBSTS.
Table lU.— Siouoe xsu Bven.Y.~Paii 1. Gnide for cftpamt; of
reservoini ............ r
Fort '2. Guide for supply for irrigatiati &ad for tovms . . tu
Table IV.— Floop Discuahqe.— Part 1. Table of Hood dischargee ii i i
Forts. Waterwaj of bridges li
Table V. — VEU)CiTUS.--CoiiiparatJve, usual, and safe bottom nlodtica lii
Table VI. — SlApEH *si) Ghadikms. — Part I. Limiting glopea . . iS
Part ii. iteductiou of gradientis itrtti
Part 8. Keductiuti uf augukr slopes - . xri & nii
Table VII. — Ritirs mn CAM»La.~Vi>locitiea of dischnige iriij Um
Table VIII.— Pli'Ki ASH Sew^Bb.— Part 1. Discharges . uriinrB
Part '2, Diameturs itviu 4 uii
Part 3. Heads in to mii
Table IS. — Slk ices asb Weim.— Velodtiea of lUacharge nivii to liTiii
TableX.— Besus AND Omtructioss.— Parti. Benda in pipes , ifiiAl
Part -J. Bends in rivers li
Part 3. ObstracUons in riren li A lii
Table XI. — Equivalents.— Part 1. Supply eqnivalent to total quan-
tities . ■ . . ■ ■ ■ ■ Ut it It
Part 2. Equivalent diachargea Ivillni
Part 3. Equivalent velocities Iviii A lii
Part 4. Eqnal discharging channels kllii
Part 5. Conversion tables, English .... liii & lini
Part 6. Conversion tables, metaical .... Ixiv to livii
Table XIL—Coewiciemts.— Part 1. Of fluid friction . . . . Idi
Part 2. Of flood dischar^ In
Part 3. Of discharges ot channels and pipei . . lixi to Im
Part 4. Of discharges of orifices . . .■ . It-ttj £ Lxnii
Part 5. Of discharges of overfaUs Imiii
Part 6. Hydraulic Memoranda for conversion, wetgbt, pieesare,
horse-power, and towage .... Iniiv A Ixnr
Part 7. Useful nnmbere, cireumferences, areas, ret^procals,
logarithms, powers and roots .... lixxvi to icii
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND DATA.
Retaining Walls, and weighta of material i to ii*
Trapezoidal Masonry Dams . ir
ThicknesH and Weight of Pipes v
Hydraulic Machines vi
Indian Hydraulic Contrivances vii
Constanta of Labour for Earthwork, Bricklayer's work, and Uason's
Cart^e Table
Indian Coinage, Weights, and Measures
PAET II.
HTDRAULIC STATISTICS,
[TT. — StotiBtica of Gravity and Mean Temperatur
IS. — Catcliinent Areas and Disehargea of a few ri
Plijeical chariLcteriittics of a few rivera
DatA of a few large deltaic rivera
isiAH RlVEHS. — Areas of River Baslna, [5]. Lateral enrvee of rivers of
fixed rejimen, [ti] Falls in feel per mile, [7]. Flood diaohargeB, [8] and
~ [9]. Diacbargea nieueiired at varions limes, [10] and [11]. Catchment
Areas of the Riveta of Maisnr, [12) to [15].
■ ArcocsTB op_ iNDiiN Rivers.— The Indna, Barra. Son, Jamna,
Markanda, 8oq in Bengal, GangPa, Damuda, Mahanaddi and its tri-
bntoriea, Kistna and its tribntaries, Penner, Kaveri and its tribntariea,
Tambrapnrni, Dpar pp [16] to [27]
L Statistics op Indus CASiia : —
Abatract of General ResulU in NoHhern India in 1872-73 . p (29]
B«a:iilta from 1821 to 1872 on tne Western and Eastern Jamna Canals
pp. [30] to [32]
Capital accounts of the Western Jnmna. the Bari Doab, the Eastern
Jamna, and the GaDgBs Ciinais, np to 1872-73 pp. ^3] to [36]
ApproiimBte results on the anicuts and canala of the Madras Preaidener,
— j.cM„:„.._ pp. [37] to [39]
and of Maisur
IKIGATION Statistics op Indian Canais : —
J and Acreage irrigated on the Westeru Jamna, Eastern Jamna,
■ari Doab, and Ganges Canals ... pp. |40] A [41]
Snpply utilized in 1872-73 on the Weatem Jamna and Bari Doab
Oannia ' P- [+2]
Acreage of the Irrigated Crops of the Westcm Jamna, Eaetem Jamna,
Bari Doab, and Gangea Canal, in 1872 . pp. [43] to [46]
Baixr AccopsTS oy Indian Casals ; —
The Western Jamna Canal. The Eastern Jamna Canal, The Ganges
Canal The Bari Doab Canal. The Dera Dun Canala. Th«
Bofailkand and Bijnaur Canals. The Sarhind Canal. The Agra
Canal. The Oriaaa Canals. The Son Canals. The Baudalkand
Canals. The Inundation Canals of the Panjali. The Canals of
the Bombay Preaideney. The Canals of the Madras Presidency,
and of MaJaur ....... pp. [47] to [78]
ncs OF BEsEHvorns and Dams. — In Great Britain. [7!>]. In
England, France, and India, [80]. Spanish and FroDch Dama, [81].
Details, [82].
[ANCiAi Statistics of Indian Reservoirs.— The Delhi and Gara_
B, [831 The Bandalltand ReservQica. \%it\ HWirattiv^
Ajinir, [80]. The Tanla or RcservoiTa of IStoBut.VKiV
\
INDIAN METEOROLOGICAL STATISTICS.
•SON BuNyAlL:—
I. — India. — AveragCB for 72 Stations np to 1872
pp. U) to (3)
ttS MoSIHLT EilKFALL; —
II.— BengHl.— For lt> places before 1861. (4). For 48 places np to
imv or 1873, (5) and (»i). 111.— Bombay.— For 24 plaeca before
»18«1, (7). For 206 places between 1860 and 18li9, (8) to (18).
IV.— North-Weat Provinces.— For K! plaeee bflfore 1861. V.—
Paojab.— For 9 places before 1861, (17). IV.— Korth-West Pro-
vioces and Oudh.— For ^1 places between 1867 and lil72, (18).
v.— Paniab.—For 32 placea between 1867 and 1872. (lH) and (20).
VI.— Madras and Maianr.— For 35 places before Ibtil, (id) and
(■21). Vll. — Minor Provinces, — For 2 i places in the Central Pro-
vinces, (22). For 24 places in HaidaraUd and Barar, (23), I
16 plaices in British Barmah, (24).
) Special Baihi
I Data;—
.\ .Maxiuuu Kainfalls a
Kitraordinarj Rainfall Data for Sontbem India. (25). III. — Bom-
bay. — For Five stations in Ten Years; special falls at 4 places, '
»■-■ (26). IV.— North- West Provinces and Oudh.— For 20 places ir '
bU years ) special falls at 8 places, (27). V. — Panjob.— For 3L
places in four years, (28). VI. — Madnis, Maisur, and Curg.— For
5 places. Vlt, — Minor Provinces. — HsidarabaU and Barar; for 8 '
places for eight years, (2^). Central Provinces; for 9 plac
two years, (30).
r India.— For 27 places before 1B6I. (31) A (32). For 27 places be-
tween 1867 and 1873, (33) A (34). Modern Humidiiy Data, (3S)
to (37). II.— Bengal.— For 16 places, from 1867 to 1873, (38).
Evaporation Data of Somliay, Akola, and various places, (3S);
of Pondicherry, (40); of Madras and ChanJaruaggar, (41). llio
conditions of their observation, (42).
H11TII>^A1. METtOItOLOGlCAL TaBLW:
Monthly Mean Pressure, (43) & (44). Average Monthly Temperature,
(45) & [i6). Solar Radiation, (47). Grass Badiation, (41j). The
Tension of Aqneous Vapour, (50). Wind Resultants, (5lj & (52). '
Serenity, (63).
Rainrall. Evaporation and Hnmidity. The AddidDiiul 'I'uhles. Table
of Giiyot for finding relative Humidities, corresjionding to thcr-
oraetrical Readings ..... pp. (64) to (77)
THE NEW YORK PUBUC LIBRAKT^^H
BEPEIlll^JCR DBPAHTMBNT ^^H
Uken from the Baildinc ^H
\
k •
,
-'-"
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11