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2 :: THE 


INSTITETES 





Justinian, 


WITH NOTES 


BY THOMAS COOPER, ESQ. 
Profesor of Chemistry st Carlisle College, Pennsylvania, 


PHILADELPHIA: 


YRINTED FOR P. BYRNE. 
1812, 





District of Pennsylvania, to wit: | 
s*e9****2 Bp rT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty-fourth 
$ L. S. * day of October, in the thirty-seventh year of the 

Seeeesess Independence of the United States of America, 
A. D. 1819, P. trick Byrne, of the said district, hath deposited 
in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof he claims 
as proprietor, in the words following to wit: 


“The Institutes of Justinian. With Notes, by Thomas Coo- 
€ per, Esq. Professor of Chemistry, at Carlisle College, Penn- 
€ sylvania.” 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, 
intitled, ** An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing 
the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and 
proprietors of such copies during the times therein mention- 
.ed.”—And also to the act, intitled, “An Act supplementary 
to an Act, intituled, “ An Act for the encouragement of learn- 
ing, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the 
authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein 
mentioned," and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of 
designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints.” 

D. CALDWELL, 
Glerk of the District of Pennsyleania. 





CONTENTS. 


— 
PREFACE, . - - - . - v 
Dr. Harris's Brief History of the Roman Law, . - dx 
Justinian’s Institutes with the Translation, - . 1 to 391 


The 118th Novel with Dr. Harris's Translation, - 393 to 400 
Notes and References to the Institutes, - - - 401 to 655 
Appendix First. 


The Laws of the Twelve Tables, - . 656 to 664 
Appendix Second. : 
Method of Citation used in reference to the various parts of 
the Corpus Juris Civilis, and Abbreviations, 665 to 667 
Appendix Third. . 
List of Authors on the Civil Law, . . 667 to 670 
Addenda et Corrigenda, - - . - - 671 to 6725 


Index to the Books, Titles and Sections of the Institutes, 673 to 695 
Index to the Notes and References, T0: 0; 697 to 714 





- wa f 


PREFACE. 


Wren I first undertook to publish Justinian’s Institutes (that I 
might ‘not entirely renounce my accustomed studies) I contemplated 
nothing more than a republication of Harris’s Edition, which has now 
become scarce; together with some additional notes, and a brief history 
of Roman Jurisprudence, by way of preface. On reading with attention ~ 
Harris’s Translation, I found the language so verbose, that I sat down 
to translate the first Book of the Institutes in my own way. It is true, 
my ear was better satisfied with my own performance; but I found so 
many co-incidences of expression, and so little room to improve the 
fidelity of Harris’s Version, that I determined to adopt it as the ground- 
work of the present publication; and alter it no further, than to condense 
the expressions where they seemed to me needlessly diffuse. By so 
doing, I have abridged it to the amount of about one fifth of the whole, 
without sacrificing any thing necessary to the sense. Some few peri- 
phrases I have retained, and some I have added, when the original 
seemed to require elucidation; but, upon the whole, my aim has been 
to render this a faithful translation in as few words as possible. Perhaps 
I may be blamed for taking this liberty with Dr. Harris's work. Had 
it been a piece of poetry, I should have left it untouched; but meaning 
to give to the public as good a translation as I could furnish, I saw no 
reason why I should needlessly occupy the time of the reader, or in- 
crease the bulk of the book, by religiously retaining all its redundancies 
and imperfections. 

I have inserted most of Harris’s Notes, citing him where I have done 
80; but they are few and meagre. I have generally consulted the para- 
phrase of Theophilus, the short comments to the Corpus Juris Civilis 
of Gothofred, the translations and notes of Ferriere, Wood’s Institutes, 
and Taylor’s Elements of the Civil Law. I would gladly have procured, 
if I could, more sources of information, and I have taken much pains 
for that purpose, but in vain. The want of books has not been the only 
difficulty I have met with. All the notes and references I had collected, 
were consumed by fire on my road from Northumberland hither, last 
November. An accident afterwards deprived me of my eye-sight for 
about a week, and rendered exertion painful to me for a considerable 
time. I could ill spare these defalcations from the occasional leisure 
which my chemical lectures allowed me, but I have endeavoured to 
make the best use of the opportunities that remained. 

"Unable to procure the ks I sent for, I have declined for the pre- 
ent any history of the Roman law. Those who cannot resort to the 


v PREFACE. 


more voluminous and laborious works enumerated in the appendix, may 
collect much useful knowledge from the shorter and mére popular coms 
pilations of Ferriere, whose History of the Roman Liiw was translated 
by Dr. Beaver, and published in 1724— from Gibbon’s eighth volume 
of his Roman History, and Butler’s Hore Juridice Subsetive: together 
with the Roman Antiquities of Kennet and Adams: all of them works 
of merit, and not scarce. 

A knowledge of the Civil Law, sufficient for the purposes of an Ame- 
rican Lawyer, north of New-Orleans, may be obtained from Domat and 
Wood, and the Treatises of Drs. Ayloffe, Schomberg, Halifax and 
Browne: but neither Domat nor Wood, are superseded by any or all the 
rest. Indeed a condensed digest of the Civil Law, is yet a desideratum; 
which if the present publication should be approved of, I may be tempt- 
ed to undertake. 

^ The civilians of the darker ages,” (says Gibbon, 8 Rom. Hist. 2.) 
** have established an absurd and incomprehensible mode of quotation, 
* which is supported by authority and custom. In their references to the 
* Code, the Pandects, and the Institutes, they mention the number, not 
*t of the 2oo£ but only of the /aw, and content themselves with reciting 
“the first words of the Title to which it belongs: and of these titles 
* there are more than a thousand. Ludewig, (Vit. Justiniani, p. 268,) 
* wishes to shake off this pedantic yoke; and I have dared to adopt the 
* simple and rational method of numbering the book, title, and law.” 

The English writers generally follow the mode of citation recom- 
mended by Gibbon, and as I think it the most convenient, I have also 
adopted it. Thus, Inst 4. 15. 2, means, Institutes, book 4, title 15, sec- 
tion 2. Dig. 41. 9. 1. 3, means Digest, book 41, title 9, law 1, section 3, 
which the foreign jurists would cite thus, I. 1. $ 3, or § 3.1. 1. Dig. pro 
dote: or ff pro dote: Dig. and fF being equivalent: that is, section 3 of 
law 1, of the book and title of the Digest or Pandects which is entitled 
pro dote. The two letters ff designate nothing but a careless mode of 
writing the Greek letter «s the first letter of wavdtyret, Pandects, * Gene- 
ral Receivers; which was a common title of the Greek miscellanies. 
Plin. Pref. ad Hist. Natur., 8 Gibbon’s Rom. Hist. p. 37. 76. 

So, D. or Dig. 18. 4. 2. 7, is the same with § 7. 1. 2. Dig. (or 
de heredit, vel act. Or, the 7th section of the 2d law of the book and 
title of the Digest or Pandects, that begins De hereditate vel actione ven- 
dita. 

In like manner, Cod. 7. 68. 2, means the 7th book, 68th title, and 
9d law of the Justinian Code. The foreign writers would cite it, l. 2. 
Cod. si unus ex pluribus appellaverit. In like manner Cod. 8. 32. 1. 
would be cited by the civilians on the continent of Europe, l. 1. Cod. 
si unus ex pluribus heredibus creditoris, &c.; meaning the first law of the 
Codex that is entitled with those words. 

A gain, l. 1. tit. 52. Cod. de Ais qui ante. I should cite thus, Cod. 6. 
52. 1, meaning the 6th book, 52d title, and ist law of the Justinian 
Code. 

It may be noted, that the Code, the Digest, and the Institutes, form 
one system; of which the Code was first compiled and published in the 
third year of Justinian. Then the Digest was compiled, and published 


‘ 


PREFACE. vii 


7n the seventh year of that emperor’s reign; the Institutes were compiled 
after the Digest, bit published a month before, to wit, 21st November, 
A. D. 533. Wyndham v. Chetwind, 1 Burr. Rep. 426. The Edicta, the 
Novelle Constitutiones or Authentica, the Basilica, &c. were subsequent 
additions or innovations. 8 Gibb. 45. 46. 

In citing the Authentics, there may appear some ambiguity. The 
Novels are entitled, Authenticez, seu Novelle Constitutiones. These 
are cited either by the collation, title and chapter, or by the number of 
the novel, or by the beginning words of the title of the collation. Thus, 
Novell. 8. 1. Nov. tit. 8. ch. 1. Auth. Collat. 2. 2. 1. ch. 1. tit. ut judi- 
ces, Auth. Coll. 2, mean the same thing; viz. the first chapter of the 
8th Novel Constitution, being the first chapter of the second title, (be- 
ginning ut judices) of the second collation. 

But a summary of the Authentics is inserted in the Justinian Code, 
usually in italic character, and these are referred to by the Code under 
which they are inserted. Thus in the instance given by Ferriere, Au- 
thentica cum testator, Codice ad legem Falcidiam, means the summary of 
the Authenticz beginning sed cum testator, inserted in the 5Oth title of. 
the Justinian Code, ad legem Falcidiam. These observations are neces- 
sary to an English student, in addition to Ferriere’s directions, which I 
have inserted as a second appendix. The double index to the generality 
of editions, will render these remarks intelligible. 

As to the Edicts of Justinian, the Leonine Constitutions, the Basilica, 
and other tracts sometimes published with the Corpus Juris, they are 
easily distinguished, by a mode of reference that involves no ambi- 

uity. 

5 Generally speaking, I have actually consulted all the passages referred 
to in the Code and Digest by numeral figures, after the English mode 
of citation. The most part of the passages referred to by the foreign 
mode of reference, I have taken at second hand. Generally speaking 
also, the references to the English and American reporters, have been 
made after actually consulting the cases, for the point to which they are 
applied. 

I shall insert as an appendix, Ferriere’s Chap. on the mode of cita- 
tion, and the abbreviations in use, in order to render more intelligible 
to the English reader, the references of foreign jurists. 

I intended also to have inserted the Latin text of the Leges Regia, or 
gus Papirianum, and the laws of the Twelve Tables. But I greatly 
doubt about the authenticity of the us Papirianum; and I incline to 
think with Gibbon, 8 Rom. Hist. 5, that the Caius (Sextus) Papirius, 
who is said to have revised the Laws of Numa, left nothing written; 
and that the Jus Papirianum of Granius Flaccus (Lacinianus) was com- 
piled in the time of Casar. Gibbon speaks very slightinglv of the at- 
tempt to restore these laws, (thirty-six altogether) by the Abbé Teras- 
son. Nor do I give any credit to the tables, from whence Franciscus 
Balduinus, and Paulus Manutius have given us eighteen of these laws, 
to which Pandulphus Prateius has added six. The twelve more collect- 
ed from various sources by Terasson, I have had no opportunity of ex- 
amining. Those I have mentioned, I find in Rosint Antig. Rom. Corp. 
quto. 1685. Amstel. page 556. who has given us a collection of laws of 


vil PREFACE, 


Romulus and Numa, of no moment; and whether the collection be as 
complete as the sources of information will furnish, I have no means of 
investigating. 

The laws of the Twelve Tables are collected from scattered passages 
in Cicero—Dionysius Halicarnasseus—Livy—Sextus Pompeius—Fes- 
tus—Pliny—Macrobius—A gellius—Pomponius—and: from the Justi- 
nian Digests. The Latin is obsolete and obscure, and stands in need of 
a good comment. 

I have before me in Rosinus, the collection and arrangement of Fran- 
ciscus Hotomannus, and Joannes Crispinus; another of Justus Lipsius; 
another of Ludovicus Charondas; and another of Theodorus Marcilius; 
as wel] as the edition and arrangement of the same laws by D. Gotho- 
fred at the end of his Corpus Juris Civilis. 

That the reader, (in the words of Gothofred) mav not be entirely 
ignorant, rather than that he may be accurately informed what the 
Laws of the Twelve Tables were, non tam ut ea Lector cognosceret, 
quam ne ignoraret, I shall insert Hooke’s translation from Catrou and 

ouillé, It is, as the subject requires, paraphrastic; but after perusing 
the Latin text, and attending to the comments collected by Rosinus, and 
those of D. Gothofred, I am satisfied that the text is as accuratelv para- 
phrased as can reasonably be expected; and therefore I have inserted 
the translation in the appendix. 

Lastly, I have given a catalogue of the best writers on the Roman 
law, collected from the Bibliotheque of Camus, the notes and observa- 
tions of Gibbon in his Roman History, of Butler in his Hore Furidice 
Subsecive, and my own reading. 

I have said nothing about the utility of a knowledge of the Civil 
Law. Professional men who carefully peruse the reported cases, 
whether of the British or the American courts, will find from the fre- 
quency of reference to the Justinian Collections, that a competent know- 
ledge of the general principles of the Civil Law, is expected as a matter 
of course among the Bar, as well as upon the Bench. Indeed the earli- 
est authors on the Laws of England, Bracton, Fleta, &c. borrow great- 
ly from the Civil Law. I refcr for instance to the first twenty or thirty 
. pages of Bracton, who borrows not only his arrangement, but the sub- 
stance and frequently the expressions from the Civil law. Nor can I see 
how any man can be considered as a well read lawver, who is ignorant 
of a svstem, matured by the experience of the most polished and pow- 
erful nation of antiquity, and which still forms the body of modern 
Law, in almost every nation on the continent of Europe. 

THOMAS COOPER. 

September 30th, 1812. 


a7 The reader is requested to note the references to the Addenda 
et Corrigenda. 


A BRIEF ACCOUNT 


OF THE 


Rise and Progress of the Roman Law. 


(Dr. Harris.) 


Tue Roman state was at first governed solely by the authority of 
Romulus; but, when the people were increased, he divided them into 
thirty Curia, which he constantly assembled for the confirmation of his 
laws: and this practice of consulting the people was afterwards followed 
by the Roman kings, all whose laws were collected by Sextus Papirius, 
and called jus Papirianum, from the name of their compiler. But, after 
the expulsion of Targuin and the establishment of the republic, the 
greatest part of those regal laws soon became obsolete; and those, which 
still remained in force, related chiefly to the priesthood. It thus happen- 
ed, that the Romans for many years laboured under great incertainty in 
respect to law in general; for, from the commencement of the consular 
state to the time of establishing the x11 tables, they were not governed 
by any regular system. But at length, the people growing uneasy at the 
arbitrary power of their magistrates, it was resolv.d, after much oppo- 
sition from the patricians, that some certain rule of government should 
be fixed upon: and, to effect this purpose, a decemvirate was first ap- 
pointed, composed solely of senators, who, partly from the laws of Greece 
and partly from their own laws stillsubsisting, framed ten tables, which, 
in the year of Rome 303, were submitted to the inspection of the people, 
and highly approved of. These however were still thought to be deficient; 
and therefore in the year following, when a new decemvirate was ap- 
pointed, which consisted of seven patricians and three plebeians, they 
added two tables to the former ten: and now the whole was regarded 
but as one body of law, and intitled, by way of eminence, the twelve ta- 
bles. But, although these new collected laws were most deservedly in 


Cwie.) Vid. Pomponium, ff. 1. t. 2. De 
erigine juris. 

Sus Papirianum.) ** Is liber appellatur 
€ juz civile Papirianum, non quia Papirius 
* de suo quicquam adjecit, sed quod leges 
*5 sine ordine latas in unum composuit" vid. 
E. 1.62. 12. This body of law is not now 
extant, nor any part of it, except a short 
extract of 8 or 10 lines, which may be read 
in the Sd book of Macrobius’s Suturnalia, 
cop. 11. 


b 


From the commencement of the consular 
state.] The consular state was established 
in the year U. C. 245, and the laws of the 
xii tables were not perfected, till the year 
304. 


Were submitted to the inspection of the 
people.) * Tum legibus condendis opera 
* dabatur, ingentique hominum expectatio- - 
*! ne propositis decem tabulis, populum ad 
* concionem advocaverunt; et, quod bo- 
'5 num, faustum, felixque reipubficz, ipsis, 


x Rise and Progress of the Roman Law. 


the highest esteem, yet their number was soon found insufficient to ex- 
tend to all matters of controversy, their conciseness was often the occa- 
sion of obscurity, and their extraordinary severity called aloud for miti- 
gation. It therefore became a consequence, that the twelve tables conti- 
nually received some explanation, addition, or alteration, by virtue of a 
new /aw, a senatorial decree, or a plebiscite. And here it will be proper 
to observe, how they differ: a plebiscite was an ordinance of the plebeians 
or commonalty, which had the force of a law, without the authority of 
the senate; and a senatu:-consultum, or senatorial decree, was an order 
made by the senators assembled for that purpose; but to constitute a 
law, properly so called, it was necessary, that it should first be proposed 
by some magistrate of the senate, and afterwards be confirmed by the 
people in general. Recourse was also had to the interpretation and de- 
cisions of the learned, which were so universally approved of, that, al- 
though they were unwritten, they became a new species of law, and 
were called auctoritas prudentum and jus civile. It must here be ob-' 
served, that, soon after the establishment of the twelve tables, the learn- 
ed of that time composed certain solemn forms, called actions of law, by 


*: liberisque eorum esset, ire et legere leges 
** propositas jussere: se, quantum decem 
* hominum ingeniis qrovideri potuerit, om- 
** nibus, summis, infimisque jura zquasse; 
* plus pollere multorum ingenia consilia- 
* que. Versarent in animis secum unam- 
* quamque rem; agitarent deinde sermoni- 
* bus; atque in medium, quid in quaque re 
** plus, minusve esset, conferrent. Eas le- 
** ges habiturum populum Romanum, quas 
* consensus omnium non jussisse latas ma- 
** gis, quam tulisse, videri posset? Liv. ]. 
Fi. Cap. 33, 54. 


And their extraordinary severity.] One 
of the laws, here hinted at, is the following: 
AST, SI PLURES ERUNT REI, TERTI1S 
NUNDINIS PARTIS SECANTO; $1 PLUS 
MINUSVE SECUERINT, $E FRAUDE ESTO: 
SI VOLENT ULS TIBERIM PEREGRE VE- 
NUNDANTO. Grav. op. p. 284. i. e. '* If a 
* debtor is insolvent to several creditors, 
* let his body be cut in pieces on the third 
‘© market-day. It may be cut into more or 
* fewer pieces with impunity; or, if his 
** creditors consent to it, let him be sold 
** to foreigners beyond the Zyder.” Hook's 
Roman hist. vol. 1. p. 316 

Such is the sensc, in which this law has 
been generally understood by both ancients 
and moderns. But it has lately received 
quite a new construction, very much tothe 
honour of ancient Rene, from two authors, 
not less distinguished for their abilities in 
literature than their knowledge inthe civil 
law, who from many authorities interpret 
the word secanto, as implying simply a divi- 
sion, and the word partis, as denoting the 
parts of the debtor's estate, and not the 


parts of his body; so that they understand 
the expression partis secanto, not as a direc- 
tion, that the body of an insolvent debtor 
shall be cut into pieces, but as if it meant, 
that his estate and services should be divi- 
ded amofg his creditors in proportion to 
their respective claims. vid. Byntershoel’s 
work’s, vol. 1. obs. 1. and Dr. Taylor's com- 
mentary, De inope debitore dissecando. 
But the reader is left to frame his own 
judgment of this interpretation, when he 
as read the apology for this law, which Au- 
lus Gellius has given us in the person of Ce- 
cilius; and also the opinion of Tertullian, who 
was a lawyer by profession. “ Nihil profecto 
s Cecilius | ** iramitius, nihil immanius, 
nisi, ut re ipsa apparet, eo consilio tanta 
* immanitas penz denunciata est, ne ad 
* eam unquam pervemiretur: addici namque 
*5 nunc et oinciri multos videmus; dissectum, 
** esse antiquitus neminem, equidem neque 
* legi neque audivi? Aulus Gell. lib. xx. 
cap. 1. Grae. lib. vii. cap. 72. 
And Tertullian writes as follows. ** Sed 
** et, judicatos in partes secari a creditori- 
** bus, leges erant; consensu tamen publico 
* crudelilas postea erasa est.” —Apologet. 
cap. 4. 


Solemn forms.] ‘ Civile jus, repositum 
** in penetralibus pontificum, Cn. Flavius 
* evulgavit, fastosque circa forum in albo 
* proposuit, ut, quando lege agi posset, 
** sciretur.” Liv. ri. ix. cap. 46. ** Veteres, 
** qui huic scientie przfuerunt, obtinendz 
à atque augenda potentiz suz causa, per- 
** vulgari artem suam noluerunt, 6&*'c." Cic. 
de orat. lib. 1. c. 46. ** Jus civile per multa 
'5 szcula inter sacra ceremoniasque Deo- 


Rise and Progress of the Roman Law. xi 


which the process of all courts and several other acts, as adoption, 
emancipation, &c. were regulated. These forms were for above a cen- 
tury kept secret from the public, being in the hands only of the priests 
and magistrates; but about the year U. C. 448 they were collected and 
published by one Flavius, a scribe; and, from him, called the Flavian 
law; for which acceptable present the people in general showed many 
instances of their gratitude. But, as this collection was soon found to be 
defective, another was afterwards published by Sextus /Elius, who made 
a large addition of many new forms, which passed under the title of jus 
4Elianum, from the name of the compiler. 


In process of time there also arose another species of law, called the 
pretorian edicts; which, although they ordinarily expired with the annual 
office of the pretor, who enacted them, and extended no further than 
his jurisdiction, were yet of great force and authority: and many of 
them were so truly valuable for their justice and equity, that they have 
been perpetuated as /aws. 


These were the several principal parts of the Roman law, during the 
free state of the commonwealth; but, after the re-establishment of mo- 
narchy iu the person of Augustus, the law received two additional parts; 
the imperial constitutions and the answers of the lawyers. 


The constitutions soon became numerous, but were not framed into a 
body, till the reign of Constantine the great; when Gregorius and Her- 
mogenes, both lawyers of eminence, collected in two codes the constitu- 
tions of the pagan emperors, from the reign of Adrian to that of Diocle- 
sian inclusive: but these ‘collections were not made by virtue of any 
public authority, and are not now extant. 


Another code was afterwards published by order of the emperor The- 
edosius the younger, which contained the constitutions of all the christian 


‘Srum immortalium solisque pontificibus 
*" notum." Val. Max. l.ii. c. 5. 


The Flavian law.| “ Postea, cum Ap- 
** pins Claudius proposuisset, et ad formam 
*5 redegisset has actiones, Cnzus Flavius 
* scriba ejus, libertini filius, subreptum li- 
** brum populo tradidit; et adeo gratum fuit 
** jd munus populo, ut Tribunus plebis fieret, 
*5 Senator, et JEdilis curulis, 6c? ff 1. 
t. 2. De orig. juris. Liv. lib. ix. sub fin. VaL 
Mex. lib. u.cap. 5. Aul. Gell lib vi. c. 9. 

Tully, in his oration for Murena, is 
remarkably severe upon these forms, and 
treats both them and their abettors with that 
just contempt, which they most certainly 
deserve. “ Primum dignitas in tam tenui 
** scientia quz potest esse? res cnim sunt 


** parva; prope in singulis literis atque in- 
* terpunctionibus occupata, 65'c. Ec. 0c. 
Pro Murena, cap 6. Epist. ad Att. lib. vi. 
ep. 1. De oratore, lib. 1. cap. 41. 

But, notwithstanding this, the use of par- 
ticular forms was very strictly adhercd to, 
till the reign of Constantine the emperor, 
who,to his great honour, put an end tothese 
subtilities. His rescript to Marcellinus is in 
these words. ** Juris formulz, aucupatione 
* syllabarum insidiuntes, cunctorum acti- 
* bus radicitus amputentur.” Cod. 2. t. 58. 


Gregorius and Hermogencs.) vid. Gotho- 
Jfredi prolegom. ad cod. Theodosianum, cap. 
Ll. et Heineccié hist. jur. civ. lib. 1. cap. 5 
sect. 368, (^c. 


Rise and Progress of the Roman Law. 


emperors, down to his own time; and this was generally received both 
in the eastern and western empires. 


xl 


But these three codes were still far from being perfect; for the con- 
stitutions, contained in them, were often found to be contradictory; and 
they wan:ed, but too plainly, that regulation, which they afterwards un- 
derwent through the care of Fustinzan; who in the year of Christ 528 
ordered the compilation of a new code, which was performed and pub- 
lished the year following by Tridonian and others; the three former 
codes being suppressed by the express ordinance of the emperor. When 
this work was thus expeditiously finished, the emperor next extended 
his care to the Roman law in general, in order to render it both concise 
and perfect. ‘The answers and other writings of the ancient lawyers had 
long since acquired the full force of a /aw, and were now so numerous 
as to consist of near two thousand volumes; from which, by command 
of Fustinian, the best and most equitable opinions were chosen; and 
being first corrected, where correction was necessary, were afterwards 
divided into fifty books, called digests or pandects: and, that they might 
be the more firmly established, the emperor not only prohibited the use of 
all other law-books, but also forbad, that any comment should be written 
upon these his new digested laws, or that any transcript should be made 
of them with abbreviations. But, during the time of compiling the di- 


Bv the express ordinance. ] * Hunc igitur 
* codicem in zternum valiturum judicio tui 
** culminis intimare perspeximus, ut sciant 
** omnes tam litigatores quam disertissimi 
** advocati, nullatenus eis licere de cxtero 
** constitutiones ex veteribus tribus codici- 
‘* bus, vel ex iis, quz novellz constitutiones 
** ad presens tempus vocabantur, in cogni- 
*€ tionalibus recitare certaminibus, sed so- 
** lum, eidem nostro codici insertis, consti- 
* tutionibus necesse est uti; falsi crimini 
** subdendis his, qui contra hoc facere ausi 
* fuerint," Qv. De Fustinianeo codice confir- 
mando. 


Near two thousand volumes.] ** Postea 
*5 vero, maximum opus aggredientes, ipsa 
** vetustatis studiosissima opera, jam pene 
** confusa et dissoluta, eidem viro excelso 
« ("Triboniano) permisimus tam colligere 
* quam certo moderamine tradere. Sed, 
** cum omnia percontabamur, a przfato viro 
** excelso suggestum, duo pene millia libro- 
"* rum esse conscripta, que necesse esset 
* omnia et legere et perscrutari; quod ce- 
** lesti fulgore, et summz trinitatis favore, 
** confectum est, secundum nostra mandata, 
** quz ab initio ad memoratum virum excel- 
' sum fecimus, et in quinquaginta libros 
** omne, quod utilissimum erat, collectum 
" est; ct omnes ambiguitates decisz, nullo 
*seditioso relicto; nomenque libris impo- 
" suimus digestorum, seu. pandectarum." 
Co. 1. t€ 17.1.9. De ect. gur. md. 


Prohibited the use of all other law-books. } 
‘* Has itaque leges et adorate et observate, 
'* omnibus antiquioribus quiescentibus, ne- 
* moque vestrum audeat vel comparare eas 
** prioribus, vel, si quid dissonans in utro- 
** que est, requirere; quia omne, quod hic 
*€ positum est, hoc unicum et solum obser- 
** vari censemus; nec in judicio nec in alio 
't certamine, ubi leges necessariz sunt, ex a- 
** his libris, nisi ab institutionibus, nostrisque 
** digestis, et constitutionibus a nobis com- 
** positis, aliquid vel recitare vel ostendere 
* conetur; nisi temerator velit falsitatis cri- 
* mini subjectus una cum judice, qui eorum 
*! audientiam patiatur, penis gravissimis la- 
“borare.” Cod. 1. t. 17. 1. 2. $ 19. 

** Hoc autem tempestivum nobis videtur 
*5 et in prasenti sancire, ut nemo neque 
** eorum, qui in praesenti juris peritiam ha- 
* bent, neque, qui postea fierent, audeat 
* cosmsnentarios his legibus adnectere; nisi 
* velit eas in Graecam vocem transformare 
** sub eodem ordine eademque consequen- 
* tia, sub qua et voce Romana positz sunt; 
* hoc quod Graci xazx woda dicunt,” &c. 
Cod 1.t. 17.1. 2. $21. 


With abbreviations.] ** Eandem autem 
** ponam falsitatis constituimus et adversus 
* eos, qui in posterum leges nostras, per 
* siglorum obscuritates, ausi fuerint con- 
** scribere; omnia enim, id est, et nomina 
** prudentum, et titulos, et librorum nume- 
‘‘ ros, per consequentias literarum volumus, 


Rise and Progress of the Roman Law. xiii 


gests, it was thought expedient by J'ustinian, for the benefit of students, 
that an abridgment should be made of the whole Roman law; which work 
was soon performed in obedience to his order, and confirmed with the 
digests, under the title of institutions. 


The emperor afterwards, upon mature deliberation, suppressed the 
first edition of his code, and published a second, which he intitled Co- 
dex repetite pralectionis, having omitted several useless laws, and in- 
serted others, which were judged serviceable to the state. 


The Fustinian-law now consisted of three parts, the institutions, the 
digests, and the second code. But the emperor, after the publication of 
the second code, continued from time to time to enact diverse new con- 
stitutions or novels, and also several edicts; all which were collected after 
his decease, and became a fourth part of the law. 


The 13 edicts of fustinian and most of the novels were originally con- 
ceived in the Greed tongue; and so great was the decline of the Roman 
language at Constantinople within forty years after the death of this em- 
peror, that his laws in general were not otherways intelligible to the 
major part of the. people, than by the assistance of aGreek version: but, 
notwithstanding this disadvantage, they still subsisted intire, till (he pub- 


lication of the Basilica, by which the east was governed, till the disso- 


lution of the empire. 


** non per sigla, manifestari.” Cod. 1. t.17. 
1. 2. § 22. 


Confirmed with the Digests.} '* Leges 
*" autem nostras, qua in his codicibus, id 
* est, institutionum seu elementorum et di- 
'* gestorum, posuimus, suum obtinere robur 
'"! ex tertio nostro felicissimo sancimus con- 
* sulatu przsentis duodecimz indictionis, 
** tertio calendas januarias, in omne evum 
" valituras, 9c.” Cod. 1. t.17.L 2.§ 23. 


Suppressed the first edition of his code. ] 
*5 Nemini in posterum concedimus, vel 
*5 ex decisionibus nostris, vel ex aliis con- 
** stitutionibus, quas antca fecimus, vel cx 
** prima Justinianei codicis editione, aliquid 
*! recitare; sed, quod in presenti purgato et 
** renovato codice nostro scriptum invenitur, 
*! hoc tantummodo in omnibus rebus et ju- 
*! diciis et obtineat et recitetur: cujus scrip- 
* turam, ad similitudinem nostrarum insti- 
** tutionum et digestorum, sine ulla signo- 
** rum dubietate conscribi jussimus." De 


emendatione cod $ 5. 


Badeilica.| * Versionibus juris Justinianei 
* Gracis, et novellis easdem lingua scriptis, 
“in foris scholisque utebantur, donec, de 
** eo in compendium mittendo, sxculo nono 
*5 cogitare inciperent imperatores By zanti- 


** ni. Ex his primum Basilius Macedo anno 
** 838 ediderat weextiecv rov vomav, quod con- 
* stabat titulis quadraginta. Deinde Leo 
*5 eogoc, patri Basilio succedens, collectionem 
** illam paternam perfecit, eamque sub titu. 
Slo Sarakiay faciíuxev promulgavit, anno 
* Christi 886. Denique subsecutus Leonem 
** Constantinus, cognomento Porpliyroge- 
* neta, paternum opus sub incudem revoca- 
* vit, et libros illos Bxeixixav publicavit sub 
* initiuin szculi decimi. Et hi quidem sunt 
** libri illi Bzeiaixov, ex Greca institutionum, 
** pandectarum, codicis versione, Justinia- 
* ni novellis et edictis tredecim, nec non ex 
** juris-consultorum quorundam orientalium 
* paratitlis, aliisque libris, quin et patribus 
* et conciliis collecti; ita tamen ut multa 
* omissa videamus, quz fortassis tum ab usu 
* recesserant, multas etiam leges in com. 
* pendium contractas, multa denique ex 
** posteriorum principttm legibus et consti- 
*5 tutionibus addita animadvertamus. Opus 
" istud in sexaginta libros divisum, preter 
* pauca, qua nondum integra reperiri. po- 
** tuerunt, cum glossis grzcc et latine edi- 
“tum est a Car. Anni. Fabhrotto, Paris. 
* 1647. fol. vol. vii" wid. Heinecctt hist. 
Jur. civ. 1. 1. 6425. 


The dissolution of the empire.] Constan- 
tizofíe was taken by the 7ZurA and a period 


xiv 


\ 


Rise and Progress of the Roman Law. . 


The laws published by fustinion were still successful im the west; 
where, even in the life-time of the emperor, they were not received uni- 
versally; and, after the Lombard invasion, they became so totally ne- 
glected, that both the code and the pandects were lost, till the 12th cen- 
tury; when it is said, that the pandects were accidentally recovered at 
Amalphi, and the code at Ravenna. But, as if fortune would make an 
atonement for her former severity, they have since been the study of 
the wisest men, and revered, as law, by the politest nations. 


was put to the eastern empire in the year of 
Christ, 1453. 


After the Lombard invasion. ] The Lem- 
bards entered Italy under Alboinus about the 
year of Christ 568, in the reign of Fustin 
the second, successor to S ustinian. 


. At Amaiphi.) * Eo tempore (anno Dom. 
1130) ** injustis perturbatisque comi iis, la- 
“ cerarat ecclesiam falsus pontifex Petrus 
** Leonis, Anacletus secundus nuncupatus ab 
“sua factione; cujus dux erat Rogerixse Apu- 
* liz ac Siciliz comes, Regis nomine a fal. 
“so pohtifice donatus. Adversus Anacle- 
* tum creatus rite ac solenniter fuerat 7n- 
“ nocentius secundus, cui favebat imperator 
* Lotharius Saxo, summa virtute atque pru- 
** dentia princeps; quo bellum gerente ad. 
“versus Rozerium, Amalphi, urbe Salerno 
‘* proxima, A quam perperam aliqui locant 
‘Sin Apulia, Melphiam cum Amalphi confun- 
*5 dentes,) inopinato reperti fuerunt digesto- 
* rum libri; quos Pisani, qui classe Lotha- 
“rium contra Rogerium adjuverant, prz- 
* mio bene navatz operz sibi exorarunt. 
* Pisis vero post longam obsidionem a Ca- 


* ponée militiz duce strenuo expugnatis, 
* translati fuere Flogentiam; ubi, pro Au- 
** gusta Medicez dognus ificentia, in 
* museo magni ducis conservantur. Hinc 
** promiscua Pisanarum et Florentinarum 
** apud scriptores pandectarum appellatio. 
* [isdem temporibus repertum Ravenne fuit 
f* constitutionum imperialium volumen, 
** quod codex appellatur; indeque czteros li- 
** bros juris, imo et digéstorum aliud exem. 
* plar in lucem aliqui rediisse putant: nec 
* mirum, cum ea urbs longo tempore Ro- 
* manis legibus vixerit, et orientali Roma- 
* norum imperio diu obtemperavit. No- 
** vellz vero constitutiones etiam antea per 
^ Italiam vagabantur; utque mea fert opi. 
* nio, multi juris civilis libri, postquam in- 
" cessit homines cupido recipiendi Romani 
** juris, agniti potius fuere, quam reperti: 
** nam, et aliquot ante Lotharium annis, jus 
*« civile Justiniani commemoravit Ivo Car- 
** notensis, et libros pandectarum; cum an- 
* tea, si occurrerent, forzan socordia et ob. 
* livione pretermitterentur. vid. Cravine 

ig. jur. ci. lib. 1. cap. 140. et Hein. hist. jur. 
cie Kb. 1. § 412. 


CONFIRMATIONE 


PRO(EMIUM 


* E] 


INSTITUTIONUM. 


-—üÓÓ— 


\ 


IN NOMINE DOMINI NOSTRI JESU CHRISTL 


. SurzaATon, Casan FLAVIUS JUSTINIANUS, Atexantcus, Gon 
'HICUS, FRANCICUS, GERMANICUS, ÁNTICUS, ÁLANICUS, V ANDALI» 
cus, Araicanus, Pius, Fevix, Inctytus, VicTOR AC TRiUMPHe . 
ATOR, SEMPER AUGUSTUS=—CUPIDS LEGUM JUVENTUTI S. 


De usu armorum et legum. 


IMPERATORIAM majesta- 


tem non solum armis decoratam, 


sed etiam legibus oportet esse arm- 


, $tam; ut utrumque tempus et bel- 

Yorum et pacis recté possit guber- 
nari: et princeps Romanus non so- 
lum in hostilibus przliis victor cxis- 
tat, sed etiam per legitimos tramites 
calumniantium iniquitates expellat: 
et fiat tam juris rcligiosissimus, 
quam, victis hostibus, triumphator 
magnificus. 


The imperial dignity should nos 


- only be supported by arms, but guard= 


ed by laws, that the people may be 
properly governed in time of peade 
as well as war; for a Roman empee 
ror ought not enly to be victorious 
in the hostile field, but should take 
every legal course to expel the inie 
quities of men regardless of laws 
and become equally renowned for 
a religious observance of justice, ae 
Sor warlike triumphs. 


De bellis et legibus Justiniani. 


$I. Quorum utramque viam cum 
summis vigiliis, summaque provi- 
dentia, annuente Deo, perfecimus: 
et bellicos quidem sudores nostros 
barbaricz gentes, sub juga nostra 
.redactz, cognoscunt: et tam Afri- 
, 48, quam alie innumerz provincie, 
. ost tanta temporum spatia, nostris 
*. victoriis a celesti numine prestitis, 


6 1. Byour tncessant labora, and 
the assistance of divine providence, 
we have pursued this double path: 
the Barbarian nations have acknow- 
ledged our prowess and submitted te 
cur yoke; even Africa and many 
‘other provinces, after so long an ine 
terval, are again added to the Roman 


armies and yet this vast peop-e are 


2 
iterum ditioni Rofnane, nostroque 
addite imperio, pfotestantu& Om- 
nes vero. populi legibus tam à nobis 
* promulgatis, quam compositis, re- 


guntur. 


2045. 


§ II. Et cum sacratissimas con- * 


@titutiones, antea confusas, in lucu- 
lentam ereximus consonantiam, tunc 
nostram extendimus curam ad im- 
mensa veteris prudentiz volumina; 
et opus desperatum, quasi per me- 
dium profundum euntes, celesti fa- 
vore jam adimplevimus. 


M 
M 


$ III. Cumque hoc, Deo propi- 
tio, peractum est, Triboniano, viro 
magnifico, magistro, et exquzstore 
sacri palatii nostri, et exconsule, 
. nec non Theophilo et Dorothco, vi- 
tis illustribus;antecessoribus, (quo- 
yum omnium solertiam, et legum 
ecientiam, et circa nostras jussiones 
fidem, jam ex multis rerum argu- 
mentis accepimus,) convocatis, man- 


davimus specialiter, ut ipsi nostra - 


, auctoritate, nostrisque suasionibus, 
Institutiones componerent ; ut liceat 
vobis prima legum cunabula non ab 
entiquis fabulis discere, sed ab im- 

periali splendore ‘appetere: et tam 

aures, quam animi vestri, nihil in- 

‘utile, nihilque perperam positum, 
sed quod in ipsis rerum obtinet ar- 
gumentis, accipiant: et quod priore 
tempore vix post quadriennium pri- 
oribus contingebat, ut tunc consti- 


PROOEMIUM '&.. 


"n 


v 
"- 


governea by late, either originally 
enacted, or prontulgated anew, under 


our authority. 


De compositione Codicis et Pandectarum. ' 


§ 2. When we had arranged and 
brought into lucid harmony the 
hitherto confused mass of imperial 
constitutions, we then extended our 
care to the numerous volumes of an- 
cient law ; and have now completed, 
through the favour of heaven (wa- 
ding as it were through a vast o- 
cean ) a work that might have been 
despaired of. 


De tempore, auctoritatibus, fine et utilitatc compositionis 
Institutionum. 


§ 3. So soon as by the blessing of 
God this was accomplished, we sum- 
moned Tribonian, our former chan- 
cellor, with Theopilus and Dorothe- 
us, men of known learning and tried 
fidelity, whom we enjoined by our 
authority tocompose the following 
Institutes, that the rudiments of ‘law 
might be more effectually learned, by 
the sole means of our imperial authc- 
rity; and that your minds for the 
future should not be burdened with 
obsolete and unprofitable doctrines, 
but instructed in. those laws only, 
which are allowed of and practiced : 
and, whereas Students formerly could 
scarcely sit down to the imperial con- 
stitutions under four years previous 
study, they may now, ( having bcen 
thought worthy of our princely care, 
to which they are indebted for the 
beginning and end of their legal 


v9 


DE CONFIRMATIONE. INSTITUTIONUM. 


tutiones imperatorias legerent, hoc 
vos à primordio ingrediamini, digni 


tanto honore, tantaque reperti feli-. 


citate, ut et initium vobis, et finie 
legum eruditionis, à voce principali 


procedat. 


4 


erudition) apply themselves immedi- . 
ately to that course of reading, 


e 
¢ 


Diviso Institutionum. 


$ IV. Igitur post libros quinqua- 
ginta Digestorum, seu Pandectar- 
um, (in quibus omne jus antiquum 
collectum est, quod per eundem 
virum excelsum Tribonianum, nec 
non czteros viros illustres et facun- 
dissimos, confecimus,) in quatuor 
libros easdem Institutiones partiri 
jussimus, ut sint totius legitimae 
scientiz prima elementa. 


$ 4. When therefore, by the assis», 
tance of Tribonian and other illustri» 
ous persons, we had compiled the fifty 
books, called Digests or Pandects, 
we directed that the Institutes should 
be divided into four books, which 
serveas clements of the science of 


Quid in Institutionibus contineatur. 

6 V. In quibus breviter exposi- § 5. Wherein are briefly set forth 
tum est, et quod antea obtinebat, et the laws formerly in use, and those 
quod postea, desuetudine inumbra- also, which having been overshae 
tum, imperiali remedio illuminatum dowed by disuse, are now brought tg 
est. light by our princely care. 


Ex quibus libris composite sunt Institutiones, atque earum 
recognitio, et confirmatio. 


$ VI. Quas, ex omnibus antiquo- 
rum Institutionibus, et precipué ex 
commentariis Caii nostri, tam in- 
stitutionum, quam rerum quotidi- 
anarum, aliisque multis commen- 


, tariis compositas, cum tres viri pru- 


dentes predicti nobis obtulerunt, et 
legimus, et recognovimus, et plenis- 
simum nostrarum constitutionum 


' gobur cis accommodavimus. 


§ 6. The four books of Institutes 
thus compiled by Tribonian, Theoe 
philus, and Dorotheus, from all the 
institutions of the ancient law, but 
chiefly from the commentarigs, insti- 
tutions, and other writings of Caius, 
being presented to us, we read and 
diligently examined their contents ; 
and, in testimony of our approbation, 
we have now given them our fullest 
constitutional authority. 


4 ' fROOEMIUM; &:. ^. " 


Adhortatio ad studium irri. 


$ V T1. Summi itaque ope, et ala- 
Eri studio, has leges nostras acci- 
pite: et vosmetipsos sic eruditos 
ostendite, ut spes vos pulcherrima 
foveat, toto legitimo opere perfecto, 
posse etiam nostram rempublicam, 
in partibus ejus vobis credendis, gu- 
befnari. 


6 7. Receive therefore and study 
these our laws with diligence and 
alacrity; and show yourselves so come 
petent therein, that when your studies 
shall be finished, you may entertain d 
cheering hope of having a part of the 
government committed to your 
charge. 


D. CP. XL. Kalend. Decemb. D. Juatixtaxo PP. 4. HLCOS. . 


Given at Constantinople on the eleventh day before the 
calends of December, in the third consulate of the 


Emperor Justinian, always august, (21st Nov. 533.) 


v INSTITUTIONUM, 


SEU 


' ELEMENTORUM; 


D. JUSTINIANI 


LIBER PRIMUS. 


dang diu 


TITULUS PRIMUS. 


DE JUSTITIA ET JURE. 


D. 1. 


T. 1. 


Definitio justitiz. 


f'USTITIA est constans et per- 


Justice 1s the constant and pepr- 


petua voluntas jus suum cuique trie petual disposition to render every 


buendi. 


man hts due. 


Definitio jurisprudentiz. 


§ I. Jurispradentia est divina- 
rum atque humanarum rerum no- 
Gitia, justi atque-injusti scientia. 


6 1. Surisprudence is the know- 
ledge of things divine and human; 
the science of what is just and unjust. 


De juris methodo. 


$ II. His igitur generaliter cog- 
nitis, et incipientibus nobis expo- 

, were jura populi Romani, ita vi- 
dentur posse tradi commodissimé, 
8) primo levi ac simplici via, post 
deinde diligentissima atque ex- 
actissimhá interpretatione, singula 
tradantur ; alioqui, si statim ab ini- 






Mm studios: multitudine ac varie- 
Arcem ontravénmus, duorum 


.' Se rudem adhuc et infirmum ani-’ 


§ 2. These definitions being pre- 
mised, we shall commence our exposi- 
tion of the Roman Law most conve- 
niently, if we take at first the plainest 


and eastest path, and then proceed ta~ 


treat cach particular with the utmost 
exactness : for, if at the beginning 
we overload the mind of the student 
witha multitude and variety of topics, 
we may cause him either. wholly o 
qvundon his. studtes, .or bring. him 


LI 


Alterum, aut desertorem. studiorum 
efficiemus, aut cum magno labore, 
expe etiam cum diffidentiáà, (qux 
plerumque juvenes avertit,) seriüs 
ad id perducemus, ad quod, leviore 
via ductus, fine . magno labore et 
"fne ullà diffidentia, maturits produ- 
ci potuisset, 


LIB. I. 


8 


$ III. Juris precepta sunt: ho- 
este vivere, alterum non ledere, 
'suum cuique tribuere. 


TIT. X: 


late to that knowledge through great 
labour and diffidence, which he might 
otherwise have acquired earlier with 


ease and confidence. 


a 


i . - 


Juris precepta. — | 


§ 3. The precepts of the law are, 
to live honestly, to hurt no one, ta 
give to every one his due. 


De jure publico et privato. | 


$ IV. Hujus studii duse sunt 
positiones, publicum et privatum. 
Publicum jus est, quod ad statum 
rei Roman: spectat. Privatum est, 
quod ad singulorum ultilitatem per- 
tinet. Dicendum est igitur. de 
jure privato, quod tripertitum est : 
collectum enim est ex naturalibus 
preceptis, aut gentium, aut civili- 


§ 4. The lawis divided inta pub- 


| licand private. Public law, regards. 


the state of the commonwealth: but 
private law, of which we shall here 
treat, concerns the incerest of individ- 
uals ; and is tripartite, being collected 
from natural precepts, from the lew 
of nations, and from municipal Regu- 
lations. . 


c— wu 2» QD 4$ Gee — 


TITULUS SECUNDUS. 
DE JURE NATURALI, GENTIUM, ET CIVILI. 


. De jure naturali. 


JUS naturale est, quod natura 
omnia animalia docuit: nam jus 
istud non humani generis proprium 
est, sed omnium animalium, que 
i ccelo, que in mari, nascuntur. 
Hinc descendit maris atque fe- 
minm conjunctio, quam nos matri- 
monium appellamus. — Hinc libe- 


Torum procreatio, binc educatio. rem — Weperesive also; thet other’ 


The law of nature is a law not 
only to man, but likewise to all. other 
animale, whether produced on the 
earth, in the air, or in the waters. 
From hence proceeds that conjunction 
of male and female, which we 
denominate matrimony; hence the 
procreation and education of chil- 


‘@ 
"Videmus enim, cetera quoque ani- animals are considered ds having 


‘woalia istius juris peritia censeri. 


some knowledge of this law. 


Distinctio juris gentium et civilis, a definitione et etymologia. . 


$ I. Jus autem civile à jure gen- 
tium distinguitur, quod omnes po- 
puli, qui legibus et moribus regun- 
tur, partim suo proprio, partim 
communi omnium hominum, jure 
utuntur: nam quod quisque popu- 
lus sibi jus constituit, id ipsius pro- 
prium civitatis est, vocaturque jus 
civile, quasi jus proprium ipsius 
civitatis. Quod veto naturalis ratio 
inter omnes homines constituit, id 
apud omnes gentes per«que custo- 
ditur, vocaturque jus gentium, quasi 
quo jure omnes gentes utantur: et 
populus itaque Romanus, partim suo 
proprio, partim communi omnium 
hominum, jure utitur. Quz singula, 
qualia sint, suis locis proponemus. 


6 1. Civil law is distinguished 
from the law of nations, because e- 
very community governed by . laws, 
uses partly its cwn and partly the ' 
laws which are common to all man- 
kind. That law, which a people en- 
acts for its own government, is called 
the civil law of that people. But 
that law, which natural reason ape 
points for all mankind, is called the 
law of nations, because all nations 
make use ofit. The people of Rome 
are governed partly by their own 
laws, and partly by the laws, which 
are common to all men. Of these 
we shall treat separately in their 


proper places. 


Ab appellatione et effectibus. 


§ IT. Sed jus quidem civile ex 
unaquaque civitate appellatur, veluti 
Atheniensium: nam, si quis velit 
Solonis vel Draconis leges appellare 
jus civile Atheniensium, non erra- 
verit. Sic enim et jus, quo Romanus 
populus utitur, jus civile Romano- 
rum appellamus, vel jus Quiritum, 
quo Quirites utuntur: Romani enim 
a Romulo, Quirites a Quirino, ap- 
pellantur. Sed, quoties non addimus 
nomen cujus sit civitatis, nostrum 
jus significamus : sicuti cum poctam 
dicimus, nec addimus nomen, sub- 
auditus apud Grecos egregius Ho- 
wacerus, apud nos Virgilius. Jus 
‘gatem géntium omni humano generi 

. epumune est: pam, usu exigente et 


$ 2. Civil laws take their deno- 
mination from that city,in which 
they are established: it would not 
therefore be erroneous to call the laws 
of Solon or Draco the civil laws of 
Athens : and thus the law, which 
the Roman people make use of, ts 
styled the civil law of the Romans, 
or of the Quirites ; for the Romans 
are also called Quirites from Quiri- 
nus. Whenever we mention the 
words civil law, without addition, 
we emphatically denote our own law; 
thus the Greeks, when they say the 
poet, mean Homer, and the Romans 
Virgil. The law of nations tscommon 
to all mankind and all nations have 
enacted some laws, as occasion and 


^. LIB; f. 


€ « 

fiimenis tecessitatibus, gentes hu- 
mane jura qu -dam sibi constitue- 
runt: bella etenim orta sunt, et cap- 
tivitates secut *, et servitutes, quz 
‘sunt natural juri contrarie: jure 
enim naturali omnes homines ab ini- 
tio9liberi nascebantur: et ex hoc 
| jure gentium,omnes pené contractus 
. ¥ntroducti sufit, ut emptio et vendi- 
tio, locatio et conductio, societas, 
depositum, mutuum, et alit innu- 
merabiles. 


TIT. i. 


‘necessity required: Jor ware arose, 
and the consequences were captivity 
and servitude ; both which are cons 
trary to the law of nature; for by 
that law, all men are bornfree. But 
almost all contracts were .at first ine 
troduced by the law of nations ; ap 
for instance, buying, selling, letting, 
hireing, partnership,a deposit, a loan 
und others without number. 


:Divisio juris in scriptum et non scriptum ; etsubdivisio juris scripti. 


-'$ HI. Constat autem jus nos- 
trum, quo .utimur, aut scripto, aut 
Sine scripto: ut apud Graecos se» 
yeges of gu» ty[psQer, ot dt cy paler. 
"Scriptum autem jus, est, lex, plebis- 
citum, senatus-consultum, princi- 
pum placita, magistratuum edicta, 
responsa prudentum. 


|.$ 8. The Roman Jaw is divided, 

‘like the Grecian, into written. and 
unwritten. The written, consists of 
the plebiscites,the deerees of the se- 
nate, ordinances of princes, the edicts 
of magistrates, and the answers of 
the sages of the law. 


De lege et plebiscito. 


'§ IV. Lex est, quod populus Ro- 
‘manus, senatorio magistratu inter- 
rogante, (veluti consule,) canstitue- 
bat. Plebiscitum est, quod plels, 
plebeio magistratu interrogante, (ve- 
luti tribuno,) constituebat.  Pl:bs 
autem a populo eo differt, quo spe- 
cies a genere; nam appellatione po- 
puli universi cives significantur, 
-Conpumeratis etiam patriciis et se- 
_matoribus. Plebis autem appella- 
tione, sine patriciis et senatoribus, 
ceteri cives significantur. Sed et 
plebiscita, lege Hortensia Jata, non 
minus valerc, quam leges, ceperunt. 


§ 4. A law is what the Roman 
people enact at the request of a sena- 


torial magistrate; as a consul. A 


plebiscite is what the commonalty 
ehact, when requested by a plebetan 
magistrate,as a tribune. The word: 
commonalty differs from people,as a 
species from its genus; forall the 
citizens, including patricians and se~ 
nators, are comprehended under the 
term people. The term commonalty, 
includes all the citizens, except patri- 
cians and senators. The plebiscites, 


-by the Hortensian law, began to have 
. the same force, as the laws themselves, 







C] 


LSB. I. 


TIT. IL $ 


De senatus-consulto. 


V V. Senatus-consultum est, quod 
senatus jubet atque constituit : nam, 
cum auctus esset populus Romanus 
in eum modum, ut difficile esset, in 
unum eum convocari legis sancien- 
dz causa, #quum visum est, sena- 
€um vice populi consuli. ' 


§ 5. A senatorial decree is what 
the senate commands and appoints » 
Sor, when the people of Rome became 
so increased that it was difficult to 
assemble them for the enacting of 
laws, it seemed right, that the Rnat '€ 
should be consulted instead of the 


people. 


We constitutione. 


§ VI. Sed et, quod principi pla- 
cuit, legis habet vigorem : cum lege 
regia, que de ejus imperio lata est, 
populus ei, et in eum, omne impe- 
rium suum et potestatem concedat. 
Quodcunque ergo imperator per e- 
pistolam constituit, vel cognoscens 
decrevit, vel edicto precepit, legem 
esse constat. Hzc sunt, que cong 
stitutiones appellantur. Plané ex 
his quedam sunt personales, que 
nec ad exemplum trahuntur, quoni- 
am non hoc princeps vult : nam quod 
alicui ob meritum indulsit, vel si 
quam poenam irrogavit, velsi cui 
sine exemplo subvenit, personam 
non transgreditur. — Ali» autem, 
cum generzles sint, omnes procul- 
dubio tenent. 


§ 6. The ordinance of the prince 
hath qlso the force of a law; for the 
people by the lex regia, make a con- 
cession to him of their whole power. 
Therefore whatever the emperor or- 
dains by rescript, decree, or edict, i8 
law. Such acts are called constitu- 
tions. Of these, some are personal, 
and are not to be drawn into prece- 
dent ; for, if the prince hath indulged 
any man onaccount of his merit, or 
inflicted any extraordinary punish- 
ment on a criminal, or granted some 
unprecedented assistance, thesa acts 
extend not beyond the individual. 
Bu: other constitutions being gener 
ral, undoubtedly bind all. 


De jure honorario. 


($ VII. Pretorum quoque edic- 
t2 non modicam obtinent juris 
&uctoritatem. Hoc etiam jus ho- 
norarium solemus appellare : quod, 
qui honores gerunt, (id est magis- 
trafus,) auctoritatem huic juri de- 
doruxit, Proponebant et xdiles 
', emrules edictum de quibusdam cau- 


- $a; quod et ipsum juris honorarii 


> . foetio est, 


§ 7. The edicts of the pretors ate 
also of gredt authority. These edicts 
are called the honorary law, because 
the magistrates who bear honors in 
the state, have given them their sanc- 
tion. The curule ediles also, upon 
certain occasions, published thet# 
edicts, which became a part of the 
jus honorarium. 


wv LIB. I. 


TIT. U. 


De responsis prudentum. 


.$ VHL  Besponsa prudentum 

qunt sententie et opinioncs. eorum, 
quibus permissum erat de jurc res- 
pondere : nam antiquitds cons*itu- 
tum erat, ut essent, qui jura publicé 
interfretarentur, quibus a Czsare 
{is respopdendi datum est, qui ju- 
ris-consulti appellabantur: quorum 
omnium sententiz et opiniones eam 
auctoritatem tenebant, ut judici re- 
cedere & responsis eorum non li- 
ceret, ut est constitutum. 


| . De jure 
:$ IX. Sine scripto jus venit, 


Quod usus approbavit; nam diutur- 


ni mores, consensu utentium com<- 
probati, legem imitantur. 


Q 8. The answers of the lawyers 
are the opinions of persons author- 
ised to give answers an matters of 
law. For antiently, prblic Inter- 
preters of the law were licenced by 
the emperors and were called juris- 
consulti ; and their opinions obtained 
so great an authority, that tt was not 
in the power of a judge to recede 
from them. 


nen scripto. 


$49. The unwritten law is that, 
which usage has approved : for daily 
customs, established by the consent 
of those who use. them, put on the 
character of law. 


7 | Ratio superioris divisicnis. 


$ X. Et non ineleganter in duas 
species jus civile distributum esse 
videtur; nam origo ejus ab institu- 
tis duarum civitatum, Athenarum 
scilicet et Lacedemoniorum, flux- 
isse videtur. In his enim civi- 
tatibus, ita agi solitum erat, ut 
Lacedemonii quidem ea, quz pro 
legibus observabant, memorie man- 
darent; Áthenienses vero ea, qua: 
in legibus "scripta comprehendis- 
gent, custodirent. 


§ 10. Nor is it an inelegant divi- 
_svon of the law, into written and un- 
written: which scems to have taker 
rise from the peculiar customs of the 
Athenians and Lacedemonians. For . 
the Lacedemonians trusted chiefly to 
memory, for the preservation of their 
laws ; but the laws of the Athenians 
were committed to writing. 


Divisio juris in iminu stabile et mutaltle. 


) 


6 XI. Sed naturalia quidem jura, 
quie. apud omnes gentes ,Pereque 
observantur, divina quadam provi- 
dentia constituta, semper firma at- 
que immutabilia permanent. Ea 


$11. The laws of nature, observed b; 
all nations, inasmuch as they cre the 
appointment of divine providence, re- 
main fixed and immutable. But the 
dacs, which every city hes cnacted 


. LAB. I. 


vero, quz ipsa sibi quseque civitas 
constituit, sepe mutari folent, vel 
tacito consensu populi, $8 alia pos- 
tea lege lati. 


TIT. II. 


ü 


for itself, suffer frequent changes, 
either by tacit consent of the people, 
or by some subsequent law, V 


De objectis juris. 


6 XII. Otfnne autem jus, qüo 
utimur, vel ad pefsonas pertinet, 
vel ad res, vel ad actiones. Et 
prius de personis videamus: nam 
parim est jus nosse, si personz, 
quarum causa constitutüm est, ig- 
yorentur. 


—— 5r @ ote 


6 12. All latwe, relate to persong, 
things, or actions. First then of per- 
sons; for it would be of little pur- 
pose to study the law, while ignorant 
of persons, for whose sake. the hme 
was constituted, 


TITULUS TERTIUS. 


DE JURE PERSONARUM. - ; 


D. 1. T. 5. 


Prima divisio personarum, 


SUMMA i itaqtie divisio de jure 
personarum hzc est: quod omnes 
homines aut liberi sunt, aut servi. 


The first general division # pér- 
sons, in respect to their rights, .8 ine 
to freemen and slaves. 


Definitio libertatis. 


$ I. Et libertas quidem (ex qui 
etiam liberi vocantur) est naturalis 
facultas ejus, quod cuique facere li- 
bet, nisi quid vi aut jure prohibe- 
tur. 


§ 1. Freedom, from which we 


are denominated free, is the natu- 


ral power of acting as we please,” 
unless prevented by force, or by 
the law. 


Definitio servitutis. 


§ II. Servitus autem est consti- 
tatid j juris gentium, qua quis do- 


slinió aliciio contra naturgm sube 


= 


$.2. Slavery, ie when one man ig 
subjected to the dominion of another, 


though contrary to natura] right, | 


T LIB. I. 


TIT. III. 


Servi et mancipii etymologia. 


§ III. Servi autem ex eo appel- 
lati sunt, quod imperatares capti- 
vos vendere, ac per hoc servare, 
nec occidere solent; qui etiam 
mancipia dicti sunt ;, eo, quod ab 


§ 3. Shmes are denominated serv, 
from tha9bractice of our ‘generals 
tosell their captives, and thus pre- 
serve, (servare) and not slay them. 
Slaves are also called mancipia in 


hostibus manu capiantur. that they aretaken from the enemy 
by hand (manucapti.) 
Quibus modis servi constituuntur. ] 


$ IV. Servi autem aut nascun- 
tur, autfiunt. Nascuntur ex ancil- 
lis nostris : fiunt aut jure gentium, 

id est, ex captivitate ; aut jure ci- 
- vili, cum liber homo, major viginti 
annis, ad pretium participandum 
&ese venundari passus est. 


§ 4. Slaves are born such, or be-. 
come so. They are born such of 
bond-women : they become so either by 
the law of nations, that is, by cap- 
tivity ; or by the civil law ; as whena 
Sree person, above the age gf twenty, 
suffers himself to be sold, for the sake 
of sharing‘ the price given for him. 


De liberorum et servorum divisione.. 


6 V. In servorum conditione 
nulla est differentia; in liberis au- 
tem multe : aut enim sunt ingenui, 
aut libertini. 


La 


§ 5. In the condition of slaves 
there is no diversity ; but among free 
persons, there are many ; (hus, some 
are ingenui, ot. Freemen; others li: 


bertini or Freed Men. 


TITULUS QUARTUS.. 


DE INGENUIS. 


C. Vile 


De ingenui 
INGENUUS est is, qui statim, 
ut natus est, liber est; sive ex 
duobus ingenuis matrimonio editus 
est, sive ex libertinis duobus, sive 
ex altero libertino, et altero ingenuo, 


T. 14. 


definitione, 


A Freeman is one who Bs born 
free, by being born in matrimony, 
of parents, who are both free, 
or both freed ; or of purents, one free, 
the othey freed. But one born of a free- 


LIB. I. 


Sed et, si quis ex matre nascitur li- 
berà, patre veró servo, ingenuus 
nihilominus nascitur: quemadmo- 
dum, qui ex matre libera et incerto 
patre natus est: quoniam vulg con- 
ceptus est. Sufficit autem, liberam 
fuisse matrem eo tempore, quo na- 


scitur, licet ancilla conceperit: et, 


- é contrario, si libera conceperit, 


: 


deinde ancilla facta pariat, placuit 
eum, qui nascitur, liberum nasci : 
quia non debet calamitas matris ei 
nocere, qui in ventre est, Exhis 
illud quesitum est, si angilla preg- 
nans manumissa sit, deinde ancilla 
postea facta pepererit, liberum an 
servum pariat? Et Martianus pro- 
bat, liberum nasci: sufficit enim ei, 
qui in utero est, liberam matrem 
vel medio tempore habuisse, ut li- 
ber nascatur ; quod et verum est. 


TIT. IV. 


mother, altho! the futher be a slave, or 
unknown, is free : notwithstanding he 
was conceived discreditably. And if 
the mother is free at the time of the 
birth, although a bond-woman when 
she conceived, the infant will be free. 
Also if a woman, free at conception, 
becomes a slave and is delivered, her 
child, ie nevertheless free born; for 
the misfortune of the mother ought not 
to ptejudice her unborn infant. R 
has been a question, whether the child 
of a woman, who is made free dur- 
ing pregnancy, but becomes bond be- 
fore delivery, would be free born? 
Martianus proves the affirmative ; 
Jor, he deems it sufficient to the un- 
born child, if the mother hath been 
free at any time between conception 
and delivery ; and this is true. 


16 


De erronea ingenui manumissione. 


$ I. Cum autem ingenuus ali- 
quis natus sit, non officit ei, in ser- 


vitute fuisse, et postea manumis, 
sum esse: sepissimé enim -consti- ' 


tutum est, natalibus non officere ma- 
numissionem. 


6 1. Jt will not injure a man born 
free to have been in servitude, 


Biren one manumitted : for it 


BA been often settled that manus 
mission shall not prejudice free birth, 


® 
A4 
— du QD i @ ee 
E 
TITULUS QUINTUS. 
DE LIBERTINIS. 
: Definitio et origo libertinorum et manumissionis. 
. LIBERTINI sunt, qui ex justa. reed men are those, who have . 


sigvitute manwnissi sunt. Manu- 
tiecio autem cst de manu datio : 


been manumitted from just servitude. 
Manumission, voanu-datio, implies 


4c 


14 LIB. I. 


quamdiu aliquis in servitute est, ma- 
nui et potestati suppositüs est : ct 
manumissus liberatur à domini po* 
restate : qua res a jure gentium ori- 
inem sumpsit ; utpote cum jure na 
rali omnes liberi nascerentur ; 
^ esset nota manumissio, cum ser- 
v us esset incognita. Sed, post. 
quam jure : . ..rvitus ingenti- 
tatem ' .vasit, secutum est benefici+ 
um manuniissionhig : et, cum uho come 
muni nomine omnes homines appel- 
larentur, jure gentium tria hominum 
genera esse coperunt : liberi ; et his 
contrariui, servi; et tertium genus, 
Jibertini ; qui desierant esse servi 


. Quibus modis 


€ I. Multis autem modis manu-, 


missio procedit : aut enim ex sacris 
constitutionibus in: sacrosanctis ec- 
clesiis, aut vindicta, aut inter amie 
cos, aut per epistolam, aut per 
mentum, aut per aliam q 
ultimam voluntagem. Sed et 
multis modis libertas servo com 
tere potest, qui tam ex veterib ». 
quam ex nostris constitutionibus, 
introducti sunt. 








le last will. 


TIT. V. 


the giving of liberty ; for whoever & 
in servitude, is subject to the hand 


' and power of another ; but whoever is. | 


manumitted, is free from both. 
- Maniumission took its rise from the 
law of nations; for all men by the 
law of nature are born free; 
nor wae manumission heard of 
while servitude was unknown. But 
when servitude, undér sanction of the 
law of nations, invaded liberty, the 
benefit of mariumission became then a 
consequence. For all nien at first 
were denominated by ene tommoh ap- 
pellation, till, by the law of nations, 
they began to be divided into three 
classes, viz« into liberi, or freemen, 
servi, or slaves, and libertini, freed» 


men, who have ceased to be slaves. 


manumittatur. 


§ 1. Manumission is effected by 
various ways ; either in the face of 
the church, according to the imperial 
constitutions, or by the vindicta, or 
in the presence of friends, or by let» 
ter, or by testament, or by any other 
Liberty may also be con. 
ferred upon a slave by diverse other | 
methods, some of which were intro- 
duced by former laws, and others by 
our Own. 


Ubi et quando manumitti potest. 


$ II. Servi vero à dominis sem- 
per manumitti solent, adeo ut vel in 
" transitu manumittantur ; veluti 
cum prator, aut preses, aut procon- 
sul, in balneum, vel in theatrum 
eunt, 


§ 2. Slaves may be manumitted by 
their masters at any time ; even on 
the way,as while thepretor, the go- 
vernot of a province, or the proconsul 
iv going ta the baths, of tà thethéalre, 


LIB. I. 


De libertinorum 


$ FEI. Libertinorum autem status 
cripertitus antea fuerat : nam, qui 
thanumittebantur, modo majorem 
et justam libertatem consequeban- 
tur, et fiebant cives Romani ; modo 
minorem, et Latini ex lege Junia 
Norbana fiebant ; modo inferiorem, 
et fiebant ex lege JElia Sentia Dedi- 
tii: sed quoniam Dedititiorum 
quidem pessima conditio, jam ex 
multis temporibus in desuetudinem: 
abierat; Latinorum vero nomen 
non frequentabatur ; ideoque nostra 
pietas, omnia augere etin meliorem 
Btatum reducere desiderans, dua- 
bus constitutionibus hoc emendavit, 
et in pristinum statum reduxit: 
quia et à primis urbis Romz cunabu- 
hs unaatque simplex libertas com- 
petebat, id est, eadem, quam, habe- 
bat manumissor ; nisi quod, scilicet, 
libertinus sit, qui manumittitur, licet 
manumissor ingenuus sit : et Dediti- 
tios quidem per constitutionem 
nostram expulimus, quam promul- 
gavimus intcr nostras decisiones; 
per quas, suggerente nobis Tribo- 
niano viro excelso quzstore nostro, 
antiqui juris altercationes placavi- 
mus. Latincs autem Junianos, et 
omnem, quz circa eos fuerat, obser- 
vantiam, alia constitutione, per cjus-. 
dem quzstores suggestionem, cor- 
reximus, qu inter imperiales radiat 
sanctiones ; et omnes libertos, (nul- 
lo, nec ztatis manumissi, nec domi- 
ni manumittentis, nec in manumis- 
— sionis modo, discrimine habito, si- 
cwii antea observabatur,) civitate 
Romani decoravimus, multis mo- 


ha ^2 y 
pL 297" Att 


TIT. V. 15 


divis'one sublata. 


§ 3. Freedmen were formerly 

distinguished by athreefold division. 
Those, who were manumitted, some- 
times obtained the greater liberty, 
and became Roman citizens ; some- 
tones only the lesser, and became 
Latins, under the law Junia Nor- 
bana; and sometimes onlythe infe- 
rior liberty, and became Dedititii, by 
the law lia Sentia. But, the condi- 
tion of the Dedititii differing but lit- 
tle fram slavery, has been long dis- 
used ; neither has the name of La- 
tins been frequent. Our piety there- 
fore, leading us to reduce all things 
into a better state, we have amended: 
our laws by two constitutions, and 
re-established the antient usage ; for 
antiently liberty. was simple and. un- 
divided ; that ie, it wae conferred up- 
on the slave, as his manumittor pose 
sessed it ; admitting this single differ- 
ence, that the person manumitted be- 
came only a Freedman, although his 
manumittor was a- Freeman. 

We have abolished the Dedititii by 

a constitution published among our 
decisions, by which, at the instance of 
Tribonian, our Quaestor, we have 
suppressed all disputes concerning 
the antient law. We have also, at his 
suggestion, altered the condition. 
cf the Latins, and corrected the laws, 
which related to them, by another 
consti*ulion, conspicuous among the 
imperial sanctions : and we have 
made all the freed-men in gencral ci. 
tizens of Rome, regaraing neither 
the age of the manumitted, nor of the. 


manumistor, nor the antient forms of: 


A 


Á 


—f— 


E paz ^ 


46 LIB. I. 


dis additis, per quos possit libertas 
servis cum civitate Romana, quz 
wola estin presenti, prestari. ( 4 


TIT. VI. 


manumission. We have also introt 
duced many new methods, by whiclr 
slaves may become Roman citizens y 
the only liberty that can now be ton- 


Jerred. 


—— QD 0 QD e— 


TITULUSSEXTUS. 
QUI ET EX QUIBUS CAUSIS, MANUMITTERE 
NON POSSUNT. 
D.xl T.9. C.vii. T. t1. 


Prius caput legis /Elize Sentize, de manumittente in fraudem credi- 
torum. 


'" NON tamen cuicunque volenti 


Manumittere licet: nam is, qui in: 
fraudem creditorum manumittit, ni-. 


hil agit : quia lex Alia Sentia impe- 
dit libertatem. 


| Every master may not manumit at 
will : for if done with intent to de- 
fraud his creditors, itis void. The 
law fElia Sentia restraining this ' 
laberty. 


De servo instituto cum libertate. 


§ I. Licetautem domino, qui sol- 
vendo nonest, in testamento ser- 
vum suum cum libertate heredem 
instituere, ut liber fiat, heresque ei 
solus et necessarius, si modo ci nes 
mo alius, ex eo testamento, heres 
extiterit : aut quia nemo heres scrip- 
tus sit, aut quia is, qui scriptus est, 
quálibet ex causa heres ei non exti- 


terit. Idque eádem lege Alia Sentia . 


provisum est, et recte. Valdé enim 
prospiciendum erat, ut egentes ho- 
mines, quibus alius heres extiturus 


non esset, vel servum suum neccs- 


sarium haeredem liaberent, qui sa- 
tiefacturus esset creditoribus: aut, 


Cte c C Ape nn 


Meee a ey ua UL y HAAG Pad d. 


Created OCAL- th ttee t 6r 


§ 1. A master, who is insolvent, 
may appointa slave tobe his heir 
with liberty, that thus the slave may: 
obtain his freedom, and become the 
only and necessary heir of the testa- 
tor, provided no other person is also 
heir by the same testament ; and this 
may happen, either because no other 
person was instituted heir or because 
the person, so instituted, is unwilling 
to act. This privilege of masters was 
Jor wise reasons established by the. 
law lia Sentia: for it became nectie- 
sary to provide, that inaigent mento 
whom no man would be a voluntary 
heir, might have aelave for a neces. 





LIB. I. TIT. VI. 


hoe eo non faciente, creditores res 
hereditarias servi nomine vendant, 
ne injurià defunctus afficiatur. 


17 


sary heir to satisfy creditors; or 
that the creditors should sell the hee 
reditary effects in the name of the 
slave, lest the deceased should suffer 
ignominy. 


De servo instituto sine libertate. 


$ II. Idemque juris est, etsi 
sine libertate servus heres institu- 
tus est ; quod nostra constitutio non 
solim in domino, qui solvendo non 
est, sed generaliter constituit, nova 
humanitatis ratione; ut ex ipsa 
Scriptura institutionis etiam libertas 
ei competere videatur: cum.non 
sit verisimile, eum, quem heredem 
sibi elegit, si pretermiserit liber- 
tatis. dationem, servum remanere 
voluisse, et neminem sibi heredem 


fore. 


§ 2. A slavealso becomes free by 
being instituted an heir, although 
his freedom be not mentioned: for 
our constitution respects not only the 
iusolvent master, but, by a new.act 
of humanity, it extends generally ; 
eo that the institution of an heir, im» 
plies the grant of liberty. For it 
is highly improbable, that @testator, 
although he has omitted to mention 
liberty in his will, could mean that 
the person instituted, should remait 
aslave, and himself be destitute of 
an heir. 


Quid sit in fraudem creditorum manu mittere. 


6 III. In fraudem autem credi- 
torum manumittere videtur, qui vel 
jam eo tempore, quo manumittit, 
solvendo non est ; vel qui, datis li- 
bertatibus, desiturus est solvendo 
esse. Prevaluisse tamen videtur, 
hisi animum quoque fraudandi 
manumissor habuerit, non impediri 
libertatem, quamvis bona cjus cre- 
ditoribus non sufficiant : sepe enim 
de facultatibus suis ampliüs, quam 
in his est, sperant homines. Itaque 
tanc intelligimus impediri liberta- 
tem, eum utroque modo fraudantur 
creditores ; id est, et consilio manu- 
- méllitentis, et ipsa re; eo quod bona 
diisnen sunt suffectura cr:ditori- 





§ 3. Manumission is in fraud of 
creditors, if the master is insolvent, 
when he manumits, or becomes so by 
manumitting. It is however the prc- 
vailing opinion, that liberty, wher 
granted, is not impeached, unless the 
manumittor meant to defraud, al- 
though his goods are insufficient for 
the payment of his creditors; for 
men frequently hope better, than their 
circumstances really are. We theree 
fore understand liberty to be ther 
only impeded, when creditors aré 
dotthly defranded: by the intention 
of the manumittor, and in rcalitye 


18 LIB. I. 


TIT. Vis ' 


Alterum caput legis AE iz Sentiz de minore viginti. annis. 


. 6 IV. Eadem lege lia Sentia, 
domino minori viginti annis non 
alittr manumittcre — permittitur, 
quam si vindictà apud consilium, 
justa causa manumissionis appro- 
bata, fucrint manumissi. 


- 


'$ V. Juste autem cause manu- 
missionis sunt: veluti si quis pat- 
rem aut matrem, filum filiamve, 
aut fratres, sororcsve naturales, aut 
pedagogum, aut nutricem, aut edu- 


catorem, aut alumnum alumnamve,fnurse, 


aut coll@taneum manumittat ; aut 
servum, procuratoris habendi gra- 
tia; aut ancillam, matrimonii ha- 
bendi causa ; dum tamen infra sex 
menses in uxorem ducatur, nisi 
justa causa impediat: ct servus, 
qui manumittitur, procuratoris ha- 
bendi gratia, ncn minor decem et 
Septem annis manumittatur. 


Le causa seme! 


§ VI. Semel] autem causa ap- 
probata, sive vera sit, sive falsa, 
hon retractatur. 


§ 4. By the same law Elia Sen- 


tia, amaster, under the age of twen- : 


ty years, cannot manumit, unless for 
some gocd reason, to be approved 
by a council; and then by the vin- 
dicta. 


Que sunt justze ca:isz2 manumissior is. 


§ 5. Fust reasons for manumis- 
ston, are that the person to be manu- 
mitted is father or mother to the ma- 
numittor, kis son or daughter, his 
brother or sister, his preceptor, his 
his foster child, or his foster 
brother; or to constitute him his 
proctor; or his bond-woman, with 
anintent to marry her, provided the 


marriage is performed within six . 


months. But a slave who is to be 
constituted proctor, cannot be manu- 
mitted for that purpose, if under se- 
venteen. 


probata. 
§ 6. A reason once admitted $n 


favor of liberty, be it true or false, 


cannot be recalled. 


Abrogatio postericris capitis legis ‘Eliz Sentiz. 


$ VII. Cum crgo certus modus 
manumittendi minoribus viginti an- 
nis dominis per legem liam Sen- 
tiam constitutus essct, evenlebat, ut, 
qui quatuordecem annos expleverat, 
licet testamentum facere, etin ep 
sibi lveredem instituere, legataque 
relinquere, posset, tamen, si adhuc 
minor esset viginti annis, liberta- 
tem servo dare non posset; quod 
mon erat ferendum: nam, cur toto- 


§ 7. When certain bounds were 
prescribed by the law Alia Sentia te 
allminors under twenty, with regard 
to manumission, it was observed, that 
any person, who had compleated four- 
teen years, might makeatestament,in- 
st:tutean heir, and bequeath legacies, 
and yet that no person, under twenty, 
could confer liberty 3 which was not 
longer to be tolerated : for can any 
just cause be assigned, why a man, 


LIB. I. TIT. VH, 


yum suorum bonorum in testamen- 
to dispositio data erat, quare non 
similiter ei, quemadmodum alias 
res, ita et dd&aervis suis in ultima 
voluntate disponere, quemadmo- 
dum voluerit, permittimus, ut et li- 
bertatem eis possit prestare? S.d 
cum libertas inestimabilis res sit, 
et propter hoc ante vigesimum -*eta- 
tis annum antiquitas libertatem ser- 
vo dare prohibebat ; ideo nos, me- 
diam quodammodo viam eligentes, 
non aliter minori viginti annis liber- 
tatem in testamento dare servo suo 
concedimus, nisi septemdecimum 
annum impleverit, et octodecimum 
attigerit. Cum enim antiquitas 
hujusmodi stati et pro aliis postu- 
Jare concesserit, cur non etiam sui 
judicii stabilitas ita eos adjuvare 
credatur, ut ad libertatem dandam 
Servis suis possint pervenire ? 


1g 


permitted to dispose of all his effects, 
by testament, should be debarred from 
enfranchising his slaves ? But liber- 
ty being of inestimable value, and 
our ancient laws prohibiting any 
person to make a grant of it, who ia 
under twenty years of age, we 
therefore make choice of a middle. 


way, and permit all, who have attain» ,L— 


, ed their eighteenth year, to confer Ti- 
‘ber ty by testament. For since, by for- 
mer practice, persons at eighteen 
years of age were permitted to plead 
for their clients, there is no reason, 
why the same stability of judgment, 
which qualifies them to assist others, 
should not enable them to be of sere 
vice to themselves also, by having the 
liberty of enfranchising their own 
slaves. 


—— it GD 40 fae, 


TITULUS SEPTIMUS. 
DE LEGE FUSIA CANINIA TOLLENDA, 


C. vii. T. 3. 


LEGE Fusia Caminia, certus By the law Fusia Caninia, mas 
modus constitutus erat in servis fers were limited in manunitting by 
testamento manumittendis; quam, testament; we have thought proe 
quasi libertates impedientem et quo- per to. abrogate this law as odious 
dammodó invidam, tollendam esse and destructive of liberty; judging 
censuimus: cum satis fuerat inhu- if inhuman, that persons in health 
twanum, vivos quidem licentiam should have power to manumit a 
“thabere totam suam familiam liberta- whole family, if no just cause forbid, 
im donare, nisi alia caiisa impediat and that the dying. should be prohi 
zl bertatem ; morientibus autem hue bited from doing the same, 


dad licentiam adjmere, 





LIB. I. 


TIT. VIL. 


 *TITULUS OCTAVUS. 
DE HIS, QUI SUI VEL ALIENI JURIS SUNT. 


D. 1. 


e 


T. 6. 


Altera divisio personarum. 


SEQUITUR de jure personar- 
um alia diviso; nam quedam per- 
eone sui juris sunt, quedam alieno 
juri subjecte. | Rursus earum, que 
alieno juri subjectz sunt, alie sunt 
in potestate parentum, alie in po- 
testate dominorum. Videamus ita- 
que de his, quz alieno juri subjec- 
tz sunt; nam, si cognoverimus, 
quznam iste persong sunt, simul 
intelligemus, quz sui juris sunt; ac 
priis inspiciamus de his, que ia 
potestate dominorum sunt, 


We now proceed to another divi». 
sion of persons ; for some are inde» " 
pendent, and some are subject to the 
power of others. Of those, who are 
subject to others, some are tn the 
power of parents, others of their 
masters. Let us then inquire, whe 
are in subjection to others ; for, when 
we shall ascertain these, we shall at 
the same time discover, who are ins 
dependent. And first of those, who 
are in the power of masters. 


De jure gentium in servos. 


§ I. In potestate itaque domino- 


rum sunt servi, que quidem potes- 
, tas juris gentium est; nam apud 
omnes pereque gentes animadver- 
tere possumus, dominis in servos 
vite necisque potestatem fuisse : et, 
quodcunque per servum acquiri- 
tur, id domino acquiri. 


: § 1. Allslaves are in the pow- 
er of their masters, a power deri- 
ved from the law of nations: for 
4t is observable among all nations, 
that masters have always had the 
power of life and death over their 
slaves, and that whatever the slave ac- 
quires, is acquired for the master. 


De jure civium Romanorum in servos. 


$ II. Sec hoc tempore nullis ho- 
minibus, qui sub imperio nostro 
sunt, licet, sine causá legibus cog- 
nita, in servos suos supra modum 
sevire. Nam,ex constitutione divi 
Antonini, qui sine causá servum 
euum occiderit, non minus puniri 
jubetur, quam si alienum servum 
Qccideri Sed et major asperitas 


6 2. Allour subjects are now for- 
bidden to inflict any extraordinary 
‘punishment upon their slaves, with- 
out legal cause. For, by a constitu« 
tion of Azjponinus, whoever causes 
lessly kills his own slave, is to be 
punished equally as if he had killed 
the slave of another. The too greca 


 eeverity of wasters is algo restrained. 
- ‘ EI 


LIB. L TIT. VIII. 


dominorum, ejusdem principis con- 
stitutions, coercetur: nam Antoni- 
nus, consultus à quibusdam presidi- 
bus provinciarum de his servis, qui 
ad zdem sacram vel statuam princi- 
pum confugiunt, precepit, ut, si +in- 
tolerabilis videatur sxvitia domino- 
rum, cogantur servos suos bonis 
conditionibus vendere, ut pretium 
dominis daretur ; et recté: expedit 


"Phim reipublice, ne sua r« quis 


male utatur. Cujus rescripti, ad 
JÉElium Martianum missi, verba 
sunt hee. Dominorum quidem po- 
testatem in servos ilhbatam esse opor- 
tet, nec cuiquam hominum jus. suum 
detrahi, Sed et dominorum interest, 
ne auxilium contra sevitiam, vel fa- 
mem, vel intolerabilem injuriam, 
denegetur iis, qui juste deprecantur. 
Jdeoque cognosce de querelis eorum, 
qui ex familia "ulii Sabini ad sacram 
statuam confugerunt ; et, si vel. du- 
eius habitos, guam aequum est, vel 
infami injuria affectos. esse, cogno- 
veris, venire jube ; ita ut in potesta- 
tem domini non revertantur : quod 
8i mea constitution, fraudem fecerit, 
sciat, me hoc admissum adversus se 
apvertus executurum. 


26 


by another constitution «f Antoninus 
who being consulted by certain go- 
vernors of provinces concerning 
slaves, who take sanctuary either in 
temples, or at the statucs of the em- 
perors, Ordained, that if the severi- 
ty of masters should appear exces- 
sive, they might be compelled to make 
sale of their slaves upon equitable 
terms, so that the masters might ree 
ceive the value; and properly; in- 
asmuch as itis for the public good, 
that no one should be permitted to 
misuse even his own property. The 
words of this re:cript, sent to /Eiwus 
Martianus, are these.—The power 
of masters over their slaves ought 
to be protected : ngr ought any man 
to be deprived of his just right. 
But it is for the interest of all mas- 
ters, that relief against crueltics, the 
denial of sustenance, or any other 
insufferable injury, should be grant- 
ed to those who justly implore it. 
Therefore look into the complaints 
made by the family of Fulius Sabi- 
nus, whose slaves took sanctuary at 
the sacred statue; and, if proof be 
made that they have been too hardly 
treated, or greatly injured, order 
them to be forthwith sold, so that 
they be no longer subject to their 
formcr master : and, if Julius Sabz- 
nus attempt to evade our constitu- 
tion, let him know, that I shall put 
itin force against him with morc 
seyerity. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. IX, 


TITULUS NONUS. 
DE PATRIA POTESTATE. A 


C. ,viii. 


T. 47. 


Summa tituli. 


IN potestate nostra sunt liberi 
nostri, quos ex justis nuptiis pro- 
creavimus. 


\ 


§ I. Nuptiz autem, sive matri- 
monium, est, viri et mulieris con- 
junctio, individuam vite consuetu- 
dinem continens. 


Our children, begotten in lawful 
wedlock, are under our power. . 


Definitio nuptiarum. 


§ 1. Matrimony is a connection 
between a man and woman, imply- 
ing a mutual and exclusive cohabi- 
tation during life. 


Qui habent in potest te. 


. § IL. Jus autem potestatis, quod 
in liberos habemus, proprium est 
civium Romanorum ; nulli enim alii 
sunt homines, qui talem in liberos 
habeant potestatem, qualem nos ha- 
bemus. 


§ 2. The power which we have 
over our children is peculiar to the 
citizens of Rome ; for no other peo- 
ple have the same power over their 
children, which we have over ours. 


Qui sunt in potestate. 


$ III. Qui igitur ex te et uxore 
tua nascitur, in tua potestate est. 
Item qui ex filio tuo et uxore ejus 
nascitur, id est, nepos tuus et nep- 
tis, £que in tua sunt potestate : pro- 
nepos, et proneptis, et deinceps 
ceteri. Qui autem ex filiá tua nas- 
cuntur, in potestate tua non sunt; 
sed in patris eorum. 


6 3. The child of you and your 
wife, is under your power. The is- 
eue of your son and son's wife, that 
is, your grand-sons or grand-daugh- 
ters are equally so; so are your 
great grand-children, &c. But chil- 
dren born of a daughter are not in 
your, power, but in the power of 
their futher, or grand father... 


LIB. I. 


TIT. X. 


TITULUS DECIMUS. 
DE NUPTIIS. ' 


D. XxXX1lll« 


T. 2. C. 


Ve T. 4. Nov. 74. : 


Qui possunt nuptias contrahere. 


JUST AS autem nuptias inter se 
cives Romani contrahunt, qui se- 
cündum precepta legum coeunt, 
masculi quidem puberes, femine 
autem viri potentes; sive patres fa- 
miliarum sint ; sive filii familiarum ; 
dum tamen, si fili familiarum 
sint, consensum habeant parentum, 
quorum in potestate sunt: nam, 
hoc fieri debere, et civilis et natu- 
ralis ratio suadet, in tantum, ut 
jussus parents precedere debeat. 
Unde quesitum est, an furiosi filia 
nubere, aut furiosi filius uxorem du- 
cere, possit? Cumque super filio 
variabatur, nostra processit decisio, 
Quà permissum est ad exemplum 
fili furiosi, filium quoque furiosi 
posse, et sinc patris interventu, 
matrimonium sib? copulare, secun- 
dim datum ex nostra constitutione 
modum. 


Quz uxores duci possunt vel non. 


The citizens of Rome contract 
valid matrimony, when they fol- 
low the precepte of the law ; males, 
when they arrive at puberty, and 
Jemales, when they attain to a mare 
riageable age. The males, whether 
patres familiarum, fathers of a fa- 
mily, or filii familiarum, sons of 
a family ; but, if they are sons 
of a family, they must first obtain 
the consent of the parente, under 
whose power they are. For rea- 
son, both natural and civil, convinces 
us, that the consent of parents should 
precede marriage ; hence arose the 
question, whether the son of a mad- 
man could contract matrimony ? But 
opinions being various, we decided 
that the son, as well as the daughter 
of a madman, may marry without 
intervention of the father, provided 
the rules of our constitution are ob- 
served. | 


De cognatis, ac primum de 


parentibus et liberis. 


€ I. Ergo non omnes nobis uxo- 
res ducerelicet: nam à quarundam 
nuptiis abstinendum est: inter eas 
enim personas, quz parentum libe- 
rorumve locum inter se obtinent, 
contrahi nuptie non possunt; veluti 


- Ínterpatrem etfiliam, vel avum et 


£M 


1g 


: heptem, vel matrem et filium, vel a- 


~ 


§ 1. We may not marry any wée 
man; for with some, marriage is 
forbidden. Matrimony must not be 
contracted between parents and their 
children, as between a father and 
daughter, a grandfather and his 
grand-daughter, a mother and her : 
son,a grand-mother and her grand 


a4 LIB. I. 
" viam et nepotem, et usque in infini- 
tum : et, si tales persone intcr se 
coierent, nefarias atque incestas 
Ygptias contraxisse dicuntur: et 
hec adco vera sunt, ut, quamvis 
per adoptionem parentum libero- 
rumve loco sibi esse ceperint, non- 
possunt inter se matrimonio jungi ; 
in tantum, ut etiam, dissolutà adop- 
tione, idem juris maneat. Itaque 
eam, quz tibi per adoptionem filia 
vel neptis esse ceperit, non poteris 
uxorem ducere, quamvis eam eman- 
cipaveris. 


De fratribus 


6 IL. Inter eas quoque personas, 
quz ex transverso gradu cognationis 
junguntur, est quedam similis ob- 
servatio, sed non tanta. Sané enim 
inter fratrem sororemqme nuptiz 
probibite sunt, sive ab eodem patre 
eademque matre nati fucrint, sive. 
nb altero eorum. Sed, si qua per 
adoptionem sorortibi esse coeperit, 
quamdiu quidem constat adoptio, 
sané inter tc et cam nuptiz consis- 
tere non possunt; cum vero per 
emancipationem adoptio sit disso- 
Juta, poteris eam uxorem ducerc : 
sed et si tu emancipatus fueris, ni- 
hil est impedimento nuptiis, Et 
ideo constat,siquis generum adop- 
tare velit, debere eum  aptea filiam 
suam emancipare : etsi quis, velit 

nurum adoptare, debere eum antea 
filium suum emancipare. 


TIT. X, 


son; and so on (ina right fine) ty 
infinitum. And, if such persons co- 
habit, they are truly said to have con- 
tracted a criminal and incestuous- 
marriage ; inasmuch as those, who 
only hold the place of parents and 
children by adoption, cannot inter- 
marry ; and the same iaw remains 
even after the adoption is dis- 
solved. You cannot therefore take 
to wife one who hath been either 
your adopted daughter or grand- 
daughter, although you may have e- 
mancipated here 


et sororibus. 


§ 2. Matrimony is also prohibited 
between collaterals, but not so ex- 
tensively. A brother and sister 
are forbidden to marry, whether 
they are the children of the same 
father and mother, or of either. And, 
if a woman becomes your sister by 
adoption, so long as that subsists, 
ng martiage may be contracted be- 
tween you. But, when the adoption 
is destroyed by emancipation, you 
may take her to wife. Also, if you 
should be emancipated, there will then 
remain no impediment, although your 
sister by adoption is not so. Hence 
if aman would adopt his son-in-law, 
he should first emancipate firs daugh- 
ter, and whoever would udopt his 
daughter-in-law, should previously 
emancipate his son; 


De fratris ct sororis filia vel nepte. 


6 III. Fratris veró vcl sororis 
filiam uxorem ducere non licet : sed 


§ 3. Jt is unlawful to marry the 
daughter or grand-daughter of & 


1 
A 


LIB. I. 


nec neptem fratris vel sororis quis 
ducere potest, quamvis quarto gra- 
du sint: cujus enim filiam ducere 
non: licet, neque ejus neptem per- 
mittitur. Ejus vero mulieris, quam 
pater tuus adoptavit, filiam nen 
videris prohiberi uxorem ducere: 
quia neque naturali, neque civili, 
jure tibi conjungitur. 


TIT. X. 28 


brother, or a sister 3 although the last 
are in the fourth degree. For 
when we are prohibited to take the 
daughter of any person in marriage, 
weare ulso prohibited to take his. 
grand-daughter. But it does not ap- 
pear thdt there is any impediment 
against the marriage of a son with 
the daughter of her, whem his fa- 
ther hath adopted ; for they bear no 
relation to each other, natural or ci- 
vil. ' 


De consobrinis. 


$ IV. Duorum autem fratrum 
vel sororum liberi, vel fratris et so- 


roris, conjungi possunt. 


\ 


§ 4. The children of two brothers, 
(Patrueles) or two sisters, (sobrini) 
or of a brother and sister, (Conso- 
brini) may be joined in matrimony. 
( Such are cousins. ) 


De amitá, materterá, amitá magná, materterá magni. 


€$ V. Item amitam, licet adopti- : 


vam, ducere uxorem non licet; 
item nec materteram : quia paren- 
tum loco habentur. Qua ratione 
verum est, magnam quoque amitam, 
et materteram magnam, prohiberi 
uxorem ducere. 


§ 5. A man may not marry his 
aunt either on the father’s or the 


. mother’s side, although she is only so 


by adoption ; because they are regard 
ed as representatives of parents. 
For the same reason no person 
may marry his great-aunt, either on 
his father’s, or mother's side. 


De adiinibus, et primüm de privigna et nuru. 


§ VI. Af&nitatis quoqae venera- 
tione, a quarundam nuptis abetinere 
necesse est : ut ecce privignam aut 
nurum ducere nonlicet: quia utre- 
que filie loco eunt: quod ita scili- 
cet accipi debet, si fuit nurus aut 
peivigna tua. Nam, si adhuc nu- 
tus tua est, id est, si adhuc nupta 
est filio tuo, alii retione uxorem 


. . epu ducere pon poteris : quia ea- 
. dem dusbus nupta esee non potcst. 
n E 


- 


§ 6. We must abstain from cere 
tain marriages, through regard to 
affinity ; as with a wife's daughter, 
or ason's wife, for they are both in. 
the place of daughters: and this rule 
must be so understood as to include 
those, who have been, our daughters- 
in-law. For marriage with a eon'e 
wife, while she continues eo, is prow — 
hibited on another. encount, viz. bes 
cause she can net de the wife of two 


26 LIB. I 


Item si adhuc privigna tua est, id 
est; si mater ejus tibi nupta est, 
ideo eam uxorem ducere non pote- 


ris, quia duas uxores codem tcm-. 


pore habere non licet. 


at the same time. And the marri- 


age ofa man with his wife's daugh- 
ter, while her mother continues to be 


hie wife, is also prohibited, because 
it is unlawful to have two wives at 
once. 


De : socru et noverca. 


.$ VIL. Socrum quoque et nover- 
cam prohibitum est uxorem ducere : 
quia matris loco sunt: quod et ip- 
sum, dissolutà demum affinitate, 
procedit : alioquin, si adhuc nover- 
ca est, id est, si adhuc patri tuo 
nupta est, communi jure impeditur 
tibi nubere, quia eadcm . duobus 
nupta esse non potest. Item si ad- 
huc socrus.est, id est, si adhuc filia 
cjus tibi nupta est, ideo impediun- 
tur tibi nuptiz, quia duas uxores 


habere non potes. 


§ 7. Aman is forbidden to marry 
his wife’s mother, and his father’s 
wife, because they both hold the place 
of mothers; and this, although the 
affinity is dissolved: besides a fa- 
ther’s wife, while she continues to 
be so, may not marry, because no 
woman can have two husbands at 
the sametime. Nor cana man mar- 
ry his wife's mother, her daughter 
continuing his wife, because it is a- 
gainst the law to have two wives. 


Dc comprivignis. 


4 VIII. Marita tamen filius ex 
alià uxore, et. uxoris filia ex alio 
marito, vel contra, matrimonium 
recté contrahunt ; licet habeant fra- 
trem .sororemve ex matrimonio 
postca: contracto natos. 


De quasi privigna, quasi 


$ IX. Si uxor tua post divorti- 
umex alio filiam procreavit, hec 
non est quidem privigna tua: sed 
Julianus ab hujusmodi nuptiis absti- 
neri debere ait: nam constat, nec 
sponsam filii nurum esse, nec patris 
sponkam névercam esse ; rectiàs ta- 


§ 8. The son of a husband by a 
Jormer wife, and the daughter of a 
wife by a former husband, and e con- 
tra, (the daughter of an husband by 
a former wife and the son of a wife 
by a former husband) may lawful- 
ly contract matrimony, even though 
a brother or sister is born of such 
second marriage between their re- 
spective parents. 


nuru, et quasi novercá, 


§ 9. The daughter of a divorced 
wife by a second husband, is not 
daughter-in-law to the first hus- 
band. But Julian says we ought to 
abstain from such nuptials. It is 
also evident, that theespoused wife 
ofa eon, is not a daughter-in-law te 


* 


LIB. I. 


men et jurc facturos cos, qui ab 
hujusmodi nuptiis abstinuerint. 


TIT. X. 9? 
his father ; and that the espoused 
wife of a father, is not a step-mother 
to his son: but it is right to abstajn 
from such nuptials. 


De scrvili cognationc. 


$ X. Illud certum est, serviles 
quoque cognationes impedimento 
nuptiis esse, si forte pater et filia, 
aut frater et soror, manumissi fue- 
rint. 


§ 10. Jt is clear that servile cog- 
nation is an impediment to matri- 
mony ; as when a father and daugh- 
ter, or a brother and sister, are ma- 
numitted. 


De reliquis prohibitionibus. 


§ XI. Sunt et alie persone, 
quz propter diversas rationes nup- 
tias contrahere prohibentur, quas in 
libris digestorum scu pandectarum, 
cx jurc veteri collectar:m, enume- 
rari permisimus. 


$ 11. There are other persons 
also, who, for diverse reasons, may 
not intermarry: we have caused 
these to be enumerated in the digests 
collected from the old law. 


Dc ponis injustarum nuptiarum. 


6 XII. Si adversus ea, quz dix- 
imus, aliqui coierint, nec vir, nec 
uxor, nec nuptize, nec matrimonium, 
nec dos intelligitur. Itaque ii, 
qui ex eo coitu nascuntur in potes- 
tate patris non sunt : sed tales sunt 
(quantum ad patriam potestatem 
pertinent) quales suntii, quos ma- 
ter vulg? concepit. Nam nec hi 
patrem habere intelliguntur, cum et 
iis pater incertus sit ; unde solent 
epurii appellari, Tape Ty? groper et 
awaresi¢; quasi sine patre filii. Se- 
quitur ergo, ut, dissoluto tali coi- 
tu, nec dotis, nec donationis exac- 
tioni locus sit. Qui autem prohi- 
bitas nuptias contrahunt, et alias 
penas patiuntur, quz sacris consti- 

t&tionibus continentur. 


t. . 


$ 12. If persons cohabit in con- 
tempt of the rules thus laid down, they 
shall not be deemed husband and wife, 
nor shall their marriage, or any por- 
fion given on account thereof, be va- 
lid; and the children, born in such 
cohabitation, shall not be under the 
power of the father. For, in res- 
pect to paternal power, they resem- 
ble the children of a common woman, 
who are looked upon as having no fa- 
ther, because it is uncertain who he 
is. They are therefore called in La- 
tin spurii, and in Greek apatores ; 
i.e. without a father : hence, after the 
dissolution of such a marriage, no 
portion, or gift, propter nuptias, 
can legally be claimed. They who 
contract such prohibited matrimony, 
must undergo the farther punishments 
set forth in our constitutions. 


LIA. I.' 


TIT. .XI. 


u De legitimatione. 


$ XIII. Aliquando autem evenit, 
ut liberi, qui statim, ut nati sunt, in 
potestate parentum noh sunt, postea 
redigantur in potestatem patris: 
qualis est is, qui dum naturalis fue- 
rat, postea curie datus, potestati 
patris subjicitur: nec non is, qui à 
muliere liberá procreatus, cujus ma- 
trimonium minimé legibus inter- 
dictum fuerat, sed ad quam pater 
consuetudinem habuerat, postea, ex 
nostra constitutione dotalibus in- 
strumentis compositis, in potestate 
patris efficitur. Quod et aliis libe- 
Yis, qui ex eodem matrimonio fue- 
rint procreati, similiter nostra con- 
etitutio praebuit. 


§ 18. Jt sometimes happens, that 
children who at their birth were not 
under the power of their parente, are 
reduced under it afterwards. Thus 
a natural son, who is made a Decu- 
rion, becomes subject ta his father's 
power : and he who is born of a frec- 
woman, with whom marriage is not 
prohibited, will likewise become sub- 
ject to the power of his father, as soon 
as the marriagc instruments are 
drawn,as our constitution directs ; 
which allows the same benefits to 
those, who are born before marriage, 
es to those, who are born subsequent 
to it, 


—Á 32 GD tie fe 


TITULUS UNDECIMUS. 
DE ADOPTIONIBUS. 


D. 1. T. 7. 


C. viii. T. 48, 


Continuatio. 


NON solim autem naturales li- 
beri, secundum ea, quz diximus, in 
potestate nostra sunt; verüm ctiam 
ti, quos adoptamus. 


It appears from what -has been 
said, not only that all natural ( legi- 
timate) children are subject to pa 
ternal power, but those also, whom 
we adopt. 


Divisio adoptionis. 


. § I. Adoptio autem duobus mo- 
dis fit, aut principali rescripto, aut 
imperio magistratüs, Imperatoris 

auctoritate adoptare quis potest eos, 
 easve, qui, queve, sui juris sunt, 
quz species adoptionis dicitur arro- 


6 1. Adoption is made two ways, 
either by imperial rescript or autho- 
rity of the magistrate. The imperial 
rescript impgwera us to adopt per- 
sons of either sex, who are sui juris 3 
(i. e. independent ) and this species 


LIB. I. 


gatio. Imperio magistratis adop- 
tamus eos easve, qui quive in po- 
testate parentum sunt ; sive primum 

um: liberorum obtineant, qua- 
lis est filius, filia; sive inferiorem, 
qualis est nepos, neptis pronepos, 
proneptis. 


TIT. XI. 29 


of adoption is called atrogation.: But 
it is by the authority of the magis- 
trate, that we adopt persons actually 
under the power of their parents, 
whether they are in the first degree, 
as eons and daughters; or in an in- 
feriar degree, as grand-children. or 
great grand-children. 00. 


Qui possunt adoptare filium-familias, vel non, . 


$ II. Sed hodié, ex nostra con- 
stitutione, cum filius-familias à pa- 
tre naturali extranes persons in 
adoptionem datur, jure patris natu» 
ralis minimé dissolyuntur; nec quic- 
quam ad patrem adoptivum transit, 
nec in potestate ejus est: licet ab 
intestato jura successionis ei à no- 
bis tributa sint, Si veró pater nee 
turalis non extraneo, scd avo filii 
sui materno; vel si ipse pater na- 
turalis fuerit emancipatus, etiam 
avo vel proavo simili modo paterno 
vcl materno filium suum dederit in 
adoptionem ; in hoc casu, quia con- 
currunt in unam personam et natu- 
ralia et adoptionis jura, manet sta- 
bile jus patris adoptivi, et naturali 
vinculo copulatum, et legitimo a- 
doptionis modo constitutum, ut et 
in familia et in potestate hujusmodi 
patris adoptivi sit. 


6 2. But now, by our constitution; 
when the son of a family it given in 
adoption by his natural father to:@ 
stranger, the power of the natural 
jather is not dissolved, neither dose 
any thing pase to the adoptive father, 
nor tetheadopted son in his power, 
although we allow such son, the right 
of succession to his adoptive father 
dying intestate. But if a natural 
father should give his son in adoption, 
not to a stranger, but to the mater- 
nal grandfather of such son; or if 
a natural father, who has been e- 
mancipated, should give his son, be- 
gotten after emancipation to hia pa- 
ternal or maternal.grandfather or . 
great-grandfather, in this case, the 
rights of nature and adoption con- 
curring, the power of the adoptive 
father is established both by natural 
tics and legal adoption, 89 that the 
adopted son would be not only in the 
family, but under the power of his 
adoptive father. 


De arrogatione impuberis. 


§ IIL Cum autem impubes per 
peincipale rescriptum — arrogatur, 
ead cognita, arrogatio freri permit- 
titur: ct exquiritur causa arrogati- 
guis, an honesta sit, expediatque 


$ 3. When any one, not arrived 
at puberty, is arrogated by the im- 
perial rescript, inquiry is first made, 
whether .the arrogation be justly 
founded, and expedient for the pupil: 


30 LIB. I. 


pupillo? et cum quibusdam condi- 
tionibus arrogatio fit; id est, ut 
caveat arrogator persons publice, 
si. intra pubertatem pupillus deces- 
gerit, restituturum se bona illis, qui, 
si adoptio facta non esset, ad suc- 
cessionem ejus venturiessent. Item 
non aliter emancipare eum potest 
arrogator, nisi, causa cognita, dig- 
nus emancipatione:fuerit; et tunc 
sua bona ei reddat. Sed et, si de- 
cedens pater eum exhzredaverit, 
vel.vivus sine justà causá emanci- 
paverit, jubetur quartam partem ei 
bonorum suorum relinquere; vide- 
licet, preter bona, quz ad patrem 
adoptivum transtulit, et quorum 
commodum ei postea acquisivit. 


TIT. XI. 


for such arrogation is always made 
on certain conditions ; the arrogator 
is obliged to give caution before a 
public notary, thereby binding him- 
self if the pupil should die within the 
age of puberty, to restore all the pro- 
perty of such pupil to those who 
would have succeeded him, if no 
adoption had been made. The arro- 


“gator also may not emancipate, un- 


less on legal proof, that his arrogat- 
ed son deserves emancipation; and 
even then he must restore the pro- 
perty belonging to such son. Also 
ifa father, upon his death-bed, hath 
disinherited his arrogated son, or 
when in health hath emancipated him, 
without just cause, he is commanded 
to leave the fourth part of all his 
goods to the son, besides what the 
son brought to him at the time of ar- 
rogation, and aequired for him after- 
wards. 


De ztate adoptantis et adoptati. 


§ IV. Minorem natu majorem 
non posse adoptare placet: adoptio 
enim naturam imitatur ; et pro mon- 
stro est, ut major sit filius, quam 
pater. Debet itaque is, qui sibi 
filium per adoptionem aut arroga- 
tionem facit, plenà pubertate [id 
cst, decem et octo annis] precedere. 


6 4. A junior cannot adopt a sc- 
nior ; for adoption imitates nature ; 
and it sceme unnatural, that a son 
should be older than his father. He 
therefore, who would either adopt or 
arrogate, should be senior by full pu- 
berty, that is, by eighteen years. 


De adoptionc inlocum nepotis vel neptis, vel deinceps. 


§ V. Licet autem et in locum 
nepotis vel neptis, pronepotis vel 
proneptis, vel deinceps, adoptarc, 
quamvis filium quis non habeat. 


§ 5. It is lawful to adopt a per- 
son either as a grand-son or grand- 
daughter, great grand-son or great 
grand-daughter, or in a more distant 
degree, although the adoptor hath no 
son. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. XI. 


31 


De adoptione filii alieni in locum nepotis, et contra. 


6 VI. Et tam filium alienum quis 
in locum nepotis adoptare potest, 
quam nepotem in locum filii. 


De adoptione in 


§ VII. Sed si quis nepotis loco 
. adoptet, vel quasi ex filio, quem 
habet jam adoptatum, vel quasi ex 
illo, quem naturalem in suá potes- 
tate habet, eo casu et filias consen- 
tire debet, ne ei invito suus heres 
agnascatur. Sed, ex contrario, si 
'avus exfilio nepotem det in adop- 
tionem, non est necesse, filium con- 


$ 6. A man may adopt the son of 
another as his grand-son, and the 
grand-son of another as his son. 


locum nepotis. . 

$ 7. if aman, having already ei- 
ther a natural or an adopted son, is 
desirous to adopt another, as his 
grand-son, the consent of his son, 
whether natural or adopted, ought in 
this case to be first obtained, lest a 
suus heres, or proper heir, should 
be intruded upon him. But, on the 
contrary, if a grandfather is will- 
ing to give his grand-son in adop- 
tion, the consent of the son 1s not ne- 
cessary. 


Qui dari possunt in adoptionem. 


$ VIII. In plurimis autem cau- 
. sis assimulatur is, qui adoptatus 
vel arrogatus est, ei, qui ex legiti- 
mo matrimonio natus est ; et ideó, 
siquis per imperatorem, vel apud 
praetorem, vel presidem provinciz, 
non extraneum adoptaverit, potest 
eundem in adoptionem alii dari. 


€ 8. Hewho is either adopted or 
arrogated, bears similitude in many 
things to a son born in lawful ma- 


 trimony ; and therefore, if a person 


not a stranger is adopted either by 
rescript, or before a prator, or the 
governor of a province, he may bc 
given in adoption to another. 

l 


Si is, qui generare non potest, adoptet. 


$ IX. Sed et illud utriusque a- 
doptionis commune cst, quod et ii, 
qui generare non possunt, quales 
aunt spadones, adoptare possunt: 
castrati autem non possunt. 


§ 9. Jt is common to both kinds of 
adoption, that such as are impotent 
[Spadones] may, but those who are 
castrated, can not adopt. 


Si foemina adoptet. 


. 6 X. Femine quoque arrogare 
BOM possunt, quia nec naturales li- 
besos in sui potestate habent : 


sed, 
ex indulgentià principis, ad solatium 


6 10. Nor can women adopt ; for 
the law does not place even their own 
children, under their power: but, 
tthen death hath deprived them 


42 


liberorum amissorttm adoptare pos- 
sunt. 


LIB. L TIT. XL 


of their children, they may, by the 
indulgence of the prince, adopt others, — 
as a comfort for their loss... 


De liberis arrogatis. 


$ XI. Illud proprium est adop- 
tionis illius, que per sacrum oracu- 
lum fit, quod is, qui liberos in po- 
testate habet, si se arrogandum de- 
derit, non solum ipse potestati arro- 
gatoris subjicitur, sed etiam liberi 
ejus fiunt in ejusdem potestate, tan- 
quam nepotes Sic etenim divus 
Augustus non ante Tiberium adop- 
tavi, quam is Germanicum adop- 
tasset ; ut protinus arrogatione fac- 
ta inciperet Germanicus Augusti 


nepos esse. 


^ $ 11. Jt ie peculiar to adoption 
by rescript, that, if a person, having 
children under his power, should - 
give himself in arrogation, both he, 
as a son, and his children, as grand- 
children, would become subject to 
the power of the arrogator. Jt was 


for this reason, that Augustus did 
net adopt Tiberius, till Tilferiue 


had adopted Germanicus; so that 
Tiberius dccame the son, and Germa- 
nicus the grandson of Augustus, at 
the same instant, by arrogation. 


De servo adoptato, vel filio nominato, à domino. 


6 XII. Apud Catonem bené 
scriptum refert antiquitas, servos, si 
à domino adoptatisint,ex hoc ipso 
posse liberari. Unde et nos erudi- 
ti, in nostra constitutione, etiam 
cum servum, quem dominug, actis 
' intervenientibus, filium suum nomi- 
naverit, liberum esse constituimus: 
licet hoc ad jus fibi accipiendum 
non sufficiat. 


6 12. The following answer of 
Cato was approved of by the ancient 
lawyers, viz. that slaves, adopted by 
their masters, obtain freedom by the 
adoption. Thus instructed, we have 
ordained, that & slave whom any mas- 
ter. nominates to be his son, in the 
presence of a magistrate, becomes free 
by such nomination, although it does 
not convey to him any filial right. 


LIB. I. TIT. XII. 


FITULUS DUODECIMUS. 


QUIBUS MODIS JUS PATRLE POTESTATIS 
SOLVITUR. 


D. 1. 


Scopus et nexus. 
VIDEAMUS nunc, quibus mo- © 


dis ii, qui alieno juri sunt subjecti, 
eo jure liberentur. Et quidem, 
quemadmodum liberentur servi á 
potestate dominorum, ex iis intelli- 
gere possumus, que de servis ma- 
numittendis superius exposuimus : 
hi vero, qui in potestate parentis 
sunt, mortuo eo, sui juris fiunt. 
Sed hoc distinctionem recipit: 
nam, mortuo patre, sané omnimodo 
Alii, filieve, sui juris efficiuntur : 
mortuo verd avo, non omnimodo 
nepotes, neptesve, sui juris funt: 
sed ita, si post mortem avi in potes- 
tztem patris sui recasuri non sunt. 
Itaque, si, moriente avo, pater eo- 
rum vivit, et in potestate patris sui 
est, tunc post obitum avi in potestate 
patris sui fiunt. Si veró is quo tem- 
pore avus moritur, aut jam mortuus 
, vst, aut per emancipationem exiit de 
potestate patris, tunc ii, qui in potes- 
tatem ejus cadere non possunt, sui 
juris fiunt. 


T. 7. 


Nov. 81. 


De morte. 


Let us. now inquire how persons 
in subjection to others, can be freed. 
How slaves obtain their liberty, may 
be understood from what we have al- 
ready said in treating of manumis- 
sion : those who are under the power 


ofa parent, become independent at 


his death; yet this rule admits of a 
distinction. Whena father dies, his. 
sons and daughters are, without 
doubt, independent; but, by the 
death of a grand-father, his. grand- 
children do not become independent, 
unless there is an impossibility of 
their ever falling under the power 
of their father. Therefore, if their 
father is alive at the death of their 
grand-father, in whose power the 
father was, they then become sub- 
ject to the power of their father. 
But, if their father is either dead or 
emancipated before the death of their 
grand-father, they then can not fall 
under the power of their father, but 

become independent. 


De deportatione. 


$ I. Cum autem is, qui ob ali- 
quod maleficium ininsulam depor- 
tatur, civitatem amittit, sequitur, ut, 
^ «uico modo ex numero civium Ro- 
" wunorum tollitur, perindé quasi eo 
| ipetuo, desinant liberi in potestate 





6 1. Jf a man, upon. conviction of 
some crime, is deported into. an is- 
land, he loses the rights of a Roman 
citizen ; and it follows, that the 
children of a person thus banished 
cease to be under his power, asif he 


"$4 
ejus esse. Pari ratione, et si is, 
quiin potestate parentis sit, in in- 
sulam deportatus fuerit, desinit es- 
se in potestate parentis. Sed, si ex 
indulgentià principis restituti fue- 
rint per omnia, pristinum statum 
recipiunt. 


LIB.]I. TIT. Xl. 


was naturally dead. And, by parity 
of redsoning, if a son is deported, he 
ceases to be under the power of his 
father. But, if by the indulgence of. 
the prince a criminal is wholly re- 
stored, he regains his former condi- 

tton. 


De relegatione. 


§ II. Relegati autem patres in in- 
sulam in potestate liberos retinext, 
. et liberi relegati in potestate paren- 
tum remanent. 


§ 2. A Father, who is merely ba- . 
nished by relegation, retains his pa- 
ternal power ; and a son, who is re- 
legated, still remains under the pow . 
er of his father. 


De servitute pene. 


4 III. Pens servus effectus filios 
in potestate habere desinit. Servi 
autem pens efficiuntur, qui, in me- 
tallum damnantur, et qui bestiis 
subjiciuntur. 


€ 3. When a man becomes the 
slave of punishment, he loses his pa- 
ternal jurisdiction. Slaves of punish- 
ment are those, who are condemned 
to the mines, or sentenced to be de- 


stroyed by wild beasts. 


De dignitate. 


§ IV. Filius-familas, si mili- 
taverit, vel si senator, vel consul 
factus fuerit, remanet in potes- 
tate patris : militia enim, vel con- 
'sularis dignitas, de patris potestate 
filium nonliberat. Sed, ex consti- 
tutione nostra, summa patriciatus 
dignitas illicd, imperialibus codicil- 
lis preestitis, filium a patria potes- 
tate liberat. Quis enim patiatur, 
patrem quidem posse, per emanci- 
pationis modum, potestatis suz 
nexibus filium liberare; imperato- 
riam autem celsitudinem non va- 
lere eum, quem patrem sibi elegit, 
ab aliena eximere potestate ? 


§ 4. Although the son of a family 
‘becomes a soldicr, a senator or a con- 
sul, he remains under the power of 
his father, from which neither the 
army, the senate, or consular digni- 
‘ty can emancipate him. But by our 
constitution the patrician dignity, 
conferred by our special diploma, 
shall free every son from paternal 
subjection. For it is absurd, that a 
parent may emancipate his son, and 
that the power of an emperor should — 
not suffice to make any person inde- 
pendent, whom he hath chesen to be 
.a father of the commonwealth. 


LIB. I. TIT. XH. 


De captivitate 

$ V. Siabhostibus captus fuerit 
parens, quamvis servus hostium 
fiat, tamen pendet jus liberorum, 
propter jus postliminii: quia hi, 
qui ab hostibus capti sunt, si reversi 
fuerint, omnia pristina jura recipi- 
unt : idcircó reversus etiam liberos 
habebit in potestate : quia postlimi- 
nium fingit eum, qui captus est, in 
civitate semper fuisse. Si vero ibi 


decesserit, exindé, ex quo captus: 


est pater, filius sui juris fuisse vide- 
tur. Ipse quoque filius, neposve, 
si ab hostibus captus fuerit, simili- 
ter dicimus, propter jus postlimi- 
nii, jus quoque potestatis parentis 
in suspenso esse. Dictum autem 
est postliminium 4 limine et post. 
Unde eum, qui ab hostibus captus 
est, et in fines nostros postea per- 
venit, postliminio reversum recté 
dicimus. Nam limina sicut in do- 
mo finem quendam faciunt, sic et 
imperii finem esse limen veteres 
voluerunt. Hinc et limen dictum 
est, quasi finis quidam et terminus. 
Ab eo postliminium dictum est, 
quia ad idem limen revertebatur, 
quod amiserat. Sed et, qui cap- 
tus victis hostibus recuperatur, 
postliminio rediisse existimatur. 


De emancipatione, item de 

§ VI. Praterea, emancipatione 
quoque desinunt liberi in potestate 
parentum essc. Sed emancipatio 
antea quidem vel per antiquam legis 
observationem procedebat, quz per 


amaginarias venditiones et interce- 


dentes manumissiones ccelebraba- 


35, 


et postliminio. 

§ 5. Ifa parent is ta&en prisoner, 
although he become a slave, he loses. 
not his paternal power, which’ re- 
mains in suspense by reason of a pri- 
vilege granted to all prisoners, name- 
ly, the right of return: for captives, 
when they obtain their. liberty, are 
repossessed of all their former rights, 
in which paternal power is of course 
included ; and, at their return, they 
are supposed, by a fiction of law, ne- 
vcr to have been absent. If a pri- 
soner dies captive, the son's'indepen- 
dence is reckoned from the com-_ 
mencement of his father's captivity. 
Also, if a son, or grand-son, becomes 
a prisoner, the power of the parentis 
said, for the reason before assigned, 
to be only in suspense. The term 
postliminium is derived from post 
and limen. We therefore aptly use 
the expression reversus postliminio, 
when a person, who was a captive, 
returns within our own confines. 


modis et effectibus ejusdem. 

§ 6. Children also cease to be un- 
der the power of their parents by e- 
mancipation. Emancipaticn was ef- 
fected according to our ancient law, 
either by imaginary sales and tnter- 
vening manurissions, or by imperi- 
al rescript ; but it has been our care 


36 LIB. I. 

tur, vel ex imperiali rescripto. 
‘Nostra autem providentia etiam 
hoc in meliüs per constitutionem re- 
formavit ; ut, fictione pristinà ex- 
plosá, recta vid ad competentes ju- 
dices, vel magistratus, parentes in- 
trent, et filios suos vel filias, vel ne- 
potes vel neptes, ac deinceps, a 
sua manu dimittant. Et tunc, ex 
edicto praetoris, in bonis ejusmodi 
filii vel filiz, vel nepotis vel neptis 
qui queve a parente manumissus 
vel manumigsa fuerit, eadem jura 
prestantur parenti, quz tribuuntur 
patrono in bonis liberti. Et pre- 
terea, si impubes sit filius, vel filia, 
vel ceteri, ipse parens ex manumis- 
sione tutelam ejus nansciscitur. 


Si alii emancipentur, alii 

§ VII. Admonendi autem su- 
mus, liberum arbitrium esse ei, qui 
filium, et ex eo nepotem, vel nep- 
tem, in potestate habet, filium qui- 
dem de potestate dimittere, nepo- 
tem veró vel neptem retinere : et, 
€ converso, filium quidem in potes- 
tate retinere, nepotem vero vel nep- 
tem manumittere : vel omnes sui 
juris efficere. Eadem et de prone- 
pote et pronepte dicta esse intelli- 


guntur. 


TIT. XIL 


to reform these ceremonies by an ex- 
press constitution, so' that parents 
may now have immediate recourse. 
te the proper judge or magistrate, 
and emancipate their children, 
grand-children, &c. of both sexes. 
And also, by a pretorian edict, the 
parent is allowed to have the same 
right inthe goods of those, whom he — 
emancipates, as a patron has in the 
goods of his freed-man. And far- 
ther, if the children emancipated are 
within the age of puberty, the pa- 
rent, by whom they were emancipat- 
ed, obtains the right of wardship or 
tutelage, by the emancipation, 


retineantur in potestate. 


§ 7. A parent having a son un- 
der his power, and by that son a 
grand-son or grand-daughter, may 
emancipate his son, and retain his 
grand-son or grand-daughter in sub- 
jection. He ‘may also emancipate 
his grand-son or grand-daughter,and 
retain his son; or, he may make 
them allindependent. And the same 
may be said of a great-grand-son, or 
a great-grand-daughter. 


De adoptione. 


$. VIII. Sed et, si pater filium, 
quem in potestate habet, avo, vel 
proavo naturali, secundum nostras 
constitutiones super his habitas, in 
adoptionem dederit, id est, si hoc 
ipsum actis intervenientibus apud 
competentem judicem manifestave- 
rit, presente eo, qui adoptatur, et 


§ 8. Jf a father gives his son in 
adoption to the natural grand-father 
or great-grand-father of such son, 
adhering to our constitutions for that 
purpose enacted, which enjoin the pa- 
rent to declaré intention before a com- 
petent judge, in the presence of the 
person to be adopted, and also in thé 


LIB. I. 


non contradicente, nec non co prz- 
sente, qui adoptat, solvitur quidem 
jus potestatis patris naturalis; tran- 
sit autem im hujusmodi parentem 
adoptivum; in cujus persona et 
adoptionem'esse plenissimam antea 
diximus. 


TIT. XIfi. 


97 


presence of the adaptor, then does 
the right of paternal power pase 
wholly fromthe natural father ev 
the adoptive, in whose person, as we 
have before observed, adoption | has 
its fullest extent. 


.De pepote hato post filium emancipatum. 


6 IX. Iud scire oportet, quod 
si nurus tua ex filio tuo conceperit, 
et hlium tuum emancipaveris, vel 
in adoptionem dederis, pregnante 
nuru tua, nihilominus, quod ex eá 
nascitur, in potestate tua nascitur. 
Quod si post emancipationem vel 
adoptionem conceptus fuerit, patris 
sui emancipati, vel avi adoptivi, po- 
testati subjicitur. 


6 9. ft is necessary to be knoton, 
that, if a son's wife hath conceived, 
end you afterwards emancipate that 
son or give him in adoption, his wife 
being pregnant, the child will be born 
under your paternal authority. But 
ifthe conception be subsequent to the 
emancipation or adoption, the child 
becomes subject at his birth, either te 
his emancipated father, or his adop- 
tive grand-father. 


An parentes cogi possunt liberos suos de potestate dimittere ? 


$ X. Et quidem neque natu rales 
liberi, neque adoptivi, ullo pené mo- 
do possunt cogere parentes de po- 
testate sua eos dimittere. 


§ 10. Children, either natural or 
adopted, can rarely compel their pa- 
rents by any method to dismiss them 
from subjection. 


— Á-) 4 @ art 


e TITULUS DECIMUS-TERTIUS. 
DE TUTELIS. 


D. xs T. 


1. Nov. 72. 


De personis sui juris. 


TRANSEAMUS nunc ad aliam 
divisionem personarum. Nam ex 
his personis, que in potestate non 
sunt, quedam vel in tutela sunt, vel 
t 9a curatione, quedam neutro jure 


* Let us now proceed to another di- 
vision of persons. Of those, who 
are not under parental power, some 
are under tutelage, some under cura- . 
tion, and some under neither. Let 


$8 


tenentur. Videamus ergo de his, 
que in tutela vel curatione sunt : ita 
enim intelligemus caeteras personas, 
qui neutro juretenentur. Ac pri- 
us. dispiciamus de his, qui in tutela 
sunt. 


LIB. L TIT. XUL 


us. enguire then, what persons are 

‘under tutelage and curation ; for thus _ 
we shall ascertain, who are not sub- 
ject to either. And first of persons 
under tutelage. 


Tutelz definitio. 


§ I. Est autem tutela (ut Servzus 
definivit) vis ac potestas in capite 
libero, ad tuendum eum, qui per 
statem.se defendere nequit, jure 
civili data ac permissd. 


$ 1. Tutelage,.as Servius has dc- 
ined it, is an authority and power, 
given and permitted by the civil law, 
over such independent persons, as are 
unable, by reason of their youth, to 
protect themselves. 


Definitio et etymologia tutoris. 


§ II. Tutores autem sunt, qui 
eam vim ac potestatem habent; ex- 
que ipsa re nomen acceperunt. Ita- 
que appellantur tutores, quasi tui- 
tores atque defensores ; sicut editui 
dicuntur, qui edes tuentur. 


$ 2. Tutors are those, who have 
this authority and power; and 
they take their name from the nature 
of their office. For they are called 
tutors, quasi tuitores deferders; as 
those, who have the care of the sa- 
cred buildings, are called xditui, 
quod zdes tueantur. | 


Quibus testamento tutor datur: et primum, de liberis in potestate. 


$ III. Permissum est itaque pa- 
rentibus liberis impuberibus, quos 
in potestate habent, testamento tu- 
tores dare: et hoc in filios filiasque 
procedit omnimod6: nepotibus vero 
neptibusque: ita demum parentes 
possunt testamento tutores dare, si 
post mortem eorum in potestatem 
patris sui non sunt recasuri. .Ita- 
que, si filius tuus, mortis tuz tem- 
pore in potestate tuá sit, nepotes ex 
€o non poterunt ex testamento tuo 
tutores habere, quamvis in potes- 
tate tuà fuerint: scilicet, quia, mor- 
tuo te, in potestatem patris sui re- 
vasurj sunt. . 


§ 3. Parents may assign tutors 
by testament to such of their children . 


‘as arenot arrived at puberty, and 


are under their power. And this 
privilege extends without exception 
over sons and dayghters. But 
grand-fathers can only give tutors to 
their grand-children, when these 
cannot fall under the power of their 
father, after the death of their grand- 
father. Hence, if your son is in your 
power at the time of your death, your 
grand-children by that son can not 
receive tutors by your testament, al- 
though they were actually in your 
power ; because at your decease they 
will become subject to their father. 


.LIB. I. TIT. XIV. 
De posthumis. 


—. $IV. Cumautem in compluribus 
aliis causis posthumi pro jam natis 
habeantur, et in hac causa placuit 
non minus posthumis, quam jam 
natis tutores dari posse; si modo 
in eá causá sint, ut, si vivis paren- 
tibus nascerentur, sui heredes et in 
potestate eorum fierent. 


€ 4. As posthumous children are 
in many cases considered as already 
born before the death of their fa- 
thers; therefore tutors may be giv- 
en (by testament ) as well to a post- 
humous child, as to a child already 
born, if such posthumous child, had 
he been born in the life-time of his 
father, would have been his proper 
heir and under his power. 


De emancipatis. 


§ V. Sed et, si emancipato filio 
tutor à patre datus fuerit testamen- 
to, confirmandus est ex sententia 
presidis omnimodo, id est, sine in- 
quisitione. 


€ 5. But,ifa father gives a tu- 
tor by testament to his emancipated 
son, such tutor must be confirmed 
by the sentence of the governor of 
the province without inquisition. 


Gp o On 


TITULUS DECIMUS-QUARTUS. 
QUI TESTAMENTO TUTORES DARI POSSUNT. 


D. xxvi. T. 2. 


C. v. T. 28. 


Qui tutores dari possunt. 


DARI autem tutor potest testa- 
mento non solüm pater-familias, 
sed etiam fi*as-familias. 


Not only the father of a family 
may be appointed tutor by testament, 
but also the son of a family. 


De servo. 


§ I. Sed et servus proprius, tes- 
tamento cum libertate recté tutor 
dati potest: sed sciendum est, et 
gine libertate tutorem datum tacité 
Bbertatem directam accepisse vide- 
. Fi; et per hoc recté tutorem esse: 


plana, si per errorem, quasi liber, 


itor datus sit, aliud dicendom ext, 


§ 1. A man may by testament as- 
sign his own slave to bea tutor with 
liberty. But note, that if a slave be 
appointed tutor by testament without 
mentioning liberty, he seems tacitly 
to be enfranchised, and is thus le 
gally constituted a tutor; yet, if a 
testator through error, imagining his 


49 


' Servus autem alienus pure inutiliter 
testamento datur tutor: sed ita, 
cum liber erit, utiliter datur. Pro- 
prius autem servus inutiliter eo mo- 
do tutor datur. 


De furioso et minore 


§ II. Furiosus, vel minor viginti- 
quinque annis, tutor testamento da- 
tus, tutor tunc erit, cum compos 
mentis, aut major viginti-quinque 
annis, fuerit factus. 


LIB. L TIT. XIV. 


slave to be free, by testament ap- 
points him, as such, to be a tutor, the 
appointment will not avail. Also 
the absolute appointment of another 
man’s slave to be a tutor is altogether 
ineffectual; but, if the appointment 
zs upon condition, that the person ap- . 
pointed obtains his freedom, then it 
zs well made: but,if a man by testa- 
ment appoints his own slave to be a 
tutor, when he shall obtain his li- 
berty, the appointment will be void. 


viginti-quinque annis. 

§ 2. Jf a mad man or a minor (un- 
der twenty-five ) is by testament ap- 
pointed tutor, the one shall begin 
to act, when.he becomes of sound 
mind, and the other, when he has 
completed his twenty-fifth year. 


Quibus modis tutores dantur. 


€ III. Ad certum tempus, vel ex 
certo tempore, vel sub conditione, 


vel antehzredis institutionem, posse - 


dari tutorem non dubitatur. 


$.3. Jt is not doubted, but that a 
testamentary tutor may be appointed 
either until a certain time, or from 
a certain time, or conditionally, or 
before the institution of an heir. 


e 


Cui dantur. 


6 IV. Certz autem rei, vel cause, 
tutor dari non potest: quia persone, 
non causz, vel rei, tutor datur. 


§ 4. A tutor cannot be assigned to 
any particular thing, or upon any 
certain account, but cc only be giv- 
en to persons. 


De tutore dato filiabus, vel filiis, vel liberis, vel nepotibus. 


€ V. Si quis filiabus suis, vel fi- 


§ 5. Jf a man nominates a tutor 


liis, tutores dederit, etiam posthu- for his sons or daughters, the nomi- 


mz vel posthumo dedisse videtur : 
quia, filii vel filie appellatione, et 
posthumus et posthuma continentur. 
Quod si nepotes sint, an appella- 
tione filiorum et ipsis tutores dati 


nation extends to his posthumous is- 
sue; because, under the appellation 
of son or daughter, a. posthumous 
child is comprehended. But, are 
grandchildren denoted by the werd 


Re 


LIB. I. 


siat? Dicendum est, ut et ipsis quo- 
que dati videantur, si modó liberos 


dixerit ; czteràm, si filios, non con- 


tinebuntur, Alitér enim filii, alitér 
nepotes appellantur. Plané, si pos- 
teris dederit, tam filii posthumi, 
quam ceteri liberi, continebuntur. 


TIT. XV. A1 


sons ? we answer, that under chil- 
dren, grand-children are included, 
but not under sons: for son, and 
grand-son, differ in signification. 
But, if a testator assigns a tue 
tor to his descendants, it is evident, 
that not only his posthumous sons 
are comprehended, but all hie other 
children. 


—— @D | O——- 


TITULUS DECIMUS.QUINTUS. 
DE LEGITIMA AGNATORUM TUTELA. 


D. xxvi. 


' 


QUIBUS autem testamento tu- 
tor datus non est, his, ex lege duo- 
decim tabularum, agnati sunt tu- 


' tores, qui vocantur legitimi. 


T. 4. 


C. Ve T. 30. 


Summa. 


The Agnati by a law of the twelve 
tables, are appointed tutors to those, 
to whom no testamentary tutor was 
given; and these tutors are called 
legitimi, tutors by law, 


Qui sunt agnati. 


$ I. Sunt autem agnati cognati, 
per virilis sexüs cognationem con- 
juncti, quasi à patre cognati : vcluti 
frater ex eodem patre natus, fratris 
filius, neposve ex eo: item patruus 
et pratrui filius, neposve ex eo. At, 
qui per feminini sexus personas cog- 
natione junguntur, agnati non sunt, 
sed alias naturali jure cognati. It- 
aque amite tuz filius non est tibi 
agnatus, sed cognatus: etinvicem 
tu illi eodem jure conjungeris : quia, 
^qui ex ea nascuntur, patris, non ma- 


tris, familiam sequuntur. 


$ 1. Agmati are those, who arc 
collaterally related to us by males, 
as a brother by the same father, or 
the son of a brother, or by him a 
grand-son ; also a father’s brother, or 
the son of such brother, or by hima 
grand-son. But those, who are rela- 
tedto us by a female are not agnate, 
but cognate, bearing only a natural 
relation tous. Thus the son of a fa- 
ther’s sister is related to you not by 
agnation, but cognation; and you 
are also related to him by cognation ; 
for the children of a father’s sister, 
follow the family of their father, and 
nct that of their. mother. 
G 


43 LIB. I. 


€ II. Quod autem lex duodecim 
tabularum ab intestato vocat ad tu- 
. telam agnatos, non hanc habet sig- 
nificationem, si omninó non fecerit 
testamentum js, qui poterat tutores 
dare; sed si, quantum ad tutelam 
pertinet, intestatus decesserit: quod 
tunc quoque accidere intelligitur, 
cum is qui datus est tutor, vivo tes- 
tatore decesserit. 


TIT. XVI. 


§ 2. The law of the twelve table, 


in calling the agnati tq tutelage in 


case of intestacy, relates not solely 
to persons altogether intestate, who 
might have appointed a tutor, but 
also to those, who are intestate only 
in respect of tutelage ; and this may 
happen, if atutor, nominated by tes- 
tament, should die in the lifetime of 
the testator. 


Quibiis mcdis agnatio, vel cognatio, finitur. 


§ III. Sed agnationis quidem 
jus omnibus modis capitis diminu- 
tione perimque perimitur: nam 
agnatio juris civilis nomen est ; cog» 
nationis veró jus non omnibus mo- 
dis commutatur : quia civilis ratio, 
civilia quidem jura corrumpere po- 
test, naturalia vero, non utique. 


§ 3. The right of agnation is ta- 
ken away by ulmost every diminution, 
or change of state; for agnation is 
but a name given by the civil law; 
but the right of cognationis not thus 
altered; for although civil policy may 
extinguish civil rights, yet over na- 
tural rights it has no such power. 


TITULUS DECIMUS-SEXTUS. 
DE CAPITIS DIMINUTIONE. 


D. iv. 


T. 5. 


Definitio et divisio. 


EST autem capitis diminutio pri- 
oris status mutatio; eaque tribus 
modis accidit : nam aut maxima est 
capitis diminutio, aut minor, (quam 
quidam mediam vocant,) aut mini- 
ma. 


Diminution is the change of a 
man's former condition ; and this is 
threefold, the greater, the less, and 
the least. 


De maximié capitis diminutione. 


$ I. Maxima capitis diminutio 
est, cum aliquis simul et civitatem 
et libertatem amittit ; 3 quod accidit 


§ 1. The greater diminution is, 
when a man loses both the right of a 
citizen and his liberty ; as they do, 


LIB. I. TIT. XVI. 


his, qui servi penz efficiuntur atro- 
citate sententiz ; vel libertis, ut in- 
gratis erga patronos condemnatis ; 
vel his, qui se ad pretium partici- 
pandum venundari passi sunt. 


43 


who by the rigour of their sentence 
become the slaves of punishment ; 
and freed-men, who are condemned 
to slavery for ingratitude to their 
patrons; and all such, who suffer 
themselves to be sold, to share the 
price. 


De media. 


§ II. Minor, sive media capitis 
diminutio est, cum civitas quidem 
amittitur, libertas verd retinetur; 
quod accidit ei, cui aqua et igni in- 
terdictum fuerit, vel ei, qui in in- 
sulam deportatus est. 


$2. The less or mesne diminution, 
is, when a man loses the rights of a 
citizen, but retains his liberty; 
which happens to him, who is for- 
bidden the use of fire and water, or 
to him who is transported into an 
island. 


De minimá. 


§ III. Minima capitis diminu- 
tio est, cum civitas retinetur et li- 
bertas, sed status hominis commu- 
tatur: quod accidit his, qui, cum 
sui juris fuerint, ceperunt alieno 
juri subjecti esse ; vel contra, ve- 
luti si filius-familias à patre eman- 
cipatus fuerit, est capite diminutus. 


§ 3. The least diminution is, when 
the condition of a man is changed 
without forfeiture either of civil 
rights or liberty ; as when he, who 
is independent, becomes subject by 
adoption ; or when the son of a fa- 
mily hath been emancipated by his 


father. 


De servo manumisso. 


6 IV. Servus autem manumis- 
sus capite non minuitur; quia nul- 
lum caput habuit. 


§ 4. The manumission of a slave 
produces no change of state in him, 
because he had no state, or civil ca- 


pacity. 


De mutatione dignitatis. 


§ V. Quibus autem dignitas 
magis quam status permutatur, ca- 
pite non minuuntur; et ideó, à se- 
matr motos capite non minui, con- 


§ 5. Those, whose dignity is ra- 
ther changed than their state, do not 
suffer diminution ; hence it is not 
diminution to be removed from the 
senatarial dignity. 


P d 


LiB. I. 


Interpretatio $ ult. sup. tit. prox. 


6 VI. Quod autem dictum est, 


manere cognationis jus etiam post. 


capitis diminutionem, hoc ita est, 
si minima capitis diminutio inter- 
veniat: manet enim cognatio. 
Nam, si maxima capitis diminutio 
interveniat, jus quoque cognationis 
perit, ut puta servitute alicujus cog- 
mati;.et me quidem, si manumissus 
fuerit, recipit cognationem. Bed et 
si in insulam quis deportatus sit, 
cognatio solvitur. - 


§ 6. We have said, that the right 
of cognation remains after diminu- 
tion, but this relates only to the least 
diminution. For, by the greater di- 
minution, as by servitude, the right 
of cognation is wholly destroyed, 
even so as not to be recovered by ma- 
numission. The right of cognation 
is also lost by the less or mesne dimi- 
nution, as by deportation into an 
island. 


Ad quos agnatos tutela pertinet. 


§ VII. Cum autem ad agnatos 
tutela pertineat, non simul ad om- 
nes pertinet, sed ad eos tantum, 
qui proximiore gradu sunt; vel si 
plures ejusdem gradus sunt, ad om- 
nes pertinet; veluti si plures fra- 
tres sunt, qui unum gradum obti- 
nent, paritér ad tutelam vocantur. 


§ 7. Although the right of tute- 
lage belongs to agnati, yet it belongs 
not to all, but to the nearest in degree 
oniy. But, if there be many in the 
same degree, the tutelage belongs to 
al of them, however numerous. For 
example, several brothers are all call- 


ed equally to tutelage. 


TITULUS DECIMUS-SEPTIMUS. 


‘+ DE LEGITIMA PATRONORUM TUTELA. 


D. xxvi. 


¥. 4, C e Ve 


* 


T. 30. 


Ratio, ob quam patronorum tuteh dicitur legitima. 


_ EX eádem: lege duodecim tabu- 
larum, libertorum et libertarum tu- 
tela ad patronos liberosque corum 


pertinet, quie et ipsa legitima tutela: 


vocatur; non quia nominatim in 
ea lege de hac tutelà caveatur; sed 
quia perinde áccepta est pcr inter- 
pretationem, ac si verbis legis in- 


By the same law of the twelve ta- 
bles, the tutelage of freed-men ena 
Jreed-women, belongs to their pa- 
trons, and to the children of such pa~ | 
trons ; and this is tutelage by operas 


tion of law, although it exists not no- 


minally in the law ; but it is as firmly | 
established by interpretation, as if it 





LIB. I. TIT. XVIII. 


troducta esset. Eo enim ipso, quod 
hzreditates libertorum libertarum- 
que, si intestati decessissent, jusse- 
rat lex ad patronos liberosve eorum 
pertinere, crediderunt veteres, vo- 
luisse legem, etiam tutelas ad eos 
pertinere ; cum et agnatos, quos ad 
hereditatem lex vocat, eosdem et 
tutores esse jusserit; quia ple- 
rimque, ubi successionis est emo- 
lumentum, ibi et tutele onus esse 
debet. Ideo autem diximus ple- 
rumque, quia, si fominà impubes 
manumittatur, ipsa ad hereditatem 
vocatur, cum alius sit tutor. 


45 


hgd been introduced by express words. 
For, inasmuch as the law commands, 
that patrons and their children shall 
succeed to the inheritance of their 
freed-men or freed-women who die 
intestate, the ancient lawyers were 
of opmion: that tutelage also by im- 
p&catton should belong to patrons and 
their children. And the law, which 
calle agnati to the inheritance, com- 
mands them to be tutore, . because 
the advantage of suceesston. ought to 
be attended in most cases with the 
burden of tutelage. We have said, 
in most cases, because, tf a parson, 
not arrived at puberty, is manumit« 
ted by a female, she is called to the 
inheritance, but not to the tutelage. | 


—w 13 QD c a 


TITULUS DECIMUS-OCTAVUS. 
DE LEGITIMA PARENTUM TUTELA. 


EXEMPLO patronorum recep- 
ta est et alia tutela, que et ipsa k- 
gitima vocatur ; nam, si quis filium 
aut fi'iam, nepotem aut neptem ex 
filto, et deinceps, impuberes eman- 
cipaverit, legitimus eorum tutor 
ent. 


Another hind of tutelage termed 
legal, is received in imitation of pa- 
rental: for, if a parent emancipate 
a son, a daughter, a grand-son, or a 
grand-daughter, who is the issue of 
that son, or any others descended 
from him by males ina right line and 
not arrived at puberty, then shall 
such parent be their legal tutor. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. XIX. 


TITULUS DECIMUS-NONUS. 
DE FIDUCIARIA TUTELA. 


Filii-familias à patre manumissi pater tutor est legitimus ; eo vero 
defuncto, frater tutor fiduciarius existit. 


EST et alia tutela, que fiducia- 
ria appellatur : nam, si parens fili- 
um vel filiam, nepotem vel neptem, 
vel deinceps, impuberes manu- 
miserit, legitimam nanciscitur eo- 
rum tutelam : quo defuncto, si libe- 
ri ejus virilis sexus existant, fiduci- 
arii tutores filiorum suorum, vel fra- 
tris, vel sororis, vel ceterorum, 
efficiuntur. Atqui, patrono legiti- 
mo tutore mortuo, liberi quoque 
ejus legitimi sunt tutores ; quoniam 
filius quidem defuncti, si non esset 
à vivo patre emancipatus, post obi- 
tum ejus suf juris efficeretur, nec 
in fratrum potestatem  recideret, 
ideóque nec in tutelam. Libertus 
autem, si servus mansisset, utique 
eodem jure apud liberos domini 
post mortem ejus futurus esset. 
Ita tamen hi ad tutelam vocantur, si 
perfecte sint ztatis; quod nostra 
constitutio in omnibus tutelis et cu- 
rationibus observari  generalitér 
precepit. 


- There is another kind of tutelage 
called fiduciary ; for, if a parent 
emancipate ason or a daughter, a 
grand-son or a grand-daughter, or 

\any other child, not arrived at 
puberty, he is then their legal 
tutor: but, at his death, his male 
children of age become the fiduciary 
tutors of their own sons, or of a bro- 
ther, a sister, or of a brother’. chil- 
dren emancipated by the deceased. 
But when a patron, who is a legal 
tutor, dies, his children also become 
legal tutors. The reason of which 
difference is this : a son, although ne- 
ver emancipated, becomes independent 
at the death of his father ; and there- 
fore as he falls not under power of his 
‘brothers, he can not be under their 
legal tutelage. But the condition of 
a slave is not altered at the death of 
his master ; for he then becomes a 
slave to the children of the deceased. 
None can be called ta tutelagy, 
unless of full age; and our con- 
stitution hath commanded this rule 
to be generally observed in all tu- 
telages and curattons. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. XX. 


i 47 


TUTULUS VIGESIMUS. 


DE ATILIANO TUTORE, ET EO, QUI EX LEGE 
JULIA ET TITIA DABATUR. 


D. XXvl. T. 5. C. Ve T. 34 et 36. 


Jus antiquum, si nullus sit tutor. 


SI cui nullus omninó tutor fuerat, 
ei dabatur, in urbe quidem à pre- 
tore urbano et majore parte tribu- 
norum plebis, tutor ex lege Atilia: 
in provinciis veró à praesidibus pro- 
vinciarum ex lege Julia et Titia. 


Under the law Atilia, the prator 
of the city, with a majority of the 
tribunes, might assign tutors to all 
who were not otherwise intitled. In 
the provinces, tutors were appointed 


by the respective governors under the 
law Julia and Titia. 


Si spes sit futuri tutoris testamentarii. 


§ I. Sed et, si in testamento tu- 
tor sub conditione, aut ex die certo 
datus fuerat, quamdiu conditio aut 
dies pendebat, iisdem legibus tutor 
alius interim dari poterat. Item si 
puré datus fuerat, quamdiu ex tes- 
tamento nemo hzres existebat, tam- 
diu ex iisdem legibus tutor peten- 
dus erat, qui desinebat esse tutor, 
si conditio extiterat, aut dies vene- 
rat, aut heres extiterat. 


§ 1. Ifa testamentary tutor had 
been appointed conditionally, or from 
a certain day, another tutor might 
have been assigned by virtue of the 
above named laws, while the con- 
dition depended or until the day came. 
Also if a tutcr had been given uncon- 
ditionally, yet, as long as the testa- 
mentary heir deferred taking upon 
him the inheritance, another tutor 
might have been appointed during the 
interval. But his office ceased, when 
the condition happened, the day came. 
or the inheritance was entered upon. 


Si tutor ab hostibus sit captus. 


§ II. Ab hostibus quoque tutore 
capto, ex his legibus tutor peteba- 
tur; qui desincbat esse tutor, si is, 


qui captus erat, in civitatem rever- : 


sus fuerat: nam reversus recipiebat 
tutelam jurc postliminii. 


$ 2. By the Atilian and Julio-ti- 
tian laws, if a tutor was taken by the 
enemy, another tutor was applied for, 
whose office ceased, of course, when 
the first tutor returned from captivi- 
ty; for hethen resumed the tutelage 
by his right of return. 


48 ° LI B. I. 


TIT. XX. 


Quando et cur desierint ex dictis legibus tutores dari. 


$ III. Sed ex his legibus tutores 
pupillis desierunt dari, posteaquam 
primd consules pupillis utriusque 
sexus tutorcs ex inquisitione dare 
coeperunt, deinde pratores ex con- 
stitutionibus. Nam supradictis le- 
gibus ncque de cautione à tutoribus 
exigenda, rem pupillis salvam fore, 
neque de compellendis tutoribus ad 
tutele administrationem, quicquam 
cavebatur. 


§ 3. But these laws fell into dis- 
use, first when the consuls began to 
assign tutors to pupils of either sex, 
on inguisition ; and next, when the 
prators were invested with the same 
authority by imperial constitu- 
tions. For, by the above mentioned 
laws, no security was required from 
thetutors for the forthcoming of the 
property, neither were they compel- 
led to act. 


Jus novum. 


$ IV. Sed; hoc jure utimur, ut 
Romz quidem praefectus urbi, vel 
praetor secundum suam jurisdictio- 
nem, in provinclis autem przsides 
ex inquisitione, tutores crearent ; vel 
magistratus jussu prasidum, si non 
sint magne pupilli facultates. 


$ 4. But latterly, at Rome, the 


: prafect of the city, or the pretor ac- 


cording to his jurisdiction, and, in 
the provinces, the respective gover- 
nors may assign tutors upon inquiry ; 
so may an inferior magistrate, at the 
command of a governor, if the pos- 


sessions of the pupilare not large. 


Jus novissimum. 


§ V. Nos autem, per constituti- 
onem nostram hujusmodi difficule 
tates hominum resecantes, nec ex- 
pectata jussione presidum, dispo- 
suimus, si facultates pupifli vel 
adulti usque ad quingentos solidos 
valeant,'defensores civitatum una 
cum ejusdem civitatis religiosissi- 
mo antistite, vel alias personas pub- 
licas, id est, magistratus, vel juri- 
dicum  Alexandrinz civitatis, tu- 
tores vel curatores creare ; legitiinà 
eautelà secundüm ejusdem consti- 
tutionis normam prestanda, vidcli- 
cet eorum periculo, qui eam acci- 
piunt. 


» 


$ 5. But for the ease of our sub- 
jects we have ordained, that the 
judge of Alexandria and the magis- 
trates of every city, together with the 
chief ecclesiastic, may assign tutors 
or curators to pupils or adults, whose 


fortunes do not exceed five hundred 


aurei, without waiting for the com- 
mand of the governor, to whose bro-: 
vince they belong. But all such ma- 
gistrates must, at their peril, take 
from every. tutor, eo appointed, the 
security required by our constitution. 


LIB. I. 


$ VI. Impuberes autem in tutela 


- esse, naturali juri conveniens est; 


ut is, qui perfecte ztatis non sit, 
alteriustutelà regatur. ' 


TI T. XX I " 
Ratio tutela. 


49 


$ 6. Itis agreeable to the law. of 
nature, that persons under puberty, 
should be under tutelage; that all 


. Who are not of ripe age may be un- 


der the government of proper per- 
SONS. 


De tutele ratione reddenda. 


$ VII. Cum ergo pupillorum pu- 
pillarumque tutores negotia gerant, 
post pubertatem tutelz judicio ra- 
tionem reddunt. 


§ 7. Hence as tutors administer the 
affairs of their pupils, they may be 
compelled to account, by an action of 
tutelage, when their pupils arrive at 


puberty. 


"TITULUS VIGESIMUS.-PRIMUS. 
DE AUCTORITATE TUTORUM. 


D. xxvi. T..8. 


C. v. T. 59. 


In quibus causis auctoritas sit necessariai 


AUCTORITAS autem tutoris 
in quibusdam causis necessaria pu- 
pillis est, in quibusdam non est ne- 
cessaria : ut, ecce, si quid dari sibi 
Stipdlentur, non est necessaria tu- 
toris auctoritas ; quod si aliis pro- 
snittant pupilli, neceasaria est tutoris 
suctoritas: namque placuit, me- 
fiorem quidem conditionem licere 
iis facere etiam siné tutoris aucto-. 


 Fitate; deteriorem veró non aliter, 


p 


quam cum tutoris auctoritate. Un- 
de im his causis, ex quibus obliga- 


. , Senes mutus nascuntur, ut in emp- 


The authority” ér ahy ef 
a tutor is in some ‘cases "inert, 
and in others mot. When a mum 
stipulates to make a gift to a pupil, 
the authority of the tutor is not re- 
quisite ; but, if a pupil entere 
into a contract, it is so; for the rule 
is, that pupils may better their con- 
dition, but not impair il, without 
the authority of their tutors. And 
therefore in all cases of mutual obü- 
gation, as in buying, selling, letting’, 
hiring, mandates, deposites, &c. he, 
who contracts with a pupil, is beund 

\ 


50 LIB. I. 


tionibus, venditionibus, locationi- 
bus, mandatis, depositis, si tutores 
auctoritas non interveniat, ipsi qui- 
dem, qui cum his contrahunt, obli- 
gantur; at invicem pupilli non obli- 
gantur. 


TIT. XXI... 


by the contract; but not the pupil, 
unless the tutor hath authorised it. 


Exceptio. 


§ I. Neque tamen hzreditatem 
adire, neque bonorum possessionem 
petere, neque hereditatem ex lidei- 
commisso suscipére, aliter possunt, 
nisi tutoris áuctoritate, (quamvis 
illis lucrosa sit,) ne ullum damnum 
habeant. 


$ 1. But no pupil, without the 
authority of his tutor, can enter up- 
on aninheritance, or take upon him 
the possession of goods, or an inheri- 
tance in trust ; for, there is à possi- 
bility of damage, as well as gain. 


Quomodo auctoritas interponi debet. 


§ II. Tutor autem statim in ipso 
negotio presens debet auctor fieri, 
si hoc pupillo prodesse existimave- 
rit. Post tempus ver, vel per epis- 
tolam, aut per nuntium, interposita 
auctoritas nihil agit: 


6 III. Si intgg gutorem pupillum- 


que j idum sit, quia ipse 
MEE ces a ERE huctor esse non 
potest, non prictorius tutor (ut olim) 
constituir, sed curator in locum ejus 
‘datur ; ; Quo cüratore interveniente, 
judicium peragitur; et, eo peracto, 
Cyrator esse desinit. 





§ 2. If a tutor would authorise 
any act, which he esteems advanta- 
geous to his pupil, he should be per- 
sonally present; for his authority 
hath no effect, when given by letter, 
by messenge.’, or after contract. 


Quo casu interponi non potest. 


§ 3. When 6 suit is to be commen- 
ced between a tutor and his pupil, 
inasmuch as the tutor can not exer- 
cise his authority, as such, against 
himself, a curator, and not a. preto- 
rian tutor, (as twas formerly the cus- 
tom,) is appointed, by whose iff 
tion the suit is carried on; ‘aid, 
when it is determined, the curator- 
ship ceases. - 


LI 
i 9 


b.. 


LIB. I. TIT. XXII.. 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.SECUNDUS. . 


QUIBUS MODIS TUTELA FINITUR. 


C. v. T. 60. 


De pubertete. 


PUPILLI, pupilieque, cum pu- 
beres esse ceperint, à tutela liberan- 
tur. Pubertatem autem veteres qui- 
dem non solim ex annis, sed etiam 
ex habitu corporis, in masculis zsti- 
mari volebant. Nostra autem ma- 
jestas, dignum esse castitate nostro- 
rum temporum existimans, bent 
putavit, quod in feminis etiam an- 

, tiquis impudicum esse visum est, id 
est, inspectionem habitudinis cor- 
poris, hoc etiam in masculos exten- 
dere: et idco, nostra sanctà consti- 
tutione promulgata, pubertatem in 
masculis post decimum quartum 
annum completum illicó initium ac- 
cipere disposuimus: antiquitatis 
normam in feminis bene positam m 
suo ordine relinquentes, ut post du- 
odecim annos completos, viri poten- 
tes esse credantur. 


Pupils, both male and female, are 
freed from tutelage, when they ar- 
rive at puberty. ‘The ancients judg- 
ed of puberty in males, not by years 
only, but also by the habit of their ba- 
dies. But our imperial majesty, re- 
garding the purity of the present 
times, hath thought it proper, that 
the same decency, which was ever 
observed toward females, should ba 
extended also to males: and there- 
fore, by our sacred constitution, we 
have enacted, that puberty in males 
should be reputed to commence imme- 
diately after the completion of their 
fourteenth year. But, in relation 
to females, we leave that wholesome 
and ancient rule of law unaltered, by 
which theyare esteemed marriagea- 


' ble after the twelfth year is comple- 


ted. 


De <apitis diminutione pupilli. 


§ I. Item finitur tutela, si arro- 
gati sint adhuc impuberes, vel de- 
portati: item si in servitutem pu- 
pillus redigatur, vel si ab hostibus 
captus fuerit. 


$ 1. Tutelage is determined be- 
fore puberty, if the pupil is. either 
arrogated, or suffers deportation, 
or is reduced to slavery, or becomes 
a cuptive. 


De conditionis eventu. 


§ II. Sed et, si usque ad certam 
conditionem datus sit tutor testa- 


. Wento, eque evenit, ut desinat cssc 


tutor existente conditione. 


§ 2. But, if @ testamentary tutor 
zy given upon a certain condition, 
when that condition is filled, the tute- 
lage ceases. 


3 LIB. I. 


TIT. XXII. 


De morte. 


§ III. Semili modo finitur tutela 
morte pupillorum vel tutorum. 


6 3. Tutelage ends also by death 
of the tutor, or the pupil. Y 


De capitis diminutione. 


6 IV. Sec et capitis diminutione 
tutoris, per quam libertas vel civi- 
tas amittitur, omnis tutela perit. 
Minimá autem capitis diminutione 
tutoris, veluti si se arrogandum de- 
derit, legitima tantum perit ; cetere 
non perg Sed pupilli et pupille 
capitis diminutio, licet minima sit, 
emnes tutelas tollit. | 


§ 4. When a tutor under the great- 
er diminution of state, loses his liber- 
ty and his citizenship, his tutelage 
is extinguished. But, if the least 
diminution only is suffered, as when 
atutor gives himself in arrogation, 
then no species of tutelage is. extin- 
guished, but the legal. But every 
diminution of state in pupils, takes 
away all tutelage. UC 


De tempore. 


$ V. Preterea, qui ad certum 
tempus testamento dantur tutores, 
. finito eo, deponunt tutelam, 


§ 5. These, who are testamenta- 
ry tutors for a term only, are dis. 
charged at the expiration of such 
term. 


De remotione et excusatione. 


§ VI. Desinunt etiam tutores 
esse, qui vel removentur à tute]à ob 
id, quod suspecti visi sunt; vel 
qui ex justa causa se excusant, et 
onus admimistrande tutele depo- 
nunt, secundum ca, qua inferius 


proponemus. 


§ 6. They also cease to be tutors, 
who are removed on suspicion ; or 
excuse and exempt themselves from 
the burden of tutelage for just rea- 
sons ; of which hereafter. 


LIB. , I. 


TIT. XXIII 


". 
TITULUS VIGESIMUS-TERTIUS. 
DE CURATORIBUS. 
D. xxvi. T. 10. C.v. T. 70. 
De adultis. . 
MASCULI quidem puberes, et Males arrived at puberty, and fe- 


feminz viri potentes, usque ad vi- 
gesimum quintum annum comple- 
tum curatores accipiunt ; quialicet 
puberes sint, adhuc tamen ejus 2- 
tatis sunt, ut sua negotia tueri non 
possint. 


males marriageable, do nevertheless 
receive curators, until they have com- 
pleted their twenty-fifth year: for, 
they are not yet ofan age to take. 
proper care of their own affairs. 


A quibus dentur curatores. 


§ I. Dantur autem curatores ab 
eisdem magistratibus, à quibus et 
tutores, Sed curator testamento 
non datur; datus tamen confirma- 
tur decreto praetoris vel praesidis. 


$ 1. Curators arc appointed by the 
same magistrates, who appoint tu- 
tors. A curator can not be absolute- 
ly given by testament, but such 
nomination must be confirmed, by 
a prator or governor of a province. 


Quibus dentur. 


§ II. Item inviti adolescentes 
curatores non accipiunt, preter- 


6 3. No adults can be obliged to 
receive curators, unless ad litem; 


quam in litem; curator enim et ad for a curator may be uppointed to 


certam causam dari potest. 


any special purpose. c 


vw 


De furiosis et prodigis. 


6 III. Furiosi quoque, et prodigi, 
licet majores viginti quinque annis 
'sint, tamen in curatione sunt agnato- 
tum, ex lege duodecim tabularum. 
. Sed solent Romz przfcctus urbi vel 
et in provinciis presides, 
4 ai inquisitione eis curatores dare. 
CES. 
tae >. . 
n: 
49 








$ 3. By a law of the twelve tables, 
madmen and prodigals, although 
of full age, must be under curation 
of their agnati. But, if there are 
no agnati, or such only as are un- 
qualified, then curators are appoint- 
ed; at Rome, by the prafect of the 
city, or the prator; in the provin- 
ces, by the governors, after re- 
quisite inquiry. 


54 Lip. i. TIT. XXIII. 


De mente captis, surdis, &c. 


. $ IV. Sed et mente captis, et 
surdis, et mutis, ct illis, qui perpe- 
tuo morbo laborant, (quia rebus suis 
superesse non possunt,) curatores 
dandi sunt. 


$4. Perpns deprived of their in- 
tellects, deaf, mute, or subject to any 
continual disorder, since they are 
unable to manage their own affairs, 


must be placed under curators. 


EP | De pupillis. 


$ V. Interdum autem et pupilli 
curfitores accipiunt ; ut puta, si le- 
gitimus tutor non sit idoneus : quo- 
niam habenti tutorem tutor dari 
non potest. Item, si testamento 
datus twor, vel à ‘pretore aut 
preside, idoneus non sit ad admi- 
nistrationem, nec tamen fraudulen- 
ter negotia administret, solet ei cu- 
rator adjungi. Item locotutorum, 
qui non in perpetuum, sed ad tem- 
pus à tutelà excusantur, solent cu- 
ratores dari. 


6 5. Sometimes even pupils rc- 
ceive curators ; as when the legal tu- 
tor is unqualified: for a tutor must 
not be given to him, who already has 
a tutor. Also, if a.tutor by testa- 
ment, or appointed by a pretor, or 
the governor of a province, appears 
afterwards incapable of executing 
his trust, it is usual, although he is 
guilty of no fraud, to appoint a cura- 
tor to be yoinedwith him. It is also 
usual to assign curators in the picce 
of tutors excused for a time only. 


De constituendo actorc. 


6 VI. Quod si tutor vel adversa 
valetudine, vel alià necessitate, 1m- 
pediatur, quo minus negotia pupilli 
administrare possit, et pupillus vel 
absit, vel infans sit, quem velit ac- 
torem, periculo ipsius tutoris, prz- 
tor, vel qui provincie preerit, de- 
creto constituet. — 


e 


§ 6. Ifa tutor, by illness or any 
other necessary impediment, should 
be disabled from the execution of his 


office, and hia pupal s/:ould be absent, 


or an infant, then the prator, or go- 
vernor of the province shall decree 
any person, whom the tutor approves 
of, to be the pupils agent, on the re- 
sponsibility of the tutor. ' 


LIB. I. TIT. XXIV. 


55 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.QUARTUS. 
DE. SATISDATIONE TUTORUM, VEL CURATORUM. 


D. xxvii. 


T. 7. 


C. Ve T. 57. 


Qui satisdure cogantur. 


NE tamen pupillorum, pupilla- 
rumve, et eorum, qui quzve in cu- 
ratione sunt, negotia à curatoribus 
- tutoribusve consumantur vel dimi- 
nuantur, curet prztor, ut et tutores 
et curatores eo nomine satisdent. 
Sed hoc non est perpetuum ; nam 
tutores testamento dati, satisdare 
non coguntur : quia fides eorum et 
diligentia ab ipso testatore approba- 
taest, Item ex inquieitione tutores 
vel curatores dati, satisdatione non 
onerantur, quia idonei electi sunt. 


It is a branch of the prator’s office 
to see, that tutors and curators give 
a sufficient security for the safety and 
indemnification of their pupils. But 
this is not always necessary; for a 
testamentary tutor te not compelled to 
give security, inasmuch gs his fideli- 
ty and diligence seem sufficiently 
approved of by the testator. Also 
tutors, and curators appointed upon 
inguiry, are supposed to be qualified, 
and therefore not obliged to give se- 

‘curity. 


Quatenus satisdatio in iis, qui satisdare non compelluntur, locum 
habcre possit. 


€ I. Sed, si ex testamento vel 
inquisitione duo pluresve dati fue- 
rint, potest unus offerre satisdation- 
de indemnitate pupilli vel adoles- 
centis, et contutori suo vel concu- 
ratori preferri, ut solus adminis- 
tret ; vel ut contutor aut concurator 
satis offerens preponatur ei, ut et 
ipse solus administret. Itaque per 
se non potest petere satisdationem 
4 contutore vel concuratore ; sed of- 
fcrre debet, ut electionem det con- 
curatori vel contutori suo, utrum 
velit satis accipere, an satisdare. 
Quod si nemo eorum satis offerat, 
siquidem ad:criptum fuerit 4 testa- 
gore, quis gerat, ille gerere debet ; 
‘quod si non fuerit adscriptum, 


§ 1. Jf two, or more, are appoint- 
ed by testament, or by a magistrate, 
after inquirg, to be tutors or curatore, 
any one of them, by offering securi- 
ty, may be preferred to the scle ad- 
ministration, or cause his co-tutor, or 
co-curator, to give security, in ore 
der to be admitted himself to the ad- 
ministration. Thus a man can not 
demand security from his co-tutor cr 
co-curator ; but by offering it him- 
self, he may compel his co-tutor, or 
co-curatcr, to gtve or receive securi- 
ty. When no security is offered, the 
person appointed by the testator must 
be preferred ; but, if no such person 
be appointed, then he must administer 
whom a majority ofthe tutors shall 


56 LIB. I. 


quem fnajor pars elegerit, ipse ge- 
rere debet, ut edicto praetoris cave- 
tur. Sin autem ipsi tutores dissen- 
serint circa eligendum eum vel eos, 
qui gerere debent, pretor partes su- 
‘as interponere debet. Idem et in 
pluribus ex inquisitione datis com- 
probandum est; id est, ut major 
pars eligere possit, per quem admi- 
nistratio fiat. 


PIT. XXIV. 


elect, according to the pratoriat 
edict : if they disagree in their choice, 
the pretor may interpose. The same 
rule is to be observed, when many, 
either tutors or curators, are nomi- 
nated on inquisition by the magis- 
trate, viz. that a majority determinc 
who shall administer. 


Qui ex administratione tutelz vel curationis tenentur. 


§ IL. Sciendum autem est, non 
solüm tutores vel curatores pupillis 
vel adultis, czterisque personis, ex 
administratione rerum teneri : sed 
etiam in eos, qui satisdationem ac- 
cipiunt, subsidiariam actionem es- 
se, que ultimum eis presidium 
possit afferre. Subsidiaria autem 
actio in eos datur, qui aut omninó 
4 tutoribus vel curatoribus satisdari 
non curaverunt, aut non idonée pas- 
81 sunt caveri : que quidem tam ex 
prudentum responsis, quam ex con- 
Btitutionibus imperialibus, etiam in 
heredes eorum extenditur. 


"X. 


€ III. Quibus constitutionibus 
et illud exprimitur, ut, nisi caveant 
tutores et curatores, pignoribus cap- 
tis coerceantur. 


Pd 


§ 2. Jt ie to be noted that tutors 
and curators are not alone subject to 
an action, on account of administer- 
ing the affairs of pupils, minors, and 
others under their protection. For - 
a subsidiary action, which is the last . 
remedy to be used, will also ke a- 
gainst a magistrate either for entire- 
ly omitting to take, or for taking ine 
sufficient sureties: and this action 
according to the answers of the law- - 
yers, as well as by the imperial con- 
stitutions, is extended even against the 
heir of such magistrate. 


Si tutor vel curator cavere nolit. 


§ 3. By the same constitutions it 
is expressly enacted, that tulors and 
curators, who refuse to give caution, 
may be compelled to it. 


-. Qui dicta zctione non tenentur. 


$1IV. Neque autem praefectus 
urbi, neque praetor, neque praeses 
provincie, neque quisquam alius, 
cuitutores dandi jus est, hac ac- 
tione tenebitur: sed hi tantummo- 
do, qui satisdationem exigere so- 
lent. 


.$ 4. Neither the prafect of the 
tity, nor the prator, nor the governor 
of a province, nor any other, who 
has power to assign tutors, shall be 
subject to a subsidiary action: bet 
those magistrates only are liable te 
it. who exact the security. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. XXV. 


59 . 


De tribus tutelz et cure oneribus. 


$ V. Item tria onera tutelz non 
affectat, vel curz, prestant vaca- 
tionem, quamdii administrantur : ut 
tamen, plurium pupillorum tutela 
vel cura eorundem bonorum, velufi 
fratrum, pro unà computetur. 


§ 5. Three tutelages or curator- 
ships unsolicited, excuse during theit- 
continuance, from the burden of a 
fourth. But the tutelage or cura- 
tion of many pupils, as of severalbroe — 
thers, under one patrimony, is reck- 
oned as one only. 


De paupertate. 


§ VI. Sed.et propter pauperta- 
tem excusationem tribui, tam divi 
fratres, quam per se divus Marcus 
rescripsit, si quis imparem se oneri 
injuncto possit docere. 


§ 6. The diyine brothers have de- 
clared by their rescript, and the em- 
peror Marcus also, that poverty is a 
sufficient excuse, when it can be prov- 
ed such, as to render a man incapable 
of the burden imposed upon him. 


De adversá valetudine. 


€ VII. Item propter adversam 
valetudinem, propter quam ne suis 
quidem negotiis interesse potest, 
excusatio locum habet. 


§ 7. Iiinesa also, if it prevent a 
man from transacting his own busi- 
ness, is a sufficient excuse. 


De imperitià literarum. 


$ VIII. Similiter eos, qui literas 
nesciunt, esse excusandos, Divus 
Pius rescripsit; quamvis et impe- 
riti literarum possint ad administra- 
tionem negotiorem sufficere. 


$ 8. By the rescript of the emperor 
Antoninus Pius, illiterate persons 
are to be excused; although in some 
cases they may suffice. 


De inimicitia patris. 


§ IX. Item si propter inimicitias 
aliquem testamento tutorem pater 
dederit, hoc ipsum prestat ei excu- 
sationem ; sicut per contrarium non 
excusantur, qui, ‘se tutelam admi- 


Amistraturos, patri pupillorum promi- 


§ 9. Ifa father through enmity 
appoints any particular person, by 
testament, the motive will afford a 
sufficient excuse. Contrarywise, he 
who by promise hath engaged him- 
self to a testator, can not be excused 


from the office of tutelage. 


ea LIB. I. 


“TIT. XXV. 


De ignorantia tes'a:oria. 


§ X. Non esse autem admitten- 
dam excusationem ejus, qui hoc so- 
lo utitur, quod ignotus patri pupil- 
lorum sit, Divi fratres rescripse- 
runt. 


§ 10. The.dmiue brothers have 
enacted by their rescript, that the 
pretence.of being unknown te the fa- 
ther of apupil is nat of itself a suffi- 


cient excuses. 


De inimicitiis cum patre pupjlli vel adulti. 


§ XI. Inimicitiz, quas quis cum 
patre pupillorum vel adultorum 
exercuit, si capitales fuerunt, nec 
reconciliatio intervenit, à tutelà vel 
cura solent excusare. 


6 11. ‘A capital enmity, against 


- the father of a pupil or adult, unre- 


conciled, is usually considered as an 
excuse from tutelage or curatorship. 


De. status controversiá à patre pupilli illatá. 


§ XII. Item is, qui status con-. 


troversiam à pupillorum patre pas- 
aus est, excusatur à tutelá. 


6 12. Also he, whose condition 
hath been controverted by the father 
of the pupil, is excused from the tu- 
tdage. | 


De state, 


$ XIII. Item major septuaginta 
annis à tutelà et curà se potest ex- 
cusare, Minores autem viginti 
quinque annis olim quidem excusa- 


bantur: nostrà autem constitutione 


prohibentur ad tutelam vel curam 
adspirare : aded ut nec excusatione 
opus sit. Qua constitutione cave- 
tur, ut nec pupillus ad legitimam 
tutelam vocetur, nec adultus: cum 
sit inciyile, eos, qui alieno auxilio 
jn rebus suis administrandis egere 
noscuntur, et ab aliis reguntur, alio- 
rum tutelam vel curam subire, 


§ 13. Persons above seventy yéare 
of age, may be excused from tutelage 
and curation. Also minors were 


formerly excusable ; but, by our con- 


stitution, they are now prohibited 


from aspiring to these trusts ; so that 


excuses are become unnecessary. By 
the same constitution, neither puptte,- 
nor adults , shall be called even to a 

legal''tutelage. For it is absurd 
that persons, who are themselves go- 

verned, and need assistance in the: ad». 
ministration of their oan affaire,. 
should be admitted, either as tutore. 
or curators, to manage the affairs of 
others. 


De militia. 


§ XIV. Idem et in milite obser- 
vadum est, ut' nec volens ad tutelz 
onus admittatur. 


§ 14. Note also, that no military 
person, although willing, can be ad- 
mitted tutor or curator. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. XXV. 


6t 


De grammaticis, rhetoribus, et medicis. 


6$ XV. Item Rome grammatici, 
rhetores, et medici, et qui in patria 
sua has artes exercent, et intra 
numerum sunt, àtutelà'et cura ha- 
bent vacationem. 


$15. At Rome, erammarians, rhe- 
toricians, and physicians, and they 
who exercise such professions in their 
own country, within the number au- 
thorised, are exempted from tutelage 
and curation. 


De tempore et modo proponendt excusationes. 


§ XVI. Qui autem se vult excu- 
sare, si plures habeat. excusationes, 
et de quibusdam non probaverit; 
alis uti, intra tempora constituta, 
non prohibetur. Quiautem excu- 
sare se volunt, non appellant, sed 
ihtra quinquaginta: dies continuos, 
ex quo cognowerint se tutores vel 


curatores.datos, se excusare de- 


bent, cujuscunque generis sint ; id 
est, qualitercunque dati fuerint tu- 
tores, si intra centesimum lapidem 
sint 3b eo loco, ubi tutores dati sunt. 
Si vero ultra centesimum lapidem 
habitant, dinumeratione facta vigin- 
ti millium diurnorum, et amplius 
triginta dierum; qui tamen, ut 
Sczvola dicebat, sic debent compu- 
£ari,ne minus sint, quam quinqua- 
ginta dies, 


$ 16: He who can allege many ex- 
cuses, and hath failed in his proof: 
of some, is not prohibited from as- 
signing others within the time pre- 
scribed. But tutors and curators of 
whatever kind, whether legal, testa- 
mentary, or dative, (if desirous to 
excuse themselves ) ought not to pre- 


Ser an appeal from their appointment; 


but they should exhibit their excuses 
before the proper magistrate, within 


fifty days after they are certified of 


their nomination, if they are within 
an hundred miles from the place of 
nomination. But, if they are distant 
more than an hundred miles, they 
are allowed a day for every twenty 
miles,and thirty days besides; which, 
taken together, ought never, accord- 
ing to Scevola, to make a less num- 


ber of days than fifty. 


De excusatioae pro parte patrimonii. 


§ XVII. Datus autem tutor ad 
universum patrimonium datus esse 
egreditur. 


$ 17. When a tutor is appointed, 
he is considered as having the care 
of the whole patrimony of his pupil. 


De tutelz gestione. 


| & XVIII. Qui tutelam alicujus 
gessit, invitus curator cjusdem ficri 
mon compellitur; in tantum ut, li- 
eet pater-familias, qui testamento 
fgtorem dedit, adjecerit se eundem 


A 


6 18. A tutor of a minor, can not 
be compelled to become his curator: 
and, by the rescript of the emperors 
Severusand Antoninus, although the 

father of a family should, by testa- 


8 LIB. I. TIT. XXVL 


curatorem dare, tamen, invitum ment, appoint any person to be first 
eum curam suscipere non cogen- the tutor of his children, and after- 
dum, divi Severus et Antoninus wards their curator, the person so 
rescripserunt, appointed if unwilling, is not compel- 
lable to serve. 


De marito. 

6 XIX. Iidem rescripserunt, — $ 19. The same emperors have en- 
maritum uxori sus curatorem. da- acted, that a husband may ex- 
tum excusare ee posse, licet se im-  cuse himself from being curator to 
Taisceat. - his wife, even after he hath begun 

£o act. 


De falsis allegationibus. 

§ XX. Si quis autem falsis alle- — 6$ 20. Jf any man by falsc allega- 
gationibus excusationem tutele me- tions, hath merited to be removed 
ruerit, non est liberatus onere tute- /fom tutelage, he is not therefore 
de freed from the burden of this office. 


— dpud m—' 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS-SEXTUS. _ 
DE SUSPECTIS TUTORIBUS VEL CURATORIBUS. 


D. xxvi. T. 10. C. Ve T. 43. 


Unde suspecti crimen descendat. 


‘ SCIENDUM est, suspecti cri- The accusation of a suspected tu- 
men ex lege duodecim tabularum for, or curator, is derived from the 
'descendere. law of the twelve tables. 


Qui de hoc crimine cognoscunt. 


§ I. Datum autem est jus remo-  $ 1. At Rome the power of re- 
vendi tutores suspectos Romz pre- moving suspected tutors belongs to 
tori, et in provinciis praesidibus ea- the pretor ; in the provinces to the 
rum, et legato proconsulis. governors, or to the legate of a 
proconsul. 


LIB. I. 


TIT. XXVI. 


63 


Qui suspecti fieri possunt. 


§ II. Ostendimus, qui possunt 
de suspecto cognoscere; nunc vi- 
' deamus, qui suspecti fieri possint: 
et possunt quidem omnes tutores 
fieri suspecti, sive sint testamenta- 
rii, sive non sint, sed alterius gene- 
ristutores. Quare etsi legitimus 
fuerit tutor, accusari poterit. Quid 
si patronus? Adhuc idem erit di- 


cendum : dummodo meminerimus, 


famz patroni parcendum esse, li- 
cet ut suspectus remotus fuerit. 


6 2. We have shewn what magis- 
trates may take cognisance of suspect- 
ed persons: let us now inquire, what 
persons may become suspected. And 
all tutors may become so, whether 
testamentary, or other. For evena 
legal tutor may be accused ; so may 
a patron: but we must remember, 
that, as such, hts reputation must be 
spared, although he be removed from 
his trust, as a suspected person. 


Qui possunt suspectos postu'are. 


§ III. Consequens est, ut videa- 
mius, qui possint suspectos postu- 
lare. Et sciendum est, quasi pub- 
licam esse hanc accusationem ; hoc 
est, omnibus patere. Quinimo mu- 
lieres admittuntur ex rescripto di- 
vorum Severi et Antonini; sed he 
sole, quz, pietatis necessitudine 
ducte, ad hoc procedunt: ut puta 
mater, nutrix quoque et avia: po- 
test et soror. Sed et, si qua alia 
mulier fuerit, quam pretor propen- 
sa pietate "intellexerit, sexüs vere- 
cundiam non egredientem, sed pie- 
tate productam, non sustinere inju- 
riam pupillorum, admittet eam ad 
accusationem. 


$ 3. Let us then inquire, by whom 
suspected persons may be accused. 
Now an accusation of this sort is ofa 
public nature, and open to ull. For, 
by a rescript of the emperors Scve- 
rus and Antoninus, even women are 
admitted to be accusers ; yet such on- 
ly, as are induced by their duty, or 
by their relation to the minor ; thus 
a mother,a nurse, or agrand-mother, 
or a sister, may become accusers. 
But the pretor can at discretion ad- 
mit any woman, who acting with be- 
coming modesty, but impatient of 
wrongs offered to pupils, appears to 
have no other motive, than to relzeve 
the injured. ° 


An pubes vel impubes. 


€ IV. Impuberes non possunt tu- 
tores suos suspectos postulare: pu- 
beres autem curatores suos ex con- 
silio necessariorum suspectos pos- 
sunt arguere : et ita Divi Severus 
eg Antoninus rescripserunt. 


$ 4. No pupil can bring an accu- 
sation of suspicion against his tutor ; 
but adults, by the rescript of Seve- 
rus and Antoninus, are permitted, 
when they act by advice of persons 
related to ihem,to accuse their cura- 
tors. (Prochein ami.) 


DIVI JUSTINIANI 


 . INSTITUTIONUM 


LIBER SECUNDUS. 


——ÓÓÀ Qa 


TITULUS PRIMUS. 


DE RERUM DIVISIONE, ET ACQUIRENDO EARUM 
DOMINIO: 


D. 1. T. 8. 


C. xi. T. 1. 


Continuatio et duplex rerum divisio. 


SUPERIORE libro de jure per- 
sonarüm exposuimus; modó vi- 
deamus de rebus ; qus velin nos- 
tro patrimonio, vel extrà patrimo- 
nium nostrum, habentur. Quedam 
enim naturali jure communia sunt 
omnium, quaedam publica, quedam 
universitatis, quedam nullius, pler- 
aque singulorum, quz ex variis cau- 
sis cuique acquiruntur, sicut ex sub- 
jectis apparebit. 


We have treated of persons i an the 


- foregoing book; letus now inquire 


concerning things, which may be 
divided into such as are, and such ae 
are not within our patrimony, for | 
some things are in common by the 
law of nature; some are public ; 
some universal ; and some there are, 
to which no man can have a right. 
But most things are the property of 
individuals, by whom they are va- 
viously acquired, as will appear here- 


after. 


De aere, aqua. profluente, mari, littore, &c. 


§ I. Et quidem naturali jure 
communia sunt omnium hec, aer, 
aqua profluens, mare, et per hoc 
littora maris: nemo igitur ad lit- 
tus máris accedere prohibetur; 
dum tamen à villis et monumentis 
et edificiis abstineat : quia non sunt 
juris gentium, sicut est mare. 


$ 1. Things common to mankind 
by the law of nature, are the air, 
running water, the sea, and conse- 
quently the shores of the sea; no 
man therefore is prohibited from 
approaching any part of. the sea- 
shore, whilst he abstains from da- 
maging farms, monuments, edifices, 
&ic. which are not in common as ibe 
sea is 


68 


LIB. Il. 


TIT. I 


ob. De ABABMas e et portubhis. 


§ IT. Flondas autem omnia, et 
portus, publica sunt : ideoque jus 
piscandi omnibus commune est ih 
portu fluminibusque. 


quatenus hybernus fluctus maximus 
excurrit. 


las 
$ IV. Riparum quoque usus pub-..- 
licus est jure gentium, sicut ipsius 
fluminis; itaque naves. ad as ap- 
pellere, funes arboribus ibi natis re- 
ligare, onus aliquod. in. his repo- : 
mere, £uilibet. liberum est, aicut per 
"S$páum )flumen navigare : .. sed. pro- 
* prietus carum dlorum est, .quorum - 
eprediisherentz., qua de:caüsá arbo- 
1 %es quoque in eisdem nate eorun- | 
dem sunt. 


v. "m 


ote LED 


.6.V.. Littorum quoque .usus . 


. publicus est, et juris.gentinm, sicut 
etipsius maris: et ob id. cuilibet 


liberum est casam ibi ponere, in 


quam se recipiat, sicut retia siccare, 

et ex mari: deducere ; "proprietas 

; autem eorum.potest intelligi nullius 

: sed ejusdem juris.esse, eujus, 

- et mare, et, quz subjacet mari, ter- 
ra vel arena. 


. 
Li 
A 


 § vL Universitatis. punt, non 
engulorum, quz in civitatibus sunt, 


$ 2. Rivers and por ports are public ; 


Ame, the right of fishing in a port, 
‘or in rivers arc in common. 


(lx AS 
* Definitio littoris. 
§ III. Est autem littus maris, .. 


§ 3. Allthat tract of land, , over 
which the greatest winter flood ex- 


, tends itself, is the sca-shorc. 


, De usu. et proprietate. pparum. : — 


;$ 4. By the law of nations the u use 
of the banks is as public as the ri- 
vers; . therefore all persons are af 
equal liberty to land their vessels, 
unload ‘them, vand to fasten ropes te 
-¢reesuipon. the banks, as to navigate 


‘upon the river, itself; still, the hanke 


.ef a.river are the. property of those 
ulia possess the land adjoining; and 
. therefore she trees which grow upon, 
them, arc. also the Property M the 
same persons. 


FN 2 Jaid.. var 


De usu et proprietate. litorum. 


« $ 5. The use of the sea-shore, as 
well as of the sea, i. alsa public by 
the law of nations ;. and therefore 
any person may erect acottage upon 
it, to which he may, resort to dry 


“his nets, and hawl them from the 
- water.;. for the shores are nat un- 


derstood to be property in any man, 
but are compared to.the sca itself, and 


- £o, khe sand or gro t which is under 


the sea. 


"De rebus universitatis. 


6 6. Theatres, ground appropri- 
ated for a race, or public exercise, 


‘VIB. 1T. FT. I. 


a9 


‘theatta, stadia, et‘his‘simllia, et si -and things of this nature, which be- 


^qua'alia sunt conimudia civitatum. 


long toa whole city, are public, and 
not private property. 


De rehus nullius. 


§ vin. Nullius autem sunt’ res 


sacra, et religiose, et sancte : quod 


§ 7. Things sacred, religious and 
holy, belong to no individual: for 


enim divini juris est, id nullius "in ‘that ‘which is of divine right, is not 


* Bontis est. 


1 


 $ VIII. Sattz'tes*sunt, que rite - 
er pon&fees Deo tonsecratz sum ; 
' Véluti"&des Batre) et donaria, que 
ite ad aifnisteFhim: Dei dedicata 
‘gine #° quai ekiant ‘per nostrurà cbn- 
stiditionen? aliehari et obi nzari: pro- 
hibubfiias, xcept?’ causa redemp-. 
tionis captivorum. Si quis autem 
auctoritate sug quasi sacrum: sibi 
constituerit, sacrum non est, sed 
 ptofánüm. " Locus: autem," in^quo 


diruto edifitio, sacer adhuc nianet, 
ut et Papinianus scripsit. 


| private property. 


- De rebus -sacris. 


7$ 8. Things, which -have been 
-uly consecrated by the pontiffs, are 
-sacred; -as churches, chapels, and 
rioteables, properly dedicated to the 
service of God: which we have 
- forbidden by our constitution to be a- 


- liened or obligated, unless fot the re- 


demption of captives. But, if a 
man should consecrate a building 
by his own authority, it would not 


- thus be rendered sacred; but the 
edes sacre sünt wdificate, etiam, - 


ground upon which a sacred edifice 


- hath once been erected, will, accord- 
"ing to Papinian, continue to be sac- 
: red, although the edifice és destroyed. 


De religiosis. 


' § TX. Religiósüm locum unus- 
'quiique suà volüntate facit, ‘dum 


"códmuhemi autem locum purum, 
 Wüvito &6cio, iàferré' hon licet : in 


"éonmrtHiune verb sepulchrum. etiam, | 


invitis cseteris, licet inferre. Item, 
si alienus ususfructus ést, proprie- 
tarium placet, nisi consentiente usu- 
" "fructuario, locum religiosum non fa- 
^ébre. In alienum locum, cpnsenti- 
s» eme domino, licét inferre; et, li- 
Tit postea ratum non habuerit, quam 


mortuum 'infert tn locum suum: in : 


§ 9.. Any man may at his will 
render his own place religiaus, by 
making it the repository of a dead 
body ; yet, when two are joint pos- 
sessors of ground, not before used for 
such a purpose, the one cannot make it 
religious without consent of the other. 
But, when there is a. sepulchre in 
common, any joint possessor may use 
it, although the rest dissent. And, 
when there is a proprietor, and an 
usufructuary, of the same placc, 
the proprietor; without the consent of 


“70 LIB. 1I. 


illatus est mortüus, tamen locus re- 
ligiosus fit. 


.&he usufractuary,. caynot render. it 
. religious. - Buta dead body may be 


laid in a place, with consent of the 
gwner ; who if he should afterwards 


-dissent, yet the place becomes refie 


gious. i 


De rebus sanctis. 


$ X. Sancte quoque res,. veluti 
muri et portz civitatis, quodammo- 
do divini juris sunt; et ideo nul- 
lius in bonis sunt. . Ideó autem mu- 
‘ros sanctos dicimus, quia pena ca- 
pitis constituta est in eos, qui ali- 
.quid in muros deliquerint. Ideó 
et legum eas partes, quibus penas 
constituimus adversus eos, qui con- 
tra leges fecerint, sanctiones. voca- 
mus. 9 


§ 10. Holy things also, as the 
walls and gates of a city, are in 
some sort of divine right, and there- 


fore the property of no man. The 
. walls of a city are esteemed holy, in- 
. aemuch as any offence against them 
ja punished capitally :;and therefore, 


all those parts of the laws, by which 


. punishments are-tnfliched upon trgns- 


gressors, age term sanctions, ." 


De rebus singulorum. 


“4 XI: Singulorum autem homi- : 


num multis modis res fiunt : quarun- 
dum enim, .rerum dominium nan- 
cisimur jure naturali, quod, sicut 
diximus, appellatur jus gentium ; 
, quarundum vero jure civili. Com- 
modiüs est itaque à vetustiore jure 
incipere. Palàm est autem, vetus- 
tius esse jus naturale, quod cum ip- 


so genere humano rerum natura . 
Civilia autem jura tunc , 


prodidit. 
' esse ceperunt, cum et civitates con- 


di, et magistratus creari et leges. 


. scribi, ceperunt. 


, perty. 


^6 11. There are various eane, 
by whichthings become private pro- 
Of some we obtqin dominion 
by the law of nature, which (as we 
have already observed) is also called 
the law of nations; of others by the 
civil law. But it will be most con- 
venient to begin fromthe more ancient 
daw ; that law, which nature estab- 
lished at the birth of mankind; for 


:€ivi] laws could then only begin to 


exist, when cities began to be built, 


-magistracies to be created, and laws 
. to be written. 


De occupatione ferarum. 


6 XII. Fere igitur bestie, et vo- 
lucfes, ct pisces, et oninia animalia, 
que mari, cclo, ct terrà nascuntur, 
simul atque ab aliquo capta fuerint, 
jure gentium statim illius essc in- 


8.12. Wild beasts, birds » fish, and 
gll animals, bred either in the sea, 
the air, or upon the earth, so soon 
as they are taken, become by the law 
of nations, the property of the cap- 


LIB. II. 


cipiunt : quod enim ante nullius est, 
id naturali ratione occupanti conce- 
ditur: nec interest, feras bestias et 
volucres utrim in suo fundo quis 
capiat, an in alieno. Plane, qui 
alienum fundum ingreditur venandi 
ut aucupandi gratia, potest à domi- 
ao, 51 is previderit, prohiberi, ne 
ingrediatur. Quicquid autem eo- 
rum ceperis, eousque tuum esse in- 
telligitur, donec tua custodia coerce- 
_ tur ; cum vero tuam evaserit custo- 


} et in libertatem naturalem 
sese perit, tuum esse desinit, 


et^rursus occupantis fit. Naturalem 
autem libertatem recipere intelligi- 
tur, cum vel oculos tuos effugerit, 
vel ita sit in conspectu tuo, ut diffi- 
cilis sit ejus persecutio. 


TIT. I. 71 


tor: for natural reason gives to the 


first occupant, that which had no 
previous owner: and it is not mate- 
rial, whether aman take wild beasts 
or birds upon his own, or upon the 
ground of another: although whoe 
ever hath entered into the ground 
of another for the sake of hunting or 
fowling, might have been prohibited 
by the proprietor, if he had foreseen 
the intent. Whatever of this kind you 
take, is regarded as your property: 
while it remains under your coercion; 
but when it hath escaped your custo- 
dy, and recovered its natural liberty, ° 
it ceases to be yours and becomes the 
property of the first who seizes it. 
Jt is understood to have recovered its 
natural liberty, if it hath escaped 
your sight; or although not out of 
sight, yet if it cannot be pursued and 
retaken without great difficulty. 


De vulneratione. 


§ XIII. Illud quesitum est, an 
si fera bestia ita vulnerata sit, ut 
capi possit, statim tua esse intelliga- 
tur. Et quibusdam placuit, statim 
esse tuam, et eousque tuam videri, 
donec eam persequaris: quod si 
desieris persequi, desinere tuam es- 
se, et rursus fieri occupantis: alii 
veró putaverunt, non aliter tuam es- 
se, quam si eam ceperis. Sed pos- 
teriorem sententiam nos confirma- 
mus, quod multa accidere soleant, 
Wut cam non capias. 


$ 13. Jt hath been questioned, 
whether a wild beast belongs to him, 
by whom it hath been so wounded, 
that it may be taken. And, in the opi- 
nion of some, it doth so, as long as 
he pursues it; but, if he quits the 
pursuit, it ceases to be his, and again 
becomes the right of the first occu- 
pant. Others have thought, that pre- 
perty in a wild beast must attach to 
the actual taking it. We confirm this 
latter opinion; because many acci- 
dents happen, which prevent the 
capture. - 


32 


§ XIV. Apium quoque fera naz 
tura est: itaque apes, que in ar- 
Bore tua consederint, antequam à te 
alveo incladantur, non magis tus 
intelliguntur. esse, quam volucres, 
quz in arbore tua nidum fecerit: 
jdeóque, si-alius eas incluserit, is 
earum dominus erit. Favos quoque; 
si quos effecerint, eximere quilibet 
potest. Plané integrá re, si previ- 
deris ingredientem fundum tuum, 
poteris eum jure prohibere, ne in- 
grediatur. Examen quoque, quod 
ex alveo tuo evolaverit, eousque in- 
telligitur esse tuum, donec in con- 
spectu tuo est, nec difficilis perse- 
cutic ejus est ; alioquin, occupantis 


LIB Ij. 
De apibus. 


TRL 


§:14. Bees also are wild by na» 
ture: therefore, alth ough they stars 
upon your tree, they are not reputed, 
until. they are hived by you, to be 
more your property; than the birds, 
which have nésts there: a0, if: any 
other person inclose ‘them in a'hisej 
fre becomes their. proprietor. “Theis 
honeycombs also, ‘if-any, become the 
property of him who takes them: but 
clearly, if you observe any. person 
entering into your éróun e ob 
ject untouched, you may justliifRinder 
him. A swarm, which hath Moos 
from your hive, is still reputed te 
continue yours, as long as it ia in 
sight, and may easily be pursued ; 
but, in any other case, will become 
the property of the occupant. 


De pavonibus et columbis, et czteris animalibus mansuefactis. 


€ XV. Pavonum quoque et co- 
lumbarum fera natura est; nec ad 
rem pertinet, quod ex consuetudine 
evolare et revolare solent ; nam ct 
apes idem faciunt, quarum constat 
feram esse naturam. Cervos quo- 
que quidem jta mansuetos habent, 
ut in silvam ire et redire soleant, 
quorum et ipsorum feram esse natu- 
ram nemo negat, Iniis autem ani- 
malibus, quz ex consuetudine abire 
et rediré solent, talis regula com- 
probata est; ut eousque tua esse 
intelligantur, donec animum rever- 
tendi habeant: nam, si revertendi 
animum habere desierint, etiam tua 
esse dveinunt, et funt occupan- 


$ 15. Peacocks and Pidgeons are 
also naturally wild ; nor is it any ob- 
jection’ that after’ every flight; it is 
their custom to return: for bees that 
are naturally wild, do so toc. Some 
háye had deer so tame, that they 
would go to the woods, and returh 
at regular periods ; yet no one de- 
nies, but that deer are wild by nature. 
But, with respect to animals, which 
go and return customarily, the rule 


ds,that they are considered yours, as 


dong as they retain an inclinaticn to 
return; but, if this ceases, they.cease 
to be yours ; and will again become 
the property of those who take them. 
These anzmals seem to have lost the 


LIB. 


tium. Revertendi autem animum 
videntur desinere habere tunc, cum 
revertendi consuetudinem deserue- 
rint. 


De gallinis 
$ XVI. Gallinarum autem et an- 
serum non est fera natura: idque 
ex eo, possumus intelligere, quod 
alie sunt galline, quas feras voca- 
mus ; item alii sunt anseres, quos 
feros appellamus : ideóque, si anse- 
res tui, aut gallinz tus, aliquo modo 
turbati curbateve evolaverint, licet 
conspectum tuum effugerint, quo- 
cümque tamen loco sint, tui tuzve 
esse intelliguntur; et, qui lucrandi 
animo ea animalia detinet, furtum 
committere intelligitur. 


II. 


TIT. I. 73 


inclination to return, when they dis- 
use the custom of returning. 


ct anseribus. 


$ 16. But geese, and fowls arc not 
wild by nature; and this we may 
observe, because there is a kind of 
fowls and gcese, which in contra- 
distinction we term wild ; and therc- 
Sore if your geese or fowls, being dis- 
turbed und frightened, should take 
flight, they are still regarded as youre 
whercver found, although you may 
have lost sight of them; and who. 
ever detains such animals, with & 
lucrattve view, is understood to come 
mit a theft. 


De occupatione in beo. 


§ XVII. kem ea, quie ex hosti- 
bus capimus, jure gentium statim 
nostra fiunt; adéo quidem, ut et li- 
beri homines in servitutem nostram 
deducantur; qui tamen, si evase- 
TiBt nostram potestatem, et ad suos 
reversi fuerint, pritinum statum 


recipiunt. 


$ 17. What we take from our 
enemies in war, becomes instant- 
ly our own by the law of nations ; 
so that.free-men may be brought in- 
toa state of servitude by capture y 
but, tf they afterwards escape, and 
return to their own. people, they ob- 
tatn again their former state. 


De occupatione corum, quz in littore inveniuntur. — .., 


6 XVIII. Item lapilli, et. gem- 
mize, ct cetera, que in littore maris 
Saveniuntwr, jure naturali statim 
imventoris iunt. 


§ 18. Precious stones, gems and . 
other things, found upon the sea- 
shore, become instantly by the law 
of nations, the property of the find- 


er. 


De fotu animalium. 


* XIX. Item.en, que ex animali- 


6 19. The product of those ani- 


‘fous dominio tuo subjectis nata sunt, male, which are reduced to our stile 


eodem jure tibi acquiruntur. 


jection, becomes by the same law, our 
own. P 


I. 


v4 


LIB. IL. ‘TIT. I. 


De alluvione. , 


6 XX. Preteréa, quod per allu- 
vionem agro tuo flumen adjecit, jure 
gentium tibi acquiritur. Est au- 
tem alluvio incrementum latens. 
Per alluvionem autem id videtur 
. adjici, quod ita paulatim adjicitur, 
ut intelligi non possit, quantum quo- 


vue temporis momento adjiciatur. . 


6 20. Moreover, that ground which 
a river hath added to your estate by 
alluvion, becomes your own by the 
law of nations. And that is said to 
be alluvion, which is added so eradu- 
ally, that no one can judge how 
much is added at each moment of time. 


De vi fluminis. 


. $ XXI. Quod si vis luminis de 
tuo predio partem aliquam detraxe- 
rit, et vicini predio attulerit, palàm 
est, eam tuam permanere : plané 
si longiore tempore fundo vicini tui 
. heserit ; arboresque, quas secum 
traxerit, in eum fundum radices 
egerint; ex eo tempore videntur 
vicini fundo aequisite esse. 


§ 21. But, if the tmpetuosity of a 
river should sever a part of your - 
estate, and adjoin it to that of your 
neighbour, it is certain, such part 
would still continue yours; but, if 
it should remain, for a long time, 
Joined to the estate of your neighbour, 
and the trees, which accompanied 1t, 
take root in his ground, such trees 
seem, from the time of taking root, 
to be acquired to his estate. 


De insula. | 
$. XXII. Insula, que in mari est. , $6 22. When an tsland rises in the 


. (quod raró accidit) occupantis fit: 
nullius enim esse creditur. At in- 
"Sula in flumine nata (quod frequen- 
ter accidit) si quidem mediam par- 
tem fluminis tenet, communis est 
eorum, qui ab utráque parte fluminis 
prope ripam predia possident, pro 
anodo scilicet latitudinis cujusque 


praedii, que prope ripam sit: quod, 


$i alteri proximior sit parti, eorum 
est tantum, qui ab ea parte prope .ri- 
pam predia possident. Quod si 
qua parte divisum sit flumen, dein- 
de infra unitum agrum alicujus in 
formam msulz redegerit, ejusdem 


sea, ( which rarely happens ) the pro- 
perty of it is in the occupant; for 
before occupation, it is in no one. 
But if an island rises in a river, 
(which frequently happens) and is 
placed exactly in the middle of it, 
such island shall be in common to 
them, who possess the lands near the 
banks on each side of the river, in 
proportion to the extent of each man’s 
estate adjoining the banks. But, if 
the islund is nearer to one stde than 
the other, it belongs to them only, 
who possess lands next to the banks 
on that side, to which the island 3s 


LIB. II. 


permanet is ager, cujus et fuerat. 


TIT. I. 75 


nearest. But, 1f a river divides itself 
an. af erwards unites again, having 
reduced a tract of land into theform 
of an island, the land still continues : 
to be the property of the former 
owner. 


De alveo. 


€ XXIII. Quod si, naturali al- 
veo inuniversum derelicto, ad aliam 
partem fluere coperit, prior quidem 
alveus eorum est, qui prope ripam 
ejus predia possident; pro modó 
scilicet latitudinis cujusque agri, 
que prcpe ripam sit ; novus autem 
alveus ejus juris esse incipit, cujus 
et ipsum flumen est, id est, publicus: 
quod si post aliquod tempus ad prio- 
rem alveum reversum fucrit flumen, 
rursis novus alveus eorum essc in- 
cipit, qui prope ripam ejus predia 
possident. 


§ 23. Ifa river, entirely forsake 
ing its natural channel, hath began 
to flow elsewhere, the first channel 
appertains to those, who possess the 
lands close to the banks of it, in pro- 
portion to the extent of each man’s 
estate next to such banks: and the 
new channel partakes of the nature of 
the river, and becomes public. And, 
if after some time the river returns 
to its former channel, the new chan- 
nel again becomes the property of 
those who possess the lands conti- 
guous its banks. 


De inundatione. 


§ XXIV. Alia sané causa est, si 
cujus totus ager inundatus fuerit ; 
neque enim inundatio fundi speciem 
commutat: et ob id, si recesserit 
aqua, palàm est eum fundum ejus 
manere, cujus et fuit. 


§ 24. It is otherwise as to lands, 
which are overflowed only: for an 


. inundation alters not the face and 


nature of the earth; and therefore, 
when the waters have receded, it is 
clear that the property will still re- 
mainin the same owner. 


De specificaticne. ° 


§ XXV. Cum ex aliena materia 
species aliqua facta sit ab aliquo, 
quzri solet, quis eorum naturali ra- 
tione dominus sit: utrum is, qui 
fecerit, an potius ille, qui mate- 
riz dominus fuerat: ut eccé, si 
quis ex alienis uvis, aut olivis, 
gut spicis, vinum, aut oleum, aut 
Írumentum, fecerit; aut cx alieno 


§ 25. When a man hath made any 
specics, or kind of work, with mate- 
rials belonging to another, it is cf- 
ten asked, which ought, in natural 
reason, to be deemed the master of it : 
whether he who gave the form, 
or he, who owned the materials ? as, 
if any person should make wine, cil 
or flower, from the grapes, olives, or 


76 LIB. II. 


auro, vel argento, vel ere, vas ali- 
quod fecerit; vel ex alieno vino et 
melle mulsum miscuerit; vel ex 
medicamentis alienis. emplastrum 
aut collyrium composuerit ; vel ex 
aliená lana vestimentum fecerit ; 
vel ex alienis tabulis navem, vel ar- 
marium, vel subsellia, fabricaverit. 
Dt, post multam Sabinianorum et 
et Proculianorum ambiguitatem, 
placuit media sententia existimanti- 
um, si ea species ad priorem et ru- 
dem materiam reduci possit, eum 
videri dominium esse, qui materiz 
dominus fuerit; si non possit re- 
duci, eum potius intelligi dominum, 
qui fecerit; ut ecce, vas conflatum 
potest ad rudem materiam eris, vel 
argenti, vel auri, reduci: vinum au- 
tem, vel oleum, aut frumentum, ad 
uvas, velolivas, vel spicas, reverti 
non potest: ac ne mulsum. quidem 
ad vinum et mel resolvi potest. 
Quod si partim ex sua materia, par- 
tim ex aliená, speciem aliquam fece- 
Tit quis ; veluti ex suo vino et alie- 
no melle mulsum miscuerat; aut 
ex suis ct alienis medicamentis cm- 
plastrum aut collyrium; aut ex sua 
laná vestimentum fecerit; dubitan- 
dum non est, hoc casu, eum esse do- 
minum, qui fecerit : cum non solám 
operam suam dederit, set ¢t partem 
ejusdem materie praestiterit. 


] TIT. I. 


corn of another ; cast a vessel out 
of gold, silver, or brass, belonging 
to another; make mead or mulse 
with the wine and honey of another; 
compose a plaster, or cye water 
with another man’s medicines ; 
make a garment with another's wool; 
or fabricate, with the timber of 
another, a bench, a ship, or a chest ? 
After much controversy, between 
the Sabinians and Proculians, we 
were best pleased with the middle 
opinion of those who thought that, if 
the species or manufactured article 
can be reduced to its former rude ma- 
terials, then the owner of such mate- 
rials is also to be reckoned the Owner 
of the species: but, if the species can 
not be so reduced, then he, who made 
it, is understood to be the owner of it : 
for example; avessel can casily be 


reduced to the rude mass of brass, sil- 


ver, or gold, of which it was made ; 
but wine, oil, or flower, cannot be 
converted into grapes, olives, or corn ; 
neither can mulse be separated into 
wine and honey. But, if a -man 
makes any species, partly with his 
own, and partly with the materials of 
another: as,if he should make mulse 
with his own wine, and another’s ho- 
ney ; or a plaster or eye-water, partly 
with his own, and partly with ano- 
ther man’s medicines ; or should make 
a garment with an intermixture of 
his own wool with that of another ; 
it is not to be doubted in such 
cases, but that he, who made the spc- 
cles, 7s master of it; since he not 
only gave his labour, but furnighed 
also a part of the materials. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. J. 77 


De accessione. 


6 XXVI. Si tamen alienam pur- 
puram vestimento quo quis intertex- 
uerit, licet pretiosior sit purpura, ta- 
men aceessionis vice cedit vestirhen- 
to: et, qui dominus fuit purpurs, 
adversus eum, qui surripuit, habet 
furti actionem et condictionem, sive 
ipse sit, qui vestimentum fecit, sive 
alius : nam extincti res licet vindi- 
cari non posSint, condici tamen à 
furibus ct quibusque aliis possesso- 
ribus possunt. 


$ 26. If any man shall have in- 
terwoven the purple of another into 
his own vestment, then the purple, 
although more valuable, appertains 
to the vestment by accession : and 
the owner of the purple, may have 
an action of theft, and a personal ac- 
tion, called a condiction, against the 
purloiner; whether the vestment was 
made by him, or by another: for al- 
though things, which become, as it 
were, extinct by the change of their 
form, can not be recovered identi- 
cally, yet a condiction lies for the va- 
lue of them, either against the thief, 
or amy other possessor. 


De confusione. 


$ XXVIT. Si duorum materie 
voluntate dominorum confusz sint, 
totum id corpus, quod ex confusione 
fit, utriusque commune est: veluti 
si qui vina sua confuderint, aut mas- 
sas argenti vel auri conflaverint. 
Sed, etsi diverse materiz sint, et 
ob id propria species facta sit, forté 
ex vino et melle mulsum, aut cx 
auro et argento electrum, idem juris 
ést: nam et hoc casu, communem 
esse speciem, non dubitatur. Quod 
si fortuitó et non voluntate domino- 
rum confuse fuerint vel ejusdem 
generis materie, vel diverse, idem 
juris esse placuit. | 


. § XXVIII. Quod si frumentum 
Titii frumento tuo mistum fuerit, 
siquidem voluntate vestrá, commu- 


d 


6 27. Jf materials belonging to 
two persons are mingled by mutual 
consent, the whole mass, is common 
to both proprietors: as if they shall 
have intermixed their wines, or 
melted together their gold or silver. 
The same rule obtains, if Wiverse 
substances are so incorporated, as to 
become one species: as when mulse 
is made with wine and honey; or 
electrum by fusing together gold and 
silver: here no doubt, the species be- 
comes common: and so it is,when st- 
milar or even different substances, are 
incorporated fortuitously, xvithout 
the consent of their proprictors. 


De commixtione. 


$ 28. Jf the corn of Titius hath 
been mixed with yours by consent, 
the heap is in common; because the 


78 LIB. II. 


ne est; quia singula corpora, id 
est, singula grana, quz cujusque 
propria fuerunt, consensu vestro 
communicata sunt. Quod si casu 
id mistum fuerit, vel Titius id mis- 
cuerit sine tua volnntate, non vide- 
tur commune esse: quia singula 
corpora in sua substantia durant. 
Sed nec magis istis casibus com- 
mune fit frumentum, quam grex in- 
telligitur esse communis, si pecora, 
Titii, tuis pecoribus mista fuerint. 
Sed, si ab alterutro vestrum, totum 
id frumentum retineatur, in rem 


quidem actio pro modo frumenti: 


cujusque competit: arbitrio autem 
judicis continetur, ut ipse zstimet, 
quale cujusque frumentum fuerit. 


De his que solo cedunt. 


TIT. I. 


single bodies or grains, which were 
the private property of each, are, 
with your consent, intermixed. But, 
if the intermixture were accidental, 
or if Titius made it without consent» 
it then seems that the corn is not in 
common ; bccause the grains still ree 
main distinct, and in their proper 
substance; for corn, in such a case, 
no more becomes in common, than a 
flock would be, if the sheep of Titius 
should intermix with yours. But, if 
the whole quantity of corn should be 
retained by either of you, then an 
action in rem lies for each man’s por- 
tion; and it is the duty of the judge 
to make an estimate of the quality, 
or value, of each portion. 


De zdificatione in suo solo ex aliena 


materiá. 


§ XXIX. Cum in suo solo ali- 
quis ex aliena materia edificaverit, 
ipse intelligitur dominus zdificii: 
quia omne, quod solo inzdificatur, 
solo cedit. Nec tamen ideo is, qui 
materie dominus fuerat, desinit do- 
minus ejus esse: sed tantisper ne- 
que vindicare eam potest, neque ad 
exhibendum de cà re agere, propter 
legem duodecim tabularum, quá ca- 
vetur, ne quis tignum alienum zdi- 
bus suis junctum eximere cogatur, 
sed duplum pro eo przstet, per ac- 
. tionem, que vocatur, de tigno sunc- 
to. Appellatione autem tigni, omnis 


materia significatur, ex qua edificia 


fiant. Quod ideó provisum est, ne 
edificia rescindi necesse sit. Quod 
si aliqua ex causa dirutum sit edifi- 
cium, poterit materie dominus, si 
non fuerit duplum jam consequutus, 


$ 29. lf a man hath raised a 
building upon his own ground 
with the materials of another, he 
is considered the proprietor: for 
every building is an accession to 
the ground upon which it stands. 
But, the owner of the matertals, does 
not lose his right of ownership ; for 
though he cannot demand them speci- 

fecally, or bring an action for the ex- 
hibition of them ; since it is provid- 
ed, by a law of the twelve - tables, 
that a person who has used the ma- 
terials of another, cannot be compel- 
led to separate them from the build- 
ing; yet by the action, de tigno 
juncto, he may be obliged to pay dou- 
ble value: (all materials for build- 
eng are comprehended under the ge- 
neral term tignum.) The above 
cited provision, in the law of the 


LIB. II. 


tinc eam vindicare, et ad exhiben- 
dum de ea re agere. 


De edificatione ex sua 

§ XXX. Ex diverso, si quis in 
alieno solo ex sua materia domum 
edificaverit, illius fit domus, cujus 
et solum est. Sed hoc casu, materie 
dominus proprietatem ejus amittit, 
quia voluntate ejus intelligitur esse 
alienata; utique si non ignorabat, 
se in alieno solo edificare : et ideo, 
licet diruta sit domus, materiam ta- 
men vindicare non potest. Certé 
illud constat, si, in posscssione con- 
stituto zdificatore, soli dominus pe- 
tat domum suam esse, nec solvat 
pretium materia et mercedes fabro- 
rum, posse eum per exceptionem 
doli mali repelli; utiqué si bone 
fidei possessor fuerit, qui zedificavit. 
Nam scienti, solum alienum esse, 
potest objici culpa, quod zedificave- 
rit temeré in eo solo, quod intelli- 


gebat alienum esse. 


TIT. I 79 


twelve tables, was made to pre- 
vent the demolition of buildings. 
But, if it happen, that in any case, 
a builaing should be dissevered, or 
pulled down, then the owner of the 
materials, if he hath not already ob- 
tained double the value of them, is not 
prohibited from claiming his identical 
materials, and to bring his action ad 
exhibendum. . 


materiá in solo alieno. 


§ 30. On the contrary, if a man 
shall have built with his own mate- 
rials upon the ground of another, the 
edifice becomes the property of him 
to whom the ground belongs: in this 
case the owner of the materials loses 
his property, because he is understood 

to have madea voluntary alienation 
of it, if he knew he was building upon 
another's land; therefore, if the edi- 
fice should fall, or be pulled down, 
such person cannot, even then, claim 
the materials. But it is clear, that if 
the builder be in confirmed posses- 
sion, and the proprietor of the ground 
should claim the edifice as his, and 
refuse to pay the price of the mate- 
rials and the wages of the workmeny 
he may be repelled by an exception 
of fraud : provided the builder was in 
possession bona fide. Otherwise it 
might be fairly objected, “that he 
had built rashly upon that ground, 
which he hnew to be the property of 
another.” 


De plantatione. 


§ XXXI. Si Titius alienam plan- 
. tem in solo suo posuerit, ipsius erit; 


6 51. Jf "Titius sets another man’s 
plant in his own ground, the plant 


eo 
et ex diverso, si Titius suam plan- 
‘tam in Mevii solo posuerit, Mzvii 
planta erit; si modo utroque casu 
radices egerit: ante enim quam ra- 
dices egerit, ejus permanet, cujus 
fuerat. Aded autem ex co tempore, 
quo radices egerit planta, proprie- 
tas ejus commutatur, ut, si vicini 
arbor ita terram Titi presscrit, ut 
in ejus fundum radices egerit, Ti- 
tii effici arborem dicamus: ratio 
enim non patitur, ut alterius arbor 
esse intelligatur, quam cujus in fun- 
dum radices egerit: et ideó, circa 
tonfinium arbor posita, si etiam ih 
vicini fundum radices egerit, com- 
munis fit. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. I. - 
will belong to "Titius : on the contra- 
ry, if Titus shall have set his owh 
plant in Mevius’s ground, the plant 
will belong to Mevius ; provided in 
either case, it hath taken root; for, 
until then, the property remains in 
him who planted it. But from the 
instant it hath taken root, the pro- 
perty is changed: so that, if the 
tree of a neighbour borders so close- 
ly upon the ground of Titius, as to 
take root in it, and be wholly nou- 
rished there, we may affirm, that 
euch tree is become the property of 
Titius: for reason doth not permit, 
that a tree should be deemed the pro- 
perty of any other, than of htm, in 
whose ground it hath rooted: there- 

fore, if a tree, planted meter the 


_ bounds of one person, shaft also ex- 


tend its roots into the lands of ano- 
ther, 1t will become common to both. 


De satione. 


$ XXXII. Qui ratione autem 
plante, que terre coalescunt, solo 
cedunt, eadem ratione frumenta 
quoque, quz sata sunt, solo cedere 


intelliguntur. Ceterum sicut is, qui 


in alieno solo zdificavit, si ab co 
dominus petat edificium, defendi 
potest per exceptionem "doli mali, 
secundum ea, que diximus; ita e- 
jusdem exceptionis auxilio, tutus 
esse potest is, qui alienum fundum 
sua impensa bona fide consevit. 


§ 32.. As plants appertain to the 
soil, in which they have rooted, sb 
grain also is understood to follow the 
property of that ground, in which it 
?ssowed. But as he, who hath built 
upon the ground of another, may ( ac- 
cording to what we havesaid) be 
defended by an exception of fraud, 
if the proprietor of the ground should" 
demand the edifice; so he, who at 
his own expense and bona fide hath 
sowed in ancther man’s land, may 
also be benefitted by the help of this 
except:on. 


De scriptura. 


$ XXXIII. Litere quoque, licet 
aurez sint, pcrindé chartis mem- 


§ 33. As whatever is butlt upon, 
or sowed in the ground, belongs to 


LIB. II. 


branisve cedunt, ac solo cedere so- 
lent ea, que inzdificantur, aut in- 
seruntur. Idedque, si in chartis 
mémbranisve tuis carmen vel his- 
toriam vel orationem Titius scrip- 
serit, hujus corporis non Titius, sed 
tu dominus esse videris. Sed, si 
à Titio petas tuos libros, tuasve 
membranas, nec impensas scripture 
solvere paratus sis, poterit se Titius 
defendere per exceptionem doli ma- 
li, utique si earum chartarum mem- 
branarumve possessionem bona fide 
nactus est. 


TIT. I. 8t 
that ground by accession; so lettera 
also, although written ‘with’ trold, ap- 
pertain to the paper or parchment, 
upon which they are written. And 
therefore, if Titius shall have written 
a poem, a history, or an oration, upe 
on your paper or parchment, then you 
and not Titius will be deemed the 
owner of the written paper. But if 
you demand the books or parchments 

from Titius, and refuse to defray 
the. expense of the writing, thei 
Titius can defend imself by an ex- 
ception of fraud: allowing that he 
obtained possession of such papers 
and parchments bona fide. 


De pictura. 


§ XXXIV. Si quis in aliena ta- 
bula pinxerit, quidam putant tabu- 
lam picture cedere : aliis videtur, 
picturam (qualiscunque sit) tabulz 
cedere: sed nobis videtur meliis 
esse, tabulam picture cedere : ridi- 
culum est enim, picturam Apellis 
vel Parrhasii in accessionem vilis- 
sime tabule cedere. Unde, si à 
domino tabulz imaginem possidente 
1s, qui pinxit, eam petat, nec solvat 
pretium tabulz, poterit per excep- 
tionem doli mali submoveri. At, 
si is, qui pinxit, eam possidea:, con- 
sequens est, ut utilis actio domino 
tabulz adversus eum detur: quo ca- 
~su, si non solvat impensam picture, 
poterit per exceptionem doli mali 
repelli: utique si bone fidei pos- 
sessor fuerit ille, qui picturam im- 
posuit. Iilud enim palàm est, quod 


§ 34. Jf any man shall have paint 
ed upon the tablet of another, some, 
think, that the tablet should yield to 
the picture ; others, that the picture 
(whatever the quality of it may be) 
should accede to the tablet. Tous it 
seems the better opinion, that the tablet 
should accede to the picture; for it 
is ridiculous, that the painting of ax 
Apelles, or a Parrhasius, should 
yield as an accession, to a worthless 
tablet. But if the painter demand 
the tablet, from the owner and pos- 
sessor, without offering the price of 
it, then such demandant may be de- 

feated by an exception of fraud : but, 
if the painter isin possession of the 
picture, the owner of the tablet is in- 
titled to an action called utilis, :. e. 
beneficial; in which case, if the owne 
er of the tablet demands it, and does 


M 


, 


| sive 15, qui pinxit, surripuit tabulas, 
sive alius, competit domino tabu- 


larum farti actio. 


LiB. II. 


Tir. Y. 


not tender the value of the picture, he 
may also be repelled by an exception 
of fraud, provided the paier ob- 
tained porecsston Jüirly. Bat, if 
he, or any ther, shall have taken a- 

way the tabet Jeloniotisly, it is evi- 
dent, that the owner may prosecute 
by any attion of theft. 


De fructibus bona fide perceptis. 


.$ XXXV. Si quis. à non domino, 
quem. dominum e ésse crediderit, be- 
na fide fündum émerit, vel ex do- 
natione, aliave qualibet justa caüsá, 
zeque bohà fide acceperit, naturali 
ratione placuit, fructus, quos per- 
cepit, ejus esse pro cultura et cura: 
$t idcó, si postea dominus superve- 
nerit, et fundum vindicet, de fruc- 
- tibus ab co consumptis agere non 
potest: ei vero, qui alienum fun- 
duin sciens possederit, non idem 
Conccssum est; itaque cum fundo 
etiam fructus, licet consumpti sint, 
cogitur restituere. 


j 55. If any man shall have pur- 
chased or by any other means honestly 
acquired lands from another, whom he 
believed to be the true owner, when in 
fact he was not, it is agreeable to 
natural reason, that the fruits, which. 
he shall have gathered, shall become 
his own, on account of his care in 
the culture: and therefore, if the 
true owner shall afterwards appear 
and claim his lands, he can have no 
action against the bona fide possess- 
or, for produce consumed. But this 
exemption is not granted to him, 
whoknowingly keeps possession of 
another's estate ; and therefore, he is 
compellable to account for all the 
mesne profits together with the lands. 


De fructibus a fructuario et colono perceptis. 


$ XXXVI. Is vero, ad quem usu- 
fructus fundi pertinet, pon aliter 
fructuum dominus efficitur, quam 
si ipse eos perceperit ; et ideo, licet 
maturis fructibus, nondüm tamen 
perceptis, decesserit, ad heredes 
ejus non pertinent, sed. domino pro- 
prietatis acquiruntur. Eadem feré 
€t de colono dicuntur. 


§ 36. The usufructuary of lands 
can gain no property in the fruits, 
until he hath actually gathered them ; 
and therefore, if he should die, while 
the fruits, although ripe, dre yet un- 
gathered, they could not be claimed by 
his heirs, but would fall to the pro- 
prietor : and so in general, as to 
farmers. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. I. 83 


Que sunt in fructu. 


4 XXXVII. In pecudum Tructu 
etiam fetus est, sicuti lac, pilus, et 
gma: Waque agni, bedi, et vituli, et 
-equuli, et suculi, statim naturali ju- 

re dominii fructuarii sunt. Partus 
vero ancille in fructu non est; ita- 
que ad dominum proprietatis perti- 
net. Absurdum enim videbatur, 
hominem in fructu esse ; cum om- 
nes fructus rerum natura gratia ho- 
3oinie comparayerit. 


§ 37. Among the produce of ani- 
mals, we not only reckon. milk, skins, 
and wool, but also their young ; and 
therefore lambs, kids, calves, colts, 
and pigs, appertain by natural right 
to the usufructuary ; but the offspring 
of a female slave cannot be thus cons 
sidered, but belongs to the proprietor 
of such slave : for it seemed absurd, 
that man, should be enumerated 4- 
mong the articles of produce, seeing 


that for his use, nature hatn furnish- 


ed all kinds of produce. 


De officio fructuarii. 


$. XXXVII. Sed, si gregis u- 
_sumfryctum quis habeat, in locum 
demartyorum capitum ex fotu fruc- 
_ tuarius submittere debet, (ut et Ju- 
. liano visum est;) et in vinearum 
demortvarum. vel arborum locum a- 
liasdebet substiuere. Recté enim 
, celere, et quasi bonus paterfamilias 
nti, debet. 


§ 38. He, who has the usufruct. 
ofa flock, ought (according to Juli- 
an ) to preserve the original number 
intire, by supplying the deficiency 
out of the young ; in like manner fe 
ought to supply the place af dead 
vines, or trees; and cultivate and 
use the stock in all respects hike a 
good and fair husbandman. 


De invent. one thesauri. 


$ XXXIX.  Thesauros, quos 
quis in loco suo invenerit, divus A- 
drianus, naturalem zquitatem se- 
quutus, ei concessit, qui eos inve- 
nerit; idemque statuit, si quis in 
sacro aut religioso loco fortuito casu 
invenerit  Át, si quis in alieno 
loco, non data ad hoc opera, sed for- 
tuitó invenerit, dimidium domino 
soli concessit, et dimidium invento- 
. Xi: et convenienter, si quis in Ce- 
. saris Joco invenerit, dimidium in- 
. ventoris, et dimidium csse Caesaris, 
gtatuit. Cui conveniens cst, ut, si 


$ 39. The emperor Adrian, in 
pursuance of natural equity, allowed 
any treasure, found in a man’s own 


. lands, to belong to. the finder ; he or- 


.daiued the same as to things casually 
found, in a sacred or religious place. 
But, if a person, not making it his 
business to search, should fortuitous- 
ly find treasure in thc ground of ano- 
ther, he granted half to the propri- 
etor of the soil, and half to the find- 
er. Andso, if any thing is found 
within the imperial demesnes, half 
shall appertain to the finder and 


$9 LIB. II. 


"E 
quis in fiscali loco vel publico vel 
civitatis invenerit, dimidium ipsius 
esse debeat, et dimidium fisci, vel 
civitatis. | 


De traditionc. 


§ XL. Per traditionem. quoque 
jure naturali res nobis acquiruntur : 
nihil enim tam conveniens est natu- 
turali equitati, quam voluntatem 
' domini, volentis rem suam in alium 

transferre, ratam haberi: et ideó, 
cujuscunque generis sit, corporalis 
res tradi potest, et à domino tradita, 
alienatur: itaque stipendiaria quo- 
que et tributaria predia eodem mo- 
4do alienantur. Vocantur autem 
' etipendiaria et tributaria predia, 
"que in provinciis sunt: inter quie 
nec non-et Italica predia, ex nostra 
constitutione, nulla est differentia : 
«ed, siquidem ex causa donationis, 
aut dotis, aut qualibet alia ex causa, 
tradunuur, sine dubio transferuntur. 


I. Regula, ejus:;ue ratio.. 


TIT. I. 


half to the emperor: likewise, ifa 
man find any. valuable thing in a 
place belonging to the treaeury, the | 
public, or the city, half shall apper- 
tain to the finder, and half to the 
treasury, the public, or the city. 


6 40. Things are also acquired | 
(according to the law of nature) by 
tradition or livery; for nothing is 
more conformable to natural equity, . 
than to confirm the will of him, who 
is desirous to transfer his property 
to. another; therefore corporeal 
things, of whatever kind, may be de- 
livered ; and, when delivered by the 
owner, are aliened.  Stipendiary 
and tributary possessions, (such as 
those situated in the provinces, ) may 
be aliened in the same manner: for 
between these, and the Italian estates, 
we have now taken away all distinc- 
tion, so. that, on account of a dona- 
tion, a marriage-portion, or any o- 
ther just cause, stipendiary and tri- 
butary possessions may undoubtedly 


be transferred by livery. 


' 2, Limi. tio. : . 


- $ XLI. Vendite vero res et tra- 
ditz, non aliter emptori acquiruntur, 
quam si is venditori pretium solve- 
rit, vel alio modo ei satisfecerit ; ve- 
luti expromissore, aut pignore dato : 
quod, quamquam cavetur lege duo- 
decim tabularum, tamen recté dici- 
tur et jure gentium, id est, jure na- 
turali, id effici. Sed, siis, qui ven- 
didit, fidem emptoris sequutus fue- 


§ 41. Things, although sold and 
delivered, are not acquired by the 
buyer, until he hath either. paid or 
otherwise satisfied. the seller for 
them; as by a bondsman or pledge. 
And, although this is so ordained by 
a law of the twelve tables, yet the 
same rule is rightly said to arise from 
the law of nations ; that is, from the 


‘law of nature. But if the seller 


LIB. II. 


rit, dicendum est, statim rem emp- 
toris fieri. 


TET. L 85. 


have given credit tothe buyer, we 
must affirm, that the things become 
instantly the property of the latter. 


3. Ampliatio. 


§ XLII. Nihil autem interest, u- 
trum ipse dominus tradat alicui 
rem suam, an voluntate ejus alius, 
cui ejus rei possessio permissa sit. 
Qua ratione, si cui libera univer- 
sorum negotiorum administratio 
permissa fuerit à domino, isque ex 
his negotiis rem vendiderit et tradi- 
derit faciet eam accipientis. 


.owner's consent. 


§ 42. It is the same whether the. 
owner deliver the article himself, or 


, another to whom the possession of it 


was intrusted, deliver it with the 
Hence, if the ma- 
nagement of all business be committed 
bya proprietor to any person, who 
shall by virtue of his commission, sell 
and deliver goods, they will become 
the property of the recetver. 


De quasi traditione. Si traditio ex aliá causá praecesserit. 


§ XLIII. Interdim etiam, siné 
traditione nuda voluntas domini suf- 
ficit ad rem transferendam ; veluti 
-gi rem, quam tibi ahquis commo- 
daverit, aut locaverit, aut apud te 
deposuerit, postea aut vendiderit 
tibi, aut donaverit, aut dotis nomine 
dederit : quamvis enim ex ea causa 
tibi eam non tradiderit, eo tamen 


ipso, quod patitur tuam esse, statim - 


tibi acquiritur proprietas, perindé 
ac si eo nomine tibi tradita fuisset. 


$ 43. In some cases, the consent 
of the proprietor without delivery is 
sufficient to transfer property: as 
when a person hath lent, hired, or de- 
posited in your possession any thing, 
and hath afterwards sold it to you, 
made a donation of it, or given it to 
you as a marriage portion: for al- 
though not originally delivered for 
any of these purposes, yet, as soon as 
it becomes notoriously yours, you 
have instantly acquired the property ; 
and that as fully, as if it had actually 
been delivered as a thing sold, a. do- 
nation or a marriage portion. 


De traditione clavium. 


$ XLIV. Item, si quis merces 

in horreo depositas vendiderit, si- 

"mul atque claves horrei tradiderit 

emptori, transfert proprietatem mer- 
‘cum ad emptorem. 


§ 44. Also ifa person hath sold mer- 
chandise, deposited in a storehouse, 
he is understood to have transferred 


_the property, on delivering the keys 


of the store-house to the buyer. 


‘que sit excepturus: 


96 


LAB. H. 


TIT. I. 


De missilibus. 


§ XLV. Hoc ampliiüs; interdum 
et in certam personam cojlata vo- 
luntas domini transfert rei proprie- 
tatem : ut eccé, pretores et con- 
sules, cum missilia jactant in vul- 
gus, ignorant quid ! eorum quis- 
et tamen, 
quia volunt, quod quisque accepe- 
rit, ejus esse, 3tatim eum dominum 


'efficiunt. 


- becomes his praperty. 


$ 45. Jt also sometimes happens, 
that the property of athing is trans- 
ferred, by the master of it, to an in- 
certain person: as when the pretors 
and consuls cast their missilia, or 


.beraltties, among the people, they 


know uot what any particular man 
will receive; yet, because it is their 
will, that what every man then pe- 
ceives shall be his own, it inetanidy 


De habitis pro derelicto. 


$ XLVI. Qua ratione verius esse 
videtur, si rem pro derelicto à do- 
mino habitam occupaverit quis, sta- 
tim eum dominum effici. Pro dere- 
licto nutem habetur, quod dominus 
eà mente abjecerit, ut id innumero 
rerum suarum esse nolit: ideóque 


statim dominus ejus esse desinit. 


L.] 


$ 46. By parity of reason it ap- 
pears that whatever hath been made 
a derelict 64 the owner, will become 
the property of the first occupant, 
Whatever hath been thrown awey, 
or abandoned by the owner, with in- 


: tent, thatitmight no longer be reckons 
.ed among his possessions, is accougs- 


ed a derelict: and. ceases to .be Me... 
property. M 


De jact's in mare levandz navis causa Item de his, quz de rhedá 
currente cadunt. 


6 XLVII. Alia sané causá est 
carum rerum, qüz in tempestate le- 
vande navis causa ejiciuntur : he 
enim dominorum permanent: quia 
palàm est, éas non eo animo ejici, 
quod quis eas habere nolit, sed quo 
magis cum ipsa navi maris pericu- 
lum effugiat. Qua de causa, si quis 
eas fluctibus expulsas, vel etiam in 
ipso mari nactus, lucrandi animo 
abstulerit, furtum committit. Nec 
longé videntur discedere ab his, 
que de rhedá currente, non intelli- 
gentibus dominis, cadunt. 


.§ 47. But the law is not. so in re- 
spect of things thrown overboard;in 
a storm, to lighten a vessel: for they 
remain the property of the owners ; 
seeing it is evident, that they were 
not thrown away, through dislike, 
but that persons in-the ship might 
avoid the dangers of the sca. ‘Hence 
whoever with a selfish intention, 
hath taken up such goods, although 
found upon the high seu, he is guilty 
of theft. And, goods, which have. 
dropped from a carriage in motion, 
without the knowledge of the owner, 
may be considered in the same light. 


LIB. II. TIT. If. 


87 


TITULUS SECUNDUS. 
DE REBUS CORPORALIBUS ET INCORPORALIBUS. 


Secunda rerum divisio. 


QUZDAM praterea res cor- 
porales sunt, quedam incorporales. 
Corporales hz sunt, que sui natura 
tangi possunt; veluti fundus, ho- 
mo, vestis, aurum, argentum, et 
denique alise res innumerabiles. In- 
corporales autem sunt, quz tangi 
non possunt: qualia sunt ea, que 

sicut hereditas, 


ususfructus, usus, et obligationes, 


quoque modo contracte. Nec ad 
rem pertihet, quod in hereditate 
rés corporales continentur: nam et 
fractus, qui ex fundo percipiuntur, 
eorporales sunt: etid, quod ex ali- 
quá obligatione nobis debetur, ple- 
fümque corporale est; veluti fun- 
dus, homo, pecunia: nam ipsum 
jus hzreditatis, et ipsum jus uten- 
di, fruendi, &t ipsum jus obligati- 
onis, incorporale est. Eodem nu- 
mero sunt et jura prediorum urba- 
norum et rusticorum, quz etiam 
servitutes vocantur. 


Moreover some things are corpo- 
real others incorporeal. Tzngs cor- 
poreal are tangible ; as, lands, slaves, 
vestments, gold, silver, and others, 
innumerable. Things incorporeal 
are those, which are not tangible, but 
consist in rights and privileges ; as 
inheritances, usufructs, uses, and all 
obligations however contracted: nor, 
is it an objection that things corpo- 
real are contained in an inheri- 
tance ; for fruits, gathered from the 
earth, are corporeal ; and that also 
is generally corporeal, which is 
due to us upon an obligation; as a 
field, a slave, or money: for, the 
right to an inheritance, the right of 
using and enjoying any particular 
thing, and the right of an obligation, 
are undoubtedly incorporeal. To 
these may be added the rights, (or 
qualities, ) of rural and city estates, 
termed services. 


88 LIB. II. 


TIT. UL. - 


TITULUS TERTIUS. 


DE SERVITUTIBUS RUSTICORUM ET URBANORUM 
PRJEDIORUM. 


D. viii. T. 1. 


et 2. 


C. iii. T. 34. 


De servitutibus rusticis. | 


RUSTICORUM praediorum ju- , 
j rasunt hzc: 


iter, actus, via, aque- 
ductus. Iter est jus eundi, ambu- 
landi, hominis; non etiam jumen- 
tum agendi vel vehiculum.  Áctus 
est, jus agendi jumentum vel vehi- 
culum. Itaque, qui habet iter, ac- 
tum non habet : sed, qui actum ha- 
bet, et iter habet, eoque uti potest 
ctiam siné jumento. Via est jus 
cundi, et agendi, et ambulandi : 
nam iter et actum, via in se conti- 
net. Aqueductus est jus aque du- 
' cende per fundum alienum. 


The rights or services of rural es- 
tates are. these ; a path, Iter ; a road, 
actus ; an highway, via ; and an a- 
queduct or free passage for water. 
A path is the right of passing and 
repassing on foot over another man's 
ground, but not of driving cattle or 
a carriage over it. A road implies . 
the liberty of driving either cattle or 
carriages : hence he who hath a path, 
hath not a road: but he, who hath a 
road, Aath inclusively a path ; for he 
may use such road, when he doth not 
drive cattle. A highway imports, 
the right of passing, driving cattle, 
Gc. and includes in it both a path 
and a road: and an aqueduct ime 
ports the right of leading water, 


through the grounds of another. 


De servitutibus urbanis. 


$ I. Prediorum urbanorum ser- 
vitutes sunt hz, que zdificiis inhe- 
: rent; ideó urbanorum przdiorum 


| ditte, quoniam edificia omnia ur- . 


bana predia appellamus, etsi in villa 
zdificata sunt. —Itém urbanorum 
prediorum servitutes sunt he; ut 
vicinus onera vicinisustincat : ut in 
parietem ejus liceat vicino tignum 
immittere : ut stillicidium, vel flu- 
men, recipiat quis in edes suas, vel 


$ 1. The services of city-estates 
are such as appertain to buildings: 
they are socalled because we call all 
edifices, city-estates, although built 
upon farms or in villages. It is re- 
quired by city-services, that neighe 
bours should bear the burdens of 
neighbours ; and by such services, 
one neighbour may be permitted to 
place a beam upon the wall of ano- 
ther ; may be compelled to receive 


LIB. If. 


in aream, vel in cloacam, vel non 
recipiat : et ne altius quis tollat edes 
suas, ne luminibus vicini officiat. 


TTT. Itt. 


_ the droppings and currents from the 


£9 


gutter-pipes of another man’s house, 
upon his own house, area, or sewer $ 
or may be exempted from receiving 
them; or may be restrained from 
raising his house, so as to darken 
the habitation of his neighbour. 


De reliquis servitutibus rusticis. 


$ II. Inter rusticorum pr»4dio- 
rum servitutes quidam computari 
recté putant aque haustum, pecoris 


§ 2 Some rightly judge, that, 
among rural services, we ought to 
reckon the right of drawing water, 


ad aquam appulsum, jus pascendi, watering and feeding cattie, burning 


calcis coquend;e, arenae fodiendz. 


lime, digging sand, &c. in the ground 
of another. 


Qui serv'tutem debere vel acquirere possunt. 


$ III. Ideó autem hz servitutes 
prediorum appellantur, quoniam si- 
mé prediis consistere non possunt. 
Nemo enim potest servitutem ac- 
quirere urbani vel rustici przdiji, 


. nisi qui habet predium; nec quis- 


quam debere, nisi qui predium ha- 
bet. + 


§ 3. All these are called the sera 
vices of estates ; because they cannot 
be constituted without an estate to 
support them ; for no man can either 
owe, or acquire, a rural or city ser« 
vice, if he possess neither house or 
lands. 


Quibus modis servitus constituitur. 


§ IV. Si quis velit vicino aliquod 
jus constituere, pactionibus atque 
stipulationibus id «efficere debet. 
Potest etiam quis testamento hzre- 
dem: suum damnare, ne altiàs tollat 
sedes suas, ne luminibus vicini of- 
ficiat; vel ut patiatur eum tignum 
in parietem suum immittere, stilli- 
cidiumve adversus eum habere; 
wel ut patiatur eum per fundum 
ire, agere, aquamve ex eo ducere. 


$ 4. When it is wished to demise 
the right of a service to another, it 
should be done by contract and sti- 
pulation. Aman may also by tes« 
tament prohibit his heir from heighte 
ening his house, lest he should oba 
struct the view of his neighbours of 
may oblige him to permit the rafter 
of another man’s house, to be laid 
upon his wall: or to receive upon 
his own house the droppings of ano- 
ther’s ; orsuffer cny person to walk, 


' drive cattle, or draw water in hie 


grounds, 


N - 


LIB. II. TIT. IV. 


TITULUS QUARTUS. 
DE USUFRUCTU. 


D. vii. T. 1. 


C. ii. T. 33. 


Defin t o usus ructüs. 


USUSFRUCTUS est jus _alie- 
nis rebus utendi, fruendi, salva re- 
' fum substantia. Est autem jus in 
| corpore, quo sublato, et ipsum tol- 
li necesse est. 


. Quibus modis 


$ I. Ususfructus à proprietate 
separationem recipit, idque pluri- 
bus modis accidit: ut eccé, si 
quis usumfructum alicui legaverit : 
nam heres nudam habet proprieta- 
tem, legatarius vero usunifruc- 
tum. Etcontra, si fundum lega- 
verit deducto usufructu, legatarius 
nudam habet proprietatem, heres 
veró usumfructum. Item alii usum- 
fructum, alij, deducto eo, fundum 
legare potest. Sine testamento vero 
si quis velit usumfructum alji con- 
stituere, pactionibus et stipulationi- 
bus id efficere debet. Ne tamen 
an universum inutiles essent pro- 
prietates, semper abscedente usu- 
fructu, placuit certis modis extin- 
gui usumfructum, et ad proprieta- 
tem reverti. 


Usufruct, is the right of using 
and enjoying, without consuming or 
destroying, things which are the 
property of another. t is a. right 
over a vorporeal substance ; if the 
substance perish, the usufruct must 
cease. 


consti‘uitur. 

§ 1. The usufruct may be in va- 
rious ways separated from the pro- 
perty, as when it is bequeathed: for 
naked property only is then vested 
in the heir, while the legatee pos- 
sesses the usufruct; it happens on 
the contrary, when a testator hath 
bequeathed his lands without the 
usufruct ; for then the legatee hath 
only the bare property, while the 
heir enjoys the profits: for the usu- 
fruct may be bequeathed to one, and 
the lands, without the usufruct, to 
another. Yet, if any man would 
constitute an usufruct otherwise 
than by testament, he must do it by 


pact, and stipulation. But, lest the 


property of lands should be render- 
ed wholly unbeneficial by deducting 
the usufruct for ever, it was 
thought convenient, that the usufruct 
should by certain means become ex- 
tinguished, and revert to the pro- 


perty. 


an 


LIB. II. 


TIT. IV. $t 


Quibus in rebus constituitur. 


$ II. Censtituitur autem usus- 
fructus non tantüm in fundo et edi- 
bis, verum etiam in servis, et ju- 
mentis, et czteris rebus; exceptis 
lis, quz ipso usu consumunuur : 
mam hz res neque naturali ratione 
neque civilij recipiunt usumfruc- 
tum: quo in numero sunt, vinum, 
oleum, frumentum, vestimenta : 
quibus proxima est, pecunia nume- 
rata : namque ipso usu, assidua per- 
mutatione, quodammodo extingui- 
tur. Sed utilitatis causa Senatus 
censuit, posse etiam earum rerum 
usumfructum constitui, ut tamen eo 
nomine hzredi utilitér caveatur : 
itaque, si pecüniz ususfructus lega- 
tussit, ita datur legatario, ut ejus 
fat; et legatarius satisdet heredi 
de tanta pecuniá restituenda si mo- 
rietur, aut capite minuetur. Czte- 
rz quoque res ita traduntur legata- 
rio, ut ejus fiant: sed zstimatis his 
satisdatur, ut, si moriatur aut ca- 
pite minuatur, tanta pecunia restitu- 
atur, quanti hz fuerint zstimatz. 
Ergo Senatus non fecit quidem ea- 
rum rerum usumfructum, (nec en- 
im poterat,) sed per cautionem qua- 
si usumfructum constituit. 


§ 2. The usufruct not only of 
lands and houses 1s grantable, but also 
of slaves, cattle, and other things; ex- 
cept 'those, which are consumed by 
use ; for the usufruct ofsuch things 
is neither grantable by civil policy, 
or natural reason ; among these may 
be reckoned wine, oil, cloaths, Se. 
money is nearly of the same nature ; 
for by constant use, and the frequent 
change of owners, it in a manner be- 
comes extinct. But the senate, 
through a motive of public utility, | 


hath ordained, that the usufruct of > : 


these things may be constituted, if! 


sufficient security be given to the [ V. 


heir : and therefore, if the usufruct 
of money is bequeathed, the money ia 
so given to the legatee, as to make it 
instantly his own: but then the le- 
gatee, lest he should die, or suffer 
diminution, is obliged to give securi- 
ty to the heir for the repayment of a 
like sum. Other things also, are sb. 
delivered to the legatee as to become 
his property ; but in this case, after 
valuation, security mu:t be given to 
the heir for the payment of that 
amount, either at the death of the le- 
gatee,or if he should suffer diminu- 
tion. It is not therefore to beunder- 
stood, that the senate hath created — 
strict usufruct of these things, 
which is impossible ; but a quasi-usu- 
fruct by means of a security. | 


Quibus modis finitur, 


$ III. Finitur autem ususfruc- 
- fp morte -usufructuarii, et duabus 


§ 3. The usufruct determines by 
the death of the usufructuary ; ong — 


e? LIB. If. 


capitis diminutionibus, maxima et 
| media, and non utendo per modum 
et tempus; que omnia nostra sta- 
, tuit constitutio. Item finitur usus- 
; fructus, si domino proprietatis ab 
; usufructuario cedatur, (nam.ceden- 
', do extraneo nihil agitur) vel ex 
| contrario, si usufructuarius proprie- 
! tatem rei acquisiverit: que res 
‘consolidatio appellatur. Eo am- 
‘plids constat, si edes incendio com- 
 gumpte fuerint, vel etiam terre mo- 
‘ £u, vel vitio suo corruerint, extin- 
‘gui usumfructum ; et ne arez qui- 

' dem usumfructum deberi. 


- 


TIT. JV. 


by two of the three namely, the 
greatest and the middle diminution, 
(or change of state; ) and also by not 
being used, according to the manner, 
and during the time prescribed : all 
which is set forth in our consti- 
tution. The usufruct also deter- 
mines, if the usufructuary surren- 
der it to the lord of the property; 
for acession to a stranger is of no 
avail ; or if the usufructuary hath ac- 
quired the property, which is called 
consolidation. And it is certain, if a 
house hath been consumed by fire,or 
thrown down by an earthquake, or 
fallen through decay, that the usu- 
fruct of such house is wholly de- 
stroyed; and that no usufruct of 
the area, or ground of it, enures te 
the usufructuary. 


Si’ finitus sit. ° 


$ IV. Cum autem finitus fuerit 
totus ususfructus, revertitur scili- 
get ad proprietatem ; et, ex eo teme 
pore, nude proprietatis dominus ip- 
sipit plengm' in re babere potestar 
Mem 


$ 4. When the whole usufruct of . 
a thing is determined, it then reverts 
fo the property ; and, from that time, 
the owner of the nude property be- 
gius ta heve full power over it. 


LIB. AK. 


TIT. V. 


TITULUS QUINTUS. 
DE USU ET HABITATIONE. 


D. vii. T. 8. C. iii. T. 33. 


Communia de usufructu et usu. 


ISDEM illis modis, quibus usus- 
fructus constituitur, etiam nudus 
«sus constitui solet: iisdem illis 
modis finitur, quibus et ususfructus 
desinit. 


The usufruct, and the nated uss: 
of a thine, are constituted, and des 
termined by the same means. 


Quid intersit inter usumfructum et usum fundi. 


6 I. Minus autem juris est, in 
usu, quam in usufructu: nam is, 
qui fundi nudum habet ysum, nihil 
ulterius habere intelligitur, quam 
ut oleribus, pomis, floribus, feno, 
stramentis, et lignis, ad ysum quo- 


tidianum utatur: inque eo fundo 


hactenis éi morari licet, ut neque 
domino fundi molestus sit, neque 
jis, per quos opera rustica fiunt, 
impedimento: nec ulli alii jus, quod 
habet, aut locare, aut vendere, aut 


gratis concedere, potest; cum is, 


qui usumfructum habet, possit hec 
omnia facere. 


§ 1. Less right appertains to the 


use of a. thing, than the usufruct; ' 


Jor he, who has but the use of lands, 
is understood to have nothing more 
than the liberty of using so much of 


the herbs, fruit, flowers, hay, straw, . 
and wood, as-may be sufficient for . 


his daily supply: andhe is permits 
ted to be commorant upon the land, 
on condition that he neither becomes 
troublesome to the owner , nor impedes 


the labours of the husbandmen. Nei, 


ther can he let, sell, or give his right | 


to another, which an usufruetuary | 
may. } 


JEdium usus. 


§ II. Item is, qui sedium usum 
habet, hactenis jus habere intelli- 
gitur, ut ipse tantum inhabitet ; nec 
hoc jus ad alium transferre potest : 
et vix receptum esse videtur, ut 
hospitem ei recipere liceat; sed cum 


: uxore liberisque suis, item libertis, 
. mec non personis aliis liberis, qui- 


bus non minus, quam servis utitur, 


"habitandi jus habeat. Et conveni- 


\ 


§ 2. He, who hath but the use of 
an house, is understood to have ne 
other right than that of personal ha- 
bitation: for he cannot transfer this 
right ; and it is hardly thought al- 
lowable to receive a guest or a lodgers, 
But he may inhabit the house with his 
wife, children, freed-men, and such 
other free persons as are servdnts. 


And, agreeably to this, if theuse of a 


96 ' 


enter, si ad mulierem usus sedium 
pertineat, cum marito ei habitare 
liccat. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. V. 


bad 


house appertains to a woman, she 
may live in it with her husband, and 
her dependants. 


De servi vel jumenti usu. 


§ III. Item is, ad quem servi 
usus pertinet, ipse tantüm opera at- 
que ministerio ejus uti potest: ad 
alium veró nullo modo jus suum 
transferre ei concessum est. Idem 
Scilicet juris est in jumento. 


§ 3. He also, who hath the use of 
a slave, can benefit only by the labour 
and service of such slave: for itis 
not in the power of the usuary te 
transfer his right. The same law 
prevails in regard to beasts of bur 
den. 


De pecorum usu. 


6 EV. Sed et, si pecorum vel ovi- 
um usus legatus sit, neque lacte, ne- 
que agnis, neque lana, utetur usua- 
rius: quia ea in fructu sunt. Plané 
ad stercorandum agrum suum pe- 
coribus uti potest. 


$4. Ifthe use of cattle be devised, 


as of sheep ; yet the usuary can nei- 
ther usethe milk, the lambs, or the 
wool; for these belong to the usu- 
fruct. But he may undoubtedly em- 
ploy the sheep, in soiling his lands. 


De habitatione. 


€ V. Sed, sicui habitatio legata, 
sive aliquo modo constituta sit, ne- 
que usus videtur, neque ususfruc- 
tus, sed quasi proprium aliquod jus: 
quanquam habitationem — habenti- 
bus, propter rerum utilitatem, se- 


cundum Marcelli.sententiam, nos- 


tra decisione promulgata, permisi- 
mus non solum in ea degere, sed eti- 
.. am aliis locare. i 


$ 5. An habitation, whether given 
by testament, or constituted by other 
means, seems netther an use nor an 
usufruct, dut rather a particular 
right. And, for public utility and 
in conformity to the opinion of Mar- 
cellus, we have decided, that he, who 


hath an habitation, may not only- 


live in it, but let it to another. 


Transitio. 


$ VI. H»c de servitutibus, et 
usufructu, et usu, et habitatione, 
dixisse sufficiat. De hzreditatibus 
autem et obligationibus suis locis 
proponemus. Exposuimus summa- 
tim, quibus modis jure gentium res 


fructs, uses and habitations. 


§ 6. What hath been said, may 
suffice concerning real services, usu 
We 
shall treat of inheritances and obli 
gations, in their proper places. Hav- 
ing already briefly explained how 





LIB. II. 


acquiruntur: modà videamus, qui- 
bus modis legitimo et civili jure 
acquiruntur. 


TIT. VI. 95 
thinge are acquired by the law of na- 
tions; let us now examine, how they 
are acquired by the civil law. 


| TITULUS SEXTUS. 


DE USUCAPIONIBUS ET LONGI TEMPORIS PRE- 
SCRIPTIONIBUS. 


D. xli. T. 3. 


Precipua usucapionis requisita. 


C. vii. T. 31, et 33. 


1. Bona fides. 2. Possessio per 


tempus definitum continuata. 3. Justus titulus. 


JURE civili constitutum fuerat, 
ut, qui bond fide ab eo, qui dominus 
non erat, cum crederet eum domi- 
num esse, rem emerit, vel ex do- 
matione, aliave quávis justa causa 
acceperit, is eam rem, si mobilis 
erat, anno ubique uno, si immobi- 
Jis, biennio tantum in Italico solo, 
usucaperet: ne rerüm dominia in 
incerto essent. Et, cum hoc placi- 
tum erat putantibus aritiquioribus, 
dominis sufficere ad inquirendas res 
suas prefata tempora, nobis melior 
sententia resedit, ne domini matu- 
riüs suis rebus defraudentur, neque 
certo loco beneficium hoc conclu- 
datur: et ideó constitutionem su- 
per hoc promulgavimus, quá cau- 
tum est, ut res quidem mobiles per 
triennium; immobiles vero per longi 
temporis possessionem (id est, in- 
ter przsentes decennio, inter absen- 
." tes viginti annis) usucapiantur. Et 

his modis, non solàm in Italia, sed 
(tiem in omni terra, que nostro im- 


By the civil law, whoever had 
fairly obtained a thing from one, 
whom he supposed the true owner, 


' (although inreality he was not ) and, 


if a moveable, had possessed it bona , 
fide for one year, either in Italyor the * 
provinces; or, if immoveable, for | 
two years within the limits of Italy,’ 
should prescribe to such thing by use : 
and this was held to be law, lest the 
dominion or property of things, 
should be uncertain. But although 
it was thought by ancient legislators, 
that these periods were sufficiently 
long to enable every owner to search 
after his property, yet a better opi- 
nion hath occurred to us, that the 
true owners be not defrauded, or toe 
hastily excluded, by the circumscrip- 
tion of time and place, from reco- 
vering their just due: we have there- 
fore provided, that things moveable 
may be prescribed to after the ex- 
piration of three years, and that a 
possession, during a long tract of 


ww ot 


perio gubematur, dominia rerum, 
jueta causa possessionis precedente, 


acquirantur. 
t 


LIB. II. 


TIT. VI. 
time, will also found a prescription 


to-thinge immoveable : that is to SAY, 
ten years, if the parties are present, 


' (3. e. in the province, ) and twenty 


years if either of them be absent. 
Pr, »erty may thus be acquired ; not 
only in Italy, but throughout our do- 
minions, :f the possession was ho- 
nestly obtained at first. 


De his, quz sunt extra commercium. 


$ I. Sed aliquand6, etiamsi max- 


imé quis bona fide rem possederit, 


non tamen illi usucapio ullo tempore 
procedit: veluti si quis liberum 
hominem, vel rem sacram, vel reli- 


§ 1. But in some cases, although 
there hath been possession incontes- 
tably bona fide, yet no length of 
time will be sufficient to found a pre- 
scription ; as when a man holds a 


giosam, vel servum fugitivum, pos- free person, a thing sacred or reli- 


sideat. . 


gious, or a fugitive slave. 


De rebus furtivis, et vi possessis. . 


6 II. Furtive quoque res, et que 
vl possessz sunt, nec, si predicto 
longo tempore bona fide possessa 
fuerint, usucapi possunt: pam fur- 
tivarum rerum, lex duodecim tabu- 
larum, et lex Atilja, inhibent usu- 
Capionem ; vi possessarum lex Ju- 
ha et Plautia. Quod autem dictum 
est, furtivarum et vi possessarum 


. rerum usucapionem per leges pro- 
" hibitam esse, non ed pertinet, ut ne 


ipse fur, quive per vim possidet, 
usucapere possit, (nam his alià ra- 
tione usucapio non competit ; quia 
scilicet malá fide possident,) sed ne 
ullus alius, quamvis ab eis bona fide 
emerit, vel ex alia causa accep:rit, 
usucapiendi jus habeat. Undc in 


rebus mobilibus non facilé procedit, 


ut bonz fidei possessoribus usuca- 
pio competat. - Nam, qui sciens ali- 


$2. No prescription les for | 


things that have been stolen ; or seiz- 
ed by violence; although they have 
been possessed bona fide, during the 
length of time required by our consti- 
tution: for prescription to things 
stolen is prohibited by a law of the 
twelve tables, and by the law Atilia; 
and the laws Julia and Plautia for- 
bid a prescription to things setzed by 
violence. Ard it is not to be infer- 
red from these laws, that a thief, or 
disseizor only, is prohibited from 
takine by prescription: (for such 
are also prohibited Lecause they are 
fraudulent possessors ;) but ale 
others likewise; although they shalt 
have purck«sed such thigs bona f- 
de, or otherwise fairly received 
them: heuce thiigs msveatle can not 
easily be prescribed iG, even by ho- 


, 


LIB. IL. TIT. VI. 


enam rem vendiderit, vel ex alia 
causa tradiderit, furtum ejus com- 
mittit. . Sed tamen id aliquandó 
aliter se habet. Nam, si heres rem 
defuncto commodatam, aut locatam, 
vel apud eum depositam, existi- 
mans hzreditariam ,esse, bonà fide 
accipienti vendiderit, aut donave- 
rit, aut dotis nomine dederit, quin 
is, qui acceperit, usucapere possit, 
dubium non est: quippé cum ea res 
in furti vitium non ceciderit; cum 
utique hzres, qui bona fide tanquam 
suam alienaverit, furtum non com- 
mittat. Item, si is, ad quem ancil- 
le ususfructus pertinet, partum 
suum esse credens vendiderit, aut 
si donaverit, furtum non committit. 
Furtum enim, sine effectu furandi, 
non committitur. Aliis quoque 
modis accidere potest, ut quis, si- 
ne vitio furti, rem alienam ad ali- 
quem transferat, et efficiat, ut à pos- 
sessore usucapiatur. Quod autem 
ad eas res, quz solo continentur, ex- 
pedit, jus ita procedit, ut, si quis 
loci vacantis possessionem, propter 
absentiam aut negligentiam domini, 
aut quia sine successore decesserit, 
.Sine vi nanciscatur, quamvis ipse 
malá fide possideat, (quia intelligit, 
sc alienum fundum occupasse) ta- 
men, si alii bona fide accipienti tra- 
diderit, poterit ei: longa possessi- 
one res acquiri; quia neque fur- 
tivum, neque vi possessum, ac- 
eeperit Abolita est enim quo- 
xyundam veterum sententia ex- 
Satimantium, etiam: fundi locive 


O 


97 


nest possessors: for whoever hath 
knowingly sold or transferred the 
goods of another upon whatever con- 
sideration, is guilty of theft. But 
this rule admits of some cases where- 
in a moveable may be prescribed to: 
thus if an heir, subposing a particu- 
lar thing to be hereditary, which in 
reality had only been lent, let to, or 
deposited with the deceased, shall 
have sold, bestowed, or given it as a 
portion, the bona fide receiver may 
no doubt prescribe ; for this can ne- 
ver be reputed stolen, inasmuch as 
the heir, who aliened it, believing it 
his own,- committed no theft. Soif 
he, who hath the usufruct of a fe- 
male slave, sell or give away her ' 
child believing it to be his property, 
he does not commit theft ; for theft - 
implies anintention to commit it. It 
may also happen, by various means, 
that one man may transfer the pro- 
perty of another without theft, and 
give a right of prescription to the 
possessor. As to things immoveable 
the law ordains, that, if any man 
should take possession of an estate 
without force, by reason either of the 
absence, or negligence of the owner, 
or because he died without heirs,and 
( although he hath thus possessed the 
land dishonestly ) shall have made 
livery of it to another, who took it 
bona fide, the land by long posses- 
sion may be acquired by such taker, 
who took neither a thing stolen, or 
seized, by violence: for the opinion 
of those ancient lawyers, who held, 


^ 


98 


furtum fieri. Et eorum utilitati, 
qui res soli possident, principalibus 
constitutionibus prospicitur, ne cui 
, longa et indubitata possessio-debeat 
auferri. 


LIB. II. 


De vitio 

$ III. Aliquando etiam furtiva, 

fel vi possessa, res usucapi potest ; 

veluti si in domini potestatem re- 

versa fuerit: tunc enim, vicio rei 
purgato, procedit ejus usucapio. 


TIT. VI. 


that lands and things immoveabk, 
might be stolen, is now abolished: 
and it is provided by the imperial con- 
stitutions, in faveur of those whe 
possess immoveable property, that a 
long and undoubted possession aught 
not to be taken away. 


purgato. 

§ 3. A prescription moy some- 
times be founded even to things, sto- 
len, or possessed by violence ; as, 
when they fall again into the pow- 
er of the true owner ; for the taint of 
tlle beng removed, prescription 
takes place. 


De re fiscali et bonis vacantibus. . 


§ IV. Res fisci nostri usucapi 
* hon potest : sed Papinianus scripsit, 
bonis vacantibus fisco nondum nun- 
tiatis, bonz fidei emptorem traditam 
sibi rem ex his bonis usucapere pos- 
se ; et ita Divus Pius, et Divi Se- 
verus et Ántoninus rescripserunt. 


| 6$ 4. Things, which appertain te 
our treasury, cannot: be acquired by 
prescription. — But, it is held by Pa- 
pinian, that a bona fide purchaser 
of escheate not yet certified, may pre- 
scribe for them after delivery. The 
emperors Pius Severus and Antoni- 
nus have issued their rescripts, con- 
Jormable to this opinton. 


Regula generalis. 


€ V. Novissimé sciendum est, 
rem talem esse debere,ut in se non 
habeat vitium, ut à bone fidei emp- 
tore usucapi possit, vel qui ex alià 
justa causa possidet. 


|. $6 5. Zt ts lastly to be observed, 
that no taint of dishonesty must at- — 
tach to the article, inorder to enable 
a bona fide purchaser or possessor 
to prescribe for it. 


De errove false cause. 


§ VI. Error autem false cause 
Uusucapionem non parit; veluti si 
quis, cum non emerit, emisse sc ex- 
istimans, possideat; vel, cum ei 


§ 6. Amistake of the cause of pos- 
session shall not give rise to pre- 
scription: as when the posséssor tma- 

rines, he hath purchased, when he 


€ 


LIB. II. 


donatum non fuerit, quasi ex donato 
poesi deat. 


4 


TIT. VI. 


q» 


hath not purchased; or that the 
thing was a gift, when it.svas. not 
given. 


De access:o'e poss:ssionis. 


$ VIL Diutina possessio, quz 
_ prodesse ceperat defuncto, et here- 
di et bonorum possessori continua- 
tur, licét ipse sctat, predium alie- 
num esse. Quod si ille initium jus- 
tum non habuit, hzredi et bonorum 
possessori, licét ignoranti, possessio 
non prodest. Quod nostra consti- 
tudo similitér et in usucapionibus 
obs:rvari constituit, ut tempora 
continuentur. 


§ VIII. Inter venditorem quo- 
que et emptorem conjungi tempora, 
divi Severus et Antoninus rescrip- 
ecrunt. 


$ 7. A long possession, bencficial- 
ly commenced in the life time of the 
deceased, is continued in favour of the 
heir or successor, although he n:ay 
know that the estate is the proper- 
ty of another; but, if the possession 
commenced unjustly, gt will avail nei- 
ther the heir, nore possessor, ul- 
though ignorant of any fraud. It 
3s in like manner enacted by cur con- 


 &titution, that the time of usucaption 


shall be continued. ( That is from the 
deceased to his successor in thingg 
moveable. ) 


§ 8. The emperors Severus and 
Antoninus have enacted, that, the 
possession of the seller shall enure to 


the buyer. 


De his, qui à fisco, act Imp. Augusteve domo, aliquid acceperunt. 


$ IX. Edicto divi Marci cavetur, 
eum, qui à fisco rem alienam emit, 
$i post venditionem quinquennium 
proterierit, posse dominum rei ex- 
ceptione repellere.  Constitütio au- 
tem dive memorie Zenonis bene 
prospexit iis, qui à fisco per venditi- 
onem, aut donationem, vel alium ti- 
tulum accipiunt aliquid ; ut ipsi qui- 
dem securi statim fiant, et victores 
existant, sive experiantur, sive con- 
. veniantur: adversis autem sacra- 
tissimun: zrarium usque ad quadri- 
ennium liceat iis intendere, qui pro 


- dominio vel hypotheca earum re- 


€ 9. tis provided by an edict of 
the emperor, Marcus, that, the pur- 
chaser of any thing from the trea- 
sury, after five years possession sub- 
sequent to the sale, may repel the for- 
mer owner by an exception of pre» 
scription. But the emperor Zeno, 
of sucred memory, hath well provided . 
by his constitution, that all those, 
who by sale, donation, cr any other 
title, have received. things from the 
public treasury, may instantly be see 
cured in their possession, and made 
certain of success, whether theu be 
plaintiffs or defendanta: and those, 


409 


rum, quz alienate sunt, putaverint, 
sibi quasdam competere actiones. 
Nostra autem divina constitutio, 
quam nupér promulgavimus, etiam 
de iis, qui à nostrá vel venerabilis 
. Auguste domo aliquid acceperint, 
hzc statuit, quz in fiscalibus aliena- 
tionibus prefate Zenoniane con- 
stitutionis continentur. 





LIB. II. TIT. VIL 


who claim either as proprietors or 
mortgagees of the things aliencd, may 
bring suit against the treasury, at 
any time within four years. Our 
own sacred ordinance, lately promul- 
ged in favour of those, who receive 
any thing, from the private posses- 
sions either of our-self, or of the em- 
press, adopts the regulations, con- 
tained in the above mentioned consti- 
tution of the emperor Zeno, concern- 
ing fiscal alienations. 


| — o @ o @ or— 


TITULUS SEPTIMUS. 
DE DONATIONIBUS. 


‘ D. XXXiX. T. 5. et 6. 


C. viii. 


T. $4. Nov. 162. 


De donatione. 


EST et aliud genus acquisitignis, 
donatio. Donationum autem duo 
sunt genera; mortis causa, et non 
mortis causa. 


Donation, or gift, is another mode 
of acquiring property ; tt is of two 
kinds ; on account of death ; and not 
on account of death. 


De mortis causa donatione. 


§ I. Mortis causa donatio est, 
quz propter mortis fit suspicionem ; 
cum quis ita donat, ut, si quid hu- 
manitis ei contigisset, haberet is, 
qui accipit: sin autem supervixis- 
set is, qui donavit, reciperet: vel 
sieum donationis penituisset, aut 
prior decesserit is, cui donatum sit. 
He mortis causa donationes, ad ex- 
emplum legatorum redacte sunt 
per omnia: nam, cum prudentibus 
ambiguum fuerat, utrum donationis, 


$ 1. A donation mortis causa, zs 
made under apprehension of death: 
as when any thing is given upon con- 
dition, that, if the donor dies, the 
donee shall possess it absolutely ; or 
return it, if the donor should sur- 
vive; or should repent, of having 
made the gift ; or, if the donee should 
die before the donor. Donations 
mortis causa, are now reduced, as 
far as possible, to the similitude of 
legactes: for, when it was much 


AJ 


LIB. I. TIT. VIL. 


an legati instar eam obtinere opor- 
teret, (et utriusque cause quzdam 
habebat insignia,) et alii ad aliud 
genus eam retrahebant, à nobis con- 
stitutum est, ut per omnia feré le- 
gatis connumeretur, et sic procedat, 
quemadmodim nostra constitutio 
eam formavit. Et in summa mor- 
tis causá donatio est, cum magis se 
quis velit habere, quam eum, cui 
donat; magisque eum, cui donat, 
quam hzredem suum. Sic et apud 
Homerum Telemachus donat Pi- 
r2o. 


The donation which 'Telemachus makes to Pireus in Homer, is 


species. 


101 
doubted by our lawyers, whether a 
donation mortis causa ought to be 


reputed as a gift, or asa legacy, in- 
asmuch as, in some things, it par- 


takes of the nature of both, we then | 


ordained, that it should be consider- 
ed in almost all respects asa legacy ; 
and be made às our constitution di- 
rects. Inshort, a donation, mortis 
causa, zs then said to be made, when 
a man so gives, as to demonstrate, 
that he would rather possess the 
thing given himself, than that the do- 
nee should possess it ; and yet, that 
the donee should possess it, rather 
than his own heir. 


of this 


He (when Pireus ask'd for slaves, to bring 

The gifts and treasures of the Spartan king) 

Thus thoughtful answer'd :—those we shall not move, 

Dark and unconscious of the will of ove. | 
We know not yet the full event of all: 

Stabb'd in his palace, if your prince must fall, 

Us, and our house, if treason must o'erthrow, 

Better a friend possess them, than a foe. 

But on my foes should vengeance heav’n decree, 

Riches are welcome then, not else, to me ; 


"Till then, retain the gifts.— 


Pope’s Odyss. lib. 17. 


De simplice inter vivos donatione. 


$ II. Alie autem. donationes 
sunt, quz sine ulla mortis cogitatio- 
ne fiunt, quas inter vivos appella- 
^mus, qu non omnio comparantur 
legatis : que, si fuerint perfecte, 
temeré rey revocari non’ possunt. Per- 
Scfantur autem, eüin donator suam 
' voluntatem scriptis aut sine scriptis 
máahifestaverit. Et, ad exemplum 


§ 2. Donations, made without ap- | 
prehension of death, called donations 


inter yivos, admit of no comparison 
with legacies: for, when once per- 
fected, they cannot be rashly revoked: 


they are esteemed perfect, when the 


donor hath manifested his will either 
in writing or otherwise. And it is 
appointed by our constitution, that d 


a — — — — . —— Mt 
. mem s nt “ 


10 LIB. IL 


venditionis, nostra constitutio eas 
etiam in se habere necessitatem 
traditionis voluit, ut, etiamsi non 
tradantur, habeant plenissimum et 
perfectum robur, et traditionis ne- 
cessitas incumbat donatori. Et, 
cum retró principum dispositiones 
insinuari eas actis intervenientibus 
volebant, si majores fuerant ducen- 
torum solidorum, constitutio nostra 
eam quantitatem usque ad quingen- 
tos dos amplisvit quam re e- 
tiam sine insinüatione statuit: sed 
et quasdam donationis invenit, que 
penitis insinuationem fieri minime 
desiderant, sed in se plenissimam 
habent firmitatem. Alia insupur 
multa ad uberiorem exitum donati- 
onum invenimus, quz omnia ex nos- 
tris constitutionibus, quas super his 
exposuimus, colligenda sunt. Sci- 
endum est tamen, quod, etsi plenis- 
sims sint donationes, si tamen in- 
grati existant homines, in quos be- 
neficium collatum est, donatoribus 
per nostram constitutionem licenti- 
am prestitimus certis ex causis eas 
revocare ; ne illi, qui suas res in a- 
lios contulerint, ab his quandam pa- 
tiantur injuriam vel jacturam, se- 
cundim enumeratos in constitu- 
tione nostra modos. 


TIT. Vil. 


.donation inter vivos shall, like a sale 
necessarily inforce a delivery ; for 
when things, are given, they become 
fully vested in the donee, and it is in- 
cumbent upon the donor to deliver 
them: and, although it ts enacted by 
our predecessors, that donations, to 
the value of two hundred solidi, shall 
be formally registered, our ordinance 
enlarges this sum to five hundred 
solidi, and permits donations of less . 
value to be binding without insinua- 
tion or inrollment; and it notices 
some donations, which are of full 
force without inrollment. We have 
also, for the enlargement of donations, 
enacted many other rules, which may 
be collected from our constitutions, 
on this subject. It nevertheless must 
be observed, that, a donation, validly 
made may be revoked ow account of 
ingratitude in the donce in some par- 
ticular cases: and this, lest a man 
should, in any of the instances enu- 
merated in our constitution, suffer 
injury or damage from those upon 
whom he hath bestowed his proper- 


ty. 


De donatione ante nuptias vel propter nuptias. 


$ III. Est et aliud genus inter 

vivos donationis, quod veteribus 
. quidem prudentibus penitis erat in- 
cognitum ; postea autem à juniori- 
bus Divis Principibus introductum 
est, quod ante nuptias vocabatur, 
et tacitam in se conditionem habe- 
bat, ut tunc ratum esset, cum ma- 


$ 3. There is another kind of do- 
nations inter vivos, introduced by 
later Emperors, and wholly unknown 
to the ancient lawyers, termed do- 
nation before marriage, containing 
the tacit condition, that it should take 
effect, when the marriage was per- 
Jormed ; these donations were pro- 


LIB. II. TIT. VII. 


wimohium esset insecutum ; idéo- 
que ante nuptias vocabatur, quod 
ante matrimonium efficiebatur ; et 
munquam post nuptias celebratas 
«alis donatio procedebat. Sed pri- 
mus quidem Divus Justinus pater 
moster, cum augeri dotes et post 
nuptias füerat permissum, si quid 
tale eveniret, et ante nuptias augeri 
donationem, et constante matrimo- 
Bio, sua constitutione permisit: sed 
tamen uomen inconveniens remane- 
bat, cum ante nuptias quidem voca- 
batur, post nuptias autem tale acci- 
piebat incrementum. Sed nos ple- 
. nissimo fini tradere sanctiones cu- 
pientes, et consequentia nomina re- 
bus esse studentes, constituimus, ut 
tales donationes non augeantur tan- 
tim, sed etiam constante matrimo- 
nio initium áccipiant: et non anté 
nuptias, sed proptér nuptias, vocen- 
tur: et dotibus in hoc exzquentur, 
ut quemadmodim dotes constante 
matrimonio non solim augentur, 
sed etiam fiunt, ita et iste donati- 
ones, quz propter nuptias introduc- 
te sunt, non solum antecedant ma- 
trimonium, sed eo etiam contracto 
augeantur et constituantur. 


103 


perly called ante nuptias, because 

they could never be constituted efter 

the celebration of matrimony. But, 

inasmuch as it was permitted by the 

ancient law, that portions might be: 
augmented after marriage, the em 
peror Justin, our father, hath enact- 

ed by his constitution, that donations 

called ante nuptias might also be | 
augmented at any time during matri- ! 
mony : but, as it was improper, that 

a donation should be still termed ante 

nuptias, when it had received an aug- 

mentation post nuptias, and we bc- 

ing desirous, that our sanctions might 

be as perfect as possible, and that 

names should be properly adapted to 

things, have ordained that such donar 

tzons may not only be augmented, but 
may commence also at any time dus 

ring matrimony ; and that for the fu- 

ture, they shall not be called donations 

ante nuptias, but donations propter 

nuptias ; and thus they are made 

equal with portions ; for as portions 

may be augmented, and even made, 

during matrimonu, so donations, in- 

troduced on account of matrimony, 

may now not only precede marriage, 

but be augmented, or even constitut- . 
ed, after the celebration of it. 


De jure accrescendi. 


§ IV. Erat olim et alius modus 
eivilis acquisitionis per jus accre- 
$cendi, quod esttale; si, commu- 
mem servum habens aliquis cum 
Titio, solus libertatem ei impo- 
suerit, vel vindictá vel testamen- 
to, €O casu pars cjus amittebatur, 
et socio accrescebat. Sed, cum pes- 
Simm fuerat exemplo, ct libertate 


§ 4. There was formerly another 
manner of acquiring property by the 
civil law; namely by accretion; us, 
if Primus holding a slave in com- 
mon with Titius had infranchised 
him, either by the vindicta or by 
testament, then would the share of 
Primus 2n that slave be lost, and ac- 
crue to Titius. But, inasmuch as it 
. 


" dotale predium maritus, 


104 
servum defraudari, et ex eo hu- 


manioribus quidem dominis dam- 


num inferri, severioribus autem do- 
minis lucrum accedere, hoc, quasi 
invidia plenum, pio remedio per 
nostram constitutionem mederi ne- 
cessarium duximus; et invenimus 


. viam, per quam manumissor, et so- 


cius ejus, et qui libertatem accepit, 
nostro beneficio fruantur, libertate 
cum effectu procedente, (cujus fa- 
vore antiquos legum latores multa 
etiam contra communes regulas 
statuisse manifestüm est,) et eo, 
qui cam libertatem imposuit, sue 
liberalitatis stabilitate gaudente, et 
socio indemni conservato, pretium- 
que servi secundim partem domi- 
nii, quod nos definivimus, accipi- 
ente. 


LIB. II. TIT. VTII. 


affords a bad example, that a mau. 
should be defrauded of his liberty, and 
that the most humane masters, should 
suffer loss, while the most severe rc- 
cerve emolument, we have thought it 
necessary, to administer a humane 
remedy to this grievance; and have 
devised means by which the manu- 
mittor, his co-partner, and the freed 
person, may all partake of our bene- 
ficence: for we have decreed, (and 
clearly our ancient legislators have 
often set aside the strict rules of 
law in favour of liberty, ) that free- 
dom, although granted by one part- 
ner only, shall immediately take ef- 
fect: so that the manumittor shall 
have reason to be pleased with the 
validity of his gift, if his co-partner 
be indemnified by receiving his share 
of the worth of the slave. 


meet Go Um 


TITULUS OCTAVUS. 
QUIBUS ALIENARE LICET, VEL NON LICET. 


De marito, qui, licet fundi dotalis dominus sit, alienare nequit. 


ACCIDIT aliquands, ut, qui do- 
minus rei sit, alienare non possit: 
et contrà qui dominus non sit, alie- 
nandz rei potestatem habeat. Nam 
invita 
muliere, per legem Juliam prohibe- 
tur alienare; quamvis ipsius sit, 
dotis causa ei datum: quod nos, le- 
gem Juliam corrigentes, in melio- 
rem statum deduximus. Cum e- 
nim lex in solis tantummodo? rebus 


Sometimes the proprietor of a 
thing may not alien it, while one 
who is not proprietor, may: for 
example, by the law Julia, a husband 
is forbidden to alienate lands, which 
came to him in right of his wife, with- 
out her consent; although given to 
him, as a marriage portion. But, in 
this respect, we have corrected and a= 
mended the law. Julia; for, as this 
law regards only possessions, situa- 


LIB. II. TIT. VIII. 


locum habebat, quse Italice fuerant, 
et alienationes inhibebat, quz invi- 
tà muliere fiebant, hypothecas au- 
tem earum rerum etiam volente ea 
utrique remedium imsposuimus, ut 
etiam in eas res, quz» in provinciali 
solo posite sunt, interdicta sit alie- 
natio vel obligatio, ut neutrum eo- 
rum neque consentientibus mulieri- 
bus procedat : ne sexüs muliebris 
fragilitas, in perniciem substantie 
earum convertatur. 


108 


ted in Italy, and although it inhibits 
the husband to mortgage such pos- 
sessions, even with the consent of 
his wife, yet it permits him, with her 


consent to alienate, we have provid- - 


ed a remedy for both cases ; so that | 
now, no husband can alien or mort- | 


gage, even with consent of hia wife, 
any proferty provincial,or Italian, 
obtained with her, as a marriage 
portion ; lest the frailty of women, 
should occasion the ruin, d their for- 
funes. 


De creditore, qui, licet non sit dominus, tamen alienare pignus 
potest. 


€ I. Contrà autem creditor pig- 
nus, ex pactione, quamvis ejus ea 
res non sít, alienare potest. Sed 
hoc forsitan ideó videtur feri, 
quod voluntate debitoris intelligitur 
pignus alienari, qui ab initio con- 
tractis pactus est, ut liceret creditcri 
pignus vendere, si pecunia rfon sol- 
vatur. Sed, necreditores jus suum 
persequi impedirentur, neque debi- 


\ 


§ 1. But a creditor, may by com- X 


pact alien a pledge, although not 


. his own property ; yet this seems no 


otherwise allowable, than because 
the pledge is understood to be alien- 
ed by consent of the debtor, who co- 
venanted at the commencement of the 
contract, that the creditor might 
sell the pledge, if the loan was not 
repaid. But, lest creditors should be 


tores. temeré suarum rerum dog impeded from prosecuting their just 


minium amittere viderentur, nos- 
trá constitutione consultum est, et 
certus modus impositus est, per 
quem, pignorum distractio possit 
procedere; cujus tenore utrique 
parti, creditorum et debitorum sa- 
tis abundéque provisum est. 


claims, and debtors too hastily de- 
prived of their property, it is pro- 
vided for in our ordinance, and € 
certain method appointed, by which 


the sale of pledges may be made: . 


and, ample care hath been taken, in 
respect both of creditors and debtors. 


De pupillo, qui, licet dominus, non tamen siné tutoris auctoritate 
alienare potest. 


" $ II. Nunc onendi sumus, 
neque pupillum, heque pupillam, ul- 
lam rem siné tuforis auctoritate 
alienare posse: idedque, si mutu- 


$ 2. It must now be observed, that 
no pupil, male or female, can alien 
any thing without the authority of 


a tutor : and therefore, if a pupil, 
P | 


| 


106 LIB. II. TIT; VILL 


AW pecuniam -Sibé kutoris auctori- 
fate «cui dederit, aon contraliit 
vbligatiopen : quia pecuniam non 
feit accipientis : tdeóque vindicari 
JN possunt, sicubi, extant. 
Wed, sinummi, quos mutuo minor 
dederit, ab.eo, qui accepit, bona fi- 
de cansum pti sunt, oondici pos- 
sumt:si maki fide, ad exhibendum 
de his agi potest. 


1oitkout such. authority tentimomey to 
any mam, the pupal acquires sio obhi- 
gatien: Jor he.cannotvest tn the re- 
ceiver the peoperty of the money, 
which sut teclaimed $y vintiicn- 
tion, if 4? qtill exist. But if money, 
tent by a snbnor, be consumed Sy the - 
borrower, bon’ fide, (9. e. beheving 
the tender was of full aye) di 
may be recovered from such berrowes 


, $y-condictions if mala fide, en ae- 


Continuatio. 


§ III. At ex contrario omnes 
zea pupille et pupille sine tutoris 
wuctoritase secte dari possunt: de> 
fique, si debitor pupillo solvat, ne- 
xessania eat debitori titoris auctori- 
485; alioqui non hiberabitur. Sed 
hoc etiam cevidentissima ratione 
&tatutum ent in constitutions, quam 
ad Cesarienses edvocatos ex sug- 
gestione Triboniani, viri emjnen- 
tissimi, questoris sacri palatii nos- 
tei, promulgayimus: quà disposi- 
tum est, ita licere tutori vel cura- 
teri debitorem pupillarem solvere, 
ut prijs judicialis sententia sine 
" yowani damno celebrata, hoc permit- 
' tat; quo subsecuto, si et judex pro- 
Aunciaverit, et debitor solverit, se- 
quatur hujusmodi solutionem ple- 


nissima securitas. Sin autem ali- 


tér quam disposuimus, solutio fac- 
ta fuerit, pecuniam autem salvam 
habeat pupillus, aut ex eà locuple- 
. fier sit, et adhuc eandem pecuniz 
/summam petat, per exceptionem 
doli mali poterit submoveri. Quod 


tion ad exhibendum will lie ageinet 


Aim. 


§ 3. On the contrary, property 
may be transferred to pupils, mole or 
female, without the autharity af their 
tutors; yet, if a debtor make pey- 
ment ta a pupil, he should be war- 
ranted by the authority of tbe tudor, 
otherwise he wilh not be aaguitted of 
the debt: and this, for an evident 
reason; was ordained by a eonstitee 
tion, which we promulged to the ad- 
eacates of Cosurea, at the sugges: 

tion of that mast eminent men Triv 
bonian, the guestor of our sacrad far 
lace: whereby itis enacted, thes the 
debtor of a minor may pay oorr ts 
the tutar or curator, wader q gudic 
cial decree, permitting the payment 
previausiy obtained without expense 
to the minor : for, when the dakt is 
paid under the decree of a sudge, it 
ie attended with the fullest security. 
But, although money hath been paid 
tou pupil, otherwise than we have 
ordained, yet, if he be really. enrich- 
ed by the payment, and hath pree 
serocd the moncy, -and should. after- 


LIB. il. 


simnale consumpserit, aut furto aut 
và amiseris, nihil proderk debitori 
doli mali exceptio, sed nihilominus 
eonademnpabitr: quid temeré siné 
tutoxis aucteriate, et non secun- 
dim: nestram dispositionem, solve- 
mi Sed ex diverso, pupilli vel 
pupile selvere siné tusgnis. aucto- 
Bitate non possum: quia id, quod 
.selvunt, nea ft.accipiemtib; cum 
scilieet nullius rei alienatio ois sine 
tteris auctoritate eqncessa sit. 


TIT. EX. 103 


wards require, that wt should be re- 
paid, he might bé barred by an ex- 
ception gf fraud. But, if the pu- 
pel hath. squandered the money, or 
lost it by theft or violence, an excepe 
sion of fraud will be of no benefit ta 
the debtor, whe will be compelled. to 
make a second payment ; betause the 


frst waa made inconsiderately with= — 


out the authority of the tutor, and 
not according to our ordinance. 
Pupils may not pay money without. 
the authority of their tutors ; i¢-does 
not vest as the property of the re- 


ceioer : for without such authority, | 


a pupil.can alien nothing. 


TITULUS NONUS& 


PER QUAS PERSONAS 
C. i iv. 


C UIQUE ACQUIRITUR. 


T. 27. t 


Summa. 


ACQUIRITUR vobis non so- 
lim per vosmetipsos, sed etiam per 
cos, quos in potestate habetis: 
itém per servos, in quibus usum- 
fructum habetis: itém per homines 
liberos, et per servos alienos, quos 
bond fide possidetis: de quibus 
singali diligentiis dispiciamus. 


Things may be acquired 9ht only 
by ourselves, but also by those, who : 


are under our power ; also by slaves, 


of whom we have the. usufruct; by | 
free-men ; and by the slaves of others. ' 


whom we possess bon’ fide. Let. 
us diligently investigate. cach of 
these cases. 


De liberis in potestate. 


§ E. Igmtür liberi vestri utriusque 


§ 1. Anciently whatever came to. 


sexms, quos in potestate habetis, children, male or frmale,under pau 


dim: quidem quicquid ad eos per- er of their parents, was acquired 


f 


108 ) LIB. If. 
venerat, (exceptis videlicét castren- 
8ibus peculiis,) hoc parentibus suis 
acquirebant sine ullà distinctione : 
et hoc ita parentum fiebat, ut etiam 
esset iis licentia quod per unum vel 
unam eorum acquisitum esset, alii 
filio, vel extraneo donare, vel ven- 
dere, vel, quocumque modo volue- 
rant, applicare: quod nobis inhu- 
manum visum est : et generali con- 
stitutione emissá, et liberis peper- 
cimus, et parentibus honorem.de- 
bitum reservavimus : sancitum ete- 

!^ mim à nobis est, ut, si quid ex re 

LOC "patris ei obveniat, hoc secundüm 

^ — antiquam observationem totum pa- 

i ^ * renti acquiratur: Que enim invi- 
dia est, quod ex patris occasione 
profectum est, hoc ad eum reverti? 
Quod autém ex alia causa sibi filiys- 

/ Y ayy familias acquisivit, hujus usum- 

ctum patri quidem acquirat, do- 
minium autem apud eum remaneat: 
ne, quod ei suis laboribus vel pros- 
perá fortuná accesserit, hoc, in ali- 
um perveniens, luctuosum ei | pro- 
cedat. 


lh. D 


TIT. IX. m 


for the parents without any distinc- 
tion, if we except the peculium cas- 
trense : and this so. absolutely, that 
what was aequired by one child, the 
parent might have given to another, 
or to a stranger ; or sold it, or appli- 
ed it in what manner he thought 
proper: this seemed to be inhuman ; 
and we have therefore, by a general 
constitution, mitigated the law: as it 
respects children, and at the same 
time, supported that honour, which ie 
due to parents; having ordained, 
that, if any thing accrue to the son 
by means of the father’s fortune, 
the whole shall be acquired for the 
father, according to ancient prac- 
tice : (for can it be unjust, that the 
wealth, which the son hath obtained, 
by means of the father, should re- 
vert tothe father ? ) but that the ac- — 
quisitions of the son by any other 
means, shall remain in the son; and 
that the father shall be entitled only 
to the usufruct of such acquisition ; 
lest that, which hath accrued toa 
man from his labour or good fortune, 
being transferred to another, should 
affect him as a hardship. 


De emancipatione liberorum. 


"6 I. Hoc quoqie à nobis dispo- 
situm est et in eá specie, ubi pa- 
rens, emancipando liberos suos, ex 
rebus, quz acquisitionem effugie- 
bant, sibijtertiam . parten retinere 
(si voluerat icentiam ex anteriori- 
bus consgtutionibus habebat, quasi 
pro pretio quodammodó emancipa- 
tionis : et inhumzrium quiddam ac- 
cidebat, ut filius rerum suarum ex 
hac emancipatione deminio pro ter- 


6 2. We have made some regula- 
tions also as to emancipation: for a 
parent, when he emancipated his 
children, might, according to for- 
mer constitutions, have taken tB him- 
self, if so inclined, the third part of 
those things, which were excepted 
from paternal acquisition, as. the 
price of emancipation. But it ap- 
peared inhuman, that the son should 
be thus defrauded of the third part of 


LIB. II. 


tid parte defraudaretur; et, quod 
honoris ei ex emancipatione addi- 
tum erat, quod sui juris effectus es- 
set, hoc per rerum diminutionem 


decresceret. Idedque statuimus, yy 


parens pro tertia parte dominii, 
quam retinere poterat, dimidiam 
non dominii rerum, sed ususfruc- 
ths, retineat. Ita etenim res intac- 
tie apud filium remanebunt, et pater 
ampliore summa fruetur, pro tered, 
dimidià patiturus. 


TIT. IX. 109 


his property, and that the honour, 
which he had obtained by becoming 
independent, should be decreased by 
the diminution of his estate: we 
have therefore decreed, that the pa- 
rent instead of the third part of the 
property, which he formerly might 
have retained, shall now be entitled 
to an half-share, not of the proper- 
ty, but of the hufruct ; so that the 
property will remain Butire to the 
son, and the father will enjoy a 
greater share; namely, half instead 
of a third part. 


De servis nostris. 


$ LIL. Item vobis acquiritur, quod 
setvi vestri ex traditione nanciscun- 
tur, sivé quid stipulentur, sivé ex 
donatione, vel ex legato, vel ex qua- 
libet alia causa, acquirant. Hoc enim 
vobis et ignorantibus et invitis ob- 
venit; ipse enim servus, qui In po- 
testate alterius est, nihil suum ha- 
bere potest. Sed, si heres institu- 
tus sit, non alids, nisi vestro jussu, 
hzreditatem adire potest, et, si vo- 
bis jubentibus adierit, vobis hzredi- 
tas acquiritur, perindé ac. si vos ip- 
si hzredes instituti essetis : et con- 
venientér scilicet vobis legatum 
per cos acquiritur. Non solüm 
autem proprietas per eos, quos in 
potestate habetis, vobis acquiritur, 
sed etiam possessio: cujuscunque 
enim rei possessionem adepti fue- 
rint, id vos possidere videmini. Un- 
dé etiam per cos usucapio, vel lon- 
gi temporis possessio, vobis accidit. 


§ 3. Whatever your slaves have 
at any time acquired, whether by de- 
livery, stipulation, donation, bequest, 
or any other means, is acquired by 
you; although you may be ignorant. 


of, or even averse to, the acquisition P 


for he, who is a slave, can have no 


property. — And, if a slave be made | 


heir, he cannot otherwise take upon 
himcelf the inheritance, than at the 
command of his master ; but, if com- 


| 


manded so to do, the inheritance is ae. 


fully acquired by the master, as if he 


had been himself made heir ; and con- 
sequently a legacy, left to a slave, 
is acquired by his master. Moreover, 
masters acquire by their slaves not 
only the property of things, but alse 
the possession ; for whatever is pos- 
sessed by a slave, is deemed to be pos- 
sessed by his master ; who may found 
a prescription to it, by means of his 
slave. 


' 


110 LEB. II. 


TIT. IX. 


De fructuariis et buna fide possessis. 


8$ IV. De tis autem servis, in 
quibus tantummodó usumfructum 
habetis ita plecuit, ut, quiequid ex 
re vestrá, vel ex operis suis, acqui- 
 runt,id vobis adjiciatur; quod ve- 
" vó extra eas causes consecuti sunt, 
1d ad dominum _Proprietati is perti- 
neat. Itaque, si is servus hercs 
Mstitutus sit, legatumve quid ei, 
aut donatum fuerit, non usufructua- 
rio, sed domino proprietatis acqui- 
Htur. 


§ 4. As to slaves, of whom you 
have the usufruet only, it hath seemed 
right, that, whatever they earn by 
Oceans of your goods, or by their own 
work and labour, appertains to you: 
but whatever they earn by other 
means, belongs to the proprietor: 
therefore, if a slave be made heir, or 
legatee, or donee, the inheritance, le- 
gacy, or gift, willnot be acquired for 
the usufructuary master, but for the 
proprictor. 


Continuatio. 


§ V. Idem placet et de eo, qui 4 
vabis bona fide possidetur, sive 1s 
liber sit, sive alienus servus : quod 
enim placuitg de  usufructuario, 
idem placet et de bonz fidei posses- 
sore. Itaque, quod extra istas du- 
as causas acquiritur, id vel ad ip- 
sum pertinet, si liber est, vel ad do- 
minum, siscrvus est. Sed bone 
fidei possessor, cum usuceperit ser- 
vum, (quia eo modo dominus fit,) 
ex omnibus causis per eum sibi ac- 
quirere potest. Fructuarius veró 
usucapere non potest: primum 
quia non possidet, sed habet jus 
ütendi; fruendi: deindé, quia scit, 
servum alienum esse. Non solüm 
autem proprietas per cos servos, in 
quibus usumfructum habetis, vcl 
quos bona fide possidetis, aut per 
liberam personam, qua boni fide 
vobis servit, vobis acquiritur, sed 
etiam possessio. Loquimur autem 
i utriusque persona secundum dis- 
tinctionem, quam proximé exposui- 


§ 5. The same rule is observed as 
to the bona fide possessor of a slave, 
whether he be a free-man, or the slave 
of another: for the same law pre- 
vails respecting an usufructuary 
master, and a bona fide possessor ; 
therefore, whatever is acquired, other- 
wise than by the two causes above- 
mentioned, either belongs to the per- 
son possessed, if he be free; or to the 
proprietor, if he be a slave. But a 
bona fide possessor, who hath gained 
a slave by usucaption or prescription, 
Cinasmuch as he thus becomes the ab- 
solute proprietor,) can acquire by 
means of such slave, by all manner 
of ways. But anusufructuary mas- 
ter can not prescribe ; first, because 
he can not be strictly said to possess, 
having only the power of using : and 
because he knows, the slave belongs 
to another. We nevertheless may ac- 
quire not only property, but also 
possession, by means of slaves, 
whom we passess bona fide, or by 


LIB. I1. 


This, 14 est, si quam possessioneti 
ex re vestrá vel ex suis operis, 
tepti facri 


TIT. TX. 111 


usufruct ; endevin by a free person, 
of whom we kave bona fide . posses» 
Sion. But, in saying this, we adhere 


| fo the distinction, before explained, 
| und speak of those things only, of . 


which a slave may acquire the posses« 
ston, either through the goods of his 


| master, or by his own fndustry. — ' 


De reliquis seu extraneis personis. 


$ VT. Ex his itaque apparet, per 
fberos homines quos neque vestro 
Juri subjectos habetis, neque bond 
fide possidetis, item per alienos ser- 
vos, in quibus neque usumfractam 
habetis, neque possessionem justam, 
nulla ex causa vobis acquiri posse. 
Et hoc est, quod dicitur, per extra- 
meam personam nihil acquiri posse ; 
excepto eo, quod per liberam perso- 
nam (veluti per procuratorem) pla- 
cet non solüm scientibus, sed et ig- 
norantibus, vobis acquiri possessio- 
nem, secundim Divi Severi consti- 
tutionem ; et per hanc possessionem 
etiam dominium, si dominus faerit, 
qui tradidit ; vel usucapionem aut 
longi temporis praescriptionem, si 
domimus non eit. 


$ 6. Hence it appears that you 
can not acquire by means of free per- 
sons, not under’ your subjection, or 
possessed by you bon’ fide; nor by 
the slave of another, of whom you 
have neither the usufract, nor the 
just pos possession. And this is meant, 
when itis said, that nothing can be 
acqeired by means of a stranger; 
except indeed according to the con- 
stitution of the emperor Severus, that 
possession may be acquired for you 
by a free person, as by a proctor, not 
only with, but even without your | 
knowledse; and, by this possession, 
the property may be gained, if the 
delivery were made by the proprietor; 
and an usucaption or prescription 
may be acquired, although the deleve- — 
ry weremade by one, who was not 
the proprietor. 


"l'ransitio. 


6 VII. Hactenis tantispér admo- 
misse sufficiat, quemadmodum sin- 
guile res vobis acquirantur: nam 
legatorum jus, quo et ipso singuiz 
ves vobis acquiruntur, item fidei- 
esmumigsorum, ubi singule res vo- 
bis relinquuntur opportuniis inferi- 
@e Ioco referemus. Videamus ita- 


$ 7. The observations already — 
made, concerning the acquisition of 
things, may suffice for the present; 
for we shall treat more opportuneis 
hereafter conceraing the rights of le- 
gacies cnd trusts; We.now proceed 
to shew, how things may be acquired 
per universitatem, tA te, wholly 


112 LIB. II. 


que nunc, quibus modis per univer- 
sátatem res vobis acquirantur. Si 
cui ergó heredes fact sitis, sive cu- 
jus bonorum possessionem petieri- 
tis, vel si quem adrogaveritis, vel 
ei cujus bona, libertatum conser- 
vandarum causá, vobis addicta fue- 
yint, ejus res omnes, ad vos transe- 
unt Ac priis de hereditatibus 
_dispiciamus, quarum duplex condi- 
tio est ; nam vel ex testamento, vel 
ab intestato, ad vos pertinent. 


ex testamento vobis obveniunt ; quà 
In re necessarium est, initium de tes- 
tamentis ordinandis exponere. 


Et. 
priüs est, ut de his dispiciamus, qu 


TIT. X. 


and in gross by one single acquisi- 
tion: for example ; if you are nomi- 
nated heir, or seek possession of the 
goods of another, or arrogate one as 
your son, or if goods are adjudged 
to you for preserving the liberty of 
slaves; in all these cases, the entire 
inheritance passes to you. Let us 
therefore inquire into inheritances, 
which are twofold; for they proceed 
either from a testacy, or an intestacy. 
And first of those, which came by 
testament ; and herein it will be ne- 
cessary to begin by explaining the 
manner of making testaments. 


"TITULUS DECIMUS. 
DE TESTAMENTIS ORDINANDIS. 


D. xxviii. T. 1. 


C. vi. T. 23. Nov. 66. 119. 


Etymologia. 


TESTAMENTUM ex eo ap- 
pellatur, quod testatio mentis sit. 


A testament is so called from tes- 
tatio; because it testifies the deter- 
mination of the mind. 


De antiquis modis testandi civilibus. 


§.1. Sed, ut nihil antiquitatis 
penitis ignoretur, sciendum est, 
olim quidem duo genera testamen- 
torum in usu fuisse ; quorum alte- 
roin pace et otio ntebantur, quod 
calatis comitiis appellabant ; altero, 
eum in n in prélium exituri essent, quod 
Brocinctum Wacebatuy. Accessit de- 


$ 1. But, lest ancient usage should 
be forgotten, it is necessary to ob- 
serve, that formerly there were two 
kinds of testaments ; one practiced 
in times of peace, and named calatis 
comitiis ; because made in a full as- 
sembly of the people; and the other, 
when the people were going forth 


! LIB. II. 
indé tertium genus testamentorum, 
quod dicebatur per es et übram, 
scilicét quod per emancipationem, 
id est, imaginariam quandam ven- 
ditionem agebatir, quinque testibus 
et tibripemde, civibus Romanis pu- 
beribus, pr presentibus, et . eo, qui 
famili emptor dicebatur. Sed illa 
quidem prr duo genera testamen- 
torum. ex veteribus temporibus in 
desuetudinem abierunt: quod verd 
per es,et libram fiebat, licet diutiüs 
permanserit, attamen n partim et thoc 
in usu esse desiit. 








TIT. x. 119° 


to battle, and thie was the procincs 
tum testamentum. A third species 
was afterwards added, called per es 
et libram, deing effected by emanci- ; 
pation; which was an alienation, | 
made by an imaginary sale in the | 
presence of five witnesses, and the li- 
bripens or balance-holder, all citi- i 
.zens of Rome, above the age s 
fourteen: and also in the presence 
ef him, who was called the emptor ~ 
familie, or purchaser. The two 
Sormer kinds of testaments, have been 
disused far many ages; and that, 
which was made per es et libram, 
although it continued longer in prac- 
tice, hath now ceased in part to be ob- | 
served. 


De antiquá testandi ratione pretoria. 


§ IL. Sed: predicta quidem no- 
mina testamentorum, ad. jus civile 
refcrebantur : postéa veró ex edicto 
praetoris forma alia faciendorum 
testamentorum introductaest. Ju- 
re etenim honorario, nulla mancija- 
ticdésiderabatur, sed septem testi- 

" Um signa sufficicbant: cum jure 
Civili, signa testium non essent nc- 
cesaria, 


$ 2. These three kinds of testa- 
ment, originated from the civil law ; 
but afterwards another kind was 
introduced by the honorary or pre- 
torian edict; whereby the signature 


of seven witnesses was decreed suf- 


ficient to establish a will without 
any emancipation or imaginary sales 
but this signature of witnesses, wap 
not required by the civil law. 


De conjunctione juris civilis et pretorii. 


$.III, Sed, cum paulatim, tam 
tX usu. hominum, quam ex consti- 
lutionum emendationibus, cepit in 
nam consonantiam jus civile et 
guetorium jungi, constitutum est, 
di uno eodemque tempore, quod 
Gs civile quodammodo exigebat, 
testibus adhibitis, et sub- 
testium, quod ex consti- 
inventum est, et ex cdic- 









$ 3. When the civil and pretorian 
laws began to be blended partly by 
usage, and partly by the emendation 
of imperial constitutions, it became 
a rule, that all testaments should 
be mad; at one and the same time ace 
cording to the civil law; that they 
should be sealed by seven witnesses 
according to the pratorian law, and 
that they should also be subscribed 


11 LIB. II. 


to pretoris, signacula testamentis 
imponerentur : ita ut. hoc j xc jus triper- 
titum ráse videatur : “et testes qui- 
dem, eorumque presentia, uno con- 
textu, testamenti celebrandi gratia, 
à jure civili descendant: subscrip- 
tiones autem testatoris et testium 
ex sacrarum constitutionem obser- 
vatione adhibeantur: signacula au- 
tem et testium numerus ex edicto 
pratoris. 


TIT. X. 


by the witnesses, in abedience to tho 
constitutions. Thus the law of tes- 


tament seems to be tripartite: for 
the civil law requires witnesses to 
make a testament valid, who must all 
be present at the same time without 
interval ; the sacred constitutions 
ordain, that every testament must be 
subscribed by the testator and the 
witnesses ; and the pretorian edict 
requires sealing, and settles the num- 
ber of witnesses. 


a, 


Solemnitas addita a Justiniano. 


6. IV. Sed his omnibus à nostra 
constitutione propter testamento- 
rum sinceritatem, ut nulla fraus ad- 
hibeatur, hoc aditum est, ut, per 
manus testatoris vcl testium, no- 
men heredis exprimatur, et omnia 
secundàm illius constitutionis te- 
norem procedant.. 


. $ 4. To all these solemnities, we 
have enacted in additional security of 
testaments, and for the prevention of 
frauds, that the name of the heir shall 
be expressed, by the hand-writing, 
either of the testator, or of the wit- 
nesses; and that every thing shall 
be done in conformity te the tenor y 
our constitution. 


De annulis, quibus testamenta signantur. 


$ V. Possunt autem onmes tes- 
tes et uno annulo signare testamen- 
tum ; (quid.enim si septem annuli 
una sculptura fuerint?) secundim 
quod Papiniano visum est. Sed 
et alieno quoque annulo, licet sig- 
nare testamentum. 


. $ 5. Every witness to a testament, 
according to Fapinian, may use the 
same signet: for otherwise, what 
must be the consequence, if seven 
seals should happen all to bear 
the same device ? It is also allowable 
to seal with the signet of another. 


Qui testes csse possunt. 


4 VI. Testes autem — adhiberi 
possunt 11, cum quibus testamenti 
factioest. Sedneque mulier, ne- 
que impubes, ‘neque servus, neque 
furiosus, neque mutus, neque sur- 
dus, neque is, cui bonis interdic- 
tum est, peque ij, quos leges ju- 


$ 6. Those persons are good wit- 
nesses, who can legally take by tee 
tament : but no woman or mtnor un- 
der puberty,or slave; no person, mad, 
mute, or deaf; no interdicted prodi- 


gal; noy any, whom the jaws, have re- | 


probated and rendered intestable, can 


LIB. II. 


bent improbos intestabilesque esse, 
possunt in numerum testium. adhi- 
beri. 


TIT. X. 


425 


be admitted a witness to a testament. 


De servo, qui liber existimabatur. 


§ VII. Sed, cum aliquis ex tes- 
'tibus, testamenti quidem faciendi 
tempore, liber existimabatur, pos- 
tea autem servus apparuit, tgm Di- 
vus Adrianus Catoni,quam postea 
Divi Severus et Antoninus rescrip- 
serunt, subvenire se ex sua libera- 
litate testamento, ut sic habeatur 
firmum, ac si, ut oportebat, factum 
esset; cum, eo tempore, quo testa- 
mentum signaretur, omnium con- 
sensu hic testis liberi loco fuerit, 
mec quisquam esset, qui status ei 
quzstionem moveret. 


De pluribus testibus ex eádem domo. 


f$ VIIL. Pater, nec non is, qui 
im potestate ejus est: item duo 
fratres, qui in ejusdem patris potes- 
tate sunt, utique testes in uno testa- 
mento fieri possunt : quia nihil no- 
cet, ex unà domo plures testes alie- 
no negotio adhiberi. 


$ 7. If a witness, was regarded 
as free at the time of attesting, but 
afterwards appeared to have Leen 
then a slave, the emperor Adrian, in 
his rescript to Cato, and afterwards 
the emperors Severus and Antoninys 
by their rescript decreed, that they 
would aid such a defect in a. testas. 
ment, and confirm it equally as if the 


witness, at the time of sealing, waa,” 


in the estimation of all men, tcben t8 ^ 
be a free person, no one having made 


a question of bis condition. 


d L 
§ 8. A father, anda son wmder 
his power, or two brothers, under. 
the pawer of the same fether, muy be 
witnesses to a testament: for no- 
thing prevents several persons of the 
same family, being witnesses to the 
transaction of another person. 


De his, qui sunt in familia testatoris. 


§ IX. In testibus autem non de- 
bet esse is, qui in potestate testa- 
torisest. Sed, si filiusfamilias de 
castrensi peculio post missionem 
faciat testamentum, nec pater cjus 
recté adhibetur testis, nec is, qui 
in potestate ejusdem patris est. 
Reprobatum est enim in ea re do- 
Wyesticum testimonium. 

T 


§ 9. No person under power of . 
the testator can witne3y the testas: 
_ment. And if the son of a family 


devise his military estate after his 
dismission from the army, neither 
his father, nor any one under power 
of his Sather, can be a witness to the 
will. For, in this case, the lavo does 
not allow of a domestic testimony.. 


\ 


116 


LIB. JI. TIT. X. 


De hzrede. 


§ X. Sed neque heres scriptus, 
neque is, qui inejus potestate est, 
neque pater ejus, qui eum habet. in 
potestate, neque fratres, qui in ejus- 
dem patris potestate sunt, testes ad- 
hiberi possunt ; quia hoc totum ne- 
gotium, quod agitur testamenti or- 
dinandi gratia, creditur hodie inter 
testatorem et hzredem agi. Licet 
autem totum jus tale conturbatum 
fuerat, et veteres quidem familie 
emptorem, et eos, qui per potesta- 


tem ei conjuncti fuerant, à testa-^ 


mentariis testimoniis repellebant ; 
hzredi autem, etiis, qui per potes- 
tatem ei conjuncti fuerant, concede- 
bant testimonia in testamentis 
prestare : licet ii, qui id. permitte- 
bant, hoc jure minimé abuti, eos 
debere suadebant: tamen nos ean- 
dem observationem corrigentes, et, 
quod ab illis suasum est, in legis 
necessitatem transferentes, ad imi- 
tationem pristini familie emptoris, 
meritó nec heredi, qui imaginem 
vetustissimi familie emptoris obti- 
net, neque aliis personis, quz ei, 
(ut dictum est,) conjuncte sunt, 
licentiam concedimus sibi quodam- 
modo testimonia przstar.: ideó- 
que nec ejusmodi veteres constitu- 
tiones nostro codici inseri permisi- 
mus. 


t 

$ 10. No heir nominated in the 
will, ner any person in subjection to 
him ; nor his father, under whose 
power he is ; nor his brothers under 
power of the same father, can be ad- 
mitted witnesses ; for the whole busi- 
ness ef completing à testament, is at 
this day considered as transacted be- — 
tween the testator, and the real heir. 
But formerly there was great confu- 


fusion ; for although the ancierits 


would mever admit the testimony 
of the emptor familie, (nominal pur- 
chaser ) or the supposed heir, nor of 
any onc allied to him by subjection, yet 
they admitted that of the real heir, 
and of persons connected with him 
by subjection ; and the only precau- 
tion taken, was, to exhort those per- 

sons not to abuse their privilege. We 
have corrected this practice; pre- 

venting by the coercion of law, that, 

which the anctent lawyers endea- 

voured to prevent by persuasion one- 

ly: for we admit neither the real 
heir, who represents the emptor fa- 

miliz of the ancients, nor any person 
allied to him as a witness, to the tes- 

tament, by which he is nominated. 

Jtis for this reason, that we have 

not suffered the old cónstitutions te 

be inserted in our Code. 


De legatariis et fideicommissariis, et his, qui sunt in eorum 
familia. | 


6 XI. Legatariis autem et fidei- 
commissariis, quia non juris 'suc- 
cessorcs sunt, et aliis personis eis 
conjunctis, testimonium non dene- 


6 11. But we refuse not the tes- 
timony of legatees and trustees, or of 
persons allied to them, because they 
are not successors by law: nay, by 


LIB. II. 


gamus: imó in quádam nostra con- 
titutione et hoc specialitér eis con- 
cessimus ; et multo magis iis, qui 
inecorum potéstate sunt, vel qui eos 
habent in potestate, hujusmodi li- 
centiam damus. 


TIT. X. aay 


our constitution, we have specially 
granted them this privilege ; anc we 
allow this still more readily tc per- 
sons under their subjection, and to 
those, to whom they are subject. 


De materia, in qua testamenta scribuntur. 


§ XII. Nihil autem.interest, tes- 
tamentum in tabulis, an chartis, 
membranisve, velin alia materia 


fiat. 


- § 12. Itisimmaterial, whether a 
testament be written upon a tablet of 
wax, upon paper, parchment, or any 
other substance. 


De pluribus codicibus. 


§ XIII. Sed etunum testamen- 
tum pluribus codicibus conficere 


quis potest, secundüm obtinentem - 


tamen observationem omnibus fac- 
tis :: quod interdum etiam necessa- 
rium est; veluti si quis navigaturus 
et seeum ferre et domi relinquere 
judiciorum suorum contestationem 
velit: vel propter alias innumera- 
biles causas, que humanis necessi- 
tatibus imminent. 


6 13. Any person may execute 
counter-parts of the same testament 
observing the prescribed forms. This 
is sometimes necessary ; as when a 
man going a voyage, is desirous to 
carry his will with him, and to leave 
a counter-part at home for his better 
security. Innumerable other reasons ' 

for doing this may arise, according 
to the various necessities of mankind. 


De testamento nuncupativo. - 


$ XIV. Sed hzc quidem de tes- 
tamentis, quz scriptis conficiuntur, 
sufficiunt. Si quis autem sine scrip- 
tis voluerit ordinare jure civili tes- 
tamentum, septem testibus adhibi- 
tis, et suá voluntate coram eis nun- 
cupata, sciat, hoc perfectissimum 
testamentum jure civili fÉrmumque 
constitutum. 


6 14, Thus much may suffice con- 
cerning written testaments. but if 
a man wishes to dispose of h:s effects 
by a nuncupative or unwritten tes- 
tament, he may do so, if in the pre- 
sence of seven witnesses, he verhal- 
ly declares his wil! ; and this willbe 
a valid testament according to the 
civil lau. 


TIT; XI. ' 


TITULUS UNDECIMUS. 
DE MILITARI TESTAMENTO. 


C. vi. T. 21. 


In milium testamentis solemnitates remissz. 


“Siz. LIB; Ii. 
D. xxix. T. 1. 
SUPRADICTA diligens obser- 


 "egtio ia ordinandis testamentis mi- 
litibus, propter nimiam imperitiam 
eorum, constitutioniljus principalie 
bus remissa est. Num, quamvis 
ii neque legitimum numerum testi- 
um adhibuerint, neque aliam testa- 
mentorum solemnitatem observave- 


rint, reoté mhilominus testantur, yi- . 


delicét cum in expeditionibus occu- 
pati sunt: quod merjtó nostra con- 
stitutio introduxit. Quoquo enim 
modo voluntas ejus suprema inve- 
niatur, sive scripta, sive sine scrip- 
tura, valet testamentum ex voluntate 
ejus. Illis antem temporibus, per 
quz, citra expeditionum necessita- 
tem, in aliis locis, vel suis edibus, 
degunt, minimé ad vindicandum 
tale privilegium adjuvantur. Sed 
testari quidem, etsi filii-femiliarum 
aint, propter militiam conceduntur : 
jure tamen communi, eadem obser- 
vatione etin eorum testamentis ad- 
hibenda, quam in testamentis pa- 
ganorum proximé exposuimus. - 


The before-mentioned strict ob- 
servance of formalities, in the cos» 
struction of testaments, ie dispensed 
with by the imperial constitutions, iz 
favour ofall military persons, on ace 
count of their unskilfulness in these 
matters. For, although they should 


 getther call the legal number of wits 


measea, nor abserve any other soleme 
nity, gef they may make a good tes« 
tament, if they are in actual services 
Fhas was introduced by our own ors 
dinance with good reason ; so that in 
whatever manner the testament of a 
military person is conceived, whether 
in writing, or not, it prevails accord- 
eng to his intention: but, when sol- 
dicrs are not upon an expedition, and | 
live in their own houses or elsewhere, 
they are by no means intitled-to claim 
this privilege ; but a soldier, on ac- 
count of his profession is allowed to. 
make a testament, although he is the 
son of a family : abserving however, 
according to the general law, all the 


ormasries, which are required d 


others in this respect. 


Rescriptum Divi Trajani. 


§ I. Plané de testamentis mili- 
tum Divus Trajanus Catilio Severo 
ita rescripsit. Id privilegium, quod 
militantibus datum est, ut quoquo 
modo facta ab his testamenta rata 


6 1. The emperor 'Trajan wrote, 
as follows, in hi» rescript to Catilius 
Severus concerning military testa- 
ments. The privilege, given to 
military persons, that their testa- 


LIB.IL TIT. XL 


sint, sic intelligi debét,ut utique pri» 
us constare debeat, testamentum fac- 
tum esse: quod et sine scriptura, et 
d nón militantibus quoque, fieri po- 
test. Stergo miles, de cujus bonis 
apud te queritur, convocatis ad hoc 
hominibus, ut ooluntatem suam testa- 
etur, ita locutus. est, ut declararet 
quem vellet sibi heredem esse, et cui 
Béertatem tribueret; potest  vidert 
sine scripto hoc modo esse testatus, et 
voluntas ejus rata habenda est. Ce- 
terum, si (ut plerumque sermonibus 
feri solet ) dixit altcui, ego te here- 
dem facw, aut, bona mea tibi relin- 
quo, non oportet hoc pro testamento 
observari. Nec ullorum magts inter- 
est, quam ipsorum, quibus id privi- 
legium im datum est ejusmodi exemplum 
non ádmitti. Alioqui non difficulter 
post mortem alicujus militis. testes 
existerent, qui affirmarent, se audisse 
dicentem aliquem. relinquere se bo- 
Ma, cui visum sit: ct per hoc vera 
judicia subverterentur. 


119 


ments, in whatever mámer made, 
shall be valid, must be thus under. 
stood ; itought first to be apparent, 
that a testament was made in some 
manner: for a testament may be 
made without writing, by persons 
mot military. And therefore, if it 
appear, that the soldier, concerning 
whose goods question is now made. 
before you, did,in the presence of 
witnesses, purposely called, declare 
what person should be his heir, and 
to what slaves he would give liber« 
ty, he shall be reputed to have 
made his testament without writmg, 
and his will shall be ratified. But, 
if it is only proved, that he said to 
some one, as it often happens in 
discourse, J appoint you my heir— 
or—4 leave you all my estate, such 
words do not amount to a testa- 
ment. Nor are any persons more 
interested than the soldiery, that 
words so spoken sheuld not amount 
to a will; otherwise, witnesses 
might without difficulty be produ- 
ced after the death of any military 
man, who would affirm, that they. 
had heard him bequeath his estate, 
to whomever they please ; and the 
true intentions might be defeated. 


De surdo et muto. 


6 II. Quinimo et mutus et sur- 
dus miles testamentum facere po- 
test. ' ' 


.$ 2. A soldier though mute and 
deaf, may yet make a testament. 


De militibus ct veteranis. 


: 6$ IIT. Sed hactents hoc illis à 
geincipelibus constitutionibus con- 
' agditur, quateads militant et in cas- 
. "wr degunt. Post missionem weró 


.$ 3. This privilege was granted — 
by the imperial constitutions to mi- 
ktary men, to be enjoyed only'during 
actual service, and while they livell 


120 . e. ‘ . LIB. IL. 


veterani, vel extra castra alii, si fa- 
ciant adhuc militantes testamen- 


tum, communi omnium civium Ro-: 


manorun jure id facere debent. Et 
quod in castris fecerint testamen- 
tun non communi jure, sed quo- 
modo voluerint, post missionem in- 
tra annum tantüm valebit. Quid 
ergo si intra annum quis decesserit, 
conditio autem heredi adscripta 
post annum extiterit? an quasi mi- 
litis testamentum valeat? Et placet 
valere quasi miltis. 


TIT. XI... 


in tents. For, if veterans after dis- 
mission, or soldiers out of camp, 
would make. their testaments, they 
must pursue’ the forms required of 
all the citizens of Rome. And, if a 
testament be made in camp, and the 
solemnities of the law are not adhered 
to, tt will continue valid only for one 
year after dismisston from the are 
my. Suppose therefore, a soldier 
should die testate within a year after 
his dismission, and the condition, en- 
Joined upon the heir should happen 
after the year, would his testament 
be valid? We answer, it would pre- 
vail as a military testament. 


De facto ante militiam testamento. 


$ IV. Sed et, si quis ante militi- 
am non jure fecit testamentum, et 
miles factus, et in expeditione de- 
gens, resignavit illud, et quzdam 
adjecit sive detraxit, vel aliàs ma- 
nifesta est militis voluntas, hoc va- 
lere volentis, dicendum est, valere 
hoc testamentum, quasi ex nova mi- 
fitis voluntate. 


6 4. Jfaman, before entering in- 
to the army, should make his testa- 
ment irregularly, and afterwards, 
tipon an expedition, open it for the 
purpose of adding, or striking out ; 
or if he should otherwise make 
his intention manifest, that this tes- 
tament should be valid, it must be pro- 
nounced so, by virtue of this repub- 
lication. 


De milite arrogato vel emancinato. 


$ V. Denique, et si in arrogati- 
onem datus fuerit miles, vel filius- 
familias emancipatus est, testamen- 
tum ejus quasi ex nova militis vo- 
luntate, valet: nec videtur capitis 
diminutione irritum fieri. 


§ 5. Ifa soldier be given in ar- 
rogation, or, being the son of a fa- 
mily, be emancipated, his testament ts 
equally valid, as if he had republish- 
ed it by a new declaration : nor is it 
invalidated by his change of state. 


De peculio quasi castrensi. 


. .§ VI. Sciendum tamen est, quod, 
oum àd exemplum castrensis pecu- 
lii, tam anteriores leges, quam prin- 


§ 6. Beit known, that, since the 
ancient laws, as well as the later con- 
etitutions, have, in imitation of the 


LIB. II. TIT. XII. 


cipales constitutiones, quibusdam 
quasi castrensia dederant peculia, 
et horum quibusdam permissum 
fuerat etiam in potestate degenti- 
bus testari, nostra constitutio, id 
latius extendens, permiserit omni- 
bus in hujuscemodi peculiis testari 
quidém, sed jure communi. Cujus 
constitutionis tenore perspecto, li- 
centia est nihil eorum, quz ad pre- 
fatum jus pertinent, ignorare. 


191 
military estates, given to some per 
sons quasi military estates, and have 
indulged some of these in the liberty 
of making testaments, while they 
wereunder power, our constitution 
still extending this privilege, hath 
permittedall persons, who possess 
these estates, to male their testaments, 
but according to the common forms of 
law. Whoever carefully peruses 
that constitution, may fully inform 
himself of all-that relates to the be- 
fore-mentioned privilege. 


oom 1 GD 4 DB 


TITULUS DUODECIMUS. 


QUIBUS NON EST PERMISSUM FACERE TESTA. 
MENTUM. 


D. xxviii. T. 1. C. vi. T. 22. 


De filio-familias. 


NON tamen omnibus licet fa- 
‘cere testamentum : statim enim ii, 
qui alieno juri subjecti sunt, testa- 
menti faciendi jus non habent: a- 
deó quidem ut, quamvis parentes 
eis permiserint, nihilo magis jure 
testari possint: exceptis lis, quos 
antea enumeravimus, et precipué 
militibus, qui m potestate parentum 
aunt; quibus de eo, quod in castris 
&cquisiverunt, permissum est, ex 
constitutionibus "principum, testa- 
mentum facere.. Quod quidem jus 
ab initio tantum militantibus da- 
fum est, tam ex auctoritate. Divi 


Angusti, quam Nervz, nec non op- 


The right of making a testament 
is not granted to all. Persons under 
the power of others, have not this 
right : so that, although parents have 
given permission, this will not en- 
able their children to make a. valid 
testament ; those excepted whom we 
have already mentioned, and princi- 
pally sons of families engaged in 
the army, who by our constitutions 
may bequeath whatever they have 
acquired by military service. This 
permission was at first granted by 
Augustus, Nerva, and that excel- 
lent prince Trajan, to actual sol- 
diere only ; but afterwards it was 


123 
timi imperatoris Trajani: postea 
vero subscriptione Divi Hadriani 
etiam dimissis à militia, id est, ve- 
teranis, concessum est. Itaque, si- 
quidem fecerint de castrensi pecu- 
lio testamentum, pertinebit hoc ad 
eum, quem hzredem reliquerunt: 
si veró intestati gecesserint nullis 
liberis vel fratribus superstitibus, 
ad parentes eorum, jure communi 
pertinebit. Ex hoc intelligere pos- 
sumus, quod in castris acquisierit 
miles, qui in potestate patris est, 
neque ipsum patrem adimere posse, 
neque patris creditores id vendere, 
vel alitér inquietare, neque patre 
mortuo cum fratribus commune es- 
se; sed scilicét proprium esse 
ejus, qui id in castris acquisie- 
rit: quanquàm jure civili omnium, 
qui in potestate parentum sunt, pe- 
culia, perindé in bonis parentum 
computentur, ac servorum peculia 
in bonis dominorum numerantur : 
exceptis videlicét iis, quae ex sa- 
cris constitutionibus, et praecipué 
nostris, propter diversas causas non 
acquiruntur. Pretér hos igitur, qui 
castrense peculium vel quasi cas- 
trense habent, si quis alius filius- 
familias testamentum fecerit, inu- 
tile est; licet sue potestatis fac- 
tus decesserit. ' 


LIB. II. TIT. XII. 


extended by the emperor Adrian to 
veterans, that is, to soldters wha 
had received their dismission: and 
therefore, if the eon ofa family be- 
queath his castrensian or military 
estate, it will pass to his instituted 
heir : but, if such son die. intestate 
without children or brothers, his es- 
tate will then pase of common right 
to his father, (or other paternal as- 
cendants. ) We may hence infer, 
that whatever a soldier, although 
under power, hath acquired by mili- 
tary service, can not be taken from 
him even by his father ; whose cre- 
ditors cannot sell it, or otherwise 
disturb the son in his possession ; 
and what is thus acquired is not liable 
to be shared in common with bro- 
thers, upon the demise of the father, 
but remains the sole property of him, 
who acquired it; although by the civil 
lary, the peculia, or e. tates of those, 
who are under power, are reckoned 
among the wealth of their parents; n 
the same manner as the peculium ofa 
slave is esteemed the property of his 
master. But those estates must be 
excepted, which by the constitutions 
of the emperors, and chiefly by our 
own, are prohibited for divers rea- 
sons to be acquired for parents. 
Upon the whole, if the son of a fumie 
ly, neither possessed of a military or 
quasi-military estate, make q testa- 
ment, it will not be valid, even though 
he be afterwards emancipated, and 
sui juris before his death. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. XII. 128 


De impubere et furioso. 


€ i. Praeterea testanientam fa- 
cere non possunt impuberes ; quia 
nullum eorum animi judicium est. 
Item furiosi ; quia mente carent. 
Nec ad rem pefinet, si impubes 
postea pubes, aut furiosus postea 
compos mentis factus fuerit, et de- 
cesserit, Furiosiautem, si per id 
tempus fecerint testamentum, quo 
furor eorum intermissus est, jure 
testati esse videntur; certé eo, 
quod ante furorem fecerint; testa- 
mento valente: nam neque tes.2- 
mentum recté factum, neque ullum 
aliud negotium recté gestum, pos- 
teà furor interveniens perimit. 


§ 1. A person, within the age of 
puberty, cannot make a good testa- 
ment ; because he is not supposed to 
possess the requisite judgment of 
mind; so of a madman, inasmuch as 
he is deprived of his senses. Nor 
tsit material though the minor cr- 
rive at puberty before his death ; or 
the madman regain his senses, and 
then die. But, if he make his will 
during a luctd interval, he is a legal 
testato y for it is certainthat a tee- 
tament, which a man hath made be& 
Jore he was seized with madness, is 
good: for a subsequent fit of phren- 
zy can neither. invalidate a. regular 
testament, or any other regular 
transaction. 


De predio. . -: 


6 IT. Étem. prodigus, cui bono- 
rum suorum administratio inter- 
dicta est, testamentum facere non 
potest: sed id, quod anté fecerit, 
quam interdictio bonorum suorum 
ei fiat, ratum est. 


§ 2. A prodigal also, who is ine 
terdicted from the management of 
his own affairs, can not make a teé- 
tament : but if it were made: before 
such interdiction, it is valid. 


De surdo et muto. 


$ YII. Item surdus et mutus non 
semper testamentum facere pos- 
sunt. Utique autem de eo surdo 
loquimur, qui omnind non exaudit, 
non qui tardé exaudit. Nam et 
mutus is intelligitur, qui eloqui ni- 
hil potest, non qui tardé loquitur. 
Sepe enim etiam, literati homines 
vátiis casibus et audiendi et loquen- 
«li facultatem amittunt. Undé nos- 
$e constitutio etiatmhis subvenit, 
mt, certis. casibus et-modis, secun- 


§ 3. A man deaf and dumb is not 
always capable of making a testa- 
ment: but this must be understood 
of one, who is so deaf as to be un- 
able to hear at all, and not of a mere 
thickness of hearing ; and of that 
dumbness which prevents all utter- 
ance, und not of a mere difficulty of 
speech: for it often happens, that 
men of learning lose the faculty of 
hearing and speaking by various 
misfortunes ; therefore our consti- 


124 LIB. II. 


dim normam ejus possint testari, 
aliaque facere, que eis permissa 
sunt. Sed, si quis post testamen- 
tum factum, adversa valetudine aut 
quolibet alio casu mutus aut surdus 
esse coperit, ratum nihilominis 
manet cjus testamentum, 


TIT. XIII. 


tution comes in aid of all such per- 
sons, and permits them, tn certain 
cases, to make testaments, and do 
many other acts, observing the rules, 
therein laid down. But, if any man 
after making his Testament, become 
deaf or mute by reason of ill health 
or any other accident, his testament 
will remuin good notwithstanding. 


De czco. 


6 IV. Czcus autem non potest 
facere testamentum, nisi per obser- 
vationem, quam lex Divi Justini 
patris nostri introduxit. 


$ 4. A blind man cannot make a 
will, unless observing the rules 
which the law of the emperor Justin, 
our father, has introduced. 


De eo, qui est apud hostes. 


§ V. Ejus, qui apud hostes est, 
testamentum, quod ibi fecit, non 
valet, quamvis redierit: sed quod, 
dum in civitate fuerat, fecit, sive 
redierit, valet, jure postliminii; sivé 
ilic decesserit, valet ex lege Cor- 
nelia. 


§ 5. The testament of a captive. 
is not valid, if made during his cap- 
tivity ; even although he live to re- 
turn. Butif made while in the city, 
it is good ; either by the jus postli- 
mii, if the prisoner return; or 
by the law Cornelia, if he die cap- 
livc. : 


TITULUS DECIMUS-TERTIUS. 
DE EXH/EREDATIONE LIBERORUM. 


D. xxviii. T. 2, C. vi. T. 28, 29. Nov. 115. 


- Jus vetus de liberis in potestate. 


NON tamen, ut omninó valeat 
testamentum, sufficit hzc observa- 
tio, quam supra exposuimus: sed, 
qui filium in potestate habet, cu- 
Farc debet, ut cum heredem insti- 


The solemnities of law, before exe 
plained, are not alone sufficient to 
make a testamumt valid. For he, 
who has a son under his power, 
&heuld take care cither to institule 


LIB. II. 


tuat, vel exhzredem eum nomina- 
tim faciat. Alioqui, si eum silen- 
tio preterierit, inutilitér testabitur : 
adcó- quidem ut, si vivopatre tilius 
mortuus sit, nemo hzres ex eo tes- 
tamento existere possit: quia scili- 
cét ab initio non constiterit testa- 
mentum. Sed non ita de filiabus, 
et aliis per virilem sexum descen- 
dentibus liberis utriusque sexus, 
antiquitati fuerat observatum : sed, 


si non fuerant scripti heredes scrip- . 


teve, velexhzredati exh:zeredatsve, 
testamentum quidem non infirma- 
batur, jus tamen accrescendi eis ad 
certam portionem przstabatur. Sed 
nec nominatim eas personas exhe- 
redare parentibus necesse erat, sed 
licebat inter ceteros hoc facere. 
Nominatim autem quis exheredari 
videtur, sivé ita exhzredetur, Ti- 
tius filius meus exheres esto, sive ita, 
filius meus exhares esto,.non adjec- 
to proprio nomine ; scilicet, si alius 
filius non extet. 


TIT. XIII. 


125 


him his heir, or to disinherit him by 
name: for, if he pass over his gon 
in silence, the testament will haveno 
effect. And even if the son die liv- 
ing the father, yet no one can take 
upon. himself the heirship by virtue 
of such a testament, inasmuch as it 
was null from the beginning. But 
the ancients did not observe this rule 
tn regard to daughters and. grand- 
children of either sex, though de- 
scended from the male line; for al- 
though these were neither instituted 
heirs, or disinherited, yet the testa- 
ment was not invalidated; because 
a right of accretion intitled them to 
a certain portion of the inheritance : 
parents were therefore not necessi- 
tated to disinherit these children no- 
minally, but might do it inter cseteros. 
A child is nominally disinherited, if 
the words of the will are let Titius 
my son be disinherited; or eves 
thus; let my son be disinherited, 
without the addition of a proper 
name, provided the testator had no 
other son living. 


De posthumis. 


$ I. Posthumi quoque liberi vel 
heredes instituti debent vel exhze- 
redari: et in eo par omnium con- 
ditio est; quod et filio posthumo, 
et quolibet ex cseteris liber:s, sive 
feminini sexus sive masculini, pre- 
terito, valet quidem testamentum, 
sed postea, agnatione posthumi sive 
posthumz, rumpitur, et ¢a ratione 
@etum infirmatur. Idedque, si mu- 
fier, ex qua posthumus aut posthu- 
tga sperabatur, abortum fecerit, 
- abi impedimento est scriptis he- 


$ 1. Also ‘posthumous children 
should either be instituted heirs, or 
disinherited : and in this the condi- 
tion of all children is equat: but, if 
a posthumous son, or any posthu- 
mous descendant in the right line, 
male or female, be pretermitted, the 
testament will nevertheless be valid at 
the tine of making it; but, by the sub- 
sequent birth of a child of either sex, 
it will be annulled. And therefore, 
if a woman from whom a posthumous 
child is expected, should miscarry, 


L 


136 LIB. Il. 


redibus ad hereditatem adeundam. 


Sed feminini quidem sexüs persone 
vel nominatim vel inter ceteros ex- 
heredari solebant: dim tamén, si 
inter ceteros exhercdarentur, ali- 
quid eis legaretur, né viderentur 
preterite esse per oblivionem. Mas- 
culos veró posthumos, id est, filios 
et deinceps, placuit non alitér recte 
exheredari, nisi nominatim exhz- 
redarentur, hoc scilicét modo, gwi- 
cunguc mihi filius genitus fuerit, ex- 
heres esto. 


TIT. XIII. 


nothing can prevent the written 
heirs from entering upon the inhe- 
ritancee But posthumous females 
may be either nominally disinherited, 
or inter c&teros by a general clause : 
yet, if disinherited inter ceteros, 
something must be left them to show 
they were not omitted through f-r- 
getfulness. But male posthumous 
children, i e. sons, and their de- 
scendunts tn the direct line, cannot 
be disinherited otherwise, than no- 
minally in this form; whatever son 
is hereafter born to me, I disinhe- 
rit him. 


De quasi posthumis. 


$ H. Posthumorum autem loco 
sunt et hi, qui in sui heredis locum 
succedendo, guasi agnascendo, fiunt 
parentibus sui heredes: uteccé, si 
quis filium, et ex eo nepotem nep- 
temve, in. potestate habeat, quia fi- 
lius gradu praecedit, is solus jura 
sui heredis habet; quamvis nepos 
quoque et neptis ex eo in eadem po- 
testate sint. Sed, si filius ejus vivo 
eo moriatur, aut qualibet alia rati- 
one exeat de potestase ejus, incipit 
nepos neptisve in ejus locum succe- 
dere, et eo modo jura suorum here- 
dum quas] agnatione nanciscitur.. 
Ne ergó eo modo rumpatur ejus 
testamentum, sicit ipsum filium vel 
heredem instituere vel nominatim 
exheredare debet, ne non jure faciat 
testamentum; ita et nepotem nep- 
temve ex filio necesse est ei vel hze- 
redem instituere vel exhzredare ;. 
' ne forté eo vivo, filio mortuo, suc- 
cedendo in.locum ejus nepos, nep- 
tisve, quasi agnascendo, rumpat tes- 


$ 2. Those are reckoned in the 
place of posthumous children, who, 
succeeding in the stead of proper 
heirs, become, by agnation, or quasi- 
birth, proper heirs to their parents : 
thus, if Titius have a son under his 
power, and by hima grand-son, or 
grand-daughter, then would the son, 
because he is first in degrce, have the 
sole right of a proper heir, although 
the grand-son, or grand-daughter by 
that son, is under the same parental 
power. But, if the son of Titius 
should dtein his father’s lifetime, or 
should by any other means cease to be 
under his father’s power, the grand- 
son or grand-daughter would suc- 
ceed in his place ; and would thus, by 
what may be called a quasi-birth, 
obtain the right of a proper heir. 
Therefore, as it behoves a testator 
for his own security, either to insti- 
tute or disinherit his son, lect his tea 
tament should be annulled, so it ia 


equally necessary for him either te 


LIB. If. 


tamentum. Idque lege Julia Velleia 
provisum est: inqua similis exhz- 
redationis modus ad similitudinem 
pesthumorum demonstratur. 


TIT. XIII. ^ 


127 
institute or distnherit his erand-son 
or grand-daughter by that son, lest, 
if his son should die in his (the tes- 
tator's ) fe-time, his grand-son or 
grand-daughter, succeeding to the 
place of his. son, should make void his 
testament by quasi agnation. This 
has been introduced by the lavo Julia 
Velleia, in which is set forth a form 
of disinheriting quasi-posthumous, 
like that of posthumous children. 


De emancipatis. 


€ III. Emancipatos liberos jure 
civili neque haeredes instituere, ne- 
que exhzredare, necesse est: quia 
non sunt sui heredes. Sed prztor 
omnes, tam feminini sexüs quam 
masculini, si heredes non iystitu- 
antur, exhzredari jubet; virilis 
sexus nominatim, feminini vero in- 
ter ceteros: quia, si neque heredes 
instituti fuerunt, neque ita (ut dix- 
imus) exheredati, promittit eis 
pretor contra tabulas testamenti, 
bonorum possessionem. 


$ 3. The civil law does not make it | 
necessary, either to institute emanci- 
pated children heirs, or to disinherit 
them in a testament; inasmuch as they 
are not sui heredes, i. e. proper 
heirs. But the pretor ordains, that 
all children male or female, if they 
be not instituted heirs, shall be disin- 
herited ; the males nominally ; the 
females inter ceteros : for, if chil- 
dren have neither been insituted 
heirs, nor properly disinheritéd in 
manner before mentioned, the. pre- 
tor gives them possession of the 
goods, contrary to the testament. 


De adoptivis. 


§ IV. Adoptivi liberi, quamdià 
sunt in potestate patris adoptivi, 
ejusdem juris habentur, cujus sunt 
justis nuptiis quzsiti: itaque hzre- 
des instituendi vel exhzredandi 
sunt, secundim ea, que de natura- 
\ibus exposuimus. Emancipati ve- 
' $$ à patre adoptivo, neque jure ci- 
‘vili, neque eo jure, quod ad edic- 
gum pretoris attinet, inter liberos 
<Commumerantur. Qua ratione acci- 


$ 4. Adopted children, while under 
the power of their adoptive father, 
are intitled to the rights of children 
born in lawful matrimony: and 
therefore they must either be insti- 
tuted heirs, or disinherited, accord- 
ing to the rules laid down respecting 
natural (legitimate) children. But 
neither by the civil law, or by pra- 
torian equity, are children emancipat- 
edby an adoptive father, numbered: 


138 LIB. II. 


dit, uc ex diverso, quod ad natura- 
lem parentem attinet, quamdiu qui- 
dem sunt in adoptiva familia, extra- 
neorum numero habeantur, ut eos 
neque heredes insdtuere, neque ex- 
heredare, necesse sit: cum vero 
emancipati fuerint ab adoptivo pa- 
tre, tunc incipiant in ea causa esse, 
in qua futuri essent, si à naturali 
. patre emancipati fuissent. 


TIT. XIII. ; 


among his natural or legitimate chil- 
dren, 80 as to partake of their. 
rights: hegce adopted children, 
while in adoption, are reputed stran- 
gers to their natural parents, who 
need not institute them heirs, or dis- 
inherit them: but, when emancipat- 
ed by their adoptive father, they are 
tn the same state, in which they 
would have been, if emancipated by 
their natural father. 


Jus novum. 


§ V. Sed hec quidem vetustas 
introducebat. Nostra vero consti- 
tutio, inter masculos et feminas in 
hoc jure nihil interesse existimans, 

quia utraque persona in hominum 
'procreatione simili nature officio 
fungitur, etlege antiqua duodecim 
tabularum omnes similitér ad suc- 
cessionem ab intestato vocabantur, 
quod et praetores postea secuti. esse 
videntur, ideó simplex ac simile 
jus, ct in filiis etin filiabus et in cz- 
teris. descendentibus per virilem 
sexum personis, non solüm jam na- 
tis, sed etiam posthumis, introdux- 
it ; ut omnes, sivé sui sivé emanci- 
pati sint, vel heredes instituantur, 
vel nominatim exhzredentur: et 
eundem habeant effectum circa tes- 
tamenta parentum suorum infirman- 
da, et haereditatem  auferendam, 
quem filii. sui vel emancipati ha- 
bent, sivé jam nati sint, sivé, adhuc 
in utero constituti, postea nati sint. 
Circa adoptivos autem filios certun 
induximus divisionem, quz in nos- 
trà constitutione, quam super adop- 
tivis tulimus, continetur. 


$ 5. These were the rules of old 
times. — But we (not thinking, that 
any distinction can reasonably be 
made between the two sexes, inas- 
much as they equally contribute te 
the procreation of the species, and 
because, by the ancient. law of the 
twelve tables, all children, were 
equally called to the succession ab in- 
testato, which law the pretors seem 
afterwards to have followed) have 
by our constitution introduced the 
same law both as tosons and daugh- 
ters, and also to all other descendants 
in the male line, whether in being, or 
posthumous : so that all children whe- 
ther they are proper heirs or emanci- 
pated, must either be instituted heirs 
or disinherited by name: and they 
possess the same influence as to 
avoiding the testament of the parent, 
and destroying the heirshtp, as the 
legitimate or emancipated children 
have, whether appointed as living cr 
as posthumous children. In respect 
ef adopted children, we have intro- 
duced certain regulations, which are . 
contained in our constitution of 
adoptions. 


LIB. IL . TIT. XHI. 


139 


De testamento militis. 


§ VI. Sed, si in expeditione oc- 
cupatus miles testamentum faciat, 
et liberos suos jam natos vel posthu- 
mos nominatim non exheredaverit, 
sed silentio preterierit, non. igno- 
rans, an habeat liberos, silentium 
ejus pro exhzredatione nominatim 
facta valere, constitutionibus princi- 
pum cautum est. 


§ 6. Ifa soldier in actual service 
make his testament, and neither dis- 
inherit his children already born, or 
his posthumous children by name, 
but pass them over in silence, al- 
though it be known to him, that he 
has such children, it is provided by 
the constitutions of the emperors, 
that such silence shall be equal to a 
nominal disinherison. 


De testamento matris, aut avi materni. 


§ VII. Mater vel,avus maternus 
necesse non habent liberos suos aut 
hzredes instituere, aut exhzredare, 
-sed possunt eos silentio omittere: 
nam silentium matris aut avi ma- 
terni, et caeterorum per matrem a- 
scendentium, tantum facit, quantum 
exhzredatio patris. Néque enim 
matri filium filiamve, neque avo ma- 
terno nepotem neptemve ex filia, si 
eum eamve heredem non instituat, 
exheredare necesse est, sivé de jure 
civili quzramus, sivé de edicto 
praetoris, quo prztor przteritis libe- 
ris contra tabulas bonorum posses- 
sionem promittit : sed aliud eis ad- 
miniculum servatur, quod  pauló 
post vobis manifestum fiet. 


6 7. Neither a mother, nor a 
grandfather on the mother’s side, 
need expressly institute their chil- 
dren heirs, or disinherit them, but 
may pass them by in silence; for 
the silence of a mother, a maternal 
grandfather, and of all other ascen- 
dants on the mother’s side, is equiva- 
lent to an actual disinherison by a 
father. Fora mother is not obliged 
to disinherit her children, if she does 


‘not think proper to institute them her 


heirs: neither is a maternal grand- 
father under a necessity of institute 
ing or of disinheriting his grands 
son or granddaughter by a daugh- 
ter ; inasmuch as this is not require 
ed either by the civil law, or tha 
edict of the praetor, which gives 
possession of goods contrary to the 
testament, to those children, whe 
have been passed over in silence. But 
children, in this case, are not with- 
out remedy against the testament of 
their mother or maternal gandfather, 
which shall be shewn hereafter. 


S 


130 


£18. rr. *rr. xf. 


TITULUS DECIMUS.QUARTUS. 


‘DE HEREDIBUS 
b. xxviii. T. 3. 


ÍNSTITUENDIS. 
C. vi. T. 34. 


Qui possunt' heredes institui. 


H#REDES instituere. permis: 
sim est tam libéros hotrines quam 
servos; &t tám proprios, quami alie- 
nos. Proprios autem olim quidem 
secundüm plurium sententias non 
alitér, quam cum libertate, récté 
instituere licebat: hodié verd eti- 
am siné libertate ex nostra constitu- 
tione cos heredes instituere permis- 
Sum est. Quod non pet innovatid- 
nem induximus, sed quoniam exqui- 
us erat, et Atilicino pláculsse, Pau- 
lus suis libris, quos tam ad Masuri- 
tim Sabinum quam ad Plautium 
scripsit, refert. Proprius autem 
servus etiam is intelligitur, m qué 
hudani propfietatem testator habet, 
alio usumfructum habente. Est 
. tamen caius, in quo nec éum liber- 
tate utilitér servus à domihà heres 
instituitur, ut constitutiohe Divo- 
rum Beveri et Antonini cavetur, cus 
jus verba hac sunt. Servum, adul- 
terio maculatum, non sure testamento 
mahumiseam ante sententiam àb ea 
muliere videri, que rea fuerat cpus: 
dein crtminié postulata, rattonie est. 
Quare sequitur, wt, in eundem. a do- 
Mina collata, heredis institutio mul- 
Tius momenti habcatur. Alienus ser+ 
vus etiam is intelligitur, in qué 
usumfructum testator habet, — 


A man may appoint slaves, ds well 
d$ freemen, to be his heirs by tésta- 
tament ; and may nominate the slaves 
of another as well as his own: yet, 
according to the opinion of many, ne 
master Could fórmerly make his own 
slaves his heirs, without freeing 
them: but, at présent, by our core 
stitution, masters may do this: 
which we have introduced; net for 
the sake of itiobation, but because 
it seemed most just; and becétime 
Paulus, int Ais commentavies tipon 
Sabinus avid Plautius, affirme, thai 
this was also the opinion of Atifict- 
hus. We call a slave proprius sér- 
vus, if the testator had only anakéed 
property in him, the ustufriet being 
in another. But, in à constitution 
of thé empérors Severus and Atiti- 
hints, tAere is à case, th which à 
slave was hot permitted to De institet- 
ed heir by his otoner, although his it- 
berty was expressly given to him. 
The words are——It is consonant to 
right reason, that no slave, accus- 
ed of adultery with his mistress, 
shall be allowed, before a sentence 
of acquital, to be made free by that 
mistress, who is alleged to be a 
partner in the crime. Hence if a 
mistress institute such a slave to be 
her heir, it is of no avail. Alienus | 
servus zs one of whom the testator 
had only The usufruct. 


LIB. If. 


TIT. XLV, 7 


189 


Si servus hzeres institutus in eádem ca:1s@ manserit, vel non. 


§ I. Servus autem à domino suo 
Reres institutus, siquidem in eadem 
causa manserit, fit ex testamento 
liber, haresque ei necessarius, Si 
yeró à viyo testatore manumissus 
fuerit, suo arbitrio adire hzreditar 
tem potest; quia non fit heres ne- 
cessarius, cum utrumque ex domi- 
ni testamento non consequatur, 
Quod si alienatus fuerit, jussu novi 
domini adire hereditatem debet, 
et eà ratione per eum dominus fit 
heres: nam ipse alienatus. neque 
liber, negue hzres, esse potest; 
etiamsi cum Jibertate heres jnsti- 


tutus fuerit : destitisse enim à liber- 


tatis datione videtur dominus, . qui 
eum alienavit. Alienus quoque | ser- 
vus heres institutus, 31 in eadem 
causa duraverit, jussu ejus domini 
adire hereditatem debet. Si veró 
alienatus fuerit ab eo, aut vivo tes- 
tatore, aut post mortem ejus, ante- 
quam adeat, debet jussu novi domi- 
ni adire. At, si manumissus est 
vivo testatore, vel mortuo, ante- 
quam adeat, suo arbitrio adire po- 
test hzreditatem. 


.. $ L A slave insfitutedby hig mas- 
ter, remaining in slavery becomes 
ree at the death of his master, by 
virtue of the testament, and his nee 
cessary heir. But, if he be manw- 
mitted in the lifetime of his master, 
he mgy accept or refuse the inheri- 
tance; for he does not become a ne- 
cessary heir, since he does not ob- 
tain both his liberty and the inheri- 
tance, by virtue of the testament. 
But, if he should be aliened, he can 
not enter upon the inheritance unless 
gt the command of his new master, 
who through his slave may become 
the heir of the testator. For aslaye 
aliened, can got obtain his liberty, 
or take an inheritance to his guwR 
use, by virtue of the testament of the 
master, who transferred him, al-— 
though his freedom was expressly 
given by such testament ; because a 
master, who has aliened his slave, 
seems to have renounced the intention 
of enfranchising him. And, when 
the slave of another is appointed 
heir, but remains in slavery, he can 
not take the inheritance, but by his 
master's order : and, if the slave 
be aliened in the lifetime of the tcs- 
tator, or even after his death, before 
he has actually taken the inheritance, 
he must accept or refuse it, at the 
command of his new master. But, 
if the slave be infranchised, living 
the testator, or after his death, be- 
fore he has accepted the heirshtp, he 
may enter upon the inheritance or 
nat, at his own option. 


133 


LIB. II. TIT. XIV. 


De servo haereditario. 


§ II. Servus etiam 
domini mortem recté 
tuitur: quia et cum hereditariis 
servis testamenti factio est. Non- 
dum enim adita hereditas, personz 
vicem sustinet non hzredis futuri, 
sed defuncti: cum etiam ejus, qui 
in utero est, servus recté hzres in- 
etituatur. 


alienus post 
heres insti- 


De servo 


§ III. Servus autem plurium, 
cum quibus testamenti factio est, ab 
extraneo institutus hzres, unicui- 
que dominorum, cujus jussu adie- 
xit, pro portione dominii acquirit 
hereditatem. | 


6 2. The slave of another may E- 
gally be instituted an heir, after the 
death of his master; for slaves of 
an inheritance not entered upon, may 
take by testament: for an tnheri- 
tance, not yet entered on, represents 
the person of the deceased, and not 
of the future heir: thus the slave 
even of a child in the womb, may be 
constituted an heir. 


plurium. 


§ 3. If the slave of many masters, 
all capable'of taking by testament, is 
instituted heir by a stranger, he ac- 
guires a part of the inheritance for 
each master, who commanded him to 
take tt, according to the several pro- 


portions of property. 


De numero heredum. 


§ IV. Et unum hominem, et plu- 
res, usque in infinitum, quot quis 
hzredes velit, facere licet. 


—. $ 4. A testator may appoint one 
heir, or as many heirs as he pleases 
in infinitum. 


Le divisione hereditatis. 


6 V. Hereditas plerumque divi- 
ditur in duodecim uncias; quz as- 
sis appellatione continentur. Ha- 
bent autem et hz partes propria no- 
mina ab uncia usque ad assem ; ut 
puta hzc, sextans, quadrans, triens, 
quincunx, semis, septunx, bes, do- 
drans, dextans, deunx. Non autem 
utique semper duodecim uncias es- 
se oportet: nam tot unciz assem 
efficiunt, quot testator voluerit: et, 
-ei unum tantum quis ex semisse 
(verbi gratià) heredem scripserit, 


§ 5. An inheritance is generally 
divided into twelve unciz, that is, 
parts or ounces, all which are com- 
prehended under one total, termed an 
As:-and each of these parts, from 
the vincia to the As, has its peculiar 
name; viz. 

Sextans—a sixth part, or 2 ounces. 

Quadrans—a fourth, or 3 ounces. 
- Triens—a third, or 4 ounces. 

Quincunx—five ounces. 

Semis—a moiety, or 6 ounces. 

Septunx—seren ounces. 


LIB. II. 


totus as in semisse erit; neque 
enim idem ex parte testatus, et ex 
parte intestatus, decedere potest, 
nisi sit miles, cujus sola voluntas 
in testando spectatur. Et 6€ con- 
trario potest quis in quantascunque 
voluerit, plurimus uncias suam he- 
reditatem dividere. 


De portionibus singulorum hzredum. 


TIT. XIV. 


139 


Bes——two thirds, or 8 ounces; 
quasi, bis triens. - 

Dodrans—-nine ountes, or three 
fourths ; quasi, defhpto quads. 
rante, As. 

Dextans—ten ounces; quasi, demp- 
to sextante, Ás. 

Deunx—eleven ounces out of twelve; 
quasi, dempta uncia, As. 

But it is not necessary, that an 
As, or total, should always be divi- 
ded into twelve parts; for an As 
may consist of what parts the testa- 
tor pleases; and, if a man name 
but one heir, and appoint him ex 
semisse, 1. e. the heir of six parts; 
yet the whole As will be included ; 
Jor no man can die partly testate and 
partly intestate, except a soldier, 
whose intention is solely to be re- 
garded. Anda testator may alse 
divide his estgtginto as many parts, 
as he thinks convenient. 


Si testator assem non di- 


viserit, aut partes in quorundam persona non ultra assem 
expresserit. 


$ VI. Si plures instituantur hz- 
redes, ita demüm in hoc casu par- 
tium distributio necessaria est, si 
nolit testator, eos ex equis partibus 
heredes esse. Satis enim constat, 
nullis partibus nominatis, ex zquis 
partibus eos heredes esse. Parti- 
bus autem in quorundam personis 
expressis, si quis alius siné parte 
nominatus erit, siquidem aliqua 
pars assi deerit, ex eà parte heres 
fit. Et, si plures siné parte scripti 
sunt, omnes in eandem partem con- 
currunt. Siverótotus Ás comple- 
tus sit, ii, qui nominatim expressas 


§ 6. Jf many heirs be appointed, 
it is necessary to make a division of 
the effects, if it be not intended, that 
all shculd take in equal portions ; 
which must be the case if no distri- 
bution be made. But if the shares 
of some should be expressed, and a 
share or shares remain undisposed 
of, such share or shares yill belong 
equally to him or them whose shares 
are not specified. But, if a whole 
As, or inheritance, be given amogg 
some of the nominated heirs, yet 
they, whose shares are mentioned, 
are entitled only to a moiety ; and he 


d 


vocantur; et ille, vel illi omnes, in 
altcram dimidiam. Mec interest, 
primus am medius, an noviseimus, 
siné parte heres scriptus sit: ea 
enim pars data intelligitur, qux va- 
cat. 


Si pars vacet, 
9 VII. Videamus, si pars aliqua 
vacet, nec tamem quisquam siné 
parte fit heres institutus, quid juris 
sit, veluti si tres ex quartis parti- 
bus hzredes seripti sunt. Et con- 
stat, vacantem partem singulis ta- 
cité pro hareditarié parte accedere, 
et perindé haberi, ac si ex tertiis 
partibus heredes scripti essent: et 
ex diverso, si plures heredes scrip- 
€i in portionibus stntiitucité singulis 
decrescere; ut, si (verbi gratia) 
quatuor ex tertiis partibus heredes 
scripti sint, perindé habeatur, ac si 
unusquisque ex quartá parte heres 
Scriptus fuisset. 


LiB. IL. ; FIT. XIV. 
partea babent, in dimidiam partem . 


«f they, whose shares are not men- 
tioned, are called to the succession - 
of the other moiety. And, when ¢ 
apbole inheritance ie not given, it is 
immateriql whether an heir, whose 
share ix not spocified, hold the f.rst, 
middle, or dest place in the nominar 
tion: for he is equally wtitled t9 
the part not bequeathed. 


aut exuperet. 


§ 7. Let us inquire tn case a part 
should remain unbequeathed, and yet 
a cértgin portion should be given 
to each nominated heir : as if three 
should be instituted, and a fourth 
given to each. ft is clear in this 
case that the undisposed part would 
vest in cach, in. proportion to his 
share bequeathed; and that each - 
would be reputed the written heir of 
a third. And, on the contrary, if 
many are nominated heirs in certain 
portions, sp as to exceedthe As, then 
each heir must suffer a defalcation 
pro rata——for example, if four 
are instituted, anda third be given 
to each, then this disposition would 
be the same as if each of the written 
heirs had boen instituted toa fourth 


only. 





Si plures unciz quam duodecim distribute sunt. 


$ VIII. Et, si plures unciz, 
quam duodecim, distribute sint, is, 
qui siné parte institutus est, quod 
dupondio deest, habebit. Indem- 
que érit, si dupondius expletus sit. 
Quz omnes partes ad assem postéa 


6 8. If more than twelve ounces, 
are bequeathed, then he, who is, in- 
stituted without any prescribed 
share, shall be intitled to what re- 
mains of a dupondius; that is, of 
twenty-four parts : and, if more than 


LIB. If. TFT. XIV. - 


135 


wevocatitur, quamvis sint plurium — twertg-four parts dré bequeathed, 


uhcitaruqin. 


then the heir, teho ts nominated with- 
out any determinate share, is inti- 
tled to the remainder of a tripondius, 
|. e. of thirty-six parts or ounces. 
But all these parts are afterwards 
reduced to twelve. 


De modis instituendi. 


§ IX. Heres et puré et sub con- 
ditione institui potest; ex certo 
tempore, aut ad certum tempus, 
non potest: veluti, post quinqueni- 
um, quam moriar ; vel ex calendis 
illis : vel, usque ad calendas illas 
Meres esto. Denique diem adjec- 
tum haberi pro supervacuo placet, 
et perindé esse, ac si pure hares 


institiztes esset. 


§ 9. An heir may be constituted 
simply, or conditionally—but not 
from or to any certain period: as, 
be my heir after five years to be 
computed from my death—or— 
from the calends of such a month 
aang r«——mntil the calends of such 


‘a month. For time, thus added, 


is in law deemed. void, and the ap- 
pointment becomes unconditional. . 


De conditione impossibili. 


6$ X. Impossibilis conditio in 
mstitutionibus et legatis, nec non 
in fideicommissis et libertatibus, 
pro non scriptá habetur. 


De pluribus 

6 XI. Si plures conditiones in 
institutionibus adscripte sunt, si- 
quidem conjunctim, ut puta, si é/- 
bud et illud factum. fuerit, omnibus 
parendum est : si separatim, veluti, 
si illud aut illud factum erit, cui li- 
bot conditioni obtemperare satis est. 


Ld 


$ 10. An impossible condition in 
the institutiog of heirs, legatees, or 
trustees, or the conferring of liberty, 
is treated as unwritten or void. 


- 


conditionibus. 


6 11. Jf many conditions be joint. 
ly required in. the appointment, a 
1f this and that thing be done, thes 
both must be complied with. — But, if 
the.conditions be placed in the dis- 
functive, as, if this, or that be done, 
it will then be sufficient to obey ei- 
ther. 


De his, quos nunquam testator vidit. 

§ XII. Ti, quos nunquam testa- § 12. A testator may appoint per- 
fet vidit, haredes institui possunt, «ons Ais heirs, whom he hath never 
veluti si fratris filios peregrinantes, scen; as his brother's sons, in a 
. Mnorans qui essent, heredes insti- foreign country, although he Enos 


mU. 


136 LIB. H. 


tuerit : ignorantia enim testantis, 
‘nutilem institutionem non facit. 


TIT 


not where they are; for the want 
of this knowledge will not vitiate the 
institution. 


_ hs Rc: db ce— 


T TITULUS DECIMUS. QUINTUS. 
DE "VULGARI: SUBSTITUTIONE. 


D. XXviil. T. 6. 


C. vi. T. 25 et 26. 


De pluribus gradibus heredum. 


POTEST: autem quis in testa- 
mento suo plures gradus heredum 
facere; ut puta sz ille herés non 
erit, ille hares esto. Et deinceps, 
in quantum velit, testator substi- 
tuere potest: ut novissimo loco, in 
subsidium, vel servum, necessa- 
rium heredem institugre possit. 


De numero haeredum 1 
$ I. Et plures in unius locum 
possunt substituti, vel unus in plu- 
rium, vel singuli in singulorum, vel 
invicém ipsi, qui heredes instituti 
sunt. | 


. A man by testament may appoint 
many degrees of heirs; as thus: 
if Titius will not, let Seius be my 
heir. And he may proceed in suck 
a substitution as far as he shall think 
proper; and lastly, in default of all 
ethers, he may constitute a slave his 
necessary heir. | 


in. singulis gradibus. 


§ 1. A testator may substitute 
many in the place of one, or one in 
the place'of many, or one tn the place 
of each, or he may substitute even 
his instituted heirs reciprocally to 
one another. 


Quam partem singuli substituti accipiant, si partes in sub- 
stitutione expresse non sint. 


$ II. Et, siex disparibus parti- 
bus haeredes scriptos invicém sub- 
stituerit, et nullam mentionem par- 
tium in substitutione habuerit, eas 
‘videtur in substitutione partes de- 
disse, quas in institutione expres- 


§ 2. Jf a testator, having insti- 
tuted several ca-heirs in unequal por- 


tions, substitute them reciprocally 


* 
the one to the other, and make -no 
mention of their shares of the inhe- 
ritance in the substitution, he seems 


LIB. tI. 


. 4. ré . 2 
sit: et ita Divus Pius rescripsit. 


TIT. XV. 137 
to have given the same shares by the 
substitution, which ke gave by the in- 
stitution; and thus the emperor 
Antoninus ordained. 


Si cohzredi substituto alius substituatur. 


§ III. Sed, si instituto heredi, 
cohwrede substituto dato, alius ei 
substitutus fuerit, Divi Severus et 
Antoninus siné distinctione rescrip- 
serunt, ad utramque partem substi- 
tutum admitti. - 


§ 3. Jf aco-heir be substituted to 
an instituted heir, and a third per- 
sonto that co-heir, the emperors, 
Severus and Antoninus, have by 
rescript ordained, that such substi- 
tuted person, shall be admitted to the 
portions of both the co-heirs without 
distinction. 


Si quis servo, qui liber existimabatur, instituto substitutus fuerit. 


§ IV. Siservum alienum quis, 
patrem-familias arbitratus, hzre- 
dem scripserit, et, si heres non es- 
set, Mzvium ei substituerit ; isque 
servus jussu domini adierit. here- 
ditatem, Mevius substitutus in 
partem admittitur. Illa enim ver- 
ba, si heres non erit, in eo quidem, 
quem alieno juri subjectum esse 
testator scit, sic accipiuntur, si ne- 
que ipse heres erit, neque alium he- 
redem effecerit: in eo veró, quem 
patrem-familias arbitratur, illud sig- 
nificant, si. hereditatem sibi, vel ei, 
cujus suri postea subjectus esse ca- 
perit, non acquisierit. Idque Tibe- 


rius Cesar in persona Parthenii | 


servi sui constituit. 


6 4. If a testator constitute the 
slave of another his heir, supposing 
him free, and add, if he does not be- 
come my heir, I substitute Alevius 
in his place; then, if that slave 
should afterwards enter upon the in- 
heritance at the command of his mas- 
ter, Mevius the substitute, would 
be admitted to a moiety. For the 
words, if he do not become my 
heir, zn regard to him, whom the tes- 
tator knew to be under the dominion 
of another, are taken to mean, if he 
will neither become my heir him- 
self, nor cause another to be my 
heir: but in regard to him, whom 
the testator supposed to be free, they | 
imply this condition ; viz. if my heir 
will neither acquire the inheritance 
for himself, nor for him to whose 
dominion he may afterwards be- 
come subject. But it was deter- 
mined by Tiberius, the emperor, in 
the case of his own slave Parthenius, 
that a substi'ute in such a case should 
be admitted to a moiety. 


T 


140 LIB. H. 


TIT. XVI. 


Quibus substituitur. 


§ IV. Non solüm tamen hzredi- 
bus institutis impuberibus liberis 
ita substituere parehtes possunt, ut, 
si heredes eis extiterint, et ante 
pubertatem mortui fuerint, .sit eis 
heres is, quem ipsi voluerint ; sed 
etiam exhzredatis. — Itaque eo 
casu, si quid exhzredato pupillo 
ex hereditatibus, legatisve, aut 
donationibus propinquorum atque 
amicorum, acquisitum fuerit, id 
omne ad substitutum pertinebit. 
Quecunque diximus de substitu- 
tione impuberum liberorum, vel 
. hzredum institutorum, vel exhz- 
redatorum, eadem etiam de post- 
humis intelligimus. 


6 4. Parents may riot only sub- 
stitute to*stheir children within pu- . 
berty, if such children become their 
heirs, and die within puberty ; but 
they may substitute to their disinhe- 
rited children ; and therefore, what- 
ever a disinherited child, within the 
age of puberty, may have acquired 
by inheritances, by legacies, or by 
the gift of relations and friends, the 
whole will become the property of the 
substitute. All we have said con- 
cerning the substitution of pupils, in- 
stituted heirs, or disinherited chil- 
dren, is understood to extend also to 
posthumous children. 


’ 


Pupillare testamentum sequela paterni. 


$ V. Liberis autem suis testa- 
mentum nemo facere potest, nisi et 
sibi faciat ; nam pupillare testamen- 
tum pars et sequela est paterni tes- 
tamenti: adeó ut, si patris testa- 
mentum non valeat, nec filii qui- 
dem valebit. 01 2s qd 


Quot liberis 


$ VI. Velsingulis autem liberis, 
vel ei, qui eorum novissimus im- 
pubes morietur, substitui potest. 
Singulis quidem, si neminem eorum 
intestatum decedere voluerit: no- 
vissimo, si jus legitimarum hzre- 
ditatum integrum inter eos custodi- 
ri velit. 


§ 5. No parent can make a testa 
ment for his children, unless -he hath 
made a testament for himself: for 
the pupillary testament is a part and 
consequence of the testament of the 
parent, insomuch that, if the testa-. 
ment of the father be not valid, nei- 
ther will that of the son. 


substituitur. 

§ 6. A parent may make a pupil- 
lary substitution to each of his chil- 
dren, or to him, who shall die the 
last within puberty. To each, if he 
be unwilling, that any of them should 
die intestate ; to the last who shall 
die within puberty, if he wish that 
they should preserve among them the 
inttre right of succession. 


LIB. II. TIT. XVI. 


141 


De substitutione nominatim aut generalitér factá. 


$ VII. Substituitur autem impu- 
beri aut nominatim, veluti, Titius 
heres esto: aut generalitér, ut, 
Quisquis mihi heres erit. Quibus 
verbis vocantur ex substitutione, 
impubere mortuo filio, illi, qui et 
scripti sunt heredes, et extiterunt, 
et pro qua parte heredes facti sunt. 


$ T. A substitution may be made 
to a child within puberty, by name, 


as, let TiT1us be heir; or general- 


ly—-Whoever shall be my heir, let 
him be substitute to my son, if he 
die within puberty. By these words, 
all, who. have been instituted, and 
acted as heirs to the father, are call- 
ed, by substitution, to the inheritance 
of the son, if he should die within 
puberty, in proportion to the share 


assigned to each in the father’s will. 


Quomodo substitutio pupillaris finitur. 


§ VIII. Masculo igitur usque ad 


§ 8. A pupillary substitution may 


quatuordecim annos substitui po- be made to males, until they reach 


test: 
annos. Et, si hoc tempus excesse- 
rint, substitutio evanescit. 


feeminz usque ad duodecim fourteen; and to females, until they 


have completed their twelfth year » 


after which the substitution becomes 


extinct. 


Quibus pupillaritér non substituitur. 


§ IX. Extraneo verd vel filio pu- 
beri hzredi instituto ita substituere 
nemo potest, ut, si heres extiterit, 
et intra aliquod tempus decesserit, 
alius ei sit heres: sed hoc solim 
permissum est; ut eum per fidei- 
commissum testator obliget alii hz- 
reditatem ejus vel totam vel pro 
perte restituere: quod jus quale 
sit, suo loco trademus. 


§ 9. A pupillary substitution can- 


not be made either to an instituted — 


stranger, or instituted son, if past 
the age of puberty. But a testator 


may oblige his heir to give to another 


a part, or even the whole of the in- 
heritance, by virtue of a fidei-com- 
missum, or gift in trust ; which we 
will treat of in its proper place. 


| 


iàà 


TITULUS BECIMUS.SEPTIMUS. 
QUÍBUS MODIS TESTAMENTA INFIRMANTUR. 


LiB. IH. TIT. “VIL. 


e 


I Di xiii, 1. 8. 


Quibus modis testamenta infirmantur. 


TESTAMENTUM jure fac- 
tum usque ed valet; doitec rumpa- 
tur, irritünive fiat. 


A testament, legally. made, re- 
mains valid, until it be either. broken, 
or rendered ineffectual. 


Quando testamentum dicatur rumpi. Primum de adoptione. 


$ I. Rumpitur autem testamen- - 


tum, cum, in eodem statu manefite 
testatore, ipsius testámenti jus viti- 
atur, Si quis enim post factum 
testarhentum adoptaverit sibi filiuni 
per imperatotum eum, qui: est sui 
juris, aut per pr&torei, secundim 
nostram cohstitutionem, eum, qui 
in potestate parentis fuerit, testa- 
mentum ejus rumpitur quasi agna- 
tione sui heredis. 


§ 1. A testament is broken, when 
the force of it is destroyed, while 
the testator still rematné in the game 
state. For, if, after making his tes- 
tament he should arrogate an inde. 
pendent person, by licence’ from the 
emperor, or, in the presence of the 
prator should adopt a child under the 
power of his natural parent, by vir- 
tue of our constitution, then that tes- 
tament would be broken by this ag- 
nation or quasi-birth of a proper 
heir. 


De posteriore testamento. 


€ II. Posteriore quoque testa- 
mento, quod jure perfectum est, su- 
perius rumpitur; nec interest, ex- 
titerit aliquis heres ex eo, an non; 
hoc enig solim spectatur, an ali- 
quo casu existere potuerit. Ideó- 
que, si quis aut noluerit heres esse, 
aut vivo testatore, aut post mortem 
ejus, antequam hereditatem adiret, 
decesserit, aut conditione, sub quá 
heres institutus est, defectus sit, in 
his casibus pater-familias intestatus 
moritur. Nam et prius testamen- 


$ 2. A former testament, may be 
broken by a subsequent one legally 
made, nor is it material, whether any 
heir; be nominuted in the latter or 
not; for the only question is; whe- 
ther an heir might have been made : 
therefore, if aninstituted heir should 
renounce, or should die, living the 
testator ; or after his death, and be- 
fore he could enter upon the inheri- 
tance ; or before the conditiou is ac- 
complished, upon which he was  in- 
stituted; inany of these cases, the 


LiB. IL 


tum mon valet, ruptum à posteriore ; 
et posterius eque nullas vires habet, 
cum ex eo.nemo hares, extiterit, 


TIF. XVII. 


143 


testator would die. intestate ; for the 
first testament would be. invalid, be- 
ing broken iy the second, and these-, 
cand would. le of as little force, for 


want. of an, heir. 


De posteriore, in. quo. hzres certz rei institutus. 


$ III. Sed, si quis, priore testa- 
mento jure perfecto, posterius zque 
jure fecerit, etiamsi ex certis rebus 


in. eo heredem, instituerit, superius 


tamen testamentum sublatum esae, 
Djvi Severus et. Antoninus Augus- 
tirescripserunt; cujus constitutio- 


nig verba et hic inseri jussimus, 


cum, aliud quoque praterea in eà 
constitutione expressum sit.  Jmpe- 
ratores Seuerus ct. Antoninus Augus- 
ti, Cocceig Campano. Testamentum 
secundo laco factum, licet. in eo cer- 
tarun.rerum heres scriptus. eit, pe- 
rinde jure valere, ac si rerum, mentio 
J'acta non esset :. sed et teneri. hare- 
dem scriptum, ut contentus. rebus si- 
bi, datis, ayt suppleta quarta ex lege 
Falcidia, hereditatem restituat, his 
qui in priore testamento scripti fue- 
rent, propter. inserta fidei-commissi 
verbq, quitus ut valeret prius testa- 
mentum expressum est, dubitari non 
oportet. Et ruptum quidem tes- 
tamentum hoc modo efficitur. 


§ 3. Jf a man, having duly exe- 
cuted one testament, should make a- 
nother equally good, and institute an 
heir in it ta. some. particular things. 
only, the emperors Severus. and An-, 
toninus have by rescript. declared, 
that, inthis case, the fitst will shall 
be. considered as broken. We have. 
commanded the words of. this consti- 
tution to be here inserted, as it con- 
tains a further provision. | The em- 
perors Severus and Antoninus to 
Cocceius Campanus, A second, 
testament, although the heir named. 
in it, be instituted to particular 
things only, shall be as valid, as 
if they had not been specified ; yet 
doubtless, the written heir must 
content himself either with the 
things given him, or with the fourth 
part, allowed by the 7«lcidian law, 
and shall be bound to restore the 
rest of the inheritance to the heirs 
instituted in the first testament, on 
account of words, denoting a trust, 
inserted in the second: by which 
words it is declared, that the first 
testament shall subsist. And, in. 
this manner, a testament may be. said 
to be broken or cancelled. 


144 


LIB. II. TIT. XVII. 


De testamento irrito; et quibus modis fit irritum. 


$ IV. Alio autem moda testa- 
menta jure facta infirmantur ; velu- 
ti cum is, qui fecit testamentum, 
capite diminutus sit: quod, quibus 
modis accidat, primo libro retuli- 
mus. 


§ 4. Testaments, legally made, 
are also invalidated, if the testator 
suffer diminution, (that is, change 
his condition : ) in the first book (of 
these institutes, ) we have shewn by 


whut means diminution muy happen. 


Cur dicatur irritum. 


6 V. Hoc autem casu irrita fieri 
testamenta dicuntur; cum alioqui, 
" et que rumpuntur, irrita fiant, et ea, 
quz statim ab initio non jure fiunt, 
irrita sint. Sed etea, quz jure fac- 
ta sunt, et postea per capitis dimi- 
nutionem irrita fiunt, possumus ni- 
hilominis rupta dicere. Sed, quia 
sané commodius erat, singulas cau- 
sas singulis appellationibus distin- 
gui, ideo quedam non jure facta di- 
cuntur, quedam jure facta rumpi 
yel irrita fieri. © 


IN e 


~ 


a 


§ 5. Incase of diminution, testa- 
ments are said to become irrita, (in- 
effectual ; ) although those which are 
broken, or which, from the begin- 
ning, were not legal, are equally so. 
We may also consider those testa- 
ments broken, which being. at first 
legally made, are afterwards render- 
ed ineffectual by diminution. But, 
as it is proper, that every particular 
defect should be distinguished by a 
particular appellation, those testa- 
ments, which are illegal in their for- 
mation, are termed null ; those which 
were at first legal, but afterwards 
lose their force, by some revocatory 
act of the testator, are said to be 
rupta, or broken; and those, since 
the making whereof, the testator hath 
suffered a change of state, are irrita, 
or ineffectual. 


Quibus modis convalescit. 


§ VI. Non tamen per omnia in- 
utilia sunt ea testamenta, quz, ab 
initio jure facta, percapitis diminu- 
tionem irrita facta sunt: nam, si 
septem testium signis signata sunt, 
potest scriptus heres, secundüm ta- 
bulas testamenti, bonorum possessi- 
onem agnoscere, si modó defunc- 
tus et civis Romanus, et suze potes- 


$ 6. But a testament, at first le- 
gally made, and afterwards rendered 
ineffectual by diminution, may not be 
altogether void; for the written 
heir is intitled to the possession of 
the goods, under the testament, if it 
appear, that it was sealed by seven 
witnesses, and that the testator wae 
a Roman citizen, and not under 


LIB. II. 


tatis, mortis tempore fuerit. Nam, 
si ideó irritum factum sit testamen- 
tum, quia civitatem vel etiam liber- 
tatem testator amissit, aut quia in 
adoptionem se dedit, et mortis tem- 
pore in adoptivi patris potestate 
sit, non potest scriptus hzres secun- 
düm tabulas bonorum possessionem 
petere. 


. De nuda 


§ VII. Ex eo autem solo non 
potest infirmari testamentum, quod 
postea testator id noluerit valere : 
usque ade ut, si quis, post factum 
prius testamentum, posterius facere 
ceperit, et, aut mortalitate preven- 
tus, aut quia eum ejus rei penituit, 
id non perfecerit, Divi Pertinacis 
oratione cautum sit, ne alias tabu- 
le priores, jure factz, irrite fiant, 
nisi sequentes jure ordinate ct per- 
fecte fuerint: nam imperfectum 
testamentum siné dubio nullum est. 


TIT. XVII. 


145 


power, at the time of his death : but, 
if a testament became void, because 
the testator had.lost the right of a 
citizen, or his liberty, or had given 
himself in adoption, and at the time 
of his death continued under power 
of his adoptive father, then the writ- 
ten heir could not demand possession 
under it. 


voluntate. 


§ 7. A testament can not be inva- 
lidated solely, because the testator 
was afterwards unwilling, that it 
should subsist : so that, if a man, 
after making one testament, should 
beginanother,and by reason of death, 
or change of mind, should not pro- 
ceed to perfect that testament, it is 
provided by the oration of the empe- 
ror Pertinax, that the first testa- 
ment shall not be revoked, unless the 
second is both legal and perfect ; for 
an imperfect testament is undoubt- 
edly null. 


Si princeps litis causa, vel in testamento imper‘ecto institutus 


§ VIII. Eàdem oratione ex- 
pressit, non admissurum se here- 
ditatem ejus, qui litis causa princi- 
pem reliquerit hzredem : neque ta- 
bulas non legitimé factas, in quibus 
ipse ob eam causam heres _ institu- 
tus erat, probaturuin ; neque ex nu- 
dà voce, hzredis nomen admissu- 
rum : neque ex ullà scripturà, cui 
juris auctoritas desit, aliquid adep- 
turum. Secundim hoc Divi Se- 
verus et Antoninus sepissime re- 
stripserunt. Licet enim, inquiunt, 


jm? 


fuerit. 


§ 8. The emperor Pertinax. hath 
declared by the same oration, that he 
would not take the inheritance of" 
any testator, who left. him his heir, 
because a law-suit was depending ; 
that he would never establish a will 
legally deficient in form, if he was 
upon that account instituted the heir ; 
that he would by no megns suffer 
himself t2 be nominated heir by pa- 
rol; and that he wuld never derive ° 
emolument from any writing not au- 
thorised by stri^frules of law. The’ 


[LU] 


146 LIB. II. 


legibus soluti simus, attamen legi- 
bus vivimus. 


TIT. XVIII. 


emperors Severus and Antoninus 
have. also often izeu:d rescripts to the 
same purpose: “ for although, [say , 
they,] we are not subject to the 
laws, yet we live tn obedience to 


TITULUS DECIMUS-OCTAVUS. 
DE INOFFICIOSO TESTAMENTO. 


D. v. T. 2. 


C. iun. T. 28. 


Ratio hujus querela. 


QUIA. plerimque parentes sine 
causa liberos suos exhxredant vel 
omittunt, inductum est, ut de inoffi- 
cioso testamento agere possint libe- 
ri, qui queruntur, aut iniqué se ex- 
heredatos, aut iniqué preteritos 5 
hoc colore, quasi non sane mentis 
fuerint, cum testamentum ordina- 
rent. Sed hoc dicitur, non quasi 
veré furiosus sit ; sed recté quidem 
testamentum fecerit, non autem ex 
officio pietatis. Nam, si veré furi- 
osus sit, nullum testamentum est. 


Since parents often disinherit their 
children without cause, or omit to 
mention them in their testaments, 
it has thercfore been introduced, that 
children, who have been unjustly dis- 
inherited, or omitted, may complain, 
that such testaments are inofficious, 
under colour, that their parents were 
not of sane mind, when they made 
them : not that the testator was real- 
ly insane, ‘for the testament may have 
been well made; but that it is not con- 
sistent with the duty of a parent. 
For, tf a testator were really insane 
at the time, his testament is null, 


Qui de inofficioso agunt. 


§ I. Non autem liberis tantüm 
permissum est testamentum paren- 
tum inofhciosum accusare, verim 
etiam liberorum parentibus : soror 
autem et frater,turpibus personis 
gcriptis heredibus,ex sacris consti- 


" 


§ 1. Not children only are allow- 
ed to complain, that testaments are 
inofficious ; for parents are permitted 
to do the same. Also the brothers 
and sisters of a testator, by the im- 
perial constitutions, are preferred to 


! 


LIB. II. 


tutionibus przlati sunt; non ergd 
eontra omnes hzredes agere pos- 
sunt. Ultra fratres igitur et sorores, 
cognati nullo modo aut agere pos- 
sunt, aut agentes vincere. 


TIT. XVIII. 


14f 


infamous persons, if any such heve 
been instituted heirs; but they 
are not therefore allowed to com- 
plain against any heir. Collaterals, 
beyond brothers and sisters, cannot 
sustain a complaint in this respect 
or succeed for themselves, ( but though 
their right of complaining be not 
disputed, and the testdment be annul- 
led, yet those only can be benefited, 
who are the nearest \in succession. 
upon an intestacy. ) 


Qui alio jure ven'unt, de inofficioso non agunt. 


$ II. Tam autem naturales libe- 
ri, quam secundüm nostre constitu- 
tionis divisionem adoptati, ita de- 
mum de inofficioso testamento agere 
possunt, si nullo alio jure ad de- 
functi bona venire possint: nam, 
qui ad hereditatem totam vel par- 
tem ejus, alio jure veniunt, de inof- 
ficioso agere non possunt.  Posthu- 
mi quoque, qui nullo alio jure ven- 
ire possunt, de inofficioso agere 


possunt. 


6 2. Adopted as well as natural 
children, according to our constitu- 
tion, are admitted to complain against 
a testament as inofficious, if they can 
obtain the effects of the deceased no 
other way; but if they can obtain the 
whole or a part of the inheritance by 
any other means, they cannot pure 
sue this remedy. Posthumous chil- 
dren also, who are unable to recover 
their inheritance by any cther me- 
thod, are allowed to urge this come 
platnt. 


De eo, cui testitor aliquid reliquit. 


€ III. Sed hac ita accipienda 
sunt, si nihil eis penitis à testatori- 
bus testamerito relictum est: quod 
nostra constitutio ad verecundiam 
nature introduxit. Sin veró quan- 
tacunque pars hereditatis, vel res, 
eis fuerit relicta, de inofficioso 
querelá quiescente, id, quod eis 
deest; usque ad quartam legitime 
partis repleatur, licét non fuerit ad- 


§ 3. Allthis must be understood : 
to take place only, when nothing hath 
been left by the will of the deceased; 
and this hath been introduced by our 
constitution, out of respect to paren- 
tal authority and the ties of natures 
for, ifa single thing, or the least 
part of an inheritance, hath been be- 
queathed, the suit de inofficioso tes- 
tamento is barred: but their lega? 


448 


jectum, boni viri arbitratu debere 
eam compleri. 


LIB. IL. TIT. XVIII, 


portion, or fourth part, though not 
added by the testator, may be com- 
pleted according. to the arbitration of 
some person of approved character: 


Si tutor, cui nihil à patre relictum, pupilli nomine legatum 
acceperit. 


6 IV. Si tutor nomine pupilli, 
cujus tutelam gerebat, ex testamen- 
to patris sui legatum acceperit, 
cum nihil erat ipsi tutori relictum 
à patre suo, nihilominis poterit no- 
mine suo de inofficioso patris tes- 
tamento agere. 


Si de inofficioso nomine 

6 V. Sed, si é contrario pupilli 

homine, cui nihil relictum fuerat, 

de inofficioso egerit et superatus est 

Jpse tutor, quod sibi in testamento 
codem relictum est, non ainittit. 


§ 4. If a tutor should accept a 
legacy in the name of his pupil, in 
consequence of a bequest made in the 
testament of such tutor's father, who 
left nothing to his son; the tutor 
may nevertheless complain in his 
own name against the testament of 
his father, as inoffictous (or contra- 
ry to parental duty.) 


pupilli agens succubuerit. 


€ 5. On the contrary, ifa tutor 
should complain in the name of his 
pupil, against the testament of his 
pupils father, who left nothing to 
his son as inofficious, and this testa- 
ment should be confirmed, yet the- 
tutor would not be barred, on ac- 
count of this proceeding virtüte 
officii, from claiming his own legacy 


under the samo testament. 


De quartá legitimae partis. 


$ VI. Igitur quartam quis debet 
habere, ut de inofficioso agere non 
possit, sive jure hereditario, sive 
jure legati vel fidei-commissi, vel 
si mortis causá ei quarta donata 
fuerit, vel inter vivos in iis tantum- 
modo casibus, quorum mentionem 
nostra facit constitutio, vel aliis 
modis, qui in nostris constituti- 
onibus contipentur. Quod autem 
^ de quarth - diximus, ita intelligen- 

tí | 

, e 
* E 


$6. No person, entitled to a fourth 
can be barred from bringing a com- 
plaint (de inofficioso ) of undutiful- 
ness, unless he hath received it either 
by being appointed heir, by having a 
legacy, or by means of atrust for his 
use; or unless his legal part hath. 
been given him by donation mortis 
causa or inter vivos, (in those ca- 
ses, noticed by our constitution, ) or 
by any cther means set forth in our 


LIB. II. TIT. XIX. 


dum est, ut, sivé unus fucrit, sivé 
plures, quibus agcre de inofficioso 
testamento permittitur, una quarta 
eis dari possit, ut ea pro.ratà eis 
distribuatur, id est, pro virili por- 
tione quarta. 


1, 


149 


ordinances. What we have said of 
the fourth or legal portion, is to be. 
so understood, that, if there be more 

persons than one, who have a right 

to bring a plait of undutifulnese 

against a testament, yet one fourth 

will be sufficient, divided among them 

allin equal portions. 


e. | f & 
TITULUS DECIMUS-NONUS. 
DE H/EREDUM QUALITATE ET DIFFERENTIA. 


D. XXX. T. 11. 


. C. Vie T. 31. 


Divisio heredum. : 


HEREDES autem aut necessa- 
rii dicuntur, aut sui et necessarii, 
aut extranei. 


Heirs are dtvided into three sorts, 
necessary ; proper and necessary ; 
and strangers. 


De hzredibus necessariis. 


6 1. Necessarius heres est ser- 


vus heres institutus; ideóque sic. 


appellatur, quia, sive velit, sive no- 
lit, omninó post mortem testatoris 


protinàs liber et. necessarius heres: 


fit. Unde, qui facultates suas sus- 
pectas habent, solent servum suum 
primo aut secundo aut etiam ulte- 
riore gradu heredem instituere; ut, 
si creditoribus satis non fiat, potius 
ejus hzredis bona, quam ipsius tes- 
tatoris, à creditoribus possideantur, 
vel distrahantur, vel inter eos divi- 
 Qantur. Pro hoc tamen incommo- 
. do illud ei commodum pr-estatur, ut 
“GM, quie post mortem patroni sui si- 


"e 


Vp ^s 


§ 1. A slave instituted by his 
master, is a necessary heir; and he 
is so called, because at the death of 
the testator he becomes instantly free, 
and is compellable to take the heir- 
ship; he therefore, who suspects hie 
circumstances, commonly institutes 
his slave to be his heir in the first, 
second, or some other place; so that, 
if he does not leave a sum equal te 
his debts, the goods, which are seized, . 
sold, or divided among his creditors, 
may rather seem to be those of his 
heir, than his own. But a. slave, in 
recompence of this inconvenience, is 
allowed whatever he hath acquired , 


so 


+ 4% 


LIB. - II. 


bi acquisierit, ipsireserventur, Et 
quamvis bona defuncti non sufficiant 
creditoribus, iterum tamen ex ea 
causa res ejus, quas sibi acquisierit, 
non vaseneunt. ; 


150 


TIT. XIX. 


after the death of his patron ; for 
such acquisitions are not to be sold, 
although the gaods of the deceased 
should be ever so insufficient fer the 
payment of his creditors. 


De suis haeredibus. 


§ II. Sui autem et necessarii h2- 
redes sunt, veluti filius, filia, nepos 
neptisve ex filio, et deinceps ceteri 
liberi, qui in potestate morientis 
modo fuerint. Sed, ut nepos nep- 
tisve sui heredes sint, non sufficit 
eum eamve in potestate avi mortis 
tempore fuisse: sed opus cst, ut 
pater ejus, vivo patre suo, desierit 
suus heres esse, aut morte intercep- 
tus, aut qualibet alia ratióne libcra- 
tus à patria potestate ; tunc enim 
nepos neptisve in locum patris sui 
succedit. Sed sui quidem hzredes 
ideo appellantur, quia domestici hze- 
redes sunt, et vivo quoque patre 
quodammodo domini existimantur. 
‘Undé etiam, si quis intestatus mo- 
riatur, prima causa est in sycces- 
sione liberorum. Necessarii vero 


idea dicuntur, quia omninó, sive 


velint, sive nolint, tam ab intestato 
quam ex testamento, ex lege duo- 
decim tabularum heredes fiunt. 
Sed his pretor permittit volentibus 
abstinere hereditate, ut potius pa- 
rentis quam ipsorum bona similiter 
à creditoribus possideantur. 


€ 2. Proper and necessary heirs, 
are sons, daughters, grand-sons or 
grand-daughters bya son or other 
direct descendants, in the power of 
the deceased at the time of his death. 
To constitute grand-children proper 
heirs, it doce not suffice, that they 
were in the power of their grand- 
father at the time of his decease ; but 
it is requisite, that their father 
should have ceased to be a proper heir 
in the life-time of his father, by hav- 
ing been freed, either by death or 
otherwise from paternal authority ; 
for then it is, that the grand-son or 
grand-daughter succeeds in place of 
their father. Heirs are called sui 
or proper, because they are domes- 
tic; and in the very life-time of their 
father are reputed masters in a cer- 
tain degree. Hence the children 
of an intestate are first in suc- 
cession; and are called necessary 
heirs, because, milling ar unwilling, 
they become the heirs of their parent 
according to the law of the 12 tables, 
whether under a testament or an in- 
testacy. But, when children re- 
quest it, the praetor permits them tp» 
ab tain from the tnheritance, that the 
effects of their parents, rather. than. 
their own, may be seized by the ene 
ditors. 


LIB. IL. TIT. XIX, 


151 


De extraneis. 


6 HII. Cateri, qui testatoris juri. 
subjecti non sunt, extranei heredes 
appellantur; itaque liberi nostri, 
qui in potestate nostra non sunt, 
Tueredes à nobis instituti, extranei 
hzredes nobis videntur. Qua de 
causa et qui heredes à matre. insti- 
tuuntur eodem numero suht : quia 
fe uinz, in potestate, liberos non ha- 
bent. Servus quoque heres à do- 
Mino institutus, et post factum tes- 
tamentum ab eo manumissus, eodem 
numero habetur. 


§ 3. AW other Aeirs, not r subject 
to the power of the testator, are 
called strangers : thus, children, not 
under the power of their father, but 
who are constituted his heirs, are 
strangers in a legal sense: and so 
are children, instituted heirs by their 
mother, for a woman is not allowed 
to have her children under her own 
power. A slave also, whom his mas- 
ter hath instituted by testament and 
afterwards manumitted, is so ac- 
counted. 


De testamenti factione. 


61V. Inextraneis heredibus illud 
observatur, ut sit cum eis testamen- 
ti factio, sivé heredes ipsi instituan- 
tur, sive ii, qui in potestate eorum 
sunt. Et id duobus temporibus 
inspicitur ; testamenti quidem facti 
tempore, ut constiterit institutio; 
mortis vero testatoris, ut effectum 
habeat, Hocamplius, et cum adit 
hereditatem, esse debet cum eo tes- 
tamenti factio, sivé puré sivé sub 
conditione hzres institutussit. Nam 
jus heredis eo maxime tempore in- 
spiciendum est, quo acquirit heredi- 
tatem. Medio autem te sinter 
factum testamentum et mortem tes- 
tatoris vel conditionem institutionis 
txistentem, mutatio juris non nocet 
heredi: quia, ut diximus, tria tem- 
pora inspici debent. "Testamenti 
autem factionem non solim is ha- 
bere videtur, qui testamentum fa- 
etre potest ; sed etiam, qui ex alie- 
mo testamento vel ipse caperc po- 
pest, vel alii acquirere, licét non 


§ 4. As to strangers, it is réqui- 
stte, that they should be capable of 
the faction of a testament, whether 
instituted heirs themselves, or whe- 
ther those, under their power, are 
instituted. And this qualification is 
required at two several times; at the 
making of the testament, that the in- 
atitution may be valid; and at the 
testator’s death, that it may take ef- 
fect: and farther, whether an heir 
be appointed simply or conditionally, 
yet he ought to be capable of the fac- 
tion of a testament at the time of en- 
tering upon the inheritance; for his 
right is principally regarded at the 
time of acquiring the possession. 
But intermediately, between the mak- 
ing of the testament and the death of 
the testator, or the completion of the 
condition of the institution, the heir 
will not be prejudiced by incapacity 
or change of state ; because the threu 
points of time which we hatc noted, 
are tha.times'to be: regarded, | -Nof 


152 LIB. II. 


póssit facere testamentum. Et ideo 
furiosus, et mutus, et posthumus, 
et infans, et filius-familias, et ser- 
vus alienus, testamenti factionem 
habere dicuntur. Licét enim testa- 
mentum facere non possint, atta- 
men ex testamento vel sibi vel alii 
acquirere possunt. 


"TIT. XIX. 


only a man, capable of willing, ie 
said to have- testamenti factionem ; 
but also any person capable of taking 
for the benefit of himself, or of ac- 
quiring by testament for the benefit 
of another: hence, persons mad, 
mute, or posthumous, infants, the 
sons of a family, or slaves not your 
own, may all be said to have the fac-: 
tion of a testament (in its passive 
signification.) For, although inca-i 
pable of making, they are capable of 


‘ acquiring by testament, either fer. 


themselves or others, 


De jure deliberandi, et de beneficio inventarii. 


$ V. Extraneis autem heredibus 
deliberandi potestas est de adeun- 
dà hzreditate vel non adeunda. Sed, 
sive is, cui abstinendi potestas est, 
, immiscuerit se bonis hzreditatis, 
sive extraneus, cul de adeunda hz- 
reditate deliberare licet, adierit, 
postea relinquendz hereditatis fa- 
cultatem non hát, nisi minor sit 
25 amnis: nam hujusmodi setatis 
hominibus, sicut in cásféPis omnibus 
causis, deceptis, ita et si temeré 
damnosam hereditatem susceperint, 
pretor succurrit. Sciendum est ta- 
men, Divum Hadrianum etiam ma- 
jori 25 annis veniam dedisse, cum 


post aditam hereditatem grande 2s. 


alienum, quod adite hereditatis 
tempore latebat, emersisset. Sed 
hoc quidem Divus Hadrianus cui- 
dam speciali beneficio prestitit. Di- 
vus autem Gordianus postea militi- 
bus tantummodó hoc concessit. Sed 
nostra benevolentia commune om- 


nibus subjectis imperio nestro hoc 


§ 5. Strangers, appointed heirs, 
may deliberate ’ere they enter upon 
an inheritance. But, if one, who 
has the liberty of abstaining, or @ 
stranger, who is permitted to deli- 
berate, should once intermeddle, it 
will not afterwards be in his power 
to renounce the inheritance, unless 
he shall be under the age of twenty- 
five years: for the prator, in this, 
as in all other cases, relieves minora, 
who have been deceived, and whe 
rashly take upon themselves an ingue 
rious inheritance. Here it must be 
noted, that the emperor Adrian once 
gave permission to a person of full 
age, to relinquish an inheritance, 
when it appeared to be incumbered 
with a great debtywhich had been cone 
cealed, until the heir had taken upon 
himself the administration. - But this 
was granted as a special favour.: 
The emperor Gordian ‘afterwards 
published a constitution for the ine 
demnification of heirs, yet confincd 


LIB. I. TIT. XIX. 


beneficium prestitit: et constituti- 
9nem tam xquissimam quam nobi- 
lissimam scripsit, cujus tenorem si 
observaverint homines, licet eis a- 
dire hereditatem, et in tantüm te- 
neri, quantàm valere bona hzredi- 
tatis contingit, ut ex hac causa ne- 
que deliberationis auxilium sit eis 
necessarium, nisi, omissa observa- 
tione nostre constitutionis, et deli- 
berandum existimaverint, et sese 
veteri gravamini aditionis suppo- 
nere maluerint. 


163 


the force of it to those only, who 
were of the eoldiery. But our exe 
tended benevolence hath rendered thia 
benefit common to all our subjects, 
having dictated a constitution just 
and noble, which, if heirs will ob- 
serve, they may enter upon their in- 
heritance, and not be chargeable be- 
yond the value of the estate ; so that 
they need not pray time for delibera- 
tion, unless they omit to observe the 
tenor of our ordinance, chusing ra- 
ther to deliberate, and submit them- 
selves to the risk attending the ac 
ceptance under the ancient law. 


De acquirendá vel omittendá hzreditate. 


§ VI. Item extraneus hzres tes- 
tamento institutus, aut ab intestato 
ad legitimam hzreditatem vocatus, 
potest aut pro hzrede gerendo, 
aut etiam nuda voluntate suscipien- 
dz hereditatis, heres fieri. Pro 
 hzrede autem gerere quis videtur, 
si rebus hereditariis tanquàm he- 
res utatur, vel vendendo res hzre- 
ditarias, vel predia colendo, locan- 
dove, et quoquo modo voluntatem 
suam declaret, vel re, vel verbo, 
de adeundà hereditate ; dummodo 
sciat, eum, in cujus bonis pro hzre- 
de gerit, testatum intestatumve 
obiisse, et se ei haeredem esse. 
Pro herede enim gerere, est pro do- 
mimo gerere: veteres enim, hzre- 
des pro dominis appellabant. Sicut 
autém nudà voluntate extraneus 
heres fit, ita contraria destinatione 
Statim ab hezreditate repellitur. 
Eum, qui surdus vel mutus natus, 
Yel postea factus est, nihil prohibet 


§ 6. A stranger, instituted by tes- 
tament, or called by law to a succes- 
sion in a case of intestacy, may make 
himself accountable as heir, either by 
doing some act as such ; or by bare- 
ly signifying his acceptance of the 
heirship. Anda man is deemed to 
act as the heir of an inheritance, if 
he treat it as his own, by selling 
any part of it, by cultivating the 
ground, or by leasing it: or declare 
his consent to accept it, either by act 
or speech; knowing that the person, 
with whose estate he intermeddles, 
is dead testate or intestate, and that 
he himself is the heir : for to act as 
heir, is to act as proprietor; and 
the ancients frequently used the term 
heir, when they would denote the 
proprietor. But as a stranger may 
become heir by a bare consent, so on 
the contrary, by a mere dissent, he 
may bar himself from an inheritance. 
And nothing prevents, but that a 


r5 


pro hezrede gertre, et Acquirere sibi 
hereditatem ; ai tamer Sntelligit, 
quod apt. 


BiB. ii TIT. XX 


person, who wus: born ‘deaf and 
dumb, or became so by accident, mayy 
act as heir, and acquire the anhert-- 
tance, if lie know What ive is doing. . 


a ft. 0 tl - ob 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS. 
DE LEGATIS. 


D. ix. x*x. Xi. 


C. vi. T. 37. 


Continuatio. 


POST hzc videamus delegatis; - 


quae pars juris extrà propositam 
quidem materiam videtur : nam lo- 
Quimur de iis juris figuris, quibus 
. per universitatem res nobis acqui- 
runtür: sed, cum onminó de testa- 
fnentis et de hiredibus, qui in tes- 
' tamento mstituuntür, loquuti simus, 
hon siné c&risá sequenti loco potest 
hec juris matéria tractari. 


We will now make some observa- 
tions tibon legacies; although this. 
part of the krw may not seem to fall 
in with the subject proposed; for 
we are treating of those legal me- 
thods, by which things sy be ac- 
guired universally : but, as we have 
already spoken at large of testamente 
and testamentary heirs, tbe may not 
improperly proceed to the subject 4 


legacies. 


Definitio. . 


$ I. Legatum itaque est donatio 
. quadam à defuncto relicta, ab here- 
de praestanda. 


$ 1. A legacy is a wift directed 
by the deceased, and to be ulfiled " 
the heir. 


De antiquis generibus legatorum sublatis. 


§ YI. Sed olim quidem erant 1e- 
gatorum genera quatuor; per vin- 
dicationem, per damnationem, si- 
nendi | modo, per r preceptionem : et 
certa "quedam verba cuique generi 
legatorum assignata erant, per que 
singula genera legatorum significa- 


$ 2. Anciently there were four 
kinds of legacies in use;. namely, 
per vindicationem, per damnatio- 
nem, sinendi modo, and per prs 
ceptionem. To each of these was 
assigned a certain form of word, 
by which their different species 


LIB. II, 


bantur: sed ex constitutionibus Di- 


TIT. XX. 155 
were signified; but these fixed 


vorum principum solemnitas bujus- forms kaye been wholly taken away 


modi verborum sublata est. Nos- 
tra autem constitutio, quam cum 
magna fecimus lucubratione, defunc- 
torum voluntates validiores esse 
cupientes, et non verbis sed volun- 
tatibus eorum faventes, disposuit, 
ut omnibus una sit natura, et qui- 
buscunque verbis aliquid relictum 
Sit, liceat legatariis id persequi, 
non solüm per actiones personales, 
sed etiam per in rem et per hypo- 
thecariam. Cujus constitutionis per- 
pensum modum ex ipsius tenore 
pérfectissimé accipere possibile est. 


by the imperial ordinance of the later 
emperors, Constantinus, Constan- 
tius, and Constans. We also, de- 
sirous of enforcing the wills of de- 
ceased persons, and regarding their 
intentions more than their words, 
have, after great study, enacted that , 
the nature of all legacies shall be the 
same; and that legatees, by what- 
ever words constituted, may sue for 
what is left them, not only by a per- 
sonal, but by a real or hypothecary 
action. But the reader may perfect- 
ly comprehend the well weighed mat- 
ter of this constitution, from the te- 
nor of it. 


Collatio legatorum et fidei-commissorum. 


$ III. Sed non usque ad eam 
constitutionem standum esse existi- 
mavimus : cum enim antiquitatem 
invenimus legata quidem stricté 
concludentem, fidei-commissis au- 
tem, quz ex voluntate magis descen- 
debant defunctorum, pinguiorem 
naturam indulgentem, necessarium 
esse duximus, omnia, legata fidei- 
commissis cxequare, ut nulla sit 
inter ea differentia, sed, quod 
deest legatis, hoc repleatur ex na- 
tura fidei-conimissorum : et, si quid 
amplius est in legatis, per hoc cres- 
cat fidei-commissorum natura, Sed, 


' "mé in primis legum cunabulis, per- 


3nístum de his exponendo, studiosis 


- g@Mojescentibus quandam introduca- 
. Unus -difficultatem, opere pretium 


«e duximus, interim, separatim 
‘pris de legatis et postea de fidei- 


§ 3. We have judged it expedient 
that our constitution should not rest 
here; for, observing that the aa- 
cients confined legacies within strict 
rules, but were favourable to gifts in 
trust, it was thought necessary to 
make all legacies equal to gifts in 
trust, that no difference in effect 
should remain between them ; 80 that 
whatever is deficient in the nature 
of legacies, may be supplied by the 
nature of trusts, and whatever is 
abundant in the nature of legacies 
may become an accretion to the na- 
ture of trusts. But, that we may 
not raise difficulties, and perplex the 
minds of young persons at their en- 
trance upon the study of the lar, by 
explaining these things [romiscu- 
ously, we have esteemed it worth our 
pains to treat separately first of le- 


256 LIB. II. 


commissis tractare ; ut, natura utri- 
usque juris cognita, facile possint 
permistionem eorum eruditi subti- 
lioribus auribus accipere. 


TIT. XX. 


gacies and then of trusts, that, the 
nature of both being known, the stu- 
dent, thus instructed, may more ea- 
sily understand their relation. and 
intermixturc. 


‘De re legatá. Et primum de re testatoris, hzredis, alieni, 
cujus non est commercium. 


§ IV. Non solim autem testato- 
ris vel hzredis res, sed etiam aliena 
legari potest, ita ut heres cogatur 
redimere eam et prestare; vel, si 
eam non potest redimere, zstima- 
tionem ejus dare. Sed, si talis 
Bit res, cujus commercium non est, 
vel adipisci non potest, nec estima- 
tio ejus debetur; veluti si quis cam- 
pum martium, vel basilicas, vel 
templa, vel quie publico usui desti- 
nata sunt, legaverit: nam nullius 
momenti tale legatum est. Quod 
autem diximus, alienam rem posse 
legari, ita intelligendum est, si de- 
functus sciebat, - alienam rem esse, 
non si ignorabat. Forsitan enim, 
Si scivisset alienam rem esse, non 
legasset ; et ita Divus Pius rescrip- 
sit. Et verius est, ipsum, qui agit, 
id est, legatarium, probare opor- 
tere, scivisse alienam rem legare 
defunctum, non heredem probare 
oportere, ignorasse alienam : quia 
semper necessitas probandi incum- 
bit illi, qui agit. 


$ 4. A,testator may not only be- 
queath his own property, or that of his 
heir, but also the property of others; 
and, if the thing bequeathed belong 
to another, the heir can be obliged 
either to purchase and deliver it, or 
to render the value of it, if it can 
not be purchased. But, ij the thing 
bequeathed be not in commerce, or 
can not be purchased, the heir is not 
bound to pay the value to the legatee; 
as if a man should bequeath the 
Campus Martius, the palaces, the 
temples, or any of those things, which 
appertain to the public: for such 
legacies can be of no avail. But, in 
saying that a testator might be- 
queath the goods of another, we would 
be understood to mean, that this can 
be done only, if the deceased knew, 
that what he bequeathed belonged to 
another, and not, if he were ignorant 
of it; since, if he had known it, he 
probably would not have left such ale- 
gacy: .and to this purpose is the 
rescript of the empefor Antoninus. 
And it is incumbent spon the plain- 
tiff or legatee to prove the deceased 
knew that what he left belonged to 
another; the heir ts not obliged to 
prove, that the deceascd did nct know 
it; for the burthen of proof lige 
upon the complainant. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. XX. 157 


De re pignorat&. 


€ V. Sed et, si rem obligatam 
creditori, aliquis legaverit, necesse 
habet heres eam luere. Et in hoc 
quoque casu idem placet, quod in 
re aliena; ut ita demum luere ne- 
cesse habeat hzres, si sciebat de- 
functus, rem obligatem esse: et 
ita Divi Severus et Antoninus re- 
scripserunt. Si tamen defunctus 
voluerit legatarium luere, et hoc ex- 
presserit, non debet heres eam 
luere. 


§ 5. If a man bequeath that 
which he hath pledged to a creditor, © 
the heir is under a necessity of re- 
deeming it: but in this, as in the 
former case, concerning the goods of 
another, the heir cannot be obliged te 
redeem, unless the deceased knew, 
that the thing was pledged; and thie 
the emperors Severus and Antoni- 
nus have declared by their rescript. 
But when it appears to have been the 
express will of the deceased, that the 
legatee should redeem the thing be- 
queathed, the heir ought not to re- 
deem it. 


De re aliená post testamentum à legatario acquisitá. 


§ VI. Si res aliena legata fuerit, 
et ejus rei vivo testatore legatarius 
dominus factus fuerit, siquidém ex 
causa emptionis, ex testamento ac- 
tione pretium consequi potest; si 
verd ex causa lucrativi, veluti ex 
donatione, vel ex alia simili causa, 
agere non potest: nam traditum 
est, duas lucrativas causas in eun- 
dem hominem et eandem rem con- 
currere non posse. Hac ratione, si 
ex duobus testamentis eadem res 
eidem debeatur, interest, utrim 
rem, an 2stimationem, ex testamen- 
to consecutus sit : nam, si rem ha- 
bet, agere non potest; quia habet 
eam ex causa lucrativà: si zstima- 
tionem ; agere potest. 


f-. wi. 


.$ 6. Ifa thing bequeathed be the 
property of another, and the legatee 
become the proprietor of it in the 
lifetime of the testator, by purchase, 
he may recover the value, by an ac- 
tion under the will; but, if he ob- 
tained it as a gift, or by any lucra- 
tive title, no action will lie; for it 
£s a maxim, that two lucrative causes 
can never concur in the same person 
and thing. And therefore, if the 
same specific thing be left by two tes- 
taments to the same person, the ques- 
tion will be, when the legatee sues . 
under one of them, whether he hath 
obtained the thing itself, or the va- 
lue of it, by virtue of the other? for, 
if he be already possessed of the thing 
itself, the suit ts at an end, because 
he hath received it on a lucrative ac- 
count; but, if he hath already ob- 
tained the value of it only, he may 
still sue for the thing itecif. 


158 LIB, IL 


TIT. XX. 


De his, quz non sunt in rerum natura. 


§ VII. Ea quoque res, qua in 
rerum natura non est, si modo futu- 
raest, recté legatur; veluti frue- 
tus, qui in illo fundo nati erunt, aut 
quod ex illà ancillà natum erit. 


§ 7 Things, which exiit only in 


. possibility, may be begucathed: as 


the fruits, which shall grow on such 
e spot of ground; or the offspring, 
which shall be barn of a particular. 
slave. . 


De eádem re duobus legatá- 


$ VIII. Si eadem res duobus 
legata sit, sive conjunctim, sive dis- 
junctim, si ambo perveniant ad le- 
gatum, scinditur inter eos legatum ; 
81 alter deficiat, quia aut spreverit 
legatum, aut vivo testatore decesse- 
rit, vel alio quoquo modo defecerit, 
totum ad collegatarium pertinet. 
Conjunctim autem legatur, veluti 
siquis dicat, Titio et Seto hominem 
. Stichum do, lego: disjunctim ita, 
Titio hominem Stichum do, lego: 
Seio hominem Stichum do, lego. Sed 
et, si expresserit eundum hominem 
Stichum, «que disjunctim legatum 
intelligitur. 


$ 8. When the same specific lega- 
cy is left to two persans, either con- 
Junctively or disjunctzvely, and both 
are willing to accept, it must be dt- 
vided between them. But, should one 
of the legatees die in the lifetime of 
the testator, or dislike his legacy, or 
be by any means prevented from tak- 
ing it, the whole vests in his co-lega- 
tee. 14 legacy thus worded, is in the 
conjunctive, I give and bequeath 
my slave Sticuus to Titius and 
Seirus: but if thus, in the disyune- 
tive, I give and bequeath my slave 
STICHUS to Tirrus: I give and be- 
queath my slave Sticnus to Szrus. 
Although the testator add, that he 
gives the same slave SricHUs to 
Seivs, yet the legacy would be un- 
derstood in the dissunctive. 


Si legatarius proprietatem fundi alieni sibi legatis emerit ct usus- 
fructus ad eam pervenerit. 


4 IX. Si cui fundus alienus lega- 
tus sit, et emerit proprietatem de- 
ducto usufructu, et ususfructus ad 


eum pervenerit, et postea ex testa-- 


mento agat, recté eum agere et fun- 
dum petere fulianus ait ; quia usus- 
fructus in petitione servitutis locum 


obtinet: sed officio judicis conti- 


6 9. Jf a man bequeath to any one 
£he eround of another, and the lega- 
tee purchase the property without 
the usufruct, which afterwards . ac- 
crues to him, it is said by Julianus, 
that he may sue under the testament, 
and demand the ground; because the: 
usufruct is regarded as a service on- 


LIB. 3X. TIT. XX 


159 


netur, ut dedacto usufructu jubeat fy. But it is the duty of a jyudye, in 


#stimationem prestari. 


thes case, to order the price of the 
property to be patd, deducting thé 
value of the usufruct. 


De re legatarii. 


§ X. Sed, si rem lepatarii quis 
ef legaverit, inutile est legatum ; 
quia, quod propriur est ipsius, am- 
plius ejus fieri non potest: et licét 
alienaverit eam, non debetur, nec 
ipsa res, nec zstimatio ejus. 


6 10. A man uselessly bequeaths 
to another, what already belongs to 
him; for what is already the pro- 
perty of a legatee, can not become 
more so. And, although the legatee 
should, after the bequest, aliene the 
thing bequeathed, neither the thing 
itself, nor the wahie vf tt, would be- 
come due to him. : 


,  $i-quis rem summ, quasi san suam, legaverit. | 


§ XI. Si quís rem suam quasi 
ahenam legaverit, valet legatum: 
nam plus valet quod in veritate est, 
quam qued in-opmione. -Sed et, si 
logatarii esse putavit, valete con- 
stat; quia exitum veluntas defenc- 
ti habere potest. 


Ԥ 41. Jfu testater bequeath what 
te his own, as if is were the. proper. 
ty of another, the bequest would be 
good ; for truth is more prevalent 
than what s founded upon opinion on- 
ly. But although thetestator imagine, 
that what he bequeaths, belongsalrea- 
dy to the legatee, yet, if it do not, it 
ts certain, that sucha legacy would 
also bevalid; beceuse the will of the 
deceased.can thus take effect. 


De alienatione et oppignoratione rei legate. 


$ XII. Si rem suam legaverit 
&estator, posteaque-eam alienaverit, 
Celsus putat, si non adimendi ani- 
no vendidit, nihilominis deberi : 
idemque Divi Severus et Antoni- 
mus rescripserunt. lidem rescrip- 
"erunt, eum, qui post testamentum 
factum predia, que legata crant, 
Jignori dedit, ademisse legatum 
mon videri : et ided legatarium cum 
herede ejus agere posse, ut predia 


§ 12. Jf atestator bequeath his 
own property, and afterwards alten, 
it is the apinion of CxLsus, that the 
thing bequeathed will become due to 
the legatee, if the testator did not 
dispose of it, with an intention to 
oust him. The emperors Severus 
and Antoninus have published their 
rescript to this effect ; and they have 
also signified by another rescript 
that a legacy afterwards pawned or 


160 LIB. II. 


àcreditore luantur. Si vero quis 
partem rei legatz alienaverit, pars, 
quse non est alienata, omninó debe- 
tur: pars autem alienata, ita debe- - 
tur, si non adimendi animo aliena- 
th sit. ' 


TIT, XX. 


mortgaged, shall not be considered 
as retracted; and that the legatee 
may bring suit against the heir, and 
oblige him to redeem. And, if but a 


part of the thing bequeathed be ali- 


ened, that part which remains una- 
liened, is still due ; and that, which 
is aliened, is only due, if it appear 
not to have been aliened by the testa- 
tor with a design to retract the le- 
gacy. | 


De liberatione legata. 


§ XIII. Si quis debitori suo li- 
berationem legaverit, legatum utile 
est: et néque ab ipso debitore, né- 
que ab herede cjus, potest heres 
petere, neque ab alio, qui hzredis 
Joco sit. Sed et potest à debitore 
conveniri, ut liberet eum. . Potest 
etiam quis vel ad tempus jubere, 
ne heres petat. 


$ 13. If a man by will discharge 
his debtor, the bequest is effectual ;* 
and the heir can bring no suit a- 
gainst the debtor, his heir or any re- 
presentative. On the contrary, the 
heir of the testator may be convened 
by the debtor, and obliged to give 
him his discharge. A man may al- 
so forbid his heir to sue a debtor, 
within atime limited. 


De debito legato creditori. 


§ XIV. Ex contrario si debitor 
creditori suo, quod debet, legave- 
rit, inutile est legatum, si nihil plus 
est in legato, quam in debito: quia 
nihil amplius per legatum habet: 
quod si in diem, vel sub conditione, 
debitum ei pure legaverit, utile est 
legatum propter representationem. 
Quod si vivo testatore dies venerit, 
vel conditio extiterit, Papinianus 
scripsit, utile esse nihilominis lega- 
tum, quia semel constitit: quod et 
verum est. Non enim placuit sen- 
tenta eXistimantium, extinctum 
esse legatum, quia in eam causam 


§ 14. On the contrary, a legacy 
by a debtor to his creditor of the mo- 
ney, which he owes him, is ineffectu- 
al, if it amount merely to the value of 
the debt ; for the creditor receives ne 
benefit. But, if a debtor bequeath 
simply to his. creditor a sum of mo- 
ney, which was to be paid ata day 
certain, or which he owed upon con- 
dition, the legacy will take effect en 
account of the representation, i. e. 
because it becomes due before the 
debt. But, according to Parrnian, 
tf the day of payment should come, 
or the event of the condition happen 


LIB. If. TIT. XX. ' 


16% 


pervenerit, à «ui incipere non po- in the lifetime of the testator, the 


test. 


lagacy would nevertheless te cffec- 
tual, because it was once good ; which 
ts true. For we are not satisfied 
with the opinion that a legacy once 
good, may afterwards become extinct, 
by falling into a state, from which 
zt could not have taken a legal com- 
»encement. 


De dote uxori legatá. 


$ XV. Sed, si utori maritus do- 
tem legaverit, valet legatum: quia 
plenius est legatum, quam de dote 
wctio. Sed, si, quam non accepit, 
dotem legaverit, Divi Severus et 
Antoninus rescripserunt, siquidem 
simplicitér legaverit, inutile esse 
legatum ; si veró certa pecunia, vel 
vertuin corpus, aut instrumenta do- 
tis in preelegando demonstrata sunt, 
valere legatum. 


$ 15. Uf a man bequeath to hie 


wif her marriage portion, it is va- 


lid: fer the legacy is more benefi- 
cial than the action she might main- 
tain for the recovery of her portions 
But, if he bequeath to his wife her 
marriage portion, never actually re- 
ceived, the emperors Severus and 
Antoninus have declared by their re- 
script, that, if it be left simply with- 
out any specification of a sum cer- 
tain, the legacy is void; but if any 
sum, or thing be specified, or if the 
instruments, in which the exact va- 
lue of the portion is mentioned, be 
referred to, the legacy is valid. 


De interitu et mutatione rei legate. 


§ XVI Si res legata siné facto | 


hseredis petierit, legatario decedit. 
Et, ei servus alienus legatus sine 
facto haredis manumissus fuerit, 
fon teneter hetes. Si verd here- 
dis servus legatus sit, et ipse eum 
manuthiserit, teneri eum, Julianus 
ecrépeit: nec interest, sciverit, an 
Sgnorávetit, à se eum legatum esse. 
'' Sed et, si alii, donaverit servum, et 
- 14, cui donatus est, ewm manumise- 


§ 16. Ifa thing bequeathed should 
pevish before delivery, without fault 
of the heir, the loss falls upon the 
legatee. And, if the slave of ano- 
ther, whois bequeathed, should be 
manumitted, the heir not being privy 


to the manumission, he can be sub- 


ject to no action. But, if a testator 
bequeath the slave of hts hetr, who 
afterwards manumits that slave, it 
is the opinion of Jut1Aw, that the 


.Y 


T E LIB. IL. TIT. XX... 


rit, tenetur heres; quamvis igno- 
raverit, a sc eum legatum esse. 


heir is answerable; whether he knew 
of the legacy or not. Also, if the 
heir hath madea present of a slave 
bequeathed, and the donee hath ma- 
numitted him, the heir is liable, al- 
though ignorant of the bequest. 


De interitu quarundam ex pluribus.rebus legatis. 


$ XVII. Si quis ancillas; cum 
suis natis legaverit, etiamsi ancille 
mortuz fuerint, partus legato ce- 
dunt. Idem est, et si ordinarii ser- 
vi cum vicariis legati fucrint : quia, 
licét mortui sint ordinarii, tamen 
vicarii legato cedunt. Sed, si ser- 
vus fuerit cum peculio legatus, mor- 
tuo servo, vcl manumisso, vel ali- 
enato, peculii legatum extinguitur. 
Idem est, si fundus instructus, vel 
cum instrumento, legatus fuerit ; 
nam, fundo alienato, et instrumenti 
legatum extinguitur. 


$ 17. If atestator bequeath his 
female slaves and their offspring, 
although the slaves die, their issue 
becomes due to the legatee : and so, 
if ordinary slaves are bequeathed to- 
gether with vicarial ; for although 
the ordinary slaves die, yet the vica- 
rial slaves will pass by virtue of the 
bequest. But, where a slave is be- 
queathed with his peculium, and af- 
terwards dies, or is manumitted, or 
aliened, the legacy of the peculium 
becomes extinct. The consequencee 
will be the same, if a piece of ground 
is bequeathed with the instruments 
for improving it; for, if the testa- 
tor aliens the ground, the legacy of | 
the instruments of husbandry is of 
course extinguished. 


De grege legato. - 


§ XVIII. Si grex legatus fuerit, 
ct postea ad unam ovem pervenerit, 
quod superfuerit, vindicari potest. 
Grege autem legato etiam eas oves, 
quz post testamentum factum gregi 
adjiciuntur, legato cedere Julianus 
ait. . Est autem gregis unum cor- 
pus ex distantibus captibus, sicüt 
aedium unum corpus est ex cohzren- 
tibus lapidibus. 


6 18. Jf a flock ie bequeathed, und 
afterwards reduced to a single sheep, 
that sheep is. claimable; and, if a 
flock receive an addition, after it 
hath been bequeathed, this addition 
will also, according to Julian, enure 
£o the legatee. For a flock is deem- 
ed one body, consisting of separate 
members, as a house is reckoned one 
body, composed of materials, joined 
together, and adhering. 


LU 


LIB. II. TIT. XX. | 163 


De adious legatis. 


$ XIX. Adibus denique legatis, 
columnas et marmora, qu: post tes- 
tamentum. factum adjecta sunt, le- 
gato dicimus cedere. — 


6 19. And lastly, when an house 
is bequeathed, the marble or pillars, 
which are added after the bequest is 
made, will pass under the general le- 


Lacy. 


De pcculio. 


§ XX. Si peculium legatum fue- 
rit, siné dubio quicquid peculio ac- 
cedit vel decedit, vivo testatore, 
legatarii lucro vel damno est. Quod 
si post mortem testatoris anté a- 
ditam hereditatem aliquid servus 
acquisierit, Julianus ait, siquidém 
ipsi manumisso peculium legatum 
fuerit, omne, quodanté aditam he- 
reditatem acquisitum est legatario 
cedere ; quia hujusmodi legati dies 
ab adita hzreditate cedit: sed, si 
extraneo peculium legatum fuerit, 


non cedere ea legato, nisi ex rebus: 


pecüliaribus auctum fuerit peculi- 
um. Peculium autem, nisi legatum 
fuerit, manumisso non debetur: 
quamvis, si vivus manumiserit, 
sufficit, si non adimatur: et ita Di- 
vi Severus et Antoninus rescripse- 
runt. lidem rescripserunt, peculio 
legato, non videri id relictum, ut 
petitionem habeat pecunie, quam 
in rationes dominicas impenderit. 
Iidem rescripserunt, peculium vi- 
deri legatum, cum rationibus red- 


§ 20. When the peculium (of a 
Slave ) is bequeathed, it is certain, that 
the increase or decrease of it, in the 
life of the testator, becomes the loss 
or gain of the legatee. And, if the 
peculium of a slave be left to him 
with his liberty, and he increase 
the peculium, subsequent to the death 
of the testator, and before the inhe- 
ritance is entered upon, it is the opi- 
nion of JULIAN, that the increase 
will pass to him as legatee ; for such 
a legacy does not become due, ‘but 
from the day of the acceptance of the 
inheritance : but should the peculi- 
um of a slave be bequeathed to a 
stranger, an increase, acquired with- 
in the period above-mentioned, will 
not pass under the legacy, unless the 
acquisition were made, by means of 
something appertaining to the pecu- 
lium; for the peculium of a slave 
does not belong to him, after he is 
manumitted by testament, unless ex- 
pressly given: although, if a mas- 
ter in his life-time manumit his 


166 LIB. II. 


ditis liber esse jussus est, et ex eo 
' veliqua inferre. 


TIT. XX. 
Slave, his peculium will pass to him 


' of course, if not excepted: and such - 


ia the rescript of the emperors Sg- 


VERUS and ANTONINUS; who have 


also declared, that when a peculium 
is bequeathed to a slave, it does not 
seem intended that he should have the 
right of demanding what he may 
have expended for the use of has mas- 
ter. The same princes haye farther 
declared, that a slave seems intitled. 
to his peculium, if his liberty be 
left him, on condition, that. he will, 
bring in his accqunts, and supply 
any deficiency out af the profits of 
his peculium. 


De rebus corporalibus et incorporalibus.. 


§ XXI. Tam autem corporales 
es legari possunt, quam incorpe- 
rales: et ideó, quod defuncto debe- 
tur, potest alicui legari, ut actiones 
suas heres legatario prestet; pisi 
exegerit vivus testator pecuniam : 
nam hoc casu legatum extinguitur. 
Sed et tale legatum valet; damnas 
esto heres meus domum illius refi- 
cere: vel illum are alieno liberare. 


De legato 
€ XXII. Si generalitér servus, 
vel res alia, legetur, electio legatarii 
est, nisi aliud testator dixerit. 


§ 21. Things incerporeal may. be, 
bequeathed as well as things. corpo: — 
real: and so therefore may a debs, 
due tothe testator ; and the heir be 
obliged totransfer his right of action, 
to the legatee ; unless the testator tn, 
his life-time received the money due 
to him; for in this case the legacy 
would become extinct. Such a legacy 
as this, is also good; Í command, 
my heir to rebuild the house of. 
Titius: or to free him from his 
debts. 


generali. 

§ 22. If a testator bequeath a 
slave, or else some particular thing 
disjunctively, the right of election is 
in the legatee, unless the testator 
hath declared otherwise. 


De optione legata. 


§ XXIII. Optionis legatum, id 
est, ubi testator ex servis suis vel . 


§ 23. An optional legacy, ie when 
a testator directs his legatee to chuse 


LIB, II. 


aliis rebus optare legatarium jusse- 
rat, habebat olim in se conditionem: 
et ided, nisi ipse legatarius vivus 
optasset, ad heredem legatum non 
transmittebat. Sed ex constitutione 
mostra et hoc in meliorem statum 
reformatum est, et data est licentia 
heredi legatarii optare servum, li- 
cét vivus legatarius hoe non fece- 
rit. Et, diligentiore tractuta habi- 
to, hoe in nostra constitutione ad- 
ditum est, sivé plures legatarii ex- 
titerint, quibus optio relicta est, et 
diseentiant in corpore eligendo ; 
sivé unius legatarii plures hzredes 
gint, et Inter se circa optendum dis- 
eentiant, alio aliud. corpus eligere 
cupiente, ne pereat legatum, (quod 
plerique prudentium contra benevo- 
Jentiam introducebant,) fortunam 
esso hujus optionis judicem, et forte 


hoe cese dirimendum, ut, ad quem . 


sors pervenerit, illus sententia in 


optione pracellat. 


- 


TIT. XX. 165 


any slave, from among his slaves, or 
any article from a certain clasa of 
things; and such legacy was for- 
merly presumed to imply this condi- 
tion, that, if the legatee in his lifetime 
did not make his election, the legacy 
could not be transmitted to his heir. 
But, by our constitution, this pre-. 
sumed condition is now taken away, 
and the heir of the legatee is per- 
mitted to elect, although the legates 
tn his life-time hath neglected to de 
it. And, upon further consideration, 
we have added to our constitution, 
that, tf there be several legatece, te 
whom en option is left, end they dif- 
fer in their cheice, or if there be 
many heirs of one lewatee, of divera 
sentiments, then Fortune must be the 
judge: for, lest the lose of the lega- 
ey should ensue, (which the genera- 
lity of ancient lawyers, contrary te 
all benevolence, would have permit- 
ted, ) we have decreed, that such dis- 
sensions should be decided by lot ; so 
that his option, to whom the lot falls, 
shall be preferred. | 


Quibus legari potest. 


§ XXIV. Legari autem illis so- 
Jüm potest, cum quibus testamenti 
factio est. 


6 24. A legacy can be left to those 
only, who have the capacity of taking 
by testament, (i.e. factio passiva.) 


Jus antiquum de incertis personis. 


€ XXV. Incertis verd personis 
neque legata neque fidei-commissa 
olim relinqui concessum erat ; nam 
we miles quidem incertz persons 
poterat relinquere, ut Divus Hadri- 
anus rescripsit. Incerta autem per- 
ona videbatur, quam incerta opi- 


§ 25. Jt was not permitted for- 
merly, that either lepacies, or gifts 
in trust, should be bequeathed to in- 
certain pereeng; thts was even pro- 
hibited to a. soldier, by the emperor 
Adrian. An incertain person is one 
whom the testator has figured in 


niqne animo suo testator subjicie-. 
bat, veluti, si quis ita dicat, guicun- 
que filio meo filiam suam in matri- 
monium dederit, ei heres meus illum 
fundum dato. lllud quoque, quod 
iis relinquebatur, qui post testamen- 
tum scriptum primi consules desig- 
nati essent, wque incerte persons 
legari videbatur: et denique multe 
alie hujusmodi species sunt. Li- 
bertas quoque incertz persone non 
- videbatur possc dari, quia placebat, 
nominatim servos liberari. Sub cer- 
tà veró demonstratione, id est, ex 
certis personis, incertz personz rec- 
té legabatur: veluti, ex cognatis 
meis, qui nunc sunt, si quis filiam 
meam uxorem duxerit, ei heres meus 
illam rem dato. Incertis autem per- 
sonis legata vel fidei-commissa re- 
licta, et per errorem soluta, repeti 
non posse, sacris constitutionibus 
cautum erat. 


TIT. XX. L] 


his imagination, without any deter- 
minate knqwledge; as if he should 
say : whoever shall give his daugh- 
ter in marriage to my son, to that 
person let my heir deliver up such 
3 piece of ground. dnd, if hehad 
made a bequest to the first consuls 
appointed after his testament was 
written, this also would have been a. 
bequest to incertain persons; and 
there .are other similar examples.. 
l'reedom likewise could not be con- 
ferred upon an incertain person; for 
at was necessary, that all slaves. 
should be nominally infranchised :. 
but a legacy might have been given. 
to an incertain person under a cer- 
tain’ demonstration; or, in other. 
words, to anincertain person, being 
one of a number. of persons certain :' 
as, direct my heir to give such a 
thing to any one of my present col- 
lateral relations, who shall take my 
daughter in marriage. But, if a 
legacy or fiduciary gift had been paid 
to incertain persons by mistake, it 
as provided by the constitutions, 
that such persons were not compell- 
able to refund. 


Jus antiquum de rosthumo alieno. 


$ XXVI. Posthumo quoque ali- 
eno inutilitér antea legabatür. Est 
autem alienus posthumus, qui natus 
inter suos heredes testatori futurus 
non est: ideoque, ex emancipato 
filio conceptus nepos, extraneus erat 
posthumus avo. 


§ 26. Formerly a legacy could not 
enure to a posthumous stranger : 
that is, to one who, if he had been 
born before the death of the testator, 
could not have been numbered among 
his proper heirs : and of consequence 
a posthumous grandson, by an eman- 
cipaied son, was a posthumous stran- 
get in regard to his grandfather. 


, 


LIB. II. 


TIT. XX. 167 


Jus novum de personis incertis et posthumo alieno. 


$ XXVII. Sed nec hujusmodi 
species penitis est siné justa emen- 
datione relicta, cum in nostro co- 


dice constitutio posita sit, per quam 


et huic parti medemur, non solim 
in hereditatibus, sed etiam in lega- 
tis et fidei-commissis: quod evi- 
dentér ex ipsius constitutionis lec- 
tione clarescit. Tutor autem nec 
per nostram constitutionem incer- 
tus dari debet: quia certo judicio 
debet quis pro tutela sux posterita- 
ti cavere. 


LT 


6 27. But the ancient law hath 
not been left without proper emenda- : 
tion; for a constitution in our col- 
lection hath altered the law concern- 
ing incertain persons, not only in 
respect of inheritances, but also le- 
gacies and fiduciary bequests. This 
alteration will appear from the con- 
stitution itself; which gives no au- 
thority to the nomination of an in- 
certain tutor; for it is incumbent 
tpon every parent to take care of his 
posterity in this respect, by a deter- 
minate appointment. 


De posthumo alieno hzrede instituto. - 


6 XXVIII. Posthumus autém 
alienus heres instituti et anté po- 
terat, et nunc potest ; nisi in utero 
ejus sit, quz jure nostro, uxor esse 
non potest. 


§ 28. A posthumous stranger 
could formerly, and may now be ap- 
pointed heir, unless tt appear, that 
he was conceived by a woman, who 
could not have been legally married 
to his father. 


De errore in nomine legatarii. 


6 XXIX. Siquidem in nomine, ' 


cognomine, prenomine, agnomine, 
legatarii testator erraverit, cum de 
persona constat, nihilominus valet 
legatum ; idémque in hzredibus 
servatur; et recté: nomina enim 
significandorum hominum gratia re- 
perta sunt ; qui si alio quolibet mo- 
do intelligantur, nihil interest. 


§ 29. Although a testator may 
have mistaken the nomen, cogno- 
men, prenomen or agnomen of a 
legatee, yet,if his person be certain, — 
the legacy is good. The same rule 
is observed as to heirs, and with 
reason: for the use of names is but 
to point out persons; and, if they 
can be denoted by any other metiod, 
it will make no difference. 


De falsa demonstrztione. 


. § XXX. Huic proxima est. illa 
juris regula, falsà demonstratione 
legatum non perimi: veluti, si 
quis ita legaverit, Stichum seroum 


dim. 


$ 30. The rule of law, which 
comes nearest to the foregoing, is, 
that a legacy is not rendered null by 
a false description: suppose a be- 


» 


168 LIB. HI. 


meum vernam do, lego. — Licet enim 
non verna, sed emptus sit, si tamen 
de servo constat, utile est legatum. 
Et convenientér, si ita demonstra- 
verit, Stichum seroum, quem a Seio 
emi, sitque ab alio emptus, utile est 
legatum, ei de servo constat. 


[d 


TIT. XX. 
quest thus worded: I give and be- 


' queath Sticuus my slave, who was 


born in my family: én this case, 
although Stichus was not born in the 
family, but bought, yet, of there be 
certainty of his person, the lega- 
cy is valid. And if a testator sheuld 
writes I bequeath Sticuvs my 
slave, whom I bought of Szrus ; 
yet, although bought of another, the 
legacy would be good, if no doubt exe 
isted as to the person of Sticuus. 


De falsa causa adjecta. 


$ XXXI. Longé magis legato fal- 
$a causa adjecta non nocet: veluti 
cum quis ita dixerit:  Tifio, quia 
me absente negotia mea curavit, Sti- 
chum do, lego: vel ita, Titio, quia 
patrocinio ejus, capitali crimine k- 
beratus sum, Stichum do, lego. Lie 
cét enim neque negotia testatoris 
unquam gesserit Titius, neque pat- 
rocinio ejus liberatus sjt, legatum 
tamen valet, Sed, si conditionali- 
ter’ enunciata fuerit: causa, aliud 
juris est; veluti hoc modo, TYtio, 
si negotia mea curaverit, fundum 
meum do, lego. 


Lj 


De servo 
6 XXXII, An servo heredis 


recté legemus, quzritur : et constat, 
pure inutilitér legari, nec quicquam 
proficere, si vivo testatore de po- 
testate heredis exierit: quia, quod 
inutile foret legatum, si statim post 


€ 31. A fortiori a legacy is not 
rendered less valid, although a false 
reason be assigned for bequeathing 
it: as if a testator should say: I 
give my slave Sticuus to Tir1vs, 
because he took care of my affairs 
in my absence: or, because I was 
acquitted upon a capital accusation, 
by his ‘protection. For although 
Titius had never taken care of the 
affairs of the deceased, and although 
the testator was never thus acquitted 
by means of Titius, the legacy will be - 
good. But if the bequest had been 
conditional, ae I give to Tittus, 
such a piece of ground, if it shall ap- 
pear, that he hath taken proper care 
of my affairs, then the law would be 
different. 


hzeredis. 

$ 32. Itis doubted, whether a tes- 
tator can bequeath to the slave of his 
heir ; and it is settled that sucha 
legacy, would be of no avail, although 
the slaves should be freed from the 
power of the heir in the life-time af 


LIB. II. 


factum . testamentum — decessisset 
testator, hoc non debet ideó valere, 
quia diutiüs testator vixerit. Sub 
conditione veró recté legatur ser- 
vo, ut requiramus, an, quo tempore 
dies legati cedit, in potestate hzre- 


dis non sit. 


TIT. XX. 169 


the testator ; for a bejuést, void if 
the testator had expired immediately 
after he had made it, ought not to be-. 
come valid, merely because he hap- 
pened to enjoy a longer life. Buta 
testator may give a conditional legacy 
to the slave, (of his tnstituted heir, ) — 
which will be good, if the slave benot | 
under power of the heir, when the 
condition is fulfilled. 


De domino heredis. 


$ XXXIII. Ex diverso, hzrede 
instituto servo, quin domino recté 
etiam siné conditione legetur, non 
dubitatur: nam, etsi statim post 
factum testamentum decesserit tes- 
tator, non tamen apud eum, qui he- 
res sit, dieslegati cedere intelligi- 
tur: cum hereditas à legato separa- 
ta sit, et possit per eum servum ali- 
us heres effici, si prius, quam jus- 
su domini adeat, in alterius potesta- 
tem translatus. sit; vel manumis- 
sus ipse hzres efficitur: quibus ca- 
sibus utile est legatum.. Quod si 
in eádem causá permanserit, et jus- 
su legatarii adierit, evanescit lega- 
tum. 


$ S3. On the contrary it is not 
doubted, but if a slave be appointed 
heir, that his master may take an un- 
conditional legacy (by the same testa- 
ment:) for, although the testator 
should die instantly, yet the legacy 
does not become immediately due 
from the slave who is heir ; for the 
inheritance ie here separate from the. 
legacy, and another may become heir 
by means of the slave, if he should be 
transferred to a new master, before 
he hath entered upon the inheritance, 
at the command of his master, who 
is the legatee; or the slave himself 
may become heir in his own right by 
manumission; and, in these cases, 
the legacy would be good. But, if 
the slave should remain in the same 
state, and enter upon the inheritance 
by order of his mastcr, who is the 
legatee, the legacy becomes extinct. 


De modo et ratione legandi. De ordine scripture. 


$ XXXIV. Ante hzredis institu- 
@ionem inutilitér antea legabatur ; 
weilicét, quia testamenta, vim ex ine 
_wtitutione heredis accipiunt, et ob 
id veluti caput atque fundamen- 


da i“. 


6 34. Alegacy could not formerly 
take effect, until the heir was insti- 
tuted; because a testament recetves 
its force and efficacy from the msti- 
tution of the heir: by parity of rea- 


LI 


170 


tum, intelligitur totits testament? 


heredis institutio. Pari ratione, 


nec libertas ante heredis institutio- 
nem dari poterat. Sed, quia mcivile 
es$e putavimus, scripture ordinent 
quidem. sequi, (quod et ipsi miti- 
quitati vitaperandum fuerat visum, ) 
sperni autem testátoris voluntatem, 
‘pert nostram constitutionem ct hoc 
vitium emendavimus, ut liceat et 
anté heredis institutionem ct inter 
medias heredum institutiobes lega- 
tum ?elinquere, et maita magis li- 
bertatem, cujus usus favorabilior 
cst. 


LAB. TI. TIT. XXX 


son the institution: of an heir should 
alvus precede the grant of freedom. 
But we kave thoayht it wrong that 
the mere order of writing should be 
attended te, 1n opposition to the ex- 
press intersron af a testator: aid the 
ancients themselves seem té@ haoP 
thought so: we have therefore, by 
our constitution, amended the law in 
this point; so that a legacy, anda 
fortiori, a grant of liberty, which is 
always favoured, may now be be- 
queathed, before the institution of an 
heir, (where there is but ones. and, 
either before, or between the institn- 
tions af heirs, where there are sevc- 
ral. ;) 


De legato post mortem heredis, vel legatarii. 


§ XXXV. Post mortem quoque 
héeredis ant legatarii simili modo 
mutilitér legabatur: veluti, si quis 
ita dicat, cum hares meus mortuus 
fuerit, do, lego: item pridie quam 
heres aut legatarius morietur. Sed 
simili modo et hoc correximus, fir- 
_mitatem hujusmodi legatis ad fidei- 
commissorum similitudinem pres- 
tantes; ne in hoc casu deterior cau- 
sa legatorum, quam fidei-commis- 
sorum, inveniatur. 


$ 35. 4 bequest; made to take 
place after the death of an heir or le- 
gatee, wae alsd incffectital : for, if 
a testator had said, when my heir is 


dead, I give and bequeath, orevem - 


thus, Y give and bequeath the day 
preceding the day of the death of 
my heir, or, of my Icgatee, the lege 
cies were void. But we have éor» 
rected the ancient. rule in this ree- 
pect, by giving all such legacies the 
same validity, as gifts in trust ; lest 
trusts shculd be found to be more fa- 


voured, than legactes. 


Si poenze nomine relinquatur, adimatur, vel trarsferatur. 


§ XXXVI. Pene quoque no- 
mine matilitér antea legabatur, ct 
adimebatur, vel  transferebatur. 
Pong autem nomine legari videtur, 
quod coercendi hzredis causa re- 
linquitur, quo magis aliquid faciat, 


§ 36. Also formerly, if a testator 
liad given, revoked, or transferred a 
leracy nomine penz, he would have 
acted ineffectually : and a legacy is 
reputed to be bequeathed nomine pee- 
ne, [i. e. as a punishment or penal 


e 


M 


43. IL TIT. XX. 


aut non fagjat: veluti si quis ifa 
scripaerit, haves meus o£ filiar: qw- 
am én matrimonium Titio callocave- 
eit; yel ex diyeszao, ei eR calloce- 
verit, dato deem aureos Seia ; aut 
si ite scripserit, fures meus si ser- 
vum Stichwn gliengpertt : velex di- 
verso, 5i non alienaverit, Titio de- 
cem aureos dato. Et in tantüm 
hec regula observabatur, ut quam 
plurimis principalibus constitutio- 
nibus significaretur, nec principem 
agnoscere, quod ei pene nomine le- 
gatum sit: nec gx mijitis quidem 
testamento talia legata valebant: 
quamvis alie militum voluntates in 
ordinandis testamentis valde obser- 
vabantur: quinetiam nec libertates 
pena nomine dari posse placebat: 
co ampliüs, nec heredem pene no- 
mine adjici posse, Sabinus existima- 
bat: velut ai quis ita dicat, 7i- 
fins heres certo; at Tiüus fiam 
auam iz matrimonium Seio collocave- 
Fit, Seius quaque ares esto. Nibil 
enim intererat, quà rhüone Titius 
&oerceretur, utrum legati datione, 
A coharedis adjectione. Sed hu- 
juemedi ecrupulositas nobis non pla- 
xit; et generaliter ea, que relin-. 
quuntur, licét pene nomine fuerint 
relicta vel adempta, vel in alium 
translata, nihil distare à ceteris le- 
gatis constituimus, vel in dando, 
vel in adimendo, vel in transfercn- 
do: exceptis videlicet iis, que im- 
-possibilia sunt, vel legibus inter- 
dicta, aut alias probrosa. Hujus- 
Modi enim testamentorum disposi- 


Y 


171 


ly,] when an heir is put ungcr the 
necessity of doing or not doing some- 
thins; 2s if a testator had thus writ- 
ten; if my heir give his daughter 
in marriage to Tit1us; or, if he do 
not give her in marriage to TITIUs, 
let him pay ten AureEI to Srivus: 
or thus, if my heir shall alien my 
slave Sticuus ; or, if my heir shall 
not alien my slave Sticuus, let 
him pay ten AUREI to TITIUs. 
And this rule was so far observed, 
that it was expressly ordained by ma- 
tg constitutions, that even the em- 
peror could not receive a legacy, 
which wes bequeathed namine pepe ; 
nor could a penal legacy be valid, 
even when bequeathed by the testa- 
ment of a soldier ; although, in evc- 
ry other respect, the intention of a 
testator in a military testament waa 
scrupulously “adhered to. And goen 
freedom could not he begugathed, 
nor, in the opinion of SaBinvs could 
an heir he added in a testament, no- 
mine pote: for, if a tcstater had 
said, let Tyrius be my heir, but. 
if he give his daughter in marriage 
to Servs, let Se1us also be my heir, 
the appointment of Seius would have 
been void; for the manner, in which 
an heir was laid under coercton, 
whether by the gift of a legacy, or 
by the addition of another heir, 
worked no alteration in the general 
rule of law. But this strictness hath 
not pleased us, and we have there- 
fore ordained gencrally that things 
left, revoked, or transferred, nomine 


172 


tones volere secta meorum tempo- 
rum non patitur. 


LIB. II, TIT. XXI. 


pene, should fall under the same 
viles of law as other legacies, wherc- 
of the condition is neither imposst- 
ble, prohibited by law, or contrary to 
good manners, for the morality, of 
the present times, will not suffer tes- 
tamentary dispositions of thts cha- 
racter. 


—Á-— o @® it Gee 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS-PRIMUS. 


DE ADEMPTIONE LEGATORUM ET TRANSLA- 
TIONE. 


D. xxxiv. 


T. 4 


De ademptione. 


ADEMPTIO legatorum, sive 
ebdem testamento adimantur, sivé 
codicillis, firma est. Sed et, sivé 
contrariis verbis fiat ademptio, ve- 
luti si quod ita quis legaverit, do, 
lego, ita adimatur, non do, non lego: 
sivé non contrariis, sed aliis quibus- 
cumque verbis. 


A revocation ofa legacy is valid, 


although inserted in the same testa- 


ment or codicil. And it is imma- 


. terial, whether the revocation be made 


in some form of words contrary to 
the bequest ; as when a testator be- 
queaths in these terms, I give and 
bequeath to TiT1us, and revokes it 


* by adding, E do not give and be- 


queath to T'rTIU8 : or in any other 


form. 


De translatione. 


§ I. Transferri quoque legatum 
ab alio ad alium potest; veluti si 
quis ita dixerit, hominem Stichum, 
quem Titio legavi, Seio do, lego: 
sivé in eodem testamento, sivé co- 
dicillis, id fecerit: quo casu, eimul 

et Titio adimi videtur, et Seio dari. 


$ 1. A legacy may also be trans- 
Jerred from one person to another ; 
as, I give to Servs my slave Sticu- 
vs, whom I have bequeathed to 
Titrus. This may be done in the 
same testament or codicil; and thus 
a legacy may be taken from 'Tyrivs 
and transferred to Sx1vs. 


LIB. II. 


TIT. XXII. 


173 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.SECUNDUS. 


DE LEGE FALCIDIA. 


D. xxxv. T. 2. C. vi. T. 50. Nov. 1. 


Ratio et summa hujus legis. 


SUPEREST, ut de lege Falci- 
dia dispiciamus, quà modus novis- 
simé legatis impositus est. Cum 
enim olim lege duodecim tabula- 
rum libera erat legandi potestas, ut 
liceret vel totum patrimonium lega- 
tis erogare; quippé, cum ea lege 
ita cautum esset, ufi quisque legassit 
suc rei, ita jus esto, visum est hanc 
legandi licentiam coarctare; idque 
Ipsorum testamentorum gratià pro- 
visum est, ob id, quod plerimque 
intestati moriebantur, recusantibus 
ecriptis heredibus pro nullo aut 
minimo lucro hzreditates adire. 
Et, cum super hoc tam lex Furia, 
quam lex Voconia late sunt, qua- 
rum neutra sufficiens ad rei con- 
summationem videbatur, novissimé 
lata est lex Falcidia, quà cavetur, 
ne plus legare liceat, quam dodran- 
tem totorum bonorum; id est, ut, 
sivé unus heres institutus sit, sivé 
plures, apud eum eesve pars quarta 
remancat. 


Jt remains to speak of the law 
Falcidia, by which legacies have re- 
ceived their latest regulation. By 
the law of the 12 tables, uti quisque 
legassit suz rei, ita jus esto, a tes- 
tator was permitted to dispose of his 
whole patrimony in legacies : but it 
was thought proper to restrain thie 
licence even for the benefit of testa- 
tors themselves, because they fre- 
quenth, died intestate, their heirs re- 


fusing to enter. upon an inheritance, 
from which they could receive little 


or no profit. And this gave rise 


first to the law Furia, and after- 


wards the law Voconia: but neither 
of these being found adequate to the 
purpose, the Falcidian lew was at 
length enacted ; which forbids a tes- 
tator to give more in legacies, than 
three fourths of all his effects ; so 
that, whether there be one or more 
heirs, there must now remain to him, 
or them, an intire fourth part of the 
whole. 


De pluribus hzredibus. 


§ I. Et, cum quzsitum esset, du- 
ebus heredibus institutis (veluti 
Titio et Seio) si Titii pars aut tota 
exhausta sit legatis, que nominatim 
ab eo data sunt, aut supra modum 
emerata, à Seio veró aut nulla relic- 


$ 1. When two heirs arc insti- 
tuted, as Tirius and Serius, and 
Titius's part of the inheritance is 
overcharged by specific legactes; 
while Seius’s part is wholly free or 
only partially incumbered ; it hath 


174 


ta sint legata, aut quz partem ejus 
duntaxàt in partem diminuant, an, 
quia is quartam partem totius hz- 
reditatis, aut amplius habet, ‘Titio 
nihil ex legatis, que ab eo relicta 
sunt, retinere liceat, ut quartam 
partem suz partis salvam habeat? 
placuit posse retinere. Etenim in 
singulis hzredibus, ratio legis Fal- 
cidie ponenda est. 


LAB, IL. TIT. XXJI. 


been queried, whether although Seius 
Aath a fourth or more of the whole 
inheritance, it may not be lawful ne- 
vertheless for T111Us to make a stop- 
page out of the legacies, with which 
he is charged, so as to retain a fourth 
part out of his own moiety ? and it 
hath been determined, that he may: 
Jor the reason of the law Faleigia 
extends to each heir. 


Quo tempore spectatur quantitas patrimonii, ad quam, ratio legis 
Falcidiz redigitur. 


6 IL Quantitas autem patrimo- 
nii, ad quam ratio legis Falcidiz re- 
digitur, mortis tempore spectatur. 
Itaque, (verbi gratia) ei is, qui.cem- 
tum aureorum patrimonium in bo- 
mis habeat, centum aureos legave- 
rit, nihil legatariis prodest, si .ante 
aditam hzreditatem -per servos-he- 
reditarios, aut «ex partu ancillarum 
— hereditariarum, aut ex fexu peco- 
rum, tantum accesserit hereditati, 
ut, centum aureis legatorum ;7o- 
mine erogmtis, heres quartam par- 
tem hercditatis habrturus eit: sed 
necesse est, ut nihilominus quarta 
pars legatis detrahatur. Ex diver- 
80, si septuaginta quinque legave- 
rit, et ante aditam hereditatem in 
tantum decreverint bona, (incendiis 
forte, aut naufragiis, aut morte ser- 
vorum) ut non amphüs quam scp- 
.tuaginta quinque aureorum sub- 
atantia vel etiam minus relinquatur, 
solida legata debentur. Nec eares 
damnosa est heredi, cui liberum est 
non adire hereditatem : qué res 
efficit, ut sit necesse legotariis, ne 
 destituto testamento nihil conse- 


$ 9. Zhe dew Falcidia looks 
to the quantity of the estate et the 
time of the death of the testator ; ang 
therefore, if he, who is worth but ax 
hundred ayre} at.his decease, hegueath 
them oll in legacies, the leguiess mua 
sugar a defalcation,y far they suijl 
be entitled to no advantage, although 
the inheritance, after the death gf 
the sestater and before it is entered 
upon, should ao increase by the acgai- 
sition of slaves, the children of fer 
male slaves, or the preduct of cattle, 
that, after a full payment of the 100 
aurei 4n legacies, an intire fourth 
of the xvhole estate might remain ip 
the heir; the lqgaoice notwithetand- 
ing would atill-be liable .to .a deduc- 
tion ef one fourth. Qn the contrary, 
if the same testator hath begueathed 
only 75 aurei, then, although before 
the entrance of the heir, the estate 
shouldso. decrease-by fire, ehifrvreck, 
or the Isee of .alaves, that «te whole 
-ealue should aot be more than VS 
aurei, or Jesq, yat the legacies would 
still be due without. defalcation: ner 
is this law prejudical to an heir, whe 


L8, It. 


quantur, cum herede in portione 
pacisci. 


TIT. XX II. 


173 


is always at his election either to re- 


f'üse or accept an inheritance; but it 


obliges legatees to compromise with 
the heir, lest they should lose the 
whole for want of some one to act. 


Quz detrahuntur anté Falcidiam. 


.$ III. Cum autem ratio legis 
f'alcidiz ponitur, anté deducitur «s 
alienum, item funeris impensa, et 
pretia servorum manumissorum : 
tunc demüm in reliquo ita ratio ha- 
betur, ut ex eo quarta. pars apud 
h.credam. remaneat, tres vero partes 
inter legatarios distribuantur, pro 
ratá scilicét portione ejus, quod cui- 
que corum legatum fuerit. Itaque, 
ei fingamus, quadringentos aureos 
legatos esse, et patrimonii quanti- 
tateft, ex quà legata erogari oportet, 
quadringentorum ésse, quarta pars 
singulis legatariis debet detrahi. 
Quod si trecentos quinquaginta le- 
gatos fingamus, octava debet detra- 
hi. Quod si quingentos legaverit, 
initio quinta, deinde quarta, detrahi 
debet. Anté enim detrahendum est 
quod extra bonorum quantitatem 
est, deindé quod ex bonis apud he- 
redem remanere oportet. 


$ 3. The Falcidian portion is not 
taken until the debts, funeral ex- 
penses, and. the price of the manu- 
mission of slaves, have been deduct- 
ed; and then the fourth part of the 
remainder appertains to the heir, and 
the other three parts are divided 
among the legatees ina ratable pro- 
portion: for example, let it be sug- 
posed, that 400 autei have been be- 
queathed, and the estate, turns out to 
be worth no more, a fourth must be 
subtracted from each legacy ; but, if 
the testator grave in legacies no more 
than 350 aurei, and there remained 
after debts paid 400, then an eighth 
only ought to be deducted. And, if 
500 aurei have been bequeathed, and 
there remain clear in the hands of 
the heir but 400, a Lfth must first 
be deducted, and then a fourth: but 
that, which exceeds the real value of 
the goods of the deceased, must first 
be subtracted, and then follows the 
deduction of what is due to the heir. 


176 .LIB. II. 


TIT. XXIII. 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.TERTIUS. 
DE FIDELCOMMISSARUS HJEREDITA TIBUS. 


D. xxxvi. T. 1. C. vi. T. 42. et 49. Nov. 39. 108. 


: Continuatio. 


NUNC transeamusad fidei-com- 
missa, Sed priüs est, ut de hzredi- 
tatibus fidei-commissariis videa- 
mus. 


Let us now proceed to trusts ; but 
first, we will treat of fiduciary inhe- 
ritances. 


Origo *dei-commissorvm.. 


$ I. Sciendum itaque est, omnia 
fidei-commissa primis temporibus 
infirma fuisse; quia nemo invitus 
cogebatur przstare id, de quo roga- 
tus erat. Quibus enim non pote- 
rant hereditatem vel legata relin- 
quere, si relinquebant, fidei com- 
mittebant eorum, qui capere ex tes- 
tamento poterant. Et ideo fidei- 
commissa appellata sunt, quia nul- 
lo vinculo juris, sed tantim pudore 
eorum, qui rogabantur, contineban- 
tur. Postea Divus Augustus pri- 
mus, semél iterimque gratia per- 
sonarum motus, vel quia per ipsius 
salutem rogatus quis diceretur, aut 
ob insignem quorundam perfidiam, 
jussit consulibus auctoritatem su- 
am interponere : quod, quia justum 
videbatur et populare erat, paula- 
tim conversum est in assiduam ju- 
risdictionem ; tantusque eorum fa- 
vor factus est, ut paulatim. etiam 
praetor proprius crearetur, qui de 
fidei-commissis jus diceret, quem 
fidei-commissarium appellabant. 


§ 1. Jt must be observed, that an- 
ciently all trusts were weak and 
precarious ; for no man could be com- 
pelled to perform what he was only 
requested to perform. But when 
testators were desirous of erving an 
inheritance or legacy to persons, to 
whom they could directly give nei- 
ther, they then bequeathed in trust to 
some person capable of taking ; and 
such bequests were called fiduciary, 
because the performance could not 
be enforced by law, but depended 
solely upon the honour of the trustee. 
The emperor Augustus, having been 
frequently moved with compassion on 
account of some persons, and détest- 
ing the perfidy of others, command- 
ed the consuls to interpose their au- 
thority ; and this, being a just and 
popular command, gave them by de- 
grees a continued jurisdiction; and 
in process of time, trusts became so 
common, and were so highly favour- 
ed, that a praetor was purposely ap- 
pointed to give judgment in these 
cases, and was therefore called the 
commissary of trusts. 





| LIB. II. TIT. XXIII. 


_ a” 


De fidei-commisso heredis scripti. 


$ II. In primis igitur sciendum 
est, opus esse, ut aliquis recto jure 
testamento heres instituatur, ejus- 
que fidei committatur, ut eam hiere- 
ditatem alii restituat : alioqii inu- 
tile est testamentum, in quo nemo 
heres instituitur. Cum igitur ali- 
quis scripserit, Lucius Titius heres 
esto, potest adjicere, rogo te, Luci 
. Titi, ut, cum primum poteris here- 
ditatem meam adire, eam Caio Seio 
reddas, restituas. — Potest autem 
quisque et de parte restituenda hz- 
redem rogare; et liberum est vel 
puré, vel sub conditione, relinquere 
fidei-commissum, vel ex certo die. 


§ 2. We should first observe, thas 
there must be an heir appointed to 
every testament: to whom it is en- 
trusted in confidence that he will ree 
store the inheritance to some other 
person; for without an heir, a testa- 
ment is ineffectual. And therefore, 
when a testator says; let Lucius 
Titius be my heir; he may add, 
and I request you, Lucius Tirius, — 
that, so soon as you enter upon my 
inheritance, you would restore it to 
Carus Sz1us. But a testator may 
request his heir to restore a part of 
the inheritance only, and may make 
him a trustee upon condition, or from 
a day certain. 


Effectus restitutionis hzreditatis. | . 


$ IIE. Restitutá autem haereditate, 
is quidem, qui restituit, nihilomi- 
nàs heres permanet; is veró, qui 
recipit hereditatem, aliquandó hz- 
redis, aliquando legatarii, loco ha- 
betur. | 


$3. After an heir hath restored the 
inheritance, he still continues heir. 
But he, who hath received the inhe- 
ritance, is sometimes considered as 
in the place of the heir, and somes 
times of a legatee. 


De senatus-consulto Trebelliano. 


§ IV. Et Neronis quidem tem- 
poribus, Trebellio Maximo et An- 
nzo Seneca coss. senatus-consul- 
tum factum est, quo cautum est, 
ut, si hereditas ex fidei-commissi 
causi restituta sit, omnes actionés, 
que jure civili heredi et in hzre- 
dem competerent, ei et in eum da- 
ventur, cui ex fidei-commisso resti- 
tuta esset. hereditas. Post quod 
senátus-comsukum, pretor utiles ac- 
Gones ei ct in cum, qui recepit hz- 


$ 4. In the reignof Nzno, Tam 
BELLIUs Maximus and Amnave 
SENECA being consuls, a decree passe 
ed in the senate, that, when an tnhe- 
ritance was restored under a trust, 
all actions, which by the civil law 
might be brought by or againet the 
heir, should be given to and against 
him, to whom the inheritance was 
restored. After this decree, the pre- 
tor began to give equitable and bee 
nefictal actions to and against the 


Aa 


179 - LIB. Il.- 


reditatem, quasi heredi et in hzre- 
dem, dare cepit. 


TIT. XXIIL 


receiver of an inheritance, 
were the heir. 


as if he 


De senatus-consulto Pegasjano. 


$ V. Sed, quia heredes | scripti, 
cum aut totam hereditatem, aut pe- 
né totam, plerumque restituere ro- 


gahantur, adire hereditatem ob nul-. 
lum ye] migjmum lucrum rccusa-. 


bant, atque ob id extinguebantur 
fidei-commissa : postea Vespasiani 
Augyisti temporibus, Pegaso et Pu- 
sione consulibus, senatus censuit, 
ut ei, qui rogatus esset hsredita- 
tem restituere, perinde liceret quar- 
tam partem retinere, aique ex lege 
Falcidia ex legatis retinere conce- 
ditur. Ex singulis quoque rebus, 
que per fidei-compissum  rclin- 
quuntur, eadem retentio permissa 
est. Post quod senatus-consultum, 


ipse heres onera hereditaria susti-. 


nebat: ille autem, qui ex fidei- 
commisso recipiebat partem hzre- 
ditatis, legatarii partiariiloco erat; 
id est, ejus legatarii, cui pars bono- 
rum legabatur; qua species legati 
partitio vocabatur, quia cum herede 
legatarius particbatur hsreditatem. 
Undé, qux solebant stipulationes 
inter heredem et partiarmum legata- 
xjum interponi, eedem interpone- 
bantur inter eum, qui ex fidei-com- 


misso recepit hereditatem et he-. 


redem ; id est, ut lucrum et dam- 
mum hereditarium pro rata parte 
inter eos comunune esset, 


§ 5. But, when written heirs were 
requested ta restore the whole, or al- 
most the whole, of an inheritance, 
they often refused to accept it, since 
they could receive but little or no emo- 
lument ; and thus trusts were fre 
quently extinguished. Afterwards, 
in the consulate of Pegasus and Pu- 
gio, t the reign of the emperor Ves- 
pasian, the senate decreed, that am 
heir, who was requested to restore 
an inheritance, might retain a fourth, 
as in the casc of legacies by the Fal- 
cidian/aw. And the same deduction 
is allowed from particular things, 
which are left to him as trustee. For 
some time after this decree, the heir 
alone bore the burden (expence ond 
charges ) of the inheritance; but af- 
terwards, whoever had received a 
share or part of an inheritance, un- 
der atrust, was regarded as a part 
legatee; having a legacy of part of 
the property : and this species of le- 
gacy was called partition, because 
the legatee took a part of the inheri- 
tance together with the heir ; thence — 
it arose, that the same stipulations, 
which were formerly used between 
the heir and legatee in part, were al- 
so interposed between the person be- 
nefited under the trust and the heir 
or trustee, to the intent, that the 
profit and loss might be in common 
hetrveen them in due proportion. 


|: LIB. iL TIT. XXIII. 


‘479 


Quibus casibus locus est senatus-consulto Trebelliano vel 
Pegasiano. 


6 VI. Ergé, siquidém non plus 
quam dodrantem hereditatis scrip- 
tus hzres rogatus sit restituere, tum 
ex Trebelliano senatus-consulto 
restituebatur hereditas; et in u- 
trimque actiones hereditarie pro 
parte ratá. dabantur: in heredem 
quidem jure civili; in eum veré, 
qui recipiebat hereditatem ex sena- 
tus-consulto Trebclliano, tanquam 
in haeredem. At, si plus quam 
dodrantem, vel etiam totam here- 
ditatem, restituere rogatus esset, 
locus erat Pegasiano senatus-con- 
sulto: et hzres, qui semel adierat 
hereditatem, (si modo sua volun- 
tate adierat,) sivc vetmuerat quar- 
tam partem, sivé retinere noluerat, 
ipse universa onera sustinebat. 
Sed, quartà quidem retentá, quasi 
partis et pro parte stipulationes in- 
terponebantur, tanquam inter par- 
tiarium legatarium et heredem : si 
veró totam hereditatem restitueret, 
empte et vindite hereditatis stipu- 
lationes interponebantur. Sed, si 
recusabat scriptus heres adire hz- 


reditatem, ob id, quod diceret eam. 


sibi suspectam esse, quasi damno- 
sam, cavebatur Pegasiano senatus- 
consulto, ut, desiderante eó, cul re- 
stituere rogatus essct, jussu preto- 
ris adiret, et restituerit heredita- 
tem; perindéque ei et in eum, qui 
reciperit hereditatem, actiones da- 
rentur, ac juris est ex Trebelliano 
senatus-consulto ; quo casu nullis 
stipulationibus est opus: quia, si- 
pral et huic, qui restituit, securitas 


+, 4 


§ 6. Therefore, if a written heir, 
or heir in trust, had not been re- 
quested to surrender more than three 
fourths of the inheritance, he was 
obliged to restore so much of it, by 
virtue of the Trebellian senatus- 
consultum ; and all actions, whe- 
ther in favour of, or against, the 
inheritance, were brought, or sus- 
tained, by the heir and fidei-com- 
missary according to their re- 
spective shares; and this is in- 
cident to the heir, by virtue of 
the civil law, and, to the fidel- 
commissary, by the Trebellian &- 
cree. But, when the written heir 
was requested by the testator to re- 
store the whole inheritance, or more 
than three fourths, then the Pega- © 
sian senatus-consultum took place ; 
Jor, if he had once taken upon him- 
self the heirship voluntarily, he wds 
obliged to sustain all charges; and 
thie, whether he did, or did not, re- 
tain his fourth. But, when the heir 
retuined a fourth part, the stipula- 
trons, called partis et pro parte, 
were enteredinto, as between a le- 
gatee in part and an heir; and, 
when the heir did not retain a fourth, 
then the stipulations, called empte 
et vendite hereditatis, were inter- 
posed. But, if the written fiduciary 
heir declined, suspecting loss from 
defect of assets, it was provided by 
the Pegasian decree, that the pretor 
‘at the instance of the fidei-commis- 
sary, might compel such heir to take 
uffon himself the inheritance, and 


^ 


100 LIB. II. 


datur, et actiones hzreditariz ei et 
‘in eum transferuntur, qui recipit 
hereditatem ; utroque senatus-con- 
 &ulto in hac specie concurrente. 


TIT. XXIII. 


then restore it ; and that afterwards 
all actions should be brought by or 
against the fidei-commissary only ; 
as ordained by the Trebellian de- 
cree. And in this case stipulations 
are not necessary ; for the heir, whe 
restores the inheritance, is secured, 
and all hereditary actions are trans- 
ferred to and against him, by whom 


^ it is recetved; there being, in thia 


instance, a concurrence of both de- 
crees. 


Pegasiani in Trebellianum transfusio. 


§ VII. Sed, quia stipulationes 
ex senatus-consulto Pegasiano de- 
ecendentes et ipsa antiquitati dis- 

.plicuerunt, et quibusdam casibus 
captiosas eas homo excelsi ingenii 
Papinianus appellat, et nobis in le- 
gibus magis simplicitas, quam dif- 
ficultas, placet, ideó omnibus nobis 
suggestis tam similitudinibus, quam 
differentiis utriusque senatus-con- 
sulti, placuit, exploso senatus-con- 
sulto Pegasiano, quod postea super- 
venit, omnem auctoritatem Trebel- 
liano senatus-consulto praestare, ut 
ex eo fidei-commissarie hzredita- 
tes restituantur; sivé habeat heres 
ex voluntate testatoris "quartam, 
sivé plus, sivé minus, sivé nihil 
penitàüs: ut tunc, quando vel nihil, 
vel minus quartà, apud eum rema- 
net, liceat ei vel quartam, vel quod 
ei deest, ex nostra auctoritate reti- 
nere, vel repetere solutum, quasi ex 
Trebelliang senatus-consulto pro 
rata portione actionibus tam in hzre- 
dem, quam in fidei-commissarium, 
competentibus. Si veró totam hz- 


§ 7. But, as the stipulations, which 
arose from the Pegasian decree, — 
were displeasing evento the ancients, 
insomuch that Papinian, a man of 
sublime genius, considers them, in 
some cases, as captious ; and, as we 
prefer simplicity to complexity in 
matters of law, it hath therefore 
pleased us, upon comparing the agree- 
ment and disagreement of each de- 
cree, to abrogate the Pegasian, which 
was subsequent to the Trebellian, 
and to transfer a greater authority 
to the Trebellian decree, by which 
all trust inherttances shall be restor- 
ed for the future, whether the testa- 
tor hath given by his will a fourth 
part of his estate to his written heir, 
or more, or less, or even nothing ; 
80 that, when nothing is given to 
the heir, or less thana faurth part, 


he may be permitted to retain a 


fourth, or as much as will complete 
the deficiency, by virtue of our au- 
thority: or to demand repayment of 
what he hath expended; all actions 
being divided between the heir eng 


LIB. I. 


3editatem sponte restituerit, omnes 
heredicarie actiones. fidei-commis- 
sario, et. adversus eum, competant. 
Sed etiam id, quod precipuum Pe- 
gasiani senatus-consulti fuerat, ut, 
quando recusaret heres scriptus 
aibi datam hereditatem adire, ne- 
,cessitas ci imponeretur totam hz- 
.feditatem volenti fidei-commissario 
restitucre, et omnes ad eum, et 
contra eum, transferre actiones ; et 
hoc transposuimus ad senatus-con- 
sultum Trebellianum, ut ex hoc solo 
-pecessitas heredi imponatur, si, 
ipso nolente adire, fidei-commissa- 
rius desideret restitui sibi hzredi- 
tatem, nullo nec damno nec com- 
modo apud heredem remanente. 


TIT. XXIII. 


181 


! 
the fidei-commissary in a just pro- 
portion according to the Trebellian 
decree. But, should the heir spon- 
taneously restore the whole inheri- 
tance, all actions must be brought 
either by or against the fidei-com- 
missary. And, whereas it was the 
principal effect of the Pegasian de- 
cree, that, when a written heir had 
refused to accept an inheritance, he 
might be constrained to take it, and 
restore tt, at the instance of the fidei- 
commissary, £o whom, and against 
whom, all actions passed, we have 
transferred that power to the Tre- 
bellian decree; which is now the 
only law, compelling a fiduciary heir 
to enter upon the inheritance, when 
the fidei-commissary is desirous 
that it should be restored; and the 
heir, in this case, can neither receive 


profit, or suffer loss. 


De quibus hzredibus, et in quibus fidei-commissariis, supra dic- 
ta locum habeant. 


€ VIII. Nihil autém interest, 
utrum aliquis, ex asse heres insti- 
tutus, aut totam haereditatem aut pro 
parte restituere rogatur ; an, ex par- 
.te hzres institutus, aut totam eam 
partem, aut partem partis, restituere 
rogatur. Nai et hoc casu eadem 
observari precipimus, quz» in totius 
lwmreditatis restitutione diximus. 


6 8. But it makes no difference, 
whether an heir, who is instituted to 
the whole inheritance, be requested 
(by the testator ) to restore the whole 


or a part only, or whether being 


nominated but to a part, be requested 
to restore that entire part, or only a 
portion of it; for we have ordained, 
that the same rule shall be observed, 
as in case of restitution of the whole. 


. De eo, quod hzres voluntate testatoris deducit, preecipitvé. 


6$ IX. Si quis, unà aliqua re de- 
duetá sive precepta, que quartam 
xominent, (veliti fundo vel alia re,) 
—Codgneus sit restituere hereditatem, 


§ 9. Jf an heir be requested by a 
testator to give up an. inheritance, 
after deducting some specific thing, 
amounting toa fourth, as a piece of 


183 


simili modo ex Trebelliano senatus- 
" consulto restitutio fiet, perindé ac 
si, quarta parte retentà, rogatus es- 
set reliquam hzreditatem restituere. 
Sed illud interest, quod altero casu, 
id est, cum deductá sivé precepti 
aliqua re restituitur hereditas, in 
solidum ex eo senatus-consulto ac- 
tiones transferuntur, et res, cuz 
remanet apud heredem, siné ullo 
onere hereditario apud eum rema- 
net, quasi ex legato ei acquisita; 
altero vero casu, cum quartà parté 
retentà rogatus est hssres restituere 
hzreditatem, et restituit, scinduntur 
actiones; et pro dodrante quidem 
transferuntur ad fidei-commissari- 
um, pro quadrante remanent apud 
heredem. Quinetiam licet una aliqua 
re deductá aut precepta, restituere 
aliquis hsereditatem rogatus sit, in 
: quà maxima pars hareditatis conti- 
' neatur, equeé in solidum transferun- 
tur actiones: et secum deliberare 
debet is cui restituitur hereditas, an 
expediat sibi restitui. Eadem sci- 
licét interveniunt, et si duabus plu- 
ribusve rebus deductis praceptisve, 
gestituere hereditatem rogatus sit. 
Sed et, si certa summa deducta 
preceptave, que quartam vel etiam 
maximam partem hereditatis conti- 
net, rogatus sit aliquis hereditatem 
restituere, idem juris est. Que 
autem diximus de eo, qui ex asse 
institutus est, eadem transferimus 


LIB. II. TIT. XXIIL 


ground, &c. he may be compelled ts 
give it up by the Trebellian decree, 
án the same manner, at if he had. 
been requested to restore the remain. 
der of an inheritance, after resere- 
ing a fourth. But there ie thie 
difference, that, when an heir is re- 
quested to. give up an inheritance, 


after deducting a particular thing, 


then all actions are transferred to 
the fidei-commissary, and what re 
mains with the heir is free of im- 
cumbrance,as if acquired by legacy; 
but when an heir is requested in gee 
neral terms to give up an inheri- 
tance, after retaining a fourth to 
himaelf, all actions are proportion- 
bly divided ; those,which regard the 
three fourths of the estate, ‘being 
transferred to the fidei-commissary ; 
and those, which regard the single 


fourth, remaining for the benefit of 


the heir. And, even if an heir be re- 
quested to site up an inheritance, af- 
ter making a deduction of some par- 
ticular thing, which amounts to the 
value of the greatest part of it, all 
actions, both active and passive, are 
nevertheless transferred to the fidei- 
commissary, who ought akwvays, 
therefore, to consider, whether it 
will be expedient or not, that the in- 
heritance should be given up to him. 
So the law is, whether an heir be re- 
quested to give up an inheritance af- 
ter a deduction of two, or more, spe- 


- 


LIB. II. 


et ad. eum, qui ex parte heres acrip- 
fus est. ‘ 


De fidei-commissis ab intestato relictis. 


€ X. Preterea intestatus quoque 
moriturus potest rogare eum, ad 
quem bona sua vel legitimo jure vel 
honorario pertinere intelligit, ut h- 
reditatem suam totam, partemve 
ejus, aut rem aliquam, veliti fun- 
dum, hominem, pecuniam, alicui 
restituat; cum alioqdi, legata nisi 
ex testamento non valeant. 


TIT. XXIII. 
‘cific things, or of a certain eum of - 


183 


money, which exceeds in value the 
greatest part of the inheritance. 
Thus what we have said of an heir, 
who is instituted to the whole of an 
enheritance, holds equally of him, whe 
ia instituted only to a part. 


§ 10. Moreover, a man about to 
die intestate, may request the person, 
whom he thinks will succeed him, ei- 
ther by the civil or pratorian law, 
to give up the whole inheritance, or 
a part of it, or any particular thing, 
as a piece of ground, a slave, a sum. 
of money, &c. (But thie regards - 
trusts only ; ) for legacies are inva». . 
lid, unless bequeathed by testament. 


De fidei-commisso relicto a fidei-commissario. 


$ XI. Eum quoque, cui aliquid 
yestituitur, potest rogare, ut id rur- 
sus alii, aut totum, aut partem, vel 
etiam aliquid, aliud restituat. 


§ 11. A fidei-commissary may 
dlso himself be requested to give up 
to another, either the ‘whole, or a 
part, of what he receives ; or some 
other thing in lieu of it. 


De probatione fidei-commissi. 


§ XII. Et, quia prima fidei-com-. 


missorum cunabula à fide hcredum 
pendent, et tam nomen, quam sub- 
stantiam, acceperunt, ideó D. Au- 
gustus ad necessitatem juris ea re- 
traxit. Nuper et nos, eundem prin- 
cipem superare contendentes, ex 
facto, quod Tribonianus, vir excel- 
lentissimus, Quzstor sacri palatii, 
suggessit, constitutionem fecimus, 
per quam. disposuimus, si testator 
-fdei heredis sui commisit, ut vel 
hereditatem vel speciale fidei-com- 


§ 12. All fiduciary bequests. dee 
pended formerly upon the sole faith 
of the heir ; whence they took as well | 
their name‘as their essence. The 


emperor Augustus was the first, 


who brought them under judicial cog- 
nisance. But we have since endea- 
voured to exceed that prince; and, 
at the instance of that most excellent 
man Tribonian, the questor of our 
palace, we have enacted, that, if a 
testator hath trusted to the faith of 
his heir for the surrender of an in- 


1 LIB. II. TIT. XXIIL 


"missum reetituat; et neqie ex 
Scriptura, neqie ex quinque tes- 
tium numero, qui in fidei-commis- 
sis legitimus esse noscitur, possit 
res manifestari, sed vel pauciores, 
vel nemo penitis testis intervene- 
rit; tunc, sivé pater heredis, si- 
vé alius quicunque. sit, qui f- 
dem heredis elegerit, et ab eo 
restitui aliquid. voluerit, si hzres 
perfidia tentus adimplere fidem re- 
cusat, negando rem ita esse subse- 
cutam; si fidei-commissarius ei 
jusjurandum detulerit, cum prius 
ipse de calumnia juraverit, necesse 
eum habere, vel jusjurandum su- 
bire, quod nihil tale à testatore au- 
diverit, vel recusantem ad fidei- 
commissi vel universalis vel speci- 
alis solutionem coarctari; ne de- 
pereat ultima voluntas testatoris 
fidei heredis commissa. Eadem 
observari.censuimus, etsi a legata- 


rio vel fidei-commissario aliquid . 


similitér relictum sit. Quod si is, 
à, quo relictum dicitur, [postquam 
megaverit,] confiteatur quidem, ali- 
quid à se relictum esse, sed ad le- 
gis subtilitatem recurrat, omninó 
solvere cogendus es t.. 


heritance, or any particular thing, 
and this trust cannot be made mani- 
fest by the depositions of five wit- 
nesses, (which is known to be the 
legal number in such cases,) there 
having been not so many, or perhaps 
no witnesses present, the heir at the 
same time perfidiously refusing te 
make any payment, and denying the 
whole transaction, then the fidei- 
commissary, having previously tak- 
en the oath of calumny, may put the 
heir, although he be the son of the 
testator, tohis oath ; and thus force 
him either to^ deny the trust upon 
oath, or comply with it, whether the 
trust be unzversal or particular ; and 
this is allowed, lest the last will of a 
testator, committed to the faith of an 
heir, should be defeated. And we have 
granted the same remedy against a 
legatee, or even a fidei-commissary, 
to whom any thing hath been thus be- 
queathed. And, if he, to whom 
something hath been so left, should 
confess the trust, after having de— 
nied it, but endeavour at the same 
time to shelter himself under subtili— 
ty of the law, he may nevertheless: 
be compelled to perform his duty. 


LIB. If. TIT. XXIV. 


1835 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.QUARTUS. 


DE SINGULIS REBUS PER FIDEI-COMMISSUM 
| RELICTIS. 


Summia. 


POTEST tamen quis etiam sin- 
gulas res per fidei-commissum re- 
linquere ; velüti fundüm, argentum, 
hominem, vestem, et pecuniam nu- 
meratam; et vel ipsum haeredem 
rogare, ut alicui restituat; vel le- 
gatarium, quamvis € legatario le- 
gari non possit. 


A man may also leave particular 
things in trust; as a field, silver, 
cloaths, or a certain sum of money ; 
and may request either his heir to re- 
store them, or even a legatee; al- 
though a legatee cannot be made 
chargeable with a legacy. 


Qua relinqui possunt. 


$ I. Potest autem non solim 
proprias res testator per fidei-com- 
missum relinquere, sed et hzredis, 
aut legatarii, aut fidei-commissarii, 
aut cujuslibet alterius. itaque et 
legatarius et fidei-commissarius non 
solim de ed re rogari potest, ut 
eam alicui restituat, quz ei relicta 
sit; sed ctiam de aliá, sivé ipsius, 
sivé alienà sit. Hoc solim obser- 
vandum est, ne plus quisquam ro- 
getur alicui restituere, quam ipse 
ex testamento ceperit; nam, quod 
amplius est, inutilitér, relinquitur. 
Cum autém aliena res per fidei- 
commissum relinquitur, necesse est 
¢i, qui rogatus est, aut ipsam rem 
redimere et przstare, aut zstimati- 
onem ejus solvere. 


$ 1. A testator may leave in trust 
not only his own property, but also 
that of his heir, of a legatee, of a 
fidei-commissary, or of any others 
80 that a legatee or fidei-commissa- 
ry may not only be requested to give 
what hath been left to him, but what 
is his own, or even what is the pro- 
perty of another. The only caution 
necessary to be observed by the tes- 
tator is, that no man be requested to 
give more, than he hath received un- 
der the will; for the excess will be 
ineffectually bequeathed. And, when 
the property of another is left in 
trust, the person, requested to re- 
store it, is obliged either to obtaix 
from the proprietor the very thing 
bequeathed, or to pay the value of it. 


.De libertate. 


§ If. Libertas quoque servo per 
fidei-commissum dari potest, ut he- 


LU 


§ 2. Liberty may also be confer- 
red upon a slave by virtue of a trust p 


BR 


186 LIB. II. 

xeseum rogetur manumittere, vel 
legatarius, vel fidei-commissarius ; 
nec interest, utrum de suo proprio 
Servo testator roget, an de ceo, qui 
ipsius heredis, aut legatarii, vel e- 
tiam extranei sit: itaque et alienus 
servus redimi et manumitti debet. 
Quod si dominus eum non vendat, 
(si modo nihil ex judicio ejus, qui 
reliquit libertatem, perceperit,) non 
statim extinguitur fidei-commissa- 
ria libertas, sed differtur, quoad 
possit tempore procedente, ubicun- 
que occasio servi redimendi fuerit, 
prestari libertas. Qui autém ex 
fidei-commissi causà manumittitur, 
non testatoris fit libertus, etiamsi 
testatoris servus sit, sed ejus, qui 
manumittit. At is, qui directo ex 
testamento liber esse jubetur, ipsi- 
us testatoris libertus fit; qui etiam 
Orcinus appellatur: nec alius ul- 
lus directo ex testamento libertatem 
habere potest, quam qui utroque 
tempore testatoris fuerit, et quo fa- 
ceret testamentum, et quo morere- 
tur. Directó autem libertas tunc 
dari videtur, cum non ab alio ser- 
vum manumitti rogat, sed velut ex 
suo testamento libertatem ei compe- 
tere vult. | 


TIT. XXIV. 


for an heir, legatee, or fidei-commis- . 
sary, may be requested to manumit: 
nor does it signify whether the 
testator request the manumission of 
his own slave, of the slave of his heir, 
of a legatee, or of a stranger: and 
therefore, when a slave is not the tes- 
tator’s own property, he must be 
bought, if possible, and manumitted. 
But, if the proprietor of the slave ree 
fuse to sell him, (which he may do, 
if he hath taken nothing under the 
will of the testator, ) yet the fiduci- 
ary bequest is not extinguished, but 
deferred only, till it can be conveni- 
ently performed. Note, that he, whe 
is manumitted in consequence of & 
trust, does not become the freedman. 
of the testator, although he was the 
testator's own slave, but he becomes 
the freedman of the manumittor : but 
aslave, to whom liberty is directhy 
given by testament, becomes the 
Jreedman of the testator, and is call- 
ed Orcinus; and no one can obtain. 
liberty directly by testament, unless 
he were the slave of the testator, not 
only at the time of the testator?s 
death, but also at the time of making 
his testament. And liberty is un- 
derstood to be directly given, not 
when a testator requests, that free- 
dom shall be even to his slave by a- 
nother, but when he wills tt to take 
place by virtue of his own testament. 


De verbis fidci-commissorum. 


$ III. Verba autem fidei-com- 
missorum hec maximé in usu ha- 
bentur ; feto, rogo, volo, mando f 
dei tue cemmitto : que perindé sin- 


§ 3. The terms generally used in 
the commitment of trusts are the fol- 
lowing: Y request, I ask, I desire 
lcommit, I confide: any of them, 


LIB. II. 


TIT. XXV. 


187 


gula firma sunt, atque si omnia in singly taken, is as binding, as if all 


unum congesta essent. 


were joined. 


—u @ se db om-— 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.QUINTUS. 
. DE CODICILLIS. 


D. xxix. T. 7. 


C. vi. T. 36. 


Codicillorum origo. . 


ANTE Augusti tempora con- 
stat, codicillorum jus in usu non 
fuisse : sed primus Lucius Lentu- 
lus, ex cujus persona etiam fidei- 
«ommissa esse ceperunt, codicillos 
introduxit Nam, cum decederet 
am Africa, scripsit codicillos testa- 
@mento confirmatos, quibus ab Au- 
. gusto petiit per fidei-commissum, 
ut faceret aliquid: et, cum D. Au- 
gustus voluntatem ejus implesset, 
deincéps reliqui, ejus auctoritatem 
wecuti, fidei-commissa prasstabant : 
et filia Lentuli, legata, quz jure non 
«lebebat, solvit. Dicitur autem 
-A.ugustus convocasse sapientes vi- 
os, interque eos Trebatium quoque, 
«ujus tunc auctoritas maxima erat, 
«et quezsisse, an posset recipi hoc, 
mec absonans à juris ratione codi- 
cillorum usus esset ? et Trebatium 
wuasisse Augusto, quod diceret, 
utilissimum et necessarium hot ci- 
vibus esse, propter magnas et lon- 
gas peregrinationes, quz apud vete- 
res fuissent ; ubi, si quis testamen- 
tum facere non posset, tamen codi- 
tillos posset. Post que tempora, 


Tt is certain, that ccdicils were 
not in frequent use before the reign 
of Augustus: for Lucius Lentu- 
lus, by whose means trusts became 
efficacious, was the first, who intro- 
duced codicils. When dying in A- 
frica, he wrote several codicils, which 
were confirmed by his testament ; 
and in these he requested Augustus 
to perform some particular act in 
consequence of a trust: the emperor 
complied with the request 3 and ma- 
ny other persons influenced by the 
emperor's example, executed trusts, 
committed to their charge; and the 
daughter of Lentulus paid debts, 
which in strictness of law were not 
due. But it is reported, that Au- 
gustus, having convened upon this 
occasion the sages of the law, among 
the rest Trebatius, whose opinion 
was of the greatest authority, de- 
manded whether codicils could be ad- 
mitted and whether they were not 
repugnant to the reason of the law? 
to which Trebatius answered, that 
codicils were most convenient, and 
necessary on acccunt of the great 


cum et Labeo codicillos fecisset, 
jam nemini dubium erat, quin codi- 
cilli jure optimo admitterentur. 


188 LIB. H. TIT. XXV. 


and long journies, which the Ro- 
mans were frequently obliged to take, 
so that, where a man could not make 
a testament, he might bequeath his ef- 
fects by codicil. Afterwards, whenLa- 
beo, (a lawyer of great eminence, ) 
disposed of his own property by co- 
dicil,it was no longer a doubt, but 
that codicils might be legally allowed. 


Codicilli fieri possunt vel anté, vel post, testamentum, imó etiam 
ab intestato. 


§ I. Non tantüm autem testa- 
mento facto potest quis codicillos 
facere, sed et intestatus quis decen- 
dens fidei-committere codicillis po- 
test. Sed, cum anté testamentum 
factum codicilli facti erant, Papi- 
nianus ait, non alitér vires habere, 
quam si speciali voluntate postéa 
confirmentux, Sed Divi Severus 
et Antoninus rescripserunt, ex iis 
codicillis, qui testamentum prace- 
dunt, posse fidei-commissum peti, 
- 8i appareat eum, qui testamentum 
fecit, à voluntate, quam in codicil- 
lis expresserat, non recessisse. 


6 1. Not only one who hath alrea- 
dy made his will, may make a codi- 


cil, but even an intestute may raise 


a trust by codicil: yet, when a co- 
dicil ig antecedent to a testament, tt 
cannot take effect according to Papi- 
nian, unless confirmed by the subae- 
quent testament. But the emperors 
SEvERUS and Antoninus have by 
rescript declared, that a thing, left 
in trust in a codicil preceding a tes- 
tament, may be demanded by the 
fidei-commissary, if i appear, that 
the testator hath nat receded from 
the intention, which he at firat’ ex- 
pressed in his codicil. 


Codicillis hereditatis directo dari non potest. 


§ II. Codicillis autem hzreditas 
neque dari, neque adimi, potest ; 
ne confundatur jus testamentorum 
et codicillorum : et ideo nec exhz- 
redatio scribi. Directs autem hze- 
reditas codicillis neque dari neque 
adimi potest: nam per fidei-com- 
missum haereditas codicillis jure 
relinquitur. Nec conditionem hz- 
redi instituto codicillis adjicere, 


§ 2. An inheritance can neither be 
given nor taken away by codici, lest 
the different operations of testaments 
and codicils be confounded: of course, 
no heir can be disinherited hy ¢ddi- 
cil. But although an inheritance 
can neither be given nor taken away 
by codicil, in direct terms, yet it 
may be legally left from the heir in 
a codicil, by means of a (trust or) 


LIB. H.. TIT. XXV. 189 


neque substituere directd, quis po-  fidei-commissum. No man may im- 
test. pose a condition upon his heir by co- 
dicil, or substitute directly. 


De numero et solemnttate. 
§ III. Codicillos autem etiam § 3. A man may make many co- 


plures quis facere potest: etnullam dicils, and "ey require no solenni ' 
solemnitatem ordinationis deside- 
rant. ° 


FINIS LIBRI SECUNDI. 


ml 


~ 


‘DIVIJUSTINIANI _ 


INSTITUTIONUM 


LIBER TERTIUS. 


-—boquams 


TITULUS PRIMUS. 


DE H/EREDITATIBUS, 


QU AB INTESTATO 


DEFERUNTUR. 


D. xxxviii. T. 16. 
/ 


Definitio 

INTESTATUS decedit, qui 

“gut omninó testamentum non: fecit, 

aut non jure fecit; aut id, quod fe- 

cerat, ruptum irritumve factum est; 
‘gut si ex eo nemo hsres extiterit. 


C. vi. T. 55 et 58. Nov. 118. 


intestati. 

A man dies intestate, who hath ei- 
ther not made a testament ; or nof 
made one in due form of law; or if 
his testament, though rightly made, 
be cancelled, or broken ; or of no one 
will become heir under tt. 


Primus ordo succedentium ab intestato. 


6 I. Intestatorum autém heredi- 
tates ex lege duodecim tabularum 
primim ad. suos heredes pertinent. 


§ 1. The inheritances of intes- 
tates, by the law of the twelve tables, 
belong, in the first place, to the sui 
heredes, i. e. to the proper or da- 
mestic heirs of such intestates. 


Qui sunt sui hzredes. 


6 II. Sui autem heredes existi- 
mantur, (ut supra diximus,) qui in 
potestate morientis fuerint; veluti 
filius filiave, nepos neptisve ex filio, 
pronepos, proneptisve ex nepote, ex 


Élio nato prognatus progna:ave:- 


mec interest, utrüm naturales sint 
"beri, an adoptivi. Quibus connu- 


§ 2. And, aswe have observed be-- 
fore, those are sui hzredes or pree ? 
per heirs, who, at the death of the 
deceased, were under his power; as 
a son or a daughter, a grandson or & 
grand-daughter by a son,a great- 
grandson or ereat-grand-daughter 
by a grandson of a son, &c. Neither - 


192 





merari nedéjsiqiesy etfamn-eos, qui 
ex legitimis'qtidert nuptiis vet ma- 
. trimoniis non sunt progeniti, curiis 
tamen civitatum dati, secundim: 
Divalium constitutionem, quiz su- 
per his posite sunt, tenosem, here- 
dum suorum jura nanciscuntur : 
nec non eos, quos nostre amplexe 
sunt constitutiones, per quas jussi- 
mus, si quis mulierem in suo con- 
tubernio copulaverit, nom ab initio 
affectione maritali, eam tamen, cum 
quà poterat libere conjugium, et 
ex ea liberos sustulerit, postea verd, 
affectione procedente etiam nuptia- 
lia instrurttenta’ cam ex fecerit, et 
filios vel filias habuerit, non solim 
eos liberos, qui post dotem editi 
sunt, justos et in potestate patris 
esse ; sed'etinm anteriores, qui et’ 
lis, qui postea nati suhit, occasionem 
lepitimi montrinis priestiterunt: quod 
obtinere. censuigtus, etsi mom ^ pro- 
geniti fuermt post dotale instru- 
mentum confectum liberi, vel etiam 
nati ab hac luce fuerint subtracti. 
Ita-demàm tamen nepos neptisve, 
pronepos promeptisve, suorum he 
redunt numero sunt, si precedens' 
persoma desierit in potestate paren- 
tis esse, sive: morte id acciderit, 
sive alia ratione, veluti emancipa- 
tione. Nam, si per id tempus, quo 
quis moritar, filius im potestate ejus 
sit, nepos:ex'eo suus heres esse non 
potest: idque et in ceteris libero- 
rum personis dictum intelligimus. 
Posthumi quoque, qui; si vivo pa- 


LIB. Il. TIT. L  « 


ie 3t Material, wiMthlér tits children 
be ndtural or adopted. But, among 
natural children, we must reckon 
those, who, though not born in law- 
ful wedlock, are nevertheless, accord- 
mg to the tenor of the imperial con- 
stitutions, entitled to the rights of 
proper heirs, by being admitted De- 
curions. Those also are comprized 
within ous own constitutions, which 
enact that, if any person shall keep 
a woman with whom he is not pro- 
hibited to marry, and have children 
by her, and shall afterwards, through 
affection, marry that woman, and 
haee by her sons or daughters, not 
only these latter shall be legitimate 
and tn the power of their father, but 
also the former, who gave occasion 
to the leritimacy of the children born 
afterwards. And this law shail obi 
tain as ta children born before mar- 
riage; although the children, borr 
subsequent to it, are dead or none 
such are born. Buta grandson or 
grand-daughter, a great-grandson 
or great-grand-daurhter, is not 
reckoned in the number of proper 
"heirs, unless the person preceding 
them in degree hath ceased to be un- 
der paternal power, either by death 
or some other means, as by emanci- 
pation: for, if a son, when his father 
died, was under the power of his fa- 
ther, the grandson can not be. the ° 
proper heir of his grand-father; and 
by parity of reasoning, this rule is 
understood to take place in relation 


LIB. Iit. 


tre hati essent, iri potestate ejus fu- 
turi forent, sui heredes gunt. 


Quomodo sui 
€ III. Sui autem h«redes fiunt 

etiam ignorantes, et, licét furiosi, 
sint, heredes possunt existere: 
quia, quibus ex causis ignorantibus 
nobis acquiritur, ex his causis et 
furiosis acquiri potest. Et statim 
4 morte parentis quasi continuatur 
dominium ; et ideó nec tutoris auc- 
toritate opus est pupillis, cum eti- 
am ignorantibus acquiratur suis 
hztedibus hereditas: nec curato- 
ris assensu acquiritur furioso, sed 
ipsojure. - | 


TIT. f. 193 
^ 

to all descendants in the right linc. 
But all posthumous children, who 
would have been under the power of 
their father, if. they had been born in 
his life-time, are esteemed sui hz- 
redes, or proper heirs. 


hzredes fiunt. 


$ 3. Persons may become pro- 
per heirs, without their knowledge, 
even though insane; for by whate-- 
ver means inheritances may be ac- 
quired without our knowledge, by | 
the same means they may be acqui- | 
red by persons insane. _The domi- 
nion of an inheritance is continued 
in the heir from the instant of the 
death of his ancestor ; nor is the au- 
thority of a tutor necessary, because 
inheritances may be acquired by pro~ 


per heirs, without their knowledge : 


neither does a dissrdered person tne 
herit by assent of his curator, but by 
operation of law. 


De filio, post mortem patris, ab hostibus reverso. 


§ IV. Interdim autém, licét in 
potestate parentis. mortis tempore 
suus heres non fuerit, tamén suus 
heres parenti efficitur: veluti si ab 
hostibus quis reversus fuerit post 
mortem patris sui: jus enim post- 
liminii hoc facit. 


$ 4. But sometimes a child bee 
comes a proper heir, although he 
was not under power at the death of 
his parent ; as when a person re- 
turns from captivity after the deaths 
of his father: the jus postliminii, 
or right of return, effects this. | 


De memoria patris damnata ob crimen perduellionis. 


$ V. Per contrarium autém hoc 
evenit, ut, licét quis in familia de- 
functi sit mortis tempore, tamen 
suus hzres non fiat ; veluti si post 
mortem suam pater judicatus fuerit 
perduellioris reus, ac per hoc me- 


§ 5. Onthe contrary, it may hap- 
pen, that a child, who, at the death 
of his parent, was under his power, 
shall not be his proper heir: as 
when a parent, after his decease, is 
adjudged to have been guilty of le« 
C c 


194 LIB. III. 


moris ejus damnata fuerit; suum 
enim heredem habere non potest, 
cum fiscus ei succedat: sed potest 
dici, ipso quidem jure suum hazre- 
dem esse, sed desinere. 


De divisione hzreditatis inter suos hzredes. 


§ VI. Cum filius filiave et ex alte- 
ro filio nepos neptisve existunt, pa- 
ritér ad hereditatem avi vocantur, 
nec, qui gradu proximior est, ulte- 
riorem excludit: equum enim esse 
videtur, nepotes neptesve in patris 
sui locum succedere. Pari ratione 
et si nepos neptisve sit ex filio, et 
ex nepote pronepos proneptisve, 
simül vocantur. Et, quia placuit, 
nepotes neptesve, item pronepotes 
proneptesve, in parentis sui locum 
succedere, conveniens esse visum 
est, non in capita, sed in stirpes, 
hereditatem dividi; ut filius par- 
tem dimidiam hereditatis habeat, 
et ex altero filio duo pluresve nepo- 
tes alteram dimidiam. JItémjsi ex 
duobus filiis, nepotes neptesve ex- 
istant, ex altero unus aut duo forté, 
ex altero tres aut quatuor, ad unum 
aut duos dimidia pars pertineat, 
ad tres vel quatuor altera dimidia. 


x 


TIT. I. 


se-majesty, whereby his memory is 
rendered infumous, and he can have 
no proper heir, all his possessions be- 
coming forfeited to -the treasury. 
But a son, inthis case, may be said 
to have been the proper heir of his 
father, and afterwards to have. ceat» 
ed to be 80. 


* 


§ 6. A son, a daughter, and a 
grandson or grand-daughter by ano- 
ther son, are called equally to the 
inheritance ; nor does the nearest 
exclude the more remote ; for it seems 
just, that grandsons and grand- 
daughters should succeed in the place 
of their father. By like reason, a 
Prandson or grand-daughter by a 
son, and a great-grandson or great- 
grand-daughter by a grandson, are 
all called together. And since grand- 
sons and grand-duughters, great- 
grandsons and great-grand-daugh- 
ters, succeed in place of their parent, 
it seemed convenient, that inheri4 
tances should not be divided into ca- 
pita, &ut into stirpes: so that à son, 
should possess one half, and the 
grand-children, (however numerous) 
of another son, the other half of an 
inheritance. So, where there are 
grand-children by two sons, the one 
son leaving one or two children, and 
the other three or four, the inheri- 
tance must belong, half tothe grand- 
child, or the two grand-children by — 
the one son, and half to the three or 
Jour grand-children by the other sons 


LIB. III. TIT. I. 


195 


Quo tempore suitas spectatur. 


$ VII. Cum autem quzritur, an 
quis suus hzres exiktere possit, eo 


tempore quzrendum est, quo cer-- 


tum est, aliquem siné testamento 
decessisse ; quad accidit et desti- 
tuto testamento. Hac ratione, si 
filius exhzredatus fuerit et extra- 
neus hzres institutus, et, filio mor- 
tuo, postea certum fuerit, heredem 
institutum ex testamento non feri 
heredem, aut quia noluit esse hzres, 
aut quia non potuit, nepos avo suus 
heres existet: quia, quo tempore 
certum est, intestatum decessisse 
patrem-familias, solus invenitur ne- 
sos: et hoc certum est. 


§ 7. When it is asked, is such a 
man a proper heir ? we must inquire 
at what time i* was certain, that the 
deceased died without a testament ; 
which happens, if his testament be 
relinquished. Thus, if a son be dis- 
inherited anda stranger instituted 
heir, and, after the death of the son, 
it becomes certain, that the instituted 


' heir was not in fact the heir, either 


beoause he was unwilling, or unable, 
to accept the inheritance, in this 
case, the grandson of the deceased 
becomes the proper heir of his grand- 


father: for at the time, when it was 


certain, that the deceased died intes- 
tate, there was no other heir, but the , 
grand-child ; and this is evident. 


De nata post mortem avi, vel adoptato à filio emancipato. 


§ VIII. Et,'licét post mortem 
avi natus sit, tamén avo vivo con- 
ceptus, mortuo patre ejus, postea- 
que deserto avi testamento, suus 
hzres effcitur. Plané, si et con- 
ceptus et/natus fuerit post mortem 
avi, mortuo patre suo, desertoque 
postea avi testamento, suus heres 
avo non existet ; quia nullo jure 
cognationis patrem sui patris atti- 
git: sed nec ille est inter liberos 
avi, quem filius emancipatus adop- 
tavit. Hi autem, cum non sint, sui 
(quantum ad hzreditatem,) liberi, 
neque bonorum possessionem petere 


$ 8. And although a child be bern 
after the death of his grandfather, 
yet, if he were conceived in the life- 
timeof his grandfather, he will, at 
the death of his father and after his 
grandfather's testament is deserted 
by the instituted heir, become the 
proper heir of his grandfather. But 
achild both eonceived and born after 
the death of his grandfather, couldnot 
become the proper heir, although 
his father should die and the testa- 
ment of his grandfather be desert- 
ed ; because he was never allied to his 
grandfather by any tie of cognation: 


196 


possunt, quasi proximi cognati, Hac 


de suis heredibus. 
, 


LIB. UL TIT. I. 


neither is the adopted son of an eman- 
cipated son, to be reckoned among 
the children of his adoptive fatl.ers 
father. So that the adopted children 
of an emancipated son, can neither 
become the proper heirs of their fa- 
ther's father in regard to the inheri- 
tance, nor demand the possession of 
goods as next of kin. Thus much 
concerning proper heirs. 


De liberis emancipatis. 


$ IX. Emancfpati autém liberi 
jure civili nihil juris habent: ne- 
qué enim sui heredes sunt, qui in 
potestatc morientis esse desierunt, 
neque ullo alio jure per legem duo- 
decim tabularum vocantur. Sed 
pretor, naturali equitate motus, dat 
eis bonorum possessionem tnde /i- 
beri, perindé ac si in potestate pa- 
rentis tempore mortis fuissent; sivé 
soli sint, sivé cum suis hzredibus 
concurrant. Itaque, duobus liberis 
existentibus, emancipato uno, et eo, 
qui tempore mortis in potestate 
fuerit, sané quidem is, qui in po- 
testate fuit, solus jure civili heres 
est, et solus suus heres ; sed, cum 
emancipatus, beneficio praetoris, in 
partem admittitur, evenit, ut suus 
heres pro parte heres fiat. 


§ 9. Emancipated children by the 
civil law have no right to the inheri- 
tances of their parents : for those 
are not proper heirs, who have ceas- 
ed to be under the power of their pa- 
rent deceased, before his death, nei- 
ther are they called to inherit by any 
other right according to the law 
of the twelve tables. But the pra- 


_tor, induced by natural equity, grante 


them possession of goods, by the 
edict beginning, unde liberi, as ful: 


-ly,as if they had been under power 


at the death of their parent ; and 
this, whether they be scle, or mix- 
ed with others, who are proper 
heirs: therefore, when there are two 
sons, one emancipated, and the other. 
under power at his father’s death, 
the latter, by the czvil law, is alene 
the heir, and alone the proper heir: 
but, when the emancipated son, by 
the indulgence of the pretor,is ad- 
mitted to his share, then the proper 
heir becomes the heir only f his own 
moiety. 


Si emancipatus se dederit in adoptionem. 


§ X. Athi, qui emancipati a pa- 
fente in adoptionem se dederunt, 


§ 10. But they, who after eman- 
cipation have given themselves in 


LIB. III. 


non admittuntur ad bona naturalis 
pairis quasi liberi, si modo, cum is 
moreretur, in adoptiva familia fue- 
rint: nam vivo eo emancipati ab 
adoptivo patre perindé admittuntur 
ad bona naturalis patris, ac si e- 
mancipati ab ipso essent, nec un- 
quam in adoptivi familia fuissent : 
et convenienter, quod adoptivum 
patrem pertinet, extraneorum loco 
esse incipiunt. Post mortem vero 
maturalis patris emancipati ab adop- 
tivo patre, et, quantim ad hunc 

Mptivum patrem pertinet, 2que 
e eorum loco fiunt, et, quantum 
ad naturalis patris bona pertinet, 
nihiló magis liberorum gradum nan- 
ciscuntur. Quod ideo sic placuit, 
quia iniquum erat, esse in potes- 
tate patris adoptivi, ad quos bona 
naturalis patris pertineant, utrum 
ad liberos ejus, an ad agnatos. 


‘TIT. L 197 


adoption, are not admitted, as. chil 
dren, to the possession of the effects 
of their natural father, if, at the 
time of his death, they were in the 
adoptive family. ) But, if in the life: 
time of their natural father, they 
were emancipated by their adoptive 
father, they gre then admitted (by 
the praetor ) to take the goods of their 
natural father, as if they had been 
emanciputed by him, and had never 
enteredinto the family of the adop- 
tor : consequently, in regard to their 
adoptive father, they are looked upon 
as mere strangers. But those, whe 
are emancipated by their adoptive 
father, after the death of their natu- 
ral father, are nevertheless reputed 
strangers to their adoptive father ; 
and, in regard to the inheritance of 
their natural fatherythey are not. a£ 
all the more intitled to reassume the 
rank of children. These rules of law 
have been established, inasmuch as it 
was unjust, that it should be in the 
power of an.adoptor to determine at 
his pleasure, to whom the inheritance 
of a natural father should appertain, 
whether to his children, or to his ag- 
Dates. 


Collatio filiorum naturalium et zdoptivorum. 


§ XI. Minis ergo juris habent 
adoptivi filii, quam naturales : nam- 
que naturales emancipati, bencficio 
pretoris gradum liberorum reti- 
nent, licét jure civili p.rdapt. A- 
doptivi veró emancipati et jure ci- 
vili perdunt gradum liberorum, et 
à praetore non admittuntur; et rec- 
-. t& — Naturalia enim jura civilis ra- 
tio perimere non potest; nec, quia 


§ 11. Adopted children have 
therefore fewer rights and privile- 
ges,than natural children; who, 
even after emancipation, retain the 
rank of children by the indulgence of 
the pretor,although they lose it by 
the civil law: but adopted children, 
when vinancipated, lose the rank of 
children by the civil law, and are de- 
nied admittance into the rank of chil- 


198 
. desinunt sui heredes esse, possunt 
desinere filii. filiave, nepotes nep- 
tesve esse. Adoptivi vero emanci- 
pati extraneorum loco incipiunt es- 
se; quia jus A&omenque filii filizeve, 
quod per adoptionem consecuti sunt, 
- alia civili ratione, id est, emancipa- 
_ tione, perdunt. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. I. 


dren by the pretor; and properly * 
for civil policy cannot destroy natu- 
ral rights ; nor can natural children 
ever cease to be sons and daughters, 
grandsons and grand-daughters, al- 


though they may cease to be proper 


heirs : but adopted children, when e- 
mancipated, become instantly strane 
gers ; for the right and name of son 
or daughter, obtained by the civil 
right of adoption, may be destroyed 
by the civil right of emancipation. 


Pe bonorum possessione contra tabulas. 


$ XII. Eadem hzc observantur 
et in ea bonorum possessione, quam 
contra tabulas tegtamenti parentis 
liberis preteritis, id est, neque hz- 
redibus institutis, neque, ut opor- 
tet, exhzredatis, pretor pollicetur. 


Nam eos quidem, qui in potestate, . 


mortis tempore fuerint, et emanci- 
patos, vocat praetor ad eandem bo- 
morum possessionem ; eos veró, qui 
in adoptiva familia fuerint per hoc 
tempus, quo naturalis parens more- 
retur, repellit. Item adoptivos li- 
beros, emancipatos ab adoptivo pa- 
tre, sicit nec ab intestato, ita longé 
minis contra tabulas testamenti, ad 
bona, ejus admittit; quia desinunt 
in numero liberorum ejus esse. 


€ 12. The same rules are obsere 

vedas to that possession of goods, 
which the prator, contrary to the 
testament of the parent, grants to 
children, not mentioned therein: 
that 1s, who are neither instituted 
heirs, nor. properly  disinherited. 

For the pretor calls those, who were | 
under power at the death of their pa- 
rents, and those also, who are eman- 
cipated, to the same possession of. 
goods ; but he repels those, who were 
in an adoptive family at the decease 
of their natural parents. And, as 
the praetor admits not such adopted 
children, as have been emancipated by 
their adoptive father, to succeed him 
ab intestato, much less does he ad- 
mit such children to possess the goods 
of their adoptive father contrary to 
his testament ; for, by emancipation, 
they cease to be in the number of his 
children. 


Unde cognati. 


§ XIII. Admonendi tamen su- 
mus, eos, qui in aliená familia sunt, 


§ 13. We must nevertheless ob- 
serve, that, although those, whe 


LIB. III. 


quivé post mortem naturalis paren- 
tis ab adoptivo patre emancipati 
fuerint, intestato parente naturali 
mortuo, licet eá parte edicti, qua li- 
beri ad bonorum possessionem vo- 
cantur, non admittantur, alia tamen 
parte vocari, scilicét, qua cognati 
defuncti vocantur. Ex qua ita ad- 
mittuntur, si neque sui hzredes li- 
beri, neque emancipati obstent, ne- 
que agnatus quidem ullus interveni- 
at. Anté enim prator liberos vo- 
Cat, tam suos heredes quam eman- 
cipatos, deinde legitimos heredes, 
(trtio proximos cognatas. 


Emendatio juris antiqui. 


§ XIV. Sed ea omnia antiquitati 
placuerunt: aliquam autém emenda- 
tionem à nostra constitutione accepe- 
runt, quam super ils personis expo- 
euimus, quz à patribus suis natu- 
ralibus in adoptionem aliis dantur : 
invenimus etenim nonnullos casus, 
in quibus filii et naturalium. suc- 
cessionem propter adoptionem a- 
mittebant, et adoptione facilé per 
emancipationem soluta, ad neutri» 
us patris successionem vocabantur. 
Hoc, solito more, corrigentes, con- 
stitutionem scripsimus, per quam 
definimus, quandó parens naturalis 
filium suum adoptandum alii dede- 

-Pit, integra omnia jure ita servari, 
&tque si in patris naturalis potes- 
tate permansisset, nec penitis adop- 
tio fuisset subsecuta; nisi in. hoc 
"*tantummodó casu, ut possit ab in- 


TIT. I. 199 


were in an adoptive family, byt have 
been emancipated by their adoptive 
Sather, after the decease of their na- 
tural father, dying intestate, are not 
admitted by that part of the. edict, 
by which children are called to the 
possession of goods, yet they are ad- 
mitted by another part, by which the 
cognates of the deceased are called to 
the possession of his effects. But, 
by this last-named part of the edict, 
the cognates are only called when 
there is no opposition from proper 
heirs, emuncipated children, or agna- 
tes : for the praetor first calls the pro- 
per heirs with the emancipated chil- 
dren, then the agnates, and lastly the 
nearest cognates. _ 


De adoptivis. 
§ 14. Such were the rules that. 
formerly obtained ; but they have re- 
ceived some emendation from our con- 
stitution, relating to persons given 
én adoption by their natural parents : 
for we have remarked ihstances of 
sons, who by adoption have lost their 
succession to their natural parents, 
and whof by fhe ease with which 
adoption, é dissolokd by emancipation, 
have als» Jost the'right of succeeding 
to their adopttoe parents. We there- 
fore, as usual, correcting what is 
amiss, have enacted that, when ana- 
tural father hath given his son in 
adoption, the rights of the son shall 
be preserved intire, as though he 
had still remained under the power of 
his natural father, and there had been . 
no adoption ; except only, that the 
person adopted may succeed to his. 


$06 
testato ad^ patris adoptivi venire 
successionem. Testamento autem 
ab eo facto, neque jure civili, ne- 
que praetori, ex hereditate ejus ali- 
quid persequi potest, neque contra 
tabulas bonorum possessione agmi- 
tá, neque inofficiosi querela institu- 
tá; cum nec necessitas patri adop- 
tivo imponatur, vel heredem eum 
instituere, vel exhzeredem facere, 
utpote nullo vinculo naturali copu- 
latum ; neque si ex Sabiniano sena- 
tus-consulto ex tribus maribus fue- 
rit adoptatus: nam, et in ejusmodi 
casu, neque quarta el servatur, ne- 
que ulla actio ad ejus persecution- 
em ei competit. Nostrà autem con- 
stitutione exceptus est 19, quem pa- 
rens naturalis adoptandum suscepe- 
rit. Utroque enim jure, tam na- 
turali quam legitimo, in hanc per- 
sonam concurrente, pristina jura tali 
edoptioni servamus ; quemadmo- 
dim si pater-famihas sese dederit 
arrogandum : que specialitér et sin- 
gulatim ex prefate constitutionis 
tenore possunt colligi. 





LIB. HI. 


TIT. Y. 


adoptor, ifhe die intestate. But, 8f 
the adoptor make a will and omit tà 
name his adopted son, such són can 
neither by the civil nor the prato- 
rian law obtain any part of the in- 
heritance, whether he demand posses- 
sion of the effects, contra tabulas, 
Ccontrary to the letter of the testa- 
ment, ) or alledge that the testament 
is inofficious : for an adoptor is un- 
der no obligation to institute, or dis- 
inherit his adopted son, there being 
no natural tie between them. Nor 
can the adopted person, claim under 
the Sabinian senatus-consultum, by 
being one of three sons : for in this 
case he can neither obtain the fourth 
part of his adoptive father’s effects, 
nor be intitled to any action upon 
that account. But persons adopted 
by their natural parents, (i.e. by 
a grand-father or great-grand-fa> 
ther, &c. ) are excepted in eur com 
stitution: for, as such persons are 
united together by the concurrence 
both of natural and civil rights, we 
have thought proper to retain the 
old law in relation to those adop- 
tions; in the same manner, as when 
the father of a family hath given 
himself in arrogation. But all this, 
may be collected from the tenor of the 
above-mentioned constitution. 


De descentibus ex feminis. Ns 


$ XV. Item vetustas, ex mascu- 
lis progenitos plus diligens, solos 
nepotes vel neptes, qui queve ex 
virili sexu descendunt, ad suorum 
vocabat successionem, et jure ag- 
fatorum eos anteponebat ; nepotes 


§ 15. The ancient law, prefer- 
ring descendants from males, called 
only grand-children so descended, te 
the succession as proper heirs, by 
right of agnation; reputing grand= 
children born of daughters, and 


LIB. III. 


&utem, qui ex filiabus nati sunt, et 
pronepotes, qui ex neptibus, cog- 
natorum loco connumerans, post 
agnatorum lineam eos vocabat, tam 
in avi vel proavi materni, quam in 
aviz vel proaviz, sive paternz sive 
maternz, successionem. Divi au- 
tém principes non passi sunt talem 
contra naturam injuriam siné com- 
petenti. emendatione relinquere : 
sed, cum nepotis et pronepotis no- 
men commune sit utrisque, tam qui 
ex masculis, quam qui ex feminis 
descendunt, ideó eundem gradum 
et ordinem successionis eis dona- 
verunt Sed, ut ampliis aliquid 
eit eis, qui non solim natura, sed 
etiam veteris juris, suffragiis muni- 
untur, portionem nepotum vel nep- 
tum, vel deinceps, (de quibus su- 
pra diximus) pauló minuendam es- 
se existimaverunt ; ut minus tertià 
parte acciperent, quam mater co- 
rum, vel avia, fuerat acceptura, vel 
pater eorum vel avus, paternus 
sivé maternus, quando fcemina 
mortua sit, cujus de hereditate 
agitur ; iisque, licét soli sint, a- 
deuntibus, agnatos minimé voca- 
bant. Et, quemadmodim lex duo- 
'decim tabularum, filio mortuo, ne- 
potes, vel neptes, pronepotes vel 
proneptes, in locum patris sui ad 
$uccessionem avi sui vocat; ita et 
principalis dispositio in locum ma- 
tris sux vel aviz eos, cum jam de- 
Signata partis tertie diminutione, 
vocat. -Sed nos, cum adhuc dubi- 
tatio maneret inter agnatos et me- 
@aoratos nepotes, quartam partem 
3Substantis defuncti agnatis sibi vin- 


TIT. L 4058 


great-grand-children born of grand: 
daughters, to be cognates, and pros 
hibiting them. from succeeding to 
their grand-father and great-grand« 
father, maternal or paternal, until 
after the line of agnati was exhaust- 
ed. But the emperors Valentinian, 
Theodosius and Arcadius, would 
not continue such a violence against 
nature; and,inasmuch as the name 
of grand-child and great-grand« 


child, is common, as well to descen» 


dants by females, as by males, they 

granted an equal right of succession 
in either case. But, to the end, 
that those persons who have beem 
Javoured by nature, as well as by tha 

suffrage of antiquity, might enjoy 

some peculiar privileges,they thought 

tt right, that the portions of grand- 

children, great-grand-children, and | 
other lineal descendants of a female, 
should be somewhat diminished, and 
therefore they have not permitted 
stich persons to receive so much by @ 
third part, as their mother or grand- 
mother would have received; ‘or 
their father or grand-father, pater- 
nal or maternal, at the decease of @ 
female; for we now treat of inhe« 
ritances, derived from a female 
and, although there were only grand= 
children by a female to take an ine 
heritance, yet the emperors did nob 
call the agnates to the succession. 
And as, upon the decease of a sott, 
the law of the twelve tables calls the 
grand-children, and great-grand« 
children, male and female, to repre- 
sent their father as to the succession 
of their grandfather, so the impe- 


D» 


302 LIB. III. 


dicantibus ex cujusdam constitutio- 
nis auctoritate, memoratam qui- 
dem constitutionem à nostro co- 
dice segregavimus, neque inseri 
eam ex Theodosiano codice in eo 
concessimus, Nostra autem con- 
stitutione promulgatà, toti juri ejus 
derogatum ést: et sanximus, tali- 
bus nepotibus ex filià, vel pronepo- 
tibus ex nepte, vel deincéps super- 
stitibus, agnatos nullam partem 
mortui successionis sibi vindicare ; 
ne hi, qui ex transversa linea ve- 
niunt, potiores his habeantur, qui 
recto jure descendunt. Quam con- 
stitutionem nostram obtinere secun- 
dim sui vigorem et tempora et 
nunc sancimus: ita tainen ut, que- 
madmodum inter filios et nepotes 
ex filio antiquitas'statuit, non in ca- 
pita, sed in stirpes, dividi heredita- 
tem, similitér nos, inter filios et ne- 
potes ex filià, distributionem fieri 
jubeamus, vel inter omnes nepotes 
et neptes, et inter pronepotes vel 
proneptes, et alias deinceps, per- 
sonass ut utraque progenies ma- 
tris vel patris, aviz vel avi, por- 
tionem sine ullà diminutione con- 
sequatur : ut, si forté unus vel duo 
ex ünà parte, ex alterà tres aut qua- 
tuor, extent unus aut duo dimidiam, 


TIT. I. 


rial ordinance calls them to succes- 
sion in the place of their mother or 
grand-mother, with the before-regu- 
lated diminution of a third part of 
their share. But, as there still re- 
mained matter of dispute between 
the agnati and the above named 
grand-children, the agnati claiming 
the fourth part of the estate of the 
deceased by virtue of a certain con- 
stitution, we have therefore not per- 
mitted it to be inserted into. our code 
from that of Theodosius. | And fur- 
ther, we have altered the old law by 
enacting that agnates shall not be 
entitled to any part of the goods of 
the deceased, while - grand-children 
born of a daughter, or ereat-grand- 
children born of a grand-daughter, 
or any other descendants from a fe- 
male inthe right line, are living ; 
lest those, who proceed from the 
transverse line, should be preferred 
to lineal descendants. And we now 
decree, that this our ordinance shall 
obtain according to its full tenor. 
But as the old law ordered, that every 
tnheritance should be divided in stir- 
pes, and not in capita, between the 
son of the deceased and his grand- 
sons by a son, so we also ordain, 
that similar distribution shall be 


LIB. III. 


alteri tres aut quatuor alteram di- 
midiam, hareditatis habeant. 


TIT. I. 203 


made between sons and  grand- 
sons by a daughter, and between 
grand-sons and grand-daughters, 
great-grandsons and great-grand- 
daughters, and all other descen- 
dants ina right line; so that the 
issue, either of a mother or a father, 
or of a grand-mother or a grand-fa- 
ther, may obtain their portions with- 
out any diminution ; and, if on the 
one part there should*be one or 
two claimants, and on the other part 
three or four, that the greater num- ' 
ber shall be intitled to one half, 
and the less number to the other half . 
of the inheritances 


TITULUS SECUNDUS. 
DE LEGITIMA AGNATORUM SUCCESSIONE. 


* 
D. xxxvii. T. 16. C. vi. T. 58. 


Secundus ordo haeredum legitimorum. 


SI nemo suus heres, vel eorum, 
quos inter suos heredes prztor ve] 
constitutiones vocant, existat, qui 
successionem quoquo modo am- 
plectatur, tunc ex lege duodecim 
tabularum ad agnatum proximum 
pertinet haereditas. ' 


When there is no proper heir nor 
any person, whom the praetor or the 
constitutions would call to inherit 
with proper heirs, then the inheri- 
tance, by a law of the twelve tables, 
appertains to the nearest agnate. 


De agnatis nturalibus. 


$ I. Sunt autém agnati (ut primo 
quoque libro tradidimus) cognati 
per virilis sexus. personas cogna- 
fione conjuncti, quasi à patre conna- 


$ 1. Agnates, as we have observ- 
ed in the first book, are those, who 
are related or cognated by males, 
(quasi à patre cognati :) and there- 


"i, Itaque ex eodem patre nati fore brothers, who are the sons of 


204 


fratres, agnati si:.* sunt; qui et con- 
sanguinei vocant ir: nec requiritur, 
an etiam eandem matrem habue- 
rint. Item patruus fratris filio, et 
anvicém is illi, agnatus est. Eo- 
dem numero sunt fratres patrueles, 
id est, qui ex duobus fratribus pro- 
treati sunt, qui etiam consobrini 
vocantur. Quá ratione etiam ad 
plures gradus agnationis pervenire 
poterimus. [i etiam, qui post mor- 
tem patris nascuntur, jura consan- 
guinitatis nanciscuntur. Non ta- 
men omnibus simul agnatis dat lex 
hereditatem ; sed iis, qui tunc prox- 
imiore gradu sunt, cum certum es- 
se ceperit, aliquem intestatum de- 
Cc65isse, 


~ 


LIB. HI. 


TIT. II. 


the same father, are agnates in ree 

gard to each other; they are also 

consanguinei, of the same blood; but 
it is not required, that they should 
have the same mother. Anuncle is 
also agnate to his brother's son, and 
vice versa the brother’s son to .hés 

paternal uncle : and brothers patru- 

el, that 1s, the children of brothers, 

who are also called consobrini, cou- 

sins are likewise reckoned agnates. 

Thus we may enumerate many des 
grees of agnation ; and even those, 
who are born, after the decease of 
their parents, obtain the rights of 
consanguinity: the law nevertheless 

does not grant the right of inheri- 

tance to all the agnati, but to those 

only, who are inthe nearest degree, 

when it becomes certain, that the de- 

ceased hath died intestate. 


De adoptivis. 


€ II. Per adoptionem quoque 
‘agnationis jus consistit ; veluti in- 
ter filios naturales et eos, quos pa- 
ter eorum adoptavit ; nec dubium 
est, quin ii improprié consangui- 
nei appellentur. Item, si quis ex 
ceteris agnatis tuis, veluti frater 
&ut patruus, aut denique is, qui 
longiore gradu est, adoptaverit ali- 
quem, agnatus inter tuos esse non 


dubitatur, 


§ 2. The right of agnation arises 
also through adoption; thus the na- 
tural and adopted sons of the same 


father are agnates; but such per- 


sons are without doubt improperly 

called consanguinei. Also, ifa broe 

ther, a paternal uncle, or any other 

of your more remote agnates, should 

adopt, then the person so adopted, 

is undoubtedly to be reckoned among - 
your agnati. 


De masculis et foeminis. 


.6 YII. Ceterüm inter masculos 
quidem agnationis jure hereditas, 
etiamsi longissimo gradu sint, ul- 
tro citroque capitur. Quod ad fa- 


§ 3. Succession among males even 
in the most distant degree proceeds 
according to the right of agna- 
tion, But it hath been thought rigks 


LIB. III. 


minas veró attinet, ita placebat, ut 
ipse consanguinitatis jure, tantim 
capiant hereditatem, si sorores sint ; 
ulterius non capiant. Masculi au- 
tem ad earum hereditates, (etiamsi 
. longissimo gradu sint,) admittan- 
- tur. Quà de causa fratris tui, aut 
patrui tui filie, vel amitz tuz, here- 
ditas ad te pertinebat : tua vero ad 
illas non- pertinebat. Quod ided 
ita constitutum erat, quia commo- 
dius videbatur, ita jura constitui, 
ut plerumque hzreditates ad mascu- 
Jos confluerent. Sed, quia sané 
Iniqüum erat, iri universum eas qua- 
si extraneas repelli, praetor eas ad 
bonorum possessionem admittit ea 
parte, qua proximitatis nomine bo- 
norum possessionem pollicetur : ex 
quà parte ita scilicét admittuntur, 
8i neque agnatus ullus, neque proxi- 
mior cognatus, interveniat. Ethec 
quidem lex duodecim tabularum 
nullo modo introduxit ; sed, sim- 
plicitatem legibus amicam amplexa, 
simili modo omnes agnatos, sivé 
masculos sivé feminas, cujuscun- 
que gradus, ad similitudinem suo- 
rum, invicem ad successionem vo- 
cabat. Media autem jurispruden- 
tia, que erat quidem lege duode- 
cim tabularum junior, imperiali au- 
fem dispositione anterior, subtili- 


tate quádam excogitata, prefatam . 


differentiam inducebat, et penitüs 
eas à successione agnatorum repel- 
lebat, omni aliá successione incog- 
nità donec przetores paulatim aspe- 
gitatem juris civilis corrigentes, 


siyé, quod deerat, implentes huma- 


* 


TIT. IL 205 


that females should only inherit by 
consanguinity, if sisters ; and not in 
a more remote degree ; though males 
might be admitted in the most dis- 
tant degree to inherit females : thus 
in case of death, the inheritance of 
your brother's daughter, or of the 
daughter of your paternal uncle or 
aunt, would appertain to you; but 
your inheritance would not apper- 
tain to them. And this was 80 con- 
stituted, because it seemed expedient 
for the benefit of society, that inhe- 
ritances should for the most part fall 
into the possession of males. But,. 
as it was unjust, that females should 
be thus almost wholly excluded as 
strangers, the pretor admitted thens 
to the possession of goods in that 
part of his edict, in which he giver 
the possession of goods on account of 
proximity: yet they are only admit- 
ted upon condition, that there ts na 
agnate, or nearer cognate. But the 
law of the twelve tables did not in- 
troduce these dispositions; far that 
law, according to the plainness and. 
simplicity, which arc agreeable to all 
laws, called the agnates of either 
sex, or any degree, to succession, in 
the same manner as it admitted pro- 
per heirs. But the middle law, 
which was posterior to the law of the 
twelve tables, and prior to the impe-. 
rial constitutions, subtilly introdu- 
ced the before-mentioned distinction, 
and entirely repelled females from 
the succession of agnates, no other 
method of succession being known, 


until the praturs, correcting by de- 
2 


200 |. 


no proposito alium ordinem suis 
edictis addiderunt; et cognationis 
linea, proximitatis nomine introduc- 
ta, per bonorum possessioncm eas 
adjuvabant, et pollicebantur his bo- 
norum possessionem, quz unde cog- 
mati appellatur. Nos vero, legem 
duodecim tabularum sequentes, et 
ejus vestigia hac in parte conser- 
wantes, laudamus quidem preto- 
"res sue humanitatis, non tamén 
eos in plenum huic causz mederi 
invenimus. Quaré etenim, uno eo- 
demque gradu naturali concurrente, 
et agnationis titulis tam in mascu- 
lis quam in feminis zqua lance 
. constitutis, masculis quidem deba- 
tur ad successionem venire omni- 
um agnatorum, ex agnatis autem 
mulieribus nulli penitis, nisi soli 
sorori ad agnatorum successionem 
patebat aditus ? Ideó nos, in plenum 
omnia reducentes, et ad. jus duode- 
cim tabularum eandem dispositio- 
nem exzquantes,nostra constitutione 
sancimus, omnes legitimas perso- 
nas, id est, per virilem sexum de- 
scendentes (sivé masculini generis 
sivé feminini sint) simili modo ad 
jura successionis legitimse, ab intes- 
tato vocari, secundüm sui gradus 
praerogativam ; nec ideo excluden- 
das, quia consanguinitatis jura, si- 
cut germane, non habent. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. If. 


grees the asperity of the civid. law, 
er supplying what was deficient, ad- 


ded in their edicts a new order of 


succession, being induced to it by a 
motive of humanity; and, by intro- 
ducing the line of cognation on ace 
count of proximity, they thus assist- 
ed the females, and gave them the 


possession of goods, which is called" 


unde cognati. But we, although 
strictly adhering to the law of the 
twelve tables in regard to females, 


must yet commend the humanity of 


the prators, though they have not 
afforded a full remedy in the present 
case. But, since the same natural 
degree of relation, and the same title 
of agnation appertains as well to fe- 
males as to males, what reason can 
be assigned, that males should be 
permitted tc succeed all their agnati, 
and that no means of succession 
should be open to any female agnate, 
except a sister? We therefore, re- 
ducing all things to an equality, and 
making our disposition conformable 
to the laws of the twelve tables, huve 
by our constitution ordained, that 
all legitimate persons, that is, de- 
scendants from males, whether male 


or female, shall be equally called to 


the rights of succession ab intestato 
according to the prerogative of their 
degree, and be by no means excluded 
although they possess not the rights 
of consanguinity in so near a degree 
as sisters, . 


." 
[Lu 


LIB. III. 


TIT. II. 207 


De filiis sororum. 


§ IV. Hoc etiam addendum nos- 
tre constitutioni existimavimus, ut 
transferatur unus tantummodó gra- 
dus à cognationis in legitimani suc- 
cessionem; ut non solim fratris 
flius et filia (secundim quod jam 
definivimus) ad successionem patrui 
sui vocentur, sed etiam germane 
consanguinez vel sororis uterine 
flius et filia soli, et non deincéps 

personae, una cum his ad jura avun- 
culi sui perveniant: et, mortuo eo, 
qui patruus quidem est sui fratris 
filiis, avunculus autem sororis suz 
soboli, simili modo ab utroque latere 
succedant, tanquàm si omnes ex 
masculis descendentes legitimo jure 
veniant ; scilicét ubi frater et soror 
superstites non sunt; (his etenim 
personis praecedentibus ct succes- 
sionem admittentibus, czteri gradus 
remanent penitis semoti ;) vidcli- 
cét hereditate non in stirpes, sed in 
in capita, dividenda. 


*e 


Dc proximis 


.$ V. Si plures sint gradus ag- 
natorum, aperte. lex duodecim ta- 
bularum proximum vocat: itaque, 
SÍ (verbi gracia) sint. defuncti. fra- 
ter, et alterius fratris filius, aut pa- 
tfuüs, frater potior habetur. Et, 


§ 4. We have also thought fit to 
add to our constitution, so that one 
degree only te transferred from the 
line of cognation to the line of legi- 
tàmate succession, i. e. of agnation : 
and not only the son and daughter 
of a brother (according to our for? 
mer definition of agnates) shall be 
called to the succession of their 'pa- 
ternal uncle, but the son or daughter 
of a sister, who is either by the same 

father or by the same mether, may 
also be admitted with agnates to the 
succession of their maternal uncle ; 
but no one of the descendunts of the 
son or daughter of a sister is by any 
means to be admitted. And, whena 
person dies, who at his decease was 
both a paternal and maternal uncle, 
that is, who had nephews or nieces 
‘living both by a brother and by a 
sister, then such children succeed in 
the same manner, as if they were all 
descendants from males, when the 
deceased leaves no brother or sister : 
and they take the inheritance not 
per stirpes, or according to their re- 
spective stocks, but per capita, z. e. 
by pall: but, if there be brothers or 
sisters, and they accept the succes- 
sion, all others of a more remote de- 
gree are excluded. 


vel remotis. 

$ 5. When there are many de- 
grees of agnates, the law of the 
twelve tables calls for the necrest ; 
if, for example, there is a brother of 
the deceased, and a son of another 
brother, or a paternal uncle, the bro- 


3068 LIB. III. 


quamvis singulari numero usá, lex 
duodecim tabularum proximum vo- 
eet, tamen dubium non est, quin, 
si plures sint ejusdem gradus, om-- 
mes admittantur. Nam et proprié 
proximus ex pluribus gradibus in- 
Selligitur; et tamen non dubium 
est, quin, licét unus sit gradus ag- 
matorum, pertineat ad eos hzredi- 
tas. 


TIT. IE. 


ther is preferred. But, althougit. 
the law of the twelve tables calls the 
nearest agnate in the singular. num- 
ber, yet doubtless, if there be many, 
in the same degree, they ought. all te 
be admitted. — . ánd, although proper- 
ly by the nearest degree must be un- 
derstood the nearest of many, yet, if 
there be but one degree of agnates, 
the inheritance must undoubtedly ape 
pertain to those, who are in that de- 
gree. 


Quo tempore proximitas spectatur. 


€ VI. Proximus autem, si qui- 
dem nullo testamento facto quis- 
quam decesserit, per hoc tempus 
requiritur, quo mortuus est is, cu- 
jus de hereditate quzritur ; quod si 
facto testamento quisquam decesse- 
Bit, per hoc tempus requiritur, quo 
certum esse ceperit, nullum ex testa- 
mento heredem extiturum; tunc 
enim proprié quisque intestatus 
decessisse intelligitur: quod qui- 
dem aliquandó longo tempore de- 
claratur; in quo spatio temporis 
sepé accidit, ut, proximiore mor- 
tuo, proximus esse incipiat, qui 
moriente testatore non erat proxi- 
mus. 


$ 6. When a man dies without a 
ill, that person is esteemed his near- 
est of kin who was so at the time 
of the decease. But, when the de- 
ceased hath actually made a testa- 
ment, then that person is esteemed 
his nearest of kin, who was so when 
it became certain,.that there was no 
testamentary heir : for, until then, a 
man who hath made a testament, 
cannot be said to have died intestate: 
and this sometimes may not appear, 
for a long time; during which the 
proximate kinsman dying, some one 
becomes the nearest of kin, who was 
not so at the death of the testator. 


De successorio edicto. 


§ VII. Placebat autem, in eo 
genere percipiendarum hzreditatum 
successionem non esse; id est, ut 
quamvis proximus, qui secundim 
ea, que diximus, vocatur ad hzre- 
ditatem, aut spreverit hereditatem, 
aut antequam adeat, decesserit, ni- 
hiló magis legitimo jure sequentes 


4 


€ 7. But it is settled, that there 

23 NO succession among agnates ; se 

that, if the nearest agnate be called 

to an inheritance, and hath either re- 

fused the heirship, or been prevent- 
ed by death from entering upon it, 

his own legitimate heir would not 
be admitted to succeed him. But 


LIB. III. 


admittantur. Quod iterim preto- 
res, imperfecto jure corrigentes, 
non in totum siné adminiculo relin- 
quebant, sed ex cognatorum ordine 
eos vocabant, utpote agmationis ju- 
re eis recluso. Sed nos, nihil per- 
fectissimo juri deesse cupientes, 
“nostra constitutione, quam de jure 
patronatüs humanitate suggerente 
protulimus, sancimus, successionem 
in agnatorum hereditatibus non 
esse eis denegandam ; cum satis 
absurdum erat, quod cognatis à 
pretore apertum est, hoc agnatis 
esse reclusum ; maximé cum in on- 
ere quidem tutelarum et primo gra- 
«lu deficiente sequens succedif ; et, 
«quod in onere obtinebat, non erat 
an lucro permissum. 


TIT. II. 209 


this the pretors have in some mea- 
sure corrected, and have not left the 
agnates of a deceased person wholly 
without assistance, but have ordered 
that they should be called to the in- 
heritance as cognates, because they 
were debarred from the rights of ag- 
nation. But we, earnestly  desi- 
rous to render our law as perfect 
and complete as possible, have ordain- : 
ed by our constitution, which, indu- 
ced by humanity, we published con- 
cerning the right of patronage, 
* that legitimate succession should 
not be denied to agnates in the in- 
heritances of agnates:” for it was 
sufficiently absurd, that a right, | 
which by means of the praetor was 
open to cognates, should be shut up 
and denied to agnates : but is was 
more abundantly absurd, that, in tu- 
telages, the second degree of agna- 
tes should succeed upon failure of the 
first ; and that the same law, which ' 
obtained tn that, which 10as onerous, 
should not also obtain in that, whieh 
was lucrative. 


De legitima parentum successione. 


§ VIII. Ad legitimam succes- 
sionem nihilominüs vocatur etiam 
parens, qui contractá fiducia filium, 
vel filiam, nepotem vel neptém, ac 
demceps, emancipat. Quod ex 
nostra constitutione omnino induci- 
tur, ut emancipationes liberorum 
semper videantur, quasi contracta 
fiducia, fieri; cum apud, veteres 
non alitér hoc obtinebat, nisi specia- 


E 


6 8. A parent, who hath emanci- 
patcda son, a daughter, a grandson 
a grand-daughter, or other lineal 
descendant itnder a fiduciary con- 
tract, is admitted to their legitimate 
succession. But it is now- effected 
by our constitution, that every eman- 
cipation shall for the future be re- 
garded, as if it had been made un- 
der sucha contract; althourh a- 


E 


$10 LIB. III. 


TIT. III. 


 litércontractá üducià parens manu- mong the ancients the fx 


misisset. : 


* 


never called to the legitim 
sion of his children, unle 
actually emancipated then 


Pauciary contract. 


^ 


TITULUS TERTIUS. 
. DE SENATUS.CONSULTO TERTYLLIAN 


D. Xxxxvill. T. 17. 


C. vi. T. 56. 


De lege duodecim tabularum et jure Pretorio. 


LEX duodecim tabularum ita 
stricto jure, utebatur, et prepone- 
bat masculorum, progeniem ; et eos, 
qui per fominini sextis necessitu- 
dinem sibi junguntur, adéo expel- 
lebat, ut ne quidem inter matrem et 
dlium filiamve ultro citroque hzre- 
ditatis capiende jus daret; nisi 
quod.pratores ex proximitate cog- 
natorum eas personas ad successio- 
nem bonorum, possessione unde cog - 
eiati accommodatà, vocabant. 


Such was the rigour of 
the twelve tables, that it 
the tssue by males, and excl 
who were related by the f 
so that the right of succe 
not permitted to take plac 
cally between a mother an 
or a mother und her daugh 
the pretors, on account of 
imity of cognation, admit 
who were related by the f 
to the succession, giving 
possession of goods, called 

nati. 


De constitutione Divi Claudii. 


6 Y. Sed he juris angustiz pos- 
tea emendate sunt; et primus 
quidem Divus Claudius matri, ad 
solatium liberorum amissorum, le- 
_gitimam eorum detulit hzeredita- 
‘tem. 


§ 1. But these narreu 
the law were afterwards ei 
the emperor Claudius, wA 
the legal inheritance of dec 
dren to their mothers, in 
of their grief for so great 


LIB. III. 


TIT. III. — 211 


Ad Senatus-consultum Te.tyllianum. De jure liberorum. 


$ II. Postea autem senatus-con- 
sulto Tertylliano, quod Divi Adri- 
ani temporibus factum est, plenissi- 
mé de tristi successione matri, non 
etiam avis, deferenda cautum est ; 
ut mater ingenua trium liberorum 
jus habens, libertina quatuor, ad 
bona filiorum filiarumve admittatur 
intestato mortuorum, licét in potes- 
tate parentis sit; ut scilicét, cum 
alieno juri subjecta est, jussu ejus 
adgat hereditatem, cujus juri ewb- 
jecta est. 


' Qui preferuntur matri, 

§ III. Preferuntur autem ma- 
tri, liberi defuncti, qui sui sunt, 
quive suorum loco sunt, sivé primi 
gradus,sivé ulterioris. Sed et fi- 
lie sue mortuz filius vel filia pre- 
ponitur, ex constitutionibus, matri 
defunctz, id est, avie sus. Pater 
veró utriusque, non etiam avus et 
proavus, matri anteponitur ; scilicét 
cum inter eos solos de hareditate 
agitur, Frater autem consangui- 
neus tam filii, quam filie, exclude- 
bat matrem; soror autem consan- 
guinea paritér cum matre admitte- 
batur. Sed, si fuerant frater et so- 


for consanguinei, et mater liberis 


 énerata, frater quidem matrem ex- 
fludebat; communis autem erat 


$ 2. Afterwards by the Tertillian 
senatus-consultum, made in the reign 
of the emperor Adrian, the fullest 
care was taken, that the succession 
of children should pass to their mo- 
ther, though not to their grand-mo- 
ther : so that a mother, born of free 
parents, and having the right of 
three children,—also a freed-woman, 
having the right of four children, 
may be admitted, although, under 
power of a parent, to the goods of 
their intestate children. But, a mo- 
ther under power cannot enter upon 
the inheritance of her children, but at 
the command of him, te whom ehe. 
$e subject. 


vel cum ea admittuntur. | 
$ 3. The children of a deceased 
son who are proper heirs, or in the 
place of proper heirs, either in the 
first or an inferior degree, are prefer- 
red.to the mother. And the son, or 
daughter, of a deceased daughter is 
also by the constitutions preferred . 
to the mother ; i. e. to their grand- 
mother. Also the father of a som, 
or daughter, is preferred to the mo- 
ther ; not so the grand-father or 
great-grand-father, when the inheri- 
tance is contended for by these only 
without the father. Also the cone 
sanguine brother either of a son om 
a daughter excluded the mother 3 
but a consanguine sister was ad- 
mitted equalk; with her mother. JP 


212 LIB. III. 


hereditas ex quis partibus fratri- 
bus et sororibus. 


Jus novum de jure 


6 IV. Sed nos constitutione, 
quam in codice, nostro nomine de- 
corato, posuimus, matri subvenien- 
dum esse existimavimus, respicien- 
tes ad naturam, et puerperium, et 
periculum, et sepé mortem ex hoc 
casu matribus illatam. — Idcóque 
impium esse credidimus, casum 
fortuitum in ejus admitti detri- 
mentum. Si enim ingenua ter, vel 
libertina quater, non pepererit, im- 
meritó defraudabatur successione 
suorum liberorum. Quid enim 
peccavit, si non plures, sed paucos, . 
"peperit? Et dedimus jus legiti- 
mum plenum matribus, sivé inge- 
nuis sivé libertinis, etsi non ter e- 
nixe fuerint vel quater, sed eum 
tantum vel eam, qui queve morte 
intercepti sunt, ut sic vocentur in 
liberorum suorum legitimam suc- 
cessionem. 


Quibus mater przponitur, 
§ V. Scd, cum antea constituti- 
ones, jura legitima successionis 
_ perscrutantes, partim matrem adju- 
vabant, partim eam pregravabant, 
nec in solidum eam vocabant, sed, . 


TIT. III. 


there had been a brother and a sister 
of the same blood with the deceased, 
the brother excluded his mother, al- 
though she had children: but the 
inheritance, in this case, was equal- 
ly divided between brothers and sts- 
ters. | 


liberorum sublato. 


§ 4. But by a constitution, insert- 
ed in the code, and honoured with 
our name, we have thought fit, that 
mothers should be favouredin regard 
to the considering natural reason, 
the pains of child-birth, the danger, 
and death itself, which they often 
suffer; we therefore have esteemed 
it highly unjust, that the law should 
make that detrimental, which 1s in: 
its nature merely fortuitous ; for, 
if a married waman free-born, does 
not bring. forth three children, or if 
a freed-woman does not become the 
mother of four, ought they, for this 
reason only, to be deprived cf suc- - 
cession to their children? for how 
can it be imputed to them, asa 
crime? Wetherefore, not rcgard- 
ing any fixed number of children, 
have given a. full right to every mo- 
ther, whether ingenuous or freed, 
of being culled to the legitimate suc- 
cession of her child or children de- 
ceased, whether male or female. 


et quibuscum admittitur. 


$ 5. In examining the constitu- — 
tions of former emperors, relating — 
to the right of succession, we observ- 
ed that they were partly favourable ta 
mothers and partly grievous; not 


1 
LIB. TIL 


usdam casibus tertiam ei 
abstrahentes, certis legiti- 
yant personis, in aliis autem 
ium faciebant, nobis visum 
ti et simplici vid matrem 
s personis legitimis antepo- 
né ullà diminutione filiorum 
. successionem accipere ; ex- 
atris et sororis personá, (sivé 
mimei sint, sivé sola cogna- 
wa habentes) ut quemadmo- 
ma toti alii ordini legitimo 
uimus, ita omnes fratres et 
» (sive legitimi sint, sive 
id. capiendas hereditates si- 
cemus : ita tamen ut, siqui- 
ile sorores, agnate vel cog- 
t mater defuncti vel defunc- 
rsint, dimidiam quidem ma- 
eram veró dimidiam partem 
sorores habeant. Si ver$, 
juperstite, et fratre vel fra- 
solis, vel etiam cum sorori- 
lé legitima sivé sola cogna- 
jura habentibus, intestatus 
1 intestata moriatur, in capi- 
distribuatur hereditas. 


TIT. tL. 


always calling them fo the intire in- 
heritance of their children, but in 
Some cases depriving them of a third, 
which was given to certain legiti- 
mate persons; and in other «ases, 
allowing a third. It hath therefore 
seemed right to us, that mothers 
Should receive.the succession of their 
children without any diminution, 
and that they should be exclusively 
preferred before all legitimate per: 
sons, except the brothers and sistir$ 
of the deceased, whether consan- 
guine, or cognate: but, as we have 
preferred the mother to all other le- 
gitemate persons, we are willing to 
call all brothers and sisters, legiti- 
mate or otherwise, to the inheritance 
together ‘with the mother; yet in 


such manner, that if onty the sisters, ' 


agnate or cognate, and the mother 
of the deceased survive, the mother 
shall have one half of the effects, and 
the sisters the other. But, if a mo- 
ther survive, and also a brother or 
brothers, or brothers and sisters, 
whether legitimate or cognate, then 


the inheritance of the intestate son * 


or daughter must be distributed in 
capita; 4. ¢.into equal shares. 


De tutore liberis petendo. 


[, Sed, quemadmodim nos 
as prospeximus, ita eas opor- 
» soboli consulere; scituris 
od, si tutores liberis non pe- 
vel in locum remoti vel ‘ex 
ntra agnum petere neglexe- 
eorum impuberum morieh- 


e^ 


§ 6. Having thus taken care of 
the interest of mothers, it behoves 


them in return to consult the welfare 


of their children. Be it known 
therefore, that if a mother shall ne- 
glect, during the space of a whole 
year, to demand a. tutor for her chil- 


AZ 


LIB. fit. 
tium successieme metit? repeilens 
tyr. 


314 


TTP. IV; 


dren, or to require anew tutor in the 
place of a former, who hath either. 
been removed or excused, she will be. 
deservedly repelled from the succes- 
sion of such children, if they die 
within puber. tye 


De vulgo quaesitis. 


($ VII. Licet autem vulgo que- 
situs sit filius filiave, potest tamen 
ad bonsejus mater ex Tertylliano 
eenatud-consulto admitti. 


6 7. Although a son or a daug he 
ter be of spurious birth, yet the mo- 
ther, by the Tertyllian senatus-con- 
sultum, may be admitted to succeed 
jo the goods of either. 


TITULUS QUARTUS. 
DE SENATUS-CONSULTO ORFICIANO. 


D. xxxvii. T. 17. 


C. Vie T. 57. 


Origo et summa senatus-consulti. 


PER contrarium autem liberi ad 
bona matrum intestatarum adrhit- 
tuntur ex senatus-consulto Orficia- 
no, quod, Orficio et Rufo consuli- 
bus, effectum est Divi Marci tem- 
porjbus ; et data est tam filio, quam 
filie, legitima hereditas, etiamsi 
alieno juri subjecti sint ; et prefe- 
wintur consanguineis etagnatis de- 
furicte matris. 


- On the contrary children are ad- 
mitted to the goods of their intestate 
mothers, by the Orfician senatus- 
consultum, which was enacted in the 
consulate of Orficius and Rufus, in 
the reign of the emperor Marcus 
Antoninus ; and, by this decree, the. 
legal inheritance is given both to sons 
and daughters, although under povo- 
er; and they are preferred to the 
consanguine brothers, and to thgag- 
nates, of their deceased mother. 


De nepote et nete. 


6 I. Sed, eum ex hoc senatus- 
consulto nepotes et neptes ad avis 


6 1. But, since grand-sons and 
grand-daughters were not caled by 


Kuccessionem legitimo jure non vo- fhe senatus-consultum fo the legi- 


LW. HL TIT. IV, 


- earentur, postea hoc constitutioni- 
bus principalibus emendatum est, 
t, ad similitudinem filiorum filiar- 
umque, et nepotes et neptes vocen- 
tur. 


4 


ais 


timate succession of their grand-mo- 
ther, the omission was afterwards 
supplied, by the imperial constitu- 


tions ; so that grand-sons and grand- 
daughters were called to inherit, qh — 


well as sons and daughters. 


De capitis diminutione. 


§ If. Sciendum autem est, hu- 
jusmodi successiones, que ex Ter- 
tylliano et Orficiano senatus-con- 
eultis deferuntur, capitis diminu- 
tione non perimi, propter illam re- 
gulam, qua nove hereditates legi- 
timz capitis diminutione non pere- 
unt ; sed ille solz, quz ex lege du- 
odecim tabularum deferuntur. 


§ 2. But it must be observed, that 
those successions, which proceed from 
the Tertyllian and Orfician senatus» 
consulta, are not extinguished by dir 
minution. For it is an established 
rule, that legitimate inheritances of 
late creation, are not destroyed by 
diminution ; which affects those on- 
ly that are founded on the law of the 
twelve tables. 


De vulgo quasitis. 


€ III. Novissimé sciendum est, 
etiam illos liberos, qui vulgó. quz- 
siti sunt, ad matris hereditatem ex 
eenatus-consulto admitti. 


/ 


§ VI. Si ex pluribus legitimis hie- 
 redjbus quidam omiserint heredita- 
tem, vel morte, vel alia. causa, im- 
pediti fuerint, quominus . adeant, 
reliquis, qbi adierint, accrescit illo- 
rum portio; et,licét ante decesse- 
rint, ad heredes tamen corum per- 
tinet. 


€ 3. tt is lasthy to be noted, thar 
even spurious children are admitted 
by the Orfician senatus-consultum 
to the inheritance of their mother. 


De jure accrescendi inter legitimos hzeredes. 


§ 4. When there dre many legiti- 
mate (legal) heirs, and some re- 
nounce the inheritance, or are pre- 
vented by death, or any other cause, 
then the portions of such persons fall 


by right of accretion to those, who - 


accept the inheritance : and, although 
the acceptors happen to die even be- 
fore the refusal or the failure of their 
coheirs, yet the portions of such co- 

heirs, will appertain tothe heirs of 
the acceptors. 


acm d) 


216 LIB. IH, 


TITULUS: 


TIT. V. 


QUINTUS. 


DE SUCCESSIONE COGNATORUM. 


Tertius ordo succedcntium ab intestato. 


POST suos heredes, eosque, 
quos inter suos hzredes pr«tor et 
constitutiones vocant, et post legi- 
timos, (quorum numero sunt agnati, 
et hi, quos in locum agnatorum tam 
supradicta senatus-consulta, quam 
nostra erexit constitutio,) proximos 
cognatos prator vocat. 


Qui vocantur in hoc ordine. 
$ I. Quà parte naturalis cogna- 
tio spectatur. Nam agnati capite 
diminuti, quique ex his progeniti 
sunt, exlege duodecim tabularum 
. inter legitimos non habentur, sed à 
pretore tertio ordine vocantur ; ex- 
ceptis solis tantummodo . fratre et 
sorore emancipatis non etiam libe- 
ris eorum ; quos lex Anastasiana 
cum fratribus integri juris constitu- 
tis vocat quidem ad legitimam 
fratris hereditatem, sivé sororis; 
non equis tamen partibus sed cum 
aliqua diminutione, quam facilé est 
ex ipsius constitutionis verbis intel- 
ligere. Aliis vero agnatis inferio- 
ris gradus, licét capitis. diminuti- 
onem passt non sunt, tamen antepo- 
nit eos, et procul dubio cognatis. 


After the proper heirs and those, 
whom the praetor and the constitu- 
tions call to inherit with the preper 
heirs, andafter the legitimate heirs 


(among whom. are the agnati, and 


those, whom the above mentioned se- 
natuséconsulta and our constitution 
have numbered with the agnati) the 
pretor calls the nearest cognates. - 


. De agnatis capite minutis. 

6 1. By the law of the twelve ta- 
bles, neither the agnates, who have 
suffered diminution, nor their, issue, 
are esteemed levitimate heirs; but 
they are called by the pretor in the 
third order of succession: but we 
must except a brother and sister, 
(although) emancipated, but not 
their children; for the constitution 
of Anastasius calls an emanctpated 
brother or sister to the succession of 
a brother or sister, together with 
those, who having not been: emanci- 
cipated, are integri juris: butzt does 
not call them to an equal share of the 
succession, as may easily be collected 
from the words of the constitution : 
which prefers an emancipated brother 


or sister to other agnates of inferior - 


deg? ee, although unemancipated ; and 
consequently to all cognates. - 


LIB. Hi. 


TIT. » V. ei 


De eonjunctis per feminas. 


If. Eos etiam, qui per famini- 
jexüs personas ex transverso 
iatione junguntur, tertio gradu 
imitatis nomine, prztor ad suc- 


| De liberis datis 
ITI. Liberi quoque, qui in 
tivá familia sunt, ad naturali- 
'arentum hzreditatem hoc eo- 
gradu vocantur. 


De vulgo quaesitis. 


IV. Vulgó quesitos nullos ha- 
agnatos, manifestum est; cum 
tio à patre sit, cognatio à ma- 
hi autem nullum patrem ha- 
intelligantur. Eadem ratione, 
ter se quidem possunt videri 
mguinei esse ; quia consangui- 
ig jus, species est agnationis. 
Am ergo cognati sunt sibi, si- 
it matri cognati sunt. Itaque 
bus istis exed parte competit 3 
rum poasessio, qua proximita- 
mine cognati vocantur. 


Ex queto gradu vel agnati vel cognati succedunt. 


M. Hoc laco et illud necessa- 
aimonendi sumus agnationis 


wn jure admitti aliquem ad. 


ditatem, etsi decimo gradu sit ; 
& Jege duodecim tabularum 


§ 2. Collateral relatione by the fee 
male line, are called by the "praetor 
in the third order of succession, ace 


corging to their proximity. . 


in adoptionem. 

§ 3. Children, who are in om 
adoptive fumily, are likewise called 
in the third order of succession te 
the inheritance of their natural pe 
rents. 


P d 


§ 4. Jt is manifest, that spurious 
children have no agnates; inase 
much as agnation proceeds from thé 
father, cognation from the mother ; 
and such children are looked upon aa 
having no father. And, for the 
same reason, consanguinity cannot 
be said ta subsist between the bgse 
tard children Of the ‘same women; | 
because consanguinity is a apecies of 

agnation. They can therefore quly 


- $e allied to each gther as they gre 


related to their mother, that is, by 
Cognation ; ang itis for this reason 
that all auch children are called te 
the possession of goods by that part 
of the pretorian edict, by which coge 
nates are called by the right of theis 
pr oximity. 

i 


§ 5. Here it will be proper to ob- 
serve, that any person by right of 
agnation may be admitted to inhee« 
rit, although he be in the tenth deo 
grec; thie is allowed both by the law 


Fr 


ais LIB. III. 
queramus, sivé de edicto, quo pr2- 
tor legitimis heredibus daturum se 
bonorum possessionem pollicetur. 
Proximitatis verà nomine iis solis 
pretor promittit bonorum possessi- 
onem, qui usque ad sextum gradum 
cognationis sunt, et ex septimo à 
sobrino sobrinaque nato natave. 


TIT. VI.: - 


of the twelve tables, and the edict, 
by which the praetor promises, that 
he will give the possession of goods 
to the legitimate heirs. But the 
prator promises the possession of 
goods to cognates, only as far as the 
sixth degree of cognation, according 


to their right of proximity ; and in ' 


the seventh degree, to those cognates 
only, who are the descendants of a 
cousin german. 


cA Qo: @ o0r— 


TITULUS SEXTUS. 
DE GRADIBUS COGNATIONUM. 


S D. xxxvii. 


T. 1 Q. 


Continuatio, et cognationis divisio. 


HOC loco necessarium est ex- 
ponere, quemadmódum gradus cog- 
nationis numerentur. Quare in 
primis admonendi sumus, cognatio- 
nem aliam supra numerari, aliam 
infra, aliam ex transverso, que e- 
tiam àlatere dicitur. Superior cog- 
.fiatio est parentum : inferior libero- 
rum: ex transverso fratrum  soro- 
rumve, et eorum, qui quzve ex his 
generantur; et convenientér patrui, 
amite, avunculi, matertere. Et 
superior quidem et inferior cogna- 
- tio à primo gradu incipit; atea, que 
ex transverso numeratur, à secun- 


do. 


Jt i$ here necessary to explain hew 
degrees of cognation are to be com- 
puted; and first we must observe, 
that there is one species of cognation 
which relates to ascendants, another 
to descendants, and a third to colla- 
terals. -The first and superior cog- 
nation is that relation, which a man 
bears to his parents ; the second, or 
inferior, is that, which he bears to his 
children; the third is that relation 
which he bears to his brothers and 
sisters, and their issue; and also to 
his uncles and aunts, whether pater- 
nal or maternal. The superior and 
inferior cognation commence at the 
first degrée; but the transverse or 


colluteral cognation commences at 


the second. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. VI. 219 


De primo, secundo, et tertio gradu. 


$ I. Primo gradu est supra pa- 
ter, mater: infra filius, filia.. Se- 
cundo gradu supra avus, avia: in- 
fra nepos, neptis : ex transverso fra- 
ter, soror. Tertio gradu supra pro- 
avus, proavia: infra pronepos, pro- 
neptis: ex transverso fratris soro- 
risque filius, filia: et convenientér 
patruus, amita, avunculus, mater- 
tera. Patruus est patris frater, qui 
"Grecis v«««3:^$ - appellatur. A- 
vunculus est fráter matris, qui grece 
merpuderp> dicitur: et uterque 
promiscué 949» appellatur. Amita 
est patris soror, quz grece sarea- 
Ji^$» appellatur; matertera vero 
matris soror, quz grace usrpadv 9s 
dicitur: et utraque promiscue ds 
appellatur: 


Quartus 


§ II. Quarto gradu supra abavus 
abavia : infra abnepos, abneptis: ex 
transverso fratris sororisque nepos 
meptisve : et convenientér patruus 
Magnus, amita magna, id est, avi 
É&rater etsoror : item avunculus mag- 


6 1. A father, or a mother, is in 
the first deeree in. the right line as- 
cending : anda son, or a daughter, 
is also in the first degree in the right 
line descending. A grand-father, or 
a grand-mother, is in the second de- 
gree inthe right line ascending: 
anda grand-son or grand-daughter, 
is in the second degree in the right 
line descending : anda brother or a 
sister, is also in the second degree in 
the colluteral lie. A great-grard- 
father, or a great-grand-mother, is 
in the third degree in the right line 
ascending: anda great-grand-son, 
or great-grand-daughter, is in the 
third degree in the righ* line descend- 
ing: and the son or daughter of a 
brother or sister is also in the third 
degree.in the collateral line; and by 
a parity of reasoning an uncle, or 
an aunt, whether paternal or mater- 
nal, is also in the third degree. A pa- 
ternal uncle, called patruus, is a fa- . 
ther s brother ; a maternal uncle, cal- 
led avunculus, is a mother’s brother ; 
a paternal aunt, called amita, is a fa-' 
ther’s sister; and a maternal aunt, 
called matertera, ?s a mother’s sister. 
Andeach of these persons is called 
in. Greck Su@ or Sum promiscu- 
ously. 


gradus. - 


§ 2. A great-great-grand-father, 
or a great-great-grand-mother, is 
tn the fourth degree in the right line 
ascending ; and a great-great-erand- 
son, or a. great-grcat-erand-duugh- 
ter, is in the fourth degree in the 


4940 LIB. HI. 


nus et matertera magna, id est, 
aviz frater et soror: consobrinus, 
consobrina, id est, qui quaeve ex 
sororibus aut fratribus procrean- 
tur. Sed quidam recté conso- 
brinos eos proprié dici putant, 
qui ex duabus sororibus pro- 
generantur, quasi consororinos : eos 
vero, qui ex duobus fratribus pro- 

cnePantur, proprié fratres patrue- 
lcs vocari : si autém ex duobus fra- 
tribus filie nascuntur, sorores pa- 
trueles appellari. Át eos, qui ex fra- 
tre et sorore progenerantur, amiti- 
nos proprié dici putant. Amite 
tuz filii consobrinum te appellant, 
tw illos amitinos. 


Quintus 
§ III. Quinto gradu supra ata- 
vus, atavia : infra atnepós, atnep- 
tis : ex transverso, fratris sororisque 
pronepos, proneptis: et convenien- 
tér propatruus, próamita, id est, 
proavi frater et soror: et proavun- 
culus et promatertera, id est, proa- 
vie frater et soror: item fratris pa- 
truelis, vel sororis patruelis, con- 
gobrini et consobring, amitini et 
amitinz filius, filia: propior sobri- 
no, propior sobrina ; hi sunt patrui 
magni, amite magne, avunculi 
magni, matertere magne filius, 
filia, 


TIT. VI; 


right line descending.. Also, in the 
transverse or collateral line, the 
grandson, or the grand-daughter, 
of a brother or a sister, is in the 
fourth degree; so is a great uncle, 
or great aunt, paternal or maternal 
and cousins german, (consobrini). 

But some have been rightly of opi- 
nion, that the children of sisters 
are properly consobrini, guasé 
consororinis that the children of 
brothers are properly brothers pa 
truel, if males; and sisters patruel, 
if females ; and that, when there 
aré children of a brother, and chil- 
dren of a sister, they are properly 
amitini ; but the sons of your aunt 
by the father’s side call you conso- 
brinus, and you call them amitini, 


gradus. 

$ 3. Agreat-grand-father’s erand- 
father, or a great-grand-father’s 
grand-mother, isin the fifth degree 
in the line ascending, and a great- 
grandson, or a great-grand-daugh- 
ter, of a grandson or a grand-daugh- 
ter is in the fifth degree in the line 
descending. In the transverse or 
collateral line, a great-grandson, or 
great-grand-daughter, of a brother 
or sister, is also in the fifth degree ; 
and consequently so is a ereat-grand- 
father's brother or sister,or a ereat- 
grand-mother’s brother or sister. 
The son or daughter also of a cou- 
sin german is in the. fifth degree : 
and so is the son or daughter of & 
great uncle or great aunt, paternal or 
maternal; and such son, or daughe 
ter is called propior sobrino: on 
propior sobrina, 


LIB. UI. 


Sextus 
9 IV. Sestó gtadu supra tritavus 
tritavia: infra trinepos, trineptis: ex 
transverso fratris sororisque abne- 
pos abneptis : et convenienter abpa« 
truus abamita, id est, abavi frater et 
soror : abavunculus, abmatertera, id 
est, abavis frater et soror: itém pro- 
patrui, proamite proavuncuh, pto- 
materterz filius; filia : itém propius 
sobrino sobrinave filius, filia: item 
consobrini consobrine nepos, nep- 
tis : kéim sobrini, sobrins ; id. est, 
qui queve ex fratribus: vel sorori- 
bus patrielibus, vel consobrinis, 
vel aniitinis, progenerantur. : 


A 


$ V. Haetenis ostendisse suffi- 
obit quemadmodim: gradus cogna- 
dohis numerentur : namque ex his 
alam est intelligere, quemadmo- 
tin ulteriores quoque. gradus àu- 


TIT. VI. 


gradus. 
$4. A great-grand-father's greats 
grand.father, or a great-grand-fa- 
ther’s ereat-grand-mother, is ih the 
sixth degree in the line ascending ; 
and the great-grandson, or great- 
grand-daughter of agreat-grandson, 
or a great-grand-daughter, is like- 
wise in the sixth degree in the line de- 
scending. And, in the transverse ot 
collateral line, a great-great-grand- 
son, or a great-great-grand-daugh> 
ter, of a brother or sister, is also in the 
sixth degree: and consequently a 
&reat-great-erand-father? s brother or 
gister, and a great-irreat-grànd-ino- 
ther’s brother or sister, is in the sixth 
degree. And the son or daugüter of d 
great-ereat-uncle, or ereat-ereat- 
aunt, paternal or maternal, is also in 
the sixth degree ; and so also is the son 


221 


or daughter of the son or daughter 


of a great-uncle or great-aunt, pa- 
ternal or maternal. The grandson 
also, or the grand-daughter, of a cou- 
sin german is in the sixth degree; 
and, in the same degrees between 
themselves, we reckon the sobrini 
andthe sobrinw; that is, the sons 
and daughters of cousins german in 
general, whether such cousens ger- 
tian are 80 related by two brothers, 
or by two sisters, or by a brother 
onda stster. 


De reliquis gradibus. 


§ 3. Ib euffices to have shewn thus 
far, how degrees of cognation are 
enumerated: and, from the exam- 
ples given, the more remote degrees 
may be computed ; for every person 


»- 


222 


merarc debeamus : quippé semper 
generata persona gradum adjicit; 


_ LIB. III. 


ut longé facilius sit respondere, 


quoto quisque gradu sit, quam pro- 
prià cognationis appellatione quem- 
quam denotare. 


De gradibus 
$ VI. Agnationis quoque gradus 
eodum modo numerantur. 


De graduum 


§ VII. Sed, cum magis veritas 
oculata fide, quam per aures animis 
hominum, infigatur, ideó necessa- 
rium duximus, post narrationem 
graduum, eos. etiam presenti libro 
inscribi quatenus possint et auri- 
bus et oculorum inspectione adole- 
scentes perfectissimam | graduum 
doctrinam adipisci. 


. of them. 2i 


TIT. VII. 


generated always adds one deeree ; 
so that it is much easier to deter- 
mine, in what degree any person is 
related to another, than to denote 
such person by a proper term of 
cognation. 


agnationis. 


§ 6. The degrees of agnation are 
reckoned in the same manner. 


descriptione. 

§ 7. But as truth is fixed in the 
mind much better by, the eye, than 
by the ear, we have thought it. ne- 
cessary to subjoin, to the account al- 
ready given, a tablet with the degrees 
of cognation inscribed upon it ; that 
the student, both by hearing and see- 
ing, may attaina perfect knowledge 


* 


TITULUS SEPTIMUS. 
DE SERVILI COGNATIONE. 


D. xxxviii. T. 2. 


ILLUD certum est, ad serviles 
cognationes illam partem edicti, 
quà proximitatis nomine bonorum 
possessio prpmittitur, non perti- 
nere: nam nec ullá antiquá lege ta- 
lis cognatio computabatur. Sed 
nostrá constitutione, quam pro jure 
patronatüs fecimus, (quod jus us- 
que ad nostra tempora satis obscu- 
rum atque nube plenum, et undique 
confusum fuerat.) et hoc humanitate 


C. vl. T. 4. 
It is certain, that the part of the 


edict, in which the possession of . 


goods is promised, according to the 
right of proximity, does not relate 


to servile cognation ; which hath not . 


been regarded by any ancient law. 
But, by our own constitution, con- 
cerning the right of patronage, 
which right was heretofore obscure, 
and every way confused, we have 


ordained ( humanity so suggesting J 


Le 


PA yee Tur XE 





-LIB. ITI. 


suggerente concessinius, ut, si quis, 
in servili constitutus consortio, li- 
berum vellibercs habuerit, sivé ex 


libera sivé ex servilis conditionis 


muliere, vel contra, serva mulier ex 
libero vel servo habuerit liberos 
, cujuscunque sexis, et, ad liberta- 
tem his pervenientibus, ii, qui ex 
servili ventre nati sunt, libertatem 
meruerint, vel, dum mulieres libere 
erant, ipsiin servitute eos habue- 
rint, et postea ad libertatem perve- 
nerint, ut hi omnes ad saccessionem 
patris vel matris veniant, patronatüs 
jure in hac parte sopito. Hos ete- 


nim liberos non solim in suorum 


parentum successionem, sed etiam 
alterum in alterius. successionem 
mutuam, vocavimus; ex illà lege 
specialitér eos vocantes, sivé soli 
inveniantur, qui in servitute nati et 
postea manumissi sunt; sivé unà 
cum aliis, qui post libertatem pa- 
rentum concepti sunt; sivé ex eo- 
dem patre, sivé ex eadem matre, 
sivé ex aliis nuptiis ; ad similitudi- 
nem eorum, qui ex justis nuptiis 
procreati sunt. 


TIT. VII . 


that, if a slave shall have a child, or 
children, either by a free-woman, or 
by a bond-woman, with whom he 
lives in contubernio, and, on the 
contrary, that, if a bond-woman 
shall have a child, or children, of ei- 
ther sex by a free-man, or by a slave, 
with whom she so lives, and such 
father and mother are afterwards 
enfranchised, the children shall suc- 
ceed to their father or mother, with- 
out regarding the right of patron- 
age. We have not only called these 
children to succeed to their parents, 
but also mutually to each other, whe- 
therthey are sole'in succession, as 
having all been bornin servitude and 
afterwards manumitted, or whether 
they succeed with others, who were 
conceived after the infranchisement of 
their parents ; and whether they are 
all by the same father and mother, 
or by a different father, or mother ; 
and, that children born in slavery, 
but manumitted, should succeed in the 
same manner, as the issue of parents 
legally marricd, 


223 


Collatio ordinum ct. graduum. 


$ I. Repetitis itaque omnibus, 
que jam tradidimus, apparet non 
semper eos, qui parem gradum cog- 
‘ nationis obtinent, paritér vocari: 
eoque. amplius, ne eum quidem, 
qui proximiore sit cognatus, sem- 
per potiorem esse. Cum enim pri- 
fna causa sit suorum heredum, et 
eorüm, quas inter suos h:eredes 
entmeravimus, apparet, pronepo- 

tem vel abnepotem defuncti potio- 


§ 1. From what hath been said, 
zt appears that those, who are in an 
equal degree of cognation, are nat 
always called equally to the success 
sion; and farther, that even the 
nearest of kin, is not constantly to be 
preferred. For, inasmuch as the 
first place is given to proper heirs, 
ahd to those who are numbered with 
proper heirs, it is apparent, that the 
great-grand-son, or great-great- 


rem esse, quam fratrem, aut pa- 
trem, aut matrem defuncti : cum 
alioqui pater quidem et mater (ut 
supra quoque tradidimus) primum 
gradum cognationis obtineant, fra- 
ter verd secundum, pronepos au- 
tem tertio gradu sit cognationis, et 
abnepos quarto: nec interest, in po- 
testate morientis fuerit, an non, 
quod vel emancipatus, vel ex e- 
mancipato, aut femineo sexu, pro- 
pagatus est. Amotis quoque suis 
heredibus, et quos inter suos he- 
redes vocari diximus, agnatus, qui 
integrum jus habet agnationis, eti- 
amsi longissimo gradu sit, plerum- 
que potior habetur, quam proximior 
cognatus: nam patrui nepos vel 
pronepos avunculo vel matertere 
prefertur. Toties igitür dicimus, 
aut potiorem haberi eum, qui prox- 
imiorem gtadum cognationis obti- 
met, aut paritér vocari eos, qui cog- 
nati sunt; quoties neque suorum 
heredim, quique inter suos hzre- 
des sunt, neque agnationis jure ali- 
quis preferri debeat, secundüm ea, 
quae tradidimus: exceptis fratre et 
sorore emancipatis, qui ad succes- 
sionem fratrum vel sororum vocan- 
tur ; qui, etsi capite diminuti sunt, 
tamen preferuntur ceteris ulteri- 
etis gradus agnatis. 


LIB. III. TIT. VU. 


grand-son, ig preferred iq the bro- 
ther or even the father or mother of 
the deceased: although a father qnd 
mother, (as we have before obserp- 
ed,) obtain the first degree of relg- 
tion, a brother the second, a great- 
grand-son the third, and a. great, 
great grand-son the fourth ; neither 
does it make any difference, whether 
auch grand-childsen were under the 
power of the deceased, at the timg 
of his death, or put of his pawer ; 
either by beipg themselves emancipa> 
ted, or by being the children of those 
who were so; neither can it be ob- 
jected, that they are descended by the 
female ine. But, when there areng 
proper heirs,nor any of those, who 
are fiermitted to rank with them, 
then an agnate, who hath tke full 
right of agnation in him, although he 
he in the most distant degree, is ge- 
nerally preferred to a cognate, whg 
ze in the nearest degree; thus the 
grand-son or great-grand-son of a 
paternal uncle ig preferred to a ma- 
ternal uncle or aunt. Hence, when 
there are no proper heirs, nor any, 
who are numbered with them, nor 
any, who ought to be preferred by 
the right of agnation, (as we have 
before noted, ) then the nearest in de- 
gree of cognation, zs called to the 
succession ; and if there be many in 
the same degree, they are all called 
equally. But abrother and sister, 
although emancipated, are yet called 
to the succession of brothers and sis: 
ters; for, although they have suf- 
fered diminution, they are neverthe- 
less preferred to all agnates of ¢ 


more remote degree. 


n ^ 


LiB. III. TIT. VII. 


TITULUS OCTAVUS. 
DE SUCCESSIONE LIBERTORUM. - 


D. xxxviii. 


T. 2. 


Qui succedunt. De lege duodecim tabularum. 


- NUNC de libertorum bonis vi- 
deamus. Olim itaque licebat li- 
berto patronum suum impuné testa- 
mento preterire: nam ita demum 
Jex duodecim tabularum ad hzre- 
ditatem liberti vocabat patronum, 
si intestatus mortuus esset libertus, 
herede suo nullo relicto. Itaque, 
intestato mortuo liberto, si is suum 
hzredem reliquisset,. patrono nihil 
m bonis ejus juris erat. Et, si- 
quidém ex naturalibus liberis ali- 
quem suum hzredem reliquisset, 
nulla videbatur querela; si veró 
adoptivus filius fuisset, aperté ini- 
quum erat, nihil juris patrono su- 
peresse. 


Let us now treat of the succession 
of freed-men. A freed-man might 
formerly, with impunity, omit in his 
testament any mention of his pa- 
tron: for the law cf the twelve 
tables called the patron to the inhee 
ritance, only when the freed-mars 
died intestate without proper heirs 3 
therefore, though he had died intes- 
tate, yet, if he had left a proper 
heir, the patron would have receiv- 
ed no benefit: and indeed, when the 
natural and legitimate children of the 
deceased became his heirs, there 
seemed no cause of complaint ; but, 
when the freed-man left only an 
adopted son, it was manifestly inju- 
rious, that the patron should have 
no claim. 


- De jure pretorio. - 


$.I. Qua de causá, postea, pre- 
toris edicto hzc juris iniquitas e- 
mendata est. Sivé enim faciebat 
testamentum libertus, jubebatur ita 
, testari, ut patrono partem dimidiam 
bonorum suorum relinqueret ; et, si 
aut nihil aut minus parte dimidia 
reliquerat, dabatur patrono, contra 
tabulas testamenti, partis dimidie 
bonorum possessio : sivé intestatus 
moriebatur, suo herede relicto filio 
adoptivo, dabatur s&«qué patrono 


§ 1. Thelaw was therefore af- 
terwards amended by the edict of the 
praetor: for every freed-man, who 
made his testament, was commanded 
so to dispose of his effects, as to leave 
a moiety to his patron: and, if the 
testator left nothing, or less than a 
moiety, then the possession of half 
was given to the patron contra tabu- 
las, i. e. contrary to the disposition 
of the testement. And, if a freed- 
man died intestate, leaving an adopt- 


Gc 


926 LIB. III. TIT. VIIL - 


contra hunc suum hzredem partis 
dimidiz bonorum possessio. Pro- 
desse autem liberto solebant, ad 
excludendum patronum, naturales 
liberi, non solàüm quos in potestate 
mortis tempore habeat, sed etiam 
emancipati, et in adoptionem dati, 
si modo ex aliqua parte scripti hz- 
redes erant, aut preteriti contra 
tabulas bonorum possessionem ex 
edicto prztorio petierant. Nam 
exheredati nullo modo repellebant 
patronum. 


ed son his heir, the possession of @ 
moiety was given to the patron not- 


withstanding : yet, not only the na- 
tural and lawful children of a freed- 


_man, whom he had under his power 


at the time of his death, excluded the 
patron, but those children also, whe 
were emancipated, and given im 
adoption, if they were written heirs: 
for any part, or even, although they 
were omitted, if they had requested 
the possession CONTRA TABULAS, 
by virtue of the pretorian edict,. 
But disinherited children by no meant- 
repelled the patron. 


De lege Papia. 


§ II. Postea vero lege Papia 
&daucta sunt jura patronorum, qui 
locupletiores libertos habebant. 
Cautum enim est, ut ex bonis ejus, 
qui sestertium centum millium pa- 
trimonium reliquerat, et pauciores 
quam tres liberos habebat, sivé is 
testhmento facto, sive intestatus 
mortuus erat, virilis pars patrono 
deberetur. Itaque, cum unum qui- 
‘dem filium filiamve heredcm reli- 
querat libertus, perindé pars dimi- 
dia debebatur patrono, ac si is siné 
ullo filio filiáve intestatus decessis- 
set: cum vero duos duasve hefe- 
des reliquerat, tertia pars debebatur 
patrono: sitres reliquerat, repelle- 
batur patronus. 


§ 2. But afterwards the rights of 
patrons, who had wealthy freed-men 
were inlarged by the Papian law : 
which provides that he shall have a 
man's share out of the effects of his 
freed-man, whether dying testate or 
intestate, who hath left a patrimony 
of an hundred thousand sestertii and 


. fewer than three children: so that, 


when a frecd-man hath left only one 
son or daughter, a moiety is due te 
the batron, as if the deceased had died 
testate without either son or daugh- 
ter. But, when there are two heirs, 
male or female, a third part only is 
due to the patron; and, when there 
are three, the patron is wholly ex- 
eluded. 


De constitutione Justiniani. 


$ III. Sed nostra constitutio, 
(quam pro omni natione greca lin- 
ua compendioso tractatu habito 


$ 3. But our constitution, / publish- 
ed in a. compendious form, in the 
Greek language, for the benefit. of 


LIB. III. 


composuimus,) itahujusmodi cau- 
sam definivit ; ut, siquidém libertus 
vel liberta minores centenariis sint, 
ad est, minus centum aureis habeant 
substantiam, (sic enim legis Papie 
summam interpretati sumus, ut pro 
mille sestertiis unus aureus com- 
putetur,) nullum locum habeat pa- 
tronus in eorum successione, si ta- 
inen testamentum fecerint ; sin au- 
tem intestati decesserint, nullo libe- 
rorum relicto; tunc patronatüs jus, 
quod erat ex lege duodecim tabula- 
rum, integrum reservavit. Cum 
vero majores centenariis sint, si 
heredes vel bonorum possessores 
liberos habeant, sivé unum, sivé 
plures, cujuscunque sexüs vel gra- 
dis, ad eos successiones parentum 
deduximus, patronis omnibus mo- 
dis cum sua progenie semotis. Sin 
autem sine liberis decesserint, si- 
quidem intestati, ad omnem here- 
ditatem patronos patronasque voca- 
vimus. Si veró testamentum qui- 
dem fecerint, patronos autem aut 
patronas preterierint, cum nullos 
liberos haberent, vel habentes eos 
exhzredaverint, vel mater sivé avus 
maternus eos praterierint, ita quod 
non possint argui inofficiosa eorum 
testamenta, tunc ex nostrà constitu- 
tione per bonorum possessionem 
contra tabulas, non dimidiam, ut 
antea, sed tertiam partem bonorum 
liberti consequantur ; vel quod deest 
eis, ex constitutione nostra repleatur, 
si quando minus tertià parte bono- 


. rum suorum libeftus vel liberta eis 


reliquerit: ita sine onere, ut nec 
Theris liberti liberteve ex eà parte 


TIT. VIII. 227 
all nations,) orduined, that, if 4 
freed-man, or freed-wzman, die pos- 
sessed of less than an hundred aurei, 
(for thus have we interpreted the 
sum mentioned in tke Papian law, 
counting one aureus for a. thcusand 
sestertii,) the patron shall not be in- 
titled to any share in a testate suc- 
cession. But, where a freed-man, 
or woman, dies intestate, and with- 
out children, we have reserved the 
right of patronage intire, as it for- 
merlf was, according to the law of 
the twelve tables. But, if a freed 
person die worth more than an hun-. 
dred aurei, and leave one child, or 
many, of either sex or any degrees 
as the heirs and possessors of his 
goods, we have permitted, that such 
child or children shall succeed their 
parent to the intire exclusion of the 
_patron and his heirs: and if any 
freed-persons die without children 


_and intestate, we have called their 


patrons or patronesses to their whole 
inheritances. And ifany freed-per- 
son, worth more than an hundred 
aurei, hath made a testament, omit- 
ted his patron, and left no. children, 
or hath disinherited them; or if a 
mother, or maternal grand-father, 
being freed-persons, have omitted to 
mention their children in their wills, 
so that such wills cannot be proved 
to be inofficious, then, by virtue of 
our constitution, the patron shall 
succeed, not toa moiety as formerly 
but to the third part of the estate 
the deceased, by possession 
tabulas: and, when freed: 
eave less than the third 







by 


228 LIB. III. 


legata vel fideicommissa prestentur, 
sed ad coheredes eorum hoc onus 
redundet: multis aliis casibus à no- 
bis in przfata constitutione congre- 
gatis, quos necessarios esse ad hu- 
jusmodi dispositionem juris per- 
epeximus : ut tam patroni patrone- 
que quam liberi eorum, nec non qui 


ex transverso latere veniunt usque 


ad quintum gradum, ad successio- 
nemlibertorum libertarumve vocen- 
tur, sicüt ex eá constitutione intel- 
ligendum est. Et, si ejusdem pa- 
troni vel patronz, vel duorum dua- 
rumque pluriumve, liberi sint, qui 
proximior est, ad liberti vel liberte 
vocetur successionem ; et in capita, 
non instirpes, dividatur successio; 
eodem modo et in iis, qui ex trans- 
verso latere veniunt, servando. 
Pené enim consonantia jura inge- 
nuitatis et libertinitatis in successio- 
fübus fecimus. 


TIT. VIII. 


effects to their patrons, our consti- 
tution. ordains, that the deficiency 
shallbe supplied ; nor shall this third 
part, be subject to trusts, or legacies, 
even for the benefit of the’ children 
of the deceased ; for the co-heirs only 
of the patron shall bear this bur- 
den. Inthe before-mentioned con- 
stitution, we have collected many 
more cases, necessary in relation to 
the right of patronage ; that patrons 
and patronesses, their children and 
collateral relations, as far as the fifth 
degree, might be called to the succes- 
sion of their freed-men and freed- 
women ; as will appear more fully 
from the ordinance itself. And, if 
there be many children of one, two or 
more patron or patroness, the near- 
est in degree, is called to the succes- 
sion of his freed-man or freed-wo- 
man; and, when there are many in 
equal degree, the estate must be di- 


e 


- vided in capita and not in stirpes : 


the same order is decreed to be obser- 
ved among the collaterals of patrons 
and patronesses : for we have ren 
dered the laws of succession almost 
the same both as to ingenui and liber- 
tini. 


Quibus libertinis succeditur. 


$ IV. Sed hzc de iis libertinis , 


hodie dicenda sunt, qui in civitatem 
Romanam pervenerunt, cum nec 
int alii liberti, simul et Dedititiis 


et Latinis: sublatis, cum Latinorum | 
successioncs nulle penitis erant;' 


quia, licét ut liberi vitam suam pe- 
ragebant, attamén ipso ultimo spi- 
situ simul animam atque libertatem 


& 


$ 4. What we have’ said relates 
to modern freed-men who are all ci-: 
tizens of Rome ; for there is now, no 
other, the Dedititii and Latini be- 
ing abolished: the latter of whom ne-. 
ver enjoyéd any right of succession ; 
for although - they led the lives of* 
freed-men, yet, with their last breath, 
they lost both their lives and liber- 


LIB. III. TIT. VIII. 


amittebant: et, quasi servorum, ita 
bona eorum jure quodammodo pe- 
culii ex lege Junia Norbana manu- 
missores detinebant. Postea veró 
senatus-consulto Largiano cautum 
fuerat, ut liberi manumissoris, non 
nominatim exhzredati facti, extra- 
neis heredibus eorum.in bonis La- 
tinorum  preponerentur. Quibus 
etiam supervenit Divi Trajani edic- 
' tum, quod eundem hominem, si in- 
vito vel ignorante patrono, ad civi- 
tatem Romanam venire ex benefi- 
cio principis festinarat, faciebat qui- 
dem vivum civem, Latinum veró 
morientem. Sed nostra constitu- 
tione, propter hujusmodi conditio- 
num vices et alias difficultates, cum 
ipsis Latinis etiam legem Juniam, 
et senatus-consultum  Largianum, 
et edictum Divi Trajani, in perpe- 
tuum deleri censuimus, ut omnes 
liberi civitate Romana fruantur ; et 
mirabili moto quibusdam adjectio- 
nibus ipsas vias, quz in Latinita- 
tem ducebant ad civitatem Roma- 
nam capiendam transposuimus. 


229 


ties : for their possessions, like the 
goods of slaves, were detained by 
their manumittor, who possessed 
them, as a peculium, by virtue of 
the law Junia Norbana. it was af- 
terwards provided by the senatus- 
consultum Largianum, that the 
children of a manumittor, not disin- 
herited by name, should be preferred 
to any strangers, whom a manumit- 
tor might constitute his heirs: then 
followed the edict of Trajan, by which 
ifa slave either against the will or 
without the knowledge of his patron 
should obtain the freedom of Rome 
by favour of the emperor, such slave 
should continue free, while liring, 
but, at his death, should be regard- 
ed only as à Latin. But we, being 
averse to these changes of condition, 
and dissatisfied with the difficulties 
attending them, have thought pro- 
per, by our constitution, for ever to 
abolish, together with the Latins, the 
law Junia, the scnatus-consultum 
Largianum, and the edict of Trajan ; 
so that all freed-men may become 
freed-men of Rome. And‘we have 
happily contrived by some additions, 
that the manner of conferring the 
freedom +of Latims should now Be- 
come the manner of conferring the 
freedom of Rome. 


330 LIB. III. 


TITULUS 


TIT. IX. 


NONUS. 


DE ASSIGNATIONE LIBERTORUM. 


D..xxxvii. T. 4. 


An assignari possit, et quis assignationis effectus. 


IN summá, (quod ad bona liber- 
torum attinet,) admonendi sumus, 
censuisse senatum, ut quamvis ad 
omnes patroni liberos, qui ejusdem 
gradus sunt, equaliater bona liber- 
torum pertineant ; tamen licere pa- 
renti, uni ex liberis assignare liber- 
tum, ut post mortem ejus solus is 
patronus habeatur, cui assignatus 
est; et ceteri liberi qui ipsi quoque 
ad eadem bona, nullà assignatione 
interveniente, paritér admitterentur, 
nihil juris in his bonis habeant; 
sed ita demim pristinum jus reci- 
piant, siis, cui assignatus est, de- 
cesserit, nullis liberis relictis. 


De sexu assignati, ct de sexu 

6 I. Nec tantüm libertum, sed 
etiam libertam, et non tantum filio 
nepotive, sed etiam filie neptive, 
assignare permittitur. 


Respecting the possession of freed- 
men, we must remember the decree 
of the senate ; whereby, although the 
goods of freed-men belong equally ta 
allthe children of the patron, who 
are in the same degree, yet it is law- 

fulfor a parent to assign a freed-man 
to any one of his children, so that, 
after the death of the parent, the 
child, to whom the freed-man was 
assigned, is solely to be esteemed his 
patron: and the other children, who 
would have been equally admitted 
had not this been the case, are wholly 
excluded ; but, if the assignee should 
die without issue, the excluded. chil- 
dren regain their former right. 


graduque ejus, cui assignatur. 
§ 1. Freed-persons of either sex 
are assignable; notonly to a son of 


grandson, but to a daughter or grand- 
daughter. 


Dc liberis in potestate vel emencipitis. 


$ II. Datur autem hec assig- 
nandi facultas ei, qui duos pluresve 
liberos in potestate habebit, ut eis, 
quos in potestate habet, assignare 
- libertum libertamve liceat. Unde 
quarebatur, si eum, cui assignavit, 
postea emancipaverit, num evane- 
stat assignatio; Sed placuit eva- 


§ 2. The power of assigning 
freed-perscns is given to him, whe 
hath two or more children un-eman- 
cipated, so that a father may assign 
a freed-man or freea-woman to chal- 
dren retained under his power : hence 
it became a question, if a father 
should assign a freed-man to hia eon 


LIB. III. 


mescere : quod et Juliano et aliis 
plerisque visum est. 


TIT. X. 231 
and afterwards emancipate. that son, 
whether the assignment would not 


be null ? which hath been determined 
in the affirmative ; and so thought 


Julian and many others. 


Quibus modis aut verbis assignatio fit: et de senatus-consulto. - 


€ III. Nec interest, an testamen- 
fo quis assignet, an siné testamen- 


to; sed etiam quibuscunque verbis - 


patronis hoc permittitur facere, ex 
ipso SC. quod Claudianis tempori- 
bus factum est, Sabellio Rufo et 


§ S. ltis the same, whether the 
assignment of a freed-man be made 
by testament, or not; fer patrons 
may assign verbally; under the se- 
natus-consultum, passed in the reign 
of Claudian in the consulate of Sa- 


Asterio Scapula Consulibus. bellius Rufus and Asterius Scapula, 
——Eo d @® 14 —— 
TITULUS DECIMUS. 


DE BONORUM POSSESSIONIBUS. 


. D.xxxvii, T. 1. 


} ! 
Cur introducte bonorum possessiones; et quis sit earum 
effectus. 


JUS bonorum possessionis in- 
troductum est à praetore, emendandi 
veteris juris gratiá : nec solüm in in- 
testatorum hereditatibus vetus jus 
€o modo pretor emendavit, sicut su- 
pra dictum est; sed in eorum quo- 
que, qui testamento facto decesse- 
rint Nam, si alienus posthumus 
hzres fuerit institutus, quamvis he- 
reditatem jure civili adire non po- 
poterat, cum institutio non valebat, 
honorario tamen jure, bonorum pos- 
sessor efBciebatur ; videlicét cum 


À praetore adjuvabatur. Sed et is 


The right of succeeding by the 
possession of goods, was introduced 
by the pretor in amendment of the 
ancient law ; which he corrected as 
it regarded not only the inheritances 
of intestates, (as before observed, ) 
but of those also who die testate ; 
for,a posthumous stranger being in- 
stituted heir, although he could not 
enter upon the inheritance by the ci- 
villaw, inasmuch as his institution ' 
would not be valid, yet by the (pre- 
torian or ) honorary law, he might 
be made the possessor of the goods, 


a" 


. Se uccessore 


LIB. IH. 


à mostrá constitutione hodie recté 
peres instituitur, quasi et jure ci- 
vil zon mcognitus. Aliquandéta- 
men, neque emendandi neque im- 
pugnandi veteris juris, sed maiis 
ceonfirmandi gratia, praetor pollice- 
tur bonorum possessionem : nam 
ilic quoque, qui, rectée testamento 
facto, heredes instituti sunt, dat se- 
cundum tabulas bonorum possessi- 
ohem. Item ab imtestato suos he- 
redes, et agnatos, ad bonorum pos- 
sessionem vocat: sed et remota 
queque bonorum possessione ad 
eos pertinet hereditas jure civili. 
Quos autem solus pr.tor vocat ad 
hereditatem, heredes quidem tpso 
jure non fiunt: nam praetor hzre- 
dem facere non potest: per legem 
enim tantüm, vel similem juris con- 
stitutionem, heredes fiunt, vel per 
senatus-consulta et constitutiones 
principales: sed, cum eis prator 
dat bonorum possessionem, loco 
heredum constituuntur, et vocantur 
bonorem possessores. Adhuc au- 
tem et alios complures gradus pre- 
tor fecitin bonorum possessionibus 
dandis, dum id agebat, ne quis siné 
moreretur. Nam, an- 
gustissimis fmibus constitutum per 
legem ducdecim tabularum, jus per- 
cipiendarum hereditatum  pr»tor 
ex bono et zquo dilatavit. 


TIT. X. 


when he had recetved the assistance 
of the pretor. Such stranger may 
at this time, by our constitution, be 
legally instituted heir as a person not 
unknown to the civil law. But the 
prator sometimes bestows the posges- 
sion of goods, intending neither to 
amend nor impugn the old law, but 
to confirm it: for he gives possession 
secundam tabulas to Mose, who are 
appointed heire by reeular testament, 
He also calis proper heirs and agnates 
to the possession of the goods of in- 
testates ; and yet the inheritance 
would be their own by the civil law, 


although the pretor did not inter- - 


pose his authority. But those, whom 
the pretor calls to an inherttance 
merely by virtue of his office, do not 
become legal heirs ; inasmuch as the 
pretor cannot make an heir; for 
heirs are made only by law, or by 


. what has the effect of a law, as a de- 


creee of the senate, or an imperial 
constitution. But, when the pretor 
gives any persons the possession of 
goods, they standin the place of heirs, 
and are called the possessore of the 
goods. He hath also devised many 
other orders of persons, to wham the 
possession of goods can be granted, 
so that no man may dte without a 
successor: and, by the rules of 3us- 
tice and equity, he hath enlarged the 
right of taking inheritances, which 
was bounded within very narrow li- 
mits by the laws of the twelve tables. 


e 


LIB. III. TIT. X. 


282 


De speciebus ordinariis. Jus vetus. 


§ I. Sunt autém bonorum pos- 
sessiones ex testamento quidem hz ; 
prima, quz praeteritis liberis datur 
vocaturque contra tabulas: secun- 
da, quam omnibus jure scriptis he- 
redibus praetor pollicetur; ideoque 
vocatur secundum tabulas. | Et, cum 
de testatis prius locutus est, ad in- 
testatos transitum fecit: et primo 
loco suis heredibus, et iis, qui ex 
edicto pretoris inter suos hzredes 
connumerantur, dat bonorum pos- 
sessionem, quz vocatur unde liberi. 
Secundo, legitimis hieredibus. Ter- 
tio, decem personis, quas extraneo 
manumissori preferebat. Sunt au- 

.tem decem personz hz ; pater, ma- 
ter, avus, avia, tam paterni quam 
materni; itém fihus, filia; nepos, 
neptis, tam ex filio, quam ex filia; 
frater sororve, consanguinei vcl u- 
terini, Quarto, cognatis proximis. 
Quinto tanquam ex familia. Sexto, 
patrono patronzque, liberisque eo- 
rum et parentibus. Septimo, viro 
et uxori. Octavo, cognatis manu- 
missoris. 


§ 1. The possessions of goods or 
pretorian testamentary successions, 
are these. First, that whichis givento 
children, not mentioned in the testa- 
ment; thts is called possession con- 
trary to the testament. The second, 
that which the prator promises to all. 
written heirs, and is therefore cal- 
led possession according to the tcs- 
tament. These being fixed he goes 
to intestacies ; and first he gives 
the possession called unde liberi, to 
the proper heirs, or to those, wha 
by the pretorian edict are number- 
ed among the proper heirs: second- 
ly, to the legitimate (legal) heirs: 
thirdly, to ten persons, in. prefeP- 
ence to a stranger, who was the mar 
numittor, viz. to a father, a mother, 
or a grand-father or grand-mother, 
paternal or maternal; to a son, a 
daughter, or to a grand-gon oF 
grand-daughter, as well by a daugh- 
ter as by ason; to a brother or sis- 
ter, either consanguine or uterine : 
fourthly, to the nearest cognates z 
fifthly, to those who are, as it were, 


|f the famil, : sixthly, to the patron 


or patroness, and to their children, 
andtheir parents: seventhly, to an 
husband and wife : ‘eighthly, to the 
cognates of a manumittor or pa- 
tron. 


Jus novum. 


4 II. Sed eas quidem praetoria 
introduxit jurisdictio: à nobis ta- 
mén nihil incuriosum pretermiss- 
um est; sed, nosuis constitutioni- 
bus omnia corrigentes, contra tabu- 


§ 2. The pretor’s authority hath 
introduced these successions; as to 
ourselves, having passed over nothing 
negligently, we have admitted by sur 
constitutions the possession of goods 


H zu 


1234 LIB. III. 
las quidem et seeundum tabulas bo- 
norum poss.ssiones admissimus, 
utpote necessarias constitutas : nec 
non ab intestato, ende liberi, et un- 
de legitimi, bonorum possessiones. 
Que autem in praetoris edicto quin- 
to loco posita fuerat, id est, unde 
decem persone, eam pio proposito 
et compendioso sermone superva- 
cuam ostendimus. Cum enim pre- 
fata bonorum possessio decem per- 
sonas preponebat extraneo manu- 
Missori nostra constitutio, quam de 
emancipatione liberorum fecimus, 
omnibus parentibus eisdemque ma- 
numissoribus, contracta fiducia, ma- 
numissionem facere dedit ; ut ipsa 
manumissio eorum hoc in se habeat 
privilegium, et supervacua fiat su- 
pradicta bonorum possessio. Sub- 
lata igitur predicta quintà bonorum 
possessione in gradum cjus sextam 
antea bonorum possessionem in- 
duximus, etquintam fecimus, quam 
pretor proximis cognatis pollicetur. 
Cumque antca fuerat. septimo loco 
bonorum possessio, tanguam ex fa- 
ilta, et octavo, tmZe patroni 
patroneque, liberi et parentes ec- 
sum, utramque per constitutionem 
nostram, quam de jure patronatüs 
fecimus, penitus evacuavimus, Cum 
enim, ad similitudinem successionis 
ingenuorum, libertinorum succes- 
siones posuerimus, quas usque ad 
quintum gradum tantummodoó co- 
arctavimus, ut sit aliqua intcr in- 
genuos et libertinos — differ ntia, 
sufficit eis tam contra tabulas bono- 
rum possessio, quam unde leritin:i, 
et unde cognati, ex quibus possunt 


TIT. X. 


contra tabulas and secundum ta- 
bulas, ae necessary; and alsc the 
possessions ab intestato, called un- 
de libeii and unde legitimi; óut 
we have briefly shewn, that the pos- 
session, called unde decem persone, 
which was ranked by the pretor’s 
edict in the fifth order, was unne- 
cessary: for, whereas that posses- 
sion preferred ten kinds of persona 
to astranger, being the manumittor, 
our constitution on that subject, hath 
permitted all parents to mantumit 
thetr children, under the presump- 
tion of a fiduciary contract ; so that 
the possession unde decem persone 
ts nov useless. The afore-mention- 
ed fifth possession being thus atro- 
gated, we have now made that the 
Jifth, which was formerly the sixth, 
by which the praetor gives the suc- 
cesston to the nearest cognates. 
And, whercas formerly the posses- 
sion tanquam ex familia, was in the 
seventh place, and the possession un- 
de patroni patronz que, liberi et pa- 
rentes corum, was rn the eighth, we 
have now annulled them both by our 
ordinance concerning the right of 
patronage. — And having brought the 
successtons of the libertini to. a si- 
militude with those of the ingenui, 
( except, that we have limited the for- 
mer to the fifth degree, so that there 
may still remain soni: difference be- 
tween them ) we think, that the pos- 
sessions contra tabulas, unde legiti- 
mi, and unde cograti may st/fee, 
by which all persons may vindicate’ 
their rights ; the niceties and inex- 
tricable errors of those two kinds of 


LIB. III. 


gua jura vindicare, omni scrupulo- 
sitate et inextricabili errore istarum 
duarum bonorum possessionum re- 
soluto. Aliam vero bonorum pos- 
sessionem, quae unde viret uxor 
appellatur, et nono loco inter vete- 
res bonorum possessiones posita 
fuerat, et in suo vigore servavimus, 
et altiore loco, id est, sexto, eam 
posuimus: decima quoque veteri 
bonorum possessione, quz erat un 
de cognati manumissoris, propter 
causas enumeratas meriió sublata, 
ut sex tantummodó bonorum pos- 
eessiones ordinarie permaneant, 
suo vigore pollentes. 


TIT. &. 235 


possessions, tanquam ex familia and 
unde patroni, being removed. The 
other pesaession of goods, callea vir 
et uxor, which held the ninth place 
among the anctent possessions, we 
have preservedin full force and have 
placed in an higher, to wit, the sixth 
degree. The tenth of the ancient 
possessions, called unde cognati ma- 
numissoris, being deservedly abolish- 
ed for causes already enumerated, 
there now remain in force only six 
ordinary possessions of goods. 


Species extraordinaria. 


6 III. Septima eas secuta, quam 
optima ratione prztores introduxe- 
Tunt: novissimé enim promittitur 
edicto iis etiam bonorum possessio, 
quibus, ut detur, lege vel senatus- 
consulto vel constitutione compre- 
hensum est: quam neque bono- 
rum possessionibus, quz ab intesta- 
to veniunt, neque iis, qu e ex testa- 
mento sunt, praetor stabili jure con- 
numeraverit; sed quasi ultimum 
et extraordinarium auxilium (prout 
res exigit) accommodavit, scilicét 
lis, qui ex legibus, senatus-consul- 
tis, constitutionibusve principum, 
ex novo jure, vel ex testamento, 
vel ab intestato veniunt. 


$ 3. To these a seventh posses- 
sion hath been added, which the pre- 
tors have very properly introduced: 
for, by a late edict, this possession 
ts promised to all those, to whom it 


de appointed by any law, senatus-con- 


sultum, or constitution: and the 
pretor hath not positively numbered 
this possession of goods either with 
the possessions of the goods of in- 
testate or testate persons, but hath 
given it, according to the exigence 
of the case, as the lust. and extraor- 
dinary resource of those, who are 
called to the B&ccessions of testates or 
intestates, by any particular law, de- 
cree of the senate, or new constitu- 
tion. ; 


De successorio edicto. 


9 IV. Cum igitur plures species 
&nccessionum przator introduxisset, 


§ 4.. The rator, having introdu- 
ced in their order many kinds of suc- 


258 | LIB. III. 


easque per ordinem disposuisset, et 
ín unaquáque specic successionis 
sepé plures extent dispari gradu 
prrsone, ne actiones creditorum 
diff-rentur, sed habercnt, quos con- 
venirent, et ne facilé in possessio- 
nem bonorum defuncti mitterentur, 
et eo modo sibi consulerent, idcó 
petende bonorum possessioni cer- 
tum tempus prefinivit.  Liberis 
itaque et parentibus, tam naturali- 
bus quam adoptivis, in petenda bo- 
morum posssessione anni spatium, 
cxteris autem (agnatis vel cognatis) 
centum dierum, dedit. 


TIT. X. 


cessions, and as persons of different 
degrees are often found in one spe- 
cies of succession, he thought fit to 
limit a certain time for demanding 
the possession of gocds, that the ac- 
tions of creditors may not be delayed 
for want of a proper person against 
whom to bring them, and that the 
creditors nay not possess themselves 
of the effects of the deccased too 
easily, and consult solely their own 
advantage: thereforeto parents and 
children, whether natural or adopted, 
he hath allowed one year, within 
which, they may either. accept or re- 
fuse the possession. To all other 
persons, agnates or cognates, he al- 
lows only an hundred days. 


T'e ‘ure accrescend' et iterum. de suc essorio edicto. 


6 V. Et si intra hoc tempus ali- 
quis bonorum possessionem non pe- 
tierit, ejusdem gradus personis ac- 
crescit; vel, si nullus sit, deinceps 
cxteris bonorum possessionem pe- 
rindé ex successorio edicto pollicc- 
tur, ac si is, qui precedebat, ex eo 
numero non esset. Si quis itaque 
delatam sibi bonorum possessionem 
repudiaverit, non, quousque tem- 
pus bonorum possessioni przfini- 
tum excesserit, expectatur; sed 
statim c«teri ex eodega edicto ad- 
mittuntar. 


§ 5. And,ifa person intitled, do 
not claim possession within the time 
limited, his right of possession ac- 
crues first to those in the same de- 
gree with himself; and, in default 
of those, the praetor by successory 
edict gives the possession to the next 
degree, as if he, who preceded, had 
noright. If aman refuse the pos- 
session of goods, when it is open 
to him, there is no necessity to wait, 
until the time limited is expired, but 
the next in succession, may be in- 
stantly admitted under that edict. 


Explicatio dicti temporis. 


$ VI. In petendá autem bono- 
rum possessione dies utiles singuli 
considerantur. 


§ 6. In applications for the pos- 
session of goods, we count all the 
days, which are utiles; i. e. those 
days, on which the party, having 
knowledge that the inheritance is o- 
fen to him, might apply to the judge. 





LIB. III. TIT. 239 
X 
Quomodo peti dá. *- 

§ VII. Sed benéanterioresprin- $7. =~ 
Oip.s ot huic cause providerunt,ne fy provi $$ \ 
quis pro petenda bonorum posses- mand the Ea 4% © 
sione curet; sed, quocunque modo  /emn form: 
admittentis eam, indicium ostende- manner si 
rit, intra statuia tamen tempora, cept the pre p d 
plenum habeat earum beneficium. — in the prescri ,.-ee 8hall enjoy 

the benefit of ite" 
— Mq) 3 GD. A 


TiTULUS UNDECIMUS. 
DE ACQUISITIONE PER ARROGATIONEM. 


Co :tinuatio. 


EST et alterius generis per uni- 
versitatem successio; que neque 
lege duodl:cim tabularum, neque 
praetoris edicto, sed eo jure, quod 
consensu receptum est, introducta 
est. 


There its also an universal suc- 
cession of another kind, introduced 
neither by the laws of the twelve ta- 
bles, nor by the edict of the praetor, 
but by the law founded on general 
consent and usage. 


Que hoz modo acquirun ir. Jus vetus. 


: § I. Ecce enim, cum pater-fami- 
lias sese in arrogationem dat, om- 
nes res ejas corporales et incorpo- 
ral :s, qu eque ei dvbite sunt, arroga- 
tori antea quidem pleno jure ac- 
quirebantur, exceptis iis, que 
per capitis diminutionem pereunt ; 
quales suat op-rarum obligationes 
et jus agnationis: usus etenim et 
us:isfructus, licét his antea. connu- 
Merabantur ; attamén capitis dimi- 


$ 1. For example, if the father of 

a family gave himself in arrogation, 
his property corporeal or incorpo- 

real, and the debts due to him, were 

formerly acquired in full right by the 
arrogator ; those things only except- 

ed, which pertshed by diminution 

or change of state; as the duties of 

freed-men totheir patrons and the 
rights of agnation. But although 

use and usufruct, were heretofore 





i] 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XI. 


numbered among those rights which 
perished by diminution, yet our con- 
stitution hath prohibited them from —- 
being taken away by the less di- 
minution. 


Jus novum. 


$ II. Nunc autem nos eandem 
acquisitionem, quz per arrogatio- 
nem fiebat, coarctavimus ad simili- 
tudinem naturalium parentum. Ni- 
hil enim aliud, nisi tantummodó 
ususfructus, tam naturalibus paren- 
tibus quam adoptivis, per filios-fa- 
milias acquiritur in iis rebus, que 
extrinsecis filiis obveniunt, dominio 
cis integro servato. Mortuo autem 
filio arrogato in adoptiva familia, 
etiam dominium rerum ejus ad ar- 
rogatorem pertransit ; nisi supersint 


alie persone, que ex constitutione : 


nostra patrem in iis, qus acquiri 
non possunt, antecedant. 


§ 2. But we have now limited the 
acquisitions from arrogation, by 
those of natural parentage: for 
nothing is now acquired either by 
natural or adoptive parents, but the 
bare usufruct of those things, which 
their children possess extrinsically in 
their own right : the property still re- 
maining intire (in the adopted or na- 
tural child.) But, if an arrogated 
son die under power of his arrogator, 
then even the property of the effects 
of such son will pass to the arrogator 
in default of those persons, whom 
we have by our constitution prefer- 
red to the father in the succession of 
those things, which could not be ac- 
quired for him. 


Effectus hujus acquisitionis. 


§ III. Sed ex diverso, pro eo 
quod is debuit, qui se in adoptio- 
nem dedit, ipso quidem jure arro- 
gator non tenetur, sed nomine filii 
convenitur; et,si noluerit eum de- 
fendere, permittitur creditoribus, 
per competentes nostros magistra- 
tis, bona, qu: ejus cum usufructu 
futura fuissent, si se alieno juri non 
subjecisset, possidere, et legitimo 
modo ea disponere. 


§ 3. On the other hand an arro- 
gator is not directly bound to satts- 
Sy the debts of his adopted son; but 
he may be sued in his son's. name ; 
and,if he refuse to defend his son, 
then the creditors, by order of the 
proper ma; istrates, may seize upos 
and legally sell all those goods, of 
which the usufruct, as well as the 
property, would have been in the 
debtor, if he had not made himself" 
subject to the power of another. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XII. 


TITULUS DUODECIMUS. 


DE EO, CUI LIBERTATIS CAUSA BONA ADDI. 
CUNTUR. 


Continuatio. 


Accessit novus casus successionis 
ex constitutione Divi Marci. Nam, 
si ii, qui libertatem acceperunt à 
domino in testamento, ex quo non 
aditur hzreditas, velint bona sibi 
addici libertatum conservandarum 
enusa, audiuntur. 


Rescriptum 


$ I. Etita Divi Marci rescripto 
ad Pompilium Rufum continetur: 
verba rescripti ita se habent. Si 
Virginio Valenti, qui testamento suo 
libertatem quibusdam adscripsit, ne- 
mine successore ab intestato exis- 
tente, in ea causa bona ejus esse c&- 
| perunt, ut venire debeant, te, cujus de 
ea re notio est, aditus rationem desi- 
derit tui habebit, ut libertatum, tam 
earum, que d:recto, quam earum, 
gue per speciem fideicommissi relic- 
te sunt, tuendarum gratia addicantur 
tbr, si idonee creditoribus caveris de 
solido, quod cuique debetur, solvendo. 
Et si quidem, quibus directa libertas 
data est, perinde liberi erunt, ac si 
Mereditas adita esset : it autem, quos 
heres manumittere rogatus est, a te 
libertatem consequentur ; ita autem 
wt si non alia conditione | velis tibi 
bona addici, quam ut ii etiam, qui di- 


A new species of succession hath 
taken its rise from the constitution of 
Marcus Aurelius. For, if those 
slaves, to whom freedom hath been 
bequeathed, are desirous, for the sake 
of obtaining it, that the inheritance, 
which hath not been accepted by the 
written heir, should be adjud,ed for 
their benefit, they shall obtain their 
request. 


D. Marci. 


§ 1. And to the same effect is the 
rescript of theemperor Marcus to 
Pompilius Rufus; thewords of which 
are “ If the estate of Firgintus Va- 
** lens, who by testament hath be- 
* queathed to certain persons their 
* freedom, must necessarily be sold, 
* and there is no successor ab intes- 
* tato, then the magistrate who has 
*the cognizance of these affairs, 
* shall upon application hear the 
* merits of your cause, that, for 
* the sake of pr: servingthe liberty 
* of those, to whom it was given ei- 
* ther directly or intrust, the es- 
* tate of the deceased may be ad- 
“judged to you, on condition, that 
* you give good security to satisfy 
“the credito:s. And all those, to 
“whom freedom was directly gi- 
** ven, shall then become free, as if 
* the inheritance had been entered 


340 


recto libertatem acceperunt, tui liber- 
ti fiant : nam huic etiam. voluntati 
tuc, si ii, quorum de statu agitur, 
consentiant, auctoritatem nostram ac- 
commodamus. | Et, ne hujus rescrip- 
tionis nostre emolumentum alia ra- 
tione irritum fiat, si fiscus bona ag- 
noscere voluerit, et ii, qui bonis nos- 
tris attendunt, sciant, commodp pecu- 
niario praeferendum esse libertatis 
causam, et ita bona cogenda, ut liber- 
tas eis salva sit, qui eam adipisci po- 
tuerunt, ac si hereditas ex testamen- 
to adita esset. | 


Utilitas 

€ II. Hoc rescripto subventum 
est et libertatibus et defunctis, ne 
bona eorum à creditoribus posside- 
antur et veneant. Certé, si fuerint 
hac de causa bona addicta, cessat 
bonorum venditio ; existit enim de- 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XI. 


* upon by the written heir ; but 
* those whom the heit was order- 
* ed to manumit, shall obtain their 
“freedom from. you only. And, 
* if you are not willing, that the 
* goods of the deceased should be 
* adjudged to you on any other con- 
* dition, than that even they, who 
* received their liberty directly by. 
* testament, shall also become your 
* freed-men, we then order, that 
* your will shall be complied with, 
* if the persons agree to it, who are 
* to receive their freedom. And, 
* ]cst the use and emolument of this 
* our rescript should be frustrated 
* by any. other means, be it known 
*to the officers of our revenue, 
* that, whenever our exchequer 
* Jays claim to the estate of a de- 
* ceased person, the cause of liber- 
* ty is to be preferred to any pe- 
* cuniary advantage; and the es- 
* tate shallbe so seized, as to pre- 
* serve the freedom of those, who 
* could otherwise have obtained it : 
** and this in as full a manner, as if 
* the inheritance had been entered. 
* upon by the testamentary heir." 


rescripti. 
$ 2. This rescript is calculated in 
favour of" liberty, and also for the 
benefit of deceased persons, lest their 
effects should be seized apd sold by 
their creditors: for it is certain, 
that, when goods are adjudged to a 


LIB. IIT. TIT. XII . 


functi defensor, et quidem idoneus; 
qui de solido creditoribus cavet. 


241 


particular man for the preservation 
of liberty, a sale by creditors cart 
never take effect: for he, to whom 
the goods are adjudged, is the pro- 
tector of the deceased, and must be a 


person, who can give security to the c 


- Ubi locum: habeat. 


$ TII. In primis hoc rescriptum 
toties locum habet, quoties testa- 
'mento libertates date sunt. Quid 
ergó, si quis intestatus decedens 
codicillis libertates dederit, neque 
adita sit ab intestato hereditas ? 
Favor constitutionis debebit locum 
habere: certé, si testatus decesse- 
rit et codicillis dederit libertatem, 
competere eam, nemini dubium est. 


6 IV. Tunc enim constitutioni 
locum esse verba ostendunt, cum 
nemo successor ab intestato exis- 
tat: ergó, quamdiu incertum erit, 
utrum existat, an non, cessabit con- 
stitutio. Si veró certum esse ce- 
perit, neminem existere ; tunc erit 
constitutioni locus. 


€ V. Siis, qui in integrum res- 
titui potest, abstinuerit hereditate, 
an, quamvis potest in integrum res- 
titui, potest admitti constitutio, et 
bonorum addictio fieri? Quid er- 
" gs, si post addictionem, libertatum, 
eonservandarum causá factam, in 
iMegrum sit restitutus ? Utique 


$ 3.. This rescript takes plate, 


whenever freedom is conferred by: 


testament. But, what if a master 
dic intestate, having bequeathed free» 
dom to his slaves by codicil, and his 
inheritance be not entered upon? 
We answer, that the benefit of the 
rescript shall extend to this case; 
most certainly, if a master die tes- 
tate, and by codicil bequeath free- 
dom, the rescript shall be in force. 


§ 4. The words of the rescript ‘ 


shew, that it isin ‘force, when there 
is no successor ab intestato. There= 
fore while it remains doubtful, whe- 
ther there be or be not a successor, 
the constitution shall not take place 3 


but when it is certain that no one 


will enter upon the succession, i 
shall then have its effect. 


§ 5. But, if one who has a right 
to be restoredin integrum (as a mi- 
nor ) should delay to take upon him the 
inheritance, shall the constitution 
then take place, and an adjudication of 
the goods pass (tog stranger or one 
of the slaves ? ) And again, after an 


adjudication has been made for the . 
Y i 


t 


342 LIB. Iit. 


noQ erit dicendum, revocari liber- 
tates ; quia semel competjerunt. 


TIT. XE. 


sake of liberty, shall the heir be res- 
toredin integrum? We answer, that 


freedom once obtained, shall not af- 


terwards be revoked. 


Si libertates datz non sunt. 


$ VI. Hec constitutio liberta- 
tum tuendarum causa introducta 
est; ergo, si libertates nulle sint 
date, cessat constitutio. Quid ergo, 
si vivus dederit libertates vel mor- 
tis causá, et, ne de hoc queratur, 
utrum in fraudem creditorum, an 
non, factum sit, idcircó velint sibi 
bona addici, an audiendi sunt? Et 
magis est, ut audiri debeant, etsi de- 
ficiant verba constitutionis. 


§ 6. This constitution was made 
for the protection of liberty : and 
therefore, when freedom is not giv- 
en, the constitution has no effect. 
Suppose then, a master hath given 
freedom to his slaves either inter 
Vivos, or mortis causa, and to pre- 
vent the creditors from complaining 
of fraud, they should petiticn, that 
the estate of the deceased may be ad- 
judged to them ; are they to be hear- 
ed? we think they ought, although 
the letter of the constitution is defi- 
cient. 


De speciebus additis à Justiniano. 


' § VH. Sed, cum multas divi- 
siones ejusmodi constitutioni dees- 
se pcrspeximus, lata est à nobis 
plenissima constitutio, in quà mul- 
te species collate sunt, quibus jus 
hujusmodi successionis plenissi- 
mum est effectum ; quas ex ipsius 
lectione constitutionis potest quis 
cognoscere. 


§ 7. But perceiving that the te- 
script was deficient in many re- 
spects, we enacted a very full con- 
stitution, containg many cases, which 
amply explain the rights of succes- 
sion; which any person who reads 
that constitution, may understand. 


LIB. III. TIT. XII. 


TITULUS DECIMUS.TERTIUS. 


DE SUCCESSIONIBUS - SUBLATIS, QU/E FIEBANT 
PER BONORUM VENDITIONES, ET EX SENA- 
TUS-CONSULTO CLAUDIANO. — 


C. vii. 

ERANT ante praedictam sacces- 
stonem olim et alis per univeraita- 
tem successiones ; qualis fuerat bo- 
norum emptio, quz de bonis debi- 
toris vendendis per multas ambages 
fuerat introducta; et tunc locum 
habebat, quando judicia ordinaria 
in usu fuerant; sed, cum extraordi- 
nmariis judiciis posteritas ugacst, ided 
cum ipsis ordinariis judiciis etiam 
bonorum venditiones expiraverunt : 
et tantummodo creditoribus datur 
officio judicis bona poesidere, et, 
proüt utile eis visum est, ea dispo- 
nere : quod ex latioribus digestorum. 
libris perfectius apparebit. Erat et 
ex senatus-consulto Claudiano mi- 
serabilis per universitatem acqui- 
Sitio, cum libera mulier, servili a- 


"more bacchata, ipsam libertatem. 


per senatus-consultum amittebat, et 
cum, libertate substantiam. Quod 
indignum nostris temporibus esse 
existimantes, et à nostrà civitate de- 
leri, et non inseri nostris digestis 
concessimus. 


T. 24. 


untoereg] succession before that, 
which we treated of in the foregoing — 
title; as the bonorum émptio; 
which was introduced with many in- 
tricacies for the sale of debtor'e 
estates, and continued as long at the 
ordinary judgments were in prac 
tice; but, when the extraordinary 
judgments were used, the emptio bo- 
norum and the ordinary judgmente 
ceased together. Creditors cannow 
possess themselves of the goods of 
their debtors and dispose of them, ae 
they think proper, by the decree of @ 
judge. These points are treated of 
more at large in the books of our di- 
gests. There was also, by virtue of 
the Claudian decree, ancther univer- 
sal acquisition calied miserabilis: 
for example, if a free-woman had de- 
based herself by cohabiting with a 
slave, she lost her freedom by the be- 
fore named decree, and, together with 
her freedom, her estate and substance. 
But, this was, in our opinion, un- 
worthy of our reign, and ought to 
be expunged; hence, we have not 
permitted it to be inserted in the di- 
vests. 


There were many other linde of ja 


LIB. III. TIT. XIV. 


TITULUS DECIMUS-QUARTUS. / 
DE OBLIGATIONIBUS. 


D. xliv. T. 7. 


Continuatio 


NUNC transeamus ad obliga- 
tiones. "Obligatio est juris vincu- 
dum, quo necessitate astringimur 
alicujus rei solvendz secundüm nos- 
trm civitatis jura. 

Divisio 

6 I. Omnium autem obligationum 
summa divisio in duo genera de- 
ducitur; namque aut civiles sunt 
aut pretorie. Civiles sunt, que 
aut legibus constitute, aut certo 
‘jure civili comprobate sunt. Pre- 
toriz sunt, quas pra'tor ex sua juris- 
. dictione constituit ; que etiam ho- 
norariz vocantur. 


C. iv. T. 1Q, 


et definitio. 

Let us now pass to obligations, 
An obligation is the chain of the law, 
by which we are necessarily bound 
to make some payment, according to 
the laws of our country. 


prior. 

§ 1. Obligations are primarily 
divided into two kinds, civil and 
pretorian. Civil obligations, are 
such as are constituted by the ‘laws, 
or by any species of the civil law. 
Prztorian obligations are such as 
the pretor hath appointed by his du- 
thority; and are also called honow 


rary. 


l'ivisio posterior. 


$ II. Sequens divisio in quatuor 
Bpecics dividitur. Aut enim ex 
contractu sunt, aut quasi ex contrac- 
tu, aut ex maleficio, aut quasi ex 
maleficio. Prius est, ut de iis 
‘que ex contractu sunt, dispicia- 
mus. Harum eque quatuor sunt 
sp-cies. Aut enim re contrahun- 
tur, aut v«rbis, aut literis, aut con- 
sensu; de quibus singulis dispicia- 
mus. 


6 2. The second or subsequent di. 
vision of obligations is four fold; by 
contract, by quasi-contract; by 
malefeasance, and by quasi-males 
feasance. Let us first treat of those 
which arise from contract; which 
arealso four fold: for obligations 
are contracted by the thing itself, by 
parol, by writing, or by consent of 
parties. Let us take a view of each 
of these. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XV. 245 


TITULUS DECIMUS-QUINTUS. 


QUIBUS MODIS RE CONTRAHITUR OBLIGATIO. 


D. xii. T. 1. 


D. xiii. T. 6. 7. 


C. iv. T. 1. 23. 24. 34. 


De mutuo. 


RE contrahitur obligatio, veluti 
mutui datione. Mutui autem da- 
tio in iis rebus consistit, que pon- 
dere, numero, mensurave, constant ; 
veluti vino, oleo, frumento, pecu- 
nia numerata, ere, argento, auro, 
quas res, aut numerando, aut me- 
tiendo, aut appendendo, in hoc da- 


mus, ut accipientium fant. Et, 


quoniàm nobis non ecdem res sed 
alie ejusdem nature et qualitatis 
redduntur, indé etiam mutuum ap- 
pellatum est ; quia ita à me tibi da- 
tur, ut ex meo tuum fiat: et ex 
eo contractu nascitur actio, quz 
vocatur certi condictio. 


An obligation may be founded on 
the thing itself; as by the delivery 7 
of a loan or mutuum: and this mays 
be of any thing, having weight, 
number, or measure, as wine, oil, 
corn, coin, brass, silver, or gold ; 
which being thus delivered, become 
the property of the receiver : and 
since the identical things lent cannot, 
but others of the same nature must 
be returned in lieu ofthem, this loan 
is therefore called a mutuum; for 
Jor in this case Y so give, that what 
is mine may become yours: From 
this contract arises the action, cer& 
condictio. 


De indebito soluto. 


€ I. Is quoque, qui non debitum, 
accepit ab eo, qui. per errorem sol- 
vit, re obligatur; daturque agenti 
eontra eum propter repctitionem 
Condictitia actio: nam perindé ei 
condici potest, si apparet, eum dare 


eponiere,ac si mutuum accepisset. 


Undé pupillus, si ei siné tutoris 
auctoritate indebitum per errorem 
datum est, non tenebitur indebiti 
eondictione, non 'nizis quan mu- 
tui datione. Sed hec species obli- 
gationis non viletur ex contractu 
coBsistere ; cum is, qui solvendi 


§ 1. ZHe also to whom another 
hath paid by mistake what was not 
due, is. bound by the thing received, 
so that an action of condiction lies for 
the recovery at the suit of him, who 
paid or delivered it erroneously. And 
this action may be brought 81 appa- 
ret, eum dare opportere ; as if the 
receiver had accepted it asa mutu- 
um. Hencea pupil, to whom a pay 
ment hath been erroneously made 
without the authority of his tutor, 
is nat subject to the condictio inde- 
biti, any more than to the certi cor- 


¥ 


_ tus manet. 


246 LIB. III. 


animo daf, magis voluerit negotium 
distrahere, quam contrahere. 


TIT. XV. 


dictio. And yet this species of ob- 
ligation does not seem founded in 
contract ; since he, who pays in con- 
templation of debt, appears more wil- 
ling to dissolve, than to make a con- 
tract. 


De commodato. 


$ II. Item is, cui res aliqua uten- 
da datur, id est, commodatur, re 
obligatur, et tenetur commodati 
actione, Sed is ab eo, quimutuum 
accepit, longé distat: namque non 
ita res datur, ut ejus fiat; etobid 
de ea re ipsa restituendà tenetur. 
Et is quidem, qui mutuum accepit, 
si quolibet fortuito casu amiserit, 
quod accepit, veluti incendio, rui- 
na, naufragio, aut latronum hos- 
tiumve incursu, nihilominis obliga- 
At is, qui utendum ac- 
cepit, sané quidem exactam diligen- 
tiam custodiendz rei praestare te- 
netur: nec sufficit ei, tantam dili- 
gentiam adhibuisse, quantam suis 
rebus adhiberc solitus est, si modó 
alius diligentior poterat cam rem 
custodire. Sed propter majorem 
vim, majoresve casus, non tenetur, 
si modo non ipsius culpa is casus 
intervenerit : alioqüi si id, quod ti- 
bi commodatum est domi, peregré 
tecum ferre malueris, et vel incur- 
su hostium predonumve, vel nau- 
fragio, amiseris, dubium non est, 
quin de restituenda cà re tenearis. 
Commodata autem res tunc pro- 
prié intelligitur, si nullà mercede 
accepta vel constituta, res tibi uten- 
da data est : alioqui, merccde intter- 
venimte, locatus tibi usus rei vide- 


. 6 2. He also, to whom the use of 
any particular thing is granted or 
commodated, is bound by the deli- 
very of the thing, and is subject to 
the action commodataria. But such 
person widely differs from him, who 
hath received a mutuum : for a com- 
modatum, or thing lent, is not deli- 
vered, to the intent that it should be- 
come the property of the receiver ; 
and therefore he is bound to restore 
the identical thing received. There 
is also another difference; for he 
who hath accepted a mütuum, is not 
freed from his obligation, if by any 
accident, as the fall of an edifice, fire, 
shipwreck, thieves, or the incursions 
of an enemy, he hath lost what he 
received : but he, who hath received 
a commodatum, or a thing lent for 
his use only, is indeed commanded to 
employ his utmost diligence in keep- 
ing and preserving it; and it will 
not suffice, that he hath taken the 
same care of it, which he was accus- 
tomed to take of his own property, if 
zt appear, that a more diligent man 
might have preserved it; yet, if the 
loss was occasioned by superior force, 
or some extraordinary accident, and 
not by any fault, he is then not obfig- 
cd to. make it good; but if. a man 
chuse to travcl abroad, with that 


* 


LIB. IH. 


tur; gratuitum enim debet esse 
commodatum. 


TIT. XV. 247 


which hath been lent him at home, 
and should lose it by. shipwreck, or 
the incursion of enemies, or robbers, 
it is not doubted, but he is bound to 
make restitution, or pay an equivar 
lent. A thing is properly said to be 


lent or commodated, when one man. 
permits another to enjoy the use of. . 


it, and receives nothing by way of 
hire: otherwise the thing ts let, and 


not lent; for a commodatum, br - 


loan, must be gratuitous. 


De deposito. 


6 III. Preterea et is, apud 
quem res aliqua deponitur, re obli- 
gatur, teneturque actione depositi ; 
quia et ipse de eà re, quam acce- 
pit, restituendá tenetur. Sed is ex 
eo solo tenetur, si quid dolo com- 
miserit: culpe autem nomine, id 
est, desidiz ac negligentiz, non te- 
netur. taque securus est, qui pa- 
rim diligentér custoditam rem fur- 
to amiserit: quia, qui negligenti 
amico rem custodiendam tradit, 
non ei, sed suz facilitati, id impu- 
tare debet. 


§ 3. A person intrusted with a de- 
posit, 1s bound by the delivery of the 
thing, and is subject to an aétion of 
deposit, because he is under an obli- 
gation of making restitution of that 
very thing, which hereceived. But 
a depositary is only thus answerable 
on account of fraud; for where a 
fault only can be proved against him, 
such as negligence, he is under no 
obligation ; and he is therefore se- 
cure, if the thing deposited be stolen 
from him, even although it were carc- 


lessly kept. For he, who commits — 


his goods to thecare of a negligent 

friend, should impute the loss, not to 
his friend, but to his cwn want of 
caution. 


De pignore. 


' $ IV. Creditor quoque, qui pig- 
nus accepit, re obligatur; quia et 
Ipse, de eà re, quam accepit, restitu- 
endà, tenetur actione pigneratitia. 
Sed, quia pignus utriusque gratia 
datur, et debitoris, quo magis pe- 
. cunia ei credatur, ‘et creditoris, 


§ 4. Acreditor also, who hath re- 
ceived a pledge, is bound by the deli- 
very ofit; for he is obliged to re- 
store the very thing, which he hath 
received, by the action called pigne- 
ratitia. But, inasmuch as a pledge 
is given for the mutual service of both 


- 


248 LIB. III. 


qué magisei intuto sit creditum, 


piacuit sufficeve, si, ad eam rem - 


eustodiendam, exactam diligentiam 
adhibeat; quam si prestiterit, et 
aliquo fortuito casu rem amiserit, 
securum esse, necimpediri credi- 
tum petere. 

M! 


TIT. XVI. 


debtor and creditor, (of the debtor, 
that he may borrow more readily, and 
of the creditor, that repayment may — 
be better secured, ) it will suffice, if 
the creditor shall appear to have used 
an exact diligence in keeping the 
thing pledged: for if so, and the 
pledge be lost by mere accident, the 
creditor is secure, andis not prohi- 
bited from suing his debt. 


— uu, Yt GD 3t Cie 


TITULUS DECIMUS-.SEXTUS. 
DE VERBORUM OBLIGATIONIBUS. 


D. xlv. T. 1. 


C. viii. T. 38. 


Summa. 


VERBIS obligatio contrahitur 
ex interrogatione et responsione, 
cum quid dari fierive nobis stipula- 
mur; ex quà due proficiscuntur 
actiones, tam condictio certi, si cer- 
ta sit stipulatio, quam ex stipulatu, 
81 incerta sit: quz hoc nomine inde 
utitur, quod stipulum apud veteres 
frmum appellabatur, forte à stipite 
descendens. 


A verbal obligation is made by 
question and answer, when we sti- 
pulate, that any thing shall be given 
or done; hence arise two actions, 
viz. the condictio certi,. when the 
stipulation is certain ; and the con- 
dictio ex stipulatu, when it is un- 
certain. This obligation is called a 
stipulation, because whatever was 

jirm, was termed stipulum, by the 
ancients ; probably from stipes, the 
trunk of a tree. 


De verbis stipulationum. 


§ I. In hac re olium talia verba 
tradita fuerunt ; Spondes ? Spondeo. 
Promittis ? Promitto. — l'ide-pro- 
mittis ? — Fide-promitto. — Fide-ju- 
bes?  Fide-jnbeo. Dabis? Dabo. 
Facies? Facigí, | Utrum autem 
Latina an Grecia, vel qualibet alia, 


A 


§ 1. The folowing words were 
formerly used in all verbal abligas 
tions. 


Do you under- Spondes? Spon. 


take? deo. . 
Da you promise 2 Prom itis? Pre. 
Initto. 


LIB. III. 


lingua stipulatio concipiatur, nihil 
interest; scilicét, si uterque stipu- 
lantium intellectum ejus linguz ha- 
beat ; nec necesse est eádem lingua 
utrumque uti, sed sufficit congruen- 
' tér ad interrogata respondere. Qui- 
netiam duo Greci Latina lingua 
contrahere obligationem possunt. 
Sed hzc solemnia verba olim qui- 
- dem in usu fuerunt ; postea autem 
Leonina constitutio lata est, quz, 
solemnitate verborum sublata, sen- 
sum et consonantem intellectum ab 
uraque, parte solàm desiderat, qui- 
buscunque tandem verbis express- 
um est. 


TIT . XVI. 


249 


Do you faithful- Fide - promittis ? 
ly promise ? Fide-promitto. 
Do you pledge Fide-jubes? Fi- 
yourself ?  de-jubeo. 
Will you deliver? Dabis? Dabo. 
Will you per- 
form? 
And it is not material whether the 
stipulation be conceived in Latin, 
Greek, or any other language, if the 
parties understand it: nor is it ne- 
cessary that the same language 
should be used by each person; for 
it is sufficient, if a pertinent. answer 
be made to each question. So two 
Greeks may contract in Latin. — án- 
ciently indeed it was necessary to 
use those solemn words before recit- 
ed; but the constitution of the em- 
peror Leo was afterwards enacted, 
which takes away this verbal solem- 
nity, and requires only the appre 
hension and consent of each party, 
expressed in any form of words. 


Facies? Faciam 


Quibus modis stipulatio fit. De stipulatione pura vel in dicm. 


'6 II. Omnis stipulatio aut in di- 
em, aut sub conditione fit. Pure, 
veluti quinque AUREOS dare spon- 
des ? idque confestim peti potest. 
In diem, cum adjecto dit, quo pe- 
cunis solvatur, stipulatio fit; velu- 
ti, decem AUREOS primis calendis 
Martiis dare spondes? id autem, 
‘quod in diem stipulamur, statim 
quidem debetur; sed peti prius, 
quam dies venerit, non potest ; ac 
ne eo quidem ipso die, in quem 
stipulatio facta cst, peti potest; 
quia totus is diesarbitrio solven- 
Sis tribui debet; neque: enim cer- 


§ 2. Every stipulation is made to 


be performed simply, or at a day 
‘certain, or conditionally. 


Simply, 
when a man says do you promise 
to pay five AuRzI ? and, in this case, 
the money may be instantly demand- 
ed. At-a day certain, as when the 
day is mentioned on which-the money 
is to be paid ; thus, do you promise 
to pay me five AUREI on the first of 
March? óut that which we stipte- 
late to pay at a day certain, though 
it become immediately due, cannot 
be demanded before the day comes ; 
nor can it even then be sued; for 


K x 


250 


tum est, eo die, in quem promis- 
sum est, datum non esse, prius- 
quam is dies prsterierit. 


LIB. III. TIT. XVI. 


the whele day wrust be allowed for 
payment; because it cam never te 


certain, that there hath been a fail- 


ure of payment on the day promised, 
until that day be expired. 


De dic adjecto perimendz obligationes causa. 


§ III. At,si ita stipuleris, decem 
AUREOS annuos, quoad vivam, dare 
spondes? et puré facta obligatio 
intelligitur, et perpetuatur: quia 
ad tempus non potest deberi; sed 
hzres petendo pacti exceptione sub- 
movebitur. 


$ 3. But, if aman thus stipulates ;. 
viz. do you premise to give me ten, 
AUREI annually, as long as I live? 
the obligation is understood to be 
made simply, and becomes perpetuat- 
ed; for it cannot remain due for a 
given time only: but should the heir 
demand payment, he shall. be barred 
by an exception of agreement. 


De conditione. 


§ IV. Sub conditione stipulatio 
fit, cum in aliquem casum differtur 
obligatio, ut, si aliquid factum fue- 
rit, vel non fuerit, committatur sti- 
pulatio ; veluti, si Titius consul fue- 
rit factus, quinque AUREOS dare spon 
des ? Si quis ita stipuletur, si in ca- 
pitolium non ascendero, dare spon- 
des ? perindé erit, ac si stipulatus 
esset, cum moreretur, sibi dari. 
Ex conditionali stipulatione tantàm 
spes est debitum iri; eamque ipsam 
spem in heredem transmittimus, 
&i prius, quam conditio extet, mors 
mobis contigerit. 


§ 4. Astipulation is condittonal, 
when an obligation is referred toan 
accident, and depends upon some 
thing to happen or not to happen, be- 
fore the stipulation oan take effect : 
for instance, do you promise to pay 
me five AURZI, if Titius be made 
consul? or do you promise ta pay 
me five AUREI, if I do not ascend 
the capitol? which last stipulation 
je in effect the same, as if he had 
stipulated, that five AURB should be 


_ paid to him at the time of his death. 


Jt is to be observed, that, in every 
conditional stipulation, there ie only 
a hope, that the thing stipulated. will 
become due; and this hope a man 
transmits to his heirs, if he die. bt 
Sore the event of the condition. 


. LEB. HII. 
@ 


TET. XVI. 251, 


De loco. 


$ V. Loca etiam inseri stipula- 
toni solent ; veluti, Carthagini dare 
spondes ? quie stipulatio, licét puré 
fieri videatar, tamén re ipsa liabet 
tempus adjectum, quo promissor 
utatur ad pecuniam Carthagini dan- 
dam. Et ides, st quis Rome ita 
stipuletur, Aodie Carthagini dare 
spondes ? imutilis erit stipulatio, cum 
impossibilis. sit repromissio, 


§ 5. Even places are often insert- 
ed in a stipulation ;' as, do you pro- 
mise to give me such a particu- 
lar thing at Carthage? and this sti- 
pulation, although it appear to be 
made simply, yet in reality carries 
with it a space of time, which the 
obligor may make use of to enable. 
himself to pay the money promised: 
at Carthage. And therefore, if a 
man at Rome should stipulate in these 
words, do you promise to pay me 
asum of money this day at Car- 
thage ? the stipulation would be null, 
because the performance of it would 
be impossible. | 


De conditione ad tempus przsens vel preteritunr relata, 


$ VI. Conditiones, que ad prae- 
sens vel preteritum. tempus refe- 
runtur, aut statim infirmant obliga- 
tionem, aut omninó non differunt ;. 
veluti, si Titius consul fuit, vel, si 
Mrevius vivit, dare spondes ? nam, 
si ea ita non sunt, nihil valet stipu- 
latio: sin autem ita se habent, sta- 
tim valet. Qus enim per rerum 
naturam sunt certa, non morantur 
obhgationem, licet apud nos incer- 
ta sint. 


§ 6. Conditions, which relate to 


the time present or past, either in- | 


stantly annul or enforce an obliga- 
tion. Thus, do you, promise if 
Trrius hath been a consul? or if 
M.évivs be now living? Jf these 
are not facts, the sfipulation is void ; 
if they are, it is good and may be 
enforced ; for events, which in them- 
selves are certain, delay not the per- 
formance of an obligation, although 
to us they are not certain. 


Quz in stipulatum deducuntur. 


$ VH. Non solim res in stipu- 
Petum deduci possunt, sed etiam 
facta ; ut si stipulemur aliquid fie- 
ri, vel non fieri. Et in hujusmodi 
stipulationibus optimum erit pe- 
nam subjicere, ne quantitas stipu- 
. lationis m inccrto sit, ac nccesse sit 


$ 7. Not only things, but acts, 


may be the subject of stipeilatzon ; as 
when we stipulate, that something 
shall, or shall not be done. | And, 'n 
these stipulations, it will be right to 


subjoin a penalty, lest the value of 


the stipulation should be incertain, 


= 


353 LIB. III. 


actori probare, quod ejus intersit. 
Itaque, si quis, ut fiat aliquid, sti- 
puletur, ita adjici pena bebet, si. ita 
factum non erit, pene nomine decem 
aureos dare spondes ? Sed si, que- 
dam fieri, quedam non fieri, unà 
eádemque conceptione stipuletur 
^. quis, clausula hujusmodi erit adji- 
cienda ; si adversus ea factum erit, 
sive quid ita factum non fuerit, tunc 
pene nomine decem. aureos dare 


spondes ?. 


TIT. XVII. 


» ; 
and the demandant should therefore 
be forced to prove how far he is in- 


terested init. Therefore, if a man 
stipulate, that something shall be 


done, a penalty ought to be thus ad- 
ded; do you not promise to pay me 
ten AUREI, as a. penalty, if the act 
stipulated is not performed ? But, if 
At be agreed in the same obligation, 
that some things shall be done, and 
that others shall not&be done, then 
ought some such clause, as the fol- 
lowing, to be added ; do you promise 
to pay me ten AUREI, as a penalty, 
if any thing be done contrary to a- 
greement; or if any thing be not 
done according to our agreement? 


— eap) 4* QD 5t 4 


TITULUS DECIMUS-.SEPTIMUS. 


DE DUOBUS REIS 


STIPULANDI ET PROMIT. 


TENDI. 


D. xlv. T. 2. C. Ville T. 40. Nov. 99. 


Quibus modis duo rei fieri possunt. 


ET stipulandi et promittendi 
duo pluresve rei fieri possunt. Sti- 
pulandi ita, si post omnium interro- 
gationem .promissor respondeat, 
Spondeo ; ut puta, cum duobus se- 
paratim stipulantibus ita promissor 
respondeat, utrigue vestrum dare 
spondeo. Nam, si prius Titio spo- 
ponderit, deindé alio int-rrogante 

' spondeat, alia atque alia erit obliga- 
tjo, nec creduntur duo rei stipulan- 


T'wo or more persons may stipu- 
late, and two or more may become 
obligors. The stipulating parties 
are bound, if, after all questions have 
been asked, the obligor answer, I 
promise ; as when, for example, the 
obligor thus answers two persons se- 
parately stipulating, I promise te 
pay each of you. For, if he first 
promise Titius, and afterwards pro- 
mise another, who interrogates him, 


LIB. III. 


di esse, Duo pluresve rei promit- 
tendi ita fiunt, Mavi, decem aureos 
dare spondes ? et, Sei, eosdem decem 
aureos dare spondes ? si respondeant 
singuli separatim, Spondeo. 


TIT. XVII. 


253 


there will then be two obligations, 
and not two. stipulators to one obli- 
gation. Twoor more become obli- 
gors, if, after they have been thus 
interrogated, M&vius, do you pro- 
mise to pay us ten AUREI! and, 
Sz1us, do you promise to pay us 
the same ten AuREr? they each of 
them answer separately, I do pro- 
mise. 


De effectu hujusmodi stipulationum. 


I. Ex hujusmodi obligationi- 
bus et stipulationibus solidum sin- 
gulis debetur, et promittentes sin- 
guli in solidum tenentur. In utrá- 
que tamen obligatione unares ver- 
titur ; et velalter debitum accipien- 
do, vel alter solvendo, omnium 
perimit obligationem, et omnes ]li- 
berat. 


De stipulatione purá ; 

$ II. Ex duobus reis promitten- 

di, alius puré, alius in diem, vel 

sub conditione, obligari potest; 

nec impedimento erit dies aut ¢on- 

ditio, quo minis ab eo, qui pureobli- 
gatus est, petatur. 


§ 1. By these stipulations and 
obligations the whole sum stipulated 
becomes due to each stibulator ; and 
each obligor is bound for the whole. 
But as one and the same thing is due 
by each obligation, any one stipulator 
by receiving the debt, and any obli- 
gor by paying it, discharges the obli- 
gation of tite rest, and frees all par- 
ties. 


et de die et conditione. 


§ 2. Where there are two obü- 
ors, the one may bind himself pure- 
ly and simply, and the other may o- 
blige himself only to make payment on 
a day certain, or upon condition: but 
neither the day certain, nor the con- 
dition, will secure the-person, who is 
simply bound, from being sued for 
the payment of the whole. 


856 LIB If. 


TIY. XVTIT. 


TITULUS DECIMUS.OCTA VUS, 
DE. STIPULA TIONIBUS SERVORUM. 
D. xi. T. 3. 


An servus stipulari possit. 


SERVUS ex persenz domini 
jus stipulandi habet; sed et hewe- 
ditas in plerisque persone defuncti 
vicem sustigct : idedque, quod ser- 
vus hareditarms anté aditam; hare- 
ditatem stipulatur, acquirit heredi- 
txti; ac per hoc etiam hareds poa- 
tes facto acquiriter, 


A slave obtains the liberty of stipu- 

lating from the person of his master > 
but-in many instances the inheritance 
represents the person of a master de- 
ceased : ' and therefore whatever an 
hereditary slave stipulates for, be- 
fore the inheritance is. entered upon, 
he acquires it for the inheritance ; 
and of course. far him, who. after- 
wards becomes the heir. 


Cui acquirat. De personá, cui stipulatur. De stipulatione 
impersonali. 


6 I. Sivé autem domino, sive 
sibi, sivé conservo, suo, sivé imper- 
sonalitér servus stipuletur, domino 
acquirit. Idem juris est et in libe- 
Tio, qui. in potestate patris sunt, ex 
«quibus causis acquirere possunt. 


6 1. A slave, let him stipulate how 
he will, for his master, for himself, 
for a fellovo slave, of generally with- 
ent naming any person, ahvays ac- 
guires for his master. And the 
same obtains among chtitlren, who 
erc under the power of their father, 
in regard to those things, which they 


can acquire for him. 


De stipulatione facti. 


$ II. Sed, cum factum in stipu- 
latione continebitur, omnimodó per- 
sona stipulantis continetur; veluti, 
si servus stipuletur, ut sibi ire, 
agere, liceat; ipse enim tantüm 
prohiberi non debet, non etiam do- 
minus ejus. 


6 2. But, when a fact or thing to 
be done is contained in a stipulation, 
the person of the stipulator is solely 
regarded; so that, if even a slave 
stipulate, that he should be permit- 
ted to pass through a. field, and to 
drive beasts or a carriage through it, 
it is not the master, but the slave on- 
ly, who is tobe permitted to pass. 


LtB. Hf. 


TIT. xVx. 255 


De servo communi. 


§ IIl. Servus. communis stipu- 
Jando wnicuique dominorum, pro 
portione domiRH, acquirit; nisi 
jussa unius eorum, aut nominatim 
alicui eorum, stipulatus est; tunc 
enim soli ei acquiritur. Quod ser- 
vus communis stipalatwr, st alteri 
ex dominis acquiri non potest, soli- 
dam alteri acquiritur ; velati si res, 
quam dari stipulatus est, unius do- 
mini sit. ' | 


$8. Ha slave, who 22 in common 
to several masters, strprelite, he ace 
quires a shure for cath master. oc 
cording to the proportion, whieh 
each hus in the property of him. But 
if such slave should stijndate at thé 
command of any perticular maste?; 
or in his name, the thing stipulated 
will be acquired solely for that mas- 
ter. And, whatever a slave in com- 
mon to two masters stipulates for, 
if port cannot be acquired for ene 
master, the whole shall be acquired 
Sor the other; as when the Mine 


stiptlated already belongs to one of 
the two. 


TITULUS DECIMUS.NONUS. 
DE DIVISIONE STIPULATIONUM. 


Divisio. . 

STIPULATIONUM alie sunt — Some stipulations are judicia, 

jediciales, Mis praetoris, alie con- others prztorian, others conven- 

ventionalos, alue communes, tam tional, and others common ; that is, 
pretoriz quam judiciales. hath pretorian and judicial. 


De judicialibus stipulationibus. 

§ I. Judiciales sunt duntaxàt, — 6$ 1. The judicial are those, which 
que à mero judicis officio proficis- proceed merely from the office of the 
cuntar; veluti de dolo cautio, vel de judge; as when security is order- 
persequendo servo, qui in fuga est, ed to be given against fraud, or for 
Festituendove pretio. pursuing a slave, who hath fled, or 

for paying the price of him. 


256 


LIB. II. TIT. ° XIX. 


De pretoriis. 


. $ IL. Pretoriz sunt, qus à mero 
pretoris officio proficiscuntur; ve- 


luti damni infecti vel legatorum.. 


Pretorias autem stipulationes sic 
audiri oportet, ut in iis etiam conti- 
neantur VEdilitie; nam ethz à ju- 
risdictione pretoris veniunt. 


4 


§ 9. Pretorian stipulations are 
those, which proceed from the mere 
office of the praetor ; as when securi- 
ty is ordered pro damno infecto ; for 
damage likely to happen; or for the 
payment of legacies. Under preto- 
rian stipulations are comprehended 
the Edilitian; for these proceed 


_ from the jurisdiction of the praetor. 


De conventionalibus. 


§ III. Conventionales sunt, que 
ex conventione utriusque partis con- 
cipiuntur ; hoc est, neque jussu ju- 
dicis, neque jussu praetoris, sed ex- 
conventione contrahentium ; qua- 
rum totidem sunt genera, quot, (pe- 
né dixerim,) rerum contrahenda- 
rum. 


§ 3. Conventional stipulations 
are those, which are made by the a- 
greement of parties ; that is,neither 
by order of a judge or prator, but 
by the consent of the persons con- 
tracting ; and of these stipulations 
there are as many kinds, as of things 


- to be contracted for. 


De communibus. 


$ IV. Commümes sunt, veluti 
ram salvam fore pupillo, (nam et 
prztor jubet rem salvam fore pupil- 
lo caveri, et interdüm judex, si ali- 
ter hec res expediri non potest,) 
vel de rato stipulatio. 


§ 4 Common stipulations are 
those, which are ordered for the se- 
curity of the effects of the pupil, (for 
the pretor ordains a caution to be 
given on this account, and sometimes 
a judge decrees it, when there is an 
absolute necessity, ) or for the ratifi- 
cation of a thing done in another's 
name. 0 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XX. T 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS, 
DE INUTILIBUS STIPULATIONIBUS. 


C. vii. 


T. 39. 


De his, qua sunt in commercio. 


OMNIS res, que dominio nos- 
tro subjicitur, in stipulationem de- 
duci potest, sivé ea mobilis sit, sive 
soli. 


Every thing, of which we have 
the property, may be brought into 
stipulation, whether it be moveable or 
immoveable. 


De his, qua non existunt. ) 


$ I. Atsi quis rem, quz in re- 
rum natura non est, aut esse non 
potest, dari stipulatus fuerit, veluti 
Stichum, qui mortuus sit, quem 
vivere credebat, aut Hippocentau- 
rum, qui esse non possit, inutilis 
erit stipulatio. 


§ 1. But,:f a man hath stipu 
lated that a thing shall be given, 
which does not, or cannot exist, as 
that Stichus, the slave, who is dead, 
but is thought to be living, or that a 
Centaur, who cannct exist, should be 
given to him, the stipulaticn is of no 


force. 


De his, qu: non sunt in commercio. 


.$ II. Idem juris est, si rem sa- 
cram aut religiosam, quam bumani 
juris esse credebat, vel publicam, 
qui usibus populi perpetuó expo- 
sita sit, ut forum, vel theatrum, vel 
liberum hominem, quem servum 
esse credebat, vel cujus commer- 
cium non habuerit, vel rem suam 
esi, quis stipuletur: nec in pen- 
denti erit stipulatio ob id, quod pub- 
lica res in privatam deduci, et ex 
iü0?ro servus fieri potest, et com- 
mercium adipisci stipulator potest ; 
sed protinüs inutilis est. Item 
conira, licét initio utilitér res in sti- 
pulatum deducta sit, si tamen pos- 
tea in aliquam eorum causam, d« 


§ 2. And the law is the same, if 
a thing sacred, which was d«emed 
otherwise, is brought into stipula- 
tion; or some thing of constant 


public use, as a forum or a theatre; 


or a free person, thought ta be bond; 
or what cannot be acquired; or 
some thing which is already his own: 
nor shall any such stipulation con- 
tinue in suspense, because a thing 
public may become private, a freeman 
may turn slave, a stipulator may be- 
come capable of acquiring, or because 
what now belongs to. the stipicator 
may cease to be his ; tut every such 
stipulation shal! be instantly void. 
And, on the contrary, although @ 


Lu ; 


358 


quibus supra dictum est, siné fac- 
to promissoris devenerit, extingui- 
tur stipulatio. At nec statim ab 
initio talis stipulatio valebit, Luci- 
um Titium, cum servus erit, dare 
spondes? et similia: que enim na- 
tura sui dominio nostro exempta 
gunt, in obligationem deduci nullo 
modo possunt. 


LIB. II. TIT. XX. 


thing may properly be brought into 
stipulation at first, yet, if it after- 
wards fall under the class of any of 
the things before mentioned without 
the fault of the obligor, the stipula- 
tion is extinguished. And sucha 
stipulation, as the following shall ne- 
ver be valid: do you promise to 
give me Lucius Titivs, when he 
shall become a slave? for those 
things, which in their natures are 
exempt from our dominion, are by 
no means ta be brought into obliga- 
tion. 


De facto vel datione alterius. 


- 


$ III. Si quis alium. daturum 
facturumve quid promiserit, non 
obligabitur ; vcluti si spondeat,. Ti- 
tium quinque aureos daturum: 
quod si efecturum se, ut Titius 
daret, spoponderit, obligatur. 


6 3. Jf a man promise, that ano- 
ther shall give or do something, such 
promissor shall not be bound ; as ifa 
man should promise, that Titros . 


shall pay five aurzr: but, if he 
promise, that he will cause Firius 


to pay five AUREI, his promise shall 
be binding. 


De eo, in quem confertur obligatio, vel solutio. 


$ IV. Siquis alii, quam ei, cu- 
jus juri subjectus est, stipuletur, ni- 
hil agit. Plané solutio etiam in 
extraneam personam conferri po- 
test ; veluti, si quis ita stipuletur, 
mihi aut Sero dare spondes? ut 
obligatio quidem stipulatori acqui- 
ratur, solvi tamen Scio, etiam invi- 
to eo, recté possit, ut liberatio ipso 
jure contingat; sed ille adversus 
Seium habeat mandati actionem. 
Quod si quis sibi et alii, cujus juri 
subjectus non sit, dari decem Av- 
REOS stipulatus est, valet quidem 
stipulatio. Sed, utrum totum de- 


. date against Seius. 


6 4. Jfa man stipulate for any 
other, than for him, to whem he is 
subject, it is void : yet a payment of 
a thing promised may be made toa 
stranger ; as if a man should stipu- 
late, do you promise to make pay- 
ment to me, orto Serius? for, when 
the obligation is to the stipulator, 
the payment may well be made. to. 
Seius, though against his will ; and 


: this is allowed in javor of the debtor, 


that he may be legally freed from his 
debt : and the stipulator, if there be 
occasion, may have an action of man- 


If a manehould 


LIB. III. 


beatur stipulatort, quod in stipula- 
tionem deductum est, an ve ro 
pars dimidia, dubitatum est. Sed, 
placuit, non plus, quam dimi- 
diam partem, ei acquiri. Ei ver, 
qui juri tuo subjectus est, si stipu- 
latus sis, tibi acquiris ; quia vox 
tua tanquam filii intelligitur in his 
rebus, quz tibi acquiri possunt. 


TIT. XX. 259 


stipulate, that ten AUREI shall be 
paid to him and to another, not un- 
der his power, the stipulation would 
be good: wet it hath been a doubt, 
whether in this case, the whole sum 
would.be due to the stipulator, or on- 
ly a moiety ; and it hath been resolv- 
ed,a moiety only. But, if you sti- 
pulate for another, who is subject to 
your power, you acquire for your- 
self : for your own words are reput- 
ed your son's, and your son's words 
are reputed yours, as so to all those 

things, which you may acquire. | 


De interrogatione et responsione. 


$ V. Preterea inutilis est. stipu- 
latio, si quis adea, quz interroga- 
tus fuerit, non respondeat ; veluti 
»i quis decem aureos à te dari sibi 
stipuletur, tu quinque promittas, 
vel contra: aut siille puré stipule- 
tur, tu sub conditione promittas, 
vel contra: si modo scilicét id ex- 
primas; id est, si cui sub condi- 
tione vel in diem stipulunti tu res- 
:pondeas, presenti die spondeo: 
nam, si hoc solim respondeas, Pro- 
miito, breviter videris in eandem 
diem vcl conditionem spopondisse : 
neque enim necesse est in respon- 
dendo, eadem omnia repeti, que 
atipulator expresserit. 


§ 5. A stipulation is. void, if the 
party interrogated do not answer 
pertinently to the demand made; as 
‘when a person stipulates, that ten 
aurei shall be paid him, and you an- 
swer five; or, vice versa, if he sti» 


, pulate for five, and you answer, I 


promise ten. A stipulation is also 
void, if a manstipulates simply, and 
you promise conditionally; cr the 
contrary ; that is, if, when a mas, 
is stipulating conditionally or ata day 
certain, you answer him thus; I 
promise you payment on this pre- 
sent day. But, if you answer on- 
ly, I promise, you seem briefly to 
agree to his day or condition. For 
it is not necessary, that in the an- 
swer every word should be repeated, 
which the stipulator expressed. 


De his, qui sunt, vel habent, in potestate. 


§ VI. Item inutilis est stipula- 
tio, si vel ab eo stipuleris, qui tuo 
juri subjectus est, vel si is 4 te sti- 
puletur. . Sed servus quidem non 


. $6. Astipulation is also void, if 
made with one who is under your 
power, or if he stipulate with you. 
For a sicve is incapable not only of 


:; 


260 LIB. III. 


solàm domino suo obligari non po- 

test, sed né quidem ulli olii; filii 
veró familiarum aliis obligari pos- 
eunt. 


TIT. XX. 


entering into an obligation with. his 
master, but of binding himself to 
any other person. But the son of 
a family can enter into an obliga- 
tion with any person, (but his fa- 
iher..) 


De muto et surdo. 


$ VII. Mutum neque stipulari 
Aeque promittere posse, palàm est ; 
quod et in surdo receptum est: 
quia et is, qui stipulatur, verba 
promittentis, et is, qui promittit, 
verba stipulantis, audire debet. 
Unde apparet, non de eo nos lo- 
qui, qui tardius exaudit, sed de eo, 
qui omnino non audit. 


§ 7. Jt ie evident, that a dumb 
man can neither stipulate, nor pro- 
mise: and so of deaf persons ; for he, 
who stipulates, ought to hear the 
words of the obligor; and he, who 
promises, the words of the stipula- 
tor. But we speak not of him, who 
hears with difficulty, but of him, who 
has no hearing. 


De furioso. 


$ VIII. Furiosus nullum nego- 
tium gerere potest, quia non intel- 
ligit, quod agit. 


6 8. A madman can transact re 
business, because he understands mot 
what he does. 


De impubere. 


$ IX. Popillus omne negotium 
recté g.rit ; ita tamen ut, ubi tuto- 
Kisauctoritas necessarla sit, adhi- 
beutur tutor ; veluti, si ipse oblige- 
tur; nam alium sibi obligare etjam 
Siné tu'oris auctoritate potest. 
Sed, quod diximus de pupilljs, uti- 
que de iis verum ‘est, qui jam ha- 
bent aliquem intellectum. Nam 
infans, ct qui infaritie proximus est, 
non muliümn à furioso distant; quia 
hujusmo.li etatis pupilli, nullum ha- 
bent intellectum. Sed ín proximis 
infan is. proptcr utilitatem eorum, 
‘benignior juris interpretatio facta 
est,ut idem juris habcant, quod 
puoertati proximi. Sed, qui in po- 


$ 9. A pupil may transact any 
business, tf his tutor consent, where 
his authority is necessary ; as tt is, 
when the pupil would bind himself: 
but a pupil can stipulate or cause o- 
thers to be bound to him, without the 
authority of his tutor. This must 
be understood of pupils who have 
some understanding ; for an infant, 
or one next to an infant, differs but: 
little from a person out of his senses: 
for pupils of such an age have no un- 
derstanding : but the law is constru- 
ed more favourably to those, who are 
but little removed from infancy, 
whenever their interest is concern 


ed; for they are then allowed the 


‘ 


LIB. III. 


testate parentis est impubes, ne auc- 
tore quidem patre obligatur. 


TIT. XX. 261 


same rights, as infants near the age 
of puberty. But a son, under pow- 
er of his father, and within the age 
of puberty, cannot bind himself, even 
although his father consent. 


De conditione impossibili. 


6 X. Si impossibilis conditio sti- 
pulationibus adjiciatur, nihil valet 
stipulatio. Impossibilis autem con- 
ditio habetur, cui natura impedi- 
mento est, quominüs cxistat ; velu- 
ti si quis ita dixerit, si digito ca- 
dum attigero, dare spondes? at, si 
ita stipuletur, 52 digito celum non at- 
Sigero dare spondes? pure facta 
obligatio intelligitur, ideóque sta- 
tim peti potest. ' 


§ 10. If an impossible condition 


be added to an obligation, the stipu- 


lation is null ; and that condition is 
reckoned impossible, of which nature 
forbids the event: as, if a man 
should say, do you promise, if I 
touch the heavens with my finger ? 
but suppose a. stipulation to be thus 
made; do you promise, if I do not 
touch the sky with my finger? such 
a stipulation would be understood to 
causca simple obligation, the frer- 
formance of which might be instantly 
demanded. 


De absentia. 


/ 

$ XI. Item verborum obligatio, 
inter absentes concepta, inutilis est. 
Sed, cum hoc materiam litium cop- 
tentiosis hominibus przstabat, forté 
post tempus tales allegationes oppo- 
nentibus, et non presentes fuisse 
vel s? veladversarios suos conten- 
dentibus, ideó nostra constitutio 


propter celeritatem dirimendarum - 


littum introducta est, quam ad 
Cesarienses advocatos scripsimus ; 
per quam disposuimus, tales scrip- 
turas, quz presto csse partes indi- 
cant, omninó esse credendas, nisi is, 
qui talibus utitur improbis allega- 
tionibus, manifestissimus probati- 
onibus, vel per scripturam, vel per 
testes idoneos, approbaverit, toto eo 


§ 11. A verbal obligation, made 
between absent persons, is also void. 
But, when this doctrine aff or-ied mat- 
ter of strife to contentious omen, al. 
ledging ufter some time elepied, thet 
either they or the other Pres were 
not present, we issued css (zo it- 
tion, addressed as a ve«ii^t to the 
advocates of Czsarca. 
tually provided for i^c spe du ceiir- 
mination of such swis: aul by this 
we have ordained, tie! [uli credit 
shall bc given to those written acts, 
or instruments, witich aeciare, that 
the contracting partizs were pre- 
sent; unless the party, who-al- 
ledges ubsence, makes it evident ly 
the most manifest proofs either in 


wich effcc- 


262 


die, quo conficiebatur instrumen- 
. tum,sese vel adversarium suum in . 
aliis locis fuisse. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XX. 


writing or by witnesses, that either 
he, or his adversary, was in some o- 
ther place, during the whole day, in 
which the instrument was made. 


De stipulatione post mortem, vel pridie quam alter contrahen- 
tium moriatur. 


$ XII. Post mortem suam dari 
sibi nemo stipulari poterat, non ha- 
gis quam post mortem ejus, à quo 
stipulabatur. Ac nec is, qui in ali- 
cujus potestate est, post mortem 
ejus stipulari poterat; quia patris 
vel domini voce loqui videretur. 
Sed et, si quis ita stipuletur, pridie 
quam moriar, vel, pridie quam mo- 
rieris, dare spondes ? inutilis erat 
stipulatio. Sed, cum, ut jam dic- 
tum est, ex consensu contrahentium 
stipulationes valeant, placuit nobis, 
etiam in hunc juris articulum ne- 
cessariam inducere emendationem, 
ut, sivé post mortem, sive pridié 
quam moriatur stipulator, sivé 
promissor, stipulatio concepta sit, 
stipulatio valeat. 


§ 12. A man could formerly no 
more stipulate, that a thing should 
be given him after his own death, 
than after the death of the obligor. 
Neither could any. person under the 
power of another stipulate, that any 
thing should be given him after his 
death, because such person wouldap- 
pear to speak the words of his father 
or master. And, if aman hadsti- 
pulated in this manner. do you 
promise to give the day before I 
die? or the day before you die? 
the stipulation was also invalid. 
But since all stipulations, as we have 
already said, take their force from 
the consent of the contracting parties, 
we have thought it proper to intro- 
duce a necessary emendation in this 
respect,so that, whether it be stipu- 
lated, that a thing shallbe given af- 
ter, or immediately before, the death 
either of the stipulator or the obli- 


gor, the stibulation shall be good. 


De stipulatione pra postera. 


$ XIII. Item, siquis ita stipu- 
latus erat, s2 navis cras ex Asia ve- 
nerit, hodie dare spondes ? inutilis 
erat stipulatio, quia preposteré con- 
cepta est. Sed, cum Leo inclyte 
recordationis in dotibus eandem 
stipulationem, que przpostera nun- 


$ 13. Also, ifa man had thus sti- 
pulated, do you promise me mo- 
ney to-day, if a certain ship should 
arrive to-morrow from Asta? if 
would have been invalid, because. 
preposterously conceived. But, since 
the emperor Leo, of renowned mex 


; LIB. III. 


 cupatuf, non esse rejiciendam ex- 
istimavcrit, nobis placuit et huic 
perfectum robur accommodare, ut 
non solüm in dotibus, sed etiam in 
omnibus, valeat hujusmodi concep- 
tio stipulationis. 


~ 


TIT. XX. 265. 


mory, was of opinion, that such sti- 
pulations ought not to be rejected as 
to marriage portions, it hath pleas- 
ed us also to givea fuller force to 
this doctrine by ordaining, that eve- 


ry stipulation of like import shall - 


hold good not only én marriage por- 
tions, but likewise in all other con- 
tracts. 


De stipulatione collata in tempus mortis. 


§ XIV. Ita autem stipulatio con- 
eepta, veluti si Titius dicat, cum 
enoriar, darespondes ? vel cum mo- 
vieris ? etapud veteres utilis erat, 
et nunc valet. 


§ XV. Item post mortem alteri- 
us recté stipulainur. 


§ 14. If a stipulation had been 
thus concetved; do you promise, 
when [am about to die? or when 


you are about to die ?eit was good 


by the ancient law, and is so now. 


§ 15. We may also legally stipu- 
late, (that a thing shall be given, ) 
after the death of a third person. 


De promissione scripta in instrumento. 


§ XVI. Si scriptum in instru- 
mento fuerit, promisisse aliquem, 
perindé habetur, atque si interro- 
gatione precedente responsum sit. : 


€ 16. Jfit be- written in an act 
or instrument, properly attested, that 
a man hath entered into an obü- 
gation by promise, it will be gre- 
sumed, that the promise was im 
answer toa precedent interrogation. 


De pluribus rebus in stipulationem deductis. 


§ XVII. Quoties plures res unà 
$tipulatione comprehenduntur, si- 
quidem promissor simplicitér res- 
pondeat dare spondeo, propter om- 
mes tenetur. Si veró unam ex his, 
vel quasdam, daturum se spopon- 
derit, obligatio in iis, pro quibus 
spoponderit, contrahitur : ex pluri- 
bus enim stipulationibus una vel 


6 17. When many things are com- 
prehended in one stipulation, a man 
binds himself to all, if. he answer 
simply I promise. But, if he pro- 
mise tb give one, or some of the things 
stipulated, an obligation is contract- 
ed only in respect to those. For, 
of many stipulations, it may happen, 
that only one, or some cf them may 


264 LIB. III. 


quedam videntur esse perfecte; 
singulas enim rcs stipulari, et ad 
singulas responderc, debemus. 


TIT. XX. 


be made perfect by a separateanrwer ; 
andstrictly we ought to stipulate for 
every thing severally, and to answer 
severally. 


De pend adjecta stipulationi, a/ii dari. 


§ XVIII. Alteri stipulari (ut 
supra dictum est) nemo potest. 
Invente enim sunt hujusmadi sti- 


pulationes vel obligationes ad hoc, : 


ut unusquisque acquirat sibi, quod: 
sua interest; ceterüm, si alii detur, 
nihil interest stipulatoris. Plane, 
gi quis velit hoc facere, ponam sti- 

pulari conveniet, ut, nisi ita factum 
sit, ut est comprehensum, commit- 
tatur pene stipulatio etiam ei, cu- 
jus nihil interest. Panam enim 
. cum stipulatur quis, non illud in- 

Spicitur, quod intersit ejus, sed 

que sit quantitas in conditione sti- 
pulationis. Ergo, si quis ita stipu- 
letur, 73tio. dart, nihil agit ; sed, si 

adjecerit penam, mis: dederis, tot 
aureos dare spondes ? tunc commit- 

tityr stipulatio. 


§ 18. No man can stipulate for 
another, as we have already pbserv- 
ed; for stipulations and obligations 
have been invented, that every per-. 
son may acqutre for his own advan- 
tage ; and, if this be given to another, 
the stipulator has no interest. But, 
if a man would effectually: stipulate 
for another, he should bind the ab- 
ligor to perform the covenants un- 
der a penalty, payable to him, who 
otherwise would receive no advan- 
tage from the obligation: for, when 
a penalty is stipulated, the interest 
of the st-pulator is not so much re- 
garded, as the quantum of penalty. 
Therefore, if a man should stipulate, 
that a certain thing shall be given 
to Tirius it will not avail ; but, if 
he add a penalty as, do you promise 
to give me so many AUREI, if you 
do not give the thing stipulated to 
Titius? the penalty stipulated is 
put in jeopardy. 


Si intersit eius, qui alii stipulatur. 


§ XIX. Sed et, si quis stipule- 
tur alii, cum ejus interesset, placu-: 
it stipulationem valere. Nam, si 
15, qui pupilli tutelam administrare 
ceperat, cesserit administrationem 
contutori suo, et stipuletur rem pu- 
pili salvam fore, cuoniam interest 
stipulatoris fieri; quod stipulatus 


$ 19. But, :if any man should sti- 
pulate for the benefit not merely of g- 
nother, but of himself also, it is valid. 
Thus if he, who hath begun to ad- 
minister the tutelage of a pupil, 
should afterwards give up the admi- 
nistration to his co-tutor,and etipu- 
late for the security of the estate of 


LIB. Ifl. 


est ; eum obligatus futurus sit pupil- 
lo,si malé res gesserit, tenet obli- 
gatio. Ergo et, si quis procurato» 
Yi suo dari stipulatus sit, habebit 
vires stipulatio. Et, si creditori 
suo quis stipulatus sit quod sua in- 
terest, ne forté vel pena commit- 
tatur, vel predia distrahantur, que 
pignori data erant, valet stipulatio. 


TIT. XX. 


his pupil, in this case, (inasmuch ab 
such a stipulation is for the intereat 
ofthe stipulator, who is liable for 
damages to the pupil, if the co-tuta# 
should make default,) the obligation 
would bind. So if a man stipulate, 
that a thing shall be given to his 
proctor, it will bind. A stipulation 
made by 4 debtor for the use of 
his creditor ts good, because it is the 
interest of the debtor, either that the 
penalty, upon which he borrowed, 
should not be exacted from him, or 
that his goods, which are pledged 
should not be sold. 


465 


De pená adjectá promissioni facti alieni. 


§ XX. Vice versa, qui alium 
Kacturum promisit, videtur in ea 
esse causa, ut non teneatur, nisi pe- 
Bam ipse promiserit. 


§ 20. On the contrary, he, who 
undertakes for the performance of 
another, is not bound unless he pro 
mises under a penalty. 


De re stipulantis futura. 


$ XXI. Item nemo rem suam 
futuram, in eum casum, quo sua sit, 
utilitér stipulatur. 


§ 21. No man éan legally etis | 
late, that a thing shall be given him; 
when it shall become his own. 


De dissensü. 


6 XXII. Si de alia re stipulator 
senserit, de alia promissor, perinde 
nulla contrahitur obligatio, ac si 
&d interrogatum, responsum non es- 
set; veluti si hominem Stichum à 
te quis stipulatus fuerit, tu de Pam- 
philo senseris, quem Stichum voca- 
ni credideris. 


§ 22. lf the stipulator allude tá 
one thing, and the obligor to ano 
ther, no more obligation is contract 
ed, than if no answer had been made 
to ihe interrogation > and this would 
be the case, if a man should stipu- 
late, that Süchus should be given 
to him, and the obligor should in- 
lend to give Pamphilus, upor a per- 
suasion, thgt Pamphilus is called 
Stichus. 


Mo , 


366 LIB. UL 


TIT. XXL . 


De turpi causa. 


$ XXIII. Quod turpi ex causá 
promissum est, veluti si quis hom- 
icidium vel sacrilegium sé factu- 
yum promittat, non valet. 


6 23. A promise shade for a dis- 
honest purpose, as, to commit homi- 
cide or sacrilege, is not binding. 


~ De morte contrahentium. 


$ XXIV. Cum quis sub aliquá 
conditione stipuletus fuerit, licet 
ante conditionem decesserit, postea 
existente conditione heres ejus a- 
gere potest. Idem est et ex pro- 
missoris parte. 


§ 24. Jf the stipulator should die 
pending the event of a conditional 
stipulation, his heir may sue the ob- 
ligor, if the event afterwards happen. 
And, should the obligor d:e before the 
condition happens, his heir may be 
sued by the stipulator. | 


Quando agi potest ex stipulatione. 


$ XXV. Quihoc anno aut hoc 
, mense dari stipulatus est, nisi om- 
nibus partibus anni vel mensis pre- 
teritis, non recté petet. Si fundum 
dari stipuleris, vel hominem, non 
poteris continuó agere,nisi tantum 
spatium preterierit, quo traditio 
feri possit, ” 


6 25. Whoever stipulates, that a 
thing shall be given to him this year 
or this month, cannot legally sue the 
abligor,untitlthe whole year or month, 
is elapsed. And, if you stipulate, 


for a piece of ground, or a slave, 


you cannot instantly sue the obligor, 
but must wait, until a space. of time 
hath past, in which a delivery might 
reasonably have been made. 


— @ oc QD ee 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.PRIMUS. , 
DE FIDEJUSSORIBUS. 


D. xlvi. T. 1. 


C. viii. T. 41. 


Nov. 4 


Cur accipiuntur fidejussores. 


PRO eo, qui promittit, solent 


alii obligari, qui fidejussores appel- for the promissor. 


Sometimes others bind themselves 
Such sureties 


lantur ; quos homines accipere so- are called fide-jussors, and are gene- 


~ 


LIB. III. 


fent, dum curant, ut diligentius si- 
_ bi cautum sit, 


TIT. XXi. 267 


rally required by creditors for theig 
greater security. — 


In quibus obligationibus. 


§ I. In omnibus autem obliga- 
' tionibus assumi possunt ; id est, si- 
were sive verbis, sivé literis, sivé 
consensu, contracte fuerint : ac nec 
illud quidem interest, utrum civilis, 
an naturalis sitobligatio, cui adjici- 
tur fidejussor; adeo quidem, ut 
‘pro servo quoque obligetur, sive 
extraneus sit, qui fidejussorem à 
servo accipiat,sivé ipse dominus, 
inid, quod sibi naturalitér debe- 
tur. 


§ 1. Fide-jussors may be receive 
ed in all obligations, whether con- 
tracted by the delivery of the thing 
isclf, by words, by writing, or the 
mere consent of parties: mor is it 
material, whether the obligation be 
civil or natural; for a man may 
intervene, and oblige himself, as a 
fide-jussor or surcty, even on the 
behalf of a slave; and this may be 
done, whether the person, who ac- 
cepts the fide-jussor, bea stranger 
or the master of the slave, when the 
thing due is a natural debt or obliga" 
tion. 


De hzrede. 


§ II. Fidejussor non tantum ip- 
se obligatur, sed etiam heredem 
velinquit obligatum. 


§ 2. A fide-jussor is not only 
bound himself, but by his death.trans- 
mits the obligation to his heir. 


Si fidejussor preecedat vel sequatur obligationem. 


§ III. Fidejussor et precedere 
ebligationem et sequi potest. 


$ 3. A fide-jussor may be aceept- 
ed, either before or after an obliga- 
tion is entered into. 


De pluribus fidejussoribus. 


§ IV. Si plures sint fidejusso- 
res, quotquot erunt numero, singu- 
fi in solidum tenentur ; itaque li- 
berum est creditori, à quo velit, so- 
lidum petere. Sed ex epistolà 
Divi Hadriani compellitur credi- 
tor à singulis, qui modo solvendo 
sunt litis contestate tempore, par- 
tes petere; idedque, si quis ex fi- 
. éejussoribus eo tempore solvendo 


§ 4. Where there are fide-jus- 
sors, however munerous, each is 
bound for the whole debt; and the 
creditor may chuse, from whom he 
will demand it. But, by a rescript 
of the emperor Adrian, a creditor 
may be obliged to demand separates 
ly from every fide-jussor, who is sol- 
vent at the time of the suit, his share 
of the debt pro rata; and, if any of 


$64 


non sit, hoc ceteros onerat. Sed, 
si ab uno fidejussore creditor to- 
tum consecutus fuerit, hujus solius 
detrimentum erit, si is, pro quo 
fidejussit, solvendo non sit: et sibi 
ümputare debet, cum potuerit ju- 
vari ex epistolà Divi Hadriani, et 
desiderare, ut pra parte in se de- 
tur actio. 


LIB. II. TIT. XXI. 


the fide-jussors, at the time of the. 
suit, is not solvent, the burden falls 
upon the rest. But, if a creditor 
obtain his whole demand from one 
ef the fide-jussors, the whole loss 
shall be his, if the principal be insol- 
veni: for such fide-jussor must 
blame himself, since. under the rese 
cript of the emperor Adrian, he 
might have prayed, that ne action 
should be given against him, for 
more than his share of the debt, as 
surety. 


Inquam summam obligatur fide-jussor. 


§ V. Fidejussores ita obligari 
gon possunt, ut plus debeant, quam 
debet is, pro quo obligantur : nam 
eorum obligatio accessio est princi- 
palis obligationis ; nec plus in ac- 
cessione potest esse, quam in prin- 
¢ipali re ; at ex diverso, ut minus 
deheant, obligari possunt. Itaque, 
$i reus decem aureos promiserit, 
fidejussor in quinque recté obliga- 
tur ; contra veró obligari non po- 
test. Item, si ille purée promise- 
rit, fidejussor sub conditione pro- 
mittere potest; contra veró non po- 
test. Non solüm autem in quan- 
titate, sed etiam in tempore, mi- 
nus aut plus intelligitur: plus enim 
est s.atim aliquid dare, minus est 


post tempus dare. . 


§ 5. Fide-jussors ought not te 
be bound in a greater sum, than the 
debtor owes ; for their obligation is 
an accession to the principal obliga- 
tion ; and an accessary debt cannot 
be greater than the principal, though 
at may be less. Therefore, if the 
principal obligor promises ten altrei, 
the fide-jussor may be bound im 


jive; but the fide-jussor cannot be 


bound zn ten, when the princi- 
pal obligor is bound only in five. 
Also, when the obligor promises sim- 
fly, the surety may promise condi- 
tionally ; but, if the surety is bound 
simply, when the principal is bound 
conditionally, the obligatien is: void. 
And the terms greater and less take 
place, not only in quantity but alsa 
in time; for an obligation to dex 
liver a thing instantly is greater, 
than te deliver it after a time, 


LIB. III. TIT. XXIX 


269 


De actione fidejussoris. 


$ VI. Si quid autem fidejussor 
pro reo solverit, ejus recuperandi 
causa habetcum eo mandati judi- 
cium. | 


$ 6. Ifa fide-jussor hath been 
obliged to pay money for his princi- ° 
pal, he may have an action of man- 
date to recover the sum paid. 


Si fidejussor grzcé accipiatur. 


§ VII. Grece etiam fidejussor 
ita accipitur, T3 (63 KiSus XIAUM, Agyan 
Sed et si dixerit, 9uue, give Busenei, 
sed et, (wc, pro eo erit, acsi dix- 
erit, Asya. 


§ 7. A fide-jussor may thus bind 
himself even in greek ; I answer or 
speak solemnly upon my faith. 
But, the expressions, 1am willing, or 
Ipromise, would answer the same. 


purpose. 


Si scriptum sit, aliquem fidejussisse. 


6 VIII. In stipulationibus fide- 
juxsorum sciendum est, hoc gene- 
raliér accipi, ut, quodcunque scrip- 
tum sit quasi actum, videatur eti- 
am actum, Idedque constat, si 
quis scripserit se fidejussisse, vide- 
zi omnja solemnitér acta. 


$ 8. Jt is a general rule in all 


- fide-jussorial stipulations, that what- 


ever is alledred in writing to have 
been done, is presumed to have been 
actually done: therefore, if a man 
in writing confesses, that he hath 
become a fide-jussor, it 7s also pre- 
sumed, that the necessary forms 
were observed, 


— ap GD 2: @ om— 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.SECUNDUS. 
DE LITERARUM OBLIGATIONIBUS. 


C. iv. T. 50. 


OLIM scriptura fiebat obligatio, 
que nominibus fieri dicebatur; 
quse nomina hodie non sunt in usu. 
Plané, si quis debere se scripse- 
rit, quod sibi numeratum non est, 
de pecuniá minimé numeratá, post 


‘auleum temporis, exceptionem op- 


A species of written obligation an- 
ciently prevailed, by registering the 
names of the contractors ; these were 
called nomina, but are not now in 
use. But, if a man corfe.ses in 
writing, that he cwes, what in1 eal 
ity he never received, he cannot plead 


270 


ponere non potest: hoc enim sz- 
pissimé constitutum est. Sic ft, 
ut et hodie, dum queri non potest, 

scriptura obligetur; et ex ea nas- 

catur condictio, cessante scilicét 

verborum obligatione. Multum 

autem tempus in hac exceptione an- 
tea quidem ex principalibus consti- 
tutionibus usque ad quinquennium 

procedebat: sed, ne creditores di- 
utius possint suis pecuniis forsitan 
defraudari, per constitutionem nos- 

train tempus coarctum est, ut, ul- 

tra biennii metas, hujusmodi ex- 

ceptio minimé extendatur. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XXIII. 


as an exception after a long period, 
that the money was never advanced z 
and this. limitation of time has fre- 
quently been prescribed by the con- 
stitutions. 
man is bound by his written note, if he 
cannot legally bring an exception; 
and from this written contract ari- 
ses an action called a condiction, 
when no verbal obligation can be 
proved. Formerly the imperial con- 
stitutions allowed a space of time, 
not less than five years, in which 
any man might bring an exception, 
pecunie non numérate, i. e. of mo- 
ney not advanced. But for the safe- 
ty of creditors we have abridged this 
time, and ordained, that such an ex- 
ception shall not lie after two years. 


— "us e q» ^t Gin 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS-TERTIUS. 


DE 


OBLIGATIONIBUS EX CONSENSU. 


Continuatio. 


CONSENSU funt obligationes 
in emptionibus, venditionibus, loca- 
4 tionibus, conducetionibus, societati- 
bus, mandatis : ideo autem istis 
modis obligatio dicitur consensu 
contrahi, quia neque scriptura, ne- 
que presentia, omnimodo opus est : 
ac nec dari quicquam necesse est, 
ut substantiam capiat obligatio ; sed 
sufficit, eos, qui negotia gerunt, 
consentire : unde inter absentes 
quoque talia negotia contrahuntur, 


Obligations or contracts are made 
by consent ¢n buying, selling, let- 
ting, hiring, partnerships and man- 
dates. An obligation, tMllientered 
into i$ said to be contract@® by con- 
sent ; because neither writing nor 
the presence of parttes is absolutely 





requisite. —.Nor is delivery necessary — 


to make the contract take effect ; for 
it suffices, that the parties consent ; 
hence these contracts may be entegs 


ed into by absent parties, by letters; 


"re 


Hence, at this day, & 


LIB. III. 


$tiati per epistolam vel per nunti- 
um, Item in his contractibus alter 
alteri obligatur in id, quod alterum 
elteri ex bono et equo prestare o- 
portet; cuin alicqui in verborum 
obligationibus alius stipuletur, alius 
promittat. 


TIT. XXIV. 


271i 
pr messengers ; and they are bound 
to each other mutually to do what à 
justand right; but generally in verbal 
contracts one party stipulates and 
the other promises. | 


p 45- qp sc Oe 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.QUARTUS, 


DE EMPTIONE ET VENDITIONE. 


D. xviii. & xix. T. 1. 


De emptione purà. De pretii 

EMPTIO et venditio contrahi- 
tur, simul atque de pretio convene- 
rit, quamvis nondum pretium nume- 
ratum sit, ac ne arrha quidem data 
fuerit; nam, quod arrhe nomine 
datur, argumentum est emptionis et 
venditionis contracte. Sed hoc 
quidem de emptionibus et venditi- 
onibus, quz sine scripturá consist- 
unt, obtinere oportet; nam nihil à 
nobis m hujusmodi emptionibus et 
venditionibus innovatum est. In 
jis autem, que scriptura conficiun- 
tur, non aliter perfectam esse ven- 
ditionem et emptionem constitui- 
mus, misi et instrumenta emptionis 
fuerint conscripta, vel manu pro- 

priá contrahentium, vel ab alio qui- 
. dem scripta, à contrahentibus au- 
tem subscripta; et si per tabellio- 
‘nem fiunt, nisi et completiones ac- 


ceperint, ct fuerint partibus abso-' 


C. iv. T. 38. & 40. 


conventione, arrhis, et scriptura. 


The contract of buying and sel- 
ling is perfected as soon as the price 


is agreed upon, although it be not - 


paid, nor even an earnest given ; for 
earnest, does not constitute a con- 
tract, but serves only as proof of 
it. And this ts the law respecting 
bargains and sales, not in writing ; 
for herein we have made no innova- 
tion. But, where there is a written 
contract, we have ordained, that a 
bargain and sale shall not become abe 
solute, unless the instruments of sale 
are written by the contracting par- 
ties, or at least signed by them, if 
written by others ; and if drawn by 
a public notary, unless executed and 
delivered complete in all their parts: 
for, if any thing be omitted, there is 
locus penitentie—room to retract ; 
and either the buyer or seller may re- 
cede without penalty, if no earnest 


27& LIB. III. 


luta. Donec enim aliquid deest ex 
his, et penitentiz locus est, et po- 
@est emptor vel venditor siné pona 
recedere ab emptioncet venditione. 
Ita tamen impuné recedere concedi- 
mus, nisi jam arrharum nomine ali- 
quid fuerit datum ; hoc enim subse- 
euto, sivé in scriptis, sivé siné scrip- 
tis, venditio celebrata est, is, qui re- 
eusat adimplere contractum, si qui- 
dem est emptor, perdit quod dedit ; 
81 vero venditor, duplum restituere 
compellitur.; licet super arrhis nihil 
expressum sit. — Pretium autem 
eonstitui oportet ; nam nulla emptio 
Siné pretio esse potest. 


TIT. XXIV. 


has been given. — But, if it has, then 
the buyer, whether the contract was 
written or unwritten, if he refuse te 
fulfil it, loses his earnest, and the sel. 
ler, if he refuse, is compellable to re- 
store double the value of the earnest, 
although no agreement of this kind 
was expressly made. But the price 
should be fixed ; for, until then, there 
can be no purchase. 


De pretio certo, vel incerto, vel in arbitrium alienum 
collato. 


§ I. Sed et certum esse pretium 
debet: alioqui, si inter aliquos ita 
convenerit, ut, quanti Titius rem 
&stimaverit, tanti sit empta, inter 
veteres satis abundéque hoc dubi- 
tabatur, constaretne venditio, an 
non. Sed nostra decisio ita hoc 
constituit, ut, quoties sic composi» 
ta sit venditio, guanti ille estimave- 
rit, sub hacconditione staret con- 
tractus, ut siquidem ille, qui nomi- 
natus est, pretium definierit, tunc 
omnimodo secundum ejus zstima- 
tionem et pretium persolvatur, et 
res tradatur, et venditio ad effectum 
perducatur; emptore quidem ex 
empto actione, venditore ex vendi- 
to agente. Sin autem ille, qui no- 
minatus est, vel noluerit, vel non 
potuerit, pretium definire, tunc 
pro nihilo esse venditionem, quasi 
nullo pretio statuto. Quod jus, cum 


$ 1. The price, ought to be cers 
tain. And formerly, when it was 
covenanted, that a thing should be 
sold, at whatever price TrT1U8 
should value it, the ancient lawyers 
much doubted, whether such a sale 
was good. But we have ordained, 
that when the sale is so made as that 
the price shall be fixed by a third 
person, it shall be valid under that 
condition; so that, if the nominee, 
or arbitrator, determine the price, 
it ought to be paid accordingly, the 
thing sold, delivered, and the sale per- 
fected; otherwise the buyer may 
have an action ex empto, for the 
thing bought ; and the seller an ace 
tion ex vendito, for the thing sold. 
But, if the arbitrator either refuse, 
or is unable to determine the price, 
the sale is null. And,as we have se 
enacted in relation to sales, it ia not 


LIB. IL TIT. XXIV; 


273 


in venditionibus nobis placuerit, non . improper. that the same law should 
.est absurdum et in locationibus et . prevail, in letting and hireing. 


in conductionibus trahere. 


In quibus pretium consistat. 


Differentia emptionis et 


permutationis, 


§ II. Item pretium in numerata 
pecuniá consistere debet; nam in 
c&teris rebus, an pretium esse pos- 
set, valdé quzrebatur; veluti, an 
homo, aut fundus, aut toga, alterius 
rei pretium esse possit. Et Sabi- 
nus et Cassius etiam in alia re pu- 
tabant pretium posse consistere; 
' undé illud, quod vulgó dicebatur, 
permutatione rerum emptionem et 
venditionem contrahi; eamque spe- 
ciem emptionis et venditionis ve- 
tustissimam esse. Argumentoque 
. utebantur Greco poetà Homero, 
qui aliquam partem exercitüs Ach- 
ivorum vinum sibi comparasse ait, 
permutatis quibusdam rebus, his 
verbis. 


Nysg 0 ex Aujésoro wapteuáoaus oioy avydcan 
Erbe» ag ssvCorre xaprxeuesvriS Ayo, 
Adres pu: xax, adres D aider ciónge 
Arai de pivots, «520i 2” avrei Beseeiy, 
Adds 3° ardguredicat. 


Hoc est. 


Naves autem e Lemno appulerunt 


vinum vehentes : 


lllinc vtnum emebant Achivi co- 


_mantes caput, 


Alii quidem ere, alii autem ferro 


nimro, 
Alii pellibus, alii ipsis bobus, 
Ait etiam mancipiis. 
Iliad VII. 


$ 2. The price of an article 
bought, should be cash, or money 
told; for it hath been much doubted, 
whether the price of goods can be 
said to be paid, if any thing be giv- 
en for them but money ; as, whether 
a slave, a piece of ground, or arobe, 
can be paid as the price of a thing. 
The lawyers Sabinus and Cassius 
thought, that a price might consist 
of any thing, and from hence it has 
been commonly said, that emptio» 
venditio, or duying and selling, i8 
contracted by (barter_) commutation ; 
and that this species of buy:ng and 
selling is the most ancient. The ad- 
vocates for this side of the question 
quote Homer, who relates in the fol- 
lowing lines, that a part of the Gre- 
cian army bought wine by giving 
other things in exchange for it. 


Wine the rest purchas’d at theix 
proper cost, 

And well the plenteous freight 
supplied the host: 

Each in exchange proportion’d 


treasures gave, . 
Some brass or iron, some an ox 
or slave. Popes 


But the lawyers of a different sect 
maintained that commutation ‘was 
one thing, and emptio-venditio ano- 
ther ; for otherwise said they, in tho 


Ns . 


LIB. III. 


Diverse schol# auctores contra sen- 
tiebant; aliudque esse existimabant 
permutationem rerum, aliud emp- 
tionem et venditionem ; alioqui non 
posse rem expediri, permutatis re- 
bus, que videatur res vznisse, et 
que pretii nomine data esse; nam, 
utramque videri et venisse et pre- 
tii nomine datam esse, rationem non 
pati. Sed Proculi sententia, dicen- 
tis, permutationem propriam esse 
speciem contractüs à venditione se- 
paratam, meritó prevaluit; cum et 
alis Homericis versibus adjuvaba- 
tur,et validioribus rationibus ar- 
gumentabatur : quod et anteriores 
Divi Principes admiserunt, et in 
nostris Digestis latius significatur. 


274 


TIT. XXIV. 


commutation of any two things it can 
never appear, which has been sold, 
and which has been given, as the 
price of the thing sold ; and it is con- 
trary to reason, that each should ap- 
pear to have been sold, and that each 
also should appear to have been griv- 
en, as the price of the other. The 
opinion of Proculus, who main- 
tained, that commutation is a spe- 
cies of contract, separate from ven- 
dition, hath deservedly prevailed: for 
he is supported by other verses from 
Homer, and has enforced his opinion 
with strong arguments; and this ix 
the doctrine, which our predeces- 
sors, the emperors Dioclesian and 
Maximian, have admitted, as ape 
pears more at large in our Digests. 


De periculo et commodo rei venditz. 


§ III. Cum autem emptio et ven- 
ditio contracta sit, (quod effici dixi- 
mus simul atque de pretio conve- 
nerit, cum siné scripturá res agi- 
tur,) periculum rei vendite statim 
ad emptorem pertinet, tametsi ad- 
huc ea res emptori tradita non sit. 
Itaque, s? homo mortuus sit, vel 
aliqua parte corporis lesus fuerit, 
aut edes tote, velaliqua ex parte, 
incendio consumpte fuerint, aut 
fundus vi fluminis totus vel aliqua 
ex parte ablatus sit, sivé etiam in- 
undatione aquz, aut arboribus tur- 
bine dejectis, longé minor aut de- 
terior esse coperit, emptoris dam- 
num est; cui necesse est, licet 
rem non fuerit nactus, pretium sol- 
vere. Quicquid enim siné dolo ct 
culpa venditoris accidit, in eo ven- 


6 3. When emption and vendstion 
are once contracted, (which is 90 
soon as the price is agreed on, when 
the covenant ts not in writing, ) the 
buyer becomes liable to the risque of 
the thing sold, although it be not yet 
delivered. Therefore, if a slave 
should die, or be hurt, or if a build- 
ing, or part of it should be consumed 
by fire, or if lands sold, or any part 
of them, should be washed away by 
a torrent, or damaged by an inunda- 
tion, or by astorm, which may destroy 
the trees, the loss must be sustained 
by the buyer, who must pay the price 
agreed on, although he never had 
possession of the thing ; for what: 
ever the accident be, tf it happen nei- 
ther by the fraud, nor fault of the 
eller, he is secure. On the ether 


LIB. III. TIT. XXIV. 


ditor seeurus est: sed et,si post 
emptionem fundo aliquid per allu- 
vionem accesserit, ad emptoris com- 
modum pertinet; nam et commo- 
dum ejus esse debet, cujus pericu- 
lum est. Quod si fugerit home, 
qui veniit, aut surreptus fuerit, ita 
ut neque dolus, neque culpa vendi- 
toris intervenerit, animadverten- 
dum erit, an custodiam ejus usque 
ad traditionem venditor susceperit ; 
sané enim si susceperit, ad ipsius 
periculum is casus pertinet ; si non 
susceperit, securus est. Idem et 
in cxteris animalibus caeterisque 
rebus intelligimus. | Utique tamen 
vindicationem rei et condictionem 
exhibere debebit emptori; quia 
sane, qui nondum rem emptori tra- 
didit, adbuc ipse dominus est. I- 
dem etiam est de furti et de damni 
Anjuriz actione. . 2 


27 


hand, if, after sale, the lands should 
be increased by alluoion, this in- 
crease becomes the gain of the buy- 
er; for it is just, that he should re- 
ceive the profit, who must have sus- 
tained the loss, But, if a slave who 
is sold, should run away or be stclen, 
and no fraud or negligence can be 
imputed to the seller, it must be in- 
quired, whether the seller undertook 
the safe custody of the slave, until 
delivery should be made; if he did, 
he is answerable, if not, he is securee- 
The same law takes place in regard 
go all other animals and things. 
But, the seller should make over his 
right of vindication and condiction 
to the buyer; for he, who has not 
delivered the thing sold, ts still con- 
sidered as the proprietor of it. Ac- 
tions also cf theft, or damage done, 
must be transferred by the seller to 
the buyer, (when the thing sold is 
etolen, or damaged before delivery. ) 


De emptione conditionali. 


$ IV. Emptio tam sub conditi- 
one quam puré contrahi potest : sub 
conditione, veluti, sz Stichus in- 
tra certum diem tibi placuerit, erit 
gibi emptus aureis tot. 


$ 4. A sale may be contracted 
conditionally, as well as purely: 
as when the seller agrees ; if with- 
in a certain time you shall approve 
of the slave STicHus, he shall be 
your's for so many AURES. 


De emptione rei, quz non est 1» commercio, 


§ V. Loca sacra, vel religiosa, 
‘stem publica, (veluti forum, baaili- 
eam,) frustra quis sciens emit ; quz 
tamen, si pro profanis vel privatis 
deceptus à venditore quis emerit, 
habebit actionem ex empto, quod 
uon habere ei liceat, ut consequatur, 


€ 5. Whoever knowingly purcha- 
ses a sacred, religious, or publie 
place, such as a Forum, or Court of 
justice, it is vcid. But, if he pure 
chased them as profane or private, 
being imozsed upon by the seller, 
then such purchuser, not being able 


276 LIB. III. 


quod sua interest, eum deceptum 
non esse. Idem juris est, si liomi- 
nem liberum pro servo emerit. 


TIT. XXV. 


to obtain possession, may have an 
action ex empto against the seller, 
and recover damage for the deceit. 
The law is the same, if any person 
should mistakenly buy a freeman in. 
stead of a slave. 


— «^ GD it QD ia 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS-QUINTUS. 
DE LOCATIONE ET CONDUCTIONE. 


D. xix. T. 2. 


Collato emptionis, et locationis. 


LOCATIO et conductio prox- 
fma est cmptioni et venditioni, 
lisdemque juris regulis consistit. 
Nam ut emptio et venditio ita con- 
trahitur, si de pretio convenerit, 
sic et locatio et conductio ita con- 
trahi intelligitur, si merces consti- 
tuta sit: et competit locatori qui- 
dem /ocati actio, conductori veró 
€onducti. 


C. iv. T. 65. 


C. ii. T. 70. 


De mercedis conventione. 


Location and conduction, 7. e. 
letting and hireing, are nearly alfi- 
ed to emption and vendition, &. e. 
buying and selling ; and are govern- 
ed by the same rules ; for as the lat- 


ter takes place so soon as the price - - 


is agreed upon, sa, the former are 
contracted, when the hire ts once 
fixed by the parties. The locator, 
or perso who lets, is intitled if ag- 
gricvcd, to an actio locati, and the 
conductor or hirer may have his 
actio conducti, against the locator. 


De mercede collatá in arbitrium alienum. 


§ I. Et, que supra diximus, si 
alieno arbitrio pretium permissum 
fuerit, eadem et. de locatione et de 
conductione dicta esse intelligimus 
#i alieno arbitrio merces permissa 
fuerit. Qua de causa, si fulloni 
poliendo curandave, aut sarcinatori 
sarcienda, vestimenta quis dederit, 
nulla statim mercede constituta, sed 


§ 1. What has been said befora 
respecting sales, when the price is 
referred to a third person, may also . 
be understood of location and cone 
duction, when the hire is left to are 
bitration. Therefore, if a man. 
send his cloaths to a fuller to be 
scoured, or a taylor to be mended, 
and do not previously agree upon. 


LIB. III. 


postea tantum daturus, quantum in- 
ter eos convenerit, non proprie lo- 
catio et conductio contrahi intelli- 
gitur; sed co nomine actio prascrip- 
tis verbis datur. - 


In quibus rebus 


$ II. Przterea, sicüt vulgo que- 
rebatur, an permutatis rebus emptio 
et venditio contraheretur, ita queri 
solebat de locatione et conductione, 
si forté rem aliquam utendam sivé 
fruendam tibi aliquis dederit, et in- 
vicém à te utendam sivé fruendam 
aliam rem acceperit. Et placuit, 
non esse locationem et conductio- 
nem, sed proprium genus contrac- 
tis; veluti,si, cum unum bovem quis 
haberet, et vicinus ejus item unum, 
placuerit inter eos, ut per denos dies 
invicém boves commodarent, ut 
opus facerent, et apud alterum 
alterius bos perierit; neque -lo- 
cati, neque conducti, neque com- 
modati competit actio: quia non 
fuit commodatum gratuitum: ve- 
rum prescriptis verbis, agendum 
es 


TIT. XXV. 


277 


any price, in this case location and 
conduction are not understood to be 
properly contracted ; but an action 
on the case may be brought by either 
party, prescriptis verbis, à. e. in 
words adapted to the circumstan- 
ces. 


merces consistat. 


§ 2. As it was formerly a ques- 
tion, whether emption and vendi- 
tion could be contracted by exchange, 
so it hath also been doubted, whe- 
ther location and conduction takes 
place when one man lends another a 
particular thing for his use; and re- 
ceives in return some other thing, of 
which he'ts also permitted to have the 
use ; andit has been determined, that 
this exchange does not constitute lo- 
cation and conduction, but a dis- 
tinct species of contract: for exam- 
ple, if two neighbours have each of 
them an ox, and each agrees to lend 
his ox to the other alternately for 
ten days to labour, and the ox of the 
one should die in possession of the 
other, inthis case, he, who has lost 
his-ox, can neither bring the action 
locati, nor conducti, nor even the 
action commodati ; for the ox was 
not lent gratuitously: but he may 
sue prescriptis verbis ; t. e. by an 
action upon the casc. 


) De Emphyteusi. 


$ III. Adeó autem aliquam fa- 
miliaritatem inter se videntur ha- 
bere emptio et venditio, item loca- 
tio et conduttio, ut in. quibusdam 
ausis queri soleat, utrum emptio 


6 3. Buying and selling, and let- 
ting and hireing, are so nearly con- 
nected, that, in some cases, if has 
been difficult to distinguish the one 
from the other ; as when lands have 


276 LIB. III. 


et venditio contrahatur, an locatio 
et conductio ; ut ecce de prediis, 
qui perpetuó quibusdam fruenda 
traduntur, id est, ut, quamdiu pen- 
sio sive reditus pro his domino 
prestetur, neque ipsi conductori, 
"meque heredi ejus, cuive conduc- 
tor hzresve ejus id predium vendi- 
derit,aut donaverit, aut dotis no- 
mine dederit, aliove quocunque mo- 
do alienaverit, auferre liceat. Sed 
talis contractus quia inter veteres 
dubitabatur, et à quibusdam loca- 
tio, à quibusdam venditio exisii- 
mabatur, lex Zenoniana lata est, 
qui emphyteuscos contractüs pro- 
priam statuit naturam, neque ad 
Jocationem, neque ad venditio- 
nem inclinantem, sed suis pacti- 
enibus fulciendam; et, si qui- 
dem aliquid pactum fuerit, hoc ita 
obtinere, ac si naturalis esset con- 
tractus : sin autem nihil de pericu- 
lo rei fuerit pactum, tunc, siquidem 
totius rei interitus accesserit, ad do- 
minum super hoc redundare peri- 
culum ; sin autem particularis, ad 
emphyteuticarium hujusmodi dam- 
num venire ; quo jure utimur. 


TIT. XXV. 


been demised for ever, uport condis 
tton, that, if a certain yearly rent, 
be paid to the proprietor, it shall not 
be in his power to take these lands 
from the tenant or his heirs, or from 
any other person,to whom suchtenant 
or his heirs shall have sold or grante 
ed or given them as a marriage por- 
tion, or otherwise. But when this 
contract, concerning which the an- 
cient lawyers had great doubts, was 
by some regarded as an emption and 
vendition, and by others as a loce- 
tion and conduction, the Zenonian 
law was enacted, which settled the 
proper nature of an emphyteusis, 
making it to be neither the one nor 
the other, but a contract supported 
by its own peculiar covenants ; and 
erdaining, that whatever is agreed 
upon by the parties shall take place, 
«s a contract : and when there 1s no 
covenant, which declares, upon whom 
the loss of the lands shall fall, that 
then, if the whole estate happen to 
be destroyed by a torrent, an earth- 
quake, or any other means, the pro- 
prietor must be the sufferer ; but, if 
a part only be destroyed, that the loss 
shall then be borne by the tenant; 
and this is the law in use. 


De form? alicui f:cie na 2b a:tifice. 


§ IV. Item quzritur, si cum au- 
tifice Titius convenerit, ut is ex au- 
ro suo certi ponderis certeque for- 
mé annulos ei faceret, et acciperet, 
(verbi gratià,) decem aureos, u- 
trum emptio et venditia, an loca- 
tio et conductio contrahi videatur? 
Cassius ait, materiz quidem emp- 


§ 4. iso, if Titius, should pro- 
mise a goldsmith ten aurei to make a 
certain number of rings, of a particu- 
lar size and weight, and find the gold; 
it hath been a question, whether 
such a contract would be a. buying 
and selling, or a letting and hireing. 
Cassius was of opinion, that it would 


/ 


LIB. II. TIT. XXV. 


fionem et wenditicnem contrahi, 
eper x autem locationem et conduc- 
tionem: sed placuit, tantum emp- 
tionem et venditionem contrahi. 
Quodsisuum aurum Titius dede- 
wit, mercede pro opera constituti, 
dubium non est, quin locatio et con- 


ductio sit. 


279. 


be a buying and selling in regard to 

the matter, and a letting and hireing 
in regard to the work ; but it is now 

settled, that, it would only amount te 

emption and vendition. But, if Ti- 

tius should give his own gold, and 
agree to pay only for the workman- 

ship, this would certainly be a loca: 
tion and conduction. 


Quid prestare debet conductor. 


€ V. Conductor omnia secun- 
diim legem conductionis facere de- 
— et; et, si quid m lege prztermis- 
eum fuerat, id ex bono et zquo 
prestare. Qui pro usu aut vesti- 
mentorum, aut argenti, aut jumenti, 
mercedem aut dedit aut promisit, 
ab eo custodia talis desideratur, 
qualem diligentissimus pater fami- 
lias suis rebus adhibet; quam si 
prestiterit, et aliquo casu fortuito 
eam rem amiserit, de restituenda 
-@a re non tenebitur. 


§ 5. The hirer is not only obliged 
to observe strictly the covenants of 
the conduction, but is also bound to 
perform whatever hath been omitted 
to be inserted, but ought reasonably 
to bedone. And whoever hath given 
or promised hire for the wee of 
cloaths, silver, horses, t9c. is bound 
to take the same care of them, as the 
most diligent master of a family 
would take of his own property. 
But, if the hirer do this, and yet 
lose the things hired by some fortu- 
itous event, he shall not be answera- 
ble for the loss. 


De morte conductoris. 


$ VI. Mortuo conductore intra 
tempora conductionis, heres ejus 
eodem jure in conductione succed- 


it 


§ 6. Uf the hirer die before the 
time of hireing be expired, his heir — 
succeeds to his right, and is intitled 
to the thing hired, forthe remainder 
Of the term. 


290 LIB. WI. TIT. XXvf Of 


e 


3 Ute 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.SEXTUS 


DE SOCIETATE. 


D. xvii. T. 2. 


C. iv. T. 37. - J "E X 


Divisio à m:teriá. 


SOCIETATEM coire solemus 
aut totorum bonorum, quam Grzci 
specialiter xe»e»«» appellant; aut 
unius alicujus negotiationis, veluti 
mancipiorum vendendorum emen- 
dorumque, aut olei, aut vini, aut 
frumenti emendi vendendique. 


It is common for persons to enter 
either into a. general partnership, or 
what the Greeks call a communion of 
goods ; or intoa particular partner- 
ship, respecting some single species 
of commerce,as that of buying and 
selling slaves, oil, wine, or corte 


De partibus lucri «t damni. | 


§ I. Et quidem, si nihil de par- 
tibus lucri et damni nominatim con- 
venerit, zquales scilicet partes et 
in lucro et in damno spectantur; 
quod si expresse fuerint partes, 
hz servari debent. Nec enim un- 
quam dubium fuit, quin valeat con- 
ventio, si duo inter se pacti sint, 
ut ad unum quidem dus partes et 
lucri et damni pertineant, ad. alte- 
rum tertia. 


De partibus 

$ II. De illà sané conventione 
quzsitum est, si Titius et Seius in- 
ter se pacti sint, ut ad Titium lu- 
cri dus partes pertineant, damni 
tertia, ad Seium duz partes damni, 
lucri tertia, an rata debeat haberi 
conventio? Quintus Mutius contra 
naturam societatis talem pactionem 
esse existimavit, et ob id non esse 


$ 1. If no express agreement be 
made by the partners concerning 
their shares of profit and loss; the 
loss and the profit must be equally 
divided. But,if an express agree- 
ment be made, it must be observed ; 
for it was never yet doubted, but that 
the covenant would be binding, if 
two persons should agree, that two 
shares of the profit and loss should 
belong to one partner, and that only. 
the third part of both should belong 
to the other. 


inzeqütalibus. 


$ 2. But it has been questioned, 
if Titius and Seius should covenant, 
that Titius should receive two parts 
of the profit and bear but a third of 
the loss, and that Seius should bear 
two parts of the loss,and receive 
but a third of the profit, whether 
such an agreement would be bind- 


ing ? Quintus Mutius deemed such . 


ratam habendam : Servius Sulpitius 
(cujus sententia praevaluit) contra 
sensit; quia spé quorundam ita 
pretiosa est opera in societate, ut 
eos justum sit conditione meliore 
in societatem admitti, Nam et ita 
posse coiri societatem non dubita- 
tur, ut alter pecuniam conferat, al- 
ter non conferat, et tamen lucrum 
inter eos commune sit; quia sepe 
opera alicujus pro pecunia valet. 
Et adeó contra Quinti Mutii sen- 
tentiam obtinuit; ut illud quoque 
constiterit posse convenire, ut quis 
lucri partem ferat, de damno non 
teneatur; quod et ipsum Servius 
convenientér sibi fieri existimavit. 
Quod tamen ita intelligi oportet, 
ut, si in alia re lucrum, in ala dam- 
num illatum sit, compensatione fac- 
tà, solüm quod superest, intelliga- 
tur lucro esse. 


LIB. III. TIT. XXVL 


28*' 


a covenant contrary to the nature of 
partnership, and therefore ought not 
to be ratified; but Servius Sulpitius, 
whose opinion hath prevailed, 
thought otherwise; because the la- 
bour of some is so valuable, that they 


ought to be admitted into partnership 


upon advantageous conditions ; for no 
man doubts, but that a partnership 
may be, wherein one only finds mo- 
ney ; tnasmuch as it often happens, 
that the work, and labour of the o-’ 
ther, is of equal value. And also, 
contrary to the opinion of Mutius, it 
hath obtained as law, that a partner 
may by agreement take a share. of 
the profit, and not be accountable 
for any part of the loss ; for Servius 
thought,.that, this likewise might be 
done equitably: but it must be so 
understood, that, if profit accrue 
from one species of things, and lose 
from another, only what remains, 
after the loss is compensated, ehalj 
be considered as profit. 


De partibus expressis in una causa. 


§ III. Illud expeditum est, si in 
una causa pars fuerit expressa, (ve- 
luti in solo lucro, velin solo dam- 
no,) in altera vero omissa, in eo 
quoque, quod praetermissum est, 
eandem partem servarie 


Quibus modis societas solvitur. 


6 IV.. Manet autem societas eo 
usque, donec in eodem consensu 
perseveraverint: at, cum aliquis 
renunciaverit societati, solvitur so- 


§ 3. Jtis also a settled point, that, 
if partners expressly mention their 
shares in one respect only, etthea 
solely as to gain, or solely us to lose, 
their shares of that which is omite 
ted, shall be regulated by what » 
expressed. 


De renunciatione. 

§ 4. A partnership laste so long 
as the partners persevere in their. 
consent so to continue; and, if one 
of them renounce, the partnership, 


cietas.. Sed plané si quis callidé in - is dissolved. But, if a man renounce 
O o . 


^ 


* 


282 LIB. III. 


hoc renunciaverit societati,ut obve- 


niens aliquod lucrum solus habeat, 
veluti,si totorum bonorum socius, 


cum ab aliquo hares esset. relictus, 
in hoc renunciaverit societati, ut 
hzreditatem solus lucri faceret, co- 
gitur hoc lucrum communicare. Si 
quid verd aliud lucri faciat, quod 
non captaverit, ad ipsum solum per- 
tinet. Ei veró, cui renunciatum 
est, quicquid omninó post renunci- 
atem societatem acquiritur, soli con- 
ceditur. 


TIT. XXVII. 


with a fraudulent intent, and that 


he may enjoy the sole benefit of some 
future fortune, which he expects, his 


renunciation will not avail: for, if 
a partner in common, on being ap- 
pointed heir, should renounce his 
partnership, that he may possess the 
inheritance exclusively, he would ne- 
vertheless be compelled to divide e- 
qually with his former partners ; 
yet, if an inheritance, which he did 
not expect, should by accident fall to 
him after renunciation, the whele 
would be his own: but those, from 
whom a partner hath separated him- 
self by renouncing, possess solely 
Jor themselves whatever they ac- 
quire, after the renunciation of that 
pariner. 


De morte. 


§ V. Solvitur adhuc societas eti- 
am morte socii; quia, qui societa- 
tem contrahit, certam personam si- 
bi eligit. Sed et, si consensu plu- 
rium societas contracta sit, morte 
unius socii solvitur, etsi plurcs su- 
persint ; nisi in coeundà societate 
alitér convenerit. 


De fine 


6 VI. Item, si alicujus rei con- 
tracta societas sit, et finis negotio 
impositus est, finitur sociétas. 


Ld 


6 5. A partnership is also dis- 
solved by the death of one cf the 
partners; for he, who enters into 
partnership, always chuses some 


_ known person to be his partner. And 


if a partnership be entered into by 
the consent of many, it is dissolved 
by the death of one, although the rest 
survive; unless the original con- 
tract be otherwise. | 


negotii. 

$ 6. Also, if a partnership be en- 
tered into on account of some particu- 
lar commerce, when that ceases, the 
partnership is ended. 


De publicatione. 


$ VII. Publicatione quoque dis- 
trahi societatem, manifestum est, 
scilicet si universa bona socii publi- 


7. Partnership is also dissolved by 
the public sale or confiscation of 
all the property of one of the parte 


LIB. HI. TIT. XXVL.- 


centur ; nam, cum in cjus locum a- 
Jius succedat, pro mortuo habetur. 


283- 


ners; for when another takes his 
place, he is considered as dead. 


De cessione bonorum. 


§ VIII. Item, si quis ex sociis 
mole debiti pregravatus bonis suis 
eesserit, etideo propter publica et 
privata debita substantia ejus vene- 
at, solvitur societas. Sed hoc casu, 
si adhuc consentiant in societatem, 
nova videtur incipere societas. 


De dolo et culpa 


§ IX. Socius socio utrum eq no- 
mine tantumr teneatur pro socio 
actione, si. quid dolo commiserit, 
sicut is, qui deponi apud se passus 
est, an etiam culpz, id est, desi- 
diz atque negligentiz nomine, que- 
situm est? Prevaluit tamen, etiam 
culpe nomine teneri cum. Culpa 
autem non ad exactissimam diligen- 
tiam dirigenda est; sufficit enim 
talem diligentiam communibus re- 
bus adhibere socium, qualem suis 
. rebus adhibere solet. Nam, qui 
parüm diligentem socium sibi assu- 
mit, de se queri, sibique hoc impu- 
tare, debct. 


§ 8. Also, when a man in part- 
nership, being pressed by — debts, 
makes a cession of his goods, and 
they are sold to satisfy either public 
or private demands, the partnership 
is dissolved. — But, if the rest should 
still desire to remain partners, the 
first partnership would not continue, 
but a new one wouldcommence. | 


à socio prestandis. 

$ 9. Jt has been a question, whe- 
thera partner, like a depositary, is 
accountable for fraud only, or alse 
for negligence? | And it. now pre- 
vatls, that he is answerable for all 
the damages, which happen through 


. his fault. But though he fail in hav- 


ing used the most exact diligence, 

such a failure,is not regarded as 
culpa, or a fault: for a partner is 
not liable to answer damages, if it 
appear that he has used the same 
care and diligence in respect. of the 


| partnership property as he hus usu- 


ally observed in keeping his own. 
Whoever chuses a negligent man for 
his partner, must lay the blame upon 
himself only, and impute his misfor- - 
tune to his own ill choice. 


‘a 


/ 


LIB. HI. TIT. XXVIE 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS.SEPTIMUS. 


DE MANDATO. 


D. xvii. T. 1. 


Divisio 
MANDATUM contrahitur 
quinque modis, sivé sua tantüm 
gratia aliquis tibi mandet, sivé sua 
et tua; sive alienà tantüm, sivé sua 
et aliena, sive tui et aliemá. At, si 
tua tantüm gratia tibi mandatum 
sit, supervacuum est mandatum; 
et ob id nulla ex eo obligatio, nec 
mandati inter vos actio nascitur. 


C. lv. T. 35. 


à fine. 


A mandate is of five kinds ; either 
when it is given solely for the bene- 
jit of the mandator ; or jointly for 
his benefit, and that of the manda- 
tary ; or solely for the benefit of a 
third person; or jointly for the be- 
nefit of the mandutor and a third — 
person; or jointly for the benefit of 
the mandatary and a third per- 
son. But, if a mandate be given 
solely for the sake of the mandatary, 
the mandate is useless; for no obli- 
gation can arise from it, nor of 
course any action. Lg 


Si mandantis gratia mandetur. 


, $ I. Mandantis tantum gratia 
intervenit mandatum, veluti si quis 
tibi mandet, ut negotia ejus gereres, 
vel ut fundum ei emeres,' vel ut 
pro eo sponderes. 


§ 1. A mandate is given solely for 
the benefit of the mandator, when he 
requires the mandatary to transact 
his. business, to buy lands, or to be-. 
come hts surety. 


'^ Si mandantis et mandatarii. 


§ II. ‘Tua gratia et mandantis ; 
veluti si mandet tibi, ut pecuniam 
sub ,usuris crederes ei, qui in rem 
ipsius fnutuaretur; aut si, volente 
te agere cum co ex fidejussoria 
causá, mandet tibi, ut cum reo agas 
periculo mandantis; vel ut ipsius 


§ 2. A mandate is given partly 
Jor the benefit of the mandator, and 
partly for your benefit ( the manda- 


> tary,) tf the mandator require you 


to lend money upon interest to one 
who would borrow it for his use; 
or if, when you arc upon the point 


Ls 


% 


periculo stipuleris ab eo, quem tibi 


deleget in id, quod tibi debuerat. 


LIB. HI. TIT. XXVIL 


286° 


of suing a man on account of a fide- 
jussory caution, or suretyship, he 
should authorise you at his own 
risque to sue the principal debtor; or 
if he should impower you at his gun 
hazard to stipulate for the sum, 
which he owes you, from some-other 
person, whom he appoints. 


Si alienà gratia. 


'$ III. Alienà tantum causa in- 
tervenit mandatum; veluti si tibi 
aliquis mandet, ut Titii negotia ge- 
reres, vel ut Titio fundum emeres, 
vel ut pro Titio sponderes. 


§ 3. A mandate is. for the sole in-' 
terest of a third person, when the 
mandator requires the mandatary te 
perform some office, to buy lands, or. 
to become bail for that person. 


. Si mandantis et aliena. Nd 


$ IV. Sua et aliena; veluti si de - 


communibus suis et Titii negotiis 


gerendis tibi mandet, vel ut sibi et 


Titio fundum emeres, vel ut pro eo 
et Titio sponderes. 


§ 4. A mandate is for the joint be- 
nefit of the mandator, and a third 
person, when the mandator requires 
the mandatary to transact their com- 
mon business, to buy lands for them 
both, or to be bound for them. 


Si mandatarii et aliená. 


$ V. Tua et aliena; veluti si tibi 
man‘let, ut Titio sub usuris crede- 
«Tes; quia, si siné usuris pecuniam 
crederes, aliená tantum gratia in- 
tercedit mandatum. 


§ 5. A mandate is in favour of 
the mandatary and a third person, 
when the mandator requires you to 
lend money to Titius, upon interest ; 
but, if without interest, it can only 
be in favour of him, to whom it is 


. lent. 


Si mandatarii. 


§ VI. - Tua tantüm grafia inter- 
venit mandatum; veluti si tibi man- 
det, ut pecunias tuas in emptiones 
potus prediorum collocés, quam 
feneres ; vel ex diverso, ut pecuni- 
as tuas feneres potius, quam in 
‘emptiones przdierum colloces. Cu- 


§ 6. A mandate is given solely 
for your. own benefit, if the manda- 
tor require you rather to make a pur- 
chase of lands, than to lend upon in- 
terest; or, on the contrary, rather 
to lend your money upon .tnterest, 
than to buy lands. But as thia 


286 LIB. III. 
jus generis mandatum magis con- 
silium, quam mandatum est, et ob 
id non est obligatorium ; quia ne- 
mo ex consilio mandati obligatur, 
etiam si non expediat ci, cui man- 
dabatur, cum liberum cuique sit 
apud se explorare, an sibi expediat 
consilium. Itaque, si otiosam pc- 
cuniam domi te habentem hortatus 
fuerit aliquis, ut rem aliquam eme- 
res, vel eam crederes, quamvis non 
expediat eam tibi emisse, vel cre- 
didisse, non tamen tibi mandati te- 
netur. Et adeó hxc ita sunt, ut 
quiesitum sit, an mandati teneatur, 
qui mandavit tibi, ut pecuniam Ti- 
tio fencrares. Sed obtinuit Sabini 
sententia, obligatorium esse in hoc 
casu mandatum ; quia non aliter 
Titio credidisses, quam si tibi man- 
datum esset. 


LIT. XXVII. 


seems rather to be good advice, than 
a mandate, it is not obligatory ; for 
no.action of mandate can be brought 
against a man on account of advice, 
although it has nct proved beneficial 
to him, to whom it was given ; inas- 
much as every one is at full liberty 
to consult hts own reason, whether 
advice given be expedient or not. 
Therefore, if you should be advised 
to employ your money, which now 
lies dead, either by lending it at in- 
terest, or in making a purchase, and. 
you shall become a loser by following 
this advice, the adviser would not be: 
liable to an action. And this is so 
true, that it has even been a question, 
whether an action. of mandate will 
lie against him, who hath required 
you by mandate to lend money to 
Titius, who is msolvent. But the 
opinion of Sabinus hath obtained, 
and a mandate in this case is now 
judged to be obligatory; for you 
would never have trusted Titius, but 
in obedience to the mandate. 


De mandato contra bonos mores. 


9 VII. Illud quoque mandatum 
non est obligatorium, quod contra 


bonos mores est; veluti si Titius. 


de furto, aut de damno faciendo, 
aut de injuria faciendà mandet tibi ; 
licet enim penam istius facti. no- 
mine przstiteris, non tamen ullam 
habes adversus Titium actionem. 


§ 7. A mandaté contrary to good 
manners is not obligatory; as if 
Titius should command you to com- 
mit theft, or to do injury to a third 
person; for, although you should be 
punished in consequence, you will 
not be intitled to any action against 
Titius. 


De executione mandati. 


$ VIII. Is, qui exequitur man- 
datum, non debet excedere fines 


§ 8. He, who executes a mandate 
oughtnot to exceed the bounds of tt ; 


. mandati; utecce, si quis usque ad for example, if a manfator should: res 


a 


gentum aureos mandaverit tibi, ut 
fundum emeres, vel ut pro Titio 
sponderes, neque pluris emere de- 
bes, neque in ampliorem pecuniam 
fidejubere ; alioqui non habebis 
cum eo mandati actionem: adeo 
quidem, ut Sabino et Cassio placue- 
rit, etiamsiusque ad centum aureos 
cum eo agere volueris, inutiliter te 
acturum. Sed -diverse  schole 
auctores recté usque ad centum 
$ureos te acturun existimant; que 
sententia sané benignior est. Quod 
si minoris emeris, habebis scilicet 
cum eo mandati actionem ; quoni- 
am, qui mandat, ut sibi centum au- 
reorum fundus emeretur,is utique 
mandasse intelligitur, ut ntinoris, 
9i possit, emeretur, 


1 


TIT. XXVII. 


287 


quire you to purchase lande, or to be 
bound for Titius, to the amount of an 
hundredaurei; you ought not to buy - 
the lands at an higher price, or 
be bound for a greaie sum; other- 
wise, you will not be intitled to an 
action for theexcess. — And Cassius 
and SABINUS were even of opinion, 
that, although you should bring an 
action of mandate for no more than 
the hundred aurei, you could ‘not 
recover them. But it was held by 
the lawyers of a different school, that 
the mandatory might sue the manda- 
tor for the hundred aurei ; and this 
appears to be the more equitable opi- 
nion. But, if you buy certain lands 
at a less price than that, which the 
mandator has allowed, you will un- 
doubtedly be intitled to an aetion of 
mandate : for, if he hath ordered, that 
an estate should be purchased for an 
hundred aurei, he wll certainly be 
understood, that it should if possible, 
be purchased. at aless price. 


De revocatione mandati. 


$ IX. Recté quoque mandatum 
contractum, si, dum adhuc integra 
Yes sit, revocatum fuerit, evanescit. 


§ 9. A mandate, properly contract- 
ed, becomes null, if revoked before 
any act hath been done in consequence 


of it. 


De morte. 


$ X. Item, si adhuc integro 
mandato mors alterius interveniat 
id est, vel ejus, qui mandaverit, vel 
ilius, qui mandatum susceperit, 
solvitur mandatum. Sed utilitatis 
causa receptum est, si eo mortuo, 
qui tibi mandaverat, tu, ignorans 
eum decessisse, executus fueris 


$ 10. A mandate also becomes null, 
if either the mandator, or the man- 
datary die, while it continues intire. 
But expedience has settled, that, if a 
mandator die, and the mandatary not 
knowing of his death, should after- 
wards execute the mandutc, he may 
bring his action against the heirs of 


mandatum, posse te agere manda- 
tiactione ; alioqui justa et proba- 
bilis ignorantia tibi damnum affe- 
ret. Et huic simile est, quod pla- 
cuit, si debitres, manumisso dis- 
pensatore Titii, per ignorantiam 
liberto solverint, liberari eos ; cum 
alioqui stricta juris ratione ' non 
possent liberari: quia alii solvis- 
sent, quam cui solvere debue- 
mint. 
\ 


- 


prejudicial. 


LIB. HI. TIT. XXVII. 


the mandator : otherwise an unblas 
mable want of knowledge would be 
And, in a similar case, 
it hath been determined, that, if the 
debtors of TiT1us, whose steward 
has been manumitted, without their . 
knowledge, should pay this freed- 
man what was due to TrT1us, they 
would he cleared from their debt ; al- 
though, by the rigour of the law, it 
would be otherwise ; since they had 
made their payment to another than 
him to whom it ought to have been 
made. 


De renunciatione. 


§ XI. Madatum non suscipere 
euilibet liberum- est ; susceptum 
autem consummandum est; aut 
quam primum renunciandum,ut per 
semetipsum, aut per alium, ean- 
dem rem mandator exequatur. 
Nan, nisi ita renuncietur, ut inte- 
gra causa mandatori reservetur 
eandem rem explicandi, nihilomi- 
nus mandati actio locum habet; 
nisi justa caüsa intercesserit aut 
non renunciandi, aut intempestivé 
renunciandi. 


De die et 


§ XII. Mandatum et in diem 
differi, ct sub conditione fieri, po- 
test. 


De mercede. 


§ XIII. In summá sciendum 
est, mandatum, nisi gratuitum sit, 
in aliam formam negotii cadere: 
nam, mercede constituta, incipit 
locatio et conductio esse. 


Et, (ut 


$ 11. Every man is at liberty te 
refuse a mandate ; but once accepted, 
it must be performed, or renounced,’ 
as soon as posstble, that the mandator 
may transact the business himself, or 
by another. For, if this be not so 
done that the mandator can have an 
opportunity of transacting the busi- 
ness properly, an action will le 
against the mandatary, unless he can 
shew good cause for his delay in not 
making a timely renunciation. 


conditione. 


§ 12. A mandate may be put off to 
a distant day, or performed condi- 
tionally, (according to the contract.) 


§ 13. Jn fine, it must be observed, 
that, a mundate nct. gratuitous, be- 
comes another species of contractu. 


for, if a price be agreed upon, the 


contract of location and conduction 


= Tr 


LIB. III. 


generalitér dicamus,).quibus casi- 
bus, siné mercede suscepto officio, 
mandati sivé depositi. contrahitur 
negotium, iis casibus interveniente 
mercede locatio et conductio intel- 
ligitur contrahi. Et ided, si fullo- 
ni polienda curandave quis dede- 
rit vestimenta, aut sarcinatori sar- 
cienda, nulla mercede constituta, 
meque promissa, mandati competit 
actio. 


TIT. XXVIII. 


289 


commences. And in general, when 
atrust or business is undertaken 
without hire, the contract regards 
either a mandate, or a deposit; but, 
when there is an agreement for hire, 
it constitutes location and conduc» 
tion. Therefore, if a man deliver 
his cloaths to a fuller to be cleaned, 
or to ataylor to be mended,and there 
is no agreement or promise made, an , 
action of mandate will lie. 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS-OCTAVUS. 


DE OBLIGATIONIBUSc QUE QUASI EX CON- ^ 
TRACTU NASCUNTUR. 


Continuatio. 


POST genera contractuum enu- 
merata, dispiciamus etiam de iis 
obligationibus, que quidem non 
proprié nasci ex contractu intelli- 
guntur;sed tamen, quia non ex 
maleficio substantiam capiunt, qua- 
si ex contractu nasci videntur. 


Having already enumerated tha 
various kinds of direct obligations, 
we will now treat of those, which 
can not properly be said to arise 
from contract, but yet, us they take 
not their origin from any thing 
criminal, seem to arise from an im- 
plied, or a quasi-contract. 


De negotiorum gestione. 


§ I. Igitur, cum quis negotia 
absentis gesserit, ultro citroque in- 
ter eos nascuntur actiones, qua ap- 
pellantur negotiorum. Sed domi- 
no quidem rei geste adversus eum, 
qui gessit, directa competit actio ; 
negotiorum autem gestori contra- 
ria; quas ex nullo contractu pro- 
prié nasci manifestum est: quippe 
ita nascuntur iste actiones, si sine 


6$ 1. When one person transact$ 
the business of another, who is ab- 
sent, they reciprocally obtain a right 
to certain actions, called actiones ne» - 
gotiorum gestorum ; £. e. on account 
of business done : and it is manifest, 
that these can arise from no proper 
or regular contract; for they take 
place only, when one man assumes 
the care of the affairs of another 


P?» 


^ 


mandato quisque alienis negotiis 
gerendis se obtulerit; ex quà cau- 
a4 ii, quorum negotia gesta fuerint, 
‘etiam ignorantes obligantur. Id- 
que utilitatis causà receptum est, 
ne absentium, qui subita festina- 
tione coacti, nulli demandatà nego- 
tiorum" suorum . administratione, 
peregré profecti essent, desereren- 
tur negotia ; quz sané nemo cura- 
turus esset, si de eo, quod quis im- 
pendisset, nullam habiturus esset 
actionem. Sicut autem is, qui vti- 
litér gessit negotia, dominum ha- 
bet obligatum negotiorum gesto- 
rum, ita et contra iste quoque tene- 
tur, ut administrationis reddat ra- 
tionem ; quo casu ad exactissimam 
quisque diligentiam compellitur 
reddere rationem : nec sufficit. ta- 
lem diligenüam adhibere, qualem 
suis rebus adhibere solet ; si modo 
alius, diligentior eo, commodius 
administraturus esset negotia. 


LIB. UI. TIT. XXVIiL 


without a mandate: and they for 
whom business is transacted, are 
thus bound without their knowledge ; 
and this is permitted for the public 
good, because the business of persons 
absent in a foreign country, whe 
have not entrusted their affairs to 
any particular person, would other- 
wise be totally neglected: for no 
man would take this care upon hzm- 
self, ifhe could not afterwards bring 


an action to recover what he had 
expended. But, as the principal is 


bound to reimburse a careful agent, 
&0 is the latter bound to render ajust 
account of his administration to his 
principal. And an agent, in this 
case, is obliged to use the most exact 
diligence ; for it will not suffice, that 
he has taken the same care of the. 
affairs of his principal, which he 
usually took of his own, if it appear, 
that a more diligent man conld have 
managed to more advantage. 


De tutela. 


§ HI. Tutores quoque, qui tute- 
Jx judicio tenentur, non 'proprié ex 
contractu obligati esse intelligun- 
tur; nullum enim negotium inter 
tutorem et pupillum contrahitur. 
Sed, quia sané non ex maleficio te- 
nentur, quasi ex contractu teneri 
videntur; hoc antem casu mutue 
sunt actrones. Non tantum enim 
pupillus cum tutore habet tutelz ac- 
tionum ; sed et contra tutor cum 
pupillo habet contrariam tutele, si 


vel impenderit aliquid in rem pu- | 


pilli, vel pro co fuerit obligatus, 


§ 2. A tutor, although subject to an 
action of tutelage, is not considered 
as bound by contract ; for between a 
tutor and his pupil there is none. 
But as tutors are not subject to an 
action of mal-feasance, they are un 
derstood to be bound by an implied, 
or quasi-contract; and hence the 
right of action is reciprocal; the pu- 
pil may bring an action of tutelage 
uga'nst his tutor, and a. tutor, whe 
has expended his own money in the 
affairs of his pupil, or has been bound 


for him, or has mortgaged his cwn 


LIB. III. TIT. XXVIII. 


291 


aut rem suam creditoribus ejus ob- possessions to the creditors, is inti- 


ligaverit. a 


ted to the action called contraria tu- 
tele, 


De rei communione. 


€ III. Item, si inter aliquos com- 
munis res sit siné societate, veluti 
quod pariter eis legata donatave es- 
set, et alter eorum alteri ideó te- 
neatur communi dividundo judi- 
cio, quod solus fructus ex ea re 
perceperit, aut quod socius ejus 
solus in eam rem necessarias im- 
pensas fecerit, non intelligitur ex 
contractu proprié obligatus esse; 
quippe nihil inter se contraxerunt : 
sed, quia ex maleficio non tenetur, 
quasi ex contractu teneri videtur. 


De haereditatis 
$ IV. Idem juris est de eo, qui 
cohzredi familie erciscundz judi- 
cio ex his causis obligatus est. 


$ 3. When property ts in common 
among persons not partners, as when 
the same freld, or part of an inheri- 
tance, is devised, or given generally 
between two; the one may be called 
to answer the other by the action 
communi dividundo, either for huv- 
ing taken to his use the whole pro» 
duce of the ground ; or because the 
other hath been at the sole expence of 
keeping it in good order. But neither 
can properly be said to be bound by 
contract, as they made no agree- 
ment between themselves; but, not 
being criminally liable, they are con- 
sidered as bound by a quasi-contract. 


communione. 

§ 4. And the sume law prevaile 
asto him, who is bound to his co 
heir under the action familie erts- 


, cundes, for the partition of an unis 


versal inheritance. 


De aditione hzreditatis. . 


§ V. Hzres quoque legatorum 
ine non proprié ex contractu 
gatus intelligitur ; neque enim 
cum hzrede, neque cum defuncto 
ullum negotium legatarius gessisse 
proprié dici potest ; et tamen, quia 
ex cio non est obligatus, qua- 
si ex contractu debere intelligitur. 





§ 5. 4n heir for the same reason 
cannot properly be said ta be bound 
by contract to alegatee, who can not 
be supposed to have entered into any 
compact either with the heir, or the 
deceased : but, as the heir cannot be 
prosecuted by an action of mal-fea- 
sance, he is considered as liable to 
@ quasi-confract. 


$92 LIB. III. TIT. XXVIII. 


De solutione indebiti. 


6 VI. Item is, cui quis pererro- — $ 6. He, to whom another has: 
rem non debitum solvit, quasi ex faidby mistake what was not due, 
€ontractu debere videtur; adeó e- appears to beindebted by quasi-con- 
nim non intelligitur proprié ex con- tract ; for he is certainly not bound 
tractu obligatus esse; ut,si certi- by an express agreement: and, 
orem rationem sequamur, magis strictly speaking, he might rather bc 
(ut supra diximus) ex distractu said, (as we have before observed, ) 
quam ex contractu possit diciobli- tobe bound by the dissolution than 
gatus esse: nam, qui solvendi ani- dy the making of a contract ; for he, 
mo pecuniam dat, in hoc dare vide- who paid the money with an. intent 
tur, ut distrahat potius negotium, o discharge his debts, seemed ra- 
quam contrahat. Sedtamen perin- ther inclined to dissolve an engage-' 
dé is, qui accepit, obligatur, ac si ment, than to contract one. But, 
mutuum ei daretur; et ideó con- whoever receives money by the mis- 
dictione tenetur. take of another, is as much bound to 

repayment, as if it had been lent him ; 
and is therefore liable to an actton 
- of condiction. 


Quibus ex causis indebitum solutum non repetitur. 


§ VII. Ex quibusdam tamen $ 7. In some cases, money paid 
causis repeti non potest, quod per y mistake, cannot afterwards be 
€rrorem non debitum solutum sit; demanded: for the ancient lawyers 
sic namque definierunt veteres, ex determined, that where an -action 
quibus causis inficiando lis crescit, for double the value of the debt is 
exiis causis nom debitam solutum given upon the denial of it, (as by 
repeti non posse ;^ veluti ex lege A- the Jaw Aquilia, and in thegase of 
quilia, item ex legato: quod vete- Jegacies) the debtor, who has erro- 
res quidem in iis legatis locum ha- neously made payment to whom. it 
bere voluerunt, quz certaconstituta was not due, shall never recover ite 
per damnationom cuique legatafu- But these lawyers would have | 
erant: nostra autem constitutio, rule to take place only in Mid ha 
cum unam naturam omnibus lega- fixed and certain legacies, devised 
‘tis et fideicommissis indulsit, hu- per.daninationem. But our con- 
jusmodi augmentum in omnibus le- stitution, which assigns to legacies 
gatis et fideicommissis extendi vo- and trusts, one common character, 
luit: sed non omnibus legatariis Aath caused this augmentation in 
hoc prebuit, sed tantummodo in iis duplum after denial to be extended 
legatis et fidei commissis, quie sa- to legactes and trusts in generals 
fosanctis Ecclesiis, et ceteris yet the privilege of not refunding 





LIB. III. 


venerabilibus locis, quz vel religio- 
nis vel pietatis intuitu honorantur, 
relicta sunt; quz, si indebita sol- 
vantur, non repetuntur. 


TIT. XXIX. 


293 


what is paid by mistake, is by our 
constitution only granted to church- 
es and other holy places, which are 
honoured on account of religion and 
piety. . 


— dp :: OP —- 


TITULUS VIGESIMUS-NONUS. 
PER QUAS PERSONAS OBLIGATIO ACQUIRITUR. 


C. iv. T. 27. 


De his, qui sunt in potestate. 


EXPOSITIS generibus obliga- 
tionum, quz ex contractu vel quasi 
ex contractu nascuntur, admonendi 
sumus, acquiri nobis non solüm 
per nosmetipsos, sed per eas quo- 
que personas, quz in nostra potes- 
tate sunt, veluti per servos et filios 
nostros; ut tamen, quod per ser- 
vos nostros nobis acquiritur, totum 
nostrum fiat; quod autem per libe- 
ros, quos in potestate habemus, ex 
obligatione fuerit acquisitum, hoc 
dividatur secundum imaginem re- 
yum, proprietatis, et ususfructüs, 
quam nostra decrevit constitutio : 
ut, quod ab actione commodum 
perveniat, hujus usumfructum qui- 
dem habeat pater, proprietas autem 
filio servetur, scilicet patre actionem 
movente, secundüm novellz nostre 
constitutionis divisionem. 


Having explained the various 
kinds of obligations, arising from 
contracts or quasi-contracts, we 
must now observe, that we acquire 
obligations not only by ourselves, 
but also by persons under our pow- 
er; as by our slaves, and children. 
Whatever is acquired by our slaves 
is wholly our own ; but what is ac- 
quired by children, under our pow- 
er, by means of their contracts, must 


. be divided according to our consti- 


tution, which gives to the father 
the usufruct, but reserves the pro- 
perty to the son. But a father, in 
bringing an action, must act in obe- 
dience to our novel constitution. 


s 


291 


LIB. III. TIT. XXIX. 


De bona fide possessis. 


$ I. Item per liberos homines 
et alienos.servos, quos bona fide 
possidemts acquiritur. nobis: sed 
tantüm ex duabus causis, id est, 31 
quid exoperis suis, vel ex re nostrá, 
acquirant. 


De servo fructuario, vel usuario. 


§ II. Pereum quoqueservum, in 
. quo usumfructum vel usum habe- 
mus, similiter ex duabus istis cau- 
sis nobis acquiritur. 


$ 1. We may also acquire by 
means of freemen, and the slaves of 
others, whont we possess bona-fide : 
but this only in two cases; to wit, 
when they have gained an acquisition 
by their labour, or by virtue of 
something, which belongs to us. 


§ 2. We may always acquire in 
either of the above named cases, by 
means even of those slaves, of whom 
we have only the usufruct or use. 


De servo communi. 


§ III. Communem servum pro 
dominicà parte dominis acquirere 
certum est excepto eo, quod nomi- 
natim uni stipulando, aut per tradi- 
tionem accipiendo, illi soli acquirit ; 
veluti cum ita stipulatur, 73tio do- 
mino meo dare spondes ? Sed, si do- 
mini unius jussu servus fuerit stip- 
ulatus, licét antea dubitabatur, ta- 
men post nostram decisionem res 
expedita est, ut illi tantüm acquirat, 
qui hoc ei facere jussit, ut supra 
dictum est. 


§ 3. Jt 28 certain, that a slave, 
who is in common between two or 
more, acquires for his masters in 
proportion to their property in him; 
unless he stipulate, or receive in 
the name of one of them only; as, 
do you promise to give such a 
thing to Trrivs my master? for 
although it was a doubt in times 
past, whether a slave, when  com- 
manded, could stipulate for one of 
his masters; yet, it is now settled 
by our decision, that a slave may ac- 
quire for him only, who hath order- 
ed the stipulation. 


LIB. III. 


TIT. XXX. 


293 


TITULUS TRIGESIMUS. 
QUIBUS MODIS TOLLITUR OBLIGATIO. 


D. iv. T. 2, 3, 4. C. vii. T. 42, 43, 44. 


De solutione. 


TOLLITUR autem omnis obli- 
gatio solutione ejus, quod debetur; 
vel si quis consentiente creditcre 
aliud pro alio solverit. Nec inte- 
rest, quis solvat, utrum ipse, qui 
debet, an alius pro eo; liberatur 


An obligation is dissolved by the 
payment of what is due; or by the 
payment of one thing for another, 
if the creditor consent ; nor is it ma- 
Aerial whether payment be made by 
the debtor himself, or by another 


enim et alio solvente, sivé sciente, for him; for. the debt is discharged 


sivé ignorante debitore, vel invito 
eo solutio fiat. Item, si reus sol- 
verit, etiam ii, qui pro eo interve- 
nerunt, liberantur. Idem ex con- 
trario contingit, si fide-jussor sol- 
verit; non enim ipse solus libera- 
tur, sed etiam reus. 


when another has paid it, either with 
or without the knowledge, or even 
against the consent of the debtor. 
So, when adebtor pays his creditors, 
his sureties are freed: on the other 
hand when a surety discharges his 
obligation, he not only becomes free 
himself, but he discharges thc prin- 
cipal debtor also. - 


! De acceptilatione. 


§ L Item per acceptilationem 
tollitur obligatio: est autem accep- 
tilgtio imaginaria solutio: quod e- 
nim ex verborum obligatione Titio 
debetur; id, si velit Titius remitte- 
re, poterit sic fieri, ut patiatur hzc 


verba debitorem dicere : quod ego 


tibi promisi, habesne acceptum? et 
Titius respondeat, habeo. Sed et 
Grecé potest acceptilatio fieri ; 
dummodo sic fiat, ut Latinis verbis 
solet ; sys Augur )useia Toe. eye 


- Aa8w» . Quo generc, (ut diximus,) 


tantum ex solvuntur obligationes, 
que ex verbis consistuBt, non etiam 
extere. Consentaneum enim visum 


$ 1. Anobligation is also dissolo- 
ed by acceptilation or acknowledge- 
ment; which is an imaginary pay- 
ment: for, if Titius be willing te 
remit what is due to him by a verbal 
contract, it may be done, if the debt- 
or should say, do you consider what 
I promised vou, as accepted and 
received? and Tittus answer, Y 
do. An acceptilation may also be 
made in Greek, if it be so worded, as 
to agree with the Latin form; do 
you acknowledge to have received 
so many Dcnarii? Ido. But verbal 
contracts only are thus dissolved: 
and it seems proper that an obliga- 


296 LIB. III. 
est, verbis factam obligationem aliis 
posse verbis dissolvi. Sed et id, 
quod alia ex causa debetur, potest 
in stipulationem deduci, et per ac- 
eeptilationem dissolvi. Sicut etiam 
quod debetur pro parte recté solvi- 
tur; ita in parte debiti, acceptilatio 
fieri potest. 


TIT. XXX. 


tion, verbally created, may be dis- 


. solved by other words of a contrary 


import. But it is observable, that 
any species of contract may be re- 
duced to a stipulation, and of course 
dissolved by acceptilation. As a 
debt may be paid in part by money, 
it may be discharged in part also by 
acceptilation. 


De Aquilianà stipulatione et acceptilatione. 


€ II. Est autem proditastipulatio, 
quz vulgó Aquiliana appellatur, per 
quam contingit, ut omnium rerum 
obligatio in stipulatum deducatur, 
etea per acceptilationem tollatur. 
Stipulatio enim Aquilianà renovat 
omnes obligationes, et à Gallo A- 
' quilio ita composita est.  S'uicquid 
te mihi ex quacqungue causa dare fa- 
cere oportet oportebitve, presens in 


diemve, aut sub conditione ; quarum- 


cunque rerum mihi tecum actio est, 
queque adversus te petitio, vel adver- 
sus te persecutio, est erttve; quodve 
tu mcum habes, tenes, possides, do- 
love malo fecisti, quo minus possi- 
deas; quanti queque. earum. rerum 
fes erit, tantam pecuniam dari stipu- 
latus est Aulus Agerius, spopondit, 
Numerius Nigidius. Quod Nume- 
rius Nigidius Aulo Agerio spopon- 


dit, id haberetne a se acceptum Nu- 


merius Nigidius Aulum Agertum ro- 
gavit: Aulus Agerius Numerio Ni- 
gidio acceptum fecit. 


following manner. 


§ 2. There is another species of 
stipulation, called commonly the A- 
quilian, by virtue of which every 
other kind of obligation may be re- 
duced to a stipulation, and may af- 
terwards be dissolved by acceptila- 
tion. For the Aquilian strpulatzon 
changes all obligations, and was con- 
stituted by GaLLus AQuILIUs in the 
Do you pro- 
mise, said AuLus ÁcrniUS to Nu- 
MERIUS NiGIDIUS, to pay me a 
sum of money, in lieu of what you 
was, or shall be, obliged to give 
me, or to perform for my benefit, 
either simply, at a day to come, or. 
upon condition; and in lieu of those 
things, which, being my property, 
you HAVE, DETAIN, Or POSSESS; OF 
of which you have fraudulently 
quitted the possession; and for 
which I may, or shall be, intitled to 
any species of action, plaint, or pro- 
secution; Numerius NiciDIUS an- 
swered, I do: and, when this way 
said, Numerius Nicipius asked - 
AuLUs Acerius, if he acknowledg- 
ed the money as accepted and re- 


ceived, which he (Nuwznivus) had - 


promised? to which AuLius Ack- 
RIUS answered, that he did so ac- 


‘knowledge it. 


LIB. Ui. TIT. XXX. 


Bol 


De Novatione. 


§ III. Pretereà, Novatione tolli- 
tur obligatio; veluti si id, quod ti- 
bi Seius debebat, à Titio stipulatus 
sis. Nam interventu nove persone 
nova nascitur obligatio, et prima 
tollitur, translata in posteriorem : 
aded ut interdum, licét posterior 
stipulatio inutilis sit, tamen prima 
novationis jure tollatur ; veluti si id, 
quod tu Titio debes, à pupillo siné 
tutoris auctoritate stipulatus fuerit ; 
quo casu res amittitur: nam et pri- 
or debitor libe?atur, et posterior 
obligatio nulla est. Non idem ju- 
ris est, si à servo quis fuerit stipu- 
latus: nam tunc prior perindé ob- 
ligatus manet, ac si postea nullus 
stipulatus fuisset. Sed, si eadem 
persona sit, à quà postea stipuleris, 
ita demum novatio fit, si quid in 
posteriore stipulatione novi sit; 
forté si conditio aut dies aut fide- 
jussor adjiciatur aut detrahatur. 
Quod autem diximus, si conditio 
adjiciatur, hovationem fieri, sic iri- 
telligi oportet, ut ita dicamus fac- 
tam novationem, si conditio extite- 
rit; alioqui, si defecerit, durat pri- 
er obligatio. Sed, cum hoc qui- 
dem inter veteres constabat, tunc 
fieri novationem, cum novandi ani- 
mo in secundam obligationem itum 
fuerat, per hoc autem dubium erat, 
quando novandi animo vitetur hoc 
feri, et quasdam de hoc presump- 
tiones alii in aliis casibus intro- 
ducebant, ideo nostra processit 
eonstitutio, que apertissimé defini- 
vit, tunc solum novationem prioris 


§ 3. An obligation is also dissolved 
éy novation ; as when you stipulaté 
with Trrius to receive from hin 
what is due to you fromSxE10s.. For, 
by the intervention of a new debtor, 
a fresh obligation arises, by which 
the former is discharged, and iranss 
ferred to the latter, Sometimes, al- 
though the latter be of no force, yet 
the prior contract ts discharged by 
the mere act of novadon: as if 
TiTius should stipulate to res 
ceive what d owe him, from a pupil 
without authority of his tutor; heré 
the debt is lost, because thé first 
debtor is freed, and the second obits 
gation is void: but it is not 80 if a, 
man contract by stipulation with d 
slave, (intending a novation i ) for 
then the first debtor remains bounds 
as if there had been no setond 
stipulation. | And, if you. stipulate 
from ihe saine person à second time, 
a novation arises, if any thine hew 
be contained in. the latter stipulations 
as a condition, a day, or a@ bonds- 
man added, or taken awai. But 
when a condition only ts added, nos 
vation does not take place, till the 
event happen; and, till then, the 
prior obligation continues, Théeans 
cient lawyers held that d novation 
arose, when a second contract was 
intended to dissolve a former ; but it 
was always dificult to know with 
what intent the second obligation 
was made; and for want of posi» 
tive proof, opinions were founded on 
presumptions, arising from the cire 


Qa 


298 


\ 
' obligationis fieri, quoties hoc ipsum 
inter conirahentes expressum fue- 
rit, quod propter novationem prio- 
ris obligationis convenerunt ; alio- 
qui et manere pristinam obligatio- 
hem,et secundam ei accedere, ut 
maneat ex utráque causa obligatio, 
secundüm nostre constitutionis de- 
finitionem, quam licet ex ipsius lec- 
tione apertius cognoscere. ' 


LIB. III. TIT. XXX. 


cumstances of each case. This in- 
certainty gave rise to our constitu- 
tion, which enacts that a novation 
of a former contract shall only take 
place, when it is expressed by the 
contractors, that they covenanted 
with this intent ; otherwise the first 
contract shall continue valid, and the 
second be regarded as an accession 
to it; so that an obligation may re- 
main under both contracts, as may 
be better known by perusing our 
constitution on this subject. 


De contrario consensu. 


§ IV. Hoc amplius, ez obligati- 
ones, que consensu contrahuntur, 
contrarià voluntate dissolvuntur. 
Nam, si Titius et Seius inter se 
consenserint, ut fundum Tuscula- 
num emptum Seius haberet centum 
aureis, deinde, re nondum secuti, 
(id est, neque pretio soluto, neque 
fundo tradito,) placuerit inter eos, 
ut discederetur ab eà emptione 
et venditione, invicém liberantur. 
Idem est in conductione et locatione, 
et in omnibus contractibus, qui ex 
consensu descendunt, sicüt jam dic- 
tum est. 


§ 4. Farther, obligations con- . 
tracted by consent, may be dissolved 
by dissent. For, if Trrivs and 
Sr1US have agreed that Sk1us shall 
have a certain estate for an hun- 
dred aurei, and afterwards before 
execution, thatis, before payment, 
or livery of the land, the parties dis- 
sent from their agreement, they are 
mutually discharged. The same may 
be said of location and conduction, 
and of all other contracts, which 
arise from’ consent. 


FINIS LIBRI TERTII. 


DIVI JUSTINIANI | 


INSTITUTIONUM | 


LIBER QUARTUS. 


nd) ¢gne = 


EN 


TITULUS PRIMUS... 


DE OBLIGATIONIBUS, QUAE; EX DELICTO NAS. 
CUNTUR. 


D.xlvii. T.2. C.vi. T. 2. 


Continuatio et divisio obligationum ex delicto. 


CUM sit expositum superiore 
libro de obligationibus ex contractu 
et quasi ex contractu, sequitur, ut 
de obligationibus ex maleficio et 
quasi ex maleficio dispiciamus. Sed 
ille quidem, ut suo loco tradidi- 
mus, in quatuor genera dividuntur ; 
hz vero unius generis sunt : nam 
omnes ex re nascuntur, id est, ex 
ipso maleficio ; veluti ex furto, ra- 
pina, damno, injuria. 


Having explained in the preced- 
ing book the nature of obligations, 
which arise from contracts and 
quasi-contracts, it follows, that we 
should here treat of those, which d- 
rise from male-feasance and quasi- 
male-feasance. The former, as we 
have shewn tn the proper place, are 
divided into four species ; but the lat- 
ter are of one kind only; for they 
all arise ex re, that is, from the 
crime or male-feasance itself; as 


from theft, rapine, damage, injury. 


Definitio furti. 


§ I. Furtum est contrectatio 
fraudulosa, lucri faciendi gratia, vel 
ipsius rei, vel etiam usüs ejus, pos- 
sessidhisve : quod lege naturali pro- 
hibitum est admittere. 


$ 1. Theft, is the taking, using, 
or possessing any thing by fraud 
for the sake of gain. And this is 
prohibited by the law of nature. 


wou 


LIB. IV. TIT. I. 


Ety mologia. 


6 II. Furtum autem vel 2 furvo, 
jd est, nigro, dictum est, quod clam 
etobscuré fiat, vel plerumque nocte: 
vel à fraude : vel à ferendo, id est, 
auferendo: vel à Graeco sermone, 
quod $se«s appellant fures: imo et 
Greci, «so rs Qiu, Qupas dixerint, 





§ III. Furtorum autem duo, 


sunt genera; manifestum et nec 
manifestum : nam conceptum et 
oblatum species potius actionis sunt 
furto coharentes, quam gencra fur- 
torum, sicüt inferius apparebit. 
Manifestus fur est, quem Graci 
gx’ «vreQojo appellant: nec solüm is, 
qui in ipso furto deprehenditur, sed 
etiam is, qui eo loco deprehenditur, 
quo furtum fit ; veluti qui in domo 
furtum fecit, et, nondüm egres- 
sus januam, deprehensus fucrit: 
et qui in oliveto olivarum, aut in 
vineto uvarum, furtum, fecit, quam- 
diu ineo oliveto aut vineto de- 
prehemsus fucrit. | Imó ulterius 
furtum manifestum est. extenden- 
dum, quamdiu cam rem fur tenens 
visus vel deprehensus | fuerit, sivé 
jn publico, sivé in privato, vel à 
domino, vel ab alio, antequam eo 
pervenerit, quo d«fcrre vel depo- 
mere destinasset, Sed,si pertulit, 
quo destinavit, tametsi deprchen- 
datur cum re furtiva, nen cst mani- 
festus fur, Nec manifestum fur- 
tum quid sit, ex 1is, que diximus, 
intelügitur; nam quod manifestum 


6 2. The word furtum [theft} ie. 
derived from furvum ; [Mack or 
darh;] because theft is committed 
privately, and generally in_ the 
night : or from fraus [ fraud] a 
»—or from ferendo, i. e. (auferen- 
do) and denotes a substraction, or 
taking away. Or perhaps from the 
Greek; for the Greeks call fures, 
Purges , from Preuss, to take away. 





Divisio. 


$ 3. Of theft there are two kinds, 
manifest and not manifest: for the 
thefts,called conceptum and oblatum, 
rather denote the kind of action con- 
nected with theft, than the kind of 
theft ; as will appear in the next pa- 
ragraph. A manifest thief, whom 
the Grecks call ex’ avrefage, is he, 
who is taken in the act of thteving, 
or in the place, where he committed 
it; as ifa man, having committed a 
theft within a house, should be ap- 
prehended befure he had passed the 
outward door: or, having stolen 
grapes or olives, should be taken in 
the vineyard or clive orchard. Mas 
nifest theft is also farther extended s 
for, if the thief be apprehended, 
while seen in possession of the thing 
stolen, or if he be taken in public er 
in private, by the owner or by a 
stranger, at any time before his are 
rival at the place, to which he pros 
posed to carry it, he is guilty of a 
manifest theft. But if he actually . 
arrive, before apprehensicn, at the 
place propcsed, then, although the 
thing stolen be found upon him, he 
is not a manifest thief. By this dge 


LIB. IV. TIT. L 


30€ 


non est,id scilicet nec manifestum scription of tnanifest theft, may be 


est» 


understood what is. theft not mani- 
fest. 


De furto concepto, oblato, prohibito, non exhibito. 


§ IV. Conceptum furtum dici- 
tur, cum apud aliquem, testibus 
praesentibus, furtiva res quzsita et 
inventa sit: nam in eum propria 
actio constituta est, quamvis fur 
.non sit; qus appellatur concepti. 
" Oblatum furtum dicitur, cum res 
furtiva ab aliquo tibi oblata sit, ea- 
que apud te concepta sit; utique 
31 eá mente tibi data fuerit, ut apud 
te potius, quam apud eum, qui 
dedit, conciperetur: nam tibi, apud 
quem concepta sit, propria adver- 
sus eum, qui obtulit, quamvis fur 
non sit, constituta est actio, que 
appellatur oblati. Est etiam pro- 
hibiti furti actio, adversus eum, qui 
furtum quzrere testibus presenti- 
bus volentem prohibuerit. Prete- 
fea pena constituitur edicto preto- 
ris per actionem furti non exhibiti 
adversus eum, qui furtivam rem 
apud se quzsitam et inventam non 
exhibuit. Sed hz actiones, scilicet 
concepti, et oblati, et furti prohi- 
hiti, nec non furti non exhibiti, in 
desuetudinem abierunt. Cum enim 
requisitio rei furtive hodie secun- 
düm veterem observationem non 
fiat, meritó ex consequentià, etiam 
prefate actiones ab usu communi 
recesserunt ; cum manifestum sit, 
quod omnes, qui scientes rem fur- 
tivam susceperint, et cclaverint, fur- 
ti nec manifesti obnoxii sunt. 


§ 4. A theft is called conceptum 
[i. e. found] when a thing stolen is 
searched for and found upon some 
person in the presence of witnesses s' 
and a particular action, called actie 
concepti, /ies against such posses- 
sor, although-he did not ecmmit the 
theft. A theft is called oblatum, [i- 
e. offered,| when a thing stolen is 
offered to Titius, and found upon 
him, it having been given to. him by 
Seius, with intent that it might ra- 
ther be found upon Titius than upon 
himself: and in this case a special 
action, called actio oblati, may be 
brought by Titius against Seius, 
although Seius was not guilty of 
the theft. The action, called prohi- 
biti furti, also lies against him, 
who prevents another from inquiring 
of theft in the presence of witnesses. 
And farther, a penalty was appoint- 
ed by pratorian edict to besued by the 
action furti non exhibiti against 
any man for not having produced 
things stolen, which upon search 
were found to have been in his pos- 
session. But these four actions are 
become quite obsolete; for, since & 
searchafter things stolen is not now 
made according to ancient formali- 
ties, these actions have in conse- 
quence ceased to bein use ; for it 18 
a settled point, that all, who knowe 
ingly have received and concealed a 
thing stolen, are subject to the pen- 
alty of theft not manifest. 


302 


LIB. IV. TIT. }. 


Pena. 


6 V. Pena manifesti furti quad- 
rupli est, tam ex scrvi, quam ex 
liberi persona ; nec manifesti, dupli. 


$ 5. The penalty of committing 
manifest theft, is quadruple, whether 
the thief be bond or free ; the penalty 
of theft not manifest, is double the 
value of the thing stolen. 


Quomodo furtum fit; de contrectatione. 


$ VI. Furtum autem ft, non so- 
lim cum quis intercipiendi causa 
rem alienam amovet ; sed generali- 
ter, cum quis alienam rem, invito 
domino, contrectat. Itaque sivé 
creditor pignore, sivé is, apud quem 
res deposita est, ea re utatur; sivé 
is, qui rem utendam accepit, in ali- 
um usum eam transferat, quam cu- 
jus gratia ei data est, furtum com- 
mittit; veluti, si quis argentum u- 
tendum acceperit, quasi amicos ad 
cenam invitaturus, et id peregré 
secum tulerit; aut si quis. equum, 
gestandi causá commodatum sibi, 
longius aliquo duxerit: quod vete- 
res scripserunt de eo, qui in aciem 
equum perduxisset. 


$ 6. Theft is committed not only, 
when one man removes the proper- 
ty of another to appropriate it to 
himself, but also generally, when 
one man uses the property of ano- 
ther against the will of the proprie- 


tor ; thus,if a creditor uses a pledge, 


or a depositary the deposit left with 
him, or if he who hath only the use 
of a thing for a special purpose, con- 
verts it to other uses, a theft is com- 
mitted. If any one borrows plate 
under pretence of using it at an 
entertainment of his friends, and 
then carries it away to a foreign 
country—or borrows a horse, and 
rides it farther than he ought, theft zs 
also committed : and the ancients 
extended this to him, who rides a 
borrowed horse into a field of battle. 


De affectu furandi. 


§ VII. Placuit tamen, eos, qui 
-ebus commodatis aliter uterentur, 
quam utendas acceperint, ita furtum 
committere, si se intelligant id, in- 
vito domino, facere ; eumque, si in- 
tellexisset, non permissurum : at, si 
permissurum credant, extra crimen 
videri, optima sahé distinctione ; 


$ 7. But it hath been adjudged, 
that whoever applies a thing bor- 
rowed to other uses than those for 
which he borrowed it, is not guilty 
of theft, unless the borrower knew, 
that he so appliedit contrary to the 
will of the owner, who would not 
have permitted such application, if 


LIB. IV. 


quia furtum siné affectu furandi non 
committitur. 


TIT-L 303 


he had been apprized of it. But it 
should seem, that the borrower is not 
guilty,if it appear, that he relied 
on the owner's consent. And this 
ts a good distinction; fora theft 
can never be committed, unless. there 
appear to have been an tntention of 
stealing. 


De voluntate domini. 


6 VIII. Sed et, si credat aliquis, 
invito domino, se rem commoda- 
tam sibi contrectare, domino autem 
volente id fiat, dicitur furtum non 
fieri. Unde illud quesitum est, 
cum Titius servum Mavii solicita- 
verit, ut quasdam res domino sur- 
riperet, et ad eam perferret, et ser- 
vus id ad dominum pertulerit; 
Mevius autem, dum vult Titium 
in ipso delicto deprehendere, per- 
misserit servo quasdam res ad eum 
perferre ; utrum furti, an servi cor- 
rupti, judicio teneatur Titius, an 
neutro? Et cum nobis super hac 
dubitatione suggestum est, et anti- 
quorum prudentium super hoc alter- 
cationes perspeximus, quibusdam 
neque furti, neque servi corrupti, 
actionem prestantibus, quibusdam 
furti tantummodo, nos, hujusmodi 
calliditati obviam euntes, per nos- 
tram constitutionem sancimus, non 
solum furti actionem, sed et servi 
corrupti contra eum dari. Licet 
enim is servus deterior à solicitatore 
minimé factus est, et ided non con- 
currant regule, quz servi corrupti 
actionem introducunt; tamen cor 
alium corruptoris ad perniciem 
probitatis servi introductum est, 


—- 


6 8. But,if a man use a thing 
borrowed against the will ofthe own- 
er as he believes, but who in reality 
consents that it should be so used, 
theft 2s not committed : hence arises 
a question on the following case. Ti- 
tius solicited the slave of Mzvius to 
rob his master,and to bring him the 
things stolen; of this the slave in- 

formed his master, who, being desi- 
rous of catching "Titius zu the fact, 
permitted the slave to carry certain 
things to Titius, as stolen; will 
Titius be subject to an action of 
theft, or to an action for having cor- 
rupteda slave, or to neither ? When 
this was proposedto us as a matter 
of doubt, and we examined the alter- 
cations of antient lawyers upon the 
point, some of them allowing of* 
neither of the before-named actions, 
and others allowing an action of theft 
only, we, being willing to obviate all 
subtilities, decreed that not only an 
action of theft might be brought, but 
also the action servi corrupti, which 
lies for having corrupted a slave. 
For although the slave became not 
the worse for the sslicitation, and 
therefore the causes, which introduce 
the action servi corrupti, do not 


804 LIB. IV. 


ut sit el penalis actio imposita, 
tanquam si re ipsa fuisset servus 
corruptus ;. ne ex hujusmodi impu- 
nitate et in alium servum, qui facile 
possit corrumpi, tale facinus à qui- 
busdam perpetzetur. 


Quarum rerum furtum fit. 


§ IX. Interdüm etiam liberorum 
hominum furtum fit; veluti si quis 
liberorum nostrorum, qui in potes- 
fate nostra sunt, surreptus fuerit. 


TIT. L 


concur ; yet inasmuch as such soltci. 
tation was intended to corrupt, it 
hath therefore pleased us,thata pen- 
al action shall lie against the party 
soliciting, in the same manner as if 
he had actually succeeded by corrupt- 
ing the slave; lest impunity might 
encourage evil-disposed persons to 
make the same attempt upon other 
slaves, who might be more casily cor- 


rupted. 


De liberis hominibus. 

6 9. A theft may be committed even 
of free persons; as, for instance, 
when children whoare under pow- 
er, are surreptitiously taken from 
their parents. 


De re propria. 


$ X. Aliquando etiam suz rei 
fürtum quis committit; veluti si 
debitor rem, quam creditori pigno- 
Tis causa dedit, subtraxerit. 


Qui tenentur furti. 


$ XI. Interdim quoque furti te- 
netur, qui ipse furtum non fecit ; 
qualis est is, cujus ope et consilio 
furtum factum est. In quo nume- 
ro est, qui tibi nummos excussit, ut 
alius eos raperet ; aut tibi obstiterit, 
ut alius rem tuam exciperet; aut 
óves tuas, vel boves fugaverit, ut 
alius eas acciperet. Et hoc veteres 
scripserunt de eo, qui panno rubro 
fugavitarmentum. Sed, si quid eo- 
rum per lasciviam, et non data o- 
pera, ut furtum admitteretur, fac- 
tum est, in factum actio dari debet. 


§ 10. A man may also commit a 
theft of his own property ; as when 
a debtor takes away the pledge left 
with his creditor. 


De eo, cujus ope, consilio, furtum 
lactum es.. 


§ 11. Anaction of theft will, in 
some cases, lte against persons, who 
did not actually commit the theft ; as 
against those, by whose aid and ad- 
vice the theft was commttted : who- 
ever strikes money out of your hand, 
to the intent that another may pick it 
up; or so obstructs ycu,as to enable 
his accomplice to take your sheep, ox- 
en, or any part of your property, 
must be regarded as an aider and ad- 
ohher. The ancient lawyer&also tne 
cluded him in this number, who frighte 
ened awayaherd from its pasture 


LIB. IV. 


At, ubi ope Mevii Titius furtum 
fecerit, ambo furti tenentur. Ope 
et consilio ejus quoque furtum. ad- 
mitti videtur, qui scalas forte fenes- 
tris suppomit, aut ipsas fenestras 
velostium effringit, ut alius fur- 
tum faceret; quive ferramenta ad 
effringendum, aut scalas, ut fenes- 
tris supponerentur, commodaverit ; 
sciens, cujus rei gratia commodave- 
rit. Certé, qui nullam opem ad fur- 
tum faciendum adhibuit, sed tantum 
consilium dedit, atque hortatus est 
ad furtum faciendum, ngn tenetur 
furti. 


De his, qui sunt in potestate. 


$ XII. Hi, qui in parentum vel 
dominorum potestate sunt, si rem 
eis surripiunt, furtum quidem faci- 
unt, et res in furtivam causam ca- 
dit; nec ob id abullo usucapi po- 
test, antequam in domini potesta- 
tem revertatur : sed farti actio non 
nàscitur ; quia nec ex alia ullá cau- 
si potest inter eos actio nasci. Si 
verd ope et consilio alterius furtum 
factum fuerit, quia utique furtum 
committitur, convenienter ille furti 
tenetur.: quia verum est, ope et con- 
silio ejus furtum factum esse. 


TIT. 1. 303 


with a red cloth. But, if a man 
shoutd do any of these acts wantonly, 

and without intention of thieving, 
then an action canlie only in factum 3 
i» e. upon the case, or the fact done : 
but, when Titius commits theft by 
the aid of Mevius, they are both 
subject to an action of theft. Theft 
seeme to be committed both by aid 
and advice, when a man puts a ladder 
to awindow, or breaks open a door 
or window, to the intent, that ano- 
ther may commit thefl ; or when one 
man lends another iron bars, or lad» 
ders, knowing the bad purposes to 
which they are to be applied. But 
it is certain, that he, who hath afford- 
ed no actual assistance, but hath only 
given his council by advising the 
crime, is not liable to an action of 


theft. 


Eit de ope ac consilio extranei. 
$ 12. When persons under the 


power of parents or masters take 
from them any thing surreptitiously, 
it is considered that a theft is come 
mitted ; so that it cannot be prescri- 
bed to, by any one, until it hath first 
reverted into the power of the owne 
er ; and yet an action of theft will 
not lie; for no action les between 
parents and children, or mastera 
and slaves. But if the fact were 
done by the aid and advice of any 
ether, inasmuch as a theft ig come 
mitted, an action of theft will fie a- 
gainst the accessary. 


Rr 


$06 


, 


LIB. IV. TIT. L 


Quibus datur actio furti. 


$ XIII. Furti autem actio ei 
competit, cujus interest rem salvam 
esse, licét dominus non sit: itaque 
nec domino aliter competit, quam 
si ejus intersit, rem non perire. 


$ 13. An action of theft may be 
brought by any man, who has an zn- 
terest in the safety of the thing sto- 
len, although he be not the proprietor: 
and the proprietor himself can have 
no action, unless he have an intereste 


De pignore surrepto creditori. 


$ XIV. Unde constat credito- 
rem de pignore surrepto furti acti- 
one agere posse, etiamsi idoneum 
debitorem habeat; quia expedit ei 
pignori potius incumbere, quam in 
personam agere: adeo quidem ut, 
quamvis ipse debitor eam rem surri- 
puerit, nihilominus creditori com- 
petat actio furti. 


6 14. Hence, a creditor . may 
bring this action for a pledge stolen, 
although his debtor be solvent ; be- 
cause it may be more expedient for 
him to rely upon his pledge, than to 
bring suit against his debtor; and, 


although the debtor himself should 


have purloined the pledge, yet an 
action of theft will lie against him. 


De re fulloni, vel sarcinatori, vel bone fidei emptori, surrepta. 


§ XV. Item si fullo polienda cu- 
randave, aut sarcinator sarcienda, 
vestimenta mercede certa constituta 
acceperit, eaque furto amiserit, ipse 
furti habet actionem, non dominus ; 


eo e YP «4 08 


non perire ; cum judicio locati à ful- 
lone, aut sarcinatore, rem suam 
persequi possit. Sed et bon: fidei 
emptori surrepta re, quam emerit, 
quamvis dominus non sit, omninó 
competit furti actio, quemadmo- 
. dum etcreditori. Fulloni veró et 
sarcmatori non aliter furti action- 
em competere placuit, quam si sol- 
vendé fuerint; hoc est, si domino 
rei 2Stimauonem solvere possint. 
Nam, si solvendo non sint, tunc, 
quia ab eis suum consequi non pos- 
sit, ipsi domino furti competit ac- 


15. A fuller who receives cloaths 
to clean, which are stolen from him, 
may bring an action of theft, but 
not the owner; for the owner ie 
not considered as interested in their 
safety, having a right of action, 
called locati against the fuller. But, 
if a thing be stolen from a boná fi- 
de purchaser, he is intitled, like a 
creditor, to an action of theft, al- 
though he be mot the proprietor. 
But an action of theft is not main- 
tainable by the fuller, or any trades- 
man in similar circumstances, unless 
he be solvent ; that is, unless he be 
able to pay the owner the full value 
of the thing lost: for, if. the fuller 
be insolvent, then the owner, whe 
cannot recover from the fuller, is al- 
lowed to brine an action of theft, 


LIB. IV. 


tio; quia hoc casu ipsius interest, 
rem salvam esse. Idem est, etsi 


in parte solvendo fuerit fullo aut 


sarcinator. 


TIT. I. 307 


having in this case aninterest. And 
this although the tradesman be par- 
tially solvent. 


De re commodata. 


€ XVI. Qus de fullone et sarci- 
natore diximus, eadem et ad eum, 
eui commodata res est, transferen- 
da, veteres existimabant, Nam 
ut ille fullo, mercedem accipien- 
do, custodiam prestat, ita is quo- 
que, qui commodatum utendi cau- 
sa accepit, similiter necesse habet 
custodiam prestare. Sed nostra 
providentia etiam hoc in nostris de- 
cisionibus emendavit, ut in domi- 
ni voluntate sit, sivé commodati ac- 
tionem adversus eum, qui rem 
eommodatam accepit, movere de- 
siderat, sivé furti adversus cum, 
qui rem surripuit ; et, alterutra ea- 
rum electa, dominum non posse ex 
penitentiá ad alteram venire action- 
em : sed, si quidem furem elegerit, 
illum, qui rem utendam accepit, 
penitis liberari ; sin autem comrao- 
dator veniat adversus eum, qui 
yem utendam accepit, ipsi quidem 
. nullo modo competere posse adver- 
sua furem furti actionem ; eum au- 
tem, qui pro re commodata conve- 
mitur, posse adversus furem furti 
habere actionem ; ita tamen, si de- 
minus, sciens rem esse surreptam, 
adversus eum, cui res ‘commodata 
fuerit, pervenit. Sin autem nesci- 
us et dubitans, rem esse surreptam, 
spud eum commodati actionem iri- 
(tituerit: postea autem, re com- 
pertà, voluerit remittere quidem 


§ 16. Theancients were of opi- 
nion, that what we have said of a 
tradesman is equally applicable to 
a borrower. For as the fuller, by 
agreeing for a certain price, is oblig- 
ed to answer for the cloaths commit- 
ted to his care, so is he who receives 
a loan for the sake of using it, under 
the like necessity of preserving it. 
But we have amended the law in 
this point by our decisions, so that 
it is now at the will of the owner ei- 
ther to bring an action of theft a- 
gainst the thief, or an action on ac 
count of the thing lent, against the 
borrower. But, if the owner once 
make an election, he can not after- 
wards have recourse to the other rec - 
medy ; if he prosecutes the thief, the 
borrower is discharged; if he bringe 
eutt againt the borrower, he can not 
sue the. thief. But the borrower, 
who is sued' on account of the thing 
lent, may bring an action of theft a- 
gainst the thief, if the owner suing 
were apprized, that the thing was 
stolen; but,if the owner, either not 
&nowing or doubting of the theft, in- 
stitute an action of loan against the 
borrower, and afterwards tpon in- 

formation is willing to withdraw it, 
and recur to an action of theft, he 
shall have liberty, in consideration of 
his incertainty, to prosecute the 
thief without obstacle, if the berrow- 


* 


30$ 


commodati actionem, ad furti au- 
tem actionem pervenire, tunc licen- 
tia ei concedatur et adversus furem 
venire, obstaculo nullo ei opponen- 
do; quoniam incertus constitutus 
movit adversus eum, qui rem uten- 
dam accepit, commodati actionem ; 
nisi domino ab eo satisfactum fue- 
rit: tunc. etenim omnind futem à 
domino quidem furti actione libera- 
Yi; suppositum autem esse ei, qui 
pro re sibi commodatà domino sa- 
tisfecit; cum, manifestissimum sit, 
etiamsiab initio dominus actionem 
commodati instituerit, ignarus rem 
esse surreptam, postea. autem, hoc 
ci cognito, adversus furem transi- 
erit, omninó liberari eum, qui rem 
commodatam acceperit, quemcun- 
que causz exitum dominus adver. 
sus furem habuerit: eadem defini- 
tione obtinente, sivé in parte, sivé 
in solidum solvendo sit is, qui rem. 
commodatam acceperit. 


LIB. IV. TIT. I. 


er has not satisfied his demand; bus 
if he has, then the thief is freed from 
any action of theft by the owner and * 
remains subject to the prosecution of 
the borrower, who hath satisfied the 
owner. But it. is most manifest, 
that if the owner of any particular 
thing not knowing, that it is stolen, 
should at first institute an action of 
loas against the borrower, but should 
afterwards, upon better information, 
chuse to pursue the thief by an acm 
tion of theft, the borrower.is secure, 
whatever may be.the issue of the aca 
tion brought against the thief. And 
this is law, whether the borrower 
be able to answer the whole, or a 


past only, of the value of the thing. 


De re deposita. 


§ XVII. Sed.is, apud quem res 
deposita est, custodiam non przs- 
tat; sed tantum in. eo obnoxius 
est, si quid ipse dolo malo fecerit : 
qua de causà, si: res ei surrepta fne- 
rit, quia restituende ejus rei nomine 
depositi, non tenetur; nec ob id ejus. 
interest rem.salvam. esse, furti agere 
non potest: sed furti actio domino 
competit. 

_ An impubes 

§ XVIII. In summa: sciendum. 


est, quzsitum esse, an impubes rem 
alienam: amovendo: furtum, faciat? 


$ 17. A depositary ie not o- 
bliged to. make good the thing depo- 
atied, unless he be himself guilty. of 
some fraud ; and therefore, as he is 


not obliged to make restitutóon, when 


the. deposit is stolen, and hae camac- 
quently no interest inthe: preserva: 
tion of it, he-can not bring an action 
of theft, which in this case can only, 
be maintained by the oumer. 


furti teneatur. 


'$ 18. Zt hetk beer a question, 
whether a person within puberty, 
taking away the property of anether 


LIB. IV. 


Et placuit, quia furtum ex effectu 
furandi consistit, ita demüm obliga- 
ri eo crimine impuberem, si proxi- 
mus pubertati sit, et ob id intelligat 
se delinquere. 


TIT. II. 300 


can be guilty of theft ? And it hath 
been determined, that as theft consists 
in the intention of defrauding, a 
person approaching to puberty and 
sensible of doing wrong, may be 
charged with theft. 


Quid veniat in hanc actionem ; et de affinibus actionibus. 


§ XIX. Furti actio, sivé dupli, 
sivé quadrupli, tantum ad pense 
persecutionem pertinet : nam ipsius 
yei persecutionem extrinsecus ha- 
bet dominis, quam aut vindicando 
aut condicendo potest auferre. Sed 
Fei vindicatio quidem adversus pos- 
sessorem est, sivé fur ipse possidet, 
sivé alius quilibet; condictio au- 
tem adversus furem ipsum, hzre- 
demve ejus, licét non possideat, 


competit. 


§ 19. An action of theft can only 
be brought for the penalty, whether 
double or quadruple: for the owner 
may recover the thing itself, either 
by vindication or condiction. An 
action of vindication may be brought 
either against the thief or any other 
in possession; but condiction is main- 
tainable only against the thief him- 
self, or his heir ; and it will lie a- 
gainst either of them, whether in 
possession of the thing stolen, or not. 


TITULUS SECUNDUS. 


* 


DE VI BONORUM RAPTORUM. 


D. xlvii. T. 8. 


Origo hujus actionis; 

QUI vi res alienas rapit, tenetur 
quidem etiam furti; (quis enim 
magis alienam rem, invito domino, 
contreetat, quam qui vi rapit? ideo- 
que recté dictum est, eum impro- 
bum forem esse ;) sed tamen pro- 
priam actionem ejus delicti nomine 
pretor introduxit, que appellatur 
vl bonorum raptorum; et est intra 
imum quadrupli, post annum sim- 


C. ix. T. 33. 


et quid in eam veniat. 
He who takes the property of 
another by force, is liable to an ac- 
tion of theft ; [for who can be said 
to take the property of another more 
against his will, than he, who takes 
it by force ? it is therefore rightly 
observed, that he is a. thief of the 
worst kind:| the praetor however, 
hath introduced a peculiar action in 
this case, called vi bonorum rapto- 


$10 LIB. IV. 


pli; que actio utilis est, etiamsi 
quis unam rem, licet minimam, ra- 
puerit. Quadruplum autem non to- 
tum pena est, sicüt in actione furti 
manifesti diximus ; sed in quadru- 
plo inest et rei persecutio; ut pa- 
na tripli sit, sivé comprehendatur 
raptor in ipso delicto, sivé non. 
Ridiculum enim esset, levioris con- 
ditionis esse eum, qui vi rapit, 
quam qui clam amovet. 


TIT. II. 


rum; which, if brought within a 
gear after the robbery, inforces the 
payment of the quadruple value of 
the thing taken; but, if brought 
after the expiration of a year, then 
the single value only is claimable ; 
and this action may be brought for 
any single thing, though of the smal- 
lest value, if taken by force. But the 
quadruple value is not altogether pe- 
nalty, as in an action of manifest 
theft; for the thing itself is includ- - 
ed, so that, strictly, the penalty 
za only threefold; but then it ie 
inflicted without distinguishing whe- 
ther the robber was, or was not 
taken in the actual commission of the 
fact. For it would be ridiculous, 
that a robber, who uses force, should 
be in a better condition, than he, who 
is only guilty of clandestine theft. 


Adversus quos datur. 


6 I. Itatamen competit hec ac- 
do, si 3 .malo quis rapuerit; 
nam, qui errore ductus, rem 
suam esse existimans, et imprudens 
juris, eo animo rapuerit, quasi do- 
mino liceat etiam per vim rem suam 
auferre à possessoribus, absolvi de- 
bet: cui scilicét conveniens est, 
mec furti teneri eum, qui eodem 
hoc animo rapuit. Sed, ne, dum 
talia excogitantur, inveniatur via, 
per quam raptores impuné suam 
exerceant avaritiam, melius divali- 
bus constitutionibus pro hac parte 
prospectum est, ut nemini liceat 
vi rapere vel rem mobilem, vel se 
moventem, licét suam eandem rem 
existimet. Sed, si quis contra sta- 





$ 1. This action is maintainable 
also on the ground of fraud : but if a 
man, ignorant of the law and erro- 
neously deeming some particular 
thing to be his own, should take it 
away by force from the possessor, 
upon full persuasion that he, as pro- 
prictor, could justify such a proceed- 
ing, he ought to be acguttted upen 
this action: neither is he subject, 
under these circumstances, to an ate 
tion of theft. But, lest robbera 
should from hence find out a wey ef* 
practising their villanies with tmpuec 
nity, it is provided by the imperial. 
constitutions, that no man shall teke 
by force any moveable thing, or tive 
ing creature, although he beligue d$ 


te 


LIB. IV. 


tta principum fecerit, rei quidem 
sus dominio cadere ; sin autem alie- 
nares sit, post restitutionem ejus, 
etiam zstimationem ejusdem rei 
prestare. Quod non solüm in mo- 
bilibus rebus, que rapi possunt, 
.constitutiones obtinere censuerunt, 
sed etiam in invasionibus, quz cir- 
ca res soli iunt; ut, ex hac causa, 
ab omni rapinà homines abstineant. 


Quibus 

€ II. San& in hac actione non 
utique expectatur rem in bonis ac- 
toris esse; nam, sivé in bonis sit, 
Sivé non, si tamen ex bonis sit, lo- 
cum hzc actio habebit. Quare 
sivé locata, sivé commodata, sivé 
etiam pignorata, sivé deposita, sit 
res apud Titium sic, ut intersit 
ejus, eam rem per vim non auferri, 
(veluti si in depositá re culpam 
quoque -promisit,) sivé bona fide 
possideat, sivé usumfructum quis 
habeatin ea, vel quid aliud juris, 
ut intersit ejus non rapi, dicendum 
est, ei competere hanc actionem, 
non ut dominium accipiat, sed il- 
Iud solim, quod ex bonis ejus, qui 
rapinam passus est, id est, quod ex 
&ubstantià ejus ablatum esse propo- 
matur. Et generaliter dicendum est, 
ex quibus causis furti actio compe- 
titin re clam facta, ex iisdem cau- 


sis omnes hanc habere actionem. 


TIT. IL 311 


tobe his own; and that, whoever: 
offends by forcibly seizing his own 
property, shall forfeit it; and that, 
whoever forcibly takes the property 
of another, imagining it to be his 
own, shall be obliged not only to re- 
store the thing itself, but also to pay 
the value of it as a penalty. And the 
emperors have thought proper, that 
this should obtain, not only as to 
things moveable and moving, which 
may be carried away, but also as to 
invasions or forcible entries, made 
upon things immoveable,as lands or 
houses, that mankind may be deter- 
red from committing any species of 

rapiies 


datur. 


§ 2. In this action, it is not con- 
sidered, whether the thing forci- 
bly taken be the property of the com- 
plainant or not; for if.he have an 
interest in it, the action is maintatn- 
able: and therefore, if a thing be let, 
lent, pledged, or deposited, so that 
the possessor becomes interested in 
the preservation of it, as he may 
be, if he has made himself answer- 
able for the deposit ; 'or, if he wasa 
bona fide possessor, or intitled to the 
usufruct, or has any other right, 
which’ gives an interest, he may 
bring this action, not for the recove- 
ry of the absolute property, but of 
that only, to which his interest ex- 
tends. And we may in general af- 
firm, that the same causes, which 
intitle a man to an action of theft in 
case of private stealing, will also in- 
title him to the action vi bonorum 
rapterum, when farce hath been used. 


312 LIB. IV. 


\ 


TIT. UL ° 


TITULUS TERTIUS. n 


DE LEGE 


AQUILIA. 


D. ix. T. 3. C. iii. T. 35. 


Summa. Caput primum, 


DAMNI injurie actio consti- 
tuitur per legem Aquiliam ; cujus 
primo capite cautum est, ut si quis 
alienum hominem, alienamve qua- 
drupedem, que pecudum numero 
sit, injuria occiderit, quanti ea res 
in eo anno plurimi fuerit, tantüm 
domino dare damnetur. 


The action for injurious damage 
is given by the Jaw Aquilia; which 
enacts, in the first chapter, that, 
if any man injuriously kills the slave, 
or the four-footed beast of another, 
which may be reckoned among his 
cattle, he shall be condemned to pay the 
owner the greatest price, which the 
slave or beast might have been sold 


for, at any time within a year pre- 


ceding. 


De quadrupede, quz pecudum numero est. 


6 I. Quod autem non pracisé de 
quadrupede, sed de eá tantum, que 
pecudum numero est, cavetur, eo 
pertinet, ut neque de feris bestiis, 
neque de canibus, cautum esse in- 
telligamus ; sed de iis tantum, que 
gregatim proprié pasci dicuntur; 
quales sunt equi, muli, asini, oves, 
boves, caprz. De suibus quoque 
idem placuit. Nam et sues quo- 
que pecudum appellatione continen- 
tur; quia et hi gregatim pascuntur. 
Sic denique et Homerus in Odys- 
sea ait; (sicüt Alius Marcianus in 
"suis institutionibus refert.) 

Anus storys evieci mraenutro as 0s vagorras 
Tlag Koguxes wereny efi T4 xenrn Aqtónta. 
Hoc est, . 
Assidet is suibus, quarum grex mag- 
nu tn agris 
Pascitur, ad Coracis saxum, fontem- 
que Arethusam. 


§ 1. As the law does not speak of 


four-footed beasts in general, but 


only of cattle, we may collect, that 
wild beasts and dogs do not come 
within the intendment, which can be 
understood to include only these ans- 
male, which feed in herds ; as horses, — 
mules, asses, sheep, oxen, goats, &c. - 
Jt hath also been determined, that 


swine are comprised under the term 


cattle, because they feed tn herds ; 
end this Homer testifies in the O- 
dyssey, for which he is quoted by 
Alius Marcian in his institutions. 
You will find him taking care of 
the swine, which feed in herds near 
the Corasian rock, t?c. Odys. b. 13. 


LIB. IV. 


" . De injuriá. 


$ II. Injuriá autem occidere in- 
telligitur, qui nullo jure occidit: 
itaque, qui latronem insidiatorem 
occidit, non tenetur ; utique si ali- 
ter periculum effugere non potest. 


6 2. A man, who kills another 
without proper authority, is under- 
stood to kill him injuriously: but, he 
te not subject to the law, who fills a 
robber lying in wait if there was no 
other way of avoiding the danger 
threatened. 


De casu, dolo, et culpa. 


$ III. Ac ne is quidem hac lege 
tenetur, qui casu occidit, si modo 
culpa ejus nulla inveniatur. Nam 
alioqui non minus ex dolo, quam 
ex culpa, quisque hac lege tenetur. 


§ 3. Nor is he liable under this 
law, who hath killed another by ac- 
crdent if no .fault can be imputed to 
him. But the law holds a man eqt- 
ally liable for negligence or fraud. . 


De j.culatione. 


$ IV. Itaque, si quis, dum Jacu- 
lis ludit vel exercitatur, transeun- 
tem servum tuum trajecerit, dis- 
tinguitur. Nam, si id à milite in 
eo campo, ubi solitum est exercita- 
ri, admissum est, nulla culpa ejus 
intelligitur ; si alius tale quid ad- 
miserit, culpz reus est. Idem juris 
est de milite, si in alio loco, quam 
qui ad exercitandum militibus des- 
tinatus est, id admiserit. 


' 


§ 4. But, if a man, by throwing : 
a javelin for his diversion or exer- 
cise, happen to kill a slave, who is 
passing, we must, in this case, make 
a distinction: for, if the slave be 
killed by a soldier, while exercising 
ina place appointed for that pur- 
pose, the soldier is guilty of no fault; 
but, if any other person should acci- 
dentally kill a slate, by throwing a 
javelin, he is guilty ; and even, if a 
soldier should kill a slave accidental- 
ly by throwing a javelin in any other 
place, than that appointed for sol- 
diers to exercise in, he also is guilty 


' ofa fault (i.e. culpable negligence.) 


. De putatione. 


§ V. Item si putator, ex arbore — 


ramo dejecto, servum tuum transe- 
untem occiderit, si propé viam pub- 
licam aut vicinalem id factum est, 
neque proclamavit, ut casus evitari 


$5. lf a man lopping a tree, 


chagce to kill a slave who is pass- 


ing, he is an offender if he worked 
near a public road, or in a way lead- 
ing to a village, without giving pro» 


Ss 


3f LIB. IV. 


posset, culpe reus est; sed, si pro- 
clamavit, nec illc curavit precavere, 
extra culpam est putator. Aique 
extra culpam esse intelligitur, si 
seorsüm a via forté, vel in medio 
fundo cedebat, licét non proclama- 
vit: quia in eo loco nulli extraneo 
jus fucrat versandi. 


TIT. II. * 


per warning ; but, if he made dae 
proclamation, and the other did not 
take care of himself, the lopper is 
exempt from fault : and he is equal- 
ly so, although he did not make pro- 
clamation, if he worked apart from 
the high road, or in the middle of a 


field; for a stranger has no right of 


passage through such places. 


I'e curatione relicta. 


§ VI. Przsterea, si medicus, qui 
servum tuum secuit," dereliquerit 
curationem ejus, et ob id mortuus 
fuerit servus, culpe reus erit. 


6 6. Also, if a surgeon having 
performed an operation on a slave, 
should neglect or forsake the cure, by - 
reason whereof the slave dies, he is 


guilty of culpable negligence. 


De imperitia medici. 


§ VII. Imperitia quoque culpe 
annumeratur; veluti si medicus 
ides servum tuum occiderit, quia 
"malé eum secuerit, aut perperàm ei 
medicamentum dederit. . 


, . € 
De imperitiá et infirmitate 
$ VIII. Impetu quoque mula- 
rum, quas mulio propter imperitiam 
retinere non potuit, si servus tuus 
oppressus fuerit, culpsreus est mu- 
lio. Sed et, si propter infirmitatem 
eas retinere non potuerit, cum ali- 
us firmior eas retinere potuisset, 
zque culpe tenetur. Eadem pla- 
"cu. runt de eo quoque, qui cum e- 
quo veheretur, impetum ejus, aut 
propter infirni*wztem, aut propter 
imperitiam suam, retinere non po- 
'tuerit. ; 


|6 7. The want of professional 
skill, is also regarded as culpable: as 
if a physician occasion the death ef 
a slave by an unskillful incision, or a 
rash administration of mediciae. 


fnulionis, aut equo vecti. 


$8. Ifa mule-driver, from want 
of skill, is unable to munage his mules, 
and a «iave is run over by them, the 
mule-driver is in fault; and, if he 
want strength to rein them in, when 
another man is able to do it, he is. 
then equally culpable: and the same 
may be said of a rider, who, through - 
want either of strength or skill, is 
not able to manage his horse. ~ 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. II. 315 


Quant damnum estimetur, et de heredibus. 


$ IX. His autem verbis legis, 
quanti id eo in anno plurimi fuerit, 
illa sententia exprimitur, ut si quis 
hominem tuum, qui hodie claudus, 
aut mancus, aut luscus erit, occi- 
derit, qui in eo anno integer aut pre- 
tiosus fuerit, non tanti teneatur, 
quanti hodie erit, sed quanti in eo 
anno plurimi fuerit: ratione credi- 
tum est penalem esse hujus legis 
actionem ; quia non sclàm tanti 
quisque obligatur, quantum damni 
dederit, sed aliquando longé pluris. 
Ideóque constat, heredem eam ac- 
tionem non transire, quz transitura 
fuisset, si ultra damnum nunquam 
lis estimaretur. 


§ 9. The words of the law Aqui- 
lia, let him who kills a slave, or 
beast of another, forfeit the greatest 
price, which either could bave been, 
sold for in that year, mean this; if 
Titius accidentally kill a slave, who 
was then lame, or wanted a limb, or 
an eye, but had been within the space — 
of a year perfect in all his parts, and 
valuable, then Titius shall be liable, 
not merely to his value on that day, 
but to his highest value at any time 
within a year preceding his death. 


An action therefore, upon the law 


Aquilia, has always been regarded 
as penal; for it obliges a man to pay 
not only the full value of the damage 
done, but often much more; and of 
consequence can by no means pass 
against the heir of the offender: but 
it might legally have been transfer- 
red against the heir, if the condem- 
nation had never exceeded the quan- 
tum of the damage. 


Quid zstimatur. 


$ X. Illud non ex verbis legis, 
sed ex interpretatione, placuit, non 
golim perempti corporis estimati- 
onem habendam esse secundum ea, 


. quz diximus, sed, eo amplius, quic- 


habendam constat." 
pari mularum unam, vel ex quadri- 


quid preterea, perempto eo cor- 
pore, damni nobis illatum fuerit ; 
veluti si servum tuum haredem ab 
aliquo institutum ante quis occi- 
derit, quam is jussu tuo hzredita- 
tis quoque amissz rationem esse 
Item, si ex 


§ 10. Jt hath prevailedby construc- 
tion, though not by the express words 
of the law, that not only the value of 
a slave is to be computed, as we have 
already mentioned ; but that an esti- 
mation must be made of whatever 


farther damage is occasioned by his 


death ; as if your slave should be &ill- 
ed just as he was instituted heir, and 
before actual entry üpon the heir- 


ship at your command, for in this 


case, the loss of the inheritance must 


be brought into the computatione 


316° 


gis equorum unum, quis occiderit, 
vel ex comedis unus servus occisus 
fuerit, non solum occisi ft zstima- 
tio, sed eo amplius id quoque com- 
puiatur, quanti depretiati sunt, qui 
supersunt. 


De concursu hujus 


$ XI. Liberum autem est ei, cu- 
jus servus occisus fuerit, et ex ju- 
dicio privato legis Aquilie dam- 
num persequi, et capitalis criminis 
eum reum facere. 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. II. 


Also if a horse, or mule be killed, by 
wich a pair, or set, is broken, or if 
aslave be slain, who made one ofa 
company of comedians, an estimation 
must be made, not merely of the va- 
lue of that slave or animal, but of the 


diminished value of those, which re- 
main. 


actionis et capitalis. 


11. The master of a slave, who 
is killed, may bring a civil action for 
damages founded upon the law Aqui- 
lia, and at the same time prosecute 
the offender for a capital crime. 


Caput secundum. 


$ XII. Caput secundum legis 
Aquilz in usu non est. 


Caput tertium. 


§ XIII. Capite tertio de omni 
cetero damno cavetur; itaque, si 
quis servum, vel eam quadrupedem, 
qua in pecudum numero est, vulne- 
raverit, sivé eam quadrupedem, 
qui in pecudum numero non est, 
veluti canem, aut feram bestiam, 
vulneraverit aut occiderit, hoc ca- 
pite actio constituitur. In ceteris 
quoque omnibus animalibus, item 
in omnibus rebus. que  ani- 
má carent, damnum per injuriam 
datum hac parte vindicatur. Si 
quid enim ustum, aut ruptum, aut 
fractum fuerit, actio ex hoc capite 
constituitur ; quanquam poterat so- 
la rupti appellatio in omnes istas 
| causas sufficere : ruptum enim intel- 
" ligitur, quod quoquo modo corrup- 
tüm est; undé non solüm fracta, 
aut usta, sed ctiam scissa, et colli- 


§ 12. The second chapter of the 
law Aquilinis not zn use. 


Quod damnum vin:licatur. 


§ 13. By the third chapter of 
this law, a remedy is given for every 
other kind of. damage ; therefore, if 
a man wound a slave, or four-footed 
animal, whether ranked among cat- 
tle or not,as a dog or wild beast, an 
action will he against him. Repa- 
ration may also be obtained, under 
this chapter, for all damage iyu- 
riously done to animals in general, 
or to things inanimate ; and for 
things burned, spoiled, or broken. 
The term ruptum would alone be 
sufficient in any of these cases; for 
in whatever manner a thing be da- 
maged, or sphiled, it is understood 
to be ruptum ; so that, whenever a 
thing is broken, burned, torn, bruis- 
ed, spilled, or in any manner made 
worse, it may be said to be ruptum. 
Jt hath also heen determined, that, 


08a oe 


LIB. IV. 


sa, et quoquo modo perempta at- 
que deteriora facta, hoc  verbo- 
continentur. Denique responsum 
est, si quis in alienum vinum aut o- 
leum id miscuerit, quo naturalis 
bonitas vini aut olei corrunipere- 
tur, ex hac parte legis Aquilie eum 
teneri. 


TIT. III. 


to intermix any thing with the wine 
or oil of another, so as to corrupt 
or impair its natural goodness, ren- 
ders the offender liable under this. 
chapter of the law Aquilia. 


De dolo et culpa. 


6 XIV. Illud palàm est, sicut 
ex primo capite demum quisque 
tenetur, si dolo aut culpa ejus homo 
aut quadrupes occisus occisave fue- 
rit, itaex hoc capite, de dolo aut 
culpa, et de cetero damno quem- 
que teneri: ex hoc tamen capite, 
non quanti in eo anno, sed quanti 
in diebus triginta proximis res fue- 
rit, obligatur is, qui damnum de- 
derit. 


§ 14. It zs evident, that the first 
chapter of the law subjects every 
man to an action, who through de- 
signor negligence kills the slave or 
beast of another, and that the third 
part gives a remedy for any other 
damage, so occaszoned. But by this 
third chapter the offender is not lia- 
ble to the highest price, which the 
thing damaged might have sold fer 
at any time within the year, but only 
at any time within thirty days pre- 


' vious to the damage. 


Quanti damnum estimetur. 


6 XV. Ac nec plurimi quidem 
verbum adjicitur. Sed Sabino rec- 
té placuit, perindé habendam esti- 
mationem, ac si etiam hac parte 
plurimi verbum adjectum fuisset ; 
nam plebem Romanam, quz, Áqui- 
lio tribuno rogante, hanc legem tu- 
lit, contentam fuisse, quod prima 
parte eo verbo usa esset. 


De actione directa, 


§ XVI. Caterum placuit, ita de- 
num directam ex hac lege actionem 
esse, si quis przcipué corpore suo 
damnum dederit: ideóque in eum, 
qui alo modo damnum dederit, 


§ 15. There is no expression of 
the highest value. But, in the opi- 
nion of Sabinus, the valuation ought 
to be made, as if the word highest 
had been used: for, when Aquilius, 
the tribune, proposed this ew, the 
commona!ty of Rome thought it suf- 
ficient to insert the word highest in 
the first chapter. 


utili, et in factum. 

6 16. Jt has been determined, 
that,if a man with his own hand or 
body, injures another, a direct actzon 
will lie under this law. But when 
damaee is done by any sther meaiis, 


317 


318 LIB. IV. 


_ utiles actiones dari solent ; veluti si 
quis hominem alienum, aut pecus, 
ita incluserit, ut fame necaretur ; 
aut jumentum ita vehementer ege- 
rit, ut rumperctur; aut pecus in 
tantum exagitaverit, ut precipitare- 
tur : aut si quis alieno servo persu- 
aserit, ut in arborem ascenderet, 
vel in puteum descenderet, et is 
ascendendo, vel descendendo, aut 
aliqua parte corporis lesus fuerit, 
utilis actio in eum datur: sed,si 
qus alienum servum aut de ponte, 
aut de ripa, in flumen dejecerit, ef 
is suffocatus fuerit, eo quod projecit, 
corpore suo damnum dedisse non 
difficulter intelligi potest; ideóqe 
ipsa lege Aquilia tenetur. Sed, si 
non corpore damnum fuerit datum, 
neque corpus lesum fuerit, sed alio 
modo alicui damnum contigerit, 
cum non sufficiat neque directa, 
neque utilis legis Aquille actio, 
placuit, eum, qui obnoxius fuerit, 
in factum actione teneri; veluti si 
quis, miscricordia ductus, aliei:um 
servum compeditum solverit, ut 
fugeret. ; 


~ 


TIT. HI 


as by imprisoning a slave, or im- 
pounding the cattle of another, unfil, 
they die with hunger ; by driving a 
beast of burden so vehemently -as to 
apotl him ; by chasing a herd of cat- 
tle until they leap down a precipice ; 
or by persuading a slave to climb q 
tree, or to go down into a well, by 
which he is killed or maimed; then 
the remedy by action called utilis, is 
given. If Titius thrust the slave 
of another into the water from the 
top of a bridge or bank, and the slevc 
is thereby drowned, it is plain, that 
Titius occasioned this,damage with 
his own hands, and he is therefore 
subject under the Aquilian law, to a 
direct action. But if the damage 
received was not done by the hand or 
body of another, and is not corporal 
80 that neither a direct nor benefi- 
cial action can be brought by virtue 
of the Aquilian law, then an action 
upon the case, or fact, will lie against 
the offender; as if man through 
compassion should unchain the slave 
of another, and so promote his escape. 


LIB. [V. 


TIT. IV. 


319 


TITULUS QUARTUS. 
DE INJURIIS. 


- D. xlvii. T. Yo. 


C. 1X. T. 35. et 36. 


Verbum injuria quot modis accipitur. 


- GENERALITER injuria dici- 
tur omne, quod non jure fit; spe- 
cialiter, alias contumelia, quz a con- 
temnendo dicta est, quam Gr ci 
efe appellant; alias culpa, quam 
Greci sJ;we dicunt, sicut in lege 
Aquilia damnum injuria datum ac- 
cipitur ; alias iniquitas et injustitia, 
quam Grzci polosssacy xat adix«u» VO- 
cant: cum enim praetor vel judex 
" mon jure contra quem pronunciat, 
injuridm accepisse dicitur. 


Injuria in a general sense denotes 
every unjust act ; but, when special- 
ly used, it is the same with contu- 
melia, derived from contemno, ín 
greek veu : sometimes it signifies a 
fault, called by the greeks ddipne in 
which acceptation it is used in the 
law Aquilia, when damage inju- 
riously occasioned, is spoken of: at 
other times it signifies iniquity or 
injustice, which the greeks cal 
«reu» ANd admins: therefore, when 
the pretor or judge decides unjustly 
against any person, such person is 
sdid to beinjured. 


Quibus modis injuria fit. 


€ I. Injuria autem committitur, 
mon solüm cum quis pugno pulsa- 
tus, aut fustibus czsus, vel etiam 
verberatus erit; sed ct si. cui con- 
vitium factum fucrit ; sivé cujus 
bona, quasi debitoris, qui nihil de- 
“beret, possessa fuerint ab ceo, qui 
intelligebat, nihil eum sibi debere ; 
» vel si quis ad infamiam alicujus 
libellum aut carmen (aut historiam) 
scripserit, composucrit, ediderit, 
dolove malo fecerit, quo quid eo- 
- yum fieret ; sivé quis matrem fami- 
lias, aut prztextatum prztextatam- 
ve, adsectatus fuerit: sivé cujus 
pudicitia attentata esse dicetur: 
et denique, aliis plurimis modis ad- 
Mitti injuriam, :maniféstum est. 


*» 


§ 1. An injury may be done nct 
only by beating and wounding, but 
also by slanderous language, by seiz- 
ing the goods of a man, as if he were 
a debtor, when the person, who seiz- 
edthem, well knew, that nothing 
was due to him; by writing a defa- 
matory libel, poem, or history; oF 
by maliciously causing another so 
to do ; also by continually solicitine . 
the chastity of a boy, girl, or woman 
of reputation ; and by various other 
means, too numerous to be specified. 


320 J LIB. IV. 


TIT. IV. 


Qui et per quos injuriam patiuntur. -De parente ct liberis, 
viro et uxore, socero et nuru. 


$ II. Patitur autem quis injuri- 
am non solüm per semctipsum, scd 
etiam per liberos suos, quos in po- 
testate habet ; item per uxorem su- 
am ; id enim magisprzvaluit. Ita- 
que, si filie alicujus, que Titio 
nupta est, injuriam feceris, non so- 
làm filie nomine tecum injuriarum 
agi potest, sed etiam patris quo- 
que et mariti nomine. Contra au- 
tem, si viro injuria facta sit, uxor 
injuriarum agere non potest : defen- 
di enim uxores à viris, non viros 
ab uxoribus, equum est. Sed ct 
socer nurus nomine, cujus vir in e- 
jus potestate est, injuriarum agere 
potest. 


§ 2. ltis understood that a man 
may reccivean injury, not only im 
his own person, but in that of chil- 
dren under his power, and also in 
the person of his wife; and there- 
fore, if an injury be done to Seius’s 
daughter married to Titius, an ac- 
tron may be brought not only in the 
name of the daughter, but in the 
name of her father or her husband; 
but, if the husband receive an injury, 
the wife is not allowed to institute a 
suit in his defence; for it is a maxim, 
that wives may be defended by their 
husbands, but not husbands by ther 
wives. And a father-in-law may 
bring an action for damages in the 
name of his son's wife, if her hus- 
band be under the power of his. fa- 
ther. 


De servo. 


$ III. Servis autem ipsis qui- 
dem nulla injuria fieri intelligitur, 
sed domino per cos feri videtur: 
non tamen iisdem modis, quibus c- 
tiam per liberos ctuxores; sed ita, 
cum quid atrocius commissum 
fuerit, ct quod apcrté ad contume- 
liam domini respicit; veluti si 
quis alienum servum atrociter ver- 
beraverit; et in hunc casum actio 
proponitur. At, siquisservo con- 
vitium fecerit, vcl pugno eum per- 
cusserit, nulla in eum actio domino 
competit. 


§ 3. An injury is never consider- 
cd as done to a slave, but through him 
to the master; not however in the 
same manner as through. a wife or 
child; aswhen some atrocious injue 
ry is done to the slave, manifestly in . 
despite of the master ; as ;f any one 
d du beat the ^ of ane. 
ther ; in which case an action would 
lie; but, if a man should only give 
ill language to a slave, or strike him 
with hix fist, the master is entitled to 
no action against him. . 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. IV. bà! 


De servo, communi. 


& IV. Si communi servo injuria 


facta sit, zquum est, non pro ea 
parte, qua dominus quisque est, 
zstimationem injuriz fieri, sed ex 
dominorum persona, qüia ipsis fit 
injuria: 


De servo 
$ V. Quod si ususfructus in 
servo Titii est, proprietas Mavii, 


magis Mavio injuria fieri intelligi- 
turi 


$4. Jfan injury be done to the 
common slave of many masters, it ts 
to be estimated, not according te 
their respective rights in the slave, 
but according to the quality of each 
master ; for the injury is done tb 
them. 


fructuario. M 
§ 5. Jf Titius has the usufruet of 
a. slave, and Mexvius the property} 
then any injury done to the slave; 
és understood to be done to Meeviusi 


De eo, qui bona fide servit. 


j VI. Sed, si libero homini, qui 
tibi bona fide servit, injuria facta 
sit, nulla tibi actio dabitur, sed suo 
homine is expiriri poterit, nisi in 
contumeliam tuam pulsátus sit ; 
tunc enim competit et tibi i injuria- 
rum actio. Idem ergó est et in 
servo alieno bona fide tibi servien- 
te; uttoties admittatur injuriarum 
acto, quoties in tuam contumeliam 
injuria ei facta est; | 


Pena injurlirum ex 1. xii. 


$ VII. Pena autem injuriarum 
Propter membrum quidem ruptum 
talio erat; propter os veró fractum 
nummarise penz erant constitutz, 
quasi in magni veterum pauper- 
tate; Sed postea pretores permit- 
tebarit ipsis, qui injuriam passi sunt, 
tam 2étimare; ut jüdex vel, tan- 
t teum condemnét, quanti inju- 


riam passus.zstimarerit, vel mino-- 


$ 6. But, if an injury be done tà 
a free person in the service of ano- 
ther, the servant must bring stit i ^ 
his own name, unless the person whd 
beat him, did it principally for thé 
sake of affronting his master; in 
which case the master may ulsó 
bring an action of injury. And 86 
if your servant be the slave af ano- 
ther; for as often as he receives an 
injury, which qwas intended to in- 
sult you, you may bring an action 


of injury. 


tabb. et ex jure praetorio. | 
$ 7. The punishment of an injury; 
by the 12 tables, was a return of the 
like injury, if a limb was broken ; | 
but, if a blow only was given, or G 
single bone broken, then the punish: 
ment was pecuniary, the ancients | 
living in great poverty. The pre 
tors afterwards permitted the par- 
ties injured to fix their damages i ai, 
à certain sum, which might serve dl 


T T 


- i 


333 , LIB. IV. 


ris, prout ei visum fuerit. Sed pe- 
na quidem injuriz, quz ex lege xii. 
tabularum introducta cst, in desue- 
tudinem abiit: quam autem preto- 
fes introduxcrunt, (que etiam ho- 
noraria appellatur,) in judiciis fre- 
quentatur. Nam, secundüm gra- 
dum dignitatis viteque honestatem, 
crescit aut minuitur aestimatio in- 
juris: qui gradus condemnationis 
et inservili personá non immeritó 
servatur, ut aliud in servo actore, 
aliud in medii actàs homine, aliud 
in vilissimo vel compedito, jus &s- 
timationis constituatur. 


De lege 


§ VIII. Sed et. lex Cornelia de 
injuriis loquitur, et injuriarum ac- 
tionem introduxit, que competit ob 
eam rem, quod se pulsatum quis, 
verbetatumve, vel domum suam vi 
introitam esse, dicat. Domum au- 
tem accipimus, sivé in proprià do- 
mo quis habitet, sivé in conducti, 
sivé gratis, sivé hospitio receptus 
sit. 


De zstimatione 

§ IX. Atrox injuria estimatur 
vel ex facto, veluti si quis ab alio 
vulneratus sit, vel fustibus cxsus ; 
vel ex loco, veluti si cui in theatro, 
. vel in foro, vel in conspectu preto- 
ris, injuria facta sit; vel ex perso- 
nà, veluti si magistratus injuriam 
passus fuerit, vel si senatori ab hu- 
mili persona injuria facta sit, aut 
Qarend patronove fiat à liberis vel 


TIT. IV. 


a guide to the judge, but not pre- 
clude him from lessening the eati- 
mate at his discretion. The spe- 
cies of pecuniary punishment, which 
was introduced by the law of the 
12 tables, fell gradually into diy 
use, and that only which the pratore 
introduced, termed honorary, 15 nem 
resorted to: for the estimate of 
an injury is increased or diminished 
according to the degree and quality of 
the person injured ; a gradation not 
improperly observed even as to 
slaves; so that one estimate may 
be adopted in the case 6f a steward 
or agent to his master, and a lower 
one in the case of an inferior slqve. 


Cornelia. 


6 8 The law ' Cornelia speaks 
also of injuries, and hath introduced 
an action, which lies, when a man al. 
ledges, that he hath been struck or 
beaten, or that another hath entered 

forcibly into his house ; and whether 

he owns, or hires, or borrows, or 
lives in it as a guest, it is regarded 
as his house 


atrocis injuria. 

6 9. An injury is esteemed atro: 
cious, from thé nature of the fact, as 
when a man is wounded by another, 
or beaten with a club—from the place, 
as when an injury is done in. a prub- 
lic theatre, in an open market, or in 
the presence of the pretor—and 
sometimes from the rank of the pere 
eon, as when a magistrate, or '& 
senator, reccives an injury from 


LIB. IV. TIT. IV. 


libertis. Aliter enim senatoris et 
parentis patronique, aliter extranei 
et humilis persone, injuria zstitha- 
tur. Nonnunquam et locus vulneris 
atrocem injuriam facit, veluti si in 
oculo quis percussus fuerit. Parvi 
autem refert, utrum patri-familias, 
an filio-familias, talis injuria facta 
sit: nam et hzc atrox injuria zsti- 
mabitur. 


3235 


one of mean condition,a parent from , 
his child, or a patron from his freed- 
man; for these cases demand a hea- 
vier punishment, than where an 
injury is dene to a stranger, or 
a person of low degree. Also 
the part injured, may constitute an 
injury atrocious; asif a man should — 
be wounded in his eye; but it is of — 
little consequence whether such an 
injury be done to the father of a 
Samily, or to the son of a family ; for 
such an injury will be considered as 
atrocious. 


De judicio civili et criminali. 


$ X. In summa sciendum eat, de 
omni injuriá eum, qui passus est, 
posse vel criminaliter agere, vel ci- 
viliter: et, si quidem civiliter aga- 
tur, sstimatione facta, secundim 
quod dictum est, pena reo imponi- 
tur; sin autem criminaliter, officio 
judicis extraordinaria pena reo ir- 
rogatur. Hoc videlicét observando, 
quod Zenoniaria constitutio intro- 
. duxit, ut viri illustres, quique super 
cos sunt, et per procuratores pos- 
sint actionem injuriarum criminali- 
ter vel persequi vel suspicere, se- 
tundüm ejus tenorem, qui ex ipsa 


«$10. In fine, it must be observed 
concerning every injury, that the 
party injured may sue either crimi-: 
nally or civilly. If civilly, the da- 
mage must be estimated, and the 
penalty awarded as we have befcre 
noticed: but, if he sue criminally, 
it is the duty of the judge to inflict 
an extraordinary punishment uport 
the offender ; observing the constitue 
tion of Leno, which permits ilustri- 
eus persons, arid those who enjoy a 
superior title, either to pursue or dés 
fend eriminally any action of injus 
ry by their proctors ; but the teno# 


manifestius apparet. of this law will more fully apppear 
by a perusal of the ordinance itself, 
- Qui tenentur injuriorum. 


§ XI. Nori solàm autem is in- 
juriaram tenetur, qui fecit injuri- 
am,id est, qui percussit; verüm 
iHe quoque tenetur, qui dolo fecit 
injuriam, vel qui procuravit, ut cui 
mala pugno percuterery. 


§ 11. An action of injury Bes not 
only against him, who hath done an 
injury, by giving a blow, f?c. bub 
also agatnst him, who by craft, of 
by persuasion hath caused the inj» 
Ty to be dane. 


dk 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. V. 


. Quomodo tollitur hzec actio. 


§ XII. Hee actio dissimula- 
tione aboletur ; et ideo, si quis in- 
juriam dereliquerit, hoc est, sta- 
tim passus ad animum suum non 
pevocaverit, postea ex penitentia 
ryemissam injuriam nom poterit re: 
golere, 


$ 12. All right to an action of 
injury may be lost by suppression ; 
therefore, if a man takeg no notice of 
an injury at the time, when he res 
ceives. it, he canuot . afterwards rey 
pent of his forbearance and bring 
eui. 


TITULUS QUINTUS. . 


DE OBLIGATIONIBUS, QUE QUASI EX DELICTO 
NASCUNTUR. 


D. xlvii, T. 5. 


C. ix. T. 3. 


Si judex litem suam fecerit. 


SI judex litem suam fecerit, non 
proprie ex maleficio obligatus vide- 
fur: $cd quia neque ex maleficio, 
neque ex contractu obligatus est, et 
ytique peccasse aliquid intelligitur, 
licét per imprudentiam, ideo vide- 
tur quasj ex maleficio teneri ; et, 
in quantum de care quum religi- 
gni judicantig videbitur, ponam 
qustinebit. 


Dc dejectis vel effusis, 

$ I. Item is, cyjus ex cenaculo, 
vel proprio ipsius, vel conducto, vel 
in quo’gratis habitat, dejectum effu- 

, $umve aliquid est, ita ut alicui no- 
"geret, quasi ex maleficio obligatus 


Ifa judge make a suit hie own, 
by giving an unjust determination, 
an action of mal-feasance will not 
properly lie against him: but, 
granting he is not subject to an action 
of mal. feasance, or of contract, yet, 
as ke hath certainly committed a 
fault, although not by design, but 
through imprudence and want of 
shill, he may be sued by an action of 
quasi-mal-feasance; and must suffer 
such penalty, as seems equitable to 
the conscience of a superior judge. 


ct positis aut suspensis. 


6 1. The occupier of a chanber, 
from whence any. thiug hath been 
thrown or spilt, whereby damage is 
done, is liable to an action of quasi- 
mal-fcasance ; and it is.not material, 


LIB. IV. 


intelligitur. Ideó autem non proprié 
ex maleficio obligatus intelligitur, 
quia plerümque ob alterius culpam 
tenetur, aut servj aut liberi. Cui 
similis est is, qui eà parte, quà vulgo 
iter fieri solet, id positum aut sus- 
pensum habet, quod potest, s] ceci- 
derit, alicui nocere ; quo casu pe- 
na decem aureorum constituta est. 
De eo veró, quod dejectum effu- 
sumve est, dupli, quantum damni 
datum sit, constitüta est actio. Ob 
hominem veró liberum occisum, 
quinquaginta aureorum pena con- 
stituitur. Si vero vivat, nocitum- 
que ei esse dicatur, quantum oh 
eam rem &quum judici videtur, ac- 
tio datur. Judex enim computare 
debet mercedes medicis prestitas, 
ceteraque impendia, qua in cura- 
tione facta sunt; preterea operas, 
quibus caruit aut cariturus est, ob 
id, quod inutilis est factus. 


TIT..V. 3294 


whether the chamber be his proper- 


ty ; whether he rents it; or inkabits 


it gratis: and the reason, why such 
eccupier is not suable for a direct 
mal-feasance, is, because he is gene- 
rally sued for the fault of another. 
Any man is also subject to the same 
qction, who hath hung or placed any 
thing in a public road, so as to en- 
danger passengers by the fall of it; 
in which case, a penalty of ten aurei 
is appointed: but, when any thing 
hath been thrown or spilt, the actton 
is always for double the actual da- 
mage. Ifa freeman be killed by ac- 
cident, the penalty is fifty aurei; 
but, if he only receive some hurt, the 
quantum of the damage is at the dis- 
cretion of the judge, who ought to 
take into account the fees of the phy- 
sician and all other expences attend- 
ant upon the cure, over and above the 
time, which the patient hath lost 1n 
his illness, or may lose by being un- 
able to pursue his business, 


- 


De filio-famillas, seorsum habitante à patre. 


$ II. Si filius-familias seorsum à 
patre habitaverit, et quid ex cena- 


culo ejus dejectum effusumve fuerit, © 


sivé quid positum suspensumve ha- 
buerit, cujus casus periculosus est, 
Juliano placuit, in patrem nullam 
esse actionem, sed cum ipso filio 
sgendum esse. Quod et in filio-fa- 
milias judice observandum est, qui 
litem suam fecerit. 


$ 2. If the son of a family live 
separate from his father, and any 
thing is either.thrown, or spilt, from 
his apartment, or so hung, or placed, 
that the fall of it may be dangerous, 
4 is the opinion of Julian, that no 
action will lie against the. fathes, 
and that the son only can be sucd. 
The same rule of law is aíso ta be 
observed, in regard to the son of a 
family, who hath given as a judge, 
qn unjust dectsion. 


326 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. VI. 


De damno aut furto, quod in navi, aut cauponá, aut stabulo, 
factum est. 


6 III. Item exercitor navis, aut 
cauponz, aut stabuli, de damno aut 
furto, quod in navi, aut caupona, 
aut stabulo, factum erit, quasi ex 
maléficio teneri videtur; si modo 
ipsius nullum est maleficium, sed 
alicujus corum, quorum opera na- 
vem, aut cauponam, aut stabulum, 
exercet. Cum enim neque ex male- 
ficio, neque ex contractu, sit adver- 
gus eum constituta hic actio, et ali- 
quatenus culpa reus est, quod opera 
malorum hominum uteretur, ideó 
quasi ex maleficio teneri videtur. 
In his autem casibus in factum ac- 
tio competit; quz heredi quidem 
datur, adversus heredem autem non 
competit. 


§ 3. The master of a ship, tavern, 
or inn, is liable to be sued for a quasi- 
mal-feasance, on account of every 
damage, or theft, done or committed 
in any of these pluces, by himself or 
his servants: fcr although no ac- 
tion, etther of direct mal-feasance, 
or of contract, can be brought against 
the master, yet, as he has, in some 
measure, been guilty of a fault in 
employing dishonest persons as his 
servants, he is therefore subject to a 
suit for aquasi-mal-feasance. But, 
in all these cases, the action given 
is an. action upon the fact, which 
may be brought in favour of an heir, 
but not against him. 


TITULUS SEXTUS. 
DE ACTiONIBUS. 


D. xliv. T. 7T. 


C. iv. T. 10. 


Continuatio, et Dcfinitio. 


SUPEREST, ut de actionibus 
loquamur. Actio nihil aliud est, 
quam jus persequendi in judicio, 
quod sibi debetur. 


It now remains, that we treat of 
actions. An action is nothing 
more, than the right of suing in @ 
court of law for our just demande, 


Divisio prima. 


§ I. Omnium autem actionum, 
quibus inter aliquos apud judices 
arbitrosve de quacunque re quari- 


6 1. AI actions whatever be thesub- 
ject matter of them whether determie 
nable before judges or referrees may 


LIB. IV. 


aur, «umma divisio in duo genera 
deducitur: aut enim in rem sunt, 
aut in personam : namque agit un- 
usquisque aut cum eo, qui ei obli- 
gatus est, vel ex contractu, vel ex 


moaleficio; quo casu prodite sunt 


actiones in personam, per quas in- 
tendit, adversarium ei dare aut fa- 
eere oportere, et aliis quibusdam 
odis: aut cum co sgit, qui nullo 
jure ei obligatus est, movet taroen 
alicui-de aliqua te controversiam ; 
quo casu prodite actiones in rem 
sunt: veluti. si rem corporalem pos- 
sideat quis, quam Titius suam esse 
affirmet, possessor autem, dominum 
ejus se esse, dicat ; nam, si Titius 
suam esse intendat, in rem actio 
st. 


TIT. VI. $27 


be divided into real and personal ; for 
the plaintiff must sue the defendant, 
either because the defendant is obli- 
gated to him by contract, or hath 
been guilty of some mal-feasance ; 
and, in this case, the action must be 
personal, in which the plaintiff al- 


ledges, that his adversary is bound to 


give, or to do something for his be- 
nefits er seme other matter, as the. 
occasion requires: or otherwise, 
the plaintiff must sue the defendant, 
on account of some corporeal thing, 
when there is no obligation; in 


which case the action must be real: 


as for example, if aman possess 
land, which Titius affirms to be his 
property, the other denying it, Ti- 
tius must bring a real action for the 
recovery. 


De actione confessoria, et negatoria. 


6 IL. qué, si agat quis, jus si- 

bi esse fundo forté, vel zdibus u- 

‘tendi fruendi, vel per fundum vici- 
ni eundi agendi, vel ex fundo vici- 

&i aquam ducendi, in rem actio est. 

"Ejusdem generis est actio de jure 
prediorum urbanorum; veluti, si 

quis agat, jus sibi esse altius edes 

suas tollendi, prospiciendive, vel 

projiciendi aliquid, vel immitten- 

di tignum in vicini edes. Contra 

* quoque de usufructu, et de servitu- 
tibus prediorum rusticorum, item 

prediorum urbanorum, invicem 

quoque prodite sunt actiones; ut 

si quis intendat, jus non esse adver- 

8ario utendi fruendi, eundi agendi, 
aquamve ducendi; item altius tol- 

lendi, prospiciendive, vel projici- 


§ 2. Also, if any man sue, alledg- 
ing, that he has aright to the usufruct 
of a field, or house, or aright of driv- 
img his cattle, or of drawing water in 
the land of his neighbour, this is a real 
action. And an action relating te 
the rights of houses or city estates, 
which rights are called services, is 
also of the same kind; as when a 
man commences a suit, and alledges, 
that he has a right of prospect, @ 
right to raise his house, a right of 
making a part of it project, or of lay- 
ing the beams of his building upon his 
neighbour's walls, There are alse 
actions different from these, which 
relate to usufructs, and the rights 
of country and city estates ; as when 
the complainant alledges, that kis 


endi, immittendive : iste quoque 
actiones in rem sunt, sed negative ; 
quod genus actionis in controver- 
siis rerum corporalium proditum 
non est; nam in his is agit, qui non 
possidet; ei veró, qui possidet, 
non est actio prodita, per quam ne- 
getrem actoris esse. Sané non u- 
no casu,qui possidet, nihilominus 
is actoris partes obtinet; sicut in 
latioribus digestorum libris oppor- 
tunius apparebit. 


\ 


§ III. Sed iste quidem actiones, 
quarum mentionem habuimus, et 
si quz suntsimiles, ex legitimis et 
civilibus causis descendunt. Alis 
autem sunt, quas prztor ex sua ju- 
risdictione comparatas habet, tam 
in rem, quam in personam ; quas 
et ipsas necessarium est exemplis 
ostendere : ut ecce, plerümque ita 
permittit praetor in rem agere, wt 
vel actor dicat, se quasi usucepisse, 
quod non usuceperit, vel ex diver- 
so possessor dicat, adversarium 
suum nofi usueepisse, quod usuce- 
perit. 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. VI. 


adversary is not intitied to the usu: 
fruct of a particular ground, of 
to the right of passage, &c. &c. 
These actions are alse real, but are 
negative in their nature, and can- 
not therefore be used in conttover- 
sies respecting things corporeal, 
where the agent, or plaintiff, is the 
person out of possession: for a pos: 
sessor can bring no action: there’ 
are however, many cases, in which 
a possessor may be obliged to act the 
part of a plaintif ; but we refer the 
reader to the books of the digests. 


De actionibus pretoriis realibus. 


§ 5. The actions Just. mentioned 
and those of a similar nature, aré 
derived from the civil law; but the 
praetor, by virtue of his jurisdiction, 
hath introduced other actions, 
both real and personal, of which it 
will be necessary to give some extm- 
ples: for he often permits areal ac- 
tion to be brought, either by allow- 
ing the demandant to alledge, that he 
hath acquired by prescription, what 
he hath not so acquited; or, on the 
contrary, by permitting a formet 
possessor to alledge, that his adver+ 
sary hath not acquired by prescrip» 
tion, what, in reality, he hath so ace 
quired: 


De Publiciana. 


$ IV. Namque, si cui ex justa 
eausá res aliqua tradita fuerit, (ve- 
luti ex causá emptionis, aut dona- 
tionis, aut dotis, aut legatorum,) et 
necdum ejus rei dominus eflectus 
est, si is ejus rei possessionem cast 


$ 4. If any thing should be deltvered 
to or deposited with a man ih. trust 
upon some just account, as by reas 
son of a purchase, à gift, a marris 
age, or a bequest, and the trustee 
should lose the possession, before he 


LIB. iV. 


amiserit, nullam habet in rem direc- 
tam actionem ad eam petsequen- 
dam: quippe ita proditz sunt jure 
civili aetiones, ut quis dominium 
suum vindicet. Sed, quia sané 
durum erat, eo casu deficere acti- 
onem, inventa est à praetore actio, 
in quá dicit is, qui possessionenr 
amisit,. eam rem se usucepisse, 
quam usu non cepit, et ita vindicat 
suam esse: quae actio Publiciana 
appellatur, quoniam primum à Pub- 
licio pretore in edicto proposita est. 


TIT. VE 85d 
hath gained a property in the thing 
possessed, he could have no direct ac- 
tion for the recovery of it; inass 
much as real actions ure given by 
law for the re-vindication of those 
things only, in'which a man hatha 
tested property or dominion. But, 
it being hard, that an actien should 
be wanting in such a case, the pra= 
tor hath supplied one, in which the 
person, who hath lost his possession, 
is allowed to prescribe to the thing 
in question, although he did not ob- 
tain it by prescription, and he may 
thus recover. This action is called 
actio Publiciana, because it was first 
instituted by the edict of Publicius 
the praetor. 


De rescissorid. 


$ V. Rursus ex diverso, si quis, 
cum reipublice causa abesset, vel 
m hostium potestate esset, rem 
ejus, qui in civitate esset, usucepe- 
rit, permittitur domino, si possess- 
or reipublice causá abesse desicrit; 
tunc intra annum rescissà usuca- 
pione eam rem petere, id est, ita 
petere, ut dicat, possessorum usu 
non cepisse, et ob id suam rem 
esse. Quod genus actionis quibus- 
dam et aliis simili equitate motus 
pretor accommedat ; sicut ex la- 


tiore digestorum seu Randectarum 
volumine intelligere licet. j 


$ 5. On the contrary, if any mun; 
while abroad in the service of his 
country, or a prisoner in the hands 
of the nemy; should gain a prescrip- 
tive title to a thing, which belongs to 
another person resident at home, then 
the former proprietor 2a permitted 
within a year after the return of thé 
possessor from public service, to 
bring an action against him, the 
prescriptive title being rescinded ; 
and may alledge, that the possessor 
hath not effectually prescribed, 80 
that the thing in litigation is his own. 
Under the same motive af equity 
the praetor hath adapted this species 
of action ta certain other persons, as 
we may learn morc at large from thé 
digests. 


Uv 


TIT. VI. 


De Pauliani. 


§ VI. Item, si quis in fraudem 


" creditorum rem suam alicui tradi- 


deri, bonis cjus à creditoribus pos- 
sessis ex sententia prasidis, per- 
mittitur ipsis creditoribus, rcsciasá 
traditione, eam rem petere ; id est, 
dicere eam rem traditam non esse, 
et ob id in bonis debitoris mansis- 
se. 


$ 6. if a debtor deliver any thing 
to some person in order to defraud 
his creditors, they are permitted, 
notwithstanding the delivery, to 
bring an action for the thing, if the 
possession hath been previeusly ad- 
judged to them by an order of court : 
that is, they are allowed to plead, 
that the thing was not delzvered, and 
of course, that it continues to be a 
part of their debtor's goods. 


De Servianá et quasi-Serviana, seu hypothecaria. 


§ VH. Item Serviana, et quasi 
Serviana, (quz étiam hypothecaria 
vocatur,) ex ipsius prztoris juris- 


dictione substantiam capiunt. Ser- 


viana autem experitur quis de re- 
bus coloni, quz pignoris jure pro 
mercedibus fundi ei tenentur. Qua- 
si. Serviana autem est, qua credito- 
res pignora hypothecasve perse- 
quuntur. Inter pignus autem et 
hypothecam, (quantum ad ac- 


^ tionem  hypothecariam attinet) 


nihil interest; nam de qua re 
inter creditorem. et. debitorem 
convenerit, ut sit pro debito obliga- 
td, uiraque hac appellatione. conti- 
netur; sed in aliis diffcrentia est : 


. nam pignoris appellatione eam pro- 


prié. rem contineri dicimus, que 
simul etiam traditur creditori, max- 
imé sj mobilis sit: at eam, quz 
sine traditione nuda conventione 
tenetur, proprié hypothecz appella- 
tione contineri dicimus. 


§ 7. Also the action Serviana, 
and the action quasi - Serviana, 
(which is also called hypothecary, ) 


take their rise from the prator!'s ju- * 


risdiction. By the action Serviana, 
a suit may be commenced for the pro- 
perty of a farmer, bound for reat. 
The. action quasi-Serviana -ts that, 
by which a creditor may sue for & 
thing pledged or hypothecated to 
him ; and,in regard to this action, 
there is no difference between a 
pledge and an hypothegue ; though 
in other respects they differ; for, 
by the term pledge, is meant thet, 
which hath actually been delivered to 
a creditor, especially if the theng 
was a moveable ; — hypothecation 
means the making any thing liable 
to a creditor by a nude agreement 
only, without delivery. 


^ 


t 


mas a6 aine arn. ales dil St Oe BAS 


Eu 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. VI. 331 


De actionibus pretoriis personalibus. 


§ Vill. In personam quoque 
actiones ex sua jurisdictione propo- 
positas habet prztor, veluti de pe- 
cuniá constituta ; cui similis vide- 
batur receptitia. Sed ex. nostra 
constitutione, (cum, et si quid ple- 
nius habebat, hoc in actionem pe- 
cunis constitute transfusum est,) 
et ea quasi supervacua jussa est 
cum sua auctoritate à nostris legt- 
bus, recedere. Item pretor pro- 
posuit actionem de peculio servo- 
rum, filiorumque "familiarum; et 
eam, ex qua queritur, an actor ju- 
raverit ; et alias complures. 


$ 8. Personal actions have also 
been introduced by the prators, in 
consequence of their authority ; as 
the action de pecuniá constituti ; 
which much resembles that called re-- 
ceptitia, now taken away by our 
constitulion, as unnecessary; and 
whatever advantageous matter it con- 
tained, we have con:prized in the ac- 
tion de pecunia constitutà. The 
pretors have likewise introduced the 
actzon concerning the peculium of 
slaves, and the sons of families ; and 
also the action wherein the question 
is, whether ‘the plaintiff hath madé 
oath of his debt ; and many others. 


De constitutà pecunia. 


§ IX. De constituta autem pe- 
cunia cum omnibus agitur, quicun- 
que vel pro se, vel pro alio, solu- 
turos se constituerint, nullà scilicet 
stipulatione interposita: nam alio- 
qui,si stipulanti promiserint, jure 
civili tenentur. 


6 9. A suit may be brought de 
pecuniá constituia, against any per- 
son who hath engaged to pay money, 
either for himself or another, with- 
out stipulation ; but, when there is 
a stipulation, the promise may be in- 


forced by the civil law. | 


De peculio. 


§ X. Actiones autem de peculio 
ideó adversus patrem dominumve 
comparavie pretor, quia licét ex 
contractu filiorum servorumve ipso 
jure non teneantur; equum tamen 
est, peculio tenus, (quod veluti pa- 
trimonium est filiorum filtarumque, 
item servorum,) condemnari cos. 


§ 10. The praetor hath also given 
actions de peculio agatnst futhera 
and masters, who although they are 
not legally bound by the contracts of 
their children and slaves, ought in e- 
quity to be bound to the extent ofa 
peculium, which is, as it were, the 
patrimony, and separate estate of a 
son, a daughter, or a slave. 


1 


LiB. IV. 


TIT. VI. 


De actione in factum ex jurejurando. 


6 XI. Item, si quis postulante 
adversario juraverit, deberi sibi pe- 
cuniam, quam peteret, neque ei sol- 
vatur, justissimé accommodat ei ta- 
lem actionem, per quam non illud 
queritur, an ei pecunia debeatur, 
eeq an juraverit, 


- $ 11. Aiso if any man, called up- 
on by the adverse party, make 
oath, that the debt, which he sues for, 
is due and unpaid, the pretor most 


justly indulges him with an action 


upon the fact ; in which no inguiry 
is made, whether the debt be due, but 
whether the oath hath been taken. 


De actionibus peenalibus. 


§ XII, Penales quoque actiones 
prator pené multas ex sua jurisdic- 
tione introduxit; veluti adversus 
eum, qui quid ex albo ejus corrur 
pisset; et im eum, qui patronum 
vel parentem in jys vocasset, cum 
id non impetrassct ; item adversus 
eum, qui vi exemerit eum, qui in 
jus vocaretur, cujusve dolo alius 
excmerjt ; et alias innumerabiles, 


§ 12. The prators have also intre- 
duced many penal actions, by virtue 
of their authority. Thus, they have 
provided an action against him, who | 
hath wilfully damaged or erased an 
edict ; against an emancipated son, 
or a freed-man, who hath commenc- 
ed suit against his parent or patron, 
without previous permission from 
the proper magistrate ; alse against 
any person, who by force or ‘fraud 
hath hindered another from appear- 
ing to the process of a court of jus- 


_ tice; and many others. 


De przjudicialibus actionibus, 


$ XIII. Prejudiciales acticnes 
. in rem esse videntur ; quales sunt, 
per quas quzritur, an aliquis liber, 
&n libertus sit, vel servus, vel de 
partu agnoscendo, Ex quibus fe- 
yé una illa legitimam causam habet, 
perquam quzritur, an aliquis liber 
git : ceterz ex ipsius prztoris juris- 
" dictione substantiam capiunt, 


§ 13. Prejudicial actions are alse 
real; such are those, by which it is 
inquired, whether a man is born 


Sree, or made free ; whether he be a 


slave, or a bastard. But of these, 
that only arises from the civil law, 
by which it is inquired, whether ‘a 


man be free born: the rest originate 
Jrom the prator's jurisdiction, 


- LIB. IV. 


TIT. VI. 333 


An res sua condici possit. 


$ XIV. Sic itaque discretis ac- 
tionibus, certum est, non posse ac- 
torem suam rem ita ab aliquo pe- 
tere, si paret, eum dare oportere : 
nec enim, quod actoris est, id ei da- 
ri oportet; scilicet, quia dari cui- 
quam id intelligitur, quod ita da- 
tur, ut ejus fiat: nec res, que jam 
actoris est, magis ejus fieri potest. 
Plané odio furum, quo magis plu- 
ribus actionibus teneantur, effectum 
est, ut, extra penam dupli aut qua- 
drupli, rei recipiendz nomine, fu- 
res etiam hac actione teneantur, si 
appareat, eos dare oportere : quam- 
wis sit adversus eos etiam hec in 
rem actio, per quam, rem suam 
' quis esse petit. 


$ 14. Actions being thus either 
real or personal, it is certain, that a 
man cannot sue for his own proper- 
ty by a condiction, or a personal ac- 
tion in the following form, viz. If 
it appear, that the defendant ought 
to GIVE it me: for the act of giving 
implies the conferring of property, 
and that which is already the 
property of the plaintiff, can not 
by being given to him, become moré 
his own, than it is already. But,in 
‘order to shewa detestation for thieves 
and robbers, and to accumulate the 
actions to which they are liable, it 
hath been determined, that, besides 
the double and quadruple penalty, 
they may be pursued by a condiction 
for the thing taken, in the form 
before recited, if it appear, that they 
ought to G1vz it. And this, although 
the party injured may also bring a 
real actian against them, by which 
he may demand the thing taken, as 
his own. . 


De nominibus actionum. 


§ XV. Appellamus autem in 
rera quidem actiones, vindicationes ; 
in personam verd actiones, quibus 
dare aut facere oportere intenditur, 
condictiones ; condicere enim est 
denuntiare, priscá lingua: nunc ver 
ro abusive dicimus, condictionem 
actionem in personam esse, quá ac- 
tor intendit dari sibi oportere ; nul- 
la enim hoc tempore co nomine de- 
_ muntiatio fit. 


wu? 


§ 15. Real actions are called vin- 
dications ; and personal actions, in 
which it is intended, that something - 
ought to be done'or given, are culled 
condictions ; for condicere, in old 
language was the same with denun- 
tiare to denounce: but condiction is 
now improperly used for a persenal 
action, by which the plaintiff con- 
tends, that something ought to be 
given to him; for denunciations are 
not in use, 


N 
o 


TIT. VI. 


Divisio secunda. 


334 LIB. IV. 
$ XVI. Sequens illa divisio est, 


quod qusedam actiones rei perse- 
quends gratia comparatz sunt, quae- 


§ 16. Actions are also farther di- 
vided into those, which are given to 
recover the specific thing tn dispute ; 


dani pene persequende, quedam -shese, wAich are given for the penat- 


Mist2 sunt. 


ty only : and mixed actions. 


De actioribus rei persecu-or;is. 


6 XVIL Rei persequenda causa 
comparat2 sunt omnes in rem ac- 
tiones; earum veró actionum, qu: 
in personam sunt, ez quidem, qug 
ex contractu nascuntur, feré omnes 
rei persequendz causa comparate 
videntut; veluti quibus motuam 
pecuniam, vel in stipulatum deduc- 
tam, petit actor; item commodati, 
depositi, mandati, pro socio, ex 
empto, vendito, locato, conducto. 
Plane, si depositi agatur eo nomine, 
quod tumultüs, incendii, ruin», 
naufragii causá depositum sit, in 
duplum actionem pretor reddit, si 
modo cum ipso, apud quem deposi- 
tum sit, aut cum hzrede ejus, de 
dolo ipsius agitur; quo casu mista 
est actio. 


$ 17. All real actions are given 


for the recovery of the thing tn litte 


gation; which is the object aieo of 
almost all the personal-actions which 
arise from contract ; as the action 


for a mutuum, a commodatum, er 


on account of a stipulation, a deposit, 
mandate, partnership, buying and 
selling, letting and hireing. But, 
when a suit is commenced for a thing 
deposited by reason of a riot, a Ére, 
or any other calamity, the pretor 
always gives an action for a double 
penalty, besides the thing deposited, 
if the suit is brought against the de- 
positary himself, or against his heir, 


for fraud ; in which case the action 


is mixed. 


De actionibus pon: persccutoriis, 


$ XVIII. Ex maleficiis vero 
proditz actiones, alie tantum ponz 
persequendz causa comparate sunt; 
alie tam penz, quam rei perse- 
quendz ; et ob id miste sunt. Pea- 
nam tantüm persequitur quis ac- 
tione furti ; sivé enim manifesti a- 
gatur, quadrupli, sivé non manifes- 
ti, dupli, de solá pena agitur: nam 
ipsam rem proprià actione perse- 
quitur quis, id est, suam esse pe- 


tens, sivé fur ipse eam rem possi-. 


§ 18. Jn cases of mal-feasattce, 
some actions are for the penalty on- 
ly, and some both for the thing end 
the penalty; which are therefore 
called -‘mixed actions. But, tn an ate 
tion of theft, whether manifest er 
not manifest, nothing more is sued 


for than the penalty, which, in ma- 


nifest theft is quadruple, and, in 


theft not manifest, double: for the 


owner may recover by a separate 
action what hath been stelen from 


LIB. IV. 


deat, sivé alius quilibet, Eo am- 
plius adversus furem etiam condic- 
tio est rei. : 


TIT. VI. 


him, if he demand the thing stolen 
as his own, nof only aguinet the 
thief, but against any other in pos- 
session of his property. The thief 
may also be sued by a condiction far 
the thing iteelf. 


335 


De mistis ; hoc est, rei et peenz persecutoriis. 


§ XIX. Vi autem bonorum rap- 
torum actio mista est, quia in qua- 
druplo rei persecutio continetur; 
pana, autem tripli est. Sed et le- 
gis Aquiliz actio, de damne, inju-. 
ria dato, mista est; non solüm si 
, adversus inficiantem in duplum 
agatur, sed interdum etai in aim- 
plum quisque agat; veluti si quis 
hominem claudum aut luscum, oc- 
ciderit, qui in eo anno integer et 


magni pretij fuerit; tanti enim 
damnatur, quanti is homo eo in 


anno plurimi fucrit, secundim jam 
traditam divisionem. Item mista 
est actio contra eos, qui relicta sa- 
crosanctis Ecclesiis, vel aliis vene- 
rabilibus locis, legata vel fidei-com- 
missi nomine, dare distuleririt, us- 
que adeó ut etiam in judicium vo- 
carentur : tunc enim et ipsam 
rem vel pecuniam, que relicta est, 
dare compelluntur, et aliud tantum 
pro pena; et idéo in duplum ejus 
fit condemnatio. 


6 19. An action for goods takes 
by force, is a mixed action; because 
the thing taken is included under the 
quadruple value to be recovered by 
the action; and thus .the penalty ie 
but triple. The action, introduced 
by the law Aqualta, for damage. in- 
Juriously done, is aleo a mixed aa- 
fon; not only. when given for 
double value against a man denying. 
the fact, but sometimes, when the ac- 
tion is only for single value; as 
when a man hath killed a slave, who 
at the time of his death was lame, or 
wanted an eye, but had within the 
year, previous to his decease, been 
free from any defect, and of great 
price; for in this case the defendant 
is obliged to pay as much as the slave 
was worth at any time within the 
year preceding his death. (B. 4. t. 
3.) A mixed action may also be 
brought against those, who have de- 
layed to deliver a legacy, or gift in 
trust, given for the benefit of a 
church, or any other holy place, until 
they have been called before a ma- 
gistrate for that purpose ; for then 
they are compelled to deliver. up the 
thing, or to pay the money bequeath- 
ed, and as much more, by way of pe- 
nalty ; and thus they are condemn- 
ed ina double amount. 


336° LIB. IV. 


TIT. VI 


De mistis; id est, tam in rem, quam in personam. ' 


€ XX. Quedam actiones mis- 
tam causam obtinere videntur, tam 
in rem, quam in personam ; qualis 
est familie erciscunde actio, que 
competit cohzredibus de dividen- 
dá haereditate; item communi di- 
vidundo, que inter eos redditur, 
inter quos aliquid commune est, ut 
id dividatur; item finium regundo- 
rum actio, qua inter eos agitur, 
qui confines agros habent. In qui- 
bus tribus judiciis permittitur judi- 
ci rem alicui ex litigatoribus ex 
bono et squo adjudicare; ét, si 
unius pars pregravari videbitur, 
eum invicem certà pecunià alteri 
condemnare, 


Divisio 

€ XXI. Omnes autem actiones 

vel in simplum conceptz sunt, vel 

in duplum, vel in triplum, vel in 

quadruplum ; ulterius autem nulla 
, actio extenditur. 


§ 20. Some actions, are also mix- 
ed as proceeding against the thing 
as well as against the Person : of 
this sort is the action familie erpis» 
cundz, which may be brought by 
co-heirs for the partition of thetr in- 
heritance ; the action de communi 
dividundo, given for the division of 
any particular things, which, exch» 
sive of an inheritance, are in come 
mon : and likewise the action finium — 
regundorum or an action of bounda- 
ry, which takes place among owners 
of contiguous estates. And, in these . 
three actions, it is wholly in the pow- 
er of the judge to give the ground, or 


- thing in dispute, to either ofthe par- 


ties litigant, and then to oblige that 
party, if necessity so require, to re- 
compense hie adversary, by paying 
him a sum certain, in amends for anty 
inequality in the adjudications 


tertia. 

§ 21. Allactions are for the single, 
double, triple, or quadruple value of ' 
the thing in litigation; for no ac- 
tion extends farther. 


De actionibus in simplum. 


§ XXII. In simplum agitur, ver 
luti ex stipulatione, ex mutui dati- 
one, ex empto, vendito, locato, con- 
ducto, mandato, et denique ex aliis 
quam plurimis causis. 


§ 22. The single value is sued 
for, when an action is given upon a 
stipulation, a loan,a mandate, the 
contract of buying and selling, let 
ting and hireing ; and also uponees . 
veral other accounts. 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. Vi. - 337 


In.duplum. 


§ XXILI. In duplum agimus, 
veluti furti nec manifesti, damni 
mjuriz ex lege Aquiliá, depositi ex 
quibusdam cáusis: item servi cor- 
rupti; que competi? in eum, cujus 


Rortatu consiliove servus alienus. 


fagerit, aut contumax adversus do- 
minum factus est, aut luxuriosé vi- 
Vere ceperit, aut denique quolibet 
modo deterior factus sit ; ;in quá 
actione earum etiam rerum, quas 
fugiendo servus abstulerit, estima- 
tio deducitur : item ex legato, quod 
venerabilibus locis relictum est, se- 
cundim ea, que supra diximus. 


§ 23. The double value is sued 
for in an action of theft not mani- 
fest, of injury, by the law Aquilia, 
and sometimes in an action of depo- 
sit. Also in an action brought, on 
account of a slave corrupted, against 
him, by whose advice such a slave 
hath fled from his master, grown 
disobedient, extravagant, or become 
zn any manner the worse; and, in 
this action, an estimateis to be made 
of whatever things the slave hath 
stolen from his master, before his 
flight. An action for the detention 
of a legacy, left to an holy place, is 
also given for double value, as we 
have before remarked. 


In triphim. 


§ XXIV. Tripli veró agimus, 
cum quidam majorem verá zstima- 
tione quantitatem in libello con- 
ventionis inserunt, ut ex hac causá 
viatores, id est, executores litium, 
ampliorem summam, Syo ortularum 
nomine, exigerent : tunc enim id, 
quod propter eorum causam dam- 
num passus fuerit reus, in triplum 
ab actore. consequetur ; ut in hoc 
triplo etiam simplum, in quo dam- 
num passus est, connumeretur. 
Quod nostra constitutio introduxit, 
quz in nostro codice fulget, ex quà 
procul dubio certum teats ex lege 
condictitiam emaner 


In quad*.:: 


§ XXV. 


tur ; veluti furti manifesti : 


Quadrupli autem agi- 
item de 


6 24. A suit may be brought for 
triple value, when any person in- 
serts a greater sum, than is due to 
him, in the libel of convention, to the 
intent, that the officers of any court 
may exact a larger Jte or perquisité 
from the defendant ; in which case 
the latter may obtain the triple value 
of the extraordinary fee from the 
plaintiff, including the fee in the 
triple value. The fees of officers are 
regulated by our constitution, and it 
is not to be doubted, but that the ace 
tion, called condictio ex lege, may 
be gizen by virtue of that ordinance. 


um. 
§ 25. A suit may be commenced 
jor quadruple value, bi y an action 


\ x 


338 


¢o, quod metüs causa factum sit; 
deque eà pecuniá, qux jn hoc data 


sit, ut is, cui datur, calumnia causa - 


negotium alicui faceret, vel non fa- 
ceret. Item ex lege condictitiá, 
nostra ex constitutione, oritur, in 
«quadruplum condemnationem im- 
ponens iis executoribus litium, qui 
contra nostr& constitutionis nornam 
à reis quicquam exegerint. 


LIB. IV. TIT. VI. 


for theft manifest, by an action 
for putting a man in fear; and 
by an action on account of me. 
ney, given to bring on a litigious 
suit against some third person, er 
on account of meney given to desist 


from it. A condiction ex lege, for — 


the quadruple value, arises also from 
our constitution against those officers 
of courts of justice, who demand any 
thing from the party defendant, con- 
trary to the regulations of the eaid 
constitution. 


Subdivisio actionum in duplum. 


$ XXVI. Sed furti quidem nec 
manifesti actio et servi corrupti à 
ceteris, de quibus simul locuti su- 
mus, co differunt, quod he actiones 
omnimodo dupli sunt; at iste, id 
est, damni injurie ex lege Aquilia 
et interdum depositi, inficiatione 
duplicantur ; in confitentem autem 
m simplum dantur Sed illa, que 
de iis competit, qus relicta venera- 
bilibus locis sunt, non solàüm infici- 
atione duplicatur, sed etiam si die- 
tulerit relicti solutionem, usque 
quo jussu magistratuum convenia- 
tur: in confitentem verd, ante- 
quam jussu magistratuum conve- 
niatur, solventem, simpli redditur. 


6 26. But an action of theft uot 
manifest, and an action en account 
of a slave corrupted, differ from 
the others, of which we have spoken, 
in that they always inforce a con- 
demnation in double the value ; but in 
an action, given by the law Aquilia 


for an injury done, and sometimes 


in an action of deposit, the double 
value may be exacted in case of deni- 
al; but if the defendant confesses, 
the single value only can be recovered. 
In an action brought for a legacy to 
pious uses, due to any holy place or 
Hd the penalty is not only doub- 

led by the denial of the defendant, 
but also by any delay of payment, 
which may be adjudged to have giv 
en a just cause for citing the de 
fendant before a magistrate ; but of 
the legacy be paid, before any ci- 
tation issues at the command of the 
judge, the single value only can be 
required. 


LIB. IV. TIT. VI. 


339 


Subdivisio actionum in quadruplum. 


§ XXVII. Item actio de eo, 
quod metüs dans’ factum sit, à ce- 
teris, de quibus simul locuti sumus, 
‘eo differt, quod ejus naturá tacité 
continetur, ut, qui judicis jussu ip- 
sam rem actori restituat, absolva- 
tur: quod in ceteris casibus non 

est ita, sed omnimodo quisque in 
"wuadruplum condemnatur; quod 
est et in furti manifesti actione. 


€ 27. An action for putting a 
man in fear, differs also from other 
actions in quadruplum, because it 
ie tacitly implied in the nature of this 
action, that the party, who hath obey- 
ed the command of the judge, in rcs- 
toring the things taken, may be dis- 
missed ; for, in all other actions for 
the fourfold value, every man must be 
condemned to pay the full penalty, . 
as in the action of theft manifest. 


Divisio quarta de actionibus bone fidzi. 


$ XXVIII. Actionum autem 
quzdam bonz fidei sunt, quedam 
stricti juris. Bonz fidei sunt he: 
ex empto, vendito; locato, conduc- 
to; negotiorum gestorum; man- 
dati; depositi; pro socio; tutele ; 
commodati ; pigneratitia; familie 
erciscunde ; communi dividundo ; 
prescriptis verbis, que de ssti- 
mato proponitur; et ea, quz ex 
permutatione competit ; et hzredi- 
tatis petitio. Quamvis enim us- 
que adhuc incertum erat, inter bo- 
nz fidei judicia connumeranda he- 
reditatis petitio esset, an non ; nas- 
.tratamen constitutio aperté, eam 

esse bons fidei, disposvit. 


De rei uxoriz actione, in ex 

$ XXIX. Fuerat antea et rei 
uxoriz actio una ex bone fidei judi- 
ciis: sed cum, pleniorem esse ex 
stipulatu actionem invenientes, om- 
me jus, quod res uxoria antea ha- 


§ 28. The fourth division is inte 
actions of good faith, and actions of 
strict right. Those of good faith 
are the following ; viz. actions of 
buying and selling, letting and hire- 
ing ; of affairs transacted, of man- 
date, deposit, partnership, tutelage, 
loan, mortgage; of the partition of 
an inheritance, or ‘the division of 
any thing or things, which belong 
in common to several persons ; also 
actions in prescribed words, which 
are either estimatory, or derived from 
commutation ; and lasily the demand 
of an inheritance: for although it 
hath long been doubtful to what clase 
this action belonged; our constitu- 
tion hath clearly numbered it among 
actions of goad faith. 


stipulata ectionem transfusá. 

$ 39. The action rei uxorie for 
the recovery of a marriuge portion, 
was formerly numbered among. the 
actions of good faith ; but when, up- 
on finding the action of stipulation te 


840 


bebat, cum multis divisionibus, in 
actionem ex stipulatu, qux de doti- 
bus exigendis proponitur, transtu- 
lerimus, merito rei.uxorig actione 
sublata, ex stipulatu actio, que pro 
ea introducta cst, naturam bone fi- 
dei judicii tantum in exactione do- 
tis meruit, ut bonz fidei sit ; sed 
et tacitam ei dedimus hypothecam. 
Preferri autem aliis creditoribus in 
hypothecis tunc censuimus, cum ip- 
sa mulier de dote sua experiatur, 
cujus solius providentia hoc induxi- 
mus, 


LIB. IV. TIT. VI. 


be more full and advantageous, we 
abrogated the action rei uxoriz, and 
transferred all its effects, with the 
addition of many other powers, te 
the action of stipulation given to re- 
cover marriage portions, we then 
not only thought, that this actton of 
stipulation, as far as it related to 
marriuge portions, deserved to be 
numbered with actions of gaod faith, 
but we also added to it by implica- 
tion, the effect of a mortgage: and 
we judged it proper, that women, in 
whose sole behalf we have thus or- 
dained, should be preferred to all o- 
ther crétlitors by mortgage, whene- 
‘ver they themselves sue for their 
marriage portions. 


De potestate judicis in judicio bone fidei, et de compensa- 
tionibus. 


$ XXX. In bonz fidei judiciis, 
libera potestas permitti videtur ju- 
dici ex bono et aquo estimandi, 
quantum actori restitui debeat. In 
quo ct illud continetur, ut, si quid 
invicem prestare actorem oporteat, 
€o compensato, in reliquum is, cum 
quo actum est, debeat condemnari. 
Sed et in stricti juris judiciis ex 
‘rescripto divi Marci, opposita doli 
mali exceptione, compensatio indu- 
cebatur. Sed nostra constitutio 
£asdem compensationes, que jure 
aperto nituntur, latius introduxit, 
ut actiones ipso jure minuant, sivé 
.in rem, sivé in personam, sivé alias 
quascunque; excepta sola depositi 
actione, cui, aliquid compensationis 
.nomine opponi, sané iniquum esse 
«Credimus ; ne, sub pretextu com- 


$ 30. In all actions of good faith 
a full power is given to the judge of 
calculating, according to the rulesvf 
Justice and equity, how much ought 
to be restored to the plaintiff; and 
of course, when the plaintiff #s Found 
to be indebted to the defendant te a 
less sum, it is in the power of the 
judge to allow a compensation, and to 
condemn the defendant in the pay- 
ment of the difference; and, even in 
actions of strict right, the emperor 
Marcus zntroduced a compensation 
by opposing an exception of fraud: 
but we have extended compensatzons 
much farther by our constitution, 
when the debt of the defendant is eve- 
dent ; so that actions of strict right, 
real, personal, or of whatever tind 
may be diminished by compensation ; | 


LIB. IV. . 


pensationis, depositarum rerum 


TIT, Vi 341 


except. only an action of deposit, ae 


quis exactióne defraudetur. gainst which.we have not yudeed it 
. en | proper to permit any compensation 
s to bc alledged; lest the pretence of 
^ compensation should gioe color and 
dp. encouragement to fraud. 
. . De actionibus arbitraris. 


' § XXXI. Preterea, actiones 
quasdam arbitrarias, id est, ex arbi- 
trio judicis péndentes, eppellamus; 
im quibus nisi arbitrio judicis is, 
‘cum quo egiter, actori satisfaciat, 
- wohtti rem restitust, vel exhibeat, 
wel solyat, vel ex noxali causd ser- 
‘wum dedat, condemnari debeat. 
Sed iste-actiones tam ih rem, quam, 
dn personum, inveniuntur ; in rem ; 
weluti Publiciana, Servispa de ‘re- 
Sus coloni,: quasi Berviang, qus e- 
tram hypothecaria vocatur: in per- 
sonar ; veluti quibus de eo agitur, 
-quod vi aut metis causá, aut dolo 
;zmialo, factum est; item cum id, 
quod eerto loco promissum est, pe- 
itur: ad exhibendum quoque ac- 
tio ex arbitrio judicis pendet. In 
‘his enim actionibus, et csteris 4i- 
snilibus, permittitur judici ex bono 
‘et wquo, secundum cujusque rei, 
.de qui actum est, naturam, zesti- 
mare, quemadwsodum actori satisfi- 
eri oporteat, 


$ 91. Some actions moreover we 
call arbitrary,.as dependnig uponzhe 
diecretion of the judge ; for, in these, 
ifthe party do not at* the decree 
-of the court, exhibit whatever is re- 
quired, restore the thing in litigation, 
pay the value of $t, or gtve up a slave 
in consequence of an action of mal- 
feasance, le ought to be condemned. 
-Of these arbitrary actions scme are 
-real and some personal : real, as the 
action Publiciana, Serviana, and 
-quasi-Serviana, which is likewise 
called hypothecary : others are per- 
sonal, as those, by which a suit is 
commenced on account of something 
done by force, fear or fraud; or on 
account of something, which was 
promised to be paid or restored ma 
certain place; and the action ad ex- 
hibendum, which was given to the 
infent, that something particular 
should be exhibited, is. also cf the 
same hind: in these and the fic ac- 
tions, the judge may determine, ac- 
cording to equity and the nature of 
the thing sued for, in what manner 
and proportion the plamtiff ought to 
receive. satisfaction. 


Quinta divisio, de inccrte quantitatis petitionc. 


$ XXXII. Cursre autem debet 


fadex, ut omnind, quantum possi- 


§ 32. A sudge ought, as much as 
-possible, so to frame his sentence, 


342 LIB. IV. 


bile ei sit, certz pecunie vel rei 
gententiam ferat; etiamsi de incer- 
tá quantitate apud eum actum est. 


TIT. VT. : 


that it may be gtbcri for a thing or 
sum certain; although the claim, up- 
on which the sentence is founded, 
may be for an incertain sum or 
quantity. ‘ 

AG. 


De pluris petitione. ' + 


$ XXXIII. Si quis agens inten- 
tione “sua plus complexus fuerit, 
quam ad eum pertineat, causa ca- 
debat, id est, rem amittebat; nec 
facilé in integrum .estituebatur à 
praetore, nisi minor erat xxv annis ; 
huic enim, sicüt in aliis causis, cau- 
sa cognità, succurrebatur, si lapsus 
juventute fuerat ; ita et in hac cau- 
si succurri solitum erat. Sane, si 
tam magna causa justi erroris in- 
ierveniebat, ut etiam constantissi- 
mus quisque labi posset, etiam ma- 
jori xxv annis succurrebatur ; velu- 
ti si quis totum legatum petierit, 
'post deinde prolati fuerint codicilli, 
quibus aut pars legati adempta ait, 
aut quibusdam aliis legata data 
sint; quz efficiebant, ut plus peti- 
isse videretur petitor, quam dod- 
rantem ; atque ideo lege Falcidia 
legata minuebantur. Plus autem 
quatuor modis petitur; re, tempore, 
loco, et causa. Re, veluti si quis 
pro decem aureis, quz ei debeban- 
tur, viginti petierit ; aut si is, cujus 
ex parte res est, totam eam, vel ma- 
jorem partem, suam esse intende- 
yit. ;lempore, veluti si quis ante 
diem vel ante conditionem petierit : 
qua enim ratione qui tardius solvit, 
quam solvere deberet, minus sol- 
vere intelligitur, eádem ratione, qui 
premature petit, plus petere  vide- 


§ 33. Formerly, if a plaintiff 
claimed more than his due, he. failed 
in hie couse ; thasts, he lost kis debt a 
nor was it easy for him to be: retn- 
stated by the prator, unless he wae 
under the age of 25 years: for in 
this, as wellas in other cases, tt was 
usual to aid minors, if it appeared. 
that the error. was owing to Sheie- 
youth; and if the error was such, 
that a skilful persen might have been 
led into if,;then even persons of fall 
age might'have been aided by tlie 
magistrate: for example, if'& lega~ 
tee had demanded his whole legacy, 
and codicils were afterwards. ( un. 
expectedly) produced, by which a 
part of it was revoked, or new lega- 
cies bequeathed to other persons, ao 
that the plaintiff appeared to have 
demanded more than three fourths of 
his lewacy ; because it was subject 
to a diminution by the law falcidia 3 
yet, in such case, the legatee would 
be relieved. A man may demand 


more than what is due to him in four 


several respects, viz. in respect ta 
the thing itself ; to time; to place; 
and to the cause. In respect to the 
thing ; as when the plaintif, instead 
of ten aurei, duc to him, demande 
twenty > or if, when Ae owns but 
part of some particular thing, he 
claims the whole ar a greater share 


LIB. IV. 
tur. Leco ples petitur, veluti cum 


quis id, quod certo loco sibi dari 


stipulatus est, alio loco petit siné 
tommemoratione illius loci, in quo 
sibi dari stipulatus est; verbi gra- 
tid, si is, qui ita stipulatus fuerit, 
Ephesi dare epondes; Romex pure 
$ntendat, sibi dari oportere. Ided 
autem plus petere intelligitur, quia 
atilitatem, quam haberet promissor, 
wi Ephesi solveret, adimit ei pura 
ntentione : propter quam causam 
elio loco petenti arbitraria actio 
proponitur ; $n quà scilicet ratio ha- 
Hetur utilitatis, quse ptomissori com- 
petitura fuisset, si illo loco solveret, 
quo se soluturum spopondit. Que 
ailitas pleràmque in . mercibus 
maxima invenitur ; veluti vino,oleo, 
frumento, quz per singulas regio- 
mes diversa habent pretia. Sed et 
pecunie numerate non in omuibus 
Yegionibus sub iisdem usuris fcne- 


Tantur. -Si quis tamen Ephesi pe-. 


at, id est, co loco petat, in quo, ut 
wibi detur, stipulatus est, pura ac- 


tiene recté agit: idque etiam pre. 


tor demonstrat; scilitet, quia utili- 
tas solvendi, salva est promissori. 
Huic autem, qui loco plus petere 
intelligitur, proximus est, qui causa 
plas petit: ut ecce, si quis ita à te 
stipuletar, Avminem Stichum, aut 
slecem aureds, dare spendes ; deinde 
ziterum petat, veluti hominem tan- 
tum, aut decem aureos tantum. 
Ydeó autem plus petere intelligitur, 
quia in eo genere stipulationis pro- 
Jaissoris est electío, utrum pecuni- 
am, an hominem, solvere malit: 
qui igitur pecuniam tantum, vel he- 


TIT. VL 342 


than he is intitled to. in respect to 
time, as when the plaintiff makes his 
demand before the day of payment, 
or before the time of the performance 
of a condition ; . for, as he, who does 
not pay so soon as he ought, is always 
understood to pay less than he 
ought, eo, by parity. of reasoning, 
whoever sues prematurely, demands 
more than his due. . dn respect to. 
place; qs when any persen requires 
that something stipulated to be de- 
-livered at a certain place, should be 
delivered at some other place, with- 
out-noticing the place originally sti- 
pulated ; as if Titius, should stipu- 
late in. these words ; do you pro- 
mise to give such a particular thing 
at Ephesus ? and should afterwards 
declare upon a contract to deliver at 
Rome ; for Titius would thus be un- 
derstood to demand more than his 
due, by endeavouring to deprive his 
debtor of the advantage he might 
have had in paying or delivering at 
-Ephesus. Jt is on this account, that 
an arbitrary action is groen to him, 
who would demand payment in a 
place different from that agreed up- 
on, for, in that action, the advan- 
tage, which might have accrued te 
the debtor, by paying his debt tn the 
place stipulated, is taken into consi- 
deration. This advantage is gene- 
rally found the greatest in merchan- 
dise; as in wine, eil, corn, &£ec. 
which, in different places, bear dif- 
ferent prices; and, indeed, money 
itself is not lent every where at the 
same interest. But, if a man would 
stie the performance of a stipulation 


344 LIB. IVt 


miner tantum, sibi dari oportere 
intendit, eripit electionem adversa- 
yio, eteq modo suam quidem con- 
ditionem meliorem facit, adversarii 
veró sui deteriorem. | €»uàde causa 
talis ia eà re prodita est actio, ut 
quis intendat hominem Stichum aut 
&ureos decem sibi dari eportere, 
$d est, ut eodem modo peteret, quo 
stipulatus est. Preterea, si quis 
generaliter hominem stipulatus sit, 
et specialiter Stichum petat; aut 
generaliter vinum stipulatus eit, et 
specialiter campanum petat ; aut 
generaliter purpuram stipulatus ait, 
deinde specialiter Tyriam petat; 
plus petere intelligitur, quia electio- 
mem adversario tollit, cui stipula- 
tlonis jure liberum fuit aliud sol; 
vere, quam quod peteretur. Qui- 
netiam licét vilissimum sit, quod 
quis petat ; nihilominus plus petere 
intelligitur; quia sepé accidit, ut 
‘promissori facilius sit illud solvere, 
quod majoris pretii est. Sed hzc 
quidem antea in usu füerant; pos- 
tea vero lex Zenoniana,et noatra, 
rem coarctavit. Et, si quidem 
tempore plus fuerit petitum, quid 
statui oporteat, Zenonis dive me- 
anorie loquitur constitutio. Sin 
autem quantitate, vel alio modo, 
plus fuerit petitum, in omne, si 
quod forté damnum ex hac causa 
accideret ei, contra quem plus pe- 


» 


TIT. Wh 


ati®Bpheaus, ec ah. anyother place, . 
tohercit was ageced, that it should 
be performed, he may. legally .com- 
mence his suit by a pure ection, that 
ia without mentioning the place; 
aud this the’ praetor allaws of, inat- 
much ag the debtor. does vot lose atly 
advantage. Next to hin, wha de 
mands more then his due, imregard te 
place, is he, wha demands more than 
hie due, in regard to the cause s as 
for instance, if Titius stifadate thy 
with you: do you promise tà giwe 
either your slave Sfichue or tem 
aurei? and then demand atther tee 
slave specially, or the money apect- 
ally; i this case Titius would be 
adjudged to have demanded mare than 
his dus, the right of election heing 
on you by whom the bramáte wos 
made; and therefore, when Titius 
sues either far the money specially, 
or for the slave, he takes away wour 
election, and betters his awn conde 
tion, by making yours worse: and it 
is upon this account, that an action has 
been given, by which the party agent 
or plaintiff may make his demand 
conformable to the stipulation, and 
claim either the slave or the maney. 
And farther, if a man should stipu- 
late generally, that wine, purple arg 
slave, should be given him, dud 
should afterwards sue for the wine 


of Campania, the purple of Tyre, ar 


t 


“th 
a 


Te 


LIB. TV. 


tum fuerit, cominissa tripli con- 
emnatione, sicut supra diximus, 
uniatur. 


TIT. VL 845 


the slave Stichus tn particular, he 
would then be adjudged to have de- 
manded more than his due; for the 
power of election would thus be taken 
from the adverse party, who was not 
bound by the stipulation to pay the 
thing specifically demanded; and al- 
though, in any of these cases, the 
thing sued for should be of little or 
no value, yet the demandant would 
be thought to claim more than his 
due; because it is often easier for 
the debtor to pay the thing stipulat- 
ed, although it may be of greater 
value than the thing demanded. 
Such was the law according to the 
ancient practice, in regard to ar 
over-demand, viz. that the demand- 
ant should lose even that, which 
was really dueto him. But this law 
has been greatly restrained by the 
constitution of Zeno the emperor, 
and by our own; for, tf more than 
zs due be demanded in respect of time, 
the judge must be directed in his. 
proceeding by the constitution of that 
emperor of glorious memory; but, 
if in respect of quantity, or on any 
other account, then. the loss suffered 
by him, upon whom the demand is 
made, must be recompensed, as we 
have before declared, by a decree of 
triple damages against the plaintiff. 


De minoris summ® petitione. 


.$ XXXIV. Si minus intentione 
ua complexus fuerit actor, quam 
d eum pertineat ; veluti si, cum ei 
lecem aurei deberentur, quinque 


ibi dari oportere intenderit; aut. 
i, cum totus fundus ejus esset; par- - 


§ 34. If a plaintiff sue for less; 
than he has aclaim to, demanding, fot 
instance, only five aurei, when ten 
are due; or the moiety of an estate, 
when the whole belongs to him; he 
acts safely ; for the judge, in con- 


Yr 


a 


346 LIB. IV. 


tem dimidiam suam esse petierit ; 
siné periculo agit: in reliquum 
enim nihilominus judex adversari- 
urb.eod m judicio ei condemnat, ex 
constitutione dive memoriz Zeno- 
nis. 


TIT. VL 


sequence of Zeno’s constitution, may 
nevertheless condemn the adverse 
party, under the same process, to 
the payment or delivery of all, which 
appears of right to belong to the 


plaintiff. 


Si aliud pro alio petatur. 


6 XXXV. Si quis aliud pro alio 
intenderit, nihil eum periclitari pla- 
cet, sed in eodem judicio, cognita 
veritate, errorem suum corrigere ei 
permittitur; veluti si is, qui homi- 
nem Stichum petere deberet, Ero- 
tem petierit; aut si quis ex testa- 
mento dari sibi oportere intenderit, 
quod ex stipulatu debetur. 


Diviso sexta. 
$.XXXVI. Sunt preterea que- 
dam actiones, quibus non semper 
solidum, quod nobis debetur, pre- 
sequimur, sed modo solidum perse- 
quimur, modo minus ; ut ecce, si in 
peculium filii servive agamus : nam, 
si non minus m peculio sit, quam 
persequimur, in solidum dominus 
paterve condemnatur ; si vero mi- 
nus inveniatur, eatenüs «condemnat 
judex, quatenàüs ‘in peculio sit. 
Quemadmodum autem: peculium 
intelligi debeat, suo ordine pro- 
ponemus. . 


$ 35. When a plaintiff’ demands 
one thing instead of another, he 
risks nothing by the mistake, which 
he is allowed to correct under one 
and the same process: as if a liti- 
gant should demand the slave Erotes, 
instead of the slave Stichus, or 
should claim, as due by testament, 
what is found to be due upon stipu- 
lation. —— | | 


De peculio. 


$ 36. There are also some ac- 
tions, by which we do not always sue 
for the whole, which is due to us; 
but for the whole, or less, as it proves 
to be most expedient; thus, when a 
suit is brought against the peculium 
of a son or a slave, if the peculium 
be sufficient to answer the demand, the 
Jather or master must be condemned 
to pay the whole debt; but, if the 


peculium be not sufficient, the judge 


can condemn the defendants only to 
the extent of its value. We will 
hereafter explain, in its proper place, 
what we mean by the term peculi- 
um. 


De repetitione dotis. 


§ XXXVII. Item, si de dote in 
judicio mulier agat, placet, eatenus 
maritum condemnari debere, qua- 


.$ 37. Also, if a woman brine suit 
for the restitution of her marriage - 
portion, the man must be condemned - 


LIB. IV. 


tenüs facere possit ; id est, quate- 
nus facultates ejus patiuntur. Ita- 
que,si dotis quantitati concurrant 
facultates ejus, in solidum damna- 
tur; sin minus, in tantum, quan- 
tum facere potest. Propter reten- 
tionem quoque dotis repetitio mi- 


nuitur;.nam ob impensas, in res 


dotales factas, marito quasi reten- 
tio concessa est, quia ipso jure ne- 
cessariis sumptibus dos minuitur; 
sicüt ex latioribus digestorum libris 
cognoscere licet. 


TIT. VI. - 347 
to pay as far as he is able; i.e. as 
Jar as his ability or solvency will 
permit: therefore, if the portion de- 
manded and the ability of the man 
be equal, he must be adjudged to sa-* 
tisfy the whole demand; but, if his 
ability be less than the claim, he must 
nevertheless be condemned to pay as 
much as he is able. But the claim of 
@ woman may in this case be lessen- 
ed by a retention; for the husband is 
permitted to retain an equivalent for 
whatever he hath necessarily expend- 
ed upon the estate given with his 
wife,asa marriage portion ; but this 
will fully appear by a perusal of the 
digests, to which the reader is refer- 
ed. | 


De actione adversus parentem, patronum, socium, et donatorem. 


$ XXXVIII. Sed et, si quis cum 
parente suo patronove agat, item si 
socius cum socio judicio societatis 
agat, non plus actor consequitur, 
“quam adversarius ejus facere po- 
test. Idem est, si quis ex dona- 
tione sua conveniatur. 


6 38. If any person sue his pa- 
rent, patron,or partner, the plaintiff 
can not obtain sentence for a. greater 
sum, than his adversary is able to 
pay ; itis the same when a donor is 
sued on account of his donation. 


De compensationibus. 


§ XXXIX. Compensationes quo- 
que opposite plerümque efficiunt, 
ut minus quisque consequatur, 
quam ei debeatur. Nam ex bono 
et equo habita ratione ejus, quod 
invicém actorem ex eádem causa 
prestare oportet, poterit judex in 
reliquum eum, cum quod actum 
est, condemnare ; sicut jam dictum 

- est. 


+ 


€ 39. When a compensation is al- 
ledged by the defendant, it generally 
happens, that the plaintiff. recovers 
less than his demand ; fcr it is in 
the power of the judge, as we have 
before declared, to make an equitable 
deduction from the demand of the 
plaintiff of whatever he owes to the 
defendant, and to condemn the defend- 
ant to the payment only of the re- 
mainder ; as it hath already been ob- 
served. 


946 LIB. IV. 


TIT. VIL 


De eo, qui bonis cessit. 


$ XL. Cum eo quoque, qui cre- 
ditoribus suis bonis cessit, si pos- 
tea aliquid acquisierit, quod idone- 
um emolumentum habeat, ex inte- 
gro in id, quod facere potest, cre- 
ditores experiuntur. Inhumanum 
enim erat, spoliatum fortunis suis 
1n eolidum damnari. 


6 40. Creditors also, to whom « 
debtor hath made a cession of his 
goods, may afterwards, if he hath 
gained any considerable acquisition, 
bring a fresh suit against him, for 
as much as he is able to pay, but net 
more; for it would be inhuman to con- 
demn a man in solidum, who hath 
already been deprived of his whole 
for tune, | | 


v 4t GD cit Gee 


/ 


| TITULUS SEPTIMUS. 
QUOD CUM EO, QUI IN ALIENA POTESTATE EST, 
NEGOTIUM GESTUM ESSE DICITUR 


D. xiv, T. 5. C. iv. T. 16. 


Scopus et nexus. 


QUIA tamen superius mention- 
«m habuimus de actione, quà in 
peculium filiorum servorumque agi- 
tur,opus est, ut de hac actione .et 
de ceteris, que eorundem nomine 
jn parentes dominosve dari solent, 
diligentius admoneamus. Et quia, 
sivé cum servis negotium gestum 
Bit, sivé cum iis, qui in potestate 
parentum sunt, eadem fere jura 
servantur, ne verbosa fiat disputa- 
tio, dirigamus sermonem in perso- 
nam servi dominique, idem intel- 
lecturi de liberis quoque et paren- 
tibus, quorum in potestate sunt; 
nam, sei quid in his proprié serve- 
tur, separatim ostendemus, 


We have already mentioned the ac- 
tion which may be brought against 
the peculium, or separate estate ofa. 
son or aslave ; itis naw necessary to 
speak of it more fully, and also of 
some other actions, which are allow- 
ed to children and slaves against | 
their parents and masters. But, as 
the law is almost the sume, whether 
an affair be transacted witha slave, 
or with one whois under the power 
of his parent, to avoid prolixity we. 
will treat only of slaves and their 


masters, leaving what we say of theta 


to be understood also of parents.and 
children under power ; for whatever. 
is peculiar to children and parente, 
we shall point out separately, 


| LIB. IV. 


De actione quod jussu. 


9 I. Si igitur jussu. domini cum 
servo negotium gestum erit, in so- 
lidum preztor adversus dominum 
actionem pollicetur; scilicet quia 
is, qui ita contrahit, idem domini 
sequi videtur. 


TIT. VII. 345 


- 


§ 1. For any business negotiated 
by a slave acting under the command 
of his master, the praetor will give 
an action against the master for the 
whole value of the transaction ; for 
whoever contracts with a slave, ia 
presumed to have done it ona confi 
dence in the master. 


De exercitaria et institoria actione. 


§ II. Eádem ratione pretor du- 
as alias in solidum actiones polli- 
cetur; quarum altera exercitoria, 
altera institoria, appellatur. Exer- 
citoria tunc habet locum, cum quis 
servum suum magistrum navi prz- 
posuerit, et quid cum eo, ejus rei 
- gratia, cui prepositus erit, contrac- 
tum fuerit, Ideó autem exercito- 
ria vocatur, quia exercitor is appel- 
latur, ad quem quotidianus navis 
quzstus pertinet. Institoria tunc 
locum habet, cum quis taberne 
forté, aut cuilibet negotiationi, ser- 
vum suum praposuerit, et quid 
cum eo, ejus rei causa, cui prepo- 
situs erit, contractum fuerit. Ideó: 
autem institoria appellatur, quia, 
qui negotiationibus preponuntur, 
institores vocantur. Istas tamen 
duas actiones pretor reddit, et si 
liberum quis hominem, aut alie- 

num servum, navi aut taberne aut 

taberne aut cuilibet negotiationi 
preposuerit ; scilicet, quia eadem 
sequitatis ratio etiam eo casu inter- 
veniat. 


§ 2. The prator also gives two 
other actions in solidum upon the 
same motive; the one exercitoria, 
the other institoria. The action exe 
ercitoria takes place, when a master 
hath made his slave commander of a 
vessel, and some contract hath been 
entered into with the slave in- that 
capacity. This action is named ex- 
ercitoria, because he to whom the 
daily profits of a ship belong, is. cal- 
led exercitor. The action instito- 
ria is made use of, when a master 
hath given his slave the manage- 
ment of a shop, or committed any 
particular affair to his direction, on 
accaunt whereof some one hath been 
induced to enter into u contract with 
the slave; and this action is called 
institoria, because all persons, to 
whom a negotiation is committed, 

are denominated institores. The 
pretor hath likewise been induced, 
by the same equity, to give these 
two actions against any man, who 
employs a free person, or the slave of 
another, in the management of a 
ship, a warehouse, or any particular 


affair. 


$30 LIB. IV. 


TIT. VII. 


De tributoria. 


6 III. Introduxit ct aliam ac- 
tionem pretor, que tributoria voca- 
tur; namque, si scrvus in peculia- 
ri mezce, sciente domino, negotie- 
tur, et quid cum eo ejus rei causá 
contractum erit, ita praetor jus di- 
cit, ut, quicquid in his mercibus 
erit, quodque indé receptum erit, 
id inter dominum, si quid ei debe- 
bitur, et catcros creditores, pro 


rata portione distribuatur : et ideo — 


tributoria vocatur, quia ipsi domi- 
no distributionem prator permittit. 
Nam, si quis ex creditoribus que- 


ratur, quasi minus e] tributum sit, 


quam oportuerit, hanc ei actionem 
accommodat, quie tributoria appel- 
latur. 


$ 3. The pretor hath also intro- 
duced another action called tributo- 
ria; for, if a slave with the know- 
ledge of his master, trade upon his 
peculium, and contracts are there- 
upon made with him, the prator or- 
dains, that the merchandize, or mo- 
ney, arising from his traff.c, shall be 
distributed between the master, (if 
he has any gust claim,) and the rest 
of the creditors in a ratable propor- 
tion ; andit is called tributoria be- 
cause the master himself is permit- 
ted to make the distribution: but, if 
any creditor complain, that too emall 
a share hath been allowed htm, the 
pretor will giwe this action, called 
tributoria. 


De peculio, et de in rem verso. 


$ IV. Pretcrca introducta est 
actio dc. peculio, deque eo, quod 
in rem domini versum erit; ut 
quamvis siné voluntate domini ne- 
gotium gestum erit, tamen, sivé 
quid inrem ejus versum fuerit, id 
totum prestare debeat; sivé quid 
non sit in rem ejus versum, id eate- 
nüs prestare debeat, quatenüs pe- 
culium patitur. In rem autem do- 
mini versum intelligitur, quicquid 
necessario in rem ejus impenderit 
servus, veluti si mutuatus pecuni- 
am creditoribus ejus solverit, aut 
 :dificia ruentia fulserit, aut fami- 
lie frumentum emerit, vel etiam 
fundum, aut quamlibet aliam rem 
necessariam mercatus erit. Ita- 
que, si ex decem puta aureis, quos 


§ 4. The action concerning a pe- 
culium, and things converted to the 


profit of the master, hath likewise 


been introduced by the pretor; fer 
although business hath been trans- 
acted by aslave, without consent of 
his master, yet, where the profit aris- 
ing is converted to the master’s bene- 
fit, he ought to be answerable: and, 
although the master should derive no 
emolument, he ought to be answete- 
ble to the amount of the peculium. 
Whenever any thing is necessarily 
expended by a slave.upon the mas- 
ter's affairs, it is understood to be & 


conversion to his benefit; as if a 
slave who hath borrowed money, 


should pay the debts of his master, 


repair his buildings, purchase an es- - 


- 


LIB. IV. TIT. VII. 


servus tuus à Titio mutuo accepit, 
creditori tuo quinque aureos solve- 
ri, reliquos veró quinque quoli- 
bet modo consumpserit, pro quin- 
que quidem in solidum damnari de- 
bes; proczteris vero quinque ea- 
tenis, quatenis in peculio sit. 
Ex quo scilicet apparet,sitoti de- 
cem aurei in rem tuam versi fue- 
rint, totos decem aureos Titium 
consequi posse : licét enim una sit 
actio, qua de peculio, deque eo, 
quod in rem domini versum sit, agi- 
tur ; tamen duas habet condemna- 
tiones. Itaque judex, apud quem 
de eá actione agitur, ante dispicere 
solet, an in rem domini versum 
sit; nec aliter ad peculii sstima- 
tionem transit, quam aut nihil in 
rem domini versum intelligatur, 
aut non totum, Cum autem quari- 
tur, quantum in peculio sit, ange 
deducitur, quicquid servus domino, 
eivé, qui in potestate ejus sit, de- 
bet; et, quod superest, id solum 
peculium intelligitur. Aliquando 
tamen id, quod ei debet servus, 
qui in potestate domini sit, non de- 
ducitur cx peculio ; veluti si is in 
ipsius peculio sit: quod eo perti- 
net, ut, si quid vicario suo servus 
debeat, id ex peculio ejus non dedu- 
catur. 


L4 


$ V. Caterum dubium non est, 
quinis quoque, qui jussu domini 


351 


tate, provision, or any other useful 
thing : therefore, if out of ten aurei, 
borrowed by a slave, he should pay 
only five to his master’s creditors, 
and squander the rest, the master 
would be liable to the ‘payment in 
solidum "of the five aurei, but, as to 
the other five, he could be obliged to 
pay only so much as the peculium 
would answer ; hence it will appear, 
that, if all the ten -aurci had been 
converted to the master’s emolument, 
the lender might have recovered the 
whole; for although it is one and 
the same action, against a peculi- 
um, and for the recovery of what a 
slave hath converted to his master’s 
use, yet it carries with it two differ- 
ent condemnations ; hence; the judge 
docs not estimate the value of the 
peculium, until he has examined how 
much if any hath been expended for 
the service of the master : but, when 
the judge proceeds to the valuation of 
the peculium, a. deduction ts made 
of what the slave owes to his master, 
or to any other under the power of his 
master, and the remainder only is con- 
sidered as peculium. Butit sometimes 
happens, that what one slave owes to 
another under the power of the same 
master, is not deducted; as when 
the slave whots the creditor, compo- 
ses a part of his debtor's peculium ; 
for, if a slave be indebted to his vi- 
carial slave, this debt cannot be de- 
ducted from the peculium. 


! e 
De concursu dictarum actionum. 


6 5. It is nevertheless certain 
that he, who hath contracted xwith 


¢ 


342 LIB. IV. 


&ontraxerit, cuique institoria vel 
exercitoria actio competit, de pecu- 
lio, deque eo, quod in rem domini 
versum est, agere possit. Sed erit 
stultissimus, si, omissá actione, qua 
facillimé solidum ex contractu con- 
Sequi possit, se ad difficultatem 
perducat probandi, in rem domini 
versum esse, vel habere servum 
peculium, et tantum habere, ut so- 
ladum sibi solvi possit. Is quo- 
que, cui tributoria actio competit, 
tequé de peculio, et de in rem verso, 
agere potest; sed sané huic modo 
tributeria expedit agere, modo de 
peculio, et de in rem verso. Tri- 
butoria ideó expedit agere, quia in 
ea.domini conditio precipua non 
est ; id est, quod domino debetur, 
non deducitur, sed ejusdem juris est 
dominus, cujus et ceteri credito- 
res: at, in actione. de peculio, ante 
deducitur, quod domino debetur; 
et in id, quod reliquum est, credi- 
tori dominus condemnatur. Rur- 
sus de peculio ideó expedit agere, 
quod in hac actione totius peculii 
ratio habetur ; at in tributoriá ejus 
tantüm, quo negotiatur ; et potest 
quisque tertià forté parte peculii, 
aut quarta, vel etiam minima, -ne- 
gotiari ; majorem autem partem in 
prediis aut fenebri pecunia habere. 
Prout ergó expedit, ita quisque vel 
hanc actionem, vel illam, eligere 
debet. Certé, qui potest probare, 


TIT. VII. 


a slave at the command of the maeler 
and is intitled etther to the action. in- 
stitoria or exercitoria, is also tntitled 
to the action de peculio and. de in 
rem verso: but it would. be highly 
imprudent in any party to relinquish 


‘an action, by which he could easily 


recover his whole demand, and, by 
recurring to another, reduce himself 
to the difficulty of proving, that the 
money he lent to the slave was con- 
verted to the use of the master, or that 
the slave is possessed of a peculium 
sufficient to answer the whole debt. 
He also, towhom the action tributo- 
ria is given, is equally intitled to the 
action de peculio, and de in rem ver- 

so ; but itis expedient, in some cases, 
to use the one, andin some cases the 
other : but the action tributoria is ge- 
nerally preferable, because, in this, 

the condjtion of the master is not 
principally regarded; i.e. there i$ 
no previous deduction made of what 
is due to him, his title being esteemed - 
in the same light with that of other 
creditors : but,in the action de pe- 
culio, the debt due to the master is 
first deducted, and he is condemned 
only to distribute the remainder a- 
mong the creditors. Again,in some 
cases, it may be more convenient to 
bring the action de peculio, because 
it affects the whole peculium, whAere- 
as the action tributoria regards one 
li so much of it as hath been-made 


_LIB. IV. 


in rem domini versum esse, de in 
rem verso agere debet. 


¢ $ VI. Quas diximus de servo et 
de domino, eadem intelligimus et 
de filio et filià, et nepote et nepte, et 
patre avove, cujus in potestate sunt. 


TIT. VIL. S453. 
use of in trafic; and it is possible, 
that a slave may have trafficked only 
with a third, a fourth, or. some very 
small part, and that the rest consists 
of lands, slaves, or money, lent at in- 
terest. Therefore it behoves every 
man to chuse that remedy, which may 
be most beneficial tohim ; but, if the 
creditor can prove a conversion to 
the use of the master, he ought to pro= 
ceed by the action de in rem verso. 


Te filrs-familias. 


§ 6. What we have said, concernz ' 


_ ing a slave and his master, takes place 


equally inregard to children under 
power, and their parents. 


De senatus-consulto Macedoniano. 


$ VII. Illud proprié servatur it 
eorum persona, quod. senatus-con- 
sultum Macedonianuin prohibuit 
mutuas pecunids dari eis, qui in 
potestate parentis sunt; et ei, qui 
crediderit, denegatur actio tám ad- 
versus ipsum filium filiamve, nepo- 
tem neptemve, (sivé adhuc in po- 
testate sint, sivé morte parentis, vel 
emancipatione, suz potestatis esse 
czperiht, quam adversus patrem 
avumvé, sive eos Habeat adhuc in 
potestate, —sivé — emancipaverit. 
Qus ided senatus prospexit, quia 
szpe onerati ere alieno creditarum 
pecuniarum, quas in luxuriam con- 
sumebant, vite parentüm insidia- 
bantur. 


$ 7. But children are, in some 
respects, particularly regarded by 
the Macédonian decreee of the se- 
nate, which prohibits money to be 
lent them, while under power of their 
parents ; for creditors are not suf- 
fered to bring any action, either 
against the children, even after thety — 
ure emancipated, or against their 
parents, who emancipated them. 
This caution was adopted by the 
senate, because young hetre, loaded 
with debts contracted for luxtriy; 
have laid snares against the lives of 
their parents; 


De áctione directá in patrem vel dominum. 


§ VILE. Illud in summa admo- 


6 8. In fine, we may obserté; 


wendi sumus, id, quod jussu patris that whatever hath been contracted 
Zz 


‘ 


354 


LIB. IV. TIT, VIE. 


domiüive contractum fuerit, quod- for at the command of a@ parent or 


,qn.« in rem ejus versum erit, direc- 
to quoque possé à patre dominove 
condici, tanquam si principaliter 
cum ipso negotium gestum esset. 
Ei quoque, qui exercitorra vel in- 
stitoria actione tenetur, directo pos- 
se condici placet, quia hujus quoque 
_ jussu contractum intelligitur. 


M 


master, and converted to their use, 
may be recco?red by a direct action 
against the father or master in. the 
same manner, as if the contract had 
been originally made with them. 


And he, who is liable to: the action 


institoria or exhibitoria, may also 
be sued by a direct action, inasmuch 
as the contract is presumed to have 
been made. at his command. 


——dee 2 GD Ut Sa 


'* TITULUS OCTAVUS. 


DE NOXALIBUS ACTIONIBUS. 


D. ix. T. 4. 


De servis. 

EX maleficiis servorum, veluti si 
furtum fecerint, aut bona rapuerint, 
aut damnum dederint, aut injuriam 
cammiserint, noxales actiones pro- 
ditz sunt; quibus domino damna- 
to permittitur aut litis estimationem 


suff.rre, aut ipsum hominem noxe 
dedere, 


C. iii. T. 41. - 


Summa. 


ANoxalactions are given on account 
of the, offences of slaves; ae when a 
slave commits a ‘heft or robbery, or 
does any damage or injury. And, 
when the master or owner ef a slaue 
&s condemned upon this account, it 
ts in his optron either to pay the 
estimute of the damage done, or de- 
liver up his slaveas a recompence. ! 


' Quid sit noxa et noxia. 


$ I. Noxa autem est ipsum cor- 
pus, quod nocuit; id est, servus: 
noxia ipsum maleficium ; veluti 


furtum, rapina, damnum, injuria. 


§ 1. Noxa is the slave, theoffend- 
er. Noxia is the offence, whether 


theft, damage, rgpine, or injury. 


^ LIB. IV. 


TIT. VIH. 355 


R.tio harum actionum. 


§ II. Summá autem ratione per- 
missum est noxz deditione fungi ; 
namque erat iniquum, nequitiam 
eorum ultra ipsorum corporum do- 
minis damnosam esse. 


6 2. It is reasonably permitted to 
the master *o deliver up the offend- 
ing slave : for it would be unjust to 
make the master liable, beyond the 
body of the slave himself. 


Efiectus noxz deditionis. 


$ III. Dominus, noxali judicio 
servi sui nomine conventus, ser- 
vum ^actori noxe dedendo libera- 
tur; nec minus in perpetuum ejus 
_ servi dominium à domino transfer- 
tur: sin autem damnum ei, cui 
deditus est, servus resarcierit que- 
sità pecuniá, auxilio prztoris, invito 
domino, manumittetur. 


§ 3. Ina noxal action brought 
against a master, he may clear him- 
self by giving up his slave to the 
plaintiff, in whom the property will 
become absolutely vested; but, if 
the slave can satisfy his new master 
in money for the damage, he may be 
manumitted on application to the 
pretor, though his new ‘master 
should be unwilling. 


De origine harum actionum. 


§ IV. Sunt autem constitute 
noxales actiones, aut legibus, aut 
edicto pretoris; legibus, veluti 
furti ex lege xii tabularum, damni 
injurie ex lege Aquilia; edicto 
pretoris, veluti injuriarum, et vi 
bonorum raptorum. 


x 


$ V. Omnis autem noxalis actio 
capit sequitur; nam, si servus 
_ tuus noxam commiserit, quamdiu 
jn tua potestate sit, tecum actio est : 
si autem in alterius potestatem per- 
venerit, cum illo incipit actio esse : 
at, 51 manumissus fuerit, directo 
jpse tenetur, et extinguitur noxe 
deditio. Ex diverso quoque di- 
recta actio noxalis esse ‘incipit ; 
‘nam, si liber homo noxiam commi- 
serit, ct is servus tuus csse cepe- 


6 4. Noxal actions are appointed 
either by the laws, or by the edict of 
the pretor. By the luws, as for 
theft, by the law of the twelve tables ; 
for injurious damage, by the law 
Aquilia; forsinjurics and goods 
taken by force, by the prator’s edict. 


Qui conveniuntur noxali actione. 


$ 5. No realactions follow the 
person; thus, the master is liable 
while the slave belongs to him; if 
the slave become subject toa new 
master, then he becomes ltable ; but, 
if the slave be manumitted, he may 
be prosecuted by a direct action ; and 
the noxe deditio, is extinguished. 
But an action, which was at first’ 
direct, may afterwards become nox- 
al; for if a free man. guilty of mat- 
Jeasance, become a slave, (and our 


* 


856 


LIB. IV. TIT. VIII. 


rit, (quod quibusdam casibus effici first book shews in what cases this. 


primo libro tradidimus,) incipit 
tecum esse noxalis actio, quz. ante 
directa fuisset. 


may happen, ) then' the direct action 
against the slave, is changed tinto a 
noxal action against the master. 


Si servus Domino noxiam commiserit, vel contra. 


§ VI. Siservus domino noxiam 
commiscrit, actio nulla nascitur; 
namque inter dominum et eum, qui 
in potestate ejus est, nulla obliga- 
tio nasci potest, Ideóque, si in 
alienam potestatem servus pervene- 
jit, aut manumissus fuerit, neque 
cum ipso, neque cum eo, cujus 
nunc in potestate sit, agi po- 
test: unde, si alienus servus tubi 
noxiam commiserit, et 13 pos- 
tea in potestate tua esse coeperit, 
j3nterdicitur actio ; quia in eum ca- 
sum deducta sit, in quo consistere 
non potuit. Ideóque, licét exierit 
de tua potestate, agere non potes ; 
quemadmodum si dominus in ser- 
vum suum aliquid commiserit, nec, 
si manumissus aut alienatus fucrit 
servus, ullam actionem contra do- 
minum habere potest. 


§ 6. Although a slave commit 
mal-feasance against his master, yet 
no action is given; for no obligation 
can arise between a master and his 
slave; and if the slave pass under the 
power of another master, or is ma- 
numitted, no action lies either against 
him or his new master; whence it fol- 
lows, that, if the slave of another 
should. commit mal-feasance against 
you, and become your slave, the, ac- 
tion is forbidden: for the case has 
arisen in which it cannot be brought. 


Therefore, although a slave hath. 


passed out of your power, you cane 
not sue him: neither can a slave, 
who hath been aliened or manumit- 
ted, bring any action against his 
late master. 


De filiis-familiarum. 


§ VII. Sed veteres quidem hoc 
in filiis-familiarum masculis et fe- 
minis admisere ; nova autem ho- 
minum conversatio hujusmodi as- 
peritatem recté respuendam esse 
existimavit, et ab usu communi hoc 
penitus recessit. Quis enim patia- 
tur, filium suum, et maxime filiam, 
in noxam alii dari? ut pené per fi- 
lii corpus pater magis quam filius 
periclitetur; cum in filiabus etiam 


pudicitiz favor hoc bené excludat. 


6 7. The ancients indeed admitted 
this law of the forfeiture of the pez- 
son, even in cases of children, whe- 
ther male or female: but later times 
have rightly thought, that such ri- 
gorous proceeding, ought to be exe 
ploded ; and it hath therefore passed 
wholly into disuse: for who could 
suffer a son, and more especially a 
daughter, to be delivered up as a fox- 


feiture to a stranger? for, in the. 
case of a son, the punishment of the 


LIB. IV. TIT. IX. 


. Et ideó placuit, in servos tantum- 
modo, noxales actiones esse pro- 
ponendas; cum, apud veteres le- 
gum commentatores, invenerimus 
sepius dictum, ipsos filios-familia- 
rum pro suis delictis posse conve- 
niri. 


S57 


father would be greater, than that of 
the son; and, in the case of a daugh- 
ter, the rules of modesty forbid the 
practice. It hath therefore prevail- 
ed, that noxal actions should apply 
to slaves only: and, we find it often 
laid down in the old books, that sons. 
of a family may be sued for their” 
own misdeeds. 


a. —«» £09 4t QD 2:* Ge 


TITULUS NONUS. 
SI QUADRUPES PAUPERIEM FECISSE DICATUR. 


D. ix. T, 1. 


4 


ANIMALIUM nomine, que 
ratione carent, si qua lascivia, aut 
pavore, aut feritate, pauperiem fe- 
cerint, noxalis actio lege xii tab. 
prodita est: qua animalia, si noxz 
dedantur, proiciunt reo ad libera- 
tionem ; quia ita lex xii tabularum 
scripta est, ut, puta, si équus calci- 
trosus calce percusserit, aut bos, 
eornü petere solitus, cornu petierit. 
Hic autem actio in iis, que contra 
naturam moventur, locum habet ; 
czterum, si genitalis sit feritas, ces- 
sat actio. Denique, si ursus fuge- 
yit à domino, et sic nocuerit, non 
potest quondam dominus conveniri, 


" ' quia desiit dominus esse, ubi fera 


evasit. Pauperis autem est dam- 
mum siné injuria facientis datum ; 


mes enim potest animal injuriam 


De actione, si quadrupes ex |, xi? tab. . 


A noxal action is given by the law 
of the 12 tables, when damage is done 
by brute animals, through wanton- 
ness, fright, or furiousness; and 
when delivered up in atonement for 
the damage done, the defendant is 
cleared from the action: for it is 
thus written in the law of the 12 
tables, zf'a horse, apt to kick, should 
strike with his foot; or if an ox, 
accustomed to gore, should wound 
any man with his horns, &9c. 
But a noxal action takes place only 
when animals act contrary to their 
nature; for, when the ferocity of a 
beast is innate, no action can be 
given; so that, if a bear break loose 
from his master, and mischief be 
done, the master cannot be sued; for — 
he ceased to be the master as soon as 


358 LIB. IV. . 


—-— 


fecisse dici, quod sensu caret. Hac 
quidem ad noxalem pertinent ac- 
tionem. 


TIT. X 7 | 


the beast escaped. The word pau- 
perics denotes a damage, by which 
no éngury is intended; for an ani- 
mal, void of reason, cannot be said 
to have committed an injury... Thus 
much as to noxal actiona. 


De actione zedilitiá, concurrente cum actione de pauperie. 


§ I. Caeterum sciendum est, zdi- 
litio edicto prohiberi nos canem, 
verrem, aprum, ursum, leonem, ibi 
habere, qua vulgó iter fit; et, si 
adversüs ea factum erit, et nocitum 
libero homini esse dicatur, quod 
bonum et equum judici videtur, 
tanti dominus condemnetur; cete- 
rarum veró rerum, quanti damnum 
datum sit, dupli. Preter has au- 
. tem edilitias actiones, et de paupe- 
“rie locum habebit; nunquam enim 

actiones, presertim penales, de eà- 
dem re concurrentes, alia aliam con- 
' sumit. 


$ 1. Jt must be observed, that 
the edict of the Edile forbids any 
man to &eep/a dog, a. boar, a bear, 
or a lion, where there is a public 
passage or highway: and, tf this 
prohibition be disobeyed, and any 
freeman receive hurt, the master 
of the beast may be condemned at 
the discretion of the judge; yet, in 
other cases of damage, the condem- 
nation must be in double the amount. 
Besides the Edilitian action, an ac- 
tion for damage, called pauperies, 
may also take place against the same 
person: for actions, especially penal 
actions, may concur on account of the 
same th@g, without the one destroy- 
ing the other. 


a db 5:0» m—— 


TITULUS DECIMUS. 


DE IIS, PER QUOS AGERE POSSUMUS. 


Per quos agere liceat. . 


NUNC admonendi sumus, agere 
posse quemlibet hominem aut suo 
. nomine aut alieno. Alieno, veluti 
procuratorio, tutorio, curatorio ; 
cum olim in usu fuisset, alterius 


We must now remark, thet day 
man may commence a suit, in Ais 
own name, or in that of another, « 
of a proctor, a tutor, or a curater; 
but anciently, one person could amt 


| LIB. IV. 


nomine agi non posse, nisi pro 
populo, pro libertate, pro tutela. 
Preterea lege Hostiliáà permissum. 
erat furti agere eorum nmomine, 
qui apud hostes essent, aut rei- 
publice causa abessent, quivé in 
eorum cujus tutelà essent. Sed, 
quia hoc non minimam incommodi- 
tatem habebat, quod alieno nomine 
neque agere, neque excipere actio- 
nem, licebat, ceperunt homines per 
procutatorés litigare. Nam et mor- 
bus et stas et necessaria peregti- 
natio, itemque alle multe cause, 
sepe horninibus impedimento sunt, 
quo minus rem suám ipsi exequi 
possint. 


TIT. X. ‘ 359 


sue in the name of another, unless tn 
a public case, in a cause to establish 
freedom, or, in a cause of tutelage. 
it was afterwards permitted by the 
law Hostilia, that an action of theft 
might be brought in. the names of 
captives; or of persons absent upon 
the affairs of the republic; or who 
were under the care of tutors. But, 


. a8 it was found in later times to be 


highly inconventent, that any man 


should be prohibited, either from . 


suing, or defending in the name of 
unother, it by degrees became a prac- 
tice to sue by proctors; for ill 


health, old age, the necessity of tra- - 
telling, and many other cases, con- — 


tinually prevent mankind from being 
able to prosecute their own fairs 
zh person. 


Quibus modis procurator constituatur. | 


$ I. Procurator neque certis 


: verbis, neque presente semper ad- 


versario, imo et plerumqüe eo ig- 
norante, constituitur: cuicunque 
enim permiseris rem tuam agere, 
aut defendere, is tuus procurator 
intelligitur. 


'&$ 1. A proctor may be appointed 


without any certain form of words. | 


nor is the presence of the adverse 
party required; indeed it is gene- 
rally done without his knowledge. 
Whoever is employed to sue or to de- 


fend for anether, is understood to be 


a proctor. 


Quibus modis tutores vel curatores constituuntur. 


$ II. Tutores.et curatores que- 
mádmodum constituantur, primo 
libro expositum est. 


§ 2. We have already explained 
in the first book, how tutors and cu- 
rators may be appointed. 


= 


^b 


D. ii. T. 8. 


LIB. IV. TIT. XI. 


TITULUS UNDECIMUS. 
DE SATISDATIONIBUS. 


C. ii. T. 57. 


De judicio personali. 


SATISDATIONUM modus 
alius antiquitati placuit, alium no- 
vitas per usum amplexa est. Olim 
enim, si in rem agebatur, satisdare 
possessor compellebatur, ut, si vic- 
tus esset, nec rem ipsam restitue- 
ret, nec litis estimationem, potes- 
tas esset petitori aut cum eo agen- 
di, aut cum fide-jussoribus ejus ; 
que satisdatio appellatur judicatum 
$0loi : undé autem sic appelletur, 
facile est intelligere ; namque sti- 


pulabatur quis, ut solveretur sibi, 


quod fuisset judicatum ; multo ma- 
gis 19,-qui In rem actione convenie- 
batur, satisdare cogebatur, si alieno 
nomine judicium accipiebat. Ipse 
autem, qui in rem agebat, si suo no- 
mine petebat, satisdare non cogeba- 
tur. Procurator vcro, si in rem age- 
bat, satisdare jubebatur, rem ratam 
dominum — habiturum : 
enim erat, ne iterüm dominus de 
eadem re experiretur.  Tytores 


. veró et curatores eodem modo, quo 


procuratores, satisdare debere, ver- 
ba edicti faciebant. Sed aliq-^ndo 
his agentibus satisdatio remitteba- 
tur. Hac ita erant, si in rem age- 
batur. , 


4 


periculum. 


In taking security, the ancient 
practice differs from the modern; 
for merely in a real action, the de- 
Jendant, in possession, was compel- 
led to give security, so that, if he lost 
his cause, and could neither restore 
the thing itself, nor pay the value of 
it, the demandant might be enabled 
either to sue him, or his bail: and 
this species of bail is termed judica-. 
tum solvi: nor is it difficult to un- 
derstand, why it is so called; for as 
every demandant stipulated, that the 
thing adjudged to him should be paid, 
it was still more reasonable, that the 
person sued in a real action should 
be obliged to give security, if he re- 
ceived judgment in the name ‘of ano- 


. ther. A plaintiff in areal action suing 


in his own name, was not called to 

give security : 'buta proctor was ór- 

dered to give security, that his acts. 
would be ratified by his prigetpal, 

rem ratam dominum habiturum ; 3 

Jor the danger was, lest the client 

should bring a fresh suit for the same 

thing ; and by the words of the edict 

even tutors and curators were come 

pellable to give security, cs well as 

proctors, though $t was sometimes 

remitted when they were plaintiffs. 
Such was th& practice in real ac- 

tions 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. XI. 361 


De judicio personali, 


$ I. Si verd in personam, ab ac- 


toris quidem parte, eadem obtine- 
bant, que diximus in actione, quà 
in rem agitur ; ab ejus veró parte, 
cum quo agitur, siquidem" alieno 
nomine aliquis interveniret, omni- 
modo satisdaret; quia nemo de- 
fensor in aliená re siné satisdatione 
. ádoneus esse creditur. Quod si 
proprio nomine aliquis judicium 
accipiebat in personam, judicatum 
solvi satisdare non cogebatur. 


Jus novum. 


$ Sed hodie hzc aliter observan- 
tur. Sivé enim quis in rem actione 
convenitur, sivé personali, suo no- 
mine, nullam satisdationem pro litis 
sestimatione dare compellitur ; sed 
pro sna tantum persona, quod in 
judicio permaneat usque ad termi- 
numlitis; vel committitur suz pro- 
missioni cum jurejurando, quam 
juratoriam cautionem vocant; vel 
nudam promissionem, vel satisdati- 
onem, pro qualitate persone suzy 
dare compellitur. 


$ 1. The rules as to security, on 
part of the plaintiff, which were ob- 
served in real, obtained also in persg- 
nal actions; and, if the defendant 
proceeded tn another’ s name, he was 
obliged to give caution; for no one 
was reputed a competent defendant 
in the cause of another,. unless se- 
curity was given: but, whenever 
any man was convened in a personal 
action if the defendant stood suit in 
his own name he was not compelled 
to give bail judicatum solvi (i.e. 


Sully to comply with the judgment of 


the court. 


é 


De reo. 


é 

§ 2. But at present a different 
practice prevails ; for, a defendant 
sued in his own name, either ina 
real or personal action, 1s not come 
fellable to give security for the pay- 
ment of the estimation of the suit, 
but only for his own person; to 
wit, that he will remain in judgmeng . 
until the cause is determined ; and this 
security is sometimes given by sure- 
lies ; sometimes by a promise upon 
oath, which is called a juratofy cau- 
tion; and sometimes by a simple 
promise without oath, according to 
the quality of the defendant. — - 


Dc procuratore actoris. 


$ III. Sin autem per procurato- , 


rem lis vel infertur vcl suscipitur, in 
actoris quidem persona, si non man- 
gatum actis insinuatum est, vel prz- 
sens dominus litis in judigjo procu- 
ratoris sui personam confirmaverit, 





§ 3. But, where a suit is come 
menced or defended by a proctor, if 
the proctor of the plaintiff, does not 
either enrol a mandate of appointe 
ment in the acts of court, (that it, 
file his power of attorney) or cause 


. 3A 


$63 - | LIB. IV. 


fatam rem dominum habiturum, sa- 


tisdationem procurator dare com- 
pellitur : eodem observando et 8i tu- 
tor vel curator, vel alie fales per- 
sone, qua alienarum rerum guber- 
fationem receperunt, liem quibus- 
dam per alium inferunt. 


\ 


TIT. XI. 


his client to nominate him publicly, 
he is obliged to give security, that 
his client will ratify his proceeding. 
Such is the rule ulso if a tutor, cura- 
tor, or agent, commences euit by a 
proctor. 


De procuratore rei presentis. 


§ IV. Si veró aliquis convenitur, 
Wiquidem presens procuratorem 
dar: paratus est, potest vel ipse in 
judicium venire, et sui procuratg- 
fis personam per Judicatum solvi 
Satisdationem solemni stipulatione 
frnare; vel extra judicium satis- 
dationem exponcre, per quam ip- 
Gc sui procuratoris fidejussor exis- 
tat pro omnibus judicatum solv? sa- 
tiscationis clausulis : ubi et de hy- 
potheca suarum rerum convenire 
compchlicur, sivé. rn judicio promi- 
metit, sivé extra judicium caverit, 
‘wttam ipse quam heredes ejus o- 
bligentor. Alia insuper cautela, 
Satisdatione proptcr personam ipsi- 
ws exponenda, quod temporc sen- 
tentis recitande in judicium veni- 
et, vel, si non venerit, omnia dabit 
, Bdejussor que in condemnatione 
continentur, nisi fuetit provocatum. 


§ 4. When a party is sued, and is 
ready to nominate a proctor, he may 
appear in open court, and confirm 
the nomination by giving the caution 
judicatum solvi under the usual sti- 
pulation; or he may appear out of 
court, and become himself the surety, 
that his proctor will perform all the 
covenants in the instrument of eau- 
tion ; and whether this be done in 
court, or out of court, he must make 
his estate chargeable, that his heirs, 
as well as himself, may be bound. 
And a farther caution or security 
must be given, that he will either 
appear in person at the time of pro-. 
nouncing sentence, or that his surety, 
in case of non-appearance, shall be 
bound to pay whatever the sentence 
exacts, if no appeal be interposed. 


Uc pro uratore rei absentis. 


$ V. Si veró reus presto ex 
«uicunque causa non fuerit, et ali- 
us velit defensionem ejus subire, 
mulla differemia inter actiones in 
rem vel personales introducenda, 
. potest hoc facerc ; ita tamen ut sa- 
tisdaiiosem Jildicatum solo» pro litis 
@stimatione preste Nemo enim 


§ 5. When a defendant does not 
put in an appearance, then any other 
person, who is willing, may take up- 
on himself the defence for him, and 
this may be done either in a real or 
personal action without distinction, 
if the caution judicatum solvi de em. 
tered intGfor the payment of the ee 


\ . - -.. 


LIB. IV. ' TIT. XI, 


secundüm veterem regulam (ut 
jam dictum est) alienz rei siné sa- 
tisdatione defensor idoneus intelli- 
gitur. 


, 49 


timation of the suit ; for no man, 
according to the ancient rule ulreaa 
dy mentioned, can be said to defend 
the cause of another legally, unless 
security be given. 


Unde haec forma ‘liscenda. 


$ VI. Qus omnia apertius et 
perfectius quotidiano judiciorum 
wsu in ipsis rerum documentis ap- 


parent, 


§ 6. But such formalities may be 
more perfectly learned, from the ue 
sage and practice of courts. 


. Ubi hzc forma obscrvanda. 


§ VII. Quam formam non so- 
làm in hac regia urbe, sed etiam 
omnibus nostris provinciis, (etsi 
propter imperitiam forté aliter ce- 
Jebratur,) obtinere censemus ; cum 
necesse sit, omnes provincias caput 
Omnium nostrarum civitatum, id 
€st, hanc regiam urbem, ejusque 


§ 7. We have judged it expedient, 
that these forms shall prévail, not on- 
ly in Constantinople, but also in a 
our other provinces, (although 
through ignorance they may have 
practised differently ) ; for it is ne 
cessary, that all the provinces should 
be guided by the example of the capie 


abservantiam, sequi. tol of our dominions, and follow the 
M practiceof our royal city. 
7 —m c dpa a 
TITULUS DUODECIMUS. " 


BE PERPETUIS ET TEMPORALIBUS ACTIONIBUS, 


ET QUZ AD HEREDES ET IN HZEREDES 


N 


TRANSEUNT. EE 
C. iv. T. 11. 


De perpetuis et temporalibus actionibus. 


. HOC loco admonendi sumus, eas 


quidem actiones, quie ex lege, sen- 
atusve consulto, sivé ex sacris con- 


— Wétutionibus, proficiscuntur, perpe- 


es 


All those actions, which took thetg 
rise from the law, the decrees o! the 
senate, or the constitutions, were ane 


ciently considered as always it - 


364 ^. LIB. IV. 


tuo solere antiquitüs competere, do- 
mec sacra constitutiones tam in rem, 
quam in personam, actionibus cer- 
tos fines dederunt: eas vero, quz 
ex propria pretoris . jurisdictione 
pendent, pleràmque intra annum 
vivere ; nam et ipsius pratoris in- 
tra annum erat imperium. Ali- 
quando tamen et in perpetuum ex- 
tenduntur, id est, usque ad finem 
constitutionibus introductum ; qua- 
les suntez, quas bonorum possesso- 
ri, ceterisque, qui heredis /loco 
sunt, accommodat. Furti quoque 
manifesti actio, quamvis ex ipsius 
praetoris jurisdictione proficiscatur, 
tamen perpetuó datur; absurdum 
enim esse existimavit, anno eam 
terminari. 


hj 


TIT. XII, 
Jorce : but the later emperors have 


by their ordinances fixed certain li- 
mits both to real and personal ac- 
tions. Actions, given by virtue of 
the prator's authority, are general- 
ly limited to one year; for such is 
the duration of his office: but some- 
times the pratorian actions are made 


perpetual ; that is they are extended 


to the limits introduced. by the con- 
stitutions: such are those actione, 
which the pretor gives to the pos- 
sessors of goods, and to others, who 
hold the place of heirs. The action 
of manifest theft is also perpetual, 
although it proceed from the mere 
authority of the praetor; for it was 
thought absurd, to limit this action 
to ayear. 


De actionibus, quz in heredes transeunt vel non. 


6 I. Non autem omnes actiones, 
quz in aliquem aut ipso jure com- 
petunt, aut à pretore dantur, et in 
hzredem equé competunt, aut dari 
solent. Est enim certissima juris 
regula, ex , maleficiis penales acti- 
ones in heredem rei non compete- 
re; veluti furti, vi bonorum rapto- 
rum, injuriarum, damni injuriae: 
sed heredibus hujusmodi actiones 
competunt, nec denegantur ; excep- 
tà injuriarum actione, et si qua alia 
similis inveniatur. Aliquando ta- 
men, etiam ex contractu actio con- 
tra heredem non competit; veluti 
cum testator dolosé versatus sit, et 
ad heredem ejus nihil ex eo dolo 
pervenit :. penales autem actiones, 
quas supra diximus, si ab ipsis 
Principalibus personis fuerint con- 


§ 1. Not all actions in general, 
which either the law, or the praetor, 
allows also against a man, will be 
also allywed against his heirs: for 
itis a sure rule of law, that penal 
actions, arising from mal-feasance, 
will not lie against the heir of an of- 


fender; such as theft, rapine inju- 


ry, or damage injuriously done: but 
these actions will pass to heirs, ang 
are never denied, but inan action of 
injury, and in other cases of a simi- 
lar nature. Sometimes even an ace. 
tion of contract will not Ke against 
an heir; as when a testator acts 


Jraudulently, and nothing comes te 


the possession of the heir by sagaon 
of the fraud: but, if the penal ay, 
tions, of which we have already spas, 
hen, erc ance contested by tha grits; 


MET Tht oe 


LIB. IV. TIT. XIIf. 


testate, et heredibus dantur et con- 
tra hzredes transeunt. 


X 


Si, pendente judicio, 

$ II. Superest, ut admoneamus, 
quod, si ante rem judicatam is, cum 
quo actum est, satisfaciat actori, 
officio judicis convenit eum absol- 
vere; licet in eá causa fujsset judi- 
cii accipiendi tempore, ut damnari 
deberet; et hoc est, quod antea vul- 
go dicebatur, omnia judicia absolu- 


cipal parties concerned, they will 
afterwards pass both to,and against, 
the heirs of such partics. 


reus actori satisfecerit. 


§ 2. Lastly it is the duty of the 
judge to dismiss the defendant, if be- 
fore sentence he should fully satisfy 
the plaintiff, although pending the 
suit, his cause seemed so bad, that 
he deserved to be condemned; and 


upon this account it was anciently a 


common saying, that all actions were 


toria csse. -diemissible. , 
— B+ @oo— 


TITULUS DECIMUS-TERTIUS. 
DE EXCEPTIONIBUS. 


D. xliv. T. 1. 


Continuatio. 


bus dispiciamus. Comparate au- 
tem sunt exceptiones defendendo- 
rum eorum gratia, cum quibus agi- 
tur; sepé enim accidit, ut licet ipsa 
persecutio, quà actor experitur, jus- 
ta sit, tamen iniqua sit adversus 
cum, cum quo agitur. ' 


C. vii. T. 36. 


Ratio exceptionum. 
SEQUITUR, ut de exceptioni- . 


It follows, that we should treat of 
exceptions. Exceptions have been 
introduced into causes for the defence 
of the party cited ; for it often hap- 
pens, that a suit, which in itself is 
just, may yet become unjust, when 
commenced against q wrong. person. 


De exceptione, quod metus causa, de dolo, in factum. 


§ I. Verbi gratia, si metu coac- 
tus, aut dolo inductus, aut errore 
lapsus, stipulanti Titio promisisti, 
quod non debueras promittere, pa- 
làm est, jure civili te obligatum es- 
| fie, et actio, qua intenditur, dare te 


-."Oportere, efficax est; sed iniquum, 


§ 1. Jf you for example compelled by 


fear, er induced by fraud or mistake, | 


make an imprudent promise to Titi- 
us,42pun stipulation ; yet it is evi- 
dent, you are bound by the civil law, 
and 'Titius may have an efficacious 
action: but it may be unjust, that o. 


365 | 


est, te condemnari: ideóque datur 
tibi exceptio, quod metus causa, aut 
doli mali, aut in factum, composita 


ad impugnandam actionem. 


TIT. X¥IL 
condemnation should follow, and 
therefore you are pernatted to plead 
exceptive matter calculated to defeat 
the action, by setting forth, that the 
promise was extorted by fear or 
fraud, or otherwise by alledging the 
peculiar circumstances of the cases 
(and these are called exceptions it 


factum composite; i. e, exceptione 
en the fact. ) 


De non numerata pecunià. 


$ II. Idem juris est, si quis qua- 
si credendi causa pecuniam à te sti- 
pulatus fuerit, neque numeraverit. 
Nam, eam pecuniam à te petere 
posse eum, certum est; dare enim 
te oportet, cum ex stipulatione te- 
nearis. Sed, quia iniquum est, eo 
nomine te condemnari, placet, ex- 
eeptione pecunie non numerate, te 
"defendi deberc; cujus tempora nos 
(secundim quod jam superioribus 
libris scriptum est) constitutione 
nostri coarctavimus. 


§ 2. So is the lawin case any ong 
should obtain your promise to repag. . 
money that you never received. B - 
is certain, he may sue you for the 
money, for you are bound by the sti 
pulation. But as it would be unjust, 
that you should be condemned upon | 
that account, you are allowed to plead 
the exception pecunie non numeras 
tz, of money not paid. But by ous 
express constitution we have shorte 
ened the time allowed for bringing 
this exception, as we have already 
ebserved in the former book. 


De pacto. 


§ ILI. Preterea debitor, si pac- 
tus fuerit cum creditore, ne à se pe- 
cunia peteretur, nihilominus obliga- 
tus manet; quia pacto convento o- 
bligationes non omnino dissolvun- 
tur ; quà de causá efficax est adver- 
sus eum actio, quam actor intendit, 
&t paret, eum dare oportere : sed, 
quia iniquum est, contra pactionem 
eum condemnari, defenditur per ex- 


ceptionem pacti conventi. 


|: 6 8. Moreover, although a cred. 
tor agree not to sue his debtor, yet 
the debtor remains bound ; for obli- 
gations are not to be wholly dissolve 
ed by a mere agreement: and there- 
fore an action in this form, si pae 
ret, eum dare oportere, would be ef- 
ficacious against the debtor ; but, ae 


it would be unjust, that the debtor 


should be condemned to make paye 
ment, notwithstanding the agree« 
ment, he is therefore permitted to de« 
fend himself by an exception of cowie 


. act. od SP AM: 


CIB. {V. TIT. XIII. 


867 


Le juicjnrando. 


6 IV. JÉque, si debitor credi- 
More deferente juraverit, nihil se 
gare oportere, adhuc obligatus 
permanet; sed, quia iniquum est 
de perjurio queri, defenditur per 
exceptionem jurisjurandi. In iis 
quoque actionibus, quibus, in rem 
Agitur, &&qué necessariz sunt excep- 
tiones ; veluti si petitore deferen- 
$e possessor juraverit, cam rem 
tuam esse, et nihilo minus petitor 
eandem rem vindicet: licét enim 
Verum sit, quod intendit, id est, 
ejus esse; iniquum tamen est, pos- 
Sesorem condemnari 


§ 4. Jf an oath be administered to 
ia debtor ut the instance of his credi- 
tor, and he swears, that nothing is. 
due, yet he still remains bound: but, 
as it would not be right, that the 
plaintiff should afterwards complain 
of perjury, the debtor may defend 
himself by alledging his own oath. 


by way of exception. Exceptions 


are equally necessary in real actions ; 


as when the party in possession at the — 


request of the demandant, swears, 
that the thing tn disputeis his own, 
and the demandant will neverthelese 
endeavour to recover it : for although 
the demandant’s allegation be true; 
viz. that the thing claimed apper- 
tains tohim, yet it is unjust, that 
the possessor should be condemned. 


De re judicata. ! 


. $ V. Ytem, si jadicio tecum ac- 
tum fuerit, sivé in rem, sivé in per- 
sonam, nihilominus obligatio du- 
fat; etideó ipso jure de eádem re 
, postea adversus:te agi potest : sed 
debes per exceptionem rei judicate 
adjuvari. 


§ 5 If you have been sued either 
upona real or personal action, the 
obligation nevertheless remains ; and 
thercfore, in strict law, you may a- 
gain be sued upon the same account ; 
but, you may plead the former trial 
in bar, and be aided by the exception 
Rei judicate. 


De ceteris exceptionibus. 


¢ VI. Hee, exempli causa, retu- 
lisse sufficiat; alioqui, quam ex mul- 
tis variisque causis exceptiones ne- 
cessariz sint, ex latioribus diges- 
torum seu pandectarum libris intel- 
ligi potest. 


$ 6. It may suffice to have given 
these instances of exceptions in ec- 
neral ; but in how many and in what. 
various cases they are necessary, 
may be learned from the larger books 
of the digests, or pandecte. 


a- td 


$68 LIB. IV. 


3 


TIT. XIH. 


Divisio prima. 


$ VII. Quarum. quzdam ex le. 


$ 7. Some exceptions proceed 


gibus, vel iis, qua lcgis vicem ob- from the laws themselves, or from 


tincnt, velex ipsius pretoris juris- 
dictione, substantiam capiunt. 


regulations that hold the place of 
laws; others from the authority of 
the pretor. 


Divisio secunda. 


§ VIII. Appellantur autem ex- 
ceptiones aliz perpetue et peremp- 
toriz, aliz temporales et dilatoriz. 


6 8. Some exceptions are called | 
perpetual and peremptory; others 
are temporary and dilatory. 


De peremptoriis. 


6 IX. Perpetuz et peremptorie 
sunt, que semper agentibus ob- 
stant, et semper rem, de qua agi- 
tur, perimunt; qualis cst excep- 
tio doli mali, et quod metus causa 
factum est, et pacti conventi, cum 
ita convenerit, ne omnino pecunia 
peteretur. 


§ 9. The perpetual and peremp- 
tory are those, which always. ob- 
struct the plaintiff, and destroy the 
force of the action—of this sort is 
the exception of fraud, of fear, and 
of compact, when it is agreed that 
the money shall not be sued for. 


De dilatoriis. 


. $ X. Temporales atque dilato- 
riz sunt, quz ad tempus nocent, et 
temporis dilationem tribuunt ; qua- 
lis est pacti conventi, cum ita con- 
venerit, ne intra ccrtum tempus a- 
geretur, veluti intra quinquenni- 
um: nam, finito eo tempore, non 
impeditur actor rem exequi. Ergo 
ii,quibus intra certum tempus a- 
gere volentibus objicitur exceptio 
aut pdcti conventi, aut alia similis, 
differre debent actionem, et post 
tempus agere ; ideó cnim dilatoriz 
iste exceptiones appellantur. A- 
lioqui, si intra tempus egerint ob- 
jectaque sit exceptio, neque eo ju- 
dicio quicquam — consequebantur 


6 10. Temporary and dilatory 
exceptions are those, which operate - 
fora time, and create delay; such - 
is an agreement not to sue within a 
certain time, as five years ; but at 
the expiration of that time the credi- 
tor may proceed: and therefore 
those, against whom this exception 
pacti conventi or any other similar 
can be objected, must delay their ac- 
tion, and sue when the time is expi- 
red; hence, these exceptions are 
termed dilatory : and formerly, if the 
plaintiff had sued before the time, 
and exception was taken, it not only 
barred the claim for that. time, but 


prevented the plaintiff from proceed- 


LÍB. IV. TIT. XIII. 


propter exceptionem, neque post 
"tempus olim agere poterant, cum te- 
Yncfé rem in judicium deducebant 
et consumebant ; quà ratione rem 

amittebant. Hodie autem non ita 
— &tricté hoc procedere volumus ; sed 
eum, qui ante tempus pactionis vel 
obligationis litem inferre ausus sit, 
Zenoniane constitutioni subjacere 
censemus, quam sacratissimus lc- 
gislator de iis, qui tempore plus 
petierint, protulit : et inducias, 
quas ipse actor sponte indulserit, 
vel quas natura actjonis continet, 
si contempserit, in duplum habeant 
ii, qui talem injuriam passi sunt; 
et, post eas finitas,non aliter litem 
suscipiant, nisi omnes expensas li- 
tis antea acceperint : ut actores, ta- 
li pena petterriti, tempora litium 
doceantur observare. 


$69 


ing at the expiration of the time 
agreed on; for he wgs reputedto 
"have lost his right, by having rashly 
commenced suit. But we have been 


willing to mitigate this rigor, so; 


that whoever presumes to commence 
a suit before the time limited by 
agreement, shall be sulject to the 
constitution of Zeno concerning 
those, who demand more than their 
due; and, if a plaintiff break in 
upon the time, which he has spon- 
taneously granted, or contemns the 
limits which the nature of some ac- 
tions allow, the defendunt. thus in- 


jured, becomes intitled to twice the - 


time before allowed, and, even when 
that is expired, cannot be obliged to 
enter an appearcnce, until he has 
been reimbursed the whole of his ex- 
penses ; and this we have ordained 
in tcrrorem, thut plaintiffs may be 
taught to observe the proper time of 
commencing thetr suits. 


De dil:toriis ex persona. 


§ XI. Praeterea etiam ex persona 
sunt dilatorie exceptiones, quales 
sunt procuratorig ; veluti si per 
militem, aut mulierem, agere quis 
velit: nam militibus nec pro patre, 
vel matre, vel uxore, nec ex sacro 
lescripto, procuratorio nomine ex- 
periri conceditur; suis vero nego- 
tiis superesse siné offensà militaris 
disciplige possunt. Eas vero ex- 
ceptiones, qua olim procuratoribus 
propter infamiam vel dantis, vcl 
ipsius procuratoris, opponeban- 
tur, cum in judiciis frequentari 
nullo modo perspeximus, conqui- 


6 11. Dilatery exceptions may 
also be. personal, as these against 
proctors, where a suitor employs a 
soldier, or a woman to act far him ; 
for soldiers are not permitted ta act 
as proctors even in behalf of a father, 
a mother, or a wife, although they 
obtain the sanction of an imperial re- 
script; but they may superintend 
their own affuirs, without offending 
against military discipline. But wwe 
have put a stop to the exceptions of 
infamy, which were formerly made, 
both ugainst proctors and thetr cone 
stituents, having observed them to be 


3 B 


970 


escere sancimus; ne, dum de his 
altercatur, ipsius negotii disceptatio 
proteietur, : 


/ 


LIB. IV. TIT, XIV. 


little practised, and fearing, lest by 
such altercations, an enquiry inta 
the merits of causes should be retarde 
ed. 


N 


—- Ut rm. 


TITULUS DECIMUS-QUARTUS. 
DE REPLICATIONIBUS. 


De replicatione. 


JNTERDUM evenit, ut excep- 


tio, a'i» urima facie justa videtur, 


ta nen iniqué noceat : quod cum ac-. 


cidit, alià allegatione opus est, adju- 
vandi actoris gratia; quz replica- 
tio vocatur, quia per eam replica- 
tur atque resolvitur jus exceptionis ; 
‘yeluti cum pactus est aliquis cum 
debitote suo, ne ab eo pecuniam 
petat, deinde pestea in contrarium 
pacti sunt, id est, ut creditori petere 
liceat: si creditor agat, et excipiat 
debitor, ut ita demum condemnetur, 
$i non convenerit, ne cam pecuniam 
creditor petat, nocet ei exceptio ; 
Convenit enim ita : namque nihilo- 
minus hoc verum manet, licét pos- 
tea in contrzrium pacti sint. Sed, 
quia iniquum est, creditorem exclu- 
di. replic^tio ei dabitur ex poste- 
riore pacto convento. 


Sometimes an exception, which ap- 
pears at first view to be valid, is not 
so: and when this happens, an ad- 
ditional allegation is necessary in 
aid of the plaintiff, called a replica- 
tion, because the force of the excep- 
tion is replicated, that zs, unfolded, 
and destroyed by it; as if a credi- 
tor should covenant with his debtor 
not to sue htm, and the contrary 
should afterwards be agreed between 
them, in consequence of which the 
creditor brings an action, to which 
the deber excepts, alledging the 
agreement of his creditor not to sue: 
in this case the exception would be 
of weight, as such an agreement was 
actually made, although another was 
made afterwards to a contrary ef- 
fect : but, as it would be unjust, thet 
a creditor should be thus concluded, 
he i< allowed to plead the subsequent 


compact, by way of replicggion. 


N 


LIB. IV. TIT. XIV; 


373 


De duplicatione. 


$ I. Rursus interdum €venit, ut 
replicatio, que prima facie justa 
est, inique noceat; quod cum acci- 
dit, alia allegatione opus est, adju- 
vandi rei gratia; que duplicatio 


vocatur, 
* 


* 


$ II. Et, si rursus ea primá facie 
8 . . 
justa videatur, sed propter aliquam 
causam actori iniqué noceat, rur- 
sus aliá allegatione opus est, qua ac- 


tor adjuvetur; que dicitur tripli-. 


catio. 


§ 1. Jt also sometimes happens, 
that a. replication. at first. apn7ears 
conclusive, though it. be not so; in 
this case another allegation, called 
a duplication, may be offerea by the 
defendant. (Rejoinder.) 


De triplicatione. ' 


.$ 2. And whena duplication care 
ries with it an appearance of j'istice, 
but is wrong fully urged against the 
plaintiff, he may also, in his turn, 
put in another allegation, which ts 
termed a triplication. ( Surrcjoin- 
der. ) 


De cateris exceptionibus. 


€ IJI. Quarum omnium excep- 
tionum usum interdüm ulterius, 
quam diximus, varietas negotio- 
rum introducit ; quas omnes aper- 
tius ex digestorum latiore volumine 
facile est cognoscere. 


§ 3. But in the great variety of 
business, the use of these exceptions 
is extended still farther, than we 
have mentioned; of which a fuller 
knowledge may be obtained from the 
larger volumes of the digestse ( Rer 
butter, Surrebutter. ) 


Qua exceptiones fideyussoribus prosunt vel non. 


§ IV. Exceptiones autem, qui- 
bus debitor defenditur, plerümque 
accommodari solent ctiam ‘fidcjus- 
soribus cjus ; et recté: quia, quod 
abiis petitur, id ab ipso debitore 
peti videtur; quia mandati judicio 
redditurus est eis, quod ei pro eo 
solverint, Qui ratione, et si de 
non petendá pecunia pactus quis 
cum eo fuerit, placuit, perinde suc- 
currendum esse per exceptionem 
pacti conventi illis quoque, qui pro 
, eo obligati sunt, ac si etiam cum 
^ jpeis partus esset; ne ab eis pecunia 


P d 


§ 4. The exceptions, by which a 
debtor may defend himself. are ge- 
nerally and properly allowed to be 
used by his bondsmen; for a den.and 
made upon them, 18, as it were, @ 
demand upon the debtor himself, who 
is compellable by an action of mane 
date to pay over to his sureties what- 
ever they have been obliged to pay 
upon his acccunt: and therefore, if 
a creditor hath cavenanted with hia 
debtor not to sve him, the bondswen 
may be aided by an exceptson of come 


pact, just as if the promise had beegr 


ore 


peteretur. Sané quzdam excepti- 
tiones non solent his accommodari. 
Ecce enim debitor, si bonis suis 
cesserit, et cum «o creditor expe- 
riatur, defenditur per exceptionem, 
si bonis cesserit: sed hec exceptio 
fidejussoribus non datur ; ideo sci- 
Jicet, quia, qui alios pro debitore 
obligat, hoc maximé prospicit, ut, 
cum facultatibus lapsus fuerit debi- 
tor, possit ab iis, quos pro eo obli- 
gavit, suum consequi. 


.LiB. IV. TIT. XV. 


made to them. But some exceptions 
can not bg used in behalf of sureties ; 
for although, when a debtor hath 
made cession of his goods, he may 
defend himself by pleading a cessio 
bonorum, as an exception to a suit 
brought by a creditor; the same 
exception cannot aid the bondsmen ; 
for whoever demands sureties al- 
ways means to recover his debt from 
them, in case of failure in the prin- 
cipal debtor. 


— eu» GD cc dD er 


TITULUS DECIMUS-QUINTUS. 
DE INTERDICTIS. 


D. xliii. T. 1. 


C. viii. T. 1. ; 


Contiauatio et definitio. 


SEQUITUR, ut dispiciamus de 
jnterdictis, seu actionibus, quz pro 
his exercentur. Erant autem in- 
terdicta forma atque conceptiones 
verborum,quibus praetor aut jubebat 
aliquid aut fieri prohibebat; quod 
tunc maximé fiebat, cum de posses- 
sione aut quasi possessione inter 
aliquos contendehatur. 


Divisio 
$ I. Summa autem divisio inter- 
dictorum hzc est, quod aut prohi- 
bitoria sunt, aut restitutoria, aut 
exhibitoria. Prohibitoria sunt, qui- 
bus pretor vetat aliquid fieri ; velu- 
ti; vim siné vitio possidenti, vel 
mortuum infcrenti, quo ei jus erat 


We are now led to treat of inter- 
dicts, or of those actions, which sup- 
ply their place. Interdicts, were cer- 
tain forms of words, by which the 
pretor either commanded or prohi-« 
bited something to be done ; and were 
chiefly used, when any contention 
arose concerning possession, or qua- 
S1-POSSCSSION.» 


prima. 


§ 1. The first division of themis 
into prohibitory, restoratory, and 
exhibitory interdicts. Prohibitory. 
are those, by which the prator for- 
bids something to be done, as when 
he forbids force to be used against a 
lawful possessor ; or against a per- 


LIB. EV. 


infcrendi; vel in sacro loco edifi- 
cari, vel in flumine publico ripave 
ejus aliquid fieri, quo pejus navige- 
tur. Restitutoria sunt, quibus re- 
stitui aliquid jubet; veluti bono- 
rum possessori possessionem eo- 
rum, quz quis pro herede, aut pro 
possessore, possidet ex ea hzredi- 
tate; aut cum jubet, ei, qtii vi de 
possessione dejectus sit, restitui 
possessionem. Exhibitoria sunt, per 
qua jubet exhiberi ; veluti cum, cu- 
jus de libertate agitur; aut libertum, 
cui patronus operas indicere velit; 
aut parenti liberos, qui in potestate 
ejus sunt. Sunt tamen, qui putent, 
interdicta ea proprié vocari, que 
prohibitoria sunt ; quia interdicere 
sit denuntiare et prohibere; resti- 
tutoria autem et éxhibitoria proprié 
decreta vocari: sed tamen obtinuit, 
omnia interdicta appellari; quia 
jnter duos dicuntur. 


TIT. XV. 


373 


son who is burying another, where 
he hath aright; or when he forbids 
an edifice to be raised in a sacred 
place, or hinders @ work from being 
erected in a public river, or on the 
banks which may render it less na- 
vigable. The restoratory, direct 
scmething to be restored, as the pos- 
session of gocds to the universal 
successor, who has been kept out of 
possession by one, who hath no right ; 
or when the pretor commands pos- 
session to be restored to him, who 
hath been forcibly ejected. And 
the exhibitory interdicts are those, 
by which the pretor commands some 
exhibit to be made, as of a slave, for 
example, concerning whose liberty a 
cause is depending; or of a freed-ian, 
from whom a patron would exact the 
service die to him; or of children to 
their parent, under whose power 
they are. Some nevertheless ima- 
gine, that interdicts can with pro- 
priety be only prohibitory, because 
the word interdicere signifies to de- 
nounce and prohibit ;—~and that 
the restoratory and exhibitary inter- 
dicts might more properly be called 
decrees: yet by, usage they are all 
termed interdicts, because they are 
pronounced between two, [intcr duos 
dicuntur,] the demandant and the 
possessor. 


Divisio secunda. 


§ II. Sequens divisio interdicto- 
rum hzc est ; quod quzdam adipis- 
cende possessionis causa compara- 
ta sunt, quedam retinendz, que- 
dam. recuperandz. 


§ 2. The second divisizn of inter- 
dicts is into those, which are given 
for the acquisition, the retention, ov 
the recovery of a possession. 


374 LIB. IV. 


TIT. XV. 


De interdictis udipiscerde. 


6 III. Adipiscendz possession- 
is causà interdictum accommoda- 
tur bonorum possessori, quod ap- 
pellatur, Suorum bonorum ; ejus- 
que vis et potestas hac est, ut, quod 
ex iis bonis quisque, quorum pos- 
sessio alicui data est, pro herede 
‘aut pro possessore possideat, id ei, 
cui bonorum possessio data cst, res- 
tituere debeat. Pro herede au- 
tem possidere videtur, qui putat se 
heredem esse. Pro possessore is 
possidet, qui nullo jure rem hzre- 
ditariam, vel etiam totam hzredi- 
tatem, sciens ad sc non pertinere, 
possidet. Ideó autem adipiscen- 
dz possessionis vocatur interdic- 
tum, quia ei tantum utile est, qui 
nunc primüm conatur adipisci pos- 
sessionem ; itaque, si quis adeptus 
possessionem amiserit cam, hoc in- 
terdictum ci inutile est. Interdic- 
tum quoque Salvianum adipiscen- 
dic possessionis causa comparatum 
est; eoque utitur dominus fündi de 
rebus coloni, quas is pro mercedi- 
bus fundi pignori futuras pepigis- 
set. 


§ 3. An interdict for obtaining. 
possession called Quorum Bonorum, 
is given to him, to whom the pretor 
commits possession of the goods of a 
deceased person; and ® obliges all 
persons, who retain goods us heirs 
or possessors, to restore such goods 
to those, to whom the possession 
hath been committed by the magise 
trate: and note, that he is reputed 
to possess as heir, who ccnccives 
himself sc to be; and he is deemed 
the possessor, who without authorie 
ty retains a part or the whole, of an 
inheritance, knowing the possessicn 
does not belong to him. An intere 
dict of acquisition is so called, bee 
cause, it is useful to him only, who 
first endeavours to acquire the pose 
session ; and therefore it weuld be 
usclsss to one, whs had acquired a 
possession, and afterwards lost its 
The Salvian interdict, ts also ap- 
printed for the acanisition of posses- 
sion; and is used by proprietors of 
farms, against gocds which their 
tenants have pledged, for the pay-- 
ment of rent. 


Ie interdictis retinenda. 


6 IV. Retinendz possessionis 
oausá comparata sunt interdicta, Ut; 
possidetis, et utrubi ; cum ab utra- 
que parte dc proprietate alicujus 
rei controversia sit, et ante quxra- 
tur, uter ex litigatoribus possideat, 
et uter petere debeat: namquc, ni- 
si ante exploratum fuerit, utrius 
eorum possessio sit, non potest pe- 
titoria acto instituti; quia et civilis 


§ 4. The mterdicts Uti posside- 
tis and Utrubi have been introduced 
Jer the purpose of retaining posses- 
sion; for tn a controversy, concern- 
ing property, it is necessary to tne 
quire, which of the parties is in pos 
sesston, and who ought to be plaina. 
tiff; for, until the possession be as- 
certained, an action of demand cag 
not be instituted; and both ciuil and 


LIB. IV. TIT. XV. 


et nataralis ratio facit, ut alius pos- 
sideat, ei alius a possiuenie. petat, 
E., quia longé commodius est et 
potius possidcre, quam petere, ideo 
plerümque, et tere semper, ingens 
existit contentio de ipsa possessione. 
Commodum autem possidenti in 
eo est, quod, .ctiami si ejus res non 
ait, qui possidet, s1 modo actor non 
potuerit suam csse probare, remanet 
in suo loco possessio; propter quam 
causam, cum obscura sunt uirius- 
. que jura, contra petitorem judicari 
solet. Sed inierdicto quidem Uti 
possidetis? de fundi vel edium pos- 
Bessione contenditur: Utrubi vero 
interdicto de rerum mobilium pos- 
Sessione, quorum vis s: potestas 
plurimam inter se differentiam apud 
veteres habebat: nam Uti possidetis 
interdicto is vincebat, qui interdicti 
tempore possidebat; si modo nec 
vi, nec clàm, nec precarió, nactus 
fuerat ab adversario possessionem : 
etiamsi alium vi expulcrat, aut 
clam arripucrat alienam possessio- 
nem, aut precarid rogaverat ali- 
quem, ut sibi possidere liceret. 
Utrubi veró interdicto is vincebat, 
qui majore parte anni nec vi, nec 
clam, nec precario, ao a:lversario 
possidebat. Hodie Yamen aliter 
observatur; nam utr.usque inter- 
dicti pot.stas (quanuimn ad posscs- 
sionem pertinet) cX.quata est, ut 
ille vincat et !n rz soii, et in: nio- 
bili, qui possessionem nec vi, nec 


376 


natural jaw teach us, that, when 
one party is in possession, the other 
must be clazmant : but as it is more 


 advantagegus to be possessor, than 


demandant, thereis generally great 
contention for the possession; for 
although the possessor is not in ree 


ality the true proprietor, yet the pos- 


session will still remain in him, if 
the plaintiff does not prove the thing 
in litigation to be his own: and 
therefore, when the rights of par- 
ties are not clear, the sentence is al- 
ways against the demandant. By the 
interdict Uti possidctis, the posses- 
sion of a farm or House is contended 


| for; and, by the interdict Utrubi, 


the possession of things moveable ig 
disputed. These interdicts ancient- 
ly differed much in their force and 
effects 5 for, by Uti possidetis, the 
party in possession at the bringing 
of the interdict, prevailed, if he 
had not obtained the possession 
from his adversaru, by force, clan- 
destinely, or precariously: but it 
was not material in what manner 
the possessor had obtained the posses- 
sion from any other person: and, by 
the interdict Utrubi, that party pre-— 
vailed who had been in possession 
for the greatest part of the year pre- 
ceding the contest, if he had nct ac- 
guired that possession clandestinely, 
precarzously, or by force. But the 
present practice is otherwise ; for the 
force of either. interdict, as tà. pros- 


876 Lis. Iv. TIT. XV: 


clim nec precarió, ab adversario, 
litis contestate tempore, detinet. - 


session is ‘now made equal ; $b that 
dn any cause, either concerning. 
things moveable or immovedble, that 
party prevails, who was in posses- 
sion at the commencement of the suit, 
if it be not shewn that he gainéd 
such Possession by force, by clandes- 
tine means, or precariously : (that is 
under the adversary himself. ) 


De retinendá et acquirenda possessione. 


.$ V. Possidere autem videtur 
quisque, non solim si ipse possi- 
deat, sed et si ejus nomine aliquis 
in possessione sit, licét is ejus juri 
subjectus non sit; qualis est colo- 
nus et inquilinus. Per eos quoque, 
apud quos deposuerit quis, aut qui- 
bus commodaverit, ipse possidere 
videtur; et hoc est, quod dicitur, 
retinere possessionem posse ali- 
quem per quemlibet, quis ejus no- 
mine sit in possessione. Quineti- 
am animo quoque solo retineri pos- 
scssionem placet; id est, ut, quam- 
vis neque ipse sit in possessionc 
neque ejus nomine alius, tamen si 
non relinquendz possessionis ahi- 
mo, sed postea reversurus indé de- 
cesserit, retinere possessionem vi- 
deatur. Adipisci vero possession- 
em per quos aliquis potest, sccundo 
libro exposuimus ; nec ulla dubita- 
tio est, quin animo solo adipisci 
possessionem nemo possit. 


§ 5. A man is considered in pos- 
session, not only when he is himself 
so, but when any other person, aL 
though not under his power, holds 
possession in his name ; as a farmer, 
or a tenant. A man may also pos- 
sess, by means of those, to whom he 
hath committed the thing in litiga- 
tion, either as a deposit or a loan; 
and this is meant when it is said that 
a man may retain possession by 
means of another, who possesses in 
his name. It ts moreover held, that 
a possession may be retained, by the 
mere intention only; for, althcugh 
a man is neither in possession him- 
self, nor any other for him, but has 
quitted the possession of certain 
lands with an intent to return to 
them again, he shall nevertheless be 
deemed to continue in possession. 
We have already explained, in the 
second Look, by what persons a man 
may acquire possession; and, al- 
though it may be retained by tntez- 
tion only, yet this is not sufficient 
for tke acquisition of possession. 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. XV. ry 


De interdicto recuperandz, et affinibus remediis. 


§ VI. Recuperande possessionis 
causà solet interdici, si quis ex 
possessione fundi vel sedium vi de- 
jectus fuerit ; nam ei proponitur 
interdictum Unde vi, per quod i is, 
qui dejecet, cogitur ei restituere 
possessionem, licét is ab eo, qui vi 
dejecit, vi, clam, vel precario, pos- 
sideat. Sed ex constitutionibus 
sacris, (ut supra diximus,) si quis 
rem per vim occupaverit, siquidem 
in bonis ejus est, dominio ejus pri- 
vatur; si aliena, post cjus restitu- 
tionem, etiam zstimationem rei 
dare vim passo compellitur. Qui 
autem aliquem de possessione per 
vim dejecerit, tenetur lege Julia de 
vi privatà, aut de vi publica. Sed 
de vi privata, si sme armis vim fe- 
cerit; sin autem armis eum de 
possessione vi expulerit, de vi pub- 
licá tenetur. | Armorum autem ap- 
pellatione non solum scuta et gla- 
dios et galeas, sed et fustes et la- 
pides, significari intelligimus. 


$ 6. The interdict for recovery of 
possession, is generally employed, 
when any one hath been forcibly 
ousted from the possession af his 
house or estate; who then becomes 
entitled to the interdict Unde vi, by 
which the intruder is compelled to 
restore him to. possession, although 
he, who had been thus forctbly oust- 
ed, was himself in possession by clan- — 
destine means, by force, or precari- 
ously. But, as we have said before, 
the imperial constitutions provide, 
that, whoever seizes a thing by 
force, if it be his own, he shall lose 
his property init; and, if it belong 
to another, he shall bé compelled not 
only to make restitution, but to pay 
the full value to the party, who suf- 
fered the force. But whoever ousts 
another of possession by force, is 
likewise subject to the law Julia de 
vi privata, or de vi publica: if the 
seizing or intrusion was effected 
without weapons, then the offender 
is only liable to the luw de vi pri- 
vata; but, if by an armed force, he 
is then subject to the law de vi pubs 
licá. We comprehend not only shields 
swords, and helmets under the term 
atms, but also clubs and stones. 


Divisio tertia. 


$ VII. Tertia divisio interdic- 
torum est, quod aut simplicia sunt, 
aut duplicia. Simplicia sunt, veluti 
in quibus alter actor, alter reus est; 
qualia sunt oninia restitutoria, aut 
exhibitoria; nam actor is est, qui 


"n 
«9 


$ 7. The third division of inter- 
dicts is into simple and double ; the 
simple are those, in which there is 
both a plaintiff and a defendant ; and 
of this sort are all reztoratory and 
exhibitary interdicts : for the plain- 
C 


Bre LIB. TV. 


desiderit aut exhiberi aut restitui ; 
reus autem is est, à quo desidera- 
tur, ut restituat, aut exhibeat. Pro- 
hibitoriorum autem interdictorum 
alia simplicia sunt, alia duplicia. 
Simplicia sunt, veluti cum praetor 
prohibet in loco sacro, vel in flu- 
mine publico, ripave cjus, aliquid 
fieri : nam actor est, qui desiderat, 
ne quid fiat; reus est, qui aliquid 
facere conatur. Duplicia sunt, ve- 
luti Uti possidetis interdictum, et 
Utrubi. Ideó autem duplicia vo- 
cantur, quia par utriusque litigato- 
ris in his conditio est; nec quis- 
quam przcipué reus vel actor intel- 
ligitur, sed unusquisque tam rei, 
quam actoris partes sustinet. 


TIT. XV. 


tiff, is he, who reguives something 
to be exhibited or. restored; and the 
defendant is he, from whom the ex- 
hibition or restitution is required. 
But of the prohibitory | interdicts 
some are simple, some double ; sim- 


ple, when the prator forbids some- 


thing to be done in a sacred place, on 
a public river, or upon the banks ef 
it ; and the demandant actor or plain- 
tif is he, who desires, that some 
act should not be done, and the de- 
fendant is he, who endeavours to. de 
it. The interdicts Uti possidetis 
and Utrubi are instances of the dow- 
ble interdicts ; double, because im 
these the condition of either litigant 
is equal, the one not being wnder- 
stood to be more particularly the 
plaintiff or the defendant, then the 
other: inasmuch as each sustains 
the part of both. 


De ordine et vetere exitu. 


§ VIII. De ordine et vetere ex- 
itu interdictorum supervacuum est 
hodie dicere; nam quoties extra 
ordinem jus dicitur, (qualia sunt 
hodie omnia judicia) non est ne- 
cesse reddi interdictum: sed pe- 
rindé judicatur siné  intérdictis, ac 
si utilis actio ex causa interdicti 
reddita fuisset. 


§ 8. Jt would be superfluous at 
this day to speak of the order, and 
ancient effect of interdicts ; for 
when judgments are extraordinary, 
(as all judgments now are) anin- 
terdict becomes unnecessary. "fudg- 
ments are therefore now delivered 
without interdicts, in like manner, 
asif a beneficial action were given 


_ n consequence of an interdict. 


LIB. IV. TIT. XVI. 


TITULUS DECIMUS.SEXTUS. 


DE P&@NA TEMERE LITIGANTIUM. ^ 


De ponis in gerere. 


NUNC admonendi sumus, mag- 
nam curam egissé eos, qui jura sus- 
tinebant, ne facile homines ad liti- 
gamdum procederent; quod et nó- 
bis studie est. Idque eo-maximé 
fiert potest, quod temeritas tam a- 
gentium, quam eorum, cum quibus 
agitur, modo pecuniarià pená, mo- 
do jurisjurandi religione, modo in- 
famig metu coerceatur. 


Our magistrates hate euer. been 
careful to hinder men from engaging 
inconsiderately in law suits; and it 
hath been our study also. The: bete 
der to prevent such suits, the rashe 
ness both of pluintifis and defendants 
hath been properly restrained, by 
pecuniary punishments, the coercion 
of an oath, and the fear of infamy. 


De jurejurando et penà pecuniaria. 


§ I. Ecce enim jusjurandum om- 
nibus, qui conveniuntor, ex consti- 
tutione nostrá defertur; nam reus 
non aliter suis allegationibus utifur, 
miei prius juraverit, quod, putans 
se bona instantid uti, ad contradi- 
cendum pervenit. At, adversus in- 
. ficiantes, ex quibusdam causis du- 
'pli actio constituitur; veluti si 

damni injuriz, aut legatorum locis 
venerabilibus relictorum, nomine a- 
gatur. Statim autem ab initio plu- 
ris quam simpli est actio; veluti 
furti manifesti, quadrupli ; nec ma- 
nifesti, dupli: nam ex his, et aliis 
quibusdam causis, sivé quis neget, 
sivé fateatur, pluris quam simpli 
est actio. Item actoris quoque ca- 
lumnia coercetur; nam etiam actor 
pro calumnia jurare cogitur ex nos- 
tra constitutione, quod non calum- 
niandi animo litem movisset, sed 
existimando, se bonam causam hae. 


§ 1. By virtue of one of our con- 
stitutions, an oath must be adminis- 
tered to every man against whom an 
action is brought; for a defendant 
may not plead, until he hath first 
sworn, that he proceeds upon a firm 
belief that his cause is good. But 
actions lie, in particular cases, for 
double and triple value against those 
who deny the cause of action; as 
when a suatis commenced an account 
of injuriaus damage, ar for a legacy 
left to a sacred place, asa church, 
hospetul, &c. There are also actiona, 
upon which more than the simple va- 
lue ss recoverable at the time of their 
commencement ; as upon an action of 
theft manifest, which is for fourfold 
the value; an action of theft not 
manifest; for double the value; &e- 
cause-1 these, and some other caset,. 
the action is at first given for 
more than the simple value, whee 


— 


580 LiB. IV. 


bere. Utriusque etiam partis ad- 
vocati jusjurandum subeunt, quod 
alia nostra constitutione comprchen- 
sum est. Hac autem omnia pro ve- 
teri calumnie actione introducta 
sunt, qua in desuetudinem abiit ; 
quia in partem decimam litis ac- 
fores multabat, quod nusquam fac- 
tum esse invenimus: sed pro his 
introductum est ct prefatum jus- 
jurandum, et ut improbus litigator 
et damnum et impensas litis inferre 
adversario suo cogatur, 


TIT. XVI. 


ther the defendant dentes or confess- 
es the charge brought against him. 
The calumny of the plaintiff is also 
under restraint; fer he too is com- 
pelled by our constitution to swear, 
that he did not commence the suit 
with .an intention to calumniate ; 
but upon thorough confidence that 
he hada good cause: and, the ad- 
docates on both sides are likewise 
compellable to take a similar oath, 
the substance.of which is set forth 
in another of our constitutions. 
This practice hath been introduced 
in the place of the ancient action of 
calumny, which compelled the plain- 
tiff to pay the tenth part of his de- 
mand asa punishment, but is now 
disused ; and, instead of tt, we have 
introduced the before-mentioned oath, 
and have ordained, that every rash 
litigant, who hath failed im his 
proof, shall be compelled to pay hia 
adversary the damages and costs of 


suits 


De infamiá.- 


$ II. Ex quibusdam judiciis 
damnati ignominiosi fiunt; veluti 
furti, vi bonorum raptorum injuria- 
rum, de dolo; item tutelz, manda- 
ti, depositi, directis, nop contrariis 
, &ctioríibus : item pro socio, que ab 
utráque parte directa est ; et ob id 
quilibet ex sociis, eo judicio dam- 
natus, ignominiá notatur. Sedfur- 
ti quidem, aut vi bonorum rapto- 
rum, autinjuriarum, aut de dolo, 
non solàm damnati notantur igno- 
minia, sed et pacti ; et recté : plu- 
yimum enim interest, utrüm ex de- 


§ 2. In some cases the parties 
condemned become infamous, as in 
actions of theft, rapine, injury, or 
fraud. Also, in an action of tute- 
lage, mandate, or deposit, if it be a 
direct, and not a contrary, action. 
An action of partnership has also 
the same effect ; for it is direct in 
regard to all the partners; and 
therefore any one of them, who is 
condemned in such action, is brand- 
ed with infamy. Not only these, . 
who have.been condemned in an ac- 


tion of thet, rapine, injury, or fraud, © 


LIB. IV. : TIT. XVI. 


licto aliquis, an ex contractu, debi- 
tor sit. ' 


381 


are rendered infamous; but those 


also, who have bargained to prevent 


a criminal prosecution ; and this is 
a right; for there is & wide differ- 
ence between a debtor, on account of 


_ - @ debtor upon contract. 


De in jus vocando. 


§ III. Omnium autem action- 


$ 3. Ail actions take their rise 


um instituendarum principium ab from that part ofthe pratar’s edict,. 


ea parte edicti proficiscitur, qua 
pretor edicit de in jus vocando. 
Utique enim in primis adversari- 
us in jus vocandus est; id est, ad 
eum vocandus,. qui jus dicturus 


sit. Qua parte pretor parentibus 
et patronis, item parentibus 
liberisque patronorum et  pa- 


tronarum, hunc prestat honorem, 
ut non alitér liceat liberis libertis- 
que eos in jus vocare, quam si id 
ab ipso pretore postulaverint et 
impetraverint. Et, si quis alitér 
vocaverit, in eum penam solido- 
rum quinquaginta constituit. 


in which he treats de in jus vocando 
of calling parties into qpurt : for the 
first step in matters of controversy, 
is to cite the adverse party to ap- 
pear before the judge, who is to de- 
termine the cause. Inthe same part 
of the edict, the pretor hath treated 
parents and patrons, and even the pa- - 
rents and children of patrons and . 
patronesses, with so great respect, 
that he does not suffer them to 

be called into judgment by their chil- 


dren or their freedmen, until appli- 


cation hath been first made to him, 
and leave obtained ; and,ifanyman - 
presume to cite such persons other- 
wise, he is subject to a penalty of 
fifty solidi. 


3g? 


LIB; IV. TIT. XVIE 


TITULUS DECIMUS-SEPTIMUS. 


-DE OFFICIO JUDICIS. 


De officio judicis in genere. 


SUPEREST, ut de officio judi- 
cis dispiciamus. Et quidem in 
primis illud observare debet judex, 
ne aliter judicet, quam legibus, 
aut constitutionibus, aut moribus, 
proditum este 


It remains, that we inquire into 
the office and duty of a judge : whose 
first care it ought to be not to de- 
termine otherwise, than the laws, 
the constitutions, ar the customs and 
usages direct. 


De judicio nox:di. 


$ I. Ideóque, si noxali judicio 
aditus est, observare debet, ut, si 
condemnandus videtur dominus, 
ita debeat condemnare: Publium 
Mavium Lucio Titio in decem aureos 
condemno ; aut noxam dedere. 


$ 1. 4nd therefore, if a. suit be 
commenced by a noxal action, the 
judge ought always to observe the 
following form of condemnation, if 
the defendant ought to be condemned : 
e. g- Icondemn Pustius Mavi- 


‘us to pay Lucius Tittus ten au- 


rei, or to deliver up the slave, who 
did the damage. 


De actionibus realibus. 


$ II. Et, si in rem actum sit 
coràm judice, sivé contra petito- 
rem judicaverit, absolvere debet 
possessorem ; sivé contra possesso- 
rem, jubere ei debet, ut rein ip- 
sam restituat cum fructibus. Sed si 
possessor neget, in przsenti se res- 
titucre possc, et sine frustratione vi- 
debitur tempus restituendi causá 
petere, indulgendum est ei ;'ut ta- 
men de litis aestimatione caycat 
cum fidejussore, si intra tempus, 
quod ei datum cst, non restituerit. 
Et, si hereditas petita sit, eadem 


e 


6 2. When a real action, is 
brought before a judge, and he pro- 
nounces against the demandant, the 
possessor ought then to be acquitted; 
if against the possessor, he must be 
admonished to restore the very thing 
in dispute, together with all ts pro- 
duce. But, if the possessor should 
alledge, that he is unable to make im- 


* mediate restitution, and petition for 


longer time, without any seeming 
intention to frustrate the sentence, 
he is to be indulged ; provided he 


gives security for the full payment 


Lis. IV. 


circa fructàs interventunt, que dix- 
imus intervenire de singilarum re- 
um petitione,  lilorum autem 
fructuum quos culpa sua possessor 
non perceperit, sive illorum, quos 
perceperit, in utràque actione ea- 
dem ratio pene habetur, s predo 
fmerit Siverd bone $&dei posses- 
sor faerit, non habetur ratio néque 
consuptorum, Reque nom percepto- 
rum, Post mchoatam autem pe- 
titionem etiam illorum fructuum 
ratio habetur, qui culpa posscsso-. 
ris percepti non.sunt, vel percepti 
consumpti sunt. 


TIL. XYH. 


283 


of the condemnalion and costs of euit, 
fhe should fail -o-rouke restitution | 
within the time appointed. And, if 
an inheritance be sued. for, a judge 
ought to determine in the same mans 
ner as to the profits,as he would in 
a suit for some. partipular thing on- 
ly ; for, if the defendant appear ta 
have been a possessor mala fide, then 
almost the same reasoning prevails 
in both actions as to the profits, whe- 
ther they were taken or neglected by 
the possessor : but, if the defendant 
be a possessor bona fide, then no 
account is expected, either of produce 
consumed cr not collected before the 
yit. But ail produce must be ac- 

ted for from the date of the ac- 
~ tigh, whether used or neglected. 


De actione ad 1 exhibendum. 


§ III. Si ad exhibendum ac- 
tum fuerit, non sufficit, s. exhibeat 
rem is, cum quo actum est ; sed 
opus est, ut etiam rei causam de- 
beat exhibere, id est, ut eam cau- 
sam habeat actor, quam habiturus 
esset, si, cum primum ad exhiben- 
dum egisset, exhibita res fuisset: 
ideóque, si inter moras exhibendi, 
usucapta sit res à possessore, nihi- 
lominus condemnabitur. Praterca 
fructuum medii temporis, id est, 
ejus, quod post acceptum ad exhi- 
bendum judicium, ante rem judica- 
tam, intercesserit, rationem  ha- 
bere debet judex. Quod si neget 
reus, cum quo ad exhib:ndum ac- 
tum est, in presenti se exhibere 
posse, et tempus exhibendi causa 


$ 3. Ifaman proceed by an action 
ad exhibendum, it is not sufficient, 
that the defendant should exhibit. the- 
thing in question, Lut he must also be 
answerable for all profits and emc- 
luments accruing from it; that the 
plaintiff may be in the same state, 
as if his property had been restored 
to him when he first brought his 
action : and therefore, if the posses- 
sor, during his delay to surrender 
the thing in dispute, shall gain a 
prescriptive title to it, he shall ne- 
vertheless be condemned to restitu- — 
tion. Morever it is the duty of the 
judge to take an account of the me:- 
ne profits accruing between the suit 
and the sentence. But, when the de- 
fendant deciares, that he is not able 


384 


petat, idque siné frustratione pos- 
tulare videatur, dari ei debet, ut 
tamen caveat, se restituturum. 
"Quod si neque statim jussu judi- 
cisrem exhibeat, neque postea se 
exhibiturum caveat, condemnan- 
dus sitin id, quod actoris intere- 
rat, si ab initiores exhibita esset. 


LIB. IV. 


TIT. XVII. 


instantly to produce the thing ad- 
judged, and prays a farther time, 
without apparent affectation of de- 
lay, time should be allowed, on his 
giving security for restitution. But, 

if he neither obey the command of the 

magistrate by instantly producing 

the thing adjudged, nor in gtving 

sufficient security for the production 

of tt at a future day, he must be con- 

demned in the full damages, which 

the plaintiff hath sustained by not 

having the article delivered to him 

at the commencement of the suit. 


Familie erciscundae. 


6 IV. Si familie erciscundz ju. 


$ When a suit is commenced for 


dicio actum sit, singulas res singu. Wis. partition of an inheritance, the 


lis heredibus adjudicare debet ; et, 
si in alterius persona przgravare 
videatur adjudicatio, debet hunc in- 
vicém cohzredi certá pecunia (si- 
cuti jam dictum est) condemnare. 
Eo quoque nomine coheredi quis 
que suo condemnandus est, quod 
solus fructus hzreditarii fundi per- 
ceperit, autrem hereditariam cor- 
ruperit, aut consumpserit. Quz 
quidem similiter inter plures quo- 
_ que quam duos coheredes subse- 
quuntur. 


Communi 


§ V. Eadem interveniunt, etsi 
communi dividundo de pluribus 
' rebus actum sit. Quodsi de una 
re, veluti de fundo ; siquidem iste 
fundus commodé regionibus divi- 


NV — 


"judge must decree to cach heir his 
respective portion; and, if the par- 
tition, when made, be more advanta- 
geous to the one than to the other, the 
judge ought as we have before observ- 
ed, to oblige him, who has the largest 
part, to make a full recompense in 
money to his co-heir: it therefore 
follows, that every co-heir, who kath 
taken the profits ofan inheritance to 
his soleuse, and consumed them, is 
liable to be compelled to make resti- 
tution. And this is thelav whether 
there are two heirs,or many. | 


dividundo. - 


$ 5. The law is the same, when 
a suit is brought communi dividun- 
do, for one particular. thing only, 
it being but a part or parcel of an 
inheritance, as a field, cr any piece 


LIB. IV. 
sionem recipiat, partes ejus singu- 
Jis adjudicare debet: et, si unius 
pars pregravare videtur, is invi- 
cém certà pecuniá alteri condem- 
nandus est. Quod si commode di- 
vidi non possit, vel si homo forté 
aut mulus erit, de quo actum sit, 
tumc totus uni adjudicandus est, et 
is invicém alteri certa pecunia con- 


demnandus est. 


TIT. XVIL 


885 
of ground, which, if it oan be con 
ventently divided, aught to be adr 
judged to een claimant in equal por- 
tions; and if, the share of one be 
larger than Ule others, the party 
having the liegest i portion, must be 
condemned to make a recompense in 
money. But, if the thing sued for 
be of such a nature, that it cannot be 
divided, as a slave, or a horse, 
it, must be given entirely fo one 
of the co-partners, who must be 
ordered te make satisfaction in money 
to the other. 


Finium regundorum. 


€ VI. Si finium regundorum 
actum fuerit, dispicere debet judex, 
an necessaria sit adjudicatio; que 
gané uno casu necessaria est, si evi- 
dentioribus finibus distingui agros 
commodius sit, quam olim fuissent 
distincti : nam tunc necesse est, ex 
alterius agro partem aliquam alte- 
fius agri domino adjudicari ; quo 
' casu conveniens est, ut is alteri cer- 
tà pecunià debeat condemnari. 
£o quoque nomine condemnandus 
est quisque hoc judicio, quod forté 
circa fines aliquid malitiosé com- 
misit ; verbi gratiá, quia lapides fi- 
nales furatus est, vel arbores fina- 
les excidit Contumacie quoque 


homine quisque eo judicio condem- 


$ 6. When the action finium re- 
gundorum is brought for the deter- 
mination of boundaries, the judge 
ought first to examine, whether it be 
absolutely requisite to proceed to an 
adjudication ; in one case, it is un- 
doubtedly so; viz. when it becomes 
expedient, that grounds should be 
divided by more conspicuous bounda- 
ries than formerly; for necessity 
then requires, that a part of one 
man’s ground should be adjudged to 
another, in which case it is incum- 
bent upon a judge to condemn him, 
whose estate is enlarged, to pay an 
equivalent to the other, whose estate 
is diminished. By this action, that 
any one may be prosecuted, who hath 


3D . 


386 
natur ; veluti si quis jubente judice 
ieri agros passus non fuerit. 


LIB. IV. TIT. XVIII.- 


committed fraud in relation to boun- 
dories, either by removing stones, 
or cutting down trees, which were 
landmarks. The same action will 
also subject any man to condemnu- 
tion on .account .of contumacy, tf he. 
refuse to suffer his lands to. be mea- 
sured at the command of a judge. 


De adjudicatione. 


§ VII. Quod autem istis judiciis 
alicui adjudicatum fuerit; id statim 
ejus fit, cui adjudicatum est. 


6 7. Whatever is adjudged to « 
party in any of these actions, in- 
stantly becomes the property of him, 
to whom it was adjudged. 


— --— 256 GD sc 09 


TIFULUS DECIMUS-OCTAVUS. 
DE PUBLICIS JUDICIIS. 


De differentia à privatis. 


PUBLICA judicia neque per 
actiones ordinantur ; neque omni- 
nó quicquam simile habent cum 
ceteris judiciis, de quibus locuti 
eumus: magnaque divi rsitas co- 
rum cst et in instituendo et in excr- 
cendo. 


Public judements are. not intro- 
duced by actions; nor ure they in 
any thing similar to the judgments, 
af which we have been treating» 
They also differ greatly from one 
another in the manner of being in- 
stituted and prosecuted. 


Ftymologia. 


$ I. Publica autem dicta sunt, 
quod cuivis ex populo executio eo- 
rum plerümque datur. 


§ 1. They are called: public, . be- 
cause they may be sued to execution 
by any of the people. 


> 


Divisio. 


§ If. Publicorum | judiciorum 
quedam capitalia sunt, ou**dam non 


capitalia. Capitalia dicimus, que 


"6 2. Of these judgments some are 
capital, others not. We term those 
capital, by which a criminal is. pre« 


LIB. IV. 


ultimo supplicio afficiunt homines, . 


vel etiam aque et ignis interdic- 
tione, vel deportatione, vel metallo. 
Cztera, si quam infamiam irrogant 
cum damno pecuniario, hzc publi- 
€a quidem sunt, sed non capitalia. 


Exempla. 
$ III. Publicaautem judicia hec 
sunt. . Lex Julia majestatis, quz 
in eos, qui contra imperatorem vel 
rempublicam aliquid moliti sunt, 
suum vigorem extendit. Cujus 
pena anime amissionem sustinet, et 
memoria rei etiam post mortem 
damnatur. 


TIT. XVIII. 


387 


hibited from fire and water, or con- 
demned to death, to banishment, or 
to the mines. Others, by which men 
are fined and rendered infamous, are 
public indeed, but not capital. 


De lzsà majestate. 


$ 3. The following are public judg- 
ments. ‘The law Julia majestatis 
extends its force against those, who 
have undertaken any .enterprize — 
against the emperor or the republic. 
The penalty is the loss of life, and 
the memory of the offender. becomes 
infumous after his death. 


De adulteriis. 


§ IV. Item lex Julia de adulte- 
ris coercendis, que non solüm 
temeratores alienarum nuptiarum 
gladio punit, sed et eos, qui cum 
masculis nefandam libidinem exer- 
cere audent. Sed eddem lege 
etiam stupri flagitium punitur, cum 
quis siné vi vel virginem vel vidu- 
am honesté viventem stupraverit. 
Penam autem eadem lex irrogat 
stupratoribus ; si honesti sunt, pub- 
licationem partis dimidie bonorum; 
— si humiles; corporis coercitionem 

cum relegatione. 


§ 4. The law Julia, for the sup- 
pression of adulteries, not only pun- 
ishes with death those who violate 
the marriage bed of others, but those 
also, who commit acts of detest- 
able lewdness with persons of their 
awn sex. It also inflicts punishment 
upon all who are guilty of the crime 
called stuprum : that is, the debauch- 
ing a virgin, or a widow of honest 
fame, without force. The punish- 
ment of this crime in persons of con- 
dition is the confiscation of a moiety 
of their possessions ; offenders of 
low degree, undergo corporal chas- 
tisement with relegation, 


De sicariis. 


§ V. Item lex Cornelia de sica- 
riis, quz homicidas ultore ferro per- 
sequitur, vel eos, qui hominis occi- 
dendi causa cum telo ambulant. 


§ 5. The law Cornelia de sica- 
riis punishes those, who commit mur- 
der, with death, and those also, who 
carry weapons, with intent to kilk 


388 


.Telam autem, ut Cajus noster ex 
interpretatione legum duodecim 
tabularum scriptum reliquit, vulgó 
quidem id appellatur, quod arcu 
mittitur ; sed et nunc omne signifi- 
cat, quod manu cujusque jacitur. 
Sequitur ergó, ut lignum, et lapis, 
et ferrum, hoc nomine continean- 
tur; dictum a» eo, quod in longin- 
quum mittitur, a Greca voce raw 
fguratum. Et hanc significatio- 
nem invenire possumus et in Greco 
nomine ; nam, quod nos telum ap- 
pellamus, illi $49» appellant &ze «v 
Baxx9w, Admonet nos  Xeno- 
phon; nam ita scribit: Kas ca ean 
Oped t Ptetro, Avy xe, rel tupaTa, euidosat, 
messo: de xai Ades. Sicaril autem ap- 
pellantur à sicá, quod significat fer- 
reum cultrum. Eidem lege et 
venefici capite damnantur, qui ar- 
tibus: odiosis, tam venenis, quam 
susurris magicis, homines, occide- 
rint ; vel mala mcdicamenta publicé 
vendiderint, 


LIB. IV. ‘TIT. XVIII. 


The term telum, according fo 
Caius’s interpretation, commonly 
signifies an arrow made to be shet 
from a bow, but it is now used to 
denote any missile weapon, or what- 
ever is thrown from the hand ; hence. 
a club, a stone, or a piece of iron, 
may be comprehended under that ap- 
pellation. The word telum is evi- . 
dently derived from the Greek. ad- 
verb «yw, procul, because thrown 
from a distance. And we may trace 
the same analogy in the Greek word 
Bsr: for what we call telum, the 
Greeks term fires, from fardrsedus to 
throw ; andof this we are informed 
by Xenophon, wo writes thus: 
Darts also. were carried, spears, ar- 
rows, slings and a multitude of 
stones. Assassins and murderers 
are called sicarii from sica, which 
signifies a short crooked sword or 
ponyard. The same law also inflicts 
a capital punishment upon those, who 
pructice odious arts, or sell perni- 
cious medicaments, occasioning the 
death of mankind, as well by poison, 
as by magical incantations. 


De -parricidiis. 


§ VI. Alia deinde lex asperri- 
‘mum crimen nova pena persequi- 
tur, que Pompeia de parricidiis vo- 
catur; qua cavetur, ut, si quis pa- 
rentis aut filii, aut omnino affec- 
tionis ejus, quie nuncupatione pa- 
rentum.continetur, fata preparave- 
rit, (sive clam, sivé palàm, id au- 
sus fucrit,) nec non is, cujus dolo 
malo il factum est, vel conscius 


6. The law Pompeia inflicts a 
new punishment upon those who 
commit parricide, the most execra- 
ble of allcrimes. This law ordains 
that whoever, either publicly or pri- 
vately, hastens the death of a parent 
crachid, or of any person com- 
prized under the tye, or denomina- 
tion of a parent, shall be punished az 
a porricide: and he also, who hath 


LIB. IV. TIT, XVIIL 


criminis existit, licét extraneus sit, 
pens parricidii puniatur: et ne- 
que gladio, neque ignibus, neque 
ulli solemni pene subjiciatur, sed 
insutus culeo cum cane, et gallo 
gallinaceo, et viperá, et simiá, et in- 
tercas ferales angustias compre- 
hensus, (secundim quod regionis 
qualitas tulerit)*wel in vicinum 
mare, vel in amnem projiciatur ; 
utomnium elementorum usu vivus 
carere incipiat, et ei celum super- 
stiti, et terra mortuo, auferatur. 
Si quis autem alias cognatione vel 
afinitate pereonas conjunctas neca- 
verit, penam legis Corneliz de si- 
cariis sustinebit. 


advised, or been privy to. the trans 
action, although a stranger. Acri- 
minal, in this case, is not put te 
death by the sword, by fire, nor by 
any ordinary punishment ; the law 
directs, that he shall be sewed tip in 
a sack, witha deg, a cock, a viper, 
and an ape,and, being put up im 
this horrid inclosure, shall be thrown 
either into. the sea, or an adjacent 
river, according to the situation of 
the place, where the punishment is 
inflicted : thus he is deprived of the 
very elemente, while living ; so that 
his living body is denied the bene- 
Jits of the air, and his dead body the 
use of the earth. — But, if a man be 
guilty of the murder of any other per- 
son, related to him, either by cogna- 
tion or affinity, he is only subject te 
the punishment inflicted by the law 
Cornelia de sicariis. 


De falsis. 


9 VII. Item lex Cornelia de 
falsis, quz etiam testamentaria vo- 
catur, penam irrogat ei, qui testa- 
mentum vel aliud instrumentum 
falsum scripserit, signaverit, recita- 
verit, subjecerit, vel signum adulte- 
rinum fecerit, sculpserit, ex- 
presserit, sciens, dolo malo. Ejus- 
que legis pena, in servos ultimum 
eupplicium est ; quod etiam inlege 
Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis ser- 
vatur : in liberos vero deportatio. 


§ 7. The law Cornelia de falsis, 
which is also called testamentaria, 
punishes those who fraudulently 
write, sign, recite, or clandestinely . 
offer for signature a false will, or 
any other instrument ; or make, en- 
grave or stamp, or in eny manner 
counterfeited the seal of another. 
The punishment by this law upon 
slaves is death ; as it is by the law 
Cornelia concerning assassins and 
poisoners ; upon freemen, deporta- 
tion. 


De vi. 


§ VIII. Item lex Julia de vi 


6$ 8. The law Julia, concerning 


390 


publica seu: privatà adversus eos 
exoritur,qui vim vel armatam, vel 
siné armis, commiserint ; sed, si- 
quidem armata vis arguatur, depor- 
tatio ei exlege Juliá de vi publica 
irrogatur; si veró siné armis, in 
tertiam partem benorum suorum 
publicatio imponitur. Sin autem per 
vim raptus virginis, vel vidue, vel 
sanctimonialis, vel alterius, fuerit 
perpetratus, tunc et raptores, et ii, 
qui opem huic flagitio dederunt, 
capite puniuntur, secundüm nostre 
constitutionis definitionem, ex qua 
hoc apertius possibile est scire. 


LIB. 1V.: TIT. XVII. 


public and private force, take place 
against all, who use force, whether 
armed or unarmed ; but, if proof be 
made of an armed force, the punish- 
ment. is deportation by that law; 
and, if the force be not accompanied 
with arms, the penalty is confisca- 
tion of one third part of the offend 
ers goods: nevertheless, if a rape 
be committed upon a virgin, a wi- 
dow, a num, or upon any other per- 
son, both the ravishers and their 
accomplices are all equally subject to 
capital punishment, according to the 
decision of our constitution; from 
which more may be known of thig 
subject. 


De peculatus. 


_§ IX. Item lex Julia peculatüs eos 
punit, qui publicam pecuniam, vel 
rem sacram, vel religiosam, furati 
fuerint. Sed, siquidem ipsi judices 
tempore administrationis publicas 
pecunias subtraxerint, capitali ani- 
madversione puniuntur; et non soe 
lim hi, sed etiam qui ministerium 
eis ad hoc exhibucrint, vel qui sub- 
tractas ab his susceperint. Alii ve- 
ro, qui in hanc legem inciderint, 
pene deportationis subjugentur. 


$ 9. The law Julia de peculatu 
punishes those, who have been guilty 
of theft, in regard to public money, 
or any thing, which is sacred ; but; 
if judges themselves, while in office 
commit a theft of this kind, their 
punishment is capital; and so is the 
punishment of all those, who assist in 
such a theft, or knowingly receive 
the money stolen. But all other per- 


sons, who offend against this law, 


are only subject to deportation. 


De plagiariis. 


§ X. Est et inter publica judicia 
lex Fabia de plagiariis, que inter- 
dim capitis penam ex sacris con- 
stitutjionibus irrogat, interdum le- 
viorem. 


6 10. The law Fabia against 


| plagiaries, ranks also among public 


judgments ; but by the imperial con- 
stitutions, offenders against this law, 
are sometimes punished with death, 
and sometimes by a milder punish. 
ment, 


LIB. IV. TIT. XVIII. 


391 


De ambitu, repetundis, annona, residuis. 


6 XI. Sunt preterea. publica ju- 
dicia; lex Julia de ambitu, lex Ju- 
lia repetundarum, et lex Julia de an- 
nonà, et lex Julia de residuis, que de 
certis capitulis loquuntur, et anime 
quidem amissionem non irrogant ; 
alis autem penis eos subjiciunt, 
qui precepta earum neglexerint. 


§ 11. There are also other. public 
judgments ; such are the Julian laws 
de ambitu, repetundarum, de an- 
nona, de residuis; which do not 
punish with death, but inflict other 
punishments upon those, who offend. 


Conclusio. 


$ XII. Sed de publicis judiciis 
hzc exposuimus, ut vobis possibile 
sit summo digito, et quasi per in- 
dicem, ea tetigisse ; alioqui diligen- 
tior eorum scientia vobis, ex latio- 
ribus digestorum seu pandectarum 
libris, Deo propitio adventura est. 


6 12. Thus much wehave statedon 
the subject of public judgments, as 
an index, to give a general idea of 
that knowledge, which, through the 
blessing of God, may be most fully 
and particularly obtained, by peru- 
sing the digests with a diligent atten- 
tion. 


FINIS 


LIBRI QUARTI ET ULTIMI 
INSTITUTIONUM. 


NOV. 


KE®O. A. 
Tees dsadoyns sav xavrioylor. 


E: Tie TeiYU» THY xe Tios]a Vati TH d&din- 
Dare stAsuravarsi, ciarum ori Quetos à Babe 
fee, rive iE él getyery ovis, site te Daarvyonese 
NA TOy 041706, nes ite m vTSQHOIoS site Umese- 
res sin. WavTWY TW» di ViorTA Kai TOY (X, wAK- 
qiu cvyvytias meoeructaDw. Kd» yag e TIAU- 
Tneas irtouy Urekxeses d». spews THs aUTY was 
Sas, ciacdywors à» ors Qurtug 4 Caduy, xas 
SUT HY THY yortwy TWoerucaeln: xt Atveuer. uv 
UMikerses n 0 TrAguTATas, Vr ixsive:¢ OnAndq 
TOG WEY UKTI, Tie RATS THG KKAXHG He 
p&9? vouers, Tag Ta TQaMiy & weerwopieras 
ox Yao TN LENT ser Reayuartey THTUT, 
CPerrduen weoewogiCscIus à QvrAactiectar, Tuc 
"Ite! THTU» «tu v0jMC Teg Yyoreues QuXaTle- 
fv ure ur9]evys wet, 3i Ti TevTOY TU) 
xe$liovlorv wasdas xaleAsmoyle seAsul acres cuje- 
Gain, TG Extr ving 5 S'wye seas 4 THE &À- 
Avs xalsovlag tis 1e» vH ide $e» reves 
OWT eves, Site Vorizoties v» TErALUTAT ArT, 
sire abril cies sugedusr TorrTos te T26 x2a- 
qeropine TN TIAsuT«C"ulog Asubareslas ps- 
ges, ores Inverse d» dois, omi? à müTUy ye- 
Pug, 8| ariginv, ixepicéle a» viva. Jsadoxny 
in stirpes » éexeierag ixadsesr Gri av- 
Tas yag tas takiws To» Cadncor Caresobas & 
BuAenutÓS &^^a pits Tar DuT nas TU? 
Svyategay rus ix TH. wpoertuerytaslec ni 
& Svymwress vyyeras xaxutDai SromiCousw 
&Óteiug sica-yescwas JiaDoges, size &gerrss 
airs Sarsions 97i, nas sits ib agesveyenas cits 
in Syrvyonas xallayailas, sive iriver, sirs 


CXVIII. 


CAP. I. 


De descendentium successione. 


S1 quis igitur descendentium fuerit 
ei, qui intestatus moritur, cujuslibet na- 
turz aut gradus, sive ex masculorum 
genere sive ex feminarum descendens, 
et sive suae gotestatis, sive sub potes- 
tate sit, omnibus ascendentibus et ex 
latere cogna » Apreeponatur, Licet enim 
defunctus alterius potestaje fue- 
rit, tamen ejüs liberos, cujuslibet sex- 
us sint aut gradus, etiam ipsis paren- 
tibus preponi precipimus, quorum sub 
potestate fueyit, qui defunctus est; in 
illis videlicet rebus, qux. secundum 
nostras alias leges, patribus non ac- 
quiruntur; nam in usu harum rerum, 
qui debet acquiri aut servari, nostras 
de his omnibus leges parentibus «us- 
todimus: sic tamen, ut, si quem ho- 
rum descendentium filios relinquen- 
tem mori contigerit, illius filios aut 
filias, aut alios descendentes, in proprii 
parentis locum succedere, sive su!) poe 
testate defuncti, sive suz potestatis in- 
veniantur; tantam de hzreditate mori- 
entis accipientes partem, quanticunque 
sint, quantam eorum parens, si viveret, 
habuisset; quam successionem in stire 
fics vocavit antiquitas: in hoc enim or- 
dine gradum quzri nolumus; sed, cum 
filiis et filiabus, ex premortuo filio aut 
filia nepotes vocari sancimus; nulla in- 
troducenda differentia, sive masculi si- 


3E 


394 


nas wvretucion turas. Kat vavre MET wigs 
TuS THY X«TIoO Tu» )ixlexas (TUTUTaIp. 


ve foeminze sint, et seu ex masculorum 
seu feminarum prole descendant, sive 
suae potestatis, sive sub potestate sint 
constituti. Et haec quidem de successi- 
onibus descendentium disposuimus. 


CHAPTER I. 


Qf the succession of descendants. 


If a man dics intestate, leaving a descendant of either sex or any degree, such 
descendant, whether he derives his descent from the male or female line, or 
whether he is under power or not, is to be preferred to all ascendants and colle 
terals. And, although the deceased was himself under paternal power, yet we 
ordain, that his children of either sex or any degree shall be preferred in 
succession to the parents, under whose power the intestate died, in regard to 
those gings, which childrgn do not'acquire for their parents, accordihg to our 
other laws; for we would maintain the laws in respect to the usufruct, which 
is allowed to parents: so that, if any of the descendants of the deceased should 
die, lcaving sons or daug@ters or other descendants, they sh4fl succeed in the 
place of their own father, whether they are undér his power or eui juria, and 
shall be entitled to the same share of the.intestate's estate, which their’ father 
would have had, if he had lived; and this kind of succession has been termed 
the ancient lawyers a succession £n stirfies: for in the succession of descendants 
we allow no priority of degvec, ^ut admit the grandchildren of any person by a 
deceased son or daughter to be chlied to inherit that person together with his 
sons or daughters, without making any distinction between males and females, 
or the descendants of males and females, or betwecn those, whoare under power, 
and those, who are not. These are the rules, which we have established, con- 


cerning the succession of descendants. 


E; rig roivwy. Si quis igitur.] The three first 
chapters of this novel constitution deserve the 
attentive consideration of the readcr, not on- 
dy because they contain the latest policy of the 
civil law in regard to the disposition of the 
estates of intestates; but because they arc 
the foundation of our statute law in this re- 
spect. Vid. Zoit's cases, p. 259. Deere Wells- 
amas rep. p. 27. Prec. in chan. p. 593. Sir 
Thom. Raymond's rep. p 496. And they are 
still almost of continual use, by being the 


^ 


leaving grandchildren by three different sons, 
already dead; to wit, three by one son, six by 
another, and twelve bv another; each of these 
classes of grandchildren would take a third 
of the estate without any regard to the ine- 
quality of the numbers in each class. But, as 
to this point in Wng/and, the law reports men- 
tion no judicial determination; yet it seems 
probable, that the courts, in which distribu- 
tions are cognizable, would order the division 


‘of an estate in such a case to be made per 


general guide of the courts in Zngland;, gapita; and this, partly from a motive of 


which hold cognizance of distributions, in 
all those cases, concerning which our own 
laws have either been silent, or not sufficient- 
ly express. 

Eig TOv rw 4Fi$. yovisg. In proprii parentis lo- 
cum succedant. } Nothing is more clear in 
the civil law, than that grandchildren, even 
when alone, (although they descend from va- 
rious stocks and are uncqual in their num- 
bers,) would t.ke the estate of their deceus- 
cd grand-father per stirpes, and not per capi- 
ta. Suppose therefore, that Titius should die, 


equity, and partly from a consideration of the 
intent of the statute, relating to the estates 
of intestates; for the statute directs an equal 
and just distribution: and, when the act men- 
tions representation, it must be understood 
to referto it, in those cases only, where re- 
presentation is necessary to prevent exclu- 
sion, but not to refer to it, in those cases, 
where all the claimants are in equal degree, 
and therefore can take suo quisque jure, each 
in his own right. Vid. 23, 24, Car. 2. cap. 10. - 
Lib. 3. Inst. p. 4. 


395 


KEQ. B. 
Tags sav asilo» 9in2oyng. 


Ei: Toy 6 TAs avas xalievraS seer pon XMM 
Jarrwos x22poresatés salse TN" posl ne 4 4AÀ- 
Aer yous attra éwilyrect, wales To» ix 
wrayis cvyywan sles weclinactas St0- 
aiesesy, tEngunsvay poss. border tk ixa- 
Jew yorswe evramlepsvn» To Tí»Dasls en 
Jie ve» ifn Ousfnrila.. Ei de werres Tov 
ériorru» wseinmi cilc wedlicerdas xeAsve- 
quts. oi cong Eyyvleges vo Babu topiftu, 
Geet»as cs xai S-wAnuac, site aees Marees 
ert wees walees sit». Es de vo» uvro» ixz- 
ei Balper, i£ ions tis aureus 4 mAngovesese 
ducsptborila: wee vo pt». npo Anwoaress 
Wartas THE wees sreileos eb vserlas, omo, dau- 
welts d» wet’ to Os jones» rT a) Tue 
wees Milees aytersas, sus Uymoh ay avrus 
svgsSuves Tupban. Es de pile vu» avioslo» 
svegtbo ei &de^Qoi 4 AIAN ixaligwr yo- 
vey evramepgtyo: To TeAsuln@arls. pila cw» 
tyyuliger to Babeco arsovlay xAnburorias, si 
xai solu 5 milage sinvar Sreceupecrns tig dv- 
TH6 9n^uÀn THs 1,Np0»0465406 nals re? qw 
meerwxey ae i8 cor, ive, xu) THY ELON OD xeu 
vu» GdeADav ixases in» iyer uon, gs 
pes? x£uteo ix tus sav vies 4. Svyxhooy 
poses iv sul» va Supsetls Qvaptyu re waleos 
isle warlsAws edna, tmuds ars vavlas 
THE KEATing 61006 AUTH THE RANPOVOLLINE xoi 
nelle Jeesoltiug Sixcsov da te maperlos I- 
Quxajct vou, wusste Purcrlozcsrns )iaQe- 


pas pilaky sav sqereras reser, cite Su: 


Assess SITS GPpEVES sinu» oi srpog THY xAapo- 
pepeseey Xa HIST, 8L sive Oi aeetves 9 u- 
Aug wgeTuu Curam loslus. nas cise aoreg- 
weies vrs U€rtQueios un o» Dindexorlai. 


CAP. II: 


De ascendentium sUuccessione, 


Sr igitur defunctus descendentes qui- 
dem non relinquat hzredes, pater au- 
tem aut mater aut alii parentes ei su- 
persint, omnibus ex latere cognatis hos 
przponi sancimus, exceptis solis fra- 
tribus ex utroque parentg conjunctis 
defuncto, sicut per subsequentia decla- 
rabitur. Si autem plurimi ascendentium 
vivunt, hos preponi jubemus, qui prox- 
imi gradu reperiuntur, masculos et fce- 
minas, sive paterni, sive materni sint. 
Si autem eundem habeant gradum, ex 
equo inter eos hzreditas dividatur, ut 
medietatem quidem accipiant omnes a 
patre ascendentes, quanticunque fue- 
rint; medietatem vero reliquam a ma- 
tre ascendentes, quantoscunque eos in- 
veniri contigerit. Si vero cum ascen- 
dentibus inveniantur fratres aut sorores 
ex utrisque parentibus conjuncti defunc- 
to,cum proximis gradu ascendentibus 
vocabuntur, si et pater aut mater fue- 
rint; dividenda inter eos quippe hzredi- . 
tate secundum personarum numerum, 
uti et ascendentium et fratrum singuli 
zqualem habeant portionem; nullum 
usum ex filiorum aut filiarum portione 
in hoc casu valente patre sibi penitus 
vindicare, quoniam, pro bac usus por- 
tione, hereditatis jus et secundum pro- 
prietatem per praesentem dedimus le- 
gemi; differentia nulla servanda inter 
personas istas, sive foeminz sive mas- 
culi fuerint, qui ad hzreditatem vocan- 
tur; et sive per masculi sive per femi- 
nz personam copulantur; et sive suze 


potestatis sive sub potestate fuerit is, 
cui succedunt. 


396 


CHAPTER II. 


Of the succession of ascendants, 


But, when the deceased leaves no descendants, if w father, or mother, or any 
other parents, grand-fathers, great-grana-fathers, &c. survive him, we decree, 
that they shall be preferred to all collateral 1clations except brothers of the 
whele blood to the deceased, as shall hereafter be more parti@ilarly declared. 
Bu, if many ascendants are living, we prefer those, who are in the nearest de- 
grec, whether they are male or female, paternal or maternal; and, when seve- 
ral ascendunts concur in the same deyreesthe inheritance of the deceased must 
be sn divided. that the wscendants on the part of the father may receive one-half, 
and the asc&ndants on the part of tie niotherttie other half, without regard to 
the nuniberef-- persons on either side. But, if the deceased leaves brothers and 
sisters of the whole blood together with ascendants, these collaterals of the de- 
ceased shall be culled with the nearest ascendants, althoogh such ascendants are 
a father or mother; and the inheritance. must be so divided according to the 
number of persons. that each of the ascendants, and each of the brothers, may 
have an equal portion; nor shall the father in this case take to himself any usu- 
fruct of the portions belonging io his sons and daughtcrs, because by this law we 
have given him the absolute property of one portion: and we suffer no distinc- 
tion to be made between those persons, who are called to an inheritance, whe- 
ther they are males or females, or related by males or females, or whether 
he, to whom they succeed, was, or was not, under power, at the time of his 


decease. 


Ei xai calng & xing ercav. Si ct pater aut 
ma er fee J B: oh law of Erg'ant, when 
8 pe. son dics Intestate, leaving » father, the 
fsiber is sok ly ex. titled to the whole personal 
eni.te ofthe intestate, esclusive of Dl others; 
aud neienth, (i e in the reign of ZZ ury the 
first, vid lt Hen. primi, [Fibra editore, p. 
206.) a sc visirg father, or mother, could 
have tken even the real estate of ther de- 
€Cv.sed chil! But this Law of successi n was 
altered soon afterw aris; for we find by G an- 
ei le, that, in the time of Zeiry the sec md, a 
fa her or mother could not have taken the 
real cst.tes of their deceased children, the 
inheritance being then carried over to the 
collateral line Vil Géasvilfe, lib. 7. cap. 1, 
2, &c. 1 Prere Wiltums Su. And it has ever 
since been held as an inviol ble maxim, that 
an inheritance cannot ascend. Co. Lite. 11. a. 
Bit this olteration in the liw, meade since 
the reign of Henr, the first, did not extend 
to personal estate, so that, before the state 
of the frst of Fames the second, if a child 
hed died intustat) without a wife, child, or 
father, the mother would have been entitled 
to the whole personal estat , exclusive of the 
bro er: and sisters of the intestate; but it is 
enacied by that statute, that, if, after the 
“deat. of a fatser, any of his children shall 
€ die intestate, without wife or children, in 


“the lifetime of the mother, every brother 
“and sister, and their representatives, shall 
“Lave an equal share with her? 1 5c. 2, 
cap. 17. $ 6. 

But, should it here be asked, whether the 
brother of an intestate would exclude the 
grand-father by the civil law? the novel 
pears at first sight to answer it very fully in 
the negative by enacting, “ that, if the deceas- 
“ed leaves brothers and sisters. together with 
“ ascendants in the vizht line, these collaterals 
‘shall be calicd with the nearest ascendante,? 
&c. And indeed the generality of writers, 
namely, Gude'in, Forster, Ferviere, Domat, 
aud others, all understand this passage, as 
admitting ascendants and brothers to take 
jointly; vet a contrary interpretation hath 
been given bx some civilians, of whom Veet 
is the »rincipal, whose arguments in sup- 
port of it are therefore here copied at large. 

* [illud non satis expeditum est, an etiam 
“cum avo aut pioavo, ubi alius proxirnior 
* as-enilens. non est, fratres germani ejus, 
** qui defunctus est, concurrere debeant, an 
* magis avo proaveve przfereudi sunt, eos- 
** que «xcludant? Concursum enim ascenden- 
* tium natur;liter gradu. remotiorum, quos 
* nullus in:ci medius existens excludit, cum 
* frateibus germanis dcfuncti turentur pleri- 
*que, moti eo, quod cum Proxime ascenden- 


j 


397 


' tibus fratres veniunt. Vid. novel. 118. Proxi- 
** mus autem sit, quem nemo antecedit." 

** Sed juris rationibus convenientius vide- 
“tur, avum proavumve defuncti a fratribus 
*' ejus germauis in successione excludi; quia 
* imperator in dicta Novella 118. emphatice 
** dixit, fratres et sorores cum froximis gra- 
* du ascendentibus vocari; qualis mentio prox. 
“imorum gradu inutilis plane ac superflua 
** esset, si non per gradu prostimos denotaren- 
tur illi, qui in primo linez ascendentis gra- 
* du sunt; cum juris certi atque indubitati 
* sit, nunquam in ascendente linea locum es- 
‘se juri reprasentationis, per quod remotior 
** sübintraret in locum proximioris defuncti; 
“‘atque adeo suffecisset, si generaliter ex- 
*fpressum esset, fratres cum ascenuentihus 
*! vocari. Ne dicam lioc ipso, quo in linea 
fascendente reprzsentatio personz proxi- 
*! mioris admissa non est, fieri non posse, ut 
* avus vel proavus defuncti, qui a patre vel 
* matre defuncti certo certius excluditur, 
* concurreret cum fratribus, qui cum patre 
“matreque defuncti concurrunt. Quibus ac- 
** cedit, quod sententia, de avo defuncti cum 
« germanis ejus fratribus concurrente, ad ab- 
* surda ducit. Si enim verum est, quod in 
“easu quo fratres et sorores cum proximis 
«€ gradu ascendentibus ita concurrant, ut hz- 
* reditas intcr eos secundum personarum nu- 
* merum dividends sit, ac ascendentium et 
* fratrum singuli zqualem habeant portio- 
“nem secundum d. Nov. 118. eveniret neces- 
** sario, ut remutiores ascendentes ob defec- 
*tum proximiorum cum fratribus defuncti 
** concurrentes plus fratribus nocituri essent, 
ffquam proximiores; dum, positis duobus 
e fratribus germanis defuncti, pater et mater 
** concurrens duas tantum partes zqu.les au- 
€ ferendo efficercnt, ut fratres. singuli quar- 
“tam hereditatis fraternz partem capiant; 
* quatuor autem avi avizque existentes, vi- 
** rjjes totidem partes occupando, non nisi 
*t sextam singulis defuncti fratribus relicturi 
*  egsent; sicuti tantum partem decimam duo 
“ fratres singuli essent habitur), si cum pro- 
* avis atque proaviabus (quales octo esse 
€! possunt) deberent concurrere. Quam autem 
*ía ratione id alienum sit, ut magis aliis 
** concursu suo noceant remotiores, quam qui 
** ejusdem linez proximiores sunt, nemo, ut 
** opinor, non sponte satis agnoscit. Denique 
* tantum concursum esse fratrum cum patre 
* et matre, non vero cum aliis ascendentibus 
*t remotioribus, ubi pater materque deficit, 

* 


* aperte probant verba Novelle 118. dum il- 
*lic diserte cautum, si cum ascendentibus 
** inveniuntur fratres aut sorores ex utrisque 
*parentibug conjuncti defuncto, eos cum 
* proximis grads ascendentibus vocari, ei aut 
* pater aut mater fuerint: unde sequitur, cos 
“non omni casu, nec promiscue cum omni 
* bus ascendentibus, venire; sed «i pater aut 
“mater fuerint: ideoque mox igitur subjici- 
“tur, in hoc casu patrem nullum usum, ex 
* filiorum aut filtarum portione, posse sibi pent- 
* tus oindicare, nulla aoi facta mentione; cum 
* tamen id avo xqua interdicendum fuisset, 
“si et avus cum defuncti nepotis fratribus 
*guccedere potuisset, dum fratres succe- 
* dentes zque potuissent in avi quam in pa- 
* tris potestate esse. Ut proinde nihil in con- 
* trarium. efficiat, quod, in je proximus 
* dicatur, quem nemo antecedit; cum id tum 
* demum admitti debeat, quando nulla inde 
* sbsurditas profluit; prout in hoc casu futu- 
** pum, supra monstratum est.” Vid. Foannis 
Voet. com. ad Pandectas, tom. 2. lib. 38. t. 
17 $135. 

But this question seems now to be settled 
in England in consequence of three determi- 
nations; the first of which was given in the 
Exchequer in the case of Poole v. Wilshaw 
on the 9th of July, 1708:—the second in the 
case of Norbury v. Vicars, before Mr. Fortes- 
cue, master of the rolls in November 1749:— 
and the third was delivered on the 14th Janu- 
ary, 1754, in the case of Evelin v. Ecelin, by’ 
the lord chancellor, who decreed in favour 
of the brother in exclusion of the grand-fa- 
ther, having founded his opinion partly in de- 
ference to the former determinations; partly 
in consideration of the present common law 
computation of degrees, relative to real es. 
tates; and partly upon the benefit, which 
must accrue to the public by preferring a 
younger man to an older, the brother of a 
deceased person to the grand-father, propter 
spem. accrescendi. 

And it was also declared to be the opinion 
of the court, that, if the point in question 
had been ree integra, and solely determinable 
by the Roman law, the decree would still 
have been the same; which declaration, from 
so high an authority, must have great weight 
in ascertaining of the Novel, and must in. 
cline civilians in general to think more fa- 
vourably for the future of Voed’s arguments, 
which were particularly quoted and much 
relied upon by the court. ' 


398 


KE®. T. 
Hips diadeyns Tov tx sry xollioslo. 


Ei Tour 6 TeACUINTES pends ner sevlag pene 
à: dvovlas xaladrsifr, mewius wees TAY 
RAnCOvesesay — x4 ^ui? THE & Pug xe: 
THE &422ag THs ix TN &UTU walees xe 
TAS avr-$ penleos TiyÓulas, ug nas petles 
Tay Kaltgas wees THY NKAngevowsay ixa- 
Map. Telov 2s wn Qm», iv dev] sea 
vau ixeius tes &tA2ug wees THY XAape- 
YOMILY X&AWIET, 0i Tivi; KE ives cyortmG ov- 
»axlevla, To TEAsulncavli, sist Dux TS wa- 
"ges pore, tiri Sse Tu genlees Es Os To 
TUOUVIincarr; AUD Qoi Uwtncar, xe! irtes 
&à Qs 4 4) Qus medlitslyraslos Wards, 
xAaínco»T&, wees THD MAngoroccsacy VTOI METH 
THY BEE Bret eos Kas argos penT pes Jue, ap- 
gue» 78 xeu DÜwAner x4 oco ÓÜxTota à 
ec, Tec lo» ix TNs x Àngoyeoscoe6 Amore wm 
gos) SOY 6 MUTHY "yOMUG HEIAAS Anse « Tuy, 
ai teaver. Olen axorrber igip, iva, si Tv- 
x" e sreoji^sulne as &0tAQos, € c araidt 
antes Oi ixalegw "yerte$ ta vv» Tí2svIn- 
Carts weoraxe Curew ere, os Dt. wrtgiorré; 
PT Y m sa Tw wate@- Mo»! Tuyer, 4 TNS 
pare «vre cu»ixlerro, mreoTiMumÓwci oi 
TUTM art 085 Tay idea Stu», si xe Tests 
tic) Padus, tits wees warecs tite ore (So fen- 
Te» sincay of Dui, xas cite aeggsrss sive 
Surtsas orxig o MVTUY yortus arpotTiMATO, 
ai wigeny. Kos ix sor trartion. ei 0 pato xt 
gu» &às A Qos HA ixells gu y ori, evra silex 
To» TEM AC arty 6 Ot meélsosslnmas i bros 
werwg CuymaTéTo, THS TSTY zr&ideg ix TW; 
xAxpovoptiaó Grex A64 EP, worse Rei BUTOS, 
s; wien, EfsxAtilo. Te dt toivioy weoreses- 
e» i savin ty rakes tus Cuy [arses peovers 
repivepety Tos TOY a 0s A Qu, apps» 5» Sn- 
ALEWY, vies M Sv[Zlgaeiv, iva S Tx TU» 


idjep yore dinate varurtoecr utu 3: 


CAP. III. 


De successione ex latere venientium. 


SI igitur defunctus neque descenden- 
tes neque ascendentes reliquerit, pric 
mos ad haereditatem vocamus fratres 
et sorores ex eodem patre ct ex eadem 
matre natos, quos etiam cum patribus 
ad hereditatem vocavimus. His autem 
non existentibus, in secundo ordine il- 
los fiatres ad hareditatem vocamus, 
qui ex uno parente conjuncti sunt de- 
functo, sive per patrem solum, sive per 
matrem. Si autem defuncto fratres fur 
erint, et alterius fratris aut sororis pra- 
mortuorum filii, vocabuntur ad hazeredi- 
tatem isti cum de patre et matre thiis, 
masculis et feminis: et, quanticunque 
fuerint, tantam ex hzreditate percipi- 
ent portionem, quantam eorum parens 
futurus esset accipere, si superstes es- 
act. Unde consequens est, ut, si forte 
premortuus frater, cujus filii vivunt, 
per utrumque parentem nunc defunc- 
tx persona jungebatur, superstites au- 
tem fratres per patrem solum forsan 
aut matrem ci jungebantur, przponan- 
tur istius filii propriis thiis, licet in ter- 
tio sint gradu, (sive a patre sive a ma- 
tre sint thii, et sive masculi sive femi- 
n2) sicut eorum parens praeponeretur, 
si viveret. Et ex diverso, siquidem su- 
perstes frater ex utroque parente con- 
jungitur defuncto, premortuus autem 
per unum parentem jungebatur, hujus 
filios ab hereditate excludimus, sicut 
ipse, si viveret, ab hzreditate exclude- 
batur. Hujusmodi vero privilegium in 
hoc ordine cognationis solis prabemus 
fratrum masculorum et feminarum fi- 
liis aut filiabus, ut in suorum parentum 


399 


G)Aw waltthes specewu, i TEVLN TUS 
S«bws igxenem, tele te Ines cv[y,e- 
eut. "Arr. Nes evress To6 TW? adsaA- 
Pav seio) Tors tavlan Tn» tvepyiciay wape- 
Xen, ore pelle cu» ideo xpsverres Suus, 
epu» TE was DSyrcswr, STI xpes sreilpoc 
eit! wpes putpes git. E; Oe illu ov aata- 
$^ r5 terselazailes xe) aneüw, es son 
SFPO6ITTOILAT, woes THY XNpereuia" Keds lal, 
> Pa Tpew~ wees Tw iL Stcabily dradoxny 
Tuo re a2derAOu 4 TNS &O Duc Wades xa- 
Auchas culywgeuav iy si dE inligu yovs- 
ee o aurey walag " penne Tux ele T° Tl- 
Asv]yvav]s. “Oxdls Tei»vv sess te 400 xai 
v3 &J: as meii Toile ceorouser Isdora- 
put. ia To» Te? Yovews Uxusislig Teor, 
proves velo éilts  Bubus. wile vo» ix Isv- 
Tees Bab us Tgog THY xAggovepciay ecw] TR 
txasve 0604209. igiv. ors soe Dtiuo te TEABD- 
]asasles optar se xai) Snrucwv. sive Tees 
Welleos tirs wees serleos tinte. wecipewvlas, 
Si Mas ixssves TQiToy cues Tuy [seas Bab- 
pte» boxes». 

Ei Os ph aderpus. pends wasdag &dsa- 
Par, OF signrausr, 6 TeAwlacas xalearssyts, 
wajlas tus deine ix wAayis cvylirus wees 
THY RAngovesciay xarupesr, xel]e Tu» ives ixagqu 
Aabus xeotieneiv, ive oi by[uleges to Bul- 
fie AUTO! TOY Aerruy xeericwrras 3) Os wOA- 
Ass TS eure Balbus cugilecs, xara TO» THY 
were doit» utraky avra) 8 xAngeve- 
pie Dunetbncilas sxig in capita of apsertges 
AfysCT: voses. 


jura succedant; nulli enim alii omnino 
persone, ex hoc ordine venienti, hoc 
jus largimur. Sed et ipsis fratrum filiis 
tunc hoc beneficium conferimus, quan- 
do cum propriis judicantur thiis, mascu- 
lis et foeminis, sive paterni sive materni 
sint. Si autem cum fratribus defuncti 
etiam ascendentes, (sicut jam diximus) 
ad hareditatem vocantur, nullo modo 
ad successionem ab intestato fratris aut 
sororis filios vocari permittimus; neque 
si ex utroque parente eorum pater aut 
mater defuncto jungebatur. Quando- 
quidem igitur fratris et sororis filiis ta- 
le privilegium dedimus, ut, in proprio- 
rum parentum succedentes locum, soli 
in tertio constituti gradu, cum iis, qui 
in secundo gradu sunt, ad hareditatem 
vocentur; illud palam est, quia thiis de- 
functi masculis et foeminis, sive a patre 
sive a matre, preponuntur, si etiam il- 
li tertium cognationis similiter obtine- 
ant gradum. Si vero neque fratres, ne- 
que filios fratrum, sicut diximus, de- 
functus reliquerit, omnes deinceps a la- 
tere cognatos ad hzreditatem vocamus, 
secundum uniuscujusque gradus prz- 
rogativam, ut viciniores gradu ipse re- 
liquis preponantur. Si autem plurimi 
ejusdem gradus inveniantur, secundum 
personarum numerum inter eos hzredi- 
tas dividatur; quod in cafita nostra le- 
ges appellant. 


CHAPTER III. 


Of the succession of collaterals. 


If a man leaves neither descendants nor ascendants at the time of his death, 
we first call his brothers and sisters of the whole blood, whom we have also 
called to inherit with the fathers of deceased persons. 

But, when there are no brothers of the whole blood with the deceased, we call 
those, who are either by the same father only, or by the same mother. And, if 
the deceased leaves brothers and also nephews by a deceased brother or sister, 
these nephews shall be called to succeed with their uncles and aunts of the whole 


400 . . 


blood to the deceased; but, however numerous these nephews are, they shall be 
entitled only to that share, which their parent would have taken, if alive. From 
whence it follows, that, if a man dies and is survived by the children of a deceas- 
ed brother of the whole blood, and also by brothers of the half blood, then his 
nephews, [that is, the children of his brother, by the whole blood, ] are to be pre- 
ferred to their uncles and aunts; for, although such nephews are themselves in 
the third degree, yet they are preferred, as their parent would have been, if living. 
And, on the contrary, if a man dies, and is survived by a brother of the whole 
blood, and by children of a brother of the half blood deceased, these nephews 
are excluded, as their father would have been, if he had lived. But among col- 
laterals we allow the privilege of representation to the sons and daughters of 
brothers and sisters, and no farther; and we grant it only to brothers and sisters' 
children, when they concur with their u cles or aunts, paternal or maternal: for, 
when ascendants are called to inherit, we by no means permit the children of a 
deceased brother or sister to share in the succession; althongh the father or mo- 
ther was of the whole blood with the deceased brother But we have so far al- 
lowed the right of representation to brothers and sisters' children, that, being 
only in the third degree, they are called to inherit with those, who are in the 
second; and this is evident, because brothers and sisters’ children ure preferred 
to the uncles and aunts of the deceased, paternal as well as maternal; although 
they are all in the third degree of cognation. 

But, if a deceased person leaves neither brothers nor brothers’ children, we 
then call all the other collaterals according to the prerogative of their respective 
degrees, preferring the nearer to the more remote; and, if many are found in 
th. same degree, the inheritance must be divided according to the number of 
persons; and our laws distinguish this manner of dividing an inheritance by 
calling it a division in coafiita. 


Ileclec coc Tw» xXmgov»inv. Primos ad hz- the statute, to an equal share of the intes- 
reditatem vocamus. | We must here observe — tate's estate, with the bru thers and sisters of 
in relation to the di tinction between the the whole blood, although there are several 
whole blood and the half blood, that in Ezg- precedents of judgments given, since the sta- 
land the rules of law are different, according tute, allowing the half blood to have but an 
to the nature of the estate, which is to be haif s are. But the law in this respect has 
taken; for, in case of lands the whole blood — been fully settled ever since the decree of the 
is always preferred, and the half blood is no house of | rds in the case of Watts and others 
blood inheritable by vescent. 1 Co ist. 14 a. versus Croo£e, upon an appeal from a decree 
But, in respect to personal estate, the law — in chancery, which had been given in favour 
has not always been fixed and certain; inas- of the half blood, and was affirmed by the 
much as thc statute of the 23d of Cur. Hl... house. Vid. S/ctcers's Cases in Par. 108. and 
[for the better settlement of the estates of intes-  Strahan’s Domat. 685. 2 Mod 274. Harris. 
tates ) takes no notice of this distinction. be- Oftw reerg. Nullo modo ] * Sancimus, ut, 
tween the whole blood and the half blood, “si quis moriens relinquat ascendentium ali- 
but directs, that distribution sh.ll be made “quem et fratres, qui. possint cum parenti- 
among all those, who are in equal degree of * bus voc. ri, et alterius. przmortui fratris fi- 
kindred to the intestate But, it being cer-— **lios, €um sscendentibus ct fratribus vocen- 
tain, that brothers. and sisters of the half “tur etium premortui fratris filii, et tuntam 
blood are in the same degree with brothers — ** accipiant portionem, quantum ecrum futu- 
and sisters of the whole blood, it hath been ‘rus erat. (ater accipiere, si. vixisset? Vid. 
the general opinion, that brothers and sisters Nov. exxvii. cap. 1. Mairis. 
of the half bluod were entitled, by virtue of 


END OF THE INSTITUTES. 





NOTES 


AND 


REFERENCES. 


PROEMIUM, OR PREFACE. 


DE CONFIRMATIONE INSTITUTIONUM....Page 1. 


THIS amounts to an imperial constitution, giving a Sanction, to 
this compilation by Tribonian and his associates. 
In nomine Domini nostri Fesu Christi. This is elsewhere used, as 
in the second and third confirmations of*the digests, in the confirma- 
tion of the code, and of several of the novels. Jn nomine Domini 
nostri Fesu Christi, ad omnia consilia omnesque actus semper proere- 
dimur. Cod. 1. 27. 2. pr. Hence the usual solemn form of beginning | 
last wills and testaments, IN THE NAME OF Gop, Axrw. That the 
ancient Romans, seldom entered on a business of importance sine con- 
silio deorum et ope invocata, I am aware ; but I suspect this practice, 
was rather of Christian origin: 3 Coloss. 17. ** Whatever ye do in 
word or deed, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to 
God, and the father by him.” See Dr. Taylor's observations on the 
proemium of the Institutes, Elem. Civ. Law. qto. 28. This form of 
testamentary introduction, cannot be necessary, unless under some 
precise and positive institution ; of which I know none in the English 
or American law. I refer to Taylor, (loc. cit.) fora full dissertation 
on the titles assumed by the emperor, of which the following is a con- 

cise account. 
Emperor. Imperator. Originally conferred ón victorious generals, 
but first assumed as an imperial title by Augustus Cesar. 


402 NOTES. 


Cesar. A name that belonged to the family of Julius Caesar as a 
Cognome» ; and adopted by the emperors from Augustus to Nero. It 
was heu given to the next in succession ( destinati imperio ) who were 
denominated nobilissimi Casares: it was reassumed by the emperors, 
on the removal of the government from Rome to Byzantium. 

Flavius. Borrowed from the Vespasian family, and retained by many. 
of the emperors after Vespasian ; it was then dropt for some time, and 
reassumed by the fourth predecessor of Justinian. 

Sfustinian. The proper name of the emperor. 

Allemanicus, Geticus, &?c. From the nations he claimed to have sub- 
dued. 

Pius. A sir-name or agnomen, first imagined for Tiberius, the heir 
of Augustus, but not assumed. It was afterwards used by Antoni- 
nus and his successors. 

Felix. A name which Sylla first took to himself after the death of 
the younger Marius: amongethe emperors, first assumed by Com- 
modus. 

Triumphator. From having triumphed in consequence of victories 
over the Persians and Vandals. Victor and Triumphator, were titles 
commonly assumed from the time of Constantine the Great. Justi- 
nian was also often in camp, saluted CarriNicus by acclamation: a 
greek title of the same import as victorious. Triumphator, was never 
given for the recovery of territory, but only when there was accession 
by conquest. So Q. Fulvius and L. Opimius were denied a triwmph, 
because th-y only recovered Capua, and Fragelle. 2 Val. Max. 8. 4. 

Augustus. A question arose in the senate, (anno urb. cond. 727) 
whether the title Romulus, or Augustus, should be conferred on Octa- 
vian. From 63 Dion. Cassius, it should seem, he would have pre- 
ferred the former title, but on the motion of Munatius Plancus, the 
name Augustus was preferred ; and adopted by his successors. 
Though it was »lso assumed by several of the imperial family (as by 
Gzermanicus) who were not emperors. After the time of Diocletian, 
it was changed into Semper Augustus. 

De usu Armorum ct legum. Inperiam Majestatem. Majestas, during 
the time of the republic, meant somewhat like the modern phrase, the 
majesty of the people: implying the ultimate source of political power. 
It was afterwards applied to delegated authority, as that of pretors, 
juges, &c. Then to parental authority when it included the power 
of life and death: Majestas Patria. xxxiv. Livy. 2. has majestas 
matronarum : Pliny ix. 60 majestas pueritiz. When the people by the 


(Oui v win 


NOTES. 403 


lex regia conferred all power on the emperor, the word majestas was 
applied to the authority they delegated ; as majestas Augusti, Tibcrii, 
&c.  Imperatoria majestas, was introduced by Galienus, and from his 
time continued. (Taylor.) 

§ 1. Debelhs et legibus, &c. Barbarice gentes. .A name given by the 
Romans to all other nations but themselves and the Greeks. The 
five provinces of Africa here alluded to, had been possessed by ihe 
Vandals ninety-five years. Cod. 1. 27. de off. Pref. Prat. Af. 

§ 2. De Compositione Codicis et Pandectarum. In the second year 
of his reign, A. D. 528, Justinian began his reformation of the law. 
The Justinian code was finished by Tribonian 529. A new edition 
(Codex repetite prelectionis ) was published by Justinian in 534. In 
530, the Digest was begun. On the 16th December 533 it was finish- 
ed. The digest is also called the Panpects from way and Jieue; to 
include all. Hence the usual reference to the digest (f) * being a 
careless writing of the greek letter ». On the 21st Nov. 533, the 
Institutes appeared in their present form. 

Quasi per medium profundum euntes. The books then published 
on the Roman law, amounted to upwards of two thousand «x49» xeqapus 
701); many camel loads. 

$ 3. De tempore, auctoritatibus, €9c. magistro et exquestore sacri pa- 
latii nostri. Magister Palatii or Officiorum, was an officer, some what, 
like the lord Chamberlain, or perhaps Master of the Houschold of 
England. The officers of the lower ages of the empire were gene- 
rally called magistri,as magistri libellorum, scriniorum, officiorum. 
Hence the master of the rolls, masters in chancery, master of the 
Crown office, &c. of the English system. The great officers of the re- 
public, and of the early times of the empire, are described in several 
titles of the first book of the digest: the officers of the lower empire, 
1n the first and last book of the code. 

Exquestore,is an undeclinable ablative: the other cases, exquestor, 
exquzstoris, exconsulis, &c. do not appear to be used. ‘The questor 
of the Palace, was somewhat like the lord Chancellor, os imperatoris, 
armarium legum, &9c. That is under the emperors: for the office ,of 
questor at first, was of the same kind with our secretary of the trea- 
sury. (Taylor 38. 228.) Constantine instituted the office of Questor 
Palatii. The Quasitores or Inquisitors, were magistrates long known, 
whose jurisdiction embraced only criminal cases. (Zozimus and Pro- 
copius de bello Persico.) 4ntecessor, a teacher and professor of law: 
the Furisperiti, were practitioners. 

Post Quadricnnittm. Five years, seem formerly to have been the 


404 | NOTES. 


term usually (indeed universally) allowed for the study of the law. 
For the instructions, as to the division of time allotted for studying 
the various parts of the civil law, viz. the Dupondii, Edictales, Papi- 
nianiste, Lytx, and Prolyte, see the constitution (omnem republica 
nostra, t9c. ) prefixed to the digests. ] 

§ 6. Ex quibus libris Noster Caius. Caius lived under the emperor 
Marcus Aurelius, and his institutes were read in the schools. Be- 
side the institutes of Caius, there were the institutes of Paulus, of UI- 
pian, of Callistratus, Florentinus, and Marcian. There were also 
prior codes, and digests : as the digests of Alfenus, Julianus, Celsus, 
Marcellus, Ulpian, the Pandects of Modestinus, &c. 

Constitutional authority. Ihave retained Harris’s expression, al- 
though there may be some ambiguity attached to it m this country, 
where the term implies something founded on our written constitutions, 
or fundamental laws, paramount to legislative acts : a distinction, that 
does not seem likely to last very long, in states where the power of 
the legislature like the power of the British parliament, is omnipotent.. 
But in this passage, tbe word must be understood secundum subjectam 
materiem, as alluding to a particular species of Roman law. Inst. 
L.1 Tit. 2. $ 6. page 9. of the present work. 

L. 1. (page 5.) Derinitio Justitia. Justice, is used, not only 
for the disposition to render every man his due, but sometimes also 
for the act by which this is done: as when we do a man justice. 

§ 1. Definitio Furisprudentie. This definition is very convenient 
for the alliance between church and state: an alliance that I hope 
will never take place in these states. I know of no things that ought 
to be kept more distinct, because they are so, than the affairs of this 


| world, and those of the world to come: nor do I know of any two 


things that despotism has so sedulously laboured to intertwine. I 
would not so consgue the old advice, Deorum Injurie Diis cure, as 
to protect gross violations of public decorum on religious subjects, or 
to pass over; irritating and offensive outrages against the religious opi- 
nions, or ceremonies of any persuasion. The defendant in The people. 
against Ruggles, 8 Johnson's New York reports, 290, deserved to 
be punished ; but the doctrine laid down in that case by the court, 
may be carried to a length, that would authorize any species of eccle- 
siastical tyranny, and prohibit any kind of religious discussion. Nor 
is it strengthened by citing cases from the jurisprudence of a coun- 
try where there is a religion by law established ; or by quoting the pre- 
sent passage from the civillaw. It will have little weight with those 
who have perused the ecclesiastical history of the times of Justinian, 


NOTES. 405 


and the three or four centuries immediately preceding, and subsequent. 
Are we at this day, to regulate the rights of conscience, and modify our 
system of religious toleration, by the notions of a Roman emperor of 
the 6th century ? or adopt the church-and-state law of Great Britain? 

Tit. 2. De jure naturali. Jus, here, is taken for the general sys- 
tem of natural, national and civil law, in contra-distinction, to the po- 
sitive laws of each species. I consider alllaw, of whatever kind, as 
deduced, either from extensive and long-adopted usage, furnishing 
presumptive evidence of general expedience—or from reasonings 
founded on the nature and circumstances of human society, and point- 
ing out the conclusions best adapted to general expedience. 

Sus, Fussum, Fura, Fussa, mean a rule of action including an obli 
gation, or duty to conform to it: therein differing from advice. 

Or, it may mean an attribute or quality of actions or persons ; what 
we use synonimously sometimes with right: as the rights of a conque- 
ror, the rights of war and peace ; the right of using, enjoying, suing, 
defending, &c. the rights of persons, the rights of things, all of which 
are called Zura. Under this meaning, may be included the rights be- 
longing to particular situations in life, as the rights of magistrates and 
of citizens, master and servant, parent and child, husband and wife, &c. 

Or, among the Romans, it might mean the administration of justice. 
De in gus vocando. 

The other subordinate varieties of meaning of the word Jus, appear 
to me, all referable to those above enumerated. 

The law of nature, and of nations, is collected from, 1st the practice 
of civilized nations, 2ly the opinions of the best writers on the subject. 
The writers usually cited in the British and American courts, are Al- 
bericus Gentilis, Puffendorf, Grotius with the annotations of Barbey- 
rac, Vattel, Burlamaqui, Heineccius, Bynkershock and Rutherforth. 

§ 2. Ab appellatione et effectibus, page 7. Quirinus. From the Sa- 
bine word Quiris, a spear: or from Quiris, Mars, reputed father of 
Romulus : or from Cures, Quires a Sabine city, which furnished Rome 
with early settlers. Ovid Fasti II. 475. 

§ 3. Divisio furis. See Pandects or Digest 1. 6. 1. de Just. et Jure. 
Alterum enim expresse sancitur, et scripto promulgatur : alterum tacito 
populi consensu. intrcducitur. See also ff de leg. as to written and 
common law. All this is conformable to the doctrine of the Eng- 
lish and American writers. For even in this country, we adopt in 
every state, all our legal maxims and institutions not contained in con- 
stitutional or legislative acts, as the common làw of the state. Nor 
Can common law be entirely dispensed with even in the code of the 


406 NOTES. 


United States, notwithstanding the vcry able opinions of Mr. Madi- 
son and Judge Chase. 

e Romans had six kinds of law; Lex, PLEBISCITUM, SENATUS- 
CoxsvrTUX, ConstiruTiones PRiNCIPIS, Epicta MAGISTRATUUM, 
ResponsaA PRuDENTUM. 

The Lex, was a Populiscitum ; ; or decree of the people, on the 
motion of a senator, in a meeting of the comitia curiata, or the comi- 
tia centuriata. 

The Plebiscitum, was a decree of the Plebeian order, 3 as distinguishe 
ed from the Patrician, on the motion of a tribune of the people, in the 
comitia tributa. Plebs was a part only of the people. 

Senatus Consultum : this was originally either an order, vote or reso- 
lution, on business appertaining to the senatorial body : or some act 
of the senate confirming some act of the people; or latterly under 
the emperors, when the comitia were transferred e campo (martis ) ad 
Patres, these senatorial acts, were the only remains of legislation left to 
the senate. | 

Constitutiones Principis. Placita. Decreta. Imperial constitutions. 

Augustus Casar, having contrived to make not only all actual au- 
thority, but almost all officzs centre in his own person, becameat length 
the sole lawgiver. Sexto demum consulatu (a. u. c. 725.) potentie 
&ecurus, dedit jura, queis pace et principe uteremur III. Tacit. Ann. 28. 

Sometimes the imperial constitutions were promulgated, mediante 
senatu; this was the general course taken by Augustus, at the advice 
of Mzccnas ; in which he was followed by Tiberius. The mode was, 
to suggest the law, in an oration to the senate. Hence, for some years, 
the senatus consulta, under the emperors, were Jura, orationibus Prin- 
cipum constituta. From the time of Augustus, the Leges, the Plebis- 
cita, and the Senatus-Consulta, properly so called, as originating with 
the senate, were known no more. After Vitellius, the emperors were 
accustomed to appoint a Questor to make the suggestion in a speech 
to the senate... What the senate complaisantly decreed upon these 
suggestions, became alaw. Aftera time, the emperor in lieu of cal- 
ling upon the senate to decree, claimed the right of decreeing or 
enacting upon his own authority, the resolutions passed in the senate, 
on the suggestion contained in the imperial or quzstorial orations : 
and this was the last stage, the expiring embers of the senatus consul- 
ta; in whose place were substituted the edicts of the empcrors. | 

The emperors, enacted laws cither by Epistole or rescripts, by .De- 
creta, by Edicta, or by Constitutions. 


J, 


NOTES. 407 


The Epistole, were imperial opinions upon cases of difficulty sub- 
mitted from the provinces or elsewhere. 

The Decreta, were judgments given by the emperor in person, in 
court. Augustus and Claudius, used to sit frequently and long 
for this purpose. 

Edicta, were laws voluntarily enacted by the emperors, sine Senatu, 
but they were generally such as had been sanctioned by usage, or de- 
creed also by the senate. 

Mandates, were directions to particular pérsons. 

Interpretations of laws, were also arrogated as within their jurisdic- 
tion by the emperors. The two last are of the nature of edicts. 

The Imperial Constitutions, derived their force at first from the 
powers conferred on Augustus in 735 A. U. C.: extended afterward 
to Vespasian and his successors ; and about the reign of the Anto- 
nines known as the Lex Aegia; by which the will of the sovereign 
duly promulgated, was declared to have the force and effect of law. 
1 Inst. tit. 2$ 6. The distinction there taken of constitutions, is into 
personal and general. The personal constitutions, were properly pri- : 
vileges, Lex priva. These were forbidden by the twelve tables ; Pri- 
vilegia ne irrogantor. The same maxim obtained during all the times 
of the republic. Vetant leges sacrate, vetant 12 tabula, leges privatis 
hominibus irrogari. Cic. pro Dom. 3 17. These privileges or per- 
sonal constitutions, were sometimes annexed to the person; and some- 
times were rcal, as relating to some property or estate: so the right 
accorded to executors under the Roman law, of paying funeral expen- 
ces in the first place, was considered as a real, not a personal right, 
being allowed ex intuitu cause, non persone. 

Harris’s note on the /ex regia is as follows. (p. 9 of his translation.) 
“ There has been much controversy concerning this law : vid. Grav. de 
Rom. imp. lib. sing. c. 24 and Hopp. in Inst. 1 h. t. but the following 
seems at least tobe a probable conjecture. The senate and people 
conferred various honours on Augustus at different times. In the year 
724 (A. U. C.) they made him tribune for life. In 727 they exempt- 
ed him from the coercion of the laws. In 781 he was created per- 
petual consul; and in 735 a power was given to him either of amend- 
ing or making whatever laws he thought proper. These and other 
decrees in favour of Augustus, were afterwards generally renewed at 
the commencement of the reign of every new emperor, as appears plainr 
ly from Tacitus, tum senatus, omnia principibus solita, Vespasiano de- 
crevit Tacit. Hist. 11. 3. Thus in time, all the several decrees of the 
senate, by being frequently renewed together, became as it were, one 


408 | NOTES. 


law, and were called Lex Imperii or Regia: andthey probably gained 
this title in imitation of the ancient lex regia, by which the Romans 
conferred the supreme power upon Romulus in the infancy of their 
state, Liv. lib. 34c6. Elementa Juris per Rob. Eden. p. 17.” 

Edicta magistratuum ; seu Pretorum ; jus honorarium. | Prztor was 
at first a word synonimous with chief or commander (Cor. Nepos in 
Miltiade.) The office of Praetor (partaking of the English offices of 
mayor and recorder) was first created A. U. C. 387. This was the 
Praetor urbanus, or city magistrate. In the year A. U. C. 511. A 
Pretor peregrinus, was appointed, after the model of the Athenian 
IIe14aex,9- to decide causes, wherein aliens were concerned: though 
sometimes one man, held both offices either by original election, or 
subsequent delegation, or by substitution in case of death. (Taylor 
211.) The branches of law, were afterwards so divided and subdivided 
certainly not without reason and foresight, that the Pretors amounted 
to eighteen in number. They had for the most part equitable jurisdic- 
tion. Fus praetorium, adjuvandi vel supplendi, vel corrigendi juris civilis 
gratia, propter utilitatem. publicam introductam, Dig. 1. 1. 7. 1. 

It was also their duty, at the annual commencement of their office, 
to publish the forms of proceeding, and the rules of court, (if I may so 
say) which should operate during their Pretorship. For I do not un- 
derstand this practice to extend to the /ega/ maxims, by which their de- 
cision should be guided. 

Hence, the actiones civiles, were not the same with the actiones pre- 
torte. In thetime of the emperor Hadrian, Ann. 884, a selection 
from Pretorian determinations was made, called the Perpetual edict, 
and enacted as part of the Roman law: not from its own authority as 
jus honorarium magistratüum, but under the sanction of the imperial 
constitution. 

The Pretorian annual edicts or forms of proceeding, were published, 
en a Tabula gypso dealbata, or Album ; aboard plaistered with gyp- 
sum yurow aXupgtyos (the gypsum of the Greeks and Romans was the 
same with our plaister of Paris, that isa sulphat of lime.) 

These Leges annue, according as their expedience was discovered 
were continued ; and then became edicta transíatitia. Occasionally also, 
the Curule /Ediles published edicts, which as their expedience seemed 
to merit, were also incorporated in the jus honorarium. See dig. de 
fEdilitio edicto. 31. 1. 1. 38. 40. 41. 42. 

Responsa prudentum. Many lawyers whose particular application 
and abilities, had rendered them eminent in the profession, undertook 
to give answers to such questions as were proposed to them. But 


NOTES. 409 
these ansWefs were of no weight in the time of the Republic, not 
even under Augustus, who empowered the lawyers to give their opi- 
nions, by a géneral conirtiission ; which yet did not procure them any 
great authority, Dig. 1. 9. 2. 46. But their opinións grew intd 
considerable credit in the: reign of Tiberius, wlio prohibited any 
person from presuming te give an opinion in matters of law, with- 
out $& special licence. Still the answers of the lawyers had not 
the force of the laws, for Tiberius in his licences, laid mo in- 
- jüiction ‘upon his judges; to regard these answers. It is therefore 

nei probable that the answers of the lawyers were first éonsidered 
ws law, under Valentinian the third; because he confirmed the writings 
of Gaius, Ulpian, Paul, Papinian, and others; nominally ; and forbad . 
the judges to swerve from the opinions of these ldwyers in points of 
law: and because many inconveniences arose from the various opini- 
ons Which even these lawyers gave on tlie same question; tlie eniperor 
ordained that the judges should be governed by a majority, and that 
in case of an equality they should follow the opinion of these to whom 
Papinian adhered, ubidiverse sententie proferuhtur , potius humerus vin- 
cat auctorum: vel si nimerus equalis sit, ejus partis precedat auctoritas 
in qua excellentis ingeni. vir PAPINIANUS emineat. - Cod. 1- 1-8 8iod. 
t. 4. 1 un; de résponsis prüdentuni. ( Harris in loc.) 

The Patroni were foralong tinie Patricians; gratis advocates, and 
agents. heir clients were boutid to relieve them from captivity if 
taken, and to portion their daughters: | Hence at first, the fee of a law- 
yer, as the fee of a counsel and a physician yet is, in England, was 
quiddam honorarium : afterwards, it became a profession, and fees were 
taken, which were regulated By the Lex Cincia. 

From their vigilant watching over the cases of their clients, they 
were called cautores: Hence Dr. Faylor after Scaliger, fancifully de- 
rives Cavilling, Cavillari, Cavilatio, from Cavere. 

Such are the-various kinds of the Roman or civil law ; of which the 
present book is a summary, containing the general principles that per* 
vade it. Great indeed have been the obligations that Justinian’s pos- 
- terity owed to that emperor, for the laborious, and invaluable digest 
of law compiled under his auspices. A work that no succeeding age 
Has hitherto equalled. The Russian code drawn up under the direc- 
tions of the empress Catharine, and the Tuscan code of Leopold, havé 
merit indeed, but they are trifles compared to the great work now un- 
der considetation. Something approaching to it, has been attempted 
by the emperor Napoleon ; and the code Napoleon of Cambaceres, as 

3G 


410 NOTES. 


well as the introductory orations in defence of the leading articles con- 
tained in it, have great merit. 

The British, and of course the American code, is now becoming 
what the Roman code was, previous to the labours of Tribonian and 
his coadjutors: «xg» xegerun $22», many cart loads. Cannot the 
same condensed view be taken of our law, as was taken by Justinian 
of the Roman, and by Napoleon of the French code? I suspect the 
generality of the profession are of opinion this cannot be done: I am 
not so. Half adozen men of talents dividing the labour, under the 
&uperintending guidance of some one person to whom the pen should 
be ultimately committed, might finish the work in four years, accord- 
ing to my view of the subject: and a consummation it would indeed 
be, devoutly to be wished. 

Tit. 3. De jure personarum. Aut liberi sunt aut Serui. It would 
require a volume to enter into the great question of slavery, which 
has been well discussed of late years. I would observe briefly, - . 

That throughout the whole of the Jewish History, from the days of 
Nimrod downwards, there was no controversy, but that captives taken 
in war could be made slaves, and that their posterity were considered 
as slaves also. All the patriarchs counted their slaves among their 
goods and chattels, among their oxen, their horses, their camels, &c. 

y among the Jews took place 

. When a man sold himself through poverty, 25 Lev. 39. 
. When a father sold his children, 21 Ex. 7. | 

s When creditors seized and sold their insolvent debtors, or their 
children, 2 Kings c. 4. v. 1. 

4. A thief was sold when he could not pay his fine, 22 Ex. 3, 4 

5. Prisoners of war. 

6. A Hebrew slave ransomed from a Gentile might be sold to ano« 
ther Hebrew by his master. 

But the Hebrews were slaves to the Hebrews for six years only; or 
until the sabbatical jubilee. 21 Ex. 2. If the slave married however, 
he could not take away with him his wife and children, which belong- 
ed to the master. 21 Ex. 4. If from attachment to the family, the 
slave refused to be freed at the end of six years, or at the sabbatical 
ycar, then his master might bore his ears with an awl before the ma- _ 
gis.rate, and the slave became bound for life. The Hebrew slaves 
were treated more as hired servants by the Jews: not so the bond- 
mcn procured from among the heathen. But even from the heathen, 
ey were dorbidden to acquire a siave by stealth. See 21 and 24. 

evit. 


NOTES. 411 


The Phenicians, Carthaginians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, all 
practised slavery without any doubt being entertained of its propriety. 
Vendere cum possis Captivum, occidere noli. Hor. 

The situation of slaves was very bad in early times. Hector tells 
Andromache that she will be condemned on the fall of Troy to draw 
water as a slave: so Euripides introduces Hecuba as chained to the 
gate of Agamemnon. The Phenicians seem to have been first in the 
practice of kidnapping; see 14th Odyss. All nations, trading in 
slaves seem prone to mean and clandestine villanies; it is this spirit 
that has tempted the British slave traders to practise and encourage 
the same base method of procuring cargoes. Slaves were very ill 
treated among the Carthaginians. The abject state of the Helotes 
among the Lacedemonians has become proverbial. 

Slaves were also in a bad state among the Romans. They were 
frequently chained to the gate of a great man's house as porters. 

I copy the following summary of the circumstances of their condi- 
tion from Dr. Taylor (Elem. civ. Law 429); the authorities are ac- 
curately cited. 

4 Slaves were held pro nullis: pro mortuis: how this is to be un- 
* derstood consult A. Faber (and Gothofred ad Dig. 50. 17. 32. 209.) 
“pro Quadrupedibus: nay, were in a much worse state than any 
“ cattle whatsoever, as the same author (Faber) has shewn. They 
‘“‘ had no head in the state, no name, title, or register: they were not 
** capable of being injured: nor could they take by purchase or de- 
* scent: they had no heirs, and therefore could make no will: exclu- 
« sive of what was called their peculium, whatever they acquired was 
* their master's: they could not plead nor be pleaded for, but were 
* excluded from all civil concerns whatever: they could not claim the 
* indulgence of absence reipublice causa: they were not entitled to 
* the rights and considerations of matrimony, and therefore had no 
* relief in case of adultery: nor were they proper objects of cognation 
* or affinity, but of quasi-cognation only: they could be sold, trans- 
* ferred or pawned, as goods or personal estate; for goods they were, 
* and as such they were esteemed: they might be tortured for evi- 
* dence: punished at the discretion of their lord, or even put to death 
* by his authority: together with many other civil incapacities which 
* I have not room to enumerate.” 

The first law in their favour was the lex Cornelia de sicariis, by 
which the killing even of a slave became punishable. Dig. 48. 8. 

The jus vite et necis claimed by the master, was restrained by Clau- 
dius the successor of Caligula. See also Dig. 48. 8. 2. 


412 NOTES. 


In 813 ab u. cond. Nero by the lex Petronia, deprived masters of 
the power of sending their slaves to fight wild beasts at the public 
shews. 

The Emperor Adrian, prohibited generally cruel treatment toward 
slaves; and he banished Umbricia a lady of quality, for five years, 
quod ex levissimis causis suas ancillas atrocissime tractasset. 

Antoninus Pius, applied the Lex Cornelia de sicariis, specifically to 
the masters of slaves: and the same law was strengthened by Severus 
and by Constantine. Cod. L. 1. de emendant. serv. 

Slaves might always induce an investigation by flying to the statues 
of the princes. Cod. L. 1 de his qui, &c. 

: The prevalence of christianity, though neither Christ nor his apostles 
have condemned slavery, (4 Philem. 11,) contributed gradually but 
greatly to amend the condition of slaves. 

Athenzus (L. c.) says there were several persons at Rome who had 
ten and twenty thousand slaves: and in VI. 20 he states that at atime 
when the citizens of Athens were only 21,000, the slaves amounted 
to 400,000, and that the small Island of /Egina contained 470,000. In 
Africa, slavery has been established from time immemorial: the 
Arabs had African slaves, long before the settlements of the Portu- 
guese: and though some additional aggravations have occurred 
from kidnapping, and incursions made for the express purpose of 
procuring cargoes, still the Africans, like all the nations of antiquity, 
were from the earliest ages in the practice of making slaves of pri- 
soners of war: I forbear any discussion of the right of slavery, as a 
question too metaphysical and abstruse, to be entered upon here. Nor 
will my view of it, coincide equally with the sentiments of the mid- 
dle and north eastern, and those of the southern states. In England, 
the inexpedience of the practice is considered as settled, and there 
appears but one opinion in that nation on the general subject of the 
slave trade, which is, that it ought to be abolished. The law respect- 
ing slavery is also now fixed. The case of Somerset the negro has deter- 
mined that no man of whatever colour can be held as a slave in that 
country. But the abstract question—that which respects the right of 
reducing a human creature to slavery under any circumstances, has 
not yet been investigated so profoundly as its importance deserves, 
But this is not the place to investigate it, nor would it be easy to 
shake off the bias of previous habits and prejudgments. 

After the travels of Park and Hornemann, no man can reasonably 
pretend that the Africans have a right to complain, who from one end 
to the other of that quarter of the world, have exercised from the be- 
ginning, and still do exercise the right of reducing each other to sla- 


NOTES. 413 


very, with concomitant practices full as bad as any that the West In- 
dies can furnish, Knowing these things, I cannot be greatly interest- 
ed in favour of the blacks. 

But I exceedingly regret the prevalence of. slavery and the slave 
trade. All absolute power, has a direct tendency, not only to detract 
from the happiness of the persons who are subject to it, but to deprave 
the good qualities of those who possess it. I haveno right tosay that 
it makes men careless, unfeeling, and unjust, as to the sufferings of a fel- 
low creature, because these dispositions are very frequently indeed 
counteracted, by the natural good qualities of the master, and by the ge- 
neral manners of civilized society, at a period when kindness and hu- 
manity are fostered and respected by public opinion: but the whole . 
history of human nature, in the present and every former age, will 
justify me in saying that such isthe tendency of power on the one hand 
and slavery on the other. Nor can any country be so well cultivated 
by slave labour, as by the labour of freemen, fairly recompensed ; nor 
can industry be the character of such.a state of society ; nor can therc 
be any permanent feeling, either of individual or of public security. 
Hence, I cannot but approve of the prohibition of the slave trade, as 
one of the steps toward a gradual-abolition of the whole system of 
slavery ; a system that greatly detracts from the industry, the improve- 
ment, the security, and the happiness of society, wherever it prevails. 

In England, the species of slavery termed Villenage, was abolished 
by 12 Ch. 2. The last case concerning villenage in the books, is that 
of Crouche, 10th Eliz. Dyer 266. C..pl. 11. So are the Serfs par nais- 
sance in France: but under the old regime, there were Serfs held by 
Mortmain, and Serfs who became so by loss of their heritage : that is 
under one or other of. the signoral customs, or droits fcodaux. Such 
Serfs could; not aliene their Serf-tenements, unless to a Serf of the same 
lord : they could not marry a free person, or the Serf of another lord : 
they. could not put their sons into the clerical profession: they could 
not make a will to the prejudice of their lord, &c. see 1 Ferriere’s Jus- 
tinian 76. Somewhat of the same kind obtained in Germany, and- 
still.more in Poland. At present I apprehend this class of society 
no longer exists in Europe. | 

There is no where in the scriptures that I recollect, any direct pro- 
hibition of slavery, except as to the bondage of the Jews among them- 
selves; but there can be no doubt, of its being contrary to the gene- 
ral spirit and precepts of christianity, which has contributed not a little 
to the abolition of villenage, as well as of slavery. In they ear 1514, 
Henry 8th, manumitted two of his villains in the following form, 


414 | NOTES. 


| 9 Whereas God created all men free, but afterwards the laws and cus- 
| “toms of nations, subjected some under the yoke of scrvitude, we 

“think it pious and meritorious with God to manumit Henry Knight, 
“a Taylor, and John Hule a Husbandman, our natives, as being born 
“ within the manor of Stoke Clymmysland, in our county of Cornwall, 
«* &c.” See Barrington’s observations on the statutes, 2nd edition, 
249. So, Fitzherbert, in his readings on 4 Edw. 1st, Extenta Mane- 
rii, after giving the state of villanage in Henry 8th's time, says that it 
then began to decrease in all parts of England; and he thinks that no 
men should be bound but unto God, and that it is contrary to the princi- 
phis of Christianity. Barrington 251. Robertson, in his hist. of 
Charles the 5th, v. 1 p. 324, gives a great number of instances and 
quotations, to prove the frequency of manumission, from a religious 
principle, together with the forms usedon such occasions. Indeed 
Christianity, greatly contributed in the middle ages, to soften the bar- 
barous manners of the times. Thus a law of Bavaria, for the protec- 
tion of foreigners in Lindebrogue's collection says, Si autem aliquis 
tum presumptuosus fuerit ut peregrinis nocere volucrit, 14 solid. mukc- 
tetur. Deus nam dixit (Exod. 21.) peregrinum et pauperem nan con- 
tristabis de rebus suis. Barrington, 22. See, also the interesting ac- 
count of the TreucGa pri. in 1. Robertson’s Ch. 5 p. 343—356. 
Hence, seems to be derived the clause in our indictment for assault, 
that the Presecutor was in the peace of God, and the King. 

Sir Thomas Smith, who was secretary of state to Edward, 6,and then. 
to Elizabeth, observes that he never knew of any villains in gross, in. 
his time, and that villains appendánt to manors (villeins regardant : 
gleba adscriptitii) were but very few in number: that since England 
had received the christian religion, men began to be affected in their 
consciences at holding their brethren in servitude; and that upon this 
scruple in process of time, the holy fathers, monks and friars, so bur- 
thened the minds of those wham they confessed, that temporal men 
were glad to manumit all their villains. But he adds, the holy fathers. 
themselves did not manumit their own slaves, and the bishops behaved 
. like the other ecclesiastics. But at last some bishops enfranchised their 
villains for money, and others on account of popular outcry: and at 
length the monasteries falling into lay hands, were the occasion that al- 
most all the villains in the kingdom were manumitted. Smith's repub. 
eh. 10. Harris. ! 

In England, although it was determined that trover would not lie foe . 
2 negro, because the owner had not such an absolute property in his 
pegro that he might kill him; (Salk. 466. Lord Ray. 1274, Smith v. 


Gould) yet trespass per quod servitium amisit would lie; and if proper- 
ty were proved in the negro, he would not have been able to maintain 
his liberty by baptism or residence in England (5 Mod. 182 Chambet- 
line v Harvey) until the great case of Somerset the negro, by which it 
was determined that there could be no slavery in England. See the 
argument of Mr. Hargrave in that case, in the last volume of his 
edition of the state trials. Of the supposed efficacy of baptisin. for- 
merly, the reader may find a very curious case in 3 Mod. 120. Sir 
Thomas Granthum's.case. 

Villains (hinds) could acquire no property, for quicquid acquiritir 
servo, acquisitur domino, says my Lord Coke. Co. Litt. 117. C. As to 
the distinctions relating to the right of the master to wages or earnings 
acquired by servants or apprentices, see the notes on the above cited 
passage in Harg. Co. Litt. and 1 Campb. Rep. Nis. Prius 527, ‘Thomp- 
son v Havelock. Lord Cake in his note on villenage, dedáces (after 
St. Ambrose) the origin Of-alavery from the introtluction of wine: non 
esset hodie servitus, ai ebrietas non esset c. Canaan being condemned te 
bondage for cxposing the nakednesa of his fa‘her Noah: - 

§:4. Quibus modis servi, Sac. Femendari paseut cst. This was per- 
mitted also by a senatup odnsultum im the:time of Claudian, though 
manifestly contrary to the general rule that no man can chenge his 
condition on his qwn authority. ^ Dig, 40.12.37. -In. auth cases the 
person selling himself was required, ist to be of 20 years dhage at 
least. Ib. L. 7. and Dig, 40. 13. ;2ly with certain knowledge: ot his 
birth and condition Ib. tit. 14. and Dig. 40. 12 L. 14. etseq. 3ly The 
purchaser also must act bona fide Ib. L. 16. par. 3. and L, 7. par. 2. 
Aly. That the price paid was completely at his disposal. .L..1. and 5. 
Cod. de liber caus. Dig. 40. 13. Dig. 28. 3. L. 6. Cujas adds another 
condition. Sly That he should neither be filius familias or manumit- 
ted, for he cannot injure the rights of the Paterfamilias or of the Pa- 
tron. Dig. 40. 12. L. 1. Leo Philosophus abrogated this scnatus con- 
sultum by his Novel 59. 

A freeman might also become a slave, by ingratitude toward his 
patron, by condemnation to the mines or wild beasts, and so becoming 
Servus Pauca, By a scnatus consultum Claudianum, a free woman in- 
dulging in servile amours might lose her.freedom. 

Nascuntur ex ancillis nostris., Cujas gives a fanciful analogy. —Ec- 
dem jure ex ancillis nati servi suit, quo- sata cedunt solo. Mater enim 
solo comparatur, vis patris sato.- 

§ 5. De liberorum et Sercvorun: D iferentias In England the people 
are divided into 1st The King and heir apparent. 2ly T'he nobility or 


416 NOTES. m 


peerage (a) temporal, consisting of dukes, marquisses, earls, viscounts 
. and barons, (b) spiritual, consisting of archbishops and bishops. 3ly 
The commonalty: consisting of baronets whose titles are hereditary ; 
knights, whose titles are personal only and not hereditary ; esquires or 
gentlemen, acquired by birth, by office, by profession, or by courtesy ; 
yeomanry, tradesmen, artificers and labourers. 

Inthis country, the title of “ exceliency" sometimes given to the Pre- 

sident.of the United States, and to governors of states, as well as the 
title ““ honourable” bestowed on judges and members of Congress, and 
“esquire” applied to justices of peace and practitioners at law, I regard 
as founded on courtesy and custom only. The practice of addressing 
the president, a governor, or a judge, as-an esquire, certainly arises 
from neglecting the old adage that omne majus continet in se minus. 
- : Tit. 4. De ingenui definitione p. 12. By the civil law, chikdren born 
in wedlock (as in England) followed the condition of the fathers, Dig: 
5. 19. If born out of wedlock (contubernio) they follow the wondition 
of the: mother. In England, a bastard being nullius filius is in all ca- 
ses free, the presumptior' seing it favour of liberty : so if a nian marry 
& Nef, she becomes free«forever after: and a child. born iri sueh wed- 
lock is also free. See all the learning on this sabjeet in Harg, X ce. Litt. . 
123. b. ug 

Tit. 5. Definitio et origo Libertinorum, Gv. p. 13. : Ht de early 
times:of. the republic Libertus was a freed man, and Libertinus his 
descendant. Suet. Chud. 2 24. 8. Isid. 4s But thisMistinction fell inte 
disuse. | 0d o. 

$ 1. Quibus modis manumittitur, p. 14 Liberty? x<ould antiently bé 
conferred but three ways viz. by testament : by the census : and by the 
vindicta, or lictor’s rod. This is evident from the following passages 
in Tully: si neque censu, neque vindicta, neque testamento, liber factus est, 
non est liber. In Top. 

A man was said to be /iber censu, when his name was inserted in the 
censor’s roll, with the approbation of his master at the public cénsus. 
But the method of acquiring liberty by the vindicta was more solemn 
and formal. For it was necessary that the master placing his hand 
upon the head of the slave, should say in the presence of the prsetor, Amc 
hominem liberum esse solo: to'whick-the prator always ' replied dico 
eum liberum esse more Quiritum. ‘Then the licter or serjearit receiving 
the vindicta or rod from the pretor, struck the new freed man’ several 
blows with it upon thé head, face, and back, after which his name wás 
registered in the roll. of freedmen, and his head being close shaved, a 
cap was given to hint as a token of liberty. Harris. 


0 


NOTES. «1 


This is pet quiteaccurete. The lictor gave the slave, a gentle blow 
en the head with the vindicta, and a box on the ear, and made him turp 
round thrice. Afterward under the latter emperors, in lieu of the cen- 
sug, the master made a public declaration of his intention to free the- 
slave, in church. Slaves were also manumitted by letter, signed by the 
Master in presence of five witnesses : or before his friends, five witness- 
es being present at the declaration. The enfranchisement by vindic- 
$a, might take place before a consul as well as a pretor; and in the 
provinces before a proconsul, his legate, or deputy. See dig. 1 16. 9. 
eod. 7. tit. 6. de lat. lib. toll. Ib. 1. 1. $ 2. de his qui in eccles. and 
Sigonius l. 1. de antiq. Jur. Civ. Rom. 

The ancient form of manumitting villains, was thus. “ If any person 
* be desirous to enfranchise his slave, let him with his right hand de- 
“liver the slave to the sheriff in a full county, proclaim him exempt 
** from the bond of servitude by manumission, shew him open gates 
* and ways, deliver him fire arms, to wit, alance and a sword, w ere- 
*€ upon he becomes a free man.” Harris, from Wilkins! leges anglo-sax- 
enice. Afterwards, manumission of villains was conferred by grant ' 
and release, of which Harris has given a form from the complete 
Clerk, 1676. | 

Altus multis modis. Enumerated cod. 7. tit. 6. de lat. lib. tolienda. 

Tit. 5.69 3. De libertinorum divisione sublata. The three classes of 
freed men, here mentioned, had different rights attached to their re- 
spective conditions. | 

1st. Freed men of the greater liberty, were Roman citizens with all 
privileges, but they were obliged to leave a part of &-ir property by 
will to their patron. They were required to be thirty years of age, 
and their master twenty, at the time of their manumission by the law 
JEhia Sentia; and all the usual and prescribed forms were to be strict- 
ly observed. If any of these requisites were wanting, the slave be- 
came only, 2ly Latinus Junianus, under the ldw Junia Norbana, enact- 
ed 771 in the consulship of Junius Silanus, and Norbanus Balbus ; 
which confined the right of being considered as freedmen of the great- 
er liberty, to those who had been enfranchised, by will, by census, or 
by the vindicta. These Latini, were not Roman citizens, they died 
slaves, but during life they enjoyed the other privileges of frcemen, 
see 3 Instit, 8. 3ly, The Dedititii, were persons who, while slaves, 
had suffered corporeal punishment for some crime, and were named 
after some tributaries to the Roman people, who had revolted and 
were compelled to lay down their arms.  Dedititii, quia se suaque 
emnia dedicerunt. They could never become Roman citizens. All 

3H 


418 NOTES. 


these distinctions were destroyed by the constitutions ef Justinian. 
Cod. 7. tit. 5. 1.1 and tit. 6.1.1. Harris. Ferriere. 

Tit. 6. $ 1. De servo instituto, €c. Injuria defunctus afficiatur, p. 
16. It was ignominious for the goods of the deceased to be sold at 
public auction for debts, see Cic. orat. pro Quintio. | 

Ib. $ 3. Quid sit in fraudem, tc. The fraudulent intent may lose 
its effect in this case : a man knowing himself insolvent, enfranchises 
his slave : by subsequent acquisition he becomes solvent: the slave in 
this cáse continues free. 

In the following case, the creditors may lose the slave, altho’ there 
was no fraud accompanying his manumission. A master enfranchises 
during known and acknowledged solvency. His house and goods are 
afterwards consumed by fire. The manumission cannot be set aside, 
for it was fair and legal when made.  Ferriere. 

In England, there are two statutes made to protect creditors against 
fraudulent conveyances and devises, 27 Eliz. ch. 4. and 3 W. and M. 
ch. 14. see Wilson v. Knubley 7 East. 128. 

. 1b. $ 5. Que sunt juste cause. See the 9th and six following laws 
of the digest, de manirm. vindic. and the 21st law of the digest qui et 
« quibus manum, that is dig. 40. Sand dig. 40. 9. 

A son might become master of his father, if he had been left heir 
by a testator, to whom the whole family belonged. 

Procurator. Cujas thinks this is only Procurator ad lites, not ad ne- 
gocia. L. 22 cbserv. c. 16. A mere agent ad negocia, might be under _ 
the age of 17. sec L. 3. § ult. de minor. (dig. 4. 4) and dig. 14.3. de 
Instit. actione." ; 

Tit. 7. $ 1. De lege Furia Caninia. This was a law passed. in the 
time of Augustus to prevent the city being crowded with idle and dis- 
orderly persons. Suet. Aug. | 

Tit. 8. $ 2. De Fure civ. Rom. in servos. I have already treated of 
the condition of slaves among the Romans. 

Ad sacram statuam. It was anciently the policy of almost all king- 
' doms to allow of sanctuaries or places of refuge, and they are said te 

have been permitted in England almost as soon as christianity was 
received. In the eighth year of Henry 8th, the following points 
(which will give the reader some idea of the power of sanctuaries) 
were affirmed and resolved in the case of Savage, to wit: That in 
England the pope without the king could not make a sanctuary: that 
 sanctuaries must commence with a grant from the king, and then be 
confirmed by the pope : but that if they began by a bull from the pope, 
"it would be insufficient, although they were afterwards confirmed by 


NOTES. 419 


the king: that the general words Ambitus, Precinctus, Clausura, in 
such grants, whether papal or regal, did only include the church, clois- 
ter, dornlitory and church yard, but did not extend to the gardens, 
barns, stables and the like: that sanctuary de jure communi was only for 
forty days (which was a privilege belonging to all parochial churches 
and chürch yards) and that sanctuary for life, or as long as the person 
pleased (which was an usual privilege of religious houses) depended 
upon special grants, which were to be well proved, or otherwise were 
null and void. Keilway 188. Gibson's Codex 1188. 

Sanctuary never extended farther in civil cases, than to save the 
body from execution. In criminal cases, it did not extend to treason ; 
but it did to murder and other felonies. 2 Hawk. Pl. Cr. 32. 

Sanctuaries lost much of their privileges by 22. Hen. 8. ch. 19. 27. 
H. 8. ch. 19. 32. Hen. 8 ch. 12. and ch. 20. and they were entirely 
abolished by 21 James 1.ch. 28. see Middleton's letter from Rome. 
113. (Harris). 

Major asperitas dominorum. Yn England the lord might rob, beat 
and chastise his villain at will, but was not allowed to maim him: 
for then, the villain might have had an appeal of mayhem against him. 
Le seigneur poit rob, naufrer, et chastiser son villein a son volunt. Salve 
qu'il ne poit lui maim, car donques il avera appel de mayhem envers lui. 
Termes de la Ley. 

Tit. 9. De patria potestate, p. 22. Anciently fathers had the power 
of life and death over their children. This was restrained by Trajan 
who directed emancipation in cases of great severity. L. 1. of the Dig. 
$i a parenti: and by Adrian L. 5. of the Dig. de Leg. Pomp. de parri- 
cid: and by Alexander Severus, L. 3. Cod. de patria potest: so Ul- 
pian de Adulteris :  Inauditum filium pater occidere non potest, sed accu- 
sare eum apud praefectum, presidemve provincia debet. 

A man might acquire the rights of a father by marriage, [egitima- 
tion and adoption. 

As to the right of a father to the acquisitions of his child, See post. 
Inst. |. 2. tit. 9. 

Tit. 9. $1. Definitio nuptiarum. Marriage in this passage is term- 
ed indiscriminately nuptie and matrimonium. There are other terms 
algo applicd to marriage, as Connubium, Conjugium, Consortium, Con- 
tubernium, Concubinatus. 

Matrimonium, originally meant the union of male and female for 
the purpose of procuring’ offspring. Maris et f&mina conjunctio, as 
the 2nd Tit. of the Institute has it. Nuptie strictly means, the 
marriage ceremony. Hence the expressions Justum matrimoninim, 


426 NOTES. 


Suete nuptiz, meaning that kind of marriage and marriage ceremony, 
which was conducted according to law: and as this was matrimony 
sas’ kexav, matrimonium and nuptie soon became the popular expressions 
for lawful marriage. 

Connubium, conjugium, consortium, are metaphorical synonimies for 
lawful matrimony. Connubium, a mutual submission to the marriage 
ceremony, from nubendo i. e. tegendo ; it being the custom of the bride 
to cover her head with the fammeum or veil. Dr. Taylor deduces it 
without sufficient reason as I think, more distantly from a Hebrew root 
used 27. Is. 6. signifying procreation, production. Conjugzum, a 
mutual yoke. Consortium, a mutual lot in life; fer better for worse, 
as the English Church ceremony, properly states it. 

. The Contubernium was the matrimony of slaves, a permitted coha- 
bitation ; not partaking of lawful marriage, which they could not con- 
tract. It was applied also to other kinds of unlawful connection. Cod. 
2. 21. 4. Cod. 5. 5. 3. Cod. 5. 5. 9. Cod. .6. 59. 9. Hence there was 
no process of adultery in favour of a slave. Cod. 9. 9. 23. Dig. 48. 
$. 6. Butalthough civil forms might be disregarded in Contubernits, 
the laws of natureas to incestuous commerce, were held in full force, 
for the reason assigned in Inst. 1. 15. 3. See also dig. 23. 2. 14. 2. 

Concubinatus. Semi-inatrimanium : conjugium inequale. A full des- 
cription of this may be seen in the last title of dig. 25. The Greeks 
also allowed of this left-handcd marriage, as I believe it is called in 
Europe: sx«vasd-. Not. ad Demosth. C. Nearchi T. ITI. p. 624. 
Concubinage was entered into before witnesses, otherwise it became 
prostitution, dig. 26. 7. 3. The parties might dissolve the contract 
and cohabitation at pleasure, dig. 25. 7. 1. It did not admit of a- 
dultery. dig. 25. 7. 6. As marriage was discouraged between offi- 
cers of state in the provinces, and female inhabitants of the same pro- 
vince, they were permitted to take concubines of the province. Ib. 1. 
5. dig. 23. 2. 38 and 57. and Cod. si quacumque pradict potest. 

Concubinage was regulated by Constantine. Cod. 5. 26. tle. 7. 
15 ult. and Justinian, Nov. 18. 74. and 89. Concubina est mulier libe- 
ra inupta quam vir celebs domi concubinatus causa solam habet. That 
the man should be unmarried, was not required by the old or prior 
Jaws rclating to concubinage, but the woman only. All that was fora 
merly required of the man, was, that he should be at least twelve 
years of age, dig. 25. 7. 1. and that he should not have more ¢on- 
cubines than one. Concubinage, was abolislied by the emperor Leo. 
Nov. Leo. 91. 


Concubinage, I understand obtained not many years ago in Gérigamiy, 


NOTES. 421 


if it do not at this day. I do not enter at large into che Marriage cere. 
monies of the Romans ; they may be sought in modern compilers, Ro- 
sinus, Adams; but after Dr. Taylor, I shall notice the three kinds of 
lawful tharriage among that people. 

Marriages were solennes, solemn; or minus solennes, less solemn. 
The solennes were either Usu, FARRE, OR COEMPTIONE- 

Marriage, Usu, by prescription, is briefly described by Servius, i . 
his commentary on 1 Virg. Georg. 31. and 18 Aul. Gell. 6. When 
a woman cohabited with a man for a whole year, with a view to matri- 
mony, ( matrimonii ergo,) she became his property by prescription, 
under alaw of the 12 Tables. Till the year was expired, she was 
uxor, matrona, but not materfamilias. An absence of thrce nights 
would break the prescription, or usucapion ; this interruption was usur- 
patio. 

This seems to have been’ the oldest form of Roman marriages. 

Marriage, Farre: Chnfarreatio. This was the most solemn form 
of marriage among the Romans: by it, a woman became copartner 
with her husband in all his sacred rites, and in all his substance, and 
was his sole heir at his death, if he died without children. Dion. Ha- 
lic. lc. Ifhe left children, she succeeded to equal portions of his es- 
tate. The children were patrimi, and matrimi, and had peculiar pri- 
vileges; certain priests, and the vestal virgins being chosen from a- 
mong them. 4 Tacit. ann. 16. 1. Aul. Gell. 12. The ceremony could 
not be performed without the presence of the Pontifex maximus, or 
the F/amen Dialis : Serviusin 1 Georg. It was attended with the cere- 
mony of the parties mutually breaking together a cake, Farra, Pa- 
nis farreus. Ten witnesses were necessary. Üjpian tit. 9. $ 1. 
It was dissolved by a similar ceremony, Diffarreatio. It fell into 
disuse, about the time of Tiberius, 4 Tac. ann. 16. 

Marriage, Coemptione : or by mutual purchase. The man and the wo- 
man delivered to each other a small piece of money. Servius ad 4. Virg. 
JEneid. 103. Cic. orat I. 57. The man asked the woman, will you become 
to me a mother of the family ? To whichshe replied, I will. In her turn, 
she asked, willyou become to mea father of the family ? andhe answer- 
ed, I will. The woman then delivered her piece of moncy and her- 
self, into the hands of the man. Until this period, and preceding the 
Domi ductio, the woman was sponsa only: after the Domi ductio, the 
marriage was compleated. Dig. 35. 1. 15. 

Coemptio, was also called conventio in manum. The wife stood in 
point of heirship to the husband, in place of a daughter. 

Among the Romans, the foundation of marriage was the consznt of 


‘ 


422 NOTES. 


the parties. WBrsensus, non Concubitus, facit. nuptias. Dig. 50. 17. 
30. Dig. 35. 1.16. Dig. 24. 1. 32. 13. But this consent, must have 
been between parties willing to contract, of proper age, (that is 14 for 
the male, 12 for the female,) free from disabilities of relationship, a- 
ble to contract, free from precontract, from legal disability, and that 
consent must have been ratified also by the consent of the parent. In- 
stit. 1. 10. pr. which given afterward by Ratihabitio, would not an- 
swer the purpose of confirming the marriage. Dig. 1. 5. 11. Ib. 23. 
2.65. 1. Ib, 48. 5. 13. 6. Butlatterly a subsequent confirmation seems 
to have been valid: Cod. 4. 28.7. Without this consent, the issue 
were illegitimate. Inst. 1.11. 7. In cases of insanity or captivity, 
the consent of the parents was not necessary. L. 35. Cod de nupt. L. 
28. Cod. de Episcop. aud. 

In England both by the canon law, (canons of 1603. Can. 62. 63. 
100. 101.) and the statute law, the consent of parents is required : 
the want of it indeed, did not avoid the marriage, but the minister who 
married them was punished by 7 and 8. W. 3. ch. 35. But by the 
marriage act of 26 Geo. 2. ch. 33. beside punishing the minister, 
the marriage is declared void in many cases where the requisites of that 
act are not complied with. The general train of chancery decisions, 
is also much in favour of devises on condition of marriage with consent 
of Guardians, t2c. See 1. Fonb. 246. 1st n. edit. or L. 1. ch. 4. $ 10. n. 

The legal prohibitions were PARENTAGF, (/ Parentela) RELATION- 
sHIP, PubLIG Decorum, Ranx, Power and AcE: of which in their 
order. 

. Parentage: Cognation : Consanguinity. The connection of persons 
descended from a common parent or stock. Strictly, Cognati, are rela- 
tions by the mother's side: Agnati relations by the father’s side. Adg- 
nati, or Agndti, include Cognati, but not vice versie Dig. 38. 10. 
10. Dig. 58. 7. 5. So Árrogatt include the Adoptati, but not vice versa. 
This cognation may be either natural ; or civil arising from adoption; 
or mixed ; of this more in L. 3. tit. 6. post. 

Relationship or affinity. Is the connection between the husband and 
his wife's parents, and the wife and her husband's parents. .4dfinee 
sunt viri et uxoris cognati ; dicti ab eo, quod due cognationes que diver- 
s@ inter sc sunt,per nuptias copulantur ; et altera ud alterius. cognatio- 
nis finem accedit : namque conjungende adfinitatis, causa fit ex nuptiis, 
Dig. 38. 10. 4. 3. There areno degrees strictly speaking in affini- 
ty, as thereare in parentage or consanguinity ; but I am considered 
as related to the parents of my wife, in the same degree that she is. 

~ Although affinity takes place between me and my wife's parentage, and. 


NOTES. mE 433 


between my wife and mine, yet this does not induce. ary kind of réla- 
tionship or affinity, between our respective. parents or consanguinei ; 
for their sithations in society, oughtnot to be affected by our contracts. 
Hence comprivigni may intermarry. Dig. 23. 2. 34. 3. Affinity there- 
fore can only affect the man and woman contracting. Affinis mei affinis 
non est mihi affinis as North said in Oxenham et ux. v Gayre C. B. - 
cited Bac. Ab. tit. Marr. A. 529. 

Formerly the Roman law prohibited marriage between persons in 
direct affinity only, Dig. 38. 10. 4. 6—7. L. 17. Cod. de nupt. but af- 
terward the imperial constitutions forbad it between a brother in law, 
and a sister in law in the collateral line. L. 5. and 8. Cod. de Incest. 
et Inut. Nupt. 1. 

The general rule is, Quocungue gradu, quis uni conjugum. functus 
est consanguinitate, eodem gradu junctus est. alteri. affinitate, Thus, 
I cannot marry my wife's daughter or my wife's mother, because 
they are to my former wife in the ascending and descending line of 
consanguinity; and therefore to me in the ascending or descending 
line of affinity. 

Perhaps the prohibitions of the civil and of the canon law, may be 
explained in a short compass. 


fü tim me Bm Om i > 


In this strait line, the letters respectively over and under each other, 
denote parent and child: within this line, all intermarriages are for- 
bidden (by the law of nature as is generally agreed) whether ascend- 
ing or descending. D. cannot marry either A, B or C, or E, F or G. 
Dig. 28. 2. ult. By this rule, all marriages are forbidden between 
those who are in parentum numera. 


494 NOTES. 


The next rule is, that all marriages are forbidden between these aaj- 
Interals who are in parentum. Lece. This is the respectum Parenteig. 
A. 





—1. 


-— Cm Be 
Fm tl im ty 


C and D, E and F, G and H &c. are collaterals. 

Of these collaterals, those who are immediately under the common 
stock, cannot marry any person in the opposite collateral line. 

Thus D is immediately under, or next to the common stock B. 
Hence D cannot marry with C, E, Gor I. For like reason C cannot 
marry with D, F, H or K. 

The next rule is that with respect to other collaterals as E and F, G 
and H, I and K, they may marry after the third degree, counted by 
the civil law mode of computation: which begins not with, but from the 
party in question on the one side, and counts through the common stock, 
to the party in question, on the other side ; or leaving out the common 
stock, and including the parties on both sides. Thus, in what 
degree of relation, are E and F who are first cousins? In the fourth: 
and they may marry. For C countsone; B two; D three; F four. 
In what degree of relationship are I and H? Answer G one; E two; 
C three; B four; D five; F six; Hseven. The prohibitions of inter- 
marriage between collaterals, extend by the civil law to the fourth de- 
gree, EXCLUSIVE, according to the above mode of counting. Hence 
first cousins by the civi] law, being in the fourth degree may intermar- 


The Canon law computes, not by counting upwards, then through 
thecommon stock, and then downwards to the propositus—but beginning 
at the common stock counts downward on either line, taking the longest 
when one. is longer than the other. Thus E and F, or first cousins, are 
in the third degree: Bone; C two; E three; or, B one; D two; F three. | 
Hence marriage between first cousins is forbidden by the Canon law, 
whose prohibition extends to the fourth degree of Canon law computa- 
tion INCLUSIVE. Of course, not only first, but second cousins are forbid- 
den to intermarry by that law. The more numerous the prohibition, 
the more profitable were dispensations. Hence the present mode of 


NOTES. 485 
computing canonical degrees was introduced by Pope Alexander 2nd, 


. By the old canon law and the early decretals, marriages were forbid- 


den as far as the seventh degree, answering to the 12th of the civil 
law: this was reduced to the fourth degree of canon law . computation 
(inclusive) by the council of Lateran 1215. But Dr. Taylor says it was 
so in England, as appears by some constitutions he examined of Os- 
wald, archbishop of York, in the 10th century. The English, and we 
after them, adopt generally the civil law regulations on this head. 
Blackstone's table of consanguinity, L. 2. ch. 14. P. 203. is well cal-. 
culated to illustrate the comparison of the two modes of computation. 

The following table, is taken from Burn's ecclesiastical law, tit. 
marriages. 


A man may not marry his 
Secundus gradus in linea recta 
ascendente, 
Cons. Avia. 1 Grandmother. 


Affin. Avi relicta. 


Affin. Prosocrus, vel socrus magna. 


Secundus gradus inequalis in 
linea transversali ascendente, — 
Cons. Amita. 
Cons. Matertera. 
Affin. Patrui relicta. 
Affin. Avunculi relicta. 
Affin. Amita uxoris 
Affin. Matertera uxoris. 
Primus gradus in linea recta as- 
cendente, 
Cons. Mater. 
Affin. Noverca. 
Affin. Socrus. 
Primus gradus in linea recta de- 
scendente, 
Cons. Filia. 
Affin. Privigna. 


Affin. Ni urus. 
Primus gradus zqualis in linea 
transversali, , 


Cpns. Soror. 
Affin. Soror uxoris. 
Affin. Fratris relicte. ' 
3I 


2 Grandfather's wife. — 
3 Wife's grandmothet. 


~ 


4 Father’s sister. 

5 Mother's sister. 

6 Father's brother’s wife. 

7 Mother's brother's wife. 
8 Wife's father's sister. 

9 Wife's mother's sister. 


10 Mother. 
11 Step mother. 
12 Wife's mother. 


13 Daughter. 
14 Wife's daughter. 
15 Son's wife. 


16 Sister. 
17 Wife's sister. 
18 Brother's wife. 


426 


Secundus gradus in linea recta 
descendente, 
Cons. Neptis ex filio. 
Cons. Neptis ex filia. 
Affin. Pronurus, i. c. relicta nepotis 
| ex filic. 
Affin. Pronurus, i. erclicta nepotis 
ex filia. 
Affin. Privigni filia. 
Affin. Privigna filia. 
Secundus gradus inzqualis in 
linea transversali descendente, 
Cons. Neptis ex fratre. 
Cons. Neptis ex sorore. 
Affin. Nepotis ex fratre relicta. 
Affin. Nepotis ex sorore relicta. 
Affin. Neptis uxoris ex fratre. 
Affin. Neptis uxoris ex sorore. 


NOTES. 


19 Son's daughter. 
20 Daughter's daughter. 
21 Son's son's wife. 


22 Daughter's son's wife. 


23 Wife's son's daughter. 
24 Wife's daughter's daughter. 


25 Drother's daughter. 

26 Sister's daughter. 

27 Brother's son's wifc. 

28 Sister's son's wife. 

29 Wife's brother's daughter, 
30 Wife's sister's daughter. 


A woman may not marry with her 


1 Grandfather. 
2 Grandmother's husband. 
3 Husband's grandfather. 


4 Father's brother. 

5 Mothcr’s brother. 

6 Father's sister's husband. 

7 Mother's sister's husband. 

8 Husband's father’s brother. 
9 Husband's mother’s brother. 


10 Father. 
11 Step-father. 
12 Husband's father. 


13 Son. 
14 Husband's son. 


Secundus gradus in linea recta 
ascendente, 
Cons. dvus. 
Affin. Avie relictus. 
Affin. Prosocer, vel socer magnus. 
Secundus gradus inaequalis in 
linea transversali ascendente, 
Cons. Patruus. 
Cons. Avunculus. 
Affin. Amite relictus. 
Affin. Matertere relictus. 
Affin. Patruus mariti. 
Affin. Avunculus mariti, 
Primus gradus in linea recta 
ascendente, 
Cons. Pater. 
Affin. Vitricus. 
Affin. Socer. 
Primus gradus in linea recta 
descendente, | 
Cons. Filius. 
Affin. Privignus. 


NOTES. 


15 Daughter's husband. 


16 Brother. 
17 Husband's brother, 
18 Sister's husband, 


19 Son's son. 
Z0 Daughter's son. 
21 Son's daughter's husband. 


22 Daughter’s daughter's husband. 


23 Husband's son's son. 
24 Husband's daughter's son. 


25 Brother's son. 

26 Sister’s son. 

27 Brother's daughter's husband. 
28 Sister’s daughter's husband. 
29 Husband’s brother's son. | 


30 Husband’s sister’s son. 


427 


Affin. Gener. 
Primus gradus xquzlis in 
lina transversali, 
Cons. Frater. 
Affin. Levir. 
Affin. Sororis relictus. 
Secundus gradus in linea 
recta descendente, 
Nepos ex filio. 
Cons. Nepos ex filia. 
Affin. Progener, i. e. Felictus neptis 
ex filio. 
Affin. Progener, i.e. relictus neptis 
ex filia. | 
Affin. Privigni filius. 
Affin. Privigne filius. 

Secundus gradus inzqualis 
in linea transversali de- 
scendente, 

Cons. Nepos ex fratre. 

Cons. Nepos ex sorore. 

Affin- Neptis ex fratre relictus. 

An. Neptis ex sorore relictus. 

iffin. Leviri filius, i. e. nepo smariti 

ex Jratre.. 

Affin. Gloris filius, i. e. nepos mariti 
ex sorore. 


, The Levitical degrees are to be found in 18th and 20th chapter of 


Leviticus, and they are these: 


see Haines v. Jescott 5. Mod. 168. 


1. Ld. Ray. 68. where the Levitical degrees are tabulated in a some- 
what different order, following lord Coke. 
A man may not marry 


His mother 
His sister 
His son's daughter 


His daughter's daughter 
His father's wife's daughter 


His father's sister 
His mother’s sister 


His father's brother’s wife 


His son's wife 


438 NOTES. 


His brother’s wife 
His wife's daughter 

H ~ His wife's sister. 

The preceding are the prohibitions of the 18th chapter. 
The following are from the 20th chapter, and mag be intended te 
embrace second marriages. — 

His father's wife 

His wife's mother 

His father's or mother's daughter 
. His father's or mother's sister 

His uncle's wife 

His brother's wife. 

Theabove mentioned table of kindred and affinity, (from Burns) there- 
fore, is made up, not from the specific enumeration of prohibited de- 
grees in the book of Leviticus, but from the principle that seems to guide 
the Jewish prohibition, viz. tothe third degree of the Jewishand civillaw 
computation inclusive : for the Jews, calculated degrees in the same - 
way as the Romans did, viz. from the propositus exclusive, up to and 
through the common stock, and down to the other party in question 
inclusive. 1 Selden’s uxor Hebraica ch. 4. The English law allows 
marriage at the fourth degree, as computed by the Jewish and the civil 
law. Harison et ux. v. Dr. Burwell, Vaug. 206. 2 Ventr. 9. Gibs. 
Cod. 412. The prohibited degrees are not specified in 32 Hen. 8. 
ch. 38. which declares that all persons may lawfully marry, except such 
as are prohibited by God's law, but they are in the preceding statutes 
of 25 H.8. c. 22. and 28 H. 8. c. 7. but Burns Eccles. Law II. 405. - 
doubts whether the two last statutes are in force since 32 H. 8. ch. 
38. the spiritual courts are confined to the Levitical degrees, Vaugh. 
206. Harrison et ux. v. Burwell. 

I have made a doubt whether a man may marry his wife's sister, Ais 
wife being dead, from the expression in the passage in Levit. * Thou 
shajt not take a wife to her.sister to vex her," but in Hill v. Good, 
Vaugb. 302. and Carth. 271. 3 Keble, 166. Gibs. 412. it was determined 
that this case fell under the general prohibition of verse 6. including all 
that are near of kin: a decision indirectly confirmed by Collet's case T. 
Jones 313. Nelson’s Ab. tit. Marr. 1158,1159. 15 Vin. 256. and lately 
by the court of arches in England (1811,) agreeably to former cases. 
Indeed the cases where marriage with'a wife's sister's daughter ‘has - 
been deemed incestuous, are numerous. Most of them are collected im 
4 Bac. Ab. 529. see Mr. Butler’s note Co. Litt. 235. 2. 2 Burns ec- 


Ld 


NOTES. 429 


cles. law 414. et seq. But it is not forbidden by the law of Pennsylva- 
nia, see act of 1705 as to Incest. 


&€ 


Mr. Christian in his note 4. to 2 Blacks. 206. is right when he says 
I do not know a single instance in which we have occasion to refer 


to the canon law : but the civil law computation is of great importance 
in ascertaining who are entitled to administration, and the distributive 
shares of intestate property." See also 2 Bl. Comment. 504. 


The following terms of affinity, collected in one view, may assist the 


reader’s recollection. e 


Linea ascendens. 


Lin. descendens. 


Socer : a wife's father: Beau Pere. 

Socrus : a wife's mother: Belle Mere. . 

Noverca: a step-mother : a father’s second wife: Belle Mere. 
Vitricus: a stepgfather: a mother’s second husband: Beau Pere. 


MNurus : a daughter-in-law: a son's wife: Bru. | 


Gener: ason-in-law: a daughter's husband :: Gendre. 
Comprivigni: children by a former marriage. _ 
Privignus : sonofa wife by a former marriage: Beau fils. 
Privigna: daughter of my wife by a former marriage: Beau file. 
Uxoris fratri: wife's brother: brother-in-law: Beau frere. 
Uxoris soror: sister-in-law: wife’ssister: Belle scur. 
Fratria : brother’s wife: sister-in-law : Belle scur. 
Levir: Brother-in-law to the wife: Beau frere. dave. 
Glos: sister-in-law to the wife: Belle secur.  y«^«s. 
Pater: Mater: father: mother 
Avus: Avia: grand-father : grand-mother. 
Proavus: Proavia: great-grand-father: great-grand-mother. 
Abavus: Abavia: great-grand-father’s father: great-grand-father's 
mother. 
Atavus: Atavia: great-great-father's grand-father: great-great- 
father's grand-mother. 
Tritavus :  Tritavia:  great-great-father's great-grand-father : 
great-great-father's great-grand-mother. 
Filus: Filia: son: daughter. 
Nepos: Neptis: linealis: grand-son: grand-daughter. 
Pronepos: proneptis: linealis: great-grand-son:  great-grand- 
daughter. | 
Abnepos : Abneptis: linealis: son or daughter of the above. 
Atnepos: Atneptis: linealis: son or daughter of the above. 
Trinepos : Trineptis : linealis: son or daughter of the above. 


430 NOTES. 


Patruus: uncle by the father’s side: father's brother. 
Amita: father's sister: aunt by the father'sside. — , 
Patruus magnus: 
Amita magna: 
" opatruus magnus | father and mother of the above. 

ro-amita mugna : 
Abpatruus magnus : "| grand-father and grand-mother of the great- 
Abamita magna: i uncle and preat-aunt on the father's side. 
Patrueles : (à patruo) sons and daughters, cousin-germans on the 

faih.r's side, 

Amitini: (ab amita) the same descended of the father’s sister. 
( douncidus : Matertera: mother’s brother: mother's sister : maternal 

uncic and aunt. 

Avunculus maraus: maternal great-uncle. 

Mautertera magna: maternal great-aunt. . 

Proavunculus magnus : great-uncle's father on the mother’s side. 
Promutertera magna: gceat-uncle's mother, on the mother’s side. 
Ab avunculus magnus : grand-uncle’s grand-father, ) on the mo- 
Ad materera magna: grand-uncle's E andomother, P ther's side. 
Avunculini : 

Materterini: 
Nzpos and Neptis are properly grand-children: but these terms are 
also applied to nephews and nieces: Preterea, nepotem ex patre aut ex 
sorore, a Furts-perttts imperite dici, admonent eruditi ; nam fratris 
aut sorcris filius dici salet e doctis, nepos autem respectu avs, ut filius 
respectu balris dicitur. "foh. Caloini Lexicon Furidicum sub voce Nepos. 
Ia this imperitiore sensu, lord Coke uses it : sce his table of consangui- 
nity and affinitv Co. Litt. 18. Hence 

epos : : Ne eptis ; : 

Pronepos :. Proneptis : Mean nephews and nieces 

dlbnepos: dbneptis: collaterales :.5 and their lineal descend- 

dtnepzs : f Atnettis: f ants. 

Trinepos :. Trineptis : J 

This application of the term Nepos, may perhaps be authorized by 
the expression of Caius, Dig. 26. 4. 7. and in L. nemini 17. Cod. de 
nupt. but in both passages it is ambiguous. 

The distinction of linealis and collateralis, takes away the ambiguity. 
No doubt, the more accurate expression for a nephew or niece, is 
Jratris vel sororis filius vel filta. 

The next in number among the legal prohibitions to marriage among 
the Romans, was, offence against Public decorum. 

Justinian post § 9 states three cases of prohibition, 1st, The daugh- 
ter of your wife after divorce. 2ly, The affianced wife of a son, though 
not a daughter-in-law: for the Romans had their sponsalia or pre- 
contracts, as well as marriage contracts. The consensus. sponsalitius 


! great-uncle : great-aunt bv the father's side. 


A dgnati. 


Cognati. 


! cousin-germans on thc mother's side. 


NOTES. 431 


was one thing: the consensus matrimonialis another. Taylor 303. Sly, 
The affianced wife of a father, though not a mother-in-law. ‘These 
were, quasi privigna, quasi nurus, quasi noverca. These cases are 
taken from Dig. 23. 2. 12. ‘To these enumerated by Justinian, may 
be added, 4thly, an adopted daughter or grand-daughter emancipated. 
Dig. 23. 2. 55. sly, Between an adoptive emancipated son, and a 
woman who has been the wife of the adoptive father. Dig. 23. 2. 14. 
6ly, An adopted son, and the mother of an adopted father, so long as 
the adoption continues. Ib. L.. 55. par. 1. - 

Another head of legal prohibition was Rank, of which see post $ 11. 
As if a senator should contract matrimony with a manumitted slave, 
a stage player, or any other person of lost reputation. Dig. 23. 2. 44 
but this was abrogated by Justinian, Nov. 78. c. 3. 

Another subject of prohibition was Power. As in the cases of, 1st, 
A tutor and his female pupil: a curator and his female minor. Dig. 
23. 2. 59. et seq. and Cod. de interd. Matr. 2ly, A governor of a 
province and a female native resident therein. Dig. 23. 2. 38 and 57. 
and Cod. si quacumque przdit. potest. 

The last prohibition arose from Age. As marriage between a man of 
60 and a woman of 50. Dig. 1.7. 15. 2. Dig. 19. 1. 21. Cod 6. 58. 
12. Sec hereon, Heineccius ad Leg. Jul. et Pap. Popp. Butthese pro- 
hibitions were much moderated by Justinian, except as to widows. 
Cod. 5. 4. 27. Cod. 6. 58. 12. . 

Polygamy, common among the barbarous nations of antiquity (bar- 
barous in the Greck and Roman sense of the word) the Germans ex- 
cepted, Tacit. de Mor. Germ. ch 18. was also occasionally permitted 
among the Grecks, when necessity seemed to require it; as in the- 
case of the detachment of young men from the army of Lacedemon, 
mentioned by Plutarch ; and by the Athenians de een avdgerer prop- 
ter hominum infrequentiam. Arist. de Nobilit. ex Athen. 80. L. 13. 
init. and by the Tuscans,12 Athen. 3. and it was defended by Eurip. 
in Ino. traged. and by Plato, whose doctrine was rather a community 
of wives like that of the Arreoi in Otaheite, than a plurality ; sec also 
Aul. Gell. xv. 20. xviii. 2. Aristotle well considers Plato's doctrine in 
his politics, book 2. $ 2 +. ** A work (as I most cordiallv agree with 
* Dz Taylor) wuich I will venture to pronounce one of the most 
** sterling productions of antiquity, and a most inexhaustible treasure. 
* to the statesman, the lawyer and the philosopher.” (Taylor 342... — 
The english reader is much indebted to Dr. Gillies for his view E 
Aristotle’s philusophy. 

Socrates indulged m two wives, if not in pederasty which he is iv- 


432 | NOTES. 


troduced as speaking of in Xenophon’s memorabilia, in his conversatiow 
with Alcibiades, as a thing of common course. The general reputation 
of this man, ranks with me among the literary paradoxes: but I most 
wonder at the praise bestowed on him by my deceased friend (the first 
man of his day in the philosophical and literary world) Dr. Priestley. 

That the Jews practised polygamy, and that their laws regulated 
it, is well known, Deut. 21. 15. 17. Inthe year 1780 the Rev. Martin 
‘Madan published bis “ THELYPTHORA ;” in which, taking for granted 
that the axiom of the canonists, Concubitus non consensus facit nuptias, 
is founded on scripture, he proposed the introduction of licensed po- 
lygamy in cases of female seduction, as a remedy for prostitution. 
He was a man of learning, but a religious fanatic, of the sect of Cal- 
vinist-methodists. His arguments are deduced principally from 21. 
Deut. 15. 18. 22. Deut. 28, 29. 22. Ex. 16,17. He notices very truly 
that marriage was first introduced among the Sacraments, and put 
under the custody of the priesthood, by Pope Innocent the third. He 
refers particularly to the cases of Hannah, Rachel and Bathsheba, who 
are mentioned in the bibld in terms of respect, as well as Joseph, 
Samuel, and Solomon, who were the issue of polygamous marriages. 
Madan built ànd officiated at the Lock chapel which was annexed to 
the Lock hospital for venereal patients, near Hyde-park corner, in 
London. He was the composer of that fine tune “ Before Jehovah’s 
awful throne :", and the compiler of the best collection of popular 
church music now known, for the use of that chapel. 

The civil law forbad polygamy. Inst. 1. 10. 6. Dig. 3. 2. 1. par. 8. 
Dig. 40. 2. 15. L. 2. Cod. de incest. et inut. nupt. Cic. de orat. 40. and 
even bina sponsalia, Dig. 3. 2. 1. fin. Polygamy was introduced by Va- 
lentinian first, as appears from Socrates, Nicephorus, Paulus Diaconus, 
and Jornandes, see,the citations in Taylor, 347: but it did not continue 
long. Butlicensed concubinage amounted to it, which seems to have 
continued for many years. Heinecc. ad leg. Jul. et Pap. Poppeam, 
Dig. 25. 2. 11. sub. fin. and Julius Cesar is said by Suetonius to have 
instigated Helvius Cinna the tribune, to introduce a law in favour of 
unlimited polygamy. Suet. in Jul. Ces. § 52. 

Concubinage however was discouraged by the digest, 32. 49. 4. 
and thelaw prohibited concubinage, at the same time with matrimony, 
as well as more concubines at a time than one. Dig. 45. 1. 121. Cod. 
5. 26. unic- Cod. 7. 15. ult. Nov. 18. 74. and 89. 

Christianity, has settled the question of polygamy among christians, , 
notwithstanding the practices recorded in the old testament. 1 Corinth. 
ch. 7. and has settled also the subordinate situation of the wife: 


NOTES. | 433 


herein conforming to the law of nature as it appears to me. For ge- 
nerally speaking, there is a natural prevalence of mentalenergy, as well 
as of corporeal force in favour of the man, independent of the means of 
acquired knowledge. But by discouraging fornication, and by de- 
nouncing polygamy and ‘concubinage, christianity has greatly tended. 
to ameliorate the situation of women in society, and thereby to civilize 
society itself. I 4m glad to see the wavering decisions of the British 
courts brought to something like system by the case of Marshall and 
Rutton, 8 Term Rep. 545. I consider the very able argument of judge 
Hide in Manby v. Scott, 1. Mod. 129. (notwithstanding some harsh 
observations) as embracing the soundest principles upon this subject, 
and placing the relative situation ofthe two parties upon the best footing 
fór each of them, and as being most in unison with the law of England, 
the precepts of christianity, and the dictates of natural reason and civil- 
ized expedience. Iapprehend it also to be conformable to the general 
spirit of thelaws throughout this country. In Great Britain, the courts, 
as I think, instead of looking with a jealous eye upon every kind of pre- 
contract that tends to impair the unity of interest between married peo- 
ple, and the dependance of the wife upon the husband, have leaned 
somewhat too strongly in favour of pre-contract by mairiage-settle- 
ment, trust-estates, testamentary powers to be exercised by the wife, 
and by enforcing equivalent settlements on the receipt after marriage 
of a wife's property. ' 

As to marriage contracts of infants, and espousals per verba de pre- 
senti, et per verbade futuro, and Scotch and other foreign marriages, 
see Harg. Co. Litt. 80. a. n. 2 H. Blacks. 147. 10 East. 286. and 1 
Johns. cases in N. York 424. 2 Burr. 1079. and 2 Burns Eccles. Law, 
401. 420. where the subject is discussed at length. 

In speaking of marriage, it may not be improper to say a few words ° 
on the subject of Divorce among the Romans. Justinian in this sec- 
tion of the Institutes, defines marriage to be Viri et mulieris conjunctio 
individuam vite consuetudinem continens : in conformity to the digest — 
‘28. 2. 1. Conjunctie maris et Famine ; consortium omnis vite ; divini 
et humani juris communicatio, Expressions, which must be referred 
to the intent of the parties at the time. It was (so far as I know) re- 
served for the English law to take cognizance of a pre-contract, in 
which the parties contemplate the possibility of a separation in express 
terms, and make it one of the considerations of the Deed. This 
was done in Rex v. Meade, 1 Burr 542. and Rodney v. Chambers, 2 
East. 283. lam sincerely glad these cases have been shaken by the 
lord chancellor in St. Fon v. St. Fohn 11 Vez. Junr. 526. 

SK 


434 | | NOTES. 


Iam well aware, that different states of civilization require different 
ptínciples of legislation on this, as well as on every other subject ; 
that the considerations arising from the Institutions of hereditary 
rank, the privileges of primogeniture, and the importance attached 
to accumulated property, may require thre admission of marriage set- 
tlements, jointures, trust- -estates, and most of the many other compli- 
cated regulations which croud thé law books of England ; but I know 
of no state of society in which the laws ought to weaken the public 
sentiment of the indissolubility of the marriage contract, unless upon 
urgent necessity, grounded upon facts judicially established. But 
to sanction the foresight of adultery, cruelty, or desertion, upon the 
very face of the marriage contract, is to sanction the crimes themselves. 

‘Upon the subject of divorce, see Dig. 24. 2. Cod. 5. 17 and 24 and 
Nov. 22. and 117. Caus. 28 Quest. 1 and 2. Grotius II. 5. 9. Puffend. 
VI. I. 21 et seq. Selden's Uxor Hebraica. See also Code Civil 
Napol. avec les Discours, Rapports, et Opinions, &c. Tom. 1. from 
page 329 to 432. where the subject is well discussed. 

It has been said that Repudium is the proper expression for the disso- 
lution of the sponsal contract or espousals ; and Divortium for the 
dissolution of the Marriage contract. Dig. 50. 16. 101. and 191; but 
Repudium is used synonimously with divorce in Dig. 24. 2. 2. as it 
appears to me from the expressions employed ; and certainly in Cod. 5. 
17. 8. and Nov. 22 15. and elsewhere. 

Divorce, seems not properly applicable to a judicial decree declar- 
ing an unlawful marriage, void ab initio; for persons cannot well be 
said to bc divorced, who were never legally married. But it is used 
exclusively in this sense in the English law, wherein divorce a vincu- 
lo matrimoni can only take place by authority of the courts, in cases 
where the marriage was originally void from objections of consangui- 
nity, affinity, or impotence: for by the marriage act of 26 Geo. 2. 
precontract, has ceased tobe of the number of causes that would in- 
duce a Divorce a Vinculo Matrimonii. The other divorces for mat- 
ter subsequent to marriage, operate only a separation a mensa et thoro. 
In cases even of Adultery, the party complaining is driven to parlia- 
ment for redress. 

In the time of Romulus, if we may believe Plutarch (in vit.) a hus- 
band might dismiss his wife at pleasure ; and in the case of adultery, 
or intoxication, he had the power of putting her to death, as was done 
by Egnatius Mecenius, who was acquitted by Romulus for it: not par- 
doned (condonatus) but acquitted, (absolutus.) Nay, it seems to have 
been a just cause of divorce if the wife drank any strong liquor. Hence 


aye 


NOTES. | 435 


perhaps the custom of * saluting the Bride:" for Tertullian. in his 
apologet. P. 7. fol. says circo et oscula propinquis offerre necessitas 
egat ut spiritu judi icarentur G i. e. Uxores. ) To this purpose there are _ 
many authorities. : 

‘Antiently, tlie hüsband alone enjoyed the privilege of divorce ; 
forbidden by Romulus to wives. In the time of Cicero however, and 
probably long before (Juv. Sat. 9. and Mart. 1. Ep. 41.) the wives ap- 
peat to have exercised this right; thus Czlius writes to Cicero that 
Paula Valeria had divorced herself from her husband, the day of his 
return from the Province, and was to be married to D. Brutus: this 
tbo without assigning any reason, sine causa. 8. Famil. 7. 

' For along time, the disputes between husband and wife were set- 
tled on a hearing before mutual relations. Dion. Halic. II. 25. Va- 
ler. Max. II. 1. 8. Suet. Tib. 35. &c. This kind of interposition 
sometimes took place on the exercise of paternal jurisdiction. Liv. IT. 
41. Val Max. V. 8. 2. V. 9. 1. &e. &c.- 

It is said on many authorities (Dion. Halic. II. as. Aul. Gell. 
Noct. Att. IV. 3. Plutarch in Numa ét Lycurgi. Vit. et in Quest. 
Rom. 14.) that no divorce took place at Rome, from the founding of 
the city for 420 years till Spurius Carvilius Ruga, divorced his wife 
for barrenness: for which he was much blamed. The practice of di- 
vorce however, for good causes, for trifling causes, and for no cause at © 
all, soon became common. Sulpicius Gallus divorced his wife because 
he had seen her abroad ‘with her head uncovered, Val. Max. VI. 3. 
10. Pub. Sempronius Sophus, because his wife had been at a shew 
without his knowledge. Ib. n. 12. Quint. Antistius Verus, because he 
saw his wife conversing with a woman of low condition. Ib. n. 11. 
Marc Antony because he suspected his wife of an intrigue. Plut. in 
Vit. Ant. Julius Cesar, because he would not have his wife to be 
suspected. Plut. in Vit. Jul. Ces. Augustus, because he did not like 
his wife's temper. Suet. in vit. Another wife, because he quarrelled with 
her mother. Ib. Claudius dismissed one, for trifling faults, Jevibus .. 
offensis. Suet. in Vit. Presently it became the fashion both with 
husbands and wives, to dismiss each other without assigning any rea- 
son. These were repudiations and divorces bona gratia; sine causa; 
sine querela; sine causa sontica. Dig. 24. 1. 62. Dig. 40. 9. 14, 4. 
Nov. 22. 4. and 98. 2. 2. see also, cases relating tothe wife's fortune, 
where the woman procured the divorce in Dig. 24 3. 4. and 38. This 
practice was attempted to be restrained by Augustus (Suet. in vit.) 
but without effect. Seneca III. de Benef. 16. says that women now 
reckon their age, not by their years, but by their husbands ; and Juve- 


436 ‘ NOTES, 


nal (no friend to the sex) fiunt octo mariti quinque. per autumnos VI. 
228. 

Divorces however, by the law Julia de Adulteriis, required to be 
made with certain formalities certo modo, Dig. 38. 11. and were to be at* 
tested by seven witnesses of the age of puberty, Dig. 24. 2. 9. and cer- 
tain forms of words wereemployed. foras mulier. Tuas res tibi ha- 
beto, agito. Edibus facessi. so Juvenal, Collige sarcinulas ( dicit liber- 
tus ) et exi. VI. 146, Bag and Baggage, according to the homely expres 
sion of the English. See Dig. 24. 2. 2. 1 and 2. 

In the Repudium, the words were Condicione tua non utor. Dig. 
ub. sup. Conditio, is properly applicable to some state or condition 
previous to marriage: and sometimes for a treaty of marriage, as Dr. 
Taylor has shewn in several instances Justinian prohibited all divor- 
ces unless on account of chastity, Nov. 17. 10. and ordained that the 
children should not be prejudiced, Nov. 117. 7. 8. By what forms (cer- 
tis modis) the marriage that took place Ab Usu,by a years cohabita-. 
tion, was dissolved, I do not find. The marriage by Confarreatio, 
was dissolved by Diffarreatio. The separation in consequence of di- 
vorce, was Discidium ; and the Tabule nuptiales (attestation of the mar- 
riage asI construe it) and Dotales (marriage articles, settlement of 
jointure) were broken: the keys taken from the wife ( (aves adime- 
bantur ) and the forms of expression above stated or some of them 
were used toward her. If the husband was absent, he sent his wife a 
bill of divorce nuncium remittebat : this was matrimonii RENUNCIATIO. 
Divorces were recorded in the public registers (Acta.) : 

Widows could not marry within ten months of their husband's de. 
cease. L. 2. Cod. de sec. Nuptiis. See Taylor's elements. Civ. Law. 
348. et seq. and Adam's Roman Antiquities 468. where the preceding 
and additional autltorities are collected. . 

The following causes of divorce I have translated from Cod. 5. 17. 
8. Nov. 32 15. and 117. 8. 

A man may repudiate his wife, if she be 1st an adultress. 2ly a sor- 
ceress, 3lya man slayer, 4ly a kidnapper, 5ly arobber of sepulchres, 
or 6ly of churches, 7ly if she harbours thieves, 8ly or goes feasting 
with strangers, without the knowledge or against the consent of the 
husband, 9ly or walks out at night, against his inclination without 
justifiable reason, 10ly if she frequents the circus, the theatres, or the 
places where combats of wild beasts are shewn, against the directions 
ofher husband, 11ly if she attempts her husband's life, by weapons. 
or by poison 12ly if she conceals treason, or 13ly commits perjury (or 
"brings false accusation) against her husband, or 14ly attempts tp beat. 


NOTES. ' o 497 


him. So far the 'Theodosian code, confirmed by the 22nd Novel, ch.15. 
The 117th novel ch 8, adds as causes of repudiation—if the wife bathes 
with strangers without the knowledge of her husband, or goes to pub» 
lic places of amusement without his knowledge, or absents herself 
from home against his consent, unless at the house of her parents. 

A woman may repudiate her husband, 1s£ For adultery, 2ly Homicide, 
3ly Soreery, 4ly Treason, Sly Perjury, ( crimen falsitatis ) 6ly Robbery 
of sepulcbres, 7ly or Churches, 8ly Theft, Sly Harbouring thieves, 10ly 
Bringing home prostitutes, 13ly attempting his wife's life, 141y B«at- 
ing ( Flogging, Flagellis) her. The 117th novel ch. 9. adds, If the 
husband conceals his knowledge of any other person attempting her 
life : if he be accessary to another’s attempt to debauch her: if he ac- — 
cuse her of adultery and fail in the proof. , 

The crime of drinking wine, seems to have been abandoned at this 
time as a cause of divorce: noris any mention made of impotence on 
the one hand, or sterility on the other: or of age, disease, banishment, 
. vows of chastity, or monastic orders. In Nov. 23. 13. Deportation, 
and inter diction from fre and water, are declared not sufficient causes 
for dissolving matrimony : in the succeeding chapter is also condemn- 
ed the licence of a wife to take a second husBMfd, if her first being in 
the army has sent her no information respecting himself during four 

years. This term is extended to ten years; and she i is required to 
have made diligent enquiries after him. 

I say nothing of the laws of Greece on this subject; except general- 
ly that in Sparta, divorces were very difficult, in Athens very easy. 
I refer tathe Greek antiquities of Potter and Dy Bos. Among the 
Jews according to Selden’s uxor Hebraica, III. 17. old age, ugliness, 
and ill humour, were causes of divorce in a wife: so according to 24. 
Deut. 1, was uncleanness. That people did not permit the privilege 
of divorce to wives. 15. Jos.antiq. 11 and 18 Ib. 7 and 20 Ib. 15. 
In England, divorces are reasonably difficult, but the rights of infants 
seem to me superabundantly attended to, when the issue of an adul- 
terous commerce, whereon divorce is adjudicated by the legislature, is 
still considered legitimate as to all the rights of succession to the es- 
tate of the injured father. 

It is very much the fashion, (not void of foundation indeed) to a- 
buse Napoleon Buonaparte. It were much .to be wished that the 
fashion equally prevailed, of imitating the many wise acts of that ex- 
traordinary man. The subject of divorce appears to me to be better 

,settled in the Code Napoleon, than in any other system of laws anci- 
ent or modern ; - and the general subject is well handled in the pre- 


438 NOTES. 


liminary discourses of the orators on that occasion. In this country, 
the facility of divorce by management, is almost equal to that under 
the Government of France during the revolution. The case of Jack- 
son v. Jackson, 1 Johnson's New-York Rep. 424 is warranted by: 
sound law, and public expedience. 

In Pennsylvania, the legislature of late years, have not only misera- 
bly wasted their time in debating and deciding on particular casés 
(such as convicted felons) which might easily be embraced by a gene- 
ral law, but they have deliberately interfered with cases (ill usage for 
instance) notoriously within the jurisdiction of established courts. 
This wanton waste of the time and money of the people, this needless in- 
terference with judicial authority, and this facility given to applica- 
tions for divorce, appear to me great public evils: and arising from a 
deeper and more systematic plan of absorbing all kind of jurisdiction, 
and of course all power into the legislative, than is consistent with he- 
nest views to the public good. Some of the cases in which this m- 
terference has taken place, are irresistibly ludicrous: sec for instance 
the act to dissolve the marriage between Jacob Mayer and Catharihe: 
his wife, passed 28 March, 1808, which I presume the compiler of the 
index was ashamed to insert under the usual head of divorces. 

.$ 3. Qui sunt in potestate. In what cases the court will interfere 
to deliver a child whether bastard or legitimate into the custody of 
the father or the mother, see the King v. Soper. 5. Term Rep. 278. 
The King v. de Manneville, 5. East 221. The King v. Mosley, 5. 
East 224. note. The King v. Hopkins and wife 7. East 579. 

Lib. 1. Tit. X. De nuptiis page 23. In the last note but one, I 
have nearly exhausted all I had to observe on marriage, relationship 
and divorce: te which I refer. 

$ 2. De fratribus et sororibus. p. 24. See 18. Lev. 19. Deut. ch. 
27. L. 17. Cod. h. t. Dig. 45. 1. 35. 1. The Athenians and Egyptians, 
permitted the marriage of brothers and sisters. Cor. nep. in Cim. 

., iium emancipare. Otherwise the marriage would be dissolved, as 
brothers and sisters cannot marry. "Theophr. ] 

§ 3. De fratris et sororis filia vel nepte. The prohibition extends in 
England and here also I presume, to marriage generally with an illegi- 
timate relation within the levitical degrees. Haines, v. Jeffel or Jes- 
cott. 1. lord Ray. 68. 5 Mod. 168. Comb. 356. "This. was the case 
of a bastard daughter of a sister: and it falls within the reason of the 
case of the daughter ofa divorced wife by a second husband in section. 
9. of this title. : 

Cujus enim filiam, (Fc. Quere. I may not marry my aunt, my 


NOTES. 459 


grand-mother's daughter, but I may marry my cousin who is her 
daughter. Hence these words must be understood as ciijus enim fra- 
tris vel sororis filiam.  Ferriere in loc. 

§ 4. De Consobrinis. P. 25. The marriage of cousin-germans ( sobri- 
narum ) diu ignorata says Tacitus, in the speech he puts in the mouth 
of Vitellius, whom Claudius employed to defend his marriage with his 
neice Agrippina. 12 Ann. 6. But this was not true: see the case of . 
Ligustinus 42 Liv. 34. Theodosius the great, forbad the marriage of 
cousin- germans by a constitution not extant, which was confirmed in 
substance by Arcadius law 5. of the Theodosian code, de incestuis nup- 
tiis, who afterwards repealed his own and his father's law by L. cele- 
brandis 19. Cod. de nuptiis. Inthe west, Honorius forbad the marriage 
of cousin-germans L. 7. Cod. Theod. Si nupt. ex rescript. pet. After 
the death of Justinian, the law of Theodosius was established again. 
Hence the law celebrandis 19. Cod. de nuptiis has been retrenched from 
the Theodosian Code. These fluctuations of the principle, that the 
4th degree is not prohibited, most probably depended on the foresight 
of the benefit of dispensations. 

§ 5. De Amita 25. The aunt by the father's side, matertera 
being the aunt on the motber's side. In this section, the adoptive 
paternal aunt is forbidden, but not the adoptive maternal aunt. The 
reason is, that adoption being the work of the paternal father only, it 
draws with it agnation or relationship on the father's side only. Dig. 
38. 8. 1. 4 and dig. 1. 7. 23. nec avunculus nec matertera per adoptio- 
nem fieri possunt Dig. 23. 2. 12. 4. Hence a man might marry the 
daughter of an adoptive sister, but notof adoptive brother. For the 
former follows the family of the natural father of the sister, but the 
father of the latter hath become allied by adoption. Matertera in Dig. 
23. 2. 55. 1. should be struck out. Ferriere. 

$ 12. De penis injustarum nuptiarum. — Constitutionibus. Decu- 
rions, because the curia or senate of the Colonies was supposed to con- 
sist of the tenth part of the people: that is atthe beginning. Dig. 50. 
16. 239. Harris. | | 

The Decurions were a kind of provincial senators and regulated all | . 
the public business of the place they lived in. It was an honourable, 
but an expensive and troublesome employ.  Thislegitimation fer ob/a- 
tionem curie introduced by Theodosius the younger, entitled the son 
to succeed to the father, but did not draw with it agnation. Lex. 3. 
Cod. de natur. lib. L. 9. Cod. eod. Nov. 89 ch. 2 cum seq. The last. 
sentence of this section is of difficult meaning, for where was the ne- 
necessity of granting by law the rights of legitimation to legitimate. 


440 NOTES. 


children?  Ferriere thinks it relates only to the case of achild in ven- 
tre sa mere, at the time of marriage ; which otherwise would have ta- 
ken its civil state from the time of conception. 

A third method of legitimation by imperial rescript, was introdu- 
ced by Justinian, Nov. 74. c. 2 and 89 and c. 9. and 10. 

Nec non is, qui, &c. By a constitution or canon of Pope Alexander, 
the third, it was enacted, “ that children born before the solemnization 
* of matrimony might nevertheless become legitimate by the subse- 
* quent marriage of their parents. And in consequence of his canon, 
* all the bishops of England in the reign of Hen. 3rd, petitioned the 
* lords, that they would consent that all such who were born before 
* matrimony, should be legitimate, as well as those who were born af- 
* ter matrimony, in respect of hereditary succession, inasmuch as the. 
* church accepteth all such, as legitimate." But all the earls and barons 
with one voice answered that they would not change the laws of Eng- 
land, which had hitherto been used and approved. Stat. Mert. 20 
Hen. 3 Co. Litt. 245. or 2 Co. Inst. 97. 

Tu. XI $1. Divisio adoptionis p. 28. Adoption was of two 
kinds, 1st. simple adoption of a filius familias, 2ly, adoption by ro- 
gation of a pater familias; so called because the parties were asked 
rogantur, if they were content so.to do. The former took place 
before magistrates, Dig. 1. 7. de adoptionibus, Aul. Gell noct. 
att. L. 5. c. 19. The latter by imperial letters Dig. 1. 7. 1 Aul. Gell. ub. 
sup. Cod. 8. 48. Ferriere. (Ferriere’s other references to the Digest 
and the Code, do not support this position.) Adoption forms no part 
of the law of England: but if a person takes the the child of another 
to bring it up, and (in popular language) adopts it as part of the fami- 
ly, the person thus adopting stands in /oco parentis. 'Thus in Édmon- 
son v. Machell 2 Term Reports 4 an aunt recovered damages per quod 
servitium amisit for debauching her niece. So also in Jrwin v. Dear- 
man, 11 East 23. damages -of the same kind were given to a man who. 
had brought up the daughter ofhis friend. This may be called a qua- 
si adoption. Bracton L.’3 ch. 29. mentions another kind, viz. where a 
husband rears and educates his wife's bastard, he shall be considered 
as heir to the husband on presumption that he might have been legi- 
timate: heres judicabitur, eo quod nascitur de uxore, dum tamen pre- 
sumi possit quod poterit ibsum genuisse. 

6 2 Ex nostra constitutione. Vid. Cod. 5.27.10. De naturalibus 
liberis. ; 

Non extraneo. ‘That is, any person out of the direct line: for per- 
sons adopted by an uncle or great uncle, are considered in the aame 

light as if adopted by a stranger. Vinnius. 


NOTES. 441 


$ 3. De arrogatione impuberis, p. 29. Bonorum mesas not merely 
goods and chattele, but estate end property, Law 206. Dig. de verbor. 
signif. and L. 2. Cod. eod. This fourth part became due as a debt 
tfter the deccase of the adoptive father, and might be recovered by a 
condictio de lege, Dig. 37. 6. 1. 21. The adoption of impuberes was 
first allowed by Antoninus Pius, provided it was uhder the" authority 
of imperial letters. By impuberes arc here meant, not boys under 14 
and girls under 12, when they were at liberty to contract matrimony, 
" but the ages of 14 and 18. See post. § 4 of this Title. 

69. Si is qui generare, Sc. Spado, is one who is incapable of pro- 
creation ; and the disability may arise either from a permanent cause, 
as castration, or a temporary one. Dig. 23. 3. 39. 1. Dig. 28. 2. 9. The 
prohibitien in the other case, founded on the silly reason that a man 
who could not naturally be a father, could not be so by adoptive fic- 
tion, wastabrogated by Leo, Mov. 86. 

$ 10. Si famina adoptet. They might be arrogated by imperial 
rescript. Dig. 1, 7. 24. But the adoptive fiction was restrained here 
viso at fret: because even children by marriage could not take the 
mame or come under the power of the mother. The emperor Leo, 
Nov. 26, permitted women-who never had children, and even unmar- 
ried women to adopt. 

§ 12. Deservo adoptato. Nostra constitutione: viz. Cod. 7. 6. 10. 
de lat. libert. tollend. 

Tit. 12. Sutbus modis jus patrie potestatis soloiter, p. $3. There 
are some curious cases in the English books on the doctrine of filial 
emancipation, as connected with parochial settlement. The King v» 
Tottengton, Caldecot. Sett. Cas. 287. The King v. Broad- Hembury. 
H. 25 Geo. 3. 2 Const. 55. 10 East, 91. The King v. Witton cum 
Twambrooke, 3 Term. Rep. 355. wherein Lord Kenyon’s opinion is 
corrected in 10 East, 90. Rex v. Sowerby, 2 East, 276. The King v. 
Roach, 6 Term Rep. 247. Rex 9. Woburn, 8 Term Rep. 479. The 
King v. the Inhabitants of Cowhoneyborne, 10 East, 88. 

§ 1. De deportatione. Deportation was banishment for life: at- 
tended with the joss of civil rights and forfeiture of property. Re- 
legation, was banishment for years, without the less of civil rights. 
Dig. 48.22. throughout. nd so is the Jaw of England, vid. Co. 
Litt. 133, throughout. 

En what cascs the replication of Exile, Relegation, Banishment or 
Abjuration, on the part of a woman suing as feme sole is necessary, see 
Bagyet v. Frier et al. 11 East, 301, where the principle of Marshall 
and Ruttoz, 8 Term Rep. 545. and Chambers and Donaldson, 9 East, 

3 L 


442 NOTES. 


471. are recognized. The terms exile, relegation, and banishment 
however, are not to be found but in the marginal abstract. 

§ 3. De servitute pena, p. 34: Slaves of punishment, as having no 
certain or specified master. "This kind of servitude was abolished by 
Justinian, Nov. 22. 8. | ! 

§ 4. De dignitate. See Cod- 12. 3. 5 de Consulibus. Nov. 70. by 
which emancipation was annexed to the consular, episcopal and some 
other dignities. | 

Patriciatus dignitas, In Livy’s time, this belonged to the children 
of ancientsenatorial familics: but on the removal of the seat of go- 
vernment to Byzantium, this title was confined to persons chosen by 
the emperors as counsellors of state after having been Curule ZEdiles. 

$ 5. De Captivitate et postliminio, p. 35. The paternal power was 
only suspended during captivity. Dig. 14. 6. ult. Dig. 49. 15. 13. 1. 
The captives had a right to two fictions of law intheir favour. 1st 
The jus postliminii; by which the period of captivity was merged, 
and the captive on his return, entered into all his rights, as if he had 
never been absent. Dig. 38. 16. 15. Dig. 14. 6. 1. 1. - Dig. 26. 1.- 
6. ult. But he could not change or set aside, acts legally performed 
jn his absence. Dig. 4. 6. 19. 2ly The Lex Cornelia, regarded those 

. who died in captivity, as having died the moment preceding their cap- 
tivity. L. 6. Cod. de poss. rev. 

€ 6. De emancipatione, p. 35. By the law of the 12 Tables, a son 
was free when his father had sold him three times. Sz pater filium ter 
venumduit, filius a patre liber esto. The three-fold sale was thus con- 
ducted. The father sold his son to a mutual friend, who paid him a 
piece of money ( Sestertius ) in the presence of five witnesses, and of 
the Libripens or scale-holder. The purchaser then held the son as a 
slave. He then enfranchised him by the Vindicta; whereupon the 
son being free from slavery, again returned under power of his father, 
who in the same manner sold him a second time. He was then en- 
franchised a second time ; sold a third time to the father (for. other- 
wise, the seller had he manumitted him, would have been entitled to the 
rights of a patron) who liberated him in the usual manner. 

The parties to this proceeding (Emancipatio per es et libram ) were 
the father Pater: the friend, Pater fiduciarius : the Libripens or ba- 
lance-holder : the Antestator, or person who summoned the witnesses 
&c. 1 Hor. Sat. 9. v. 76: the witnesses Testes. The process manci- 
patio ; manu traditio ; by the words mancupo tibi hunc filium qui meus 
est. The purchaser holding up the money, said hunc ego hominem ex jure 
Quiritiam meum esse aio, isque mihi emptus est hoc ere, ancaque libra 


NOTES. 443: 


(brazen scales) and striking the scales with the money, paid it. over 
to the pater or natural father. When all was ended, the son became ’ 
libra et ere liberatus, Liv. VI. 14, and sui juris. Before coin was com- 
mon, money was weighed out, and assis, «s, was a pound weight, Liv 
IV. 60. In emancipating a daughter or grand-child, the same formali- 
ties were repeated but once. This process was so troublesome, that 
at length ‘Anastasius dispensed with the fiduciary sale, and Justinian 
abolished the ceremony altogether, Cod. 8. 49. 6. 

§ De nepote nato post filium emancipatum, p. 37. By the civil law, 
second marriages were discountengpced, but not forbidden. A widow 
was obliged to wear mourning for her husband ten months, which was 
the extent of the year under Romulus. Ovid. Fast. I. 27. The year 
was extended by Numa to 12 months. Plut. in Vit. Butthe prohibi- 
tion in cases of widowhood extended only to 10 months notwithstand- 
ing; that being the period in which it was supposed a posthumous 
child might be born: Ov. Fast. I. 33. By the constitutions however 
of several emperors (Gratianus, Valentinian, Theodosius, &c-) widow- 
hood was extended to the year, and if a widow married infra annum 
luctus, she lost her share of'her husband's effects, Cod. 5. 9. unless 
in case of a dispensation from the Emperor, Dig. 3. 9.10. But Wi- 
dows were not compellable to mourn for.their husbands: that is as I 
understand it, not to wear mourning, or to go through any. forms or ce- 
remonies for that purpose, Dig. 3. 2. 9. the prohibition of marriage 
under the stated penalties continued nevertheless. The year of mourn- 
ing, was also the time adopted before the conquest, Co. Litt. 8. &. and 
by the Saxons: Leges Anglo-Sax. Wilk. 109. 122. 144. But there is no 
prohibition of marriage to widows at any time after their husband's 
decease, either by the divine law, the canon law, or the present 
Jaw of England. . 2 Burn Ecc. law, 416. 

As to the law in favour of the heir, providing against a spurious 
posthumous offspring, De ventre in possessionem. mittendo, et curatore 
ejus,seeDig. 27. 9. As to the Englishlaw de ventre inspictendo, and the 
time at which a child may be born aíter access by the English law, to 
wit, forty weeks, it is fully discussed in Co. Litt. 193. and the notes of 
the editor thereupon. 

§ 10. An parentes cogi possunt, t9c. p. 37. Emancipation might be 
compelled by the son, 1st on account of improper severity on part of 
the father: 2ly If the father ordered the son to do any indecent act : 
or Sly If he refused proper nourishment. Dis. 1.7. 32. Dig. 35. 1. 50. 
Dig. 37. 12. 5. Cod 1. 4 12, 


444 NOTES, 


And a fathcr might furce his son to be emancipated in all cases 
which would justify disinherison. Dig. 45. 1. 132. with the commen- 
tary of Bart. and Mynsych. 

Lib. 13. De Tutelis. p. 37, Males under 14, and females under 12, 
(impuberes ) were Pupills and under Tutors. Minors under 25 (which 
was adult age by the civil law) were under Curators: even though 
the males were Patres familias. The father’s power extended 
throughout adult age. 

The English law respecting guardians (which does not like the ci- 
vil law, appoint Curators for minorgge a separate office) may be found 
fully and learnedly discussed in. Co. Litt. 85 to 90. with Hargreave’s 
notes. 

§ 3. Quibus testamento tutor datur, p. 38. Tutores dare, Because af- 
ter puberty, curators only can be appointed. 

9 5. De emancipatis, p. 39. Because the father having exercised 
his judgment and discretion, it is deemed evidence of sufficiency. 
So in England it will require a stróng case to authorize the appoint- 
ment of a receiver against an executor, which however is sometimes 
done, see 12 Vez. 4 Anonymous. and 13 Vez. 266. Middleton 9. Dods- 
well, and the cases there cited. "The first of these, determines, that 
poverty alone is not a sufficient greund to authorize the  eppointment 
of a receiver over an executor. 

Tit. 14. Qui tutores, &c. p. 39. This seems contrary to the rule, 
Dig. 48- 5. 21. by which those who are in the power of another cannot. 
have others under their power. But this must be understood of the 
same kind of power. A filius familias under the power of his father, 
cannot atthe same time have parental authority: but other kinds of 
authority he may havc. It may be enquired, if the son of a family, 
may be appointed, where is the security, for the faithful discharge of 
his duty? Answer: 1st, the effects of the fi/ius fumilias, are always 
bound. ly, If the father assent to the tutelage, undertaken by the 
son, the father ia bound. Dig. 26. 1. 7. and 26. 7.21. àly. If thelaw 
casts the tutelage, security is required: if it be conferrcd by testament 
the testator 1s deemed a competent judge, in a case, where he is so 
much concerned on account of his children. Women could not be ap- 
pointed, except mothers and grand-mothers by special rescript. Dig. 
26. 1. 18. Cod. 5. 35. 2, and Nov. 118. 5. In England women may 
be appointed. 

§ 5. De tutore dato. See Dig. 26.2.6. It is an established rule 
that words are to be understood in their common and obvious mean- 


NOTES. 445 


ing, unless the centext absolutely requires another. Dig. 50. 16. 201. 
Dig. 14 6. 14. Dig. 23. 2. 59. 

This section of Justinian, is referred to by Foster Justice, in Rev 
v. Taunton, St. Mary Magdalen, cited 4 Term. Rep. 798. Whether 
child includes grand-children, must depend on the context: it 
does not appear to me that there is any rule precisely settled about it. 
In Wythe v. Thurlston, Amb. 555 Hussey v. Dillon, Ib. 604. and Gall 
v. Bennet, Ib. 681. bequest to child, was held to include grand-child. 
But in Cooke v. Brooking 2 Vern. 107. where there was a child and se- 
veral grand-children, the latter were held not to fall under the term of 
the bequest. The King v. Taunton, St. Mary Magdalen, which was 
acase under the certificate act relating to the settlement of pau- 
pers, Burr. 402, was set aside by Lord Kenyon, in the King v. the 
inhabitants of Darlington, 4 Term Rep. 799. and in Radcliffe, and Buct- 
ley, where the modern cases are considered, 10 Vez. 195: it is there 
decided that under a bequest to children, grand-children are not entitled 
. unless the will would be inoperative without them ; a point before deter- 
mined by Lord Alvanley in Reeves v.'Brymer, 4 Vez. 698. 

The other cases relating to the construction of words of this class, 
in a devise are collected by Roper on Legacies, 8 et seq. and in 6 Cruise 
on real property, 183, 187. 

Tit. 15. $ 1. Sui sunt agnati. Agnati, relations by the male side : 
/'ognati, by the female side. Change of civil condition might destroy 
agnation, Dig. 26. 4.7. and L.4. $ ult. Cod. de leg. tut. Dig. 38. 10. 10. 2. 
Dig. 38. 16. 2. 1. ‘fhe difference between agnati and cognati was done 
away by Justihian Nov. 118. 4. 5. 

By alaw of tlie twelve tables, if a man died intestate without chil. 
dren, the law cast the inheritance upon the agnati. If he left a child, 
the agnatt were called to the tutelage by operation also of law; 
for the Romans were of opinion the next heir to the pupil was the 
properest person to take care of the estate, being most interested in it. 
By a law of Solon, the nest in succession was excluded from the tu- 
telage, from suspicion that the pupil was not safe under his care. So 
by the English law, guardian in socage must be next of blood who 
cannot inherit. Co. Litt. 88. A hard rule. Dormer’s case, 2 P. W. 263. 

Tit. 19. De fiductaria Tutela, p. 46. Perfecte aint cmtatis. That is 
35 years of age. 

Age has been well enough divided into 


Infantia 1—7 Infan 
jnority i Pueritia 7—14 Childhood 
Pubertas — 14—323 — Puberty 


446 NOTES. 


Juventus 25—50 Youth 
Majority. Virilitas 50—70 Manhood 
Senium 70—c. Old-age. 


According to modern notions however, youth can hardly be extend- 
ed to fifty. Yet I recollect that Julius.Cesar at the age of fifty, is 
some where called »asex@ a young man. The ancients seem to have 
extended the nominal period of youth longer than the moderns, thus 
Aristotle, regards the age of 37 as the proper time for a man to mar- 
ry. 

The different privileges of different ages by the law of England, is 
wellexpressed by Blackstone inhis Commentaries. “The Mareat12 
may take the oath of Allegiance : at fourteen is at years of discretion, 
and may therefore consent or disagree to marriage ; may choose his 
Guardian, and if his discretion be actually proved, may make his tes- 
tament of his personalestate ; at seventeen may be an executor ; and 
at twenty one is at his own disposal, and may aliene his lands, goods 
and chattels. A FEMALE,also at seven years may be betrothed or 
given in marriage ; at nine is entitled to Dower ; attwelve is at years 
of maturity, and therefore may consent or disagree to marriage ; and if 
proved to have sufficient discretion may bequeath her personal estate ; at 
fourtecn is at years of legal discretion, and may choose a Guardian; 
at seventeen may be executrix ; and at twenty-one may dispose of her- 
self and her lands ; so that the full age in male and female is 21 years ; 
which age is completed on the day preceding the anniversary of a per- 
son's birth, who till that time is an Infant, and so stiled in law.” 

Minority by the French Code, extends also to the age of 21 years. 
I confess this appears to me a period uponthe whole too early to put 
A young man in possession of all the rights belonging to adult age. 
Still more objectionable are the privileges given by the English law to 
intervening ages ; as (iat a boy and a girl of 14 and 12 may consent to 
marriage; which however is the regulation of the civil law also. 

The French provisions as to minority; tutelage, and emancipatioa 
gre to be found in the 11th law or title, of the code Napoleon. 

Tit. 20. De Atiliano Tutore, c. 47. The law Attilia was a plebis- 
cite passed 44-4. U. C. of the law Julia and Titia there is no certain ac- 
count. This legal appointment of a Tutor, is somewhat like the ap- 
pointment of Guardians by application to the Court of Chancery, Ab.ca, 
in Eq. 260: and the like practice obtains in Pennsylvania. It took 
place either whenthere was no legal, or no testamentary tutor, or 
when the latter had only conditional and qualified powers, or wished 
to be excused for good reasons, or suffered a change of state, or if the 


NOTES. | 447 


tutor died, or if he or the pupil were taken captive. Marcus. Aurelius 
appointed two Fretors, whose sole occupation was the appointment of 
tutors. Capifolin. in Divo Marco ch. 10. But I apprehend, this was 
in defect not only of testamentary tutors, but where in cases of intes- 
tacy the Tutela legitima did not take place for want of a near agnate 
on whom it should fall by law. 

§ 7. De Tutele ratione reddenda. By the civil law, an.action of 
Tutelage could not be sustained till the Tutelage expired. Dig. 27. 3. 
4. Butin England a minor may oblige his guardian to account by pro- 
chein ami. 

Tit 21. In quibus causis auctoritas sit necessaria, p. 49. 

The generalrules of the Civil law and of the English law for the 
protection of Infants, proceed on the same obvious principle, that no 
ene shall be permitted to take advantage of the. want of experience to 
which an infant is necessarily subject. But the Englishlaw or rather 
the feudal law, certainly goes to the utmost verge of reason and jus- 
tice, when itstops the progress ofa suit whereina minor isa party and 
claims by descent, or defends in debt as heir, by suffering the parol to 
demur until the minor arrive at full age. This was unknown to the 
civil law where the guardian (whether tutor or curator) might conduct 
the cause—where a curator might be appointed compulsorily for the 
management of a suit on behalf of an infant—and where the infant 
when of age bad à remedy against his tutor for fraud or negligence, 
and a minor had the same fight of suing his curator even during his 
minority. This indeed is the case in England, where also the Guar- 
dian may besued by prochein ami. See 14. Vin. Ab. 198. 2. Cro. 
640. Simpson and Simpson v. Fackson, wherein it was determined that 
an infant may sue by prochein ami, but must defend by guardian. 
The same right of suit in favour of infants obtains in this country al- 
so. See Parsons v. Mills et al. 2 Massach. Rep. 80. 

I apprehend that strictly, the law of Pennsylvania, will admit the 
parol to demur in the same cases with the English law. For although 
in suits where an infant is defendant and no guardian appointed, the 
court on motion will appoint the clerk of the court, or any indifferent 
person a Guardian pro lite, yet this no more interferes with the law 
respecting the parol demurring, than the same practice in England 
under Shipman and Stevens, 2 Wils. 50. Moreover, I apprehend the 
general law of England on this head, is judicially recognized in Penn- 
sylvania, as the judges of the supreme court have adopted one of the 
exceptions to it, towit, 6 Edw. 1 ch. 2: but they have not noticed 


448 , NOTES. 


another, viz. the stat. of west. 1st : 3 Edw. 1 ch. 46. Sec 3 Binn. 601. 
602. app. 

Even by the old law, the parol did not demur, in dover, or quare 
impedit, or waste, where the remedy was required to be speedy, nor 
in partition, where no title was involved : and until the act of assem- 
bly of Pennsylvania, giving new form and subsance to the action of 
ejectment, it might have been doubted, whether any suit in this state 
could arise, wherein the question could be made whether the parol 
should demur. But now by act of 21 March, 1806, the action of 
ejectment is so formed, that it differs only from a real action, in as 
much as one verdict is not conclusive. 

As to the appointment of guardians pro lite, it might be made 2 
question whether the laws establishing the orphan’s court conld ens. 
ble the bench there to appoint compulsorily a guardian pro lite to ap- 
pear in another court, and whether any other court has power to appomt 
to such a guardian. But the practice seems to authorize it. 

With respect to the other states, I am not able to give precise infor- 
mation on this head. 

In Virginia indeed, it is declared by an express law of 1797, ch. 98. 

that the parol shall not demur in any suit. on account of infancy. 3 
Tucker’s Blackstone, p. 300. n. Their practice in common cases is 
to appoint a guardian pro lite on motion, with notice to the infant 
Fox v. Cosby, 2 Call’s Virginia reports, p. 1 
. The cases relating to the privilege of infancv, may be collected 
from that title in Co. Litt. with Hargreave and Butler’s notes, and 
Williams's Saunders, as to real property. The cases bearing on their 
civil contracts, are well collected by Bacon, in his abridgment; by Es- 
pinasse, in his Digest ; and in Comyn'slaw of contracts. The body of 
chancery decisions, must be sought for in: the ch. reports under that 
head, where among other cases relating to infancy, the rights of wards 
in chancery and female infants generally, are protected with an assidu- 
ous severity, carried to the full length of public expedience. If the 
hands of husbands be so tied up by chancery, as effectually to prevent 
their wasting the property acquired through the wife, their exertions 
for the improvement of their common fortune, are also cramped—credi- 
tors are misled by the appearance of opulence to trust the husband be- 
yond the funds they can ultimately apply to——and women are carefully 
instructed in rights and interests, separate from those of their husbands. 
The state of society may require these protections and precautions, 
but it is a state cf society nct to be envied, in this respect at least. 


NOTES. ao 


Since the preceding compilations, it seems to be decided in Willi 
amson v. Watts, 1 Camp. C. Rep. et Nis. Pri. 552. That although an 
infant may give a single bill without a penalty for necessaries and bind 
himself, he cannot give a bill of exchange. ' Although the single bill 
is out of use in England, it is not so here. "E 

The provisions of the French code, respecting tutelage and the in- 
terests of infants, will be found in the references under the article J4- 
neur.: Recueil. Tom. 2. Titres 8, 9 & 10. | 

The following are the principal cases I have found in American re- 
porters, as to the contracts of infants. 

In 1 Dall. 166. Silver v. Shelback: it was decided that the appear- 
ance of an infant to a suit brought against him, is nota judicial act, 
and is fatal on error: and unless in certain cases of real actions, judg- 
ment against an infant will be reversed at full age. 

Stansbury v. Marks, 4 Dall. 130. Infancy may be given in evidence 
on non assumpsit in Pennsylvania, owing to the intermingling of come 
mon law and equity jurisdictions in that state. 

Hart v. Hosack, 1 Caines N. Y. Rep. 26. An infant of 14 years put 
on trial with a physician, cannot at his own will beconie a student, so 
as to charge his parent with the student's fee. 

Court will not discharge an infant out of custody on that ground 
only, where no fraud is suggested ; but will leave him to use infancy 3 in 
his defence. Clemson v. Bush, 3 Binn. 413. 

Weed v. Ellis, 3 Caines, 253. The guardian of an infant may arbi- 
trate on behalf of his ward: and the plea of performance will bar tlie 
infant at full age. 

Van Winkle v. Ketcham, 3 Caines, 823. The note of an infant given 
in course of trade cannot be enforced against him. 

Conroe v. Bridshail, 1 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 127. An infant at the time 
of executing a bond, alledged he was full age: yet the bond was held 
void as against him. 

Jackson ex dem. Renselear v. Whitlock, Ib. 213. Whether an infant 
can be disseized, and then bound to bring his action within ten 
years of his coming of age? 

The plea of infancy can be pleaded by or on behalf of the infant on- 
iy : it is a personal privilege. Van Bramer v. Cooper impleaded with 
Van Bramer, 2 Johns. N. Y. Rep Same point decided in Zartness v. 
Lhompson and others, 5 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 160. Insuchacase where 
there are several defendants and one of them an infant, the plaintiff 
may enter nol pros. against the infant and proceed against the rest, 
or the jury may find for the infant, and against the other defendants. 

3M 


M 


450 NOTES. 


Whether the deed of land by an infant to A, is avoided by his 
deed for the same land to B, when he is at full age? ‘Jackson ex 
dem, Dunbar et al. v. Todd, 6 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 257. Knapp v. Cros- 
by. 1 Massach. Rep. 476. Judgment cannot be taken against an 
infant who does not appear by Guardian. 

In re Augustus le Forrestiere. 2 Mass. Rep. 419. Can an infant 
be naturalized in this country on his own petition? or on that of his 
guardian ? 

. 1 Washington's Virg. Rep. 299, Buckner v. Smith. An infant gave a 
bond fora gaming debt: en arriving at full age he promised to pay it: 
held that he was bound. 2 Hening and Munford's Vir. Rep. 289. Fitz- . 
hugh v. Anderson et al. Infancy does not stop the act of limitations. 

Tabb et al. 9. Archer et al. 3 Hen. and Mun. 400. Infants may con- 
tract by marriage articles which they cannot set aside on arriving at 
full age. Indeed, those articles enure to the benefit of the children 
who may be the first of that marriage. Harris and M‘Henry’s Mary- 
land Reports, Vol.1. p. 459. Lane and Gover. Infant defendant ap- 
pearing by guardian, in ejectment, is liable to process for costs. 

Ib. p. 67. Infant, and those claiming under him, not diverted by — 
the cancelling of a part in chancery, if he was not made a party. 

Ib. 152. Infant not barred by an adverse twenty years possession. 
Cheseldine v. Brewer. 

Ib. 568. Infant feme fole bound by a marriage settlement at semble. 

Tit. 23. De Curatoribus, p. 58. These agreed with tutors in that 
' they might be appointed by the same magistrates, were held to secu- 
rity, might be excused or removed for good reasons, assigned. ‘They 
differed from tutors, in that a tutor might be appointed without the 
consent of the pupil, whith generally speaking, a curator could not 
be. A tutor was appointed principally tothe care of the person, a 
‘curator to the care of the property. A father could not appoint a 
curator by will; he might declare a testamentary tutor. ^A tutot 
could not be sued by the pupil till after tutelage, a curator might be 

sued by the minor during his curatorship. In these several respects, 
the office of curator approached nearer to that of our Guardian, than a 
utor. See Cujacius, observ. L. 17. ch 7. A curator might be ap- 
pointed compulsorily ad lites, in caseof a payment made by a debtor to 
& minor creditor. Dig. 4, 4. 7. 2, or where a tutor gave in his ac- 
count, L. 7. Cod. qui petant Tut. | 
Until the time of Caracalla and Justinian, from the difficulty that 
minors experienced in getting possession of their property, they were 
induced to apply to the courts, to have curators appointed, Dig. 4 4 


* 


NOTES. 451 


1. 3. Dig. 26. 6. 2. 4 and 5. But those emperors relaxed the prac- 
tice and exonerated-persons from compulsory curatorship. 

Masculi quidem puberes. By the civil law, males of twenty five 
years of age, and females of eighteen having given sufficient proof by 
fivc or more witnesses of their prudence and morality, might obtain à 
licente from the emperor enabling them to manage their own affairs, 
under proper restrictions. For minors are not permitted by this licence 
to aliene, or even to mortgage their immoveable possessions, without 
a special decree for this purpose. Cod. 2. 45. 1,2, 3. De his qui 
ven. tat, impetr. 

§ 1. A guibus dentur-curatores. Testamento non dantur. Fora father 
cannot dispose of the goods of his son arrived at puberty, who a€ that 
age may make a will for himself, Dig. 28. 6. But the magistrates 
usually appointed the curator recommended by the father, Dig. 36.1 
39. 1. ' 
§ 2. Quibus dentur. Item inviti adolescentes.] Revardus and others 
have accused Tribonian, as guilty of an error, in saying, that minors, 
after fourteen, could not be obliged to receive curators.——And, in 
support of their accusation, they alledge the opinion of U/pian, whose 
words are these. Hodie in hanc usque etatem adolescentes curatorum 
auxilio reguntur, nec ante rei sue administratio eis committi. debebit, 
quamvis bene rem suam gerentibus, ff. 4. t. 4. 1. 1——But it must 
be observed, that, with regard to minors after puberty the Roman law 
has frequently been altered. By the law Letoria, ann. urb. con. 550 
such adults only, who behaved ill, were obligéd to receive curators af- 
ter proof had been made of their ill behavior. But afterwards it was 
enacted, by a constitution of Marcus Antoninus, Ut omnes adulti, cura- 
.tores acciperent, non redditis causis: which must mean, that adults 
might be obliged to receive curators, although nothing could be alledged 
against their conduct: for it is certain, that adults Ne voluntarily 
receive curators, even before the law Letoria. hen Obpian 
wrote, the constitution of Marcus Antoninus was as p nrepealed ;: 
but afterwards, in the latter part of the reign of Antoninus Caracalla, 
it appears from Cod. 5. t. 31. f. 1. that the Roman law was agam  al- 
tered, and that curators could not be gtven, but to such minors as were 
willing to receive them, unless a4 litem. | 

And in this, the law of England may be said to agree in general 
with the civil law: for, with us, guardianship regularly determines, 
when the minor has completed his fourteenth year ; except, when there 
' $$ a guardian by nature, or when the father of a minor has specially 
appointed a guardian cither by deed, or will, to continue for a longer 








452 NOTES. 


time. And therefore a minor, after fourteen, being of course freed 
from custody, is at liberty, if willing, to put himsclf a second time un- 
der guardianship, until he is of full age. But, if a minor, being an 
adult, does not consent to receive a new guardian, then no court would 
appoint a guardian, unless ad litem. 

But, if a testator nominates a guardian, till his son arrives at 
full age, then the son, although above fourteen, is compelled to receive 
the guardian, who is thus expressly appointed for a certain time ; but, 
if no certain time is mentioned, there is then no guardianship, if the 
minor is an adult. Vaugh. 185. (Harris.) 

§ 3. De furiosis et prodigis. The text is here deficient and the 
translation follows the pharaphrase of Theophilus. 

In England, whose decisions I believe are generally adopted in this 
country, lunatics are put into commission under chancery jurisdiction: 
and lunacy is held to extend not merely to strict insanity, but to all 
cases of mental imbccility or incapacity from any cause, as disease,ha- 
bitual intoxication, &c. Ridgeway ». Darwin, 8 Vez. 65. ex parte Cran- 
mer, 12 Vez. 445. How far thc court of chancery will interfere in the 
disposal of alunatic's estate, what nature and extent is conceded to a 
commission of lunacy, and to what controul they are subject, will be 
found under this head in cach of the volumes of Vezey, j junior, from 8. 
to 14. 

In Holland I believe curators are appointed to take care of the estate 
of prodigals. See the cases cited in the notes to Follict v. Ogden. 1 
Henry Blackstone's Rep. 131. 

The chancery jurisdiction in cases of ideocy and lunacy in England, 
arises from the fiction that the king is the guardian of all such persons. 
4 Co. Rep. 125. 

Tit. 24. Qui satisdare cogantur, p- 55. This was done by joint se- 
curity; fide-jussore. Dig. 46. 6. pass. except in testamentary cura- 
torships, for the same reason that we do not compel an executor, al- 
though, we compel an administrator to give security. Guardians ap- 
pointed by the court, were sometimes exempted. Dig. 26. 2. 17. 19. 
L. penult Cod. de tut. et cur. qui non satisd. L. 7. $ 5.Cod. de 
curat. fur. Dig. 26. 5. 13 et ult. 

$ 2. Sui ex administratione. Sciendum. Various remedies are givem 
to pupiis and minors, who have received any damage by the male-ad- 
ministration or negligence of their tutors or curators. | 

The personal actions, to which minors are intitled, against their tue 
tors or curaiors, are called Actiones tutele and negociorum gesterum 
uliles.—— S uicquid tutoris dolo vel lata culpa aut levi, seu curatoris, mé~ 


NOTES. 453 


nares amiserint, vel, cum possent, non acquisierint ; hoc in tutcle seu ne- 
gotiorum gestorum utile judictum venire, non est incerti juri:. 
Cod. 5. t. 51. 1. 7. 

And the heirs of tutors and curators are also liable to the satac ac- 
tions ob dolum et latamculpam. Cod. 2. t. 19. /. 17. 

Pupils or minors may also sue the sureties of their tutors or ccr2- 
tors, (and even their heirs) by an action arising from the s:ipulscion 
entered into by such sureties. D. 27. t£. 7.1.3, 5. Cod. 5. t. 57.7. 1, 5. 

And lastly, as their dernier resort, minors have a right to an ac- 
tion called subsidiary, against any magistrate, who hath neglected in 
do his duty, either by taking no security, or what was not suffici.c. 
D. 27. t. 8. |. 1. $. 6. 

But the heirs of tutors, curators, sureties and magistrates, are on! 
suable in cases of fraud in themselves, or in those, to whom they ar« 
heirs; but not merely on account of negligence. D. 27. t. 7. 1. 4. C. 
5. t. 75. 1. 2. Claude Ferriere, h. t. (Harris.) 

[Constitutionibus ] Cod 5. t. 43. &. 3. 

Cicero mentions the judicium tutele, otat. pro Roscio 6. Delinquent 
tutors were sometimes very severely punished: see Suet. in Galb. 

6 3. Si tutor vel curator cavere nolit. L. 3. Cod. de suspect. tut. - 

€ 4. Qui dicta actione non tenentur. — Exirere solent. The action 
of caution was the business of inferior magistrates : of the scribes at 
Rome, and of the Duumviri in the provinces. Cod. 5. 75. ult. Dig. 
27.8. 1. Dig. 15. 1. 1. (Harris.) 

Tit. 25. De numero Liberorum. p. 57. Excusantur autem. There 

' is no compulsory guardianship either in England, or this country. 

§ 1. De administratione rei fiscalis. In semestribus. The semestre 
concilium was a privy counsel, composed of a certain number of sena- 
tors chosen by lot, and changed every six months. This council was 
first appointed by Augustus Cesar, that he might diminish the power 
of the senate and encrease his own. Suet. in Aug. ch. 35. Dion. 
L. 53. Dig-27. 1. 41. Cod. 5. 62. 10. 25. 

' § 4. De lite cum pupillo, &c. p. 58. This law is now useless, for by 
the 72nd Novel, Justinian prohibited the debtors and creditots of mi- 
nors from being tutors or curators. (Harris.) 

§ 5. De tribus tutela et cure óneribus. See Dig. 27. 1. 51. 

§ 6. De paupertate. Divi fratres. The emperors were stiled divi, 

or divine, because they were considered in every respect as gods, after 

- the ceremony of their apotheosis had been performed. Hered. Lib. 
3. The divi fratres here spoken of, are conjectured by Vinnius to 


4354 NOTES. . J 


have bccn Marcus Aurelius, and /Elius Verus, the sons of Antoninus 
Pius. 

9 11. De Inimicuiis, &c. p. 60. By a capital enmity, is under- 
stood such as might arise from a public accusation, affecting the life, 
liberty, and good nameof the party accused. Dig. 50. 16. 103. But 
even such an accusation would not excuse a testamentary tutor, inas- 
much as the appointment would imply the testator’s forgiveness, unless 
it appeared ihat he acted upon another motive, and intended only to 
lay a burden upon the person,.whom he had nominated.  Heinecc. 
' Vinn. 

$ 14. De Militia. But if he had voluntarily acted, he would be 
subject to the action negotiorum gestorum. Cod. 5.33.4. Cod. & 
36. 8 

$ 16. De tempore et modo proponendi, &c. p. 61. Non appellant. 
That is, they should not appeal from the appointment, but from the 
decision by which their excuses were rejected. Dig. 49. 4. 1. 

Tit. 26. Unde suspecti : p. 62. Crimen here means an accusation. | 
So it is rendered by Theophilus Whee THO xarsyopiae. So Cicero pro Ro- 
scio; ** Roscius appears to me to have three obstacles to contend with, 
Crimen adversariorum, et audacia, et Potentia? (Harris.) 

6 2. Qui suspecti fieri possunt, p. 63. Et possunt quidem omnes. 
Guardians at common law may be removed or compelled to give se- 
curity, if there appears any danger of their abusing either the person 
or the estate of the minor. Stiles, 456. Hard. 96. 3 Chan. rep. 58.1 
Sid. 424. 

But there is no instance of the removal of a statute guardian. Yet 
terms have frequently been imposed, so as effectually to prevent such 
guardian from doing any act to the prejudice of the minor. But guere 
whether causes may not arise for which a statute or testamentary guar- 
dian may be totally removed, notwithstanding the statute; as if he be- 
came lunatic, &c. for a geardianship being a personal is not an assignable 
office; nor can it go to executors or administrators. Vaugh. 180. Cas. in 
eq. ab. 261. So far Harris. That guardianship ie not assignable, 9 Mod. 
90. Reynolds v. Lady Tenham. Mellish v». Da Costa, 2 Atk. 14. It 
was decided in Foster v. Denny, 2 Cas. in Ch. 237. that although a 
guardian at common law might be removed, a statute guardian could 
not. But I doubt whether this be law, see the cases of Reach 
v. Garvan, 1 Vez. Sen. 160. Duke of Beaufort v. Berty,1 P. Will. 704. 
O'Keefe v. Casey, 1 Sch. ànd Lefroy, 106. 

Guardians under the English law, were either guardians, íst, By 
chivalry: or 2ly, Bysocage: or Sly, By nature, as the parent: oe 


NOTES. 455 


4ly, By nurture, which is nearly the same: or 5ly, By statute, (to wit, 
by 4 and 5 Ph. and Mary Ch. 8 and 12 Ch. 2 ch. 24. whiehly enables a 
father to appoint a testamentary guardian: or 6ly, By custom. Co. 
Litt. 88. b. To which may be added after Hargreave in his notes there- 
on, 7ly, By election of the infant; before a judge on the circuit, orby 
decd, as in the case of lord Baltimore for the custody of his Maryland 
estate: or 8ly, By appointment of the chancellor: or 9ly, By the ec- 
clesiastical court: or 10ly, Ad litem. 

In Pennsylvania, we have no chivalry: nor as I incline to think 
any tenure in the socage since the revolution, notwithstanding the terms 
of Penn’s charter. Our tenure, being free ef any rent or service, but 
‘what the state (i. e. the great mass of citizens) imposes by common 
consent, seems to be, allodial. We acknowledge guardianship of pa- 
rents, and guardians appointed by will of the parents, and guardianship 
by appointment of the orphans court, without the consent of the minors 
if under 14 by petition of the mother or prochein ami, and with the 
consent of the minors if above 14, signified in open court. Our laws 
also, compel guardians and executors of whatever description to give 
security, if good cause be shown ; and forlike cause I apprehend they 
are also compellable to give additional security, or may be removed : 
see the laws of this state relating to the power and duties of the or- 
phan's court. 

Curators are appointed to minors by the code Napoleon; which 
also adopts the provision of the civil law for curators ad custodiam 
ventris, in favour of the heir. 

Fama patroni parcendum. The action was directed to be an action 
on the case, in factum, in which no suggestion of fraud was permit- 
ted. Dig. 4. 3. 11. 

§ 5. Qui dicatur suspectus, P 64. Cod. 5. 43. 93. 

9 12. Si suspectus satis offerat, et quis dicatur suspectus, p. 64. 
The provisions of the latter part of this section are supported by Rex 
v. Sir Richard Haines, 1 Lord Ray. 361. and 12 Mod. 205. and Hill 
v. Mills, 1 Show. 293. and 12 Mod. 9. Anonymous, 12 Vez. 4. Gene- 
rally although the court of chancery on evidence of misapplication of 
assets, or danger of the estate will appoint a receiver over an executor, 
it must be a strong case, Middletén v. Dodswell, 13 Vez. 266. 

Liber 2. Tit. 2. De fuminibus et portubus, p. 68. see Hargreave’s 
law tracts de portibus maris ; and the cases of Cortelyon v. Van Brundt, 

"2 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 360. anda full discussion of the right of fsherv in - 
Pennsylvania, in Carson v. Blazer, 2 Binney 475. 

$ 4. Deusuet proprietate riparum. Sec farther onthis subject Dig. 

43. 12, 3. and 41. 1. 15. 30. 


P d 


456 NOTES. 


The law of Pennsylvania on this subject will be found in part in the 
case of Carsomo. Blazer, above cited from 2 Binn. 475. Astothelaw 
of England consult the 6th chapter of Sir Mathew Hale's treatise, de 
fortibus maris, published by Hargreave among his law tracts: the 
case of Young v. ; 1 Ld Raymond, 726, which determines that 
at common law, the public are entitled to towing paths along the banks 
of navigable rivers; also againdetermined by Holt, in Domina regina 
v. the Inhabitants of Cheworth, 6 Mod. 163. overruled in Ball v. Her- 
bert, 3 Term Rep. 253, where the question is discussed at length. 
The case of the London wharves, 1 Sir W. Black. 583, determined that 
commissioners appointed by the king to lay out wharves, could only 
lay them out in places unbuilt on and open. As to the right of taking 
fish on the sea shore between high water mark and low water mark, 
see Bagottv. Orr, 2 Bos. and Pull. 472. 

6 10. De rebus sanctis. p. 70. Res sancte, that is, res sancita: sanc- 
tionc aliqua munite : protected specially, I have translated it holy, as 
Harris has done; but the meaning may be different from Res sacrz, 
and Res religiose, which were set apart for religious purposes, and 
were divini juris: so in the same sense, the persons of princes and 
embassadors were sancte. Liv. III. 55. Magistrates, &c. Dig. 1. 8. 
8. 1. But res sancte also include the res sacre and religiose. Gaius 
in Dig. 1. 8. 1. pr. Sanctum esse interdum idem quod sacrum, idemque 
quod religiosum: interdum aliud, hoc est nec sacrum nec religiosum. 
Macrob. L.c. | 

$ II. De reb. singulorum. p. 70. Dominium is divided into three 
kinds by the civilians. It is either, 1st directum dominium, or usufruc- 
tuary dominion. Dominium utile, as between landlord and tenant. Or 
itis 2ly full property and simple property. The former is such asbe- 
longs to the cultivator of his own estate, the other is the property of 
a tenant. 3ly Dominion acquired by the law of nations, and dominion 
acquired by municipal law. By the law of nations property may be 
acquired by occupation, by accession, by commixtion, by use or the 
pernancy of the usufruct, and by tradition or delivery. 

As to the dominium eminens, the right of the public in cases of e- 
mergency to seize upon the property of individuals, and convert it to 
public use ; and the rightof individuals in similar cases to commit 
trespass onthe persons and properties of others, sec the opinion of chief 
justice M‘Kean, in Respublica v. Sparhawk, 1 Dallas, 362, and the case 
of Vanhorne v. Dorrance, 2 Dall. Rep. 304. Iam not convinced by 
Judge Patterson in that case, thata just compensation . must always be 
a money price. | 





NOTES. 457 


See farther as to dominium eminens, or the right of the community to 
take at a fair price the property of individuals for public use, the sup- 
plement of 1802 to the Pennsylvania compromising law respecting the 
Wyoming controversy. Vattel L. I, ch. 20. § 244—248. Bynker- 
shoek, Lib. 2. ch. 15. Rousseau’s social compact, ch. 9. Domat, L. 1. 
tit. 8. 61 p. 381. fol ed. De Tott’s‘mem. the case of a Jew, whom 
the Grand Signor was compelled by the Mufti to purchase out: cited 
in Lindsay et al. v. the Commissioners, 2. Bay. South Carolinarep. 41. 

§ 13. De vulneratione. In Sutton and Moody, 1 Salk. 556. 1 Lord 
Ray, 250. Comyns, rep. 34 cited in Vere v. lord Cawdon, 11 East. 
570, if one start a hare in my close and kill her there, it is my hare: 
otherwise if he hunt her into the ground of another; for thenit is the 
hunter’s. Though this indeed is not exactly the case of the text. 

In Pierson v. Post, 3 Caines N. Y. rep. 175. the question is very 
fully discussed, with references to the civil law doctrine, and the law 
as laid. down by Puffendorf and Barbeyrac, and Fleta, and Blackstone ; 
and determined that wild animals, fere nature (this was the case of a 
fox) become the subjects of occupancy, only when they are either tak- 
en, or so disabled or circumvented as to render their capture certain = 
and therefore, that no action will lie against B for killing such an 
animal, originally started and pursued by the Plaintiff A who was on 
the point oftaking it. That a fox is always so considered is certain, see 
the opinion of the court, in Respublica o. Sparhawhk, late above quoted. 

I confess I do not consider the subject exactly in the same point o£: 
view. It appears to me that the question is not merely whether 
the animal pursued be ferz nature or not, but whether it be wild and 
noxious, without being valuable. A fox, a bear, a stag, a beaver, a . 
racoon, an otter, &c. are clearly wild animals ; but the skin of them 
may be of more value than the flesh of a tame animal of equal size. 
If. I pursue the creature for profit, I am entitled to it, if I have so con- 
ducted the chase as to put the animal in my power: any other per- 
son coming in between me and manucaption in such a case, cannot be 
considered as entitled to any part of the prey. Just as if a ship of 
war of abelligerent, pursues an'enemy?s vessel, and so gains upon her, 
being of superior force also, that the capture is certain, in such a case, 
another vessel of the same belligerent assisting, would not be entitled 
to any share of the prize money : but if the latter vessel, rendered a 
doubtful chance certain, and contributed to take a prize which proba- 
bly would not have been taken without such assistance, then the prize 
cannot be claimed in toto by the first pursuer. 

But if the wild animal be pursued not for profit but extirpation, 

3 N 


458 NOTES. 


_ ‘then, any intervenient person, may as I suppose, lawfully assist; dad 


no action lies against him for killing it, though started and chased by 
another : as was determined in Pierson v. Post. Still, a distinction 
may reasonably suggest itself, when the animal is pursued not for the 
mere purpose of extirpation, but for the pleasure of hunting, accord- 
ing to the usual rules and practice of those who follow that amusement. 
I well remember that in my time and in my immediate neighbourhood 


‘in Cheshire in England, foxes were regularly imported from France 


\ 


to supply the demands of the Hunt. The sudden shooting of a fox 
just ran down after a day’s chase, wouldin that part of the kingdom be - 
regarded as an outrageupon the rights of the pursuers, and upon the 
rules of good manners, not tamely to be borne. But the law has hi- 
therto it seems, refused to recognize the rights of Foxhunters. 

§ 14 De Apibus, p. 72. In conformity to the doctrine here laid 
down, it is decided in Gillet v. Mason, 7 Johns. N. York Rep. 16, that 
Bees are.fere nature, and until hived and reclaimed, no property 
can be acquired in them: and that the finding a Bee-tree on the land 
of another, and marking it with the initials ofthe finder's name, is not 
such an appropriation as will be a substitute for the actual reclaiming 
iof them: nor canthe finder maintain trespass against any other person 
who under these circumstances cuts down the tree, and takes the ho- 
ney. 

In Wallis o.-Mease, 3 Binney, 546, It was determined that wild bees 
remaining on the tree where they have hived, not withstanding the 
tree is upon the land of an individual, and he has confined them im it, 
are not the subjects of felony. This section of Justinian is there cited 
and assented to by Judge Brackenridge, who enters at some length 
into the reason of the doctrine : see 2 Blacks. Comm. 392. Bro. Abs. 
title Property, 37. 

$ 18. De occupatione eorum, p. 73. Found—means, not merely dis- 
covered, but taken up. Dig. 41. 2. 1. 1. 

§ 19. De fatu animalium, p. 78. That is by accession: which is 
‘st by increment of stock. 2ly By alluvion. 3ly An article manufac- 


" tured out ‘of ‘materials belonging tous. 4ly By the annexation or 


-junction to our property, of something belonging to another. 


$ 20. De alluvione, p 74. This doctrine of alluvion is the law of 
England also: See 2 Black. Comm. 261. Adams v. frethingham S 
Massach. Rep. 352. 

§ 21. De vi fluminis, p. 74. Dig. 41. 1. 7. 1. Dig. 39. 2. 9. 2 But 
if I leave it till it can no more be separated; I have a right to nedbind 


NOTES. |... 459 


but an action for the value. Dig. 6. 1. 23. 3. and 6. 1. 5. $. Dig. | 


41. 1. 9. Lord Ray. 737 Waterman v. Soper. 

$ 32. De insula, p. 74. The law of England 1s different, by which 
it belongs to the king. 2 Black. Comm. 761. Some of the principles 
on this subject are touched in Carson v. Blazer. 2 Binn. 485. 

$ 33 De alveo, p. 75. Dig. 45. 12. 1. 7. Dig. 7. 4. 24.. Dig. 41. 
1. 7. 5. 


§ 25, De specificatione p. 75. Sabinianorum et Proculianorum.] The 


two sects of Sabinians and Proculians took their rise in the reign of 
Augustus, but were not distinguished by any particular appellation, 
till long afterwards: for the Sabinians obtained their name from Sa- 
binus, who was a. favourite of the emperor Tiberius; and the Procu- 
lians were so called from Proculus, who flourished under Vespsian. It 
is generally held, that A£teius Capito, who lived in the Augustan age, 
and was a person remarkable for his great attachment to precédents 
and old customs, was the chief of the Sabintans ;.and that Antistius 
Labeo, his cotemporary, who did not confine himself. wholly . to, rules, 
but followed principally the dictates of reason. and his own 'under- 

standing, was the head of the Proculian sect. These sects continued in 


vogue tothe reign of Marcus Aurelius, till which time, the studentgof 1 


the law generally attached themselves to eithcr-the one.ox, the other 
But the lawyers of that reign affected neither. party in particular; for 
at different times they dispassionately approved the opiniens of. either 
sect, as they judged them more or lessiagreeable to justice and rigia 
reason: and they generally endeavoured by an equal temptimtate, t6 


avoid the absurdities, into which both parties, by reason of theixgreat — 


dislike and opposition to each other, had frequently fallen. 4 ln de 
origine juris. Hist. du droit Romain, paz. Claude Ferrjere, .- 

These lawyers (who from their conduct were denpmigated PCI 
cundi, from the old verb. erciscere to divide) are the persons, hinted at 
by Yustinian in this paragraph 3 as observing e. just mean bewegt the 
two parties. (Harris) 

This is somewhat like the old question of the: schools, 'an » forma, 
dat esse rei: which Proculus determined in the affirmative,, Dig. 41. 
1. 7. 7. See onthis subject Janson v. Collins, 1 sir W. Bl. gor and 
the referrences to Puffend. and Selden’s Mare claus. 

§ 26. De accessione, p. 77. Dig. 6. 1. 23. 5 and 6. 1.26.1 Dig. 34, 
2» 19. 13. 

- "The Condictio lies against the heirs of the purloiner ; ; Dig 13, 1. 5 
. Against other possessors, the action ad exhibendum lies, to ascertain 


whether the two materials can be separated. Dig. 10. 4. 6 and 7. 


, 


am 


a 


460 ! NOTES, 


Dig. 6. 1. 33. If it cannot, then the action triticaria lies : Dig. 13. 3. 1 
or the action on the case (in factum ) Dig. 6. 1. 5. 

$ 27 De confusione, p. 77. Electrum, seems to be Amber in 4 Plin. 
16 and 37. Plin. 2. But in 33. Plin 9. itis a metal, as it is here. Pla- 
tina? See Thompson's Chemistry, Platina. 

6 29. De his qui solo cedunt, p. 78. Dig. 41. 1. 7. 10. Dig. 6. 1. f. 
11 and 6. 1. 23. ult. Dig. 41. 2. 30. Dig. 41. 3. 24. As to the action 
de Tigno juncto, see Dig. 41. 1. 7. 10. Dig. 6. 1. 23. 6. Dig. 47., 3. 1. 
and 47. 3. 2. 

§ 30. De aedificatione ex sua materia, p. 78. Dig. 41. 7. 12. Dig. 6. 
1. 7. et seq. L. 2 and 5. Cod. eod. Dig. 6. 1. 38. Dig. 50. 17. 203. 

§ 31. De Plantatione, p. 79. But the owner of the tree may recover 
$ts value. Dig. 6. 1. 5. 3. and 6. 1. 23. 5. 

Confinium. ‘The Romans required five feet to be left between farm 
and farm asa boundary: or rather, between the trees of your neigh- 
bour and your own ; except in the case of an olive ora fig, when they 


. yequired a space of nine feet between: agreeable to a law of Solon, 


quoted Dig. 10. 1. 13. 
§ 32. De sationc, p. 80. Dig. 6.1. 23. 3. Dig. 41. 3. 25. Dig. 41. 1. 9. 
§ 33. De scriptura, p. 80. I apprehend this would not now be consider- 
ed as law,.the value ofthe paper being so much more easily paid than 
the writing ; cohformably to the principle of the next section de pictu- 


. 7a. Herein agreeing with the argument of Sir. W. Blackstone against 


Thurlow in the great case of literary property; Tonson v. Collins, 1. 
Sr. W. Bl. 324. 307. | 


$ 85. De fructibus bona fide perceptis, p. 82. Dig. 41. 3. 45. Dig. 41. 
1. 4. Dig.: 41. 3. 4. 19. ] 


§ 37. Que sunt in fructu, p. 83. Dig. 22. 1. 38. 5. Dig. 41.3. 28. 
1. Dig. 7. 1. 68. 

. But although the child may not strictly be called fructus, which is 
applied rather to natural productions by way of accession, and a female 
slave cannot be said naturally to be destined to produce bond children 
Dig. 21. 1. 44, such offspring is nevertheless a species of revenue, 
Dig. 41. 3. 8, and 14. Dig. 35. 2. 24. 1. Dig. $0. 1. 91. 7. 

§ 38. De officio fructuarii, p. 83. A flock is a noun aggregate, and 
therefore must be restored as a flock by the usufructuary ; but if each 
sheep of the flock had been specifically bequeathed in usufruct, the usu- 
fructuary would not be bound to replace those who died. Dig. 7. 1. 


70. 3. See some observations on usufructuary rights in Putnam y. 
Wylic, 8 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 433. | 


NOTES. 461 


$ De inventione Thesauri, p. 83. By a treasure is meant something 
of which the owner is absolutely unknown, else Revendication. would 
attach. Dig. 6. 1. 6. Dig. 10.4 15. Treasure trove, under some of 
the Emperors, belonged entirely to the treasury, Lib. 15. Tacit. An- 
nal. L. 1. Cod. Theodos. de Thesaur. Adrian (according to his life 
by Spartian) gave the treasure exclusively to the finder, if found on 
his own grounds,or in any religious or sacred place. Butif found on 
another man's ground, it was divided between the finder and the owner 
of the ground. | 

Marcus Antoninus and Verus, directed, that if found in a fiscal, re- 
ligious, or sacred place, one half should go to the treasury. Dig. 49. 14. 
3 penult. Leo, decided according to the opinion cf Hadrian (Adri- 
an) L. un. Cod. Thesaur, and so did Justinian in the present section. 

As to mines. Formerly the owner of the land had the exclusive 
right. Dig. 7. 1. 13. 5. latterly the emperor exacted a toll, L. 1 and 2. 
Cod. de metall. 

Thesauros] ‘Treasures naturally belong to the finder ; that is, to 
him, who moves them from the place where they are, and' secures 
them ; yet nothing forbids but that the laws and customs of any coun- 
try may ordain otherwise. lato was desirous, that notice should be 
given to the magistrates, and that the oracle should be consulted : 
and Apollonius, looking upon a treasure found asa particular blessing 
from heaven, adjudged itto the beet man. The Hebrews gave it to 
the owner of the ground where it was found, as may be gathered from 
Christ's parable, Matt. xiii. 44. and, that the Syrians did the same, 
we may infer from a story in Philostratus, lib. vi. cap. 16. The laws 
of the Roman emperors are very various upon this subject, as appears 
partly from their constitutions, and partly from the histories of Lam- 
pridius, Zonarus and Cedrenus. The Germans awarded treasures found, 
and indeed all other adersosa (i. ¢. things without an owner) to their 
prince ; which is now grown so common, that it may pass for’ the law 
of nations ; for it is now observed in Germany, France, Spain, Den- 
mark,and England; where treasure-trove is understood to be any 
gold or silver, in coin, plate or bullion, which hath been of ancient time 
hidden ; and wheresoever it is found, if no person can prove itto be his 
property, it belongs to the king, or his grantee. A concealment of trea- 
sure-treve is now only punished by fine and imprisonment; but it ap- 
pears from Glanville and Bracton, that occultatio thesauri inventi frau- 
dulosa was formerly an offence punishable with death. 3. Co. inst. 132, 
133. Custum. de Norm. cup. 18. Grot. de jur. bell. et pac. 1.2. cap. 8. 
eect. 7. Harris. 


462 NOTES. 


§ 40. De traditione, p. 8&4. Stipendiaria ; paid tribute to the people ; 
Tributaria, to the prince. 

Tradition or delivery, is either real, as of a piece of goods to the 
purchaser, or symbolical, as the keys of a house ; or with us, a ship's 
papers. Dig. 18. 1. 74. 

§ 41. Limitatio, p. 84. Ex promissor, bondsman: one who makes 
himself originally liable for the debtor. Ad promissor, a guarantee, 
or surety. . 

By the civil law, goods sold and delivered might be reclaimed if 
not duly paid for. Dig. 18. 1. 19 and 53. Dig. 14. 4. 5 penult. Dif. 
19. 1. 11. 2. 

Thursby’s assignees v. Gray's administrators. Debton bond. Com. 
Pleas, Northumberland county, 1808. Spring, a storekeeper, purcha- 
$ed goods at public auction belonging to Thursby, and gave bond for 
the payment of the amount in six months ; in which bond, Gray joined 
as surety. The bond was not demanded at the expiration of the six 
months either from Spring or from Gray: it lay thus till Spring be- 
came insolvent about two years from the date of the bond. It 
did not appear that payment had ever been demanded, either from 
Spring or Gray. Spring’s insolvency began to be suspected about a 
twelvemonth before he actually failed. Previous to that time, and for a 
twelvemonth or more from the date of the bond, it might have been 
received on demand, or recovered at law, without doubt. Spring lived 
‘in Northumberland town, and Gray in Sunbury, about two miles off. 
Sometime after Spting’s failure the assignees of Thursby brought suit 
on the bond against the administrators of Gray. I charged the jury 
that the administrators of Gray under these circumstances, were not 
liable. The jury brought in a verdict accordingly. 

This case came on to be argued in the supreme court of Pennsyl- 
vania, sitting at Sunbury in June, on the ground of misdirection of the 
judge in point of law, and it was held that the doctrine laid down by 
judge Cooper was not supported to this extent, by any case in the 
English books, and the verdict was setaside. This case is not report- 
ed in Binney ; I am therefore unable to state the precise grounds of 
decision of the supreme court. But as a view of the leading cases 
of suretvship may be of use to a student, I have collected them. 
“ Surety relieved in equity where a bond was continued in use without 
* his privity, he thinking the same to be paid. Bullock and Pope, 11 
* Car. 1. Tothill’s reports in chancery, p. 180.” 

The same point (equally broad) in Saunders v. Churchilland Smith. 
Jb. 181. 


- 


NOTES. 465 


The same point in Moile v. Roberts, Ib. 163. 

The same point in Hare v. Mitchell, Ib. 81. 

The same point Carey’s Chancery Reports p. 1 and 2.. 

The leading principle of the following cases, is, that 4 the contract 
* of a surety shall be construed according to the letter, strictly and in 
‘shis favour: and shall not be extended by implication.” A doc- 
trine indeed, laid down as the result of all the cases of suretyship, 
nearly in the same words by Lord'Mansfield in Dance et al. v. Girdler, 
4 Bos. and Pull. 34. and by Byller in Stratton v. Rastall,2 Term Rep. 
370. and by Spencer and Thompson Justices, in Ludlow vy. Simond in 
error. 2 New-York, cases in error, 29. 57. 

Lord Arlington v. Merrick, 2 Saund, 411. 

Horton v. Day. Ib. in notis. 

Wright v. Russel, 3 Wils. 530. 2 Black. Rep. 934. 

Ship v. Hay, 3. Atk- 91. 

Barker v. Parker, 1 Term Rep. 287. A 

Barcklay v. Lewis, Ib. in not. E 

Stratton 9 Ralston, 2 Term Rep. 366, 

1 Barns, 214. 

Nesbitt v. Smith et al. 2 Prr. Ch. Cas. 579. 

Rees v. Barrington, 2 Vez. junr. 540. 

Law v. East India Comp, 4 Vez. 824. 

Dance v. Girdler, 4 Bos. and Pull. 34. 

Leverpool Comp. v. Atkinson, 6 East, 509. 

To these may be added the analogy of all the cases, relating to the 
holding over a negotiable security as a bill of exchange. See also 
the people v. Fansen et al. 7 Johns. 382, 

The above case however, of Thursby’s Assignees v. Gray's adminis- 
trators, seems to settle the law in Pennsylvania, that no surety in 3 - 
bond can discharge himself, but by payment of principal and interest. - 

This 41st Section is discussed in Ludlow v. Bowne and Eddy. 1 Johns. 
N.Y. rep. p. 17. which in part is a case of stoppage in transitu; a 
branch of law connected with, and as it seems to me arjsing out of the 
doctrine laid down ip the first sentence of this section, though some« 
what modified. The general principle involved in the right of stoppage 
in transitu, is, that goods being ordered by a customer, aüd packed 
up and. sent off to be delivered according to that order by the mer- 
chant may be stopt in their way or passage to the place. of delivery if 
the merchant has reason to suspect the solvency of the consignee, or 
purchaser. — 


*4 


464 NOTES. 


The first case reported in the books on this subject wherein the right 
of stoppage intransitu was allowed, is Wiseman v. Vandeputt, 2 V ern. 
203. which was confirmed obiter.in Snee and Baxter v. Prescott et al. 
1 Atkins, 249. and in Birkitt v. Fenkins cited in Vale v. Bayle, Cowp. 
296. 

The cases are very numerous on this head, and it would immoder- 
ately extend this note, to abridge them all; but the leading principles 
already settled, are, that as between vendor or consignor, and vendee 
or consignee, the property of goods ogdered and sent, is not altered 
till actual delivery ; and the vendor has a right to stop them in tran- 
situ: but 1st, This is a right that exists only between the consignor 
and the consignee ; and cannot be defeated, by the contracts, or pro- 
ceedings of third persons, excepting those who claim by boná fide 
purchase and sale under the consignee. 2ndly. It can be exercised 
only during the transit: thus goods may be stopped in the hands of 
a carrier: but if delivered into the possession of the agent: or of the 
accustomed wharfinger of the consignee: or if to any wharfinger, who 
makes an entry of them in the name of the consignee, and charges 
him with wharfage : or if the consignor charges ware-house-room after 
they are packed up: or if the assignee of the consignee puts his mark 
upon them and exercises ownership over them: or if they are direct- 
ed to be sent and are sent to any particular place, though short of the 
place of abode of the consignee, who then exercises the right of or- 
dering them to an ulterior destination: (but compare Stokes v- Riviere, 
cited 3 Term Rep. 466, & 1 Campb. 282, with 5 East, 175,) or though 
there be only a part delivery to, or an actual occupancy of a part only 
by the consignee his agent or his assignee, it stands for a delivery 
and occupancy of the whole, and destroys the right of stoppage in the 
: transitu. But part payment does not take away this right; nor is the 
vendor affected by any agreement between the consignee and the car- 
rier, or by any lien of the latter, but the vendor may pay the carriage 
and retake the goods; and hold them on his own account, or may 
agam tender ther to the vendee and bring suit thereupon for,the 
amount, if no loss or damage hath arisen from the detention. Sdly, 
The assignment of a bill of lading divests the vendor of this right, 
as it was held atfirst to do in Lichbarrow v. Mason, 2 Term Rep. 
63, overruled in error in the exchequer chamber, 1 Hen. Blacks. 357: 
and finally settled as at first decided, 6 Term Rep. 20. Newson 9. 
Thornton: for the bill of lading is now considered in the light of a ne- 
gotiable instrument. So, where the vendor gives an order to the veridee, 
who thereupon procures an entry of them to be made in his name as 


NOTÉS. | 463 


owner; or becomes liable for ware-house-room or wharfage} or on 
the strength of that order, sells them to a third person bona fide ; or 
where they by any means come into possession of a bona fide purchaser 
under an act of ownership of the first vendee, in all these cases, the 
vendor's right of stoppage in transitu is divested. , | 

4thly. As to suits of trover against catriers, or assumpsit by them: 
Carriers are liable to trover by the vendor} for goods while in their 
possession are in transit: when once delivered according to order; 
the carriers are discharged. As to their right of action for the carri- 
age. It seems that unless the general rule be modified by some spe- 
cial agreement, the consignee is liable for freight and catriage: they 
are delivered to the carrier as being the goods of the consignee to be 
delivered to him. Hence the consignee may sue the carrier for loss 
or damage, for on delivery to the carrier, the property vests in the 
consignee, subject only to the right of the consignor to stop them in 
transitu. 3 Bos. and Pull. 48. 119. and Dutton v. Solomonson, ib. 582. 
Coxe v. Harden, 4 East, 911. 1 Johns. N. Y. Rep. Ludlow v. Bowne 
and Eddy. ' 

sthly. The bankruptcy of the vendee, does not of itself opetate as 
a countermand of the order, or avoid the sale. | 

The French law às laid by Pothier in his Traité du Contrat de Vente. 
^ 332, is conformable to this section of the Institutes: viz. that even 
though the goods be delivered to the purchaser, the property is not out ' 
of the owner tillthey are paid for, unless under a special contract of 
selling them on credit. 

The following list of cases on tlie subject of stoppage ih Trabsitu, 4— 
may be of use, as I do not know where else they are collected. 

Wiseman v Vandeput, 2 Vern. 203. A. D. 1690. 

5nec and Baxter v. Prescott et ul, i Atk. 246. A; D. 1743. 

Fearon v. Bowers, cited 1 Hen. Blacks. 364: A. D; 1753. 

Burghall v. Howard, cited in the same case. 32 Geo. 2: 

Hirkit v. Fenkins in Vale v. Bale. Cowp. 296: : 

2 Term Rep. (Durn. and East,) 63. o 


1 Hen. Blacks. 357. 
Lickbarrow v. Mason, 4. 2 Her. Blacks. 211. « 
5 Term Rep. 683. 

6 Term Rep. 20. 

‘Solomons v. Nissin, 2 Term Rep. 674. 

Kinlock v. Craig, 3 Term Rep. 119. 

Ellis v. Hunt, 3 Tern Rep. 464. 

Newison v. Thornton, 6 Term Rep. 20. 

Dwenson v. Morse, 7 Teim Rep. 65. | 

Hodgson v. Loy, 7 'Term Rep. 441. 

Daws v. Peck, 8 Term Rep. 330. | 


- 30 


| 
| 


468 . NOTES. En 


Sweet v. Pym, 1 East, Rep. 4. 

Inglis v. Usherwood, Ib. 515. 

Feize v. Wray, 8 East, 93. 

Walley v. Montgomery, 8 East, 583. 1 
Dixon v. Baldwin, 5 East, 175. 
Newsonv. Thornton, 6 East, 20. I 
Cuming v. Brown, 9 East, 506. 


Slubey et al. ». Heyward et al. 2 Hen. Blacks. 504. 

Mills v. Ball, 2 Bosanq. and Pull. 457. Openheim v. Russel, 3 Bos. 
and Pull. 42. Richardson v. Goss, 3 Bos. and Pull. 119. Scot v. 
Petit, 3 Bos. and Pull. 469. ' ZHammon v. Anderson, 4 Bos. and Pull. 
(New rep.) 69. | | 

Northie v. Cragg, 2 Esp. rcp. 613. Wright v. Lawes, 4 Esp. rep. 85. 

Kymer 9. Sowercropp, 1 Campb rep. at Nis. Prius, 109. Smith v. 
Goss, 1 Campb. 282.  Harvy v. Mangles,1 Campb. 452. Harman v. 
Anderson, 2 Campb. 243. 

Ihave met wich but the following two cases, among the American 
Reporters. | Hollingsworth v. Napicr, 3 Caines N. Y. rep. 182. Lud- 
low v. Bowne and Eddy, 1 Johns. N. Y. rep. 1 in error. 

$ 43 De quasi traditione, p. 85. <Acquiritur proprietas. This is 
called fictio brevis manus: which takes place when goods are put into 
the possession of some person by way of deposit or loan, and are after-. 
wards givén or sold to the same person, he being already the posses- 
sor. "Dig. 23. 3. 43. Harris. | 

6 44. De traditione clavium, p. 85. The spirit of this section would 
embrace our law as to'the delivery of possession by the delivery of 
documents and muniments of title. 

$ 46. De habitis pro derelicto, p. 85. The English law of waifes, 
I presume does not extend to this country: in that country waifes, 
bona waiviata belong to the prince by Prerogativ e, 1 Blacks. Comm. 
297. 

§ 47. De jactis in Mare levande navis causa. Item. &c. p. 86. As 
to things Fetsam, Flotsam and Ligan,see 1 Black. Comm. 293. 

Furtum comnittit.] None of those goods, which are called Fetsam, 
(from being cast into the sea while the ship is in danger) or those 


called Fletsam (from floating after shipwreck) or those called Ligan, 


(that is, goods sunk in the sea, but tied to a buoy, that they may be 

found) are to be esteemed wreck, so long as they remain in the sea, 

And by 3 Edw. 1 cap. 4. it is enacted-— Tat if a man, cat, or dog, 

escape alive out of the ship, whereby the owner of the gocds may be 

Anown, neither the vessel, nor any thing therein, shall be adjudged 

wrecks but shall be restored to the owner, if he claims within a year 
> | 


NOTES. 467 


and a day. A man, cat, or dog, are only put for examples; but all 
other living things are to be understood ; and, if the owner of the 
ship should die within the year and a day, his executors or adminis- 
trators may make proof. 2. Co. inst. 167, 168. Wood's inst. 214. If 
the goods are taken away by wrong-doers, the owner may have his ac- 
tion: and, if the wrong-doers are unknown, he may have a commission 
of oyer and terminer, to inquire what persons committed the trespass, 
and make restitution. Harris. 

Tit. 2. De servitutibus, p. 87. Servitus est jus quo res alterius, rei vel 
persone servit, Dig. 8.1. 1. Nemini res sua servit, Dig. 8. 2. 26. 
Dig. 7.6.5. Servitus, aservice, isa right by which one thing is syb- 
jected to the use or convenience of another thing or person, contrary to 
common right; and not where one person is subject to another person ; 
which is servitude, though sometime called servitus: as, servitus 
uterina, Taylor 426. 411. 407. Inst. 1. 3. 2. Dig. 1. 5. 4. 1. In trans- 
lating this word by the word services I follow Waod’s civil law, Tay- 
lor's Elem. civ. law. and Harris. Iam aware that lord Mansfield in 
Waring v. Griffith et al. 1 Burr. 443, translates it SERviTUDr. But, 


he was more intent upon the substance, than the expression, and I pre- | 


fer Taylor's authority as a critic, to Lord. Mansfield's. Cambaceres 
has Servitudes ou Services. Code civil Nap. Art. N°. 526. 

6 1. De servitutibus urbanis, p. 88. In the Roman law, all houses 
and buildings whether in town or country are called Predia Urbana: 
and all lands, whether meadow arable, or vineyard, are called Pradia 
Rustica: Dig. 50. 16. 198. V 4 ^4. bc qe Y» 227 ^. 

Predia urbana, city services; are affirmative of negative. 

Affirmative: as that I may rest my beam on my neighbour's wall: 
that my house shall in part rest on his wall: that my house may pro- 
ject so as to throw the path upon his premises: that my eaves may 
overhang upon his side: that my sink or gutter may pass through 
his ground: that I may put out lights that overlook him: that my 
prospect shall be uninterrupted by his buildings, &c. all of which are 
noticed in the eighth book of the Digests. 


Negative services are, that his eaves shall not drop upon my ground: . 
that he shall not build so as to darken my lights, or hinder my prose”. 


pect: that he shall not put out a window to overlook me: that he shaft 
not raise his house without my permission. 

Predia rustica: rural services;. are a right of passing over the 
grounds of another, by foot path, horse path, or carriage way fter, 
Actus, Via or Aditus.  Aqueducts, a right of water course; a right 





p 


468 NOTES. 


of drawing water, watering cattle, hunting, fishing, making lime, dig: 
ging gravel, &c. 
.. Others are personal services, such as the rent services of the feudal 
times. 

The word service in the English law, answers perhaps more proper; 
ly to Easement, than any other synonime, and indeed is used synoni- 
mously. Jacob’s Law Dict. voce Easement. But on reflection I have 
preferred, service. As to the law on this subject see Reynolds v. 
Cigrke, 2 Lord Raym. 1899. Str. 634. Peppin v. Shakespear, 6 Durn. 
and East, 748. Allen v. Ormond, 8 East, 4. The pleading is requi- 
yed to be strict. 

I collect the following observations from the notes of Ferriere in 
Loco. 

Services, are incorporeal rights incident to rural or city estates. 
They do not lie in livery. Dig. 41. 1. 43. 1. Dig. 8. 2. 32. 1. Dig. 8. 
1.14. 17. They cannot therefore be acquired by usucapion, whieh 
applies to things in possession only. Butthey can be prescribed for, 
and 10 years gives a title between partics present, and 20 years against 
absentees. But the original title must be bona fide, nec vi, nec clam, 
nec, precario, otherwise the prescription must go beyond 100 years ac- 
cording to Cujacius ad Leg. 14 ff. de servitut. These services might 
depend on stipulation and contract. A right of way could not be for 
a way of less than eight feet when straight, and sixteen when crooked. 
Dig. 8. 3. 8. 

, Tit. 4. $ 1. Quibus modis constituitur, p. 90. In England these 
are no usufructs under that name. Estates at will and for years how- 
ever are of the same nature, and usufructs might doubtless be created 
by compact. The use of the old English law previous to the statute 
for transferring uses into possession, 27 Hen. 8 ch. 10. were, as Black- 
stone observes, 2 Comm. 327, more analagous to the fidei-commissum 
or testamentary trust-estate of the Romans, than to the usufruct of an 
estaic. 

§ 2. Quibus in rebus constituitur, p. 91. Senatus censuit. Dig. 7. 
5. 1. 2. 

Quasi-usufruct may be of certain cloaths, as vestes seniles et fune- 
rales, or what our New England people would call a go-to-meeting, 
coat: which is used so sparingly that it is long before it is destroyed, 
by use, , 

§ 3. Guibus modis finitur, p- 91, Statuit constitutio, viz. Cod. Se 
23. 16, . 

Jt may cease by non-user for one year in respect of things moveable, 


NOTES. 469 


and two as to things immoveable. Dig.8. 1. 4. but by an ordinance oft~ . 
Justinian, three years as to things moveable. | 

Qua res consolidatio appellatur. This is similar to merger. 

Tit. 5. $ 1. Quid intersit inter usufructum, &c. p. 93. Use differs 
from usufruct. ist. The latter may be divided,: the former is indivi- - 
sible, L. 5. f. de usufruct. L. 19. f- h. 1. 2ndly. The usufruct ex- 
tends to all the fruit or produce of the object, the use only to the im- - 
mediate want of the user. L. 12. $. 1. et seq. ff. h. 1. 3rdly. The 
usufructuary can lend, sell, &c. which is not an incident of use.  4thly, 
'The. usufructuary is bound to repairs and. replacements, which the 
heir is not. Ferriere in loc. | 

Minus autem-] An Use, by the laws of England, is of as great an 
extent, as an usufruct by the Roman law. And by 27 Z. 8.* He, who 
hath the use of land, is deemed to have the landitself. But as to such 
uses and rights of habitation, which were among the Romans, though 
our laws have not treated of them in any particular manner, yet they 
may certainly-be granted and acquired by special covenants and agree- 
ments, as was said ofusufruct. Usus apud nos eque late extenditur, 
atque ususfructus apud authores juris civilis ; sed non video, cur idem 
jus tam de usu, ut illi eum intelligunt, quam de habitatione, apud nos 
non tencat, quod olim inter Romanos tenebat. Cowel, h. t. Wood's 
imp. Law. 151. Harris. 

Nudum habet usum.] An usufruct is a right of enjoying all the 
fruits and revenues, which the estate, subject to it, is capable of pro- 
ducing 5 but an use cansists only in a right to take out of the fruits of 
the ground what is necessary for the person, who has the use, or what 
- jssettled by his title ; and the surplus belongs to the proprietor of the 
estate : thus those, who have the right of use in a forest or copice, can 
only take what is necessary for their use, or is regulated by thir title. 
And he, who has the use of any other ground, can only take out of it 
what shall be necessary to supply the occasions he shall have for | those 
kinds of fruits, which the ground produces: orthe use may even be 
restrained to certain kinds of fruits, or revenues, without extending it 
to others. "Thus we see in the Roman law, that he, who had only the 
simple use of a piece of ground, had no share of the corn or oil, which 
grew init; and that he, who had the use of a flock of sheep, was res- 
trained ónly to make use of them for dunging his grounds, and had no 
share either in the wool or lambs: and even of the milk, it is said in 
some places, that the usuary could take but a very small portion; and’. 
in athers, that he had noright to any ef i it. ff. 7. t. 8. . 12. Domat. 
hib. 1. f. 2. secta2 Harris. 


470 NOTES. 


$ 2. Adium usus, p.93. No doubt the rightto assign the usufruct 
of a house, might be the subject of special contract under the Roman 
Jaw. 

In what cases a clause in a lease, prohibiting assignment or under- 
letting, shall rank under usual and proper covenants, see Vere v. Love- 
den, 82 Vez. 179, and the cases there cited; also Jones v. Fones, Ib. 
186. and Weatherall v. Gearing, lb. 511. Watson v. The master of 
Hemsworth Hospital, 14 Vez. 333. Buta prohibition of assigning 
without licence, ceases on licence once granted. Brummelv. Macpher- 
son, Ib. 173, and Fones v. Fones, 12 Vez. 191. 

Such a prohibiting clause however, becomes void on the bankruptcy 
of the lessec. Weatherall v. Gearing, 504. Agreement to let, not held 
a lease if any thing executory remained. 12 Vez. 413 

Nostra decisione.| Whoever hath a right of habitation in an house, 
or ina part of it, may assign over and let out his right to another, un- 
less the instrument, from which he derives his title, bears some condi- 
tion to the contrary : and the right of habitation, as well as that of 
use, if simply given,continues during the life of him, who possesses 
it Cod. 3. t. 33. /. 13. de usufructu et habitatione. (ff. 7. t. 8. 10. sect. 
J. Harris. 

$ 4. De Pecorum usu, p. 94. Pindar v. Wadsworth, 2 East, 155, 
1s an action by a commoncr for taking away the dung from a common: 
it was found that the plaintiff's injury would not amount to more than 
a farthing: held that the action would lie. 

$ 6. Transitio, p. 94. By the civil law in Justinian’s time, there were 
ihree modes of acquiring title in common use: to wit, legal adjudica- 
tion : transfer by operation of law : and usucapion including prescrip- 
tion. ‘Fransfer by mancipation, and by legal cession were out of use. 
L. 11. Qed. de usucap. transf. Cujas ad loc. Ulpian fragm. tit. 19. Fer- 
1jere. | 

Tit. 6 Pracipua usucapionis requisita. viz. &c. p. 95. See 2 
Blacks. Comm. 263. 

Et ideo constitutionem.] vid. Cod. 7. t. 31.4 un. De usucupione 
transformanda, et de sublata differentia rerum mancipi et nec mancipi. 
By the common law of England the time of prescription is that time, 
of which there is no memory of man, or record, to the contrary ; for 
if there is any sufficient proof of a record or writing to the contrary, al- 
though it exceeds the memory or proper knowledge of any man living, 
yet it is decmed to be within the memory of man: and this is the rea- 
son, that regularly a man cannot prescribe or allege a custom against 
an act of parliament, because it is the highest proof and matter o£. ree 


NOTES. 471 


cord in the law. Co. Litt. 115. But, although a prescription is said 
4o be constituted by a portion of time, which exceeds the memory of 
man, yet this is not a/ways true ; for our laws admit a great variety of 
prescriptions ; which for the sake of order may be divided into two 
sorts ; into those, which secure us from loss and punishment; and 
into those, which enable us to acquire a property. 

The statute of the 31st of Ezz. cap. 5. bars all popular actions on ac- 
count of offences by a prescription of two years, in the case of the king; 
and by a prescription of one year, when there is an informer. Other 
penal statutes allow different periods to prescribe in as one year ; 
(3 H. 7. c. 1. 21 Eliz. c. 4.)————six months ; (5 Eliz. c. 5.) ——— 
three months ; (1 Edw. 6. c. 1.) one month; (23 Elz. c. 1.) 
Eee. &Fc. € c. — — and, by the common law, if a man is acquitted up- 
on an indictment of murder, he may after a year anda day plead pre- 
scription against any appeal brought by the wife, or the next of kin to 
the party killed. Natura brevium 624. G. Things immoveable al- 
so, whether corporeal or incorporeal, are variously prescribed to. 
The most usual prescription is that, which is called emphatically the 
longest, and extends beyond the memory of man ; for whoever will pre- 
scribe against another in regard to the maintenance of a chaplain to 
celebrate divine service, the repairs of a church, an annuity, or any ser- 
vice in his fee, he must prove them to have been time out of mind, or 
he does nothing. But there are prescriptions of a shorter time, as of 
40 years in the case of predial tithes, by the 2d and 3d of EZ. VI.— 
of fivc ycarsfor lands and tenements, when a fine hath been lawfully ac- 
knowledged with the due proclamations. (4 Hen. 7. c. 24.) —— —of 
three years, when lands and tenements, gotten by forcible entry, have 
been so long held in quiet possession; (8 7. 6. c. 9.) of a vcar 
and à day for a villein to assert his liberty against his lord, if the vil- 
lein has continued so long in antient demesne, or in any of the king's 
citics or towns, without being claimed or molcsted.———of a vear and 
a day for the confirmation of any deed made by onc, who is in prison, 
unless he who made it, doth in the interim revoke it. Also of a: year 
and a day, to hinder the entry. of him, who, having omitted to make 
continual claim, endeavours, after a descent cast, to recover lands and 
tenements, of which he hath been unjustly disseized. Co. 1. inst. page 
250, &c. of continual cluim. But prescriptions do not take place in all 
things. No man can prescribe, for example, to things uot in com- 
mcrce, nor to those, of which the king is properly tle sole lord ; nor 
to a custom, which is repugnant to reason or good manners. Co. Litt. 
A^. 2d. sccef. 212. of oillenage. And it isa known mayin, in the 




















472 NOTES. 


laws of England, “that no prescription in lands maketh aright.” Doct. 
and Stud. Dial. 1. cap. 8 Cowel’s inst. h. t. Wood's inst. 297, 299b 

The following observations extracted from Ferriere, are worth atten- 
tion; Blackstone in his note f. 2 Comm. p. 264, is accurate, when he 
speaks of usucapion being the same with prescription, but the observa 
tion is true under the Justinian code only. 

Usucapion is the right acquired by the long possession of any thing 
substantial and corporeal to the exclusion of the real owner, or of 4 
creditor by pledge. Usucapion arose from the law of the 12 tables. 
Prescription was in its origin, a creature of prxtorial edict. Usuca- 
pion, was perfected by one year’s possession of a moveable, and two 
years of an immoveable chattel: prescription required ten years as a- 
against parties present, and twenty years as against parties ab- 
sent. Usucapion did not, while prescription did, tuke place 
as to incorporeal hereditaments, as services incident to estates. 
Usucapion transferred the property of the thing jtself. Prescription 
operated only in bar of the right of the owner or mortgager. Justinian 
however seems to have converted usucapion into prescription, and 
action therefore lies under the Justinian code, to recover the possession 
of prescriptive property. Cod. de usucap. transform. An origimal, 
fair and bona fide possession by the prescriber, was necessary to sup- 
port this title, without knowledge at the time of any fraud or de- 
ceit upon the real owner: though if such knowledge accrued after- 
wards, the ysucaptor or prescriber, was not therefore bound to give up 
the property, if he originally came by it honestly on his part. Nor 
could this kind of title, support a right to things originally stolen, or 
forcibly acquired. Nor in certain cases to fiscal or imperial proper: 
ty. Cod.ne rei domin. Lex 18 ff. de usurp. et usucap. Lex 96. € 
1. ff. de Legat. Lex penult. Cod. de przpos. sac. cub. 

§ 2 De rebus furtivis et vi possessis, p.96. Aliis quoque modis. See 
Dig. 17. 1. 57. Dig. 41. 3. 36. 1. Dig. 41. 7. 3. 

Quod autem ad eas que solo contenentur. See Cod. de prescrip. 
lotig. temp. et de prescrip. 30 vel 40 ann. 

"The English law respecting goods purchased out of market ovett, 
will coincide with the doctrine here laid down. How far sd 
in market overt protects propetty, and concerning the restric- 
tions attending the sale and purchase of horses particularly 
see 2 Blacks. Comm. 449, and Wood’s inst. of the laws of Eng- 
land 210, 211. In Wilkinson v. King, 2 Campb. 535. it was de- 
termined that the owner of goods having sent some leadto a-whar- 
fingers in Southwark, where lead was accustomed to be sold, 


NOTES, 4r3 


and the wharfinger sold it to a bon fide purchaser, without authority. 
from the owner, the latter might bring trover against the purchaser $' 
because a-wliarf where goods of various kinds are deposited, cannot ba 
considered as market overt for the purchase and sale of goods. — 

I observe the judges of the supreme court have: not adopted the 
statutes of England as to the sale of horses, as part of the law of Penns 
sylvania. Ner'do I find any reported decisions upon the subject. 
Hence I presume the general principles of the Englishlaw will prevail 
here: viz. that every fair is market overt for the property, for the 
sale whereof, the fai is held under the law authorizing it. That 
every store is market overt for the goods usually sold at such store, 
unless the sale be to a person cognizant of fraud in the storekeeper, to 
. an infant, or to a feme covert of goods not usually purchased by feme 
coverfé. Provided also, the sale be made in all respects in the accus- 
tomed manner, 

The other part of this section contains the principles that relate to 
bona fide purchasers without notice ; see the cases collected in 2 Fon- 
blanque, 151. and Sugden, (law of vendors) 119. 476-479. 488. to 
which add.2 Vez. jun. 458. Ferrard v. Saunders. 9 Vez. 24. Wal- 
vyn 9. Eee. The following cases determine that notice of an act ille- 
gal or not legally conducted, will not affect the purchaser, T'onkins o. 
Ennis, 1 Eq. Ca. Ab. 334. 5 Co. rep. 60. Chapman v. Emery, Cow. 280. 
Dee v. Routledge, Ib. per lord Mansfield +i. Bushel v. Bushel, 1 
Schoales and Lefroy's rep. 92-103.  Latouche v. Lord: Dusany, Ib. 
137. 157. 

Aliis quoque modis, p. 98. Dig. 17. 1. 57. Dig. 41. 3, 36. 1. Dig.’ 
41. 7. 3. 

Quod autem ad eas que solo continentur, Cod. de ptescrip. longs 
temp. et de prescrip. 30. vel 40. ann. 

§ 6. De errore false causa, p. 98. Dig. 41. 3. 27. Dig. 41. 6. 1. 
Dig. 22.6.4. Dig.41. 4. 11. Dig. 41. 10. ult. 1 

§ De accessione possessionis, p. 99. Quod nostra constitutio, Cod. 7. 
31. lex unic. de usucap. transf. ^ 

Yet in chancery the taking of an estate with notice of prior title is 
dolus malus, Dig. 4. 3. Le Neve v. Le Neve, 3 Atk. 654. Amb. 446. 
$. C. and to the same purpose. 

§ 8. Inter venditichem quoque et emptorem, &c. p. 99. Dig. 41. 3. 
14. Dig. 44. 3. 5. Dig. 41. 2. 13. 4. But if the possession of the sel- 
jer was fraudulent, though that of the buyer was fair, the times could 
not be joined. Dig. 41. 2. 13. 1. but the buyer must take commence 
ment from his own fair purchase. Dig. 44 3.5. Seill if the pur- 

3 P 


E 
4 
e cm naue Um 
—_ a 
. 


474 NOTES. 


chase being with knowledge was fraudulent, the buyer could take no - 
benefit by prescription. These rules were not so strict in cases of 
heirs, who took the titles of the deceased such as they were. Dig. 
50. 17. 59. 

$9. De his qui a fisco aut Imp. &c. p. 99. Edict Divi Marci. 
Cod. 2 37. 3. 

Constitutio autem. Cod. 7. 37. 2. exception as to the property of 
minors. 

Divina Constitutio. Cod. 7. 36. 3. 

Lib.. I]  Tit.7. $1. De mortis causa donationibus, p. 100. By 
the civil law, donations mortis causa required three circumstances te 


[d 


E accompany them ; 1st. They should be made under expressed appre- 


hension of death : 2ndly. In the presence of the donee: 3rdly. They 
were revocable on the recovery of the sick person. A filius faxailias, 
might with the consent of his father, make a donation mortis caysa, 
though he could not make a will. Dig. 19,6. 25. As to their revo- 
cation, see Dig. 34. 5. 19 & 22 & 23 & 12. de rebus dubiis. These do- 
nations were invalid as against creditors: sicut legata non debentur, 
niei deducta ere alieno aliquid supersit, nec mortis causa donationes de- 
bentur, sed infirmantur per as alienum. Dig. 35. 2. 66. 1. herein 
agrees the English law, Druryv Smith: Smith v. Casen, 1 P. Wms. 
405. See further as t6 donations mortis causa, Lawson v. Lawson, 
1 P. Wms, 441. Miller v. Miller et al. 3 P. Wms. 357. Allen v. 
Arme, 1 Vern. 365 Douglas v. Ward, 1 Ch. Ca. 99. Ward v. Tur- 
ner, 1 Vez. sen. 431. and the cases therein cited. Blount v. Burrow, 
1 Vez jun. 546, same case in 4 Br. Ch Ca. 72. Hughes v. Hughes, 
Finch's prec. in chan. 269. ones v. Selby, Ib. 300. Hassel v. Tynte, 
Campb. 318. Ward v. Turner, 1 Dick. 171. Whether a donation mor- 
tis causa may be by deed without delivery, see Fohnson v. Smith, 1 
Vez. sen. 314, compared with Tate v. Hilbert, 2. Vez. jun. 111. 4 Br. 
Ch. Ca. 286, and the observations of the Chancellor in Zntrobus v. 
Smith, 12 Vez. 41. By the civil law such a gift might be by writing. 

§ 2. De simplice inter vives donatione. Not only notorious ingra- 
titude would give a right to reclaim the gift, Cod. de revocat. donat. 
but the subsequent birth of children, Dig. 35. 1. 102. It might be by 
writing. 2 ]ust Inst. 1. 7. 2. Cod. 8. 54. 3 &/35. § 5. Delivery is 
incident to a gift, 2 Blacks. Comm. 441. If unaccompanied by deli- 
very.it amounts only to a contract, and this requires a consideration to 


" support it- Ib. See also 7ate v. Hilbert, 2 Vez. jun. 111. 4 Br. Ch. 


Ca. 286 and the Chancellor’s observations on Dig. 39. 6. 27. page 293 - 


"of thatcase in Brown. See also the case of Hassel v. Tynte, Ambler, 


NOTES. | 475 


$18, and Kent's remarks in Noble v. Smith et al. 2 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 
55, who observes very truly that the dictum ascribed to lord Coke in 
Wortes v. Clifton, 1 Rolls rep. 61. that by the civil law a gift of goods 
was not valid without delivery, but that it was valid by the English 
law,1s untenable in both respects. 

§ 3. De donatione ante nuptias vel propter nuptias, p. 102. These 
were of two kinds, marriage presents, sponsalia largitas, and gifts in 
some sort by way of jointure, dotis compensande causa. Formerly (that 
is in early periods of the Roman law) these could only be made before 
marriage, Cod. L. 17. de donat. ante nupt. and Cod. L. 8. de repud: 
but Justinian permitted this second kind, to be made also after mar- 
riage. Lex ult. Dig. de eodem. | 

How far such donations will be supported as against creditors see 
Randall e. Morgan, 12 Vez. 74. and the cases there referred to: 
also Kidney v. Coussmaker, 12 Vez. 155. 

$ 4. De jure accrescendi, p. 103. See post Inst. III. 4. 4. In Grant v. 
Kearne, in the common pleas at Northumberland, a case ofa tract of 
land taken up in the joint names of William M* Murray and George 
Grant, I held that the doctrine of survivorship did not apply. ‘These 
cases seemed to me, cases of partnership, rather than jointenancy. 
In June 1812, the supreme court, to which Grant v. Kearne, was re- 
moved by error, agreed in opmion with the court below, and held 
that the right of survivorship did not attach upon property so held. 
In wills, the court of chancery leans against the ¥us accrescendi. 4 
Vez. 551. Russel v. Long.. . 

See 1 Cod. de comm. serv. Manumitt. and Dig. 18. 1. de contr. empt. 

Tit. 8. Quibus alienare licet, p. 104. Consult on the right of the 
husband to aliene, Cod. de rei vendic. Cod. de jur. dot. Cod. de 
rei uxor. act. Dig. 23. 3. Dig. 23. 5. Dig. 23. 4. 

Remedium imposuimus. Cod. 5. 13. 1. unic. 

See Woollands v. Crowcher, 12 Vez. 174. asto the necessity of the 
wife's consent and the mode of taking it. Also /Murray v. Lord Eli- 
bank, 13 Vez. 1. and Sturgis v. Corp, 13 Vez. 190. and Essex v, 
Atkins, 14 Vez. 547. where the court at last determined thata mar- 
ried woman may bind her separate property, without the assent of her 
trustees, unless their assent be made necessary in the trust deed. 

$ 1. De creditore, qui licet non sit dominus, &9c. p. 105. Constitutione 
consultem est. Cod. 8. 34. 3. de jur. dom. impetr. see also post Inst. 
III. 184. Dig. 13. 7. 9. FC 

As to the difference between a pledge and a mortgage, end in what 
cases the creditor may disposc of the. pledge, see De Mainbray v. 


—. 


476 NOTES. 


Metcalfe, Prec, in ch. 419. and 2 Vern, 691. Fones v. Smith, 2 Vez. 
jun- 378. and Cortelyou v. Lansing, 2 Caines’ cases in error 202. A 
mortgage is a pledge, of which the absolute interest vests in the cre- 
ditor at a fixed time, if the debt be not satisfied. A pledge cannot be 
sold even during the lifetime of the debtor, unless after previous de- 
mand, and reasonable notice by the creditor, who has not the property 
jn the pledge, but a licn only on it. 

$ 2. De pupillo qui licet Dominus, &c. p. 105. The law of England 
is the same with that here laid down. If an infant deliver money to 
& person, it may be recovered in an action of account. See the autho- 
yities collected in 1 Com. on Contracts, 148. 

$ 3. Consinuatio, p. 106. The reason of the law here laid down 
respecting tutors and pupils, extends to minors and curators. L. 5. 
Cod. de in integr. test. minor, Dig. 45. 1. 6. Dig. 26. 5. 8. 3. 

As to the consequences of pupillage by the civil law. 

1st, The pupil is notentitled to an obligation for money lent by him, 


, because he cannot ttansfer the property of the loan to the borrower. 


Dig.26.8.9. Hence the borrower becomes liable to the condictáe certs 
quasi ex mutuo, Dig. 12. 1. 11. $ ult. Dig.12. 1.12. Dig. 12. 1. 19. 
1. If the borrower had spent it mala fide, the action ad exhibendum 
day, in which damages beyond the principal might be recovered. § ia- 
ura de off. jud. Dig. 12. 3. 3. 2ndly. Neither could the pupil pay a 


; debt ; but if the creditor received it, and employed the money bona 
‘ fide, he was answerable. Dig. 46. 3. 14. ult. and 26. 8. 9. 2. 3rdly. A 


debtor could not pay his pupil-creditor, unless under the authority of 
the tutor, Dig. 46. 3.15. Butif the money either remained, or was 
expended by the pupil in necessaries, it could not be demanded a se- 
cond time : the debtor might plead in bar, exception of fraud. Dig. 
44. 4. 15 and 44. 4. 4. 4. Dig. 46. 3. 47 and 46. 3.66. But Justinian 
required a judgment to authorise the payment even under the authori- 
ty of the tutor in cases above a certain sum. L. 25 and L. 27, Cod. 
de administr, 

Tit. 9. $ 1. De liberis in potestate. -p. 107. Peculium is the pri- 
vate property, that slaves or sons of families might acquire independ- 
ent of the master or father. 

Peculium castrense, was the aequirements of the son during actual. 
military service. 

Peculium quasi castrense, was the acquirements of the son in milia 
togata et inermi, or in the imperial household, or:by means ef totae 
eoclesiastical benc&ce, or legal employ. 


J . ‘. Pare 


NOTES. n 427 


Pecultum adventittum, was the property acquired by the son by his —-. 


own industry, by bequests on the maternal side, or by the liberality of 
friends. | 

Peculium profectitium, was the gain made by the son, on the father's 
stock or capital. 

The father’s absolute authority over the property of the son was 
first taken away with respect to the peculium castrense. Dig. 37. 6. 
1. 5. Dig. 39. 17. de castr. pec. 

Next as to the peculium quasi castrense. Cod. de.castr. omn. palat. 
pecul. see also post Inst. 2. 11. 6. 

As to the peculium adventitium, it was modified by the Theodosian 
Code, de matern. bon. and de bon. qu. liber. and by the Justinian Code 
of the same tile. * 

The peculium profectitium, remained subject to the fathers’ claim 
according to the present section. 

By the Code Civil Nap. Fathers have aright to the property of their 
children until the age of eighteen, or previous emancipation : that 
property excepted which was acquired by the personal industry of 
the child. Art. 372. 384. 387. | 

In England and in this country the father is entitled only to the earn- 
ings of the child until he be of fullage. If any property descend or 


be given to the child, the father is no more than a trustee and must. 


account when the sonis of age. 1 Bl. Comm. 453. 

$ 2. De emancipatione liberorum, p. 108. Ex anterioribus constitutioni- 
- Bus. lex. 1. and lex. 2. Cod. Theod. de maternis bonis. 

Ideoque statuimus. Cod. 6. 61. 6. ' 

The French code allows of emancipation by the father, or by the 
mother if the father be dead, at the age of fifteen. But a son deprived 
of father and mother cannot be emancipated till eighteen. An eman- 
cipated minor cando no acts but suchas are merely administrative : 
he cannot borrow without the advice of family counsel: his bargains 
may be moderated whenexcessive. He is considered as of agc as to 
his trading, if he enters into trade. Art. 476 487. 

$ 3. De servis, p. 108. The history of slavery in England and thc his- 
tory of villeinage as connected with it, is well treated in Hargreave's 
argument in the case of James Somerset, the negro, XI. State trials 
p. 389.. He was a heathen or unbaptized negro. I have already refer- 
edto the suppesed efficacy of baptism in Sir Thomas Grantham's 
.case,-3 Mod. 120.; a superstition very oreditable to the christian re- 
ligion. Even so late as 5 William. and Mary in the case of Gelly v 


Gleve, cited in Chamberlain vs Heroeg. A Lord Raym. 146. it was deci- 


+ 


‘478 NOTES, 


ded that trover would lie for a negro boy, for they are heathens and 
therefore aman may have property in them. 

Since the decision of Somerset, the cases relating to slavery are few. 
In $ Esptnasse's Nisi Prius Reports, p. 3. Easter term, 1799, I find the 
case of Alfred v. the Marquis of Fitzjames.  Assump. for servants 
wages. Plaintif proved the time he had served, and relied ona 
quant. mer. Lord Kenyon determined, that unless there was an agree- 
ment for wages during the time of his service in England, the negro 
could recover nonc. 

I have thought it expedient to add here, the reported. cases respect- 
ing slavery in the American books, (except 2 Bay’s S. Carolina Rep.) 
Vrom which some idea may be obtained of the legal situation of ne- 
gro slaves. I have not the opportunity of referring to the various acts 
of assembly passed on this subject in the several states to the south- 
ward of Pennsylvania, and the present notices on the subject will of 
course be defective, but they will be relevant so far as they extend. In 
the preceding part of the notes page 410. I have treated at some 
Jength the general subject of slavery; to which this note may be 
considered as an addition. 

To the northward and eastward of New York and Pennsylvania, 
slavery is so nearly abolished, that I do not think it necessary to trace 
the laws concerning it. In Massach. Rep. 123. Winchendon and Hat- 
field, and Ib. 539 Dighton v. Freetown, there are some cases as to the 
township settlement of slaves, but of no importance. 

By an act of the general assembly of the state of New York, 22 Feb. 
1788, and by another act of April, 1801, persons bringing slaves into 
the state of New York, are prohibited under a heavy fine from selling 
or transferring them as slaves, or for any period whatever. Under 
thesc acts in the case of Link v. Beuner, 3 Cains 325. A. D. 1805. a 
transfer of the time of a slave for 20 years, the slave to Be manumit- 
ted at the age of thirty eight, was held to be a transfer of the slave 
himself, and invalid. This was agreeable to a former decision in F£sh 
v. Fisher, there cited, and to one of the points in Sable v. Hitchcock, 2 
Johnson's cases, 79. confirmed in error in 1802. But persons acting 
merely in the capacity of executors, trustees, assignees of insolvent 
debtors, sheriffs, &c. would not be liable to the penal clause .of the 
act. The same point was decided in Fish v. Fisher, Ib. 89, which was — 
‘the case of a slave running away from his master living in New Jer 
sey, and pursued into New York, where he was sold: on the: prieset- 
ple, that this might lead to thd evasion of the act, which was designe’ . 
to stop the importation of slaves into New. York state. . ^ 


NOTES: 479 


In the case of Tom'a negro, the owner gave him a certificate in 
Writing stating that from and after the decease of the owner, Tom was 
mennmitted. After this,the owner sold and delivered the slave fora 
valifable consideration. Held, that notwithstanding this transfer, the 
negro became free at the -death of his former owner, who gave him the 
certificate. 5 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 355. Same point settled afterward 
in ‘Ketletas and Fleet. 7 Johns. N. Y. Rep.. 324. In Hart v. Cleiss, 8 
Johns. N. Y. Rep. 41. Wherca slave is exported or attempted to be 
exported by a stranger, without the privity of the master, the slave does 
not become free, but the stranger is liable to the penalty of 250 dol- 
lars. d 

In Pennsylvania, by the acts. of 1 March, 1780, and 29 March, 1788, 
all the negroes born within the state since the first of these acts, can 
only be held in servitude till the age of 28. Persons claiming slaves 
born before that. act, were required to:register. them. Strangers, per- 
sons not inhabitants of Pennsylvania, nor meaning to become resident 
therein, passing throngh thestate are protected in their rights to their 
attendant slaves for a period of six. months. But all slaves imported into 
Pennsylvania by persons inhabitants of or resident within this state, or 
who shall come with an intention of residing in Pennsylvania, cannot 
claim the benefit of this clause, but their slaves on arriving here, be- 
come free. No negro or mulatto slave shall be removed, by force, or 
seduced out of the state, without his consent, under a penalty of two. 
hundred dollars against the offender, with confinement to hard labour 
for 121n0nths. No husband, wife, parent or child, during the allow- 
ed term of servitude, shall be transferred, &c. so as to be separated 
more than ten miles. 

On these acts, and the general doctrine of slay rery the following de- 
eisions have taken place in Pennsylvania. 

As villeinage never existed in Pennsylvania, no part of the doc- 
trine founded on that condition is applicable here, 1 Dallas Rep. 167. 
Hence the.common hw doctrine that the child follows the condition 
of the father, and therefore that a bastard is always free, being found- 
ed upon the old English law respecting villeinage, is.not applicable here. 
We follow the civil law rule, that partus.sequitur ventrem. Chief Jus- 
tice M’Kean, noticed a species of slavery in England distinct from 
villeinage mentioned by Swinburne 6th edit. 84. And this being the 
case of a slave born and purchased in Maryland, he supported the doc- 
trine of the lexloci ; agreeably to Smith v. Gould, 2 Salk. 666. in which 
* there is much curious matter as to slaves, and villcins, but it. does 
not support.the chicf justice’s position asto the lex loci: nor is the 


480 . NOTES. 


report of the sanfe case more in point in 2 Lord Ray. 1274, and it is 
not supported by Pearne v. Lisle, Ambler 76, ov Chamberlain v. Hervey, 
1L. Raym. 146. But I think the application of lex loci, was. per- 
fectly right in the Pennsylvania case. In Smith v. Gould lord Ray. 
1274, it is said that if A. takes B. a Frenchman captive in war, Ke’ can- 
not maintain his action quare cepit B. captioum suum gallicum, which 
may bear upon the right of slavery as deduced from the rights attach- 
ed to taking captives. 

Property in a negro may be obtained by bona fide purehase without 
deed, see. M'Kean, in the above case of Pirate al Belt o. Dalbey, 1 Dall. 
Rep. 169. A negro born before 1st March, 1780, and not recorded a- 
greeably to the provisions of thatact, is absolutely free. Respublicav. 
negro Betsey, 1 Doll. Rep. 469. 

Where the jury make the price of a negro slave, the measure of 
damages in a writ of homine replegiando, if it be accepted by the mas- 
ter, it will in equity, and perhaps by operation of law also, emancipate 
the negro. Cowperthwaite v. Fones, 2 Dall. Rep. 57. 

In Yack v. Eales, 3 Binney, 101, the court decided that an omission 
or mistake by the clerk, in the record of entry of a negro or mulatto, 
might be rectified according to the verdict of a jury on hearing évi- 
dence of the fact. This does not go quite so far as the case of the 
Commonwealth v. Blaine, wherein the entry follows the written return 
signed by the defendant herself; and which is under a different act of 
assembly. The owner ought not to be damnified by any mistake of 
a public officer, but in the latter case, the court decided she could not 
be damnified by her own, but might be allowed to set it right by testi- 
mony. The case is not yet reported, but I understand it was in. sub- 
stance, as follows, viz. The Commonwealth v. Sarah E. Blaine, à Hn error 
determined at Chambersburgh, before Tighlman, Yeates, and Brack- 
enridge, Sept. term, 1811. 

Habeas corpus for a negro boy : defendant claimed him as her slave 
regularly registered under the act of assembly. It appeared, that the 
slave wasregistered on the 26th June 1807, and the affidavit accompany- 
ing the return was dated on the same day ; but both in the registry and 
return, the slave was stated to be born on the 2nd of January, 1808, six 
months after the registry took place. It was contended on the part of 
the slave, that this registry, was not within the letter or spirit of the 
act, which intended a record that should supercede the necessity of 
parol proof as to the period of the commencement of the servitude *: € 
was meant as a protection to the slave from imposition. The time of 
birth of a negro child being in its nature a fact of no great notoriety, ceulé 


NOTES. 481 


scarcely be expected to be ascertained by parol at the distance of 28 
years, when it would be impossible for the slave to find the witnesses, 
or know who they were if they still survived—Hence, the necessity 
of recording the true period of time., The record in the present case, 
is untrue on the face of it; nor can it be good in part and bad in part: 
if the mistress can hold the slave under it, she can oblige him to.serve 
until 28 years have elapsed from the period mentioned in the registry, 
which would be manifestly unjust—If the only operation of the act, is to 
oblige the master to makea registry of some sort no matter whether true 
or false, within six months after the birth, what was originally meant as 
a substantial benefit to the slave, may be turned intó a matter of form 
and idle ceremony. The slave has a vested interest in his freedom, if 
every thing required be not complied with by the master. And farther, 
that agreeably to the spirit of the act, and the liberality of the times, a 
doubtful claim should be construed in favorem libertatie. 

Onthe other hand it was argued,that the act in question did not change 
the nature of the property : that the slave was stil] the property of the 
owner; a chattel: and that every thing done orto be done, respecting him, 
must be construed agreeably to the analogy of all laws relating to pro- 
perty : that a manifest ambiguity or mistake onthe face of the instru- 
ment, might be explained and set right by testimony : m the present 
" case,no more was asked, than that an impossible date should be correct- 
rected by the real fact. 

The court coinciding with this reasoning, remanded the slave ihto 
- the custody of his mistress: and observed, that the registry was not 
conclusive on either party, but might at any time be rectified according 
to the true state of the facts, whether brought forward by the claim- 
ant or by the negro: and if the latter, after having served out his 28 
years counting from the true time, could make out by parol or any o- 
ther proof that might be in his power, that he was born at a period 
earlier than that mentioned in the registry, the court would discharge 
him. Judge Yeates said, the first decisions on the act of assembly went 
the length of liberating nearly all the slaves registered under it ; but that 
the current of late decisions set entirely the other way, and that every 
thing like strictness of form was dispensed with, to get at the merits. 

The various acts of assembly of the state of Pennsylvania, respect- 
ing the class of servants called German redemptioners, (2 Smith's Penn- 
sylvania laws, p. 329.) hardly fall under the subject now in discussion. 
' The legatee of slaves for life, is entitled to the issue born during 
the life estate, Scott o, Dobson, 1 Harris and M‘Henry’s Maryland Rep. 
160. 


3Q 


482 NOTES. 


The issue of alaves goes to the person to whom the use is limited. 
Somerville v. Fohnson. Maryl. rep. 348. 

How far manumitted slaves may inherit, and whether slaves are 
capable of a legal marriage? Dulany'sopinion. Ib. Appendix, 557. 

Under the Maryland law of 1663, by which the issue of a freebors 
white woman intermarrying with a slave, shall be slaves, and under 
the act of 1681, ch. 4. repealing that law, it was held, that issue born af- 
ter the repealing law were slaves, if the marriage took place before 
the repeal. Butler v». Boarman. Ib. 371. 

Money directed by will to be laid out in slaves, and annexed to lands 
devised in tail by th same will, is to be considered in the same light 
as slaves and will go with the land. Dade v. Alexander, 1 Wash. 30, 

As to Indian slaves: what Indians could be made slaves and what 
could not. Jenkins v. Tom. 1 Wash. 123. 

Since 1705 no American Indian could be made a slave in Virginia: 
but foreign Indians might. Dick v. Coleman, 1 Wash, 239. 

Slaves are chattels, and assets for the payment of debts, where there 
isa dcficiency of other personal estate. Walden v. Payne, 2 Wash. 7. 

Slaves are real estate only in particular cases such as descents. Ib. 

Nor is an executor bound by order of a county court directing a dis- 
tributive division ofa testator’s estate, to deliver up the slaves without 
reserving a sufficiency to pay debts, or taking refunding bonds. Ib. 

Wherc white persons, ornative American Indians or their descen- 
dants in the maternal line, are claimed as slaves, the onus probandi 
lies on the claimant. Hudgins v. Wrights, 1 Hening and Munford, 
134. Otherwise with respect to native Africans and their descendants. 

No native American Indian could be made a slave in Virginia since 
1691. Ib. and Pallas et al. v. Hillet al. 2 Hen. and Munf. 149. 

A negro claiming freedom under the law of 1792, on the ground of 
having been brought into this state, it must appear that he was detain- 
ed by compulsion and contrary to law, Henderson v. Allene, 1 Hen. 
and Mun. 235. 

Slaves emancipated by last will and testament, may be sold for a 
term of years to satisfy the debts of the testator, if there be not suffi- 
cient assets without: Patty, &c. v. Colin, & c. 1 Hen. and Mun. 519— 
531. 

If a slave hired for a year, be sick or run away, the tenant must 
pay the hire, otherwise if the slave die without any fault on part of the 
tenant: in which case, the owner loses the hire from the time of the 
slave’s death. George v. Elliot, 2 Hen. and Mun. 5. 


NOTES. : 483 


If an executor sells the slaves of a testator, without any necessity 
for so doing induced by debts, and buy them himsclf, the sale may 
be setaside. Anderson and Starks ve. Fox, 2 Hen. and Mun. 245. 

A father possessed of ample fortune, having sent several slaves to 
his daughter, soon after her marriage, which slaves continued with 
her and her husband till the father's death, twenty eight months after- 
ward, they were held to be a gift in consideration of marriage, :and 
the husband entitled to keep them against the creditors of the fa- 
ther. Hen. and Muni. ub. sup, 

Three witnesses are necessary in decds of trust, or mortgage of 
slaves, unles the same be acknowledged by the party. foores’s Exar. 
v. the Auditor, Ib. 232. 

Construction of the stat. of frauds and perjuries as to the loan of 
slaves, Beasly v. Owen, Ib. 449. 

In order to annex slaves toland, it was necessary that co-extensive 
estates should be given in both. Dunn v. Bray, 1 Call’s Virginia Rep. 
338. 

Slaves recovering their freedom, are not entitled to damages for de- 
tention. Pleasants v. Pleasants, 2 Call’s Rep. 319. 

Evidence of aparol gift of slaves cannot be given, under the act of 
1758, but such testimony may be received to prove a five year’s pos- 
session, so as to bar a plaintiff's demand. Yordan v. Murray, 3Call’s 
Rep. 85. | 

2 Cranch, Adams qui tam v. Woods, 336, and the United States v. the 
schooner Sally, are cases under the act of Congress of March, 1794, 
abolishing the slave trade in 1808. 

Scott v. the Negro London, 3 Cranch, 324. A slave brought into 
the state of Virginia, by an Act of 17 Dec. 1792, and kept there a 
year, shall be free, unless the owner within 60 days of his arrival inthe 
state, shall make oath that he did not remove thither, or bring slaves 
there with intent of evading the laws of Virginia, as to the importa- 
tion of slaves. A slave brought there, and detained for more than a 
twelve month, by a person claiming him, but who was not the true own- 
er, shall not acquire his freedom by this means, to the injury of his 
true owner. 

Spiers o. Willison, 4 Cranch, 398, and Ramsey v. Lee. Ib. 401. By 
act of Virginia, 1758, and by the law us it stood in 1784, no giftof a 
slave was valid, except made in writing and recorded. 

Five years possession of a slave, will entitle the plaintiff in detinue 
to recover, but without prejudice to the titles of those who were not 


494 — NOTES. 


parties to the suit, Newby's admrs. v. Blakey. 3 Hen. and Mun. 57. 
And so in trespass, Brent v. Chapman, 5 Cranch, 358. . 

A person convicted under the negro act of South Carolina, of kill- 
ing a negro, and committed for the forfeiture of 700 1. currency, is not 
entitled either to prison bounds, or the insolvent debtor’s Act. The 
State v. Gee, 1 Bay’s Rep. 163. 

By another act of South Carolina, if any slave shall suffer i in life or 
limb, when no white person is present, the owner or other person who 
shall have the care of, or in whose possession or power such slave. 
shall be, shall be deemed guilty of such offence, and proceeded against 
accordingly, without further proof, unless such owner or other person, 
do make the contrary appear by evidence, or exculpate himself by oath. 
Per Cur: this permission of exculpating by oath, is given by the act 
only to masters, overseers and others, having negroes under their care. 
- They held it did not extend to the master of a vessel, who had taken 
up the negro on some pretext or other, and to prevent the negro's es- 
caping, had thrown a lead line about his neck, by which he was 
strangled. Defendant was convicted of manslaughter and fined 50l. 
sterling. The State v. Welch, 1 Bay’s Rep. 172. 

A master permitting a negro wench to work for herself, or hire her- 
self out, paying him certain stipulated wages, who by her industry and 
frugality saves as much money as enables her to purchase a negro girl 
in order to give her freedom, such negro girl shall be deemed free, and 
not the property of the master. The guardian of Sally a negro v. 
Beatty, 1 Bay's Rep. 261. The defendant's case was argued on the 
. grounds of the civil law, by which as Blackstone alleges, even the price 
paid to the person becoming by contract for a certain price a slave for 
life, belongs to the master. 1 Bl. Com. 425. A doctrine however, 
which could not be supported on principle, even where slavery such as 
among the Romans was prevalent ; for the slavery of the party depend- 
ing on the consideration of the price given, the instant the master for- 
cibly deprived the slave of the price, the slavery would cease. The 
condition in which the seller put himself, was that he might have the 
free use of the sum stipulated as the purchase money, and this being - 
seized on by the master, the contract itself is put an end to. 

A negro found by accident on leased premises is not liable to be dis- 
trained for rent. Bull v. Horlbeck, 1 Bay’s Rep. 301. 

A negro with two white men, though under their controul, is a pere 
son in law who may be deemed a rioter. The state v. Thackam angi 
Mason. 1 Bay's Rep. 358. 

In addition to the Pennsylvania cases, relating to negroes and slaves, . 


NOTES. — 485 


the reader is referred to 1 Smith's Edit. of the Jaws of Pennsylvania, 
497. 

In 1798, or thereabout, Judge Rush, at Sunbury, determined in the 
case of the Negro Tash, that the onus probandi of proving his freedom 
lay on the negro claimed as aslave. This would be good law in the 
southern states, but I doubt itin Pennsylvania, where the lawe provide 
so sedulously for the emancipation of negroes. 

6 4. De fructuariis et bona fide, t9c. p. 110. see Dig. 41. 1. 10. 3 
and 4. Subject however to Dig. 7.1. 21.et seq. and Dig. 41. 2. 45. 
et ult. 

§ De reliquis seu extraneis. personis, p. 111. Divi severi constituti- 
onem, Cod. 7. 32. 1. 

Tit. 10. De testamentis ordinandis, p. 112. 

I consider the right of conveying by devise, as a creature of positive 
law, to be permitted or modified in harmony with the institutions of. 
the country, and according to the spirit. and knowledge of the times. 
What right has a man over property when he is no more? or whence 
does he derive it ? or how is he to enforce it? The earth, the air, the 
water, vegetables, and «minerals, are manifestly placed here for com- 
mon benefit. Man can but enjoy the usufruct of them while he lives : 
when he ceases to live, he can neither derive enjoyment from them, 
or exercise controul over them. He found them here, subservient to 
his convenience; and when dead, he must leave them to the conve- 
. nience and controul of those who come after him. 

All that a man can claim the right of devising, if he can claim any 
right at all, is the additional value he has bestowed upon natural objects, 
by the exertion of his skill and industry upon them; but even this 
he has no means of enforcing after death: and if he calls upon society 
: to enforce the right, it must be on such terms as society thinks fit to 
impose. This subject is put ina strong light in Dr. Ogilvie's tract on 
the right to property in land: and the discourse of Bigot-Premeneu. 
on Donations inter vivos, and the theory of the law of last wills, 
is well worth perusing. It contains also a good exposition of the 
reasons whereupon the French code has varied in some respects from 
the Roman, as in the rejection of Substitutions and Fidei Commissa. 2 
Recueil, 361. 

Society, however, has generally sanctioned the right of making last 
wills and testaments, 1st, From a wish to indulge the voice of nature . 
which calls upon the dying to provide for the comforts of near and 
dear relations by the bequest of that property which can no longer con- 
tribute to their own enjoyment. 2dly, To encourage industry, by al- 


486 NOTES. 


lowing the industrious to dispose by will of the fruits of their industry, 
and protecting that disposal, when made in conformity to the direc- 
tionsof law. "These motives of permission, will leave great latitude 
as to the restrictions that may be thought necessary to fulfil the public 
views, Thus in a country like England, where institutions partake of 
the spirit of the feudal times, and where primogeniture calis for exclu- 
sive privileges, the law will be favourable to accumulations at the ex- 
pence of the younger branches of a family: in such a government as 
ours, where no reason of this kind prevails, we might properly direct | 
or restrict the general licence of testamentary dispositions, upon prin- 
ciples more agreeable to natural equity. Solon first permitted the 
Athenians to make a will; from whom the Romans borrowed the 
law of the twelve tables, Pater familias, uti legassit super familia pe- 
.cuniague sua, ita jus esto. The modification of this rule by the Lex 
F'alcidia, which permitted a testator to dispose arbitrarily but of three 
fourths-or one half of his property, has been imitated, and properly as I 
think, by most of the civilized nations of Európe. Indeed when we 
consider the many capricious, not to say senseless and unjust dispo- 
| sitions of property that take place in countries where an unlimited right 
| of devising is permitted—the neglect of children and relations for the 
sake of gratifying a selfish vanity, or a death-bed superstition—the 
culpable fondness of power that would extend for a century or two, 
or perpetuate if possible, the controul of a weak and dying man over 
property that he can no longer enjoy, as in the will of Mr. Thelusson 
—when we consider further, that those whom we bring into existence, 
have a right to call upon us to make that existence as comfortable as 
we are able, without unreasonably sacrificing our own comforts—we 
shall probably incline to think that some restrictions on the right of 
devising are neither inexpedient or unjust. Our German ancestors, 
refused the right altogether. — Heredes successoresque sui cuique liberi, 
et nullum testamentum, says Tacitus. De Mor. Germ: and such was 
\ the law of Greece before Solon, and of Rome till the period of the 
| twelve tables. 

§ De etymologia, p. 112. Testamentum ex eo appellatur, ce. Be- 
sides this, several definitions are given of a last will: U/pian defines 
et, mentis nostra justa contestatio, in td solemniter facta, ut post mortem 
nostram valeat. ‘The definition of Modestinus is not unlike that. Domat 
defines a testament, to be thc appointment of an executor or testamen- 
tarv heir, according to the formalities prescribed by law. Dom. kL. 
1. tit. 1. sect. 1. But this is merely describing the person who ia t9 
put the will into execution, rather thanthe will itself. Aulus Gedlins, 


~ 


NOTES, 467 


and Laurentius Valla laugh at the definition of Justinian, and say that 
testamentum is no more derived from mens, than calceamentum, ornamen- 
tum, salsamentum, &c. See enough of all this in the marginal annotations 
to Swinburae of wills, p. 2. The only defect I see, is, that the defi- 
nition given in thetext, will apply to a codicil also. In a will there 
mus. be an executor; there need not in a Codici. Swinburne's book 
contains a laborious collection of references to civil law writers on this 
subject ; andto use his own expression (pref.) * May in some sort be 
profitable to those Fustinianists or young students of the civil lew, 
who do intend to bestow the fruit of their study in thc practice thereof.” 


Quinque verbis potest quis facere testamentum, ut dicat. Lucius 


'Iirrus MIHI HARES ESTO. Dig. 28. 5. 1 Swinburne, 3, 4, 5. 

6 1. De antiquis modis testandi civilibus. p. 112. All these ancient 
methods are enumerated by Ferriere in loco, but they are of no further 
importance at present, excepting to shew how long it was, before a lit- 
tle common sense, took place of the absurd fictions on which the ancient 
customs were ground 

Per es et libram. Cujas is of opinion that this kind of last will was 
abrogated by Constantine, Cod. 6. 23. 15. 

Attamen pariim. In part only: because the same number of witnes- 





ses were still necessary. For though the civil law required but five. 


witnesses, yet the balance halder and the purchaser made seven: and 
it was to supply tne place of these, that the prztorian law added two 
witnesses to the number required by the civil law. Harris. 

§ 3. De conjunctione juris ctudlis et pretorit. p. 113. That a will should 


be made at one sitting as it were, does not imply that acts of necessity’ 


m ight not intervene, as the giving of physic, &c. but, that there should 
be no intervention in the nature of busmess, as buying, selling, &c. L 
28 Cod. h. tit. 

A nostra constituttone. See Cod. 6. 23.29 jubemus. Nov. 119 
ch. 9. 

§ 4. Solemnitas additaa "Justiniano. p. 114. This solemnity intro- 
duced by /ex consultissima, Cod. h. tit. was again altered by the no- 
' wel 129. ch. 9. by which he permitted the name of the heir to be 
written by another. 

Hence a will required, 

1st. That 3t should be made without the intervention of other bu- 
siness, either by the testator or the witnesses, while it was drawing 
up. 

aly. That it should be executed in the presence of seven witnesses, 
specially convened for this purpose. 


ene oe oe: 


. X Roe $a - - 


488 NOTES. | - 


; \ 

Sly. That they should severally seal either the will itself, or the 
envelope. 

Aly. That they and the testator should subscribe it. 

Sly. That the name of the heir should be written either by the tes- 
tator, or by some person at his request. 

6ly. That the witnesses should be such as were capable of being 
heirs or legatees, ( testamenti factio activa) but liable to the excep- 
tions contained in the sixth section of this title. As, women, slaves, 
minors under puberty, persons deaf, dumb, insane, or legally disqua- 
lified, as persons convicted of libellous verses, &c. Dig .22. 5. 21. Dig. 
98. 3. 5. 9. And Swinburne on wills 345. Persons who had re- 
fused when called on to bear testimony, . Aul. Gell. Lib. 5. ch. 23. 
and laterly, heretics lex. 4. Cod. de heretic. lex. 3. Cod. de Apost. 

These witnesses if unimpeachable at the time of the will being made, 
were unimpeachable afterward, Dig 28. 1. 22. Several witnesses might 
be taken from the same family, but not out of the family of the testa- 
tor: though the heir might be a witness, anl so might a father to 
the will of his emancipated son, Dig. 28. 1. 20. orto the willof his 
son, respecting his peculium castrense. Dig. 29. 1. 23. 11. Legatees 
also might be witnesses, Dig. 28. 1. 20. though these provisions seem 
contrary to the rule, that no one shall be a witness in his own cause. 
Dig. 22. 5. 20. The notary might bea witness, but he could not re- 
ceive a legacy inthat case: Suet. Nero. 17. Dig. 48. 10. 22. 6 &c. 
Dig. 34. 8. 5. 

§ 5. De annulis quibus testamentum signatur. p. 114. An inconve- 
nient dissonance takes place in the United States, as to the necessity 
ef actually sealing an instrument supposed to be sealed. In Pennsyl- 
vania and Virginia, a scroll with a pen, and the word seal, or the let- 
ters L. S. written therein, is held equivalent to actual sealing. It is 
not so in New-York state. See the subject discussed in Warren v. 
Lynch, 5 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 239. This was the case of a note drawn 
in Virginia, but made payable in New-York, and therefore the Lex 
Loci of New-York guided the decision according to the principle of 
Robinson v. Bland, 2 Burr 1077. Ludlow et al. v. Van Renseelaer. 1 
Johns. N. Y. Rep. 94 and Thompson v. Ketcham, 4 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 
285. 

$ 6. Qui testes esse possunt, p. 114. Testamenti factio, is either 


factio activa, which is the right of making a will: or factio passiva, 
I disk, | 


the right of taking by will: the latter is the meaning here as 
on comparinpthis section with Tit. 19 sect. 4. p. 151, 152.  Hisgris 


NOTES. 489 


translates the passage, '! who are themselves legally capable of taking 
by testament.” 

Sed neque muker.] Wometi may be admitted witnesses, by the civil 
law, in all matters, whether civil or criminal, when the nature of the 
case is such, that other evidence cah not be obtained; but, when the 
choice of witnesses is altogether voluntary, as in making testaments, 
and doing many other acts, the civil Jaw will not receive the testimo- 
ny of a woman. Domat. lib. $. t. 1. The Romans had also another 
reason for tejecting women as witnesses to wills ; namely, because 
women were never suffered to. be present at public assemblies, where 
all wills and testaments were formerly made. But to use the words 
of Swinburn ; “whatsoever diverse do write, that 4 wothan is not 
“without all exception, because of the incotistancy and frailty of the 
* feminine sex, whereby they may the sooner bé corrupted; yet I take 
“it, that therr testimony i$ so good, that a testament may be. proved 
* by two women alone, being otherwise without exception. Swin. of 
4 Testaments, fart iv sect. 24.” And, by the laws of England in 
general, women may be witnesses, sureties, guardians, &s¢. in all ca- 
ses, as well as men. Harris. 

For a list of civil law authors on the law of evidence, see Hargreave 
and Butler’s Notes to Co. Litt. Index vooe authore. 

$ 7. De servo qui liber existimabatur, p. 115. Adrianus Catoni, Cod. 6. 
23. 1. How far the court of chancery will goin aiding powers defec- 
tively executed see Holmes v Coghill, 12 Vez. 206, where niost. of the 
cases are cited. 

§ 8. De pluribus testibus ex cade domo, pr 115. This does not 
mean, of the family of the testator, otherwise it would be contrary to 
the spirit of Dig. 22. 5. 6. Idonei non videntur: esse testes quibus impe- 
rare potest ut testes fiunt > to which agrees the followi ing. 3 9. De his 
gui sunt in familia testatoris. 

$ 11. De legatariis et fidei commissariis, p.. 116. see the note tos 4. 
above. 

Legatariis autem.] Although it was a general rule in the Roman law, 
that no one should be permitted to bear testimony in his own cause, 
Cod. 4. t. 20. /.10. yet legataries were allowed to give evjdence up- 
on this distinction; that they were particular, and not universal suc- 
cessors ; and that a testament would be valid without legataries. The 
difficulty also, which must frequently have occurred, in obtaining so 
great a number of witnesses, as seven, miglit probably itiduce the Xo- 
mans to be less strict, as to the persons, whom they admitted upon 
this occasion. — ui testamento lueres instituitur, says ULPIAN, in eodem 


3R 


“ft | 


490 NOTES. 


testamento testis esse non potest: quod in legatario, et in eo, qui tutor 
scriptus est, contra habetur. Hi enim testes possunt adhiberi, si. aliud 
eos nthil impediat. ff. 28. t. 1. 1. 20. But by the practice of the eccle- 
siastical courts of this kingdom, which have the sole cognisance of the 
validity of all wills, as far as they relate to personal estate, no legatee, 
who is a subscribed withess to the will, by which he is benefitted, can 
be admitted to give his testimony in foro contradictorio, as to the va- 
lidity of that will, "till either the value of his legacy hath been paid 
to him, or he hath renounced it; and, in case of payment, the executor 
of the supposed will, must release all title to any future claim upon such 
supposed legatee, who might otherwise be obliged to refund, if the 
will should be set aside; and a release in this case is always made, 
to the intent, that the legatee may have no shadow of interest at the 
time of making his deposition. Swinb. 397. "The same practice also 
prevailed at common law in regard to witnesses, who were benefitted 
under wills, disposing of real estate. And, if a legatee, who was a 
witness toa will, had refused either to renoufffe his legacy, or to be 
paid a sum of money in lieu of it, he could not have been compelled 
by law to divest himself of his interest; and, whilst his interest con- 
tinued, his testimony was useless: and this was determined in the 
case of Ansley vers. Dowsing, in easter term, 19 Geo. 2. Str. Rep. 1254. 

But this very singular case, and the unanimous opinions of the jud- 
ges upon the meaning and intent of the statute of the 29th of Charles 
the second, called the statute of frauds, gave rise to the following act 
of parliament, made in the 25th year of Geo. the second: by which it 
is enacted s * that if any person shall attest the execution of any will or 
“ codicil, which shall be made after the 24th of Tune, 1752, to whom 
* any beneficial devise, legacy, estate, interest, gift, or appointment, of 
** or affecting any realor personal estate (charges on lands, tenements, or 
* hereditaments for payment of debts excepted) shall be thereby given, 
“ &c. the devise shall, so far only as concerns such person, or any 
* claiming under him, be void, and he shall be admitted a witness to. 


“the execution of such will.” 25 Geo. 2d. Harris. See Twaites v. 


Smith, 1 P. Wms. 10. 1 Lord Ray. 85. where it is said that by the spi- 
ritual law the son of a legatee is nota competent witness, but by the 
common law he is. 


: Lin. quadam nostra cpnstitutione.] Not extant. ! 
5 See further on witnesses to a bill by the law of England, Tu 


burn, $43, whose notes embrace also the spiritual and the civil law 
doctrine on this subject. | 
In Pennsylvania, we require but'two witnesses toa will. Act of 1705. 


NOTES. 493 


See the exposition of this, in Hight v. Wilson, 1 Dall. Rep. 94, and 
Lewis v. Maris, Ib. 278, and the notes of Mr. Smith, 1 Smith's Penn. 
laws, 38. 

§ 14. Detestamento nuncupativo, p. 117. By the civil law, the wit- 
nesses (in number seven, Cod. 6. 23. 21. 2.) were required within a 
reasonable time after the “feat of the nuncupatory testator, to go | be- 
formal statement drawn out and signed. 1 L. ult. si vero Cod. de test. 

On the English law of nuncupative wills, see 29. Ch. 2. Ch. 3. Swinb. 
355. For thelaws of Pennsylvania relating to wills generally, and to nun- 
cupative wills, see 1 Smith's edition of the Pennsylvania laws, p. 33— 
43, where the chief cases decided in this state, will be found in the notes. 

The cases under the head of last wills in the American Reporters 
of other states, are too numerous to be digested here. 

Tit. 11. De militari testamento, p. 118. The privilege given toa 
soldier was nterely as to the formal part of his will. If meaning. to 
make a willin the comfmon form ough in actual service, but leaving 
it incomplete, his privilege extended to making it valid, so far as the rules 
of military testaments applied. Dig. 29. 1. 3 and 38. Hence also he 
might die, partly testate. L. 6 eodem. or make a relegated person 
his heir, L. 13. § 2 Dig. eod. or make a conditional heir, L 17 and 41 
Dig. eod. or a heir by codicil, L. 36. Dig. eod. ora pupil at the expira- 
tion of his pupillage, Dig. 28. 6. 15. L. 8. Cod, de impub. et aliis 
substitut. All that was necessary seemed to be, that the real will of 
the testator s iciently appear. But by virtue of this privilege, 
the soldier could not bequeath his peculium adventitium, ond. still less 
his peculium profeciilium ; nor could he enfranchise his slaves to the in- 
jury of his creditors, against the law Alia Sentia. Dig. de milt. test. 
L. 15, 28, and 41. 

This military privilege was confined by Justinian to the time of ac- 
tual warfare in camp or in a besieged place. It did not take place in’ 
winter quarters, or in a garrison town. Lex penul. Cod. hoc tit. Tes- 
taments of this nature held good for a year after dismission, Dig. 29. 
1. 21 and 26. The dismissals were, missio causaria on account of 
inability from infirmity : missis honesta when the term of service was 
expired, emeritus. Missio ignominiosa, for some disreputable cause. 
They had also of course, the missio temporaria, commeatus, or furlow, 
but I find no provison made for this. 

The Testamentum in procinctu was introduced by Julius Cesar and 
allowed for a limited time. Trajan made tr perpetual. Cicero men- 
. rasgo eret —. 


owe 


492 NOTES. 


tions the testamentum in procinctu, De nat. De or. II. 3 De orat. L 
53. 

§ In militum testamentis solennitates remissa, p. 118. Quod nostra 
constitutio. Cod. 6. 21. 17. 

. $ 1. Rescriptum Divi Trajani. p, 118. Trajanus Catilio. Dig. 29. 
4. 24. 

$2. De surdo et muto, p. 118. This means accidentally so ; for persons 

born deaf or dumb could not at any time make a will. Ferriere. 

This was a privilege peculiar to soldiers, till Justinian's time, who 
granted this privilege to all his subjects in general. Cod. 6. 22. 10. — 

Harris. 

§ 6. De peculio quasi castrense p. 120. Cujus constitutionis. Cod. 
3. 28. 37. The Roman youth, qui togatas et civiles militias exercebant 
were entitled to a peculium, quast castrense, but they could. not for- 
merly devise it, unless by imperial permission. Dig. 36. 1. 1, 6. Dig. 
37. 13. 3. 5. Dig. 37. 6. 1. 15. this privilege was extended by Con- 
stantine. Cod. de castr. omn. palet. parul. by Leo, and hy Anthemi- 
us, to sons of families engaged in ecclesiastical avocations, L. 34. Cod. 
de episcop. et cleric. and lastly by Justinian L. ult. Cod. qui test. fac. 
poss. L. 7. Cod, de assess. L. 4. Cod de advoc. divers. jur. 

Tit. 12. Quibus non est permissum, p. 121. and $ 1. De impubere et 
Jurioso, p. 123. As I have before observed, the making of a will, is 
in fact the making of a law to regulate after death the property acquir- 
ed during life time. This is not a natural right, for no dead man can 
' have any rights. The human race are by nature usufructuaries only. 
It is society alone, that creates and protects the right of making a will. 
This right by a law of the 12 tables was exclusively given to fathers 
of families. Cic. ad Herenn. L. 1. Under the term pater familias, for 
this purpose, were included women not in the power of any persom. 
Dig. 50. 16. 1. 

The privilege as before remarked was extended to the military and 
quasi-military property of persons in the army, and in certaim public 
employments. In other cases, even the consent of the father was in- 
sufficient ; for the right was grantable, not by private persons, bue by 
the public will Dig.19. &. 25-1. But the donations mortis oauea 
were as much of the nature of contracts as legacies, and te these, the 
assent of the pater familias could give validity; Dig. 2. 14 18.: Dig. 
44 7. 39. A will made on the last day of the 14th year was goody 
quia favore supremarum voluntatum, dies inceptus habetur pro comete. 
Vestals also ?mpuberes, might make a will. Hence probably the: pan- 
mission given to the christian vestals or nuns, and other females onder 


NOTES. 493 


vows of celibacy, Aul. Gell. noct. attice. 1 ch. 12, Sozom. Hist. eccles. 
L.1 c. 9. but Leo the philosopher repealed this permission, Nov. 26. 

As to insane persons, see Dig. 27. 10. juncta glossa. L. 9. Cod. hoc. 
tit. Valer. Max. L. 7. ch. 8. Dig. 28. 3. 6. 5." et seq. our law is as 
herc laid down. Swinburne 79. 7 Bac. ab. 301. 

Non possunt &npuberes.] The rules of the civil law take place in 
England, in regard both tothe capacity and incapacity of minors to 
make wills, as far as those wills relate only to personal estate : so that, 
if a boy, not arrived at the age of fourteen, or a girl, not arrived at the age 
of twelve, makes a will of personal estate, it will not be good ; although 
such boy or girl, was doli capax atthe time of making the will, and capable 
of discerning right from wrong: neither willa testament, made by a 
male infant under fourteen, or a female under twelve, become good, with- 
out a republication, although such infant should afterwards arrive at the 
proper age. But it hath been allowed in the case of Hide and Hide, that 
a male infant of 14, and a female of 12, might makea willof personal 
estate ; and it was said to have been so agreed by lord keeper Wright, 
in the case of Sharpe and Sharpe, in which the court followed the ci- 
vil law of Fustinian, which permits minors to consent to marriage at 
such their respective ages. Gilbert’s Repts. page 74.—.S'winb. fol. 74. 
But, in regard to a will of real estate, it was enacted in the reign of 
Hen. & “that wills or testaments made of any manors, lands, tene- 
* ments, or other hereditaments, by any woman covert, or person 
* within the age of one and twenty years, idiot, or insane, shall noe 
* be good or effectual in law.” 34 H. 8. cap. 5. sect. 14. 

And it hath been adjudged, that, if a minor under twenty-one makes 
his will, and devises his lands, and afterwards attains the full age of 
twenty-one years, but dies without making any new publication of his 
will, the will is void. 1 Sid. 162. And. 182. Dyer. 143. Raym. 84. 

Furiosi autem. “ Mad folks and lunatics, during the time of their 
‘¢ insanity, cannot make a testament, nor dispose of any thing by will, 
* not even to pious uses. The reason is, because they know not what 
* they do; for, in making a will, integrity and perfectness of mind, 
“ and not health of body is required: and thereupon arose that com- 
* mon clause used in every testament; sick in body, but of perfect 
** mend and memory. It was therefore determined by the judges, in 
* Combe’s case in the Star-Chamber, ( Moor 759.) that sane memory 
“ for making a will is not at all times, when the party can speak yea or 
* no, or hath life in him, nor when he can answer to any thing with 
* sense ; but he ought to have judgment to discern, and to be of per- 


494 B NOTES, 


* fect memory, otherwise the will is void. And so strong is this im- 
* pediment of insanity, that, if the testator makes -his testament after 
* this furor hath overtaken him, and whilst it ae yet possesses his 
** mind, albeit the furor afterwards departs, and the testator recovers 
* his former understanding, yet doth not the testament, made during 
** his former fit, recover any force or strength thereby. Howbeit if 
* these mad or lunatic persons have clear and calm intermissions, then 
* during the time of such their freedom of mind, they may make their 
** testaments ; so that neither the furor going before, nor following 
—. * the making of the testament, doth hinder the same begun and finish- 
** ed in the mean time.” Swinburn of test. part 2. sect. 3. Cod. 6. t. 22. 
* [, 9. Harris.. 

See further on this subject, Swinburne on wills 74 et seq. and Co. 
Litt. 89. b. with Hargreave’s note 6 therein, as to the dissonance of opi- 
nion at what time an infant may make a will. It seems now to be set- 
tled that this is 14 in males and 12 in females for personal estate. Ex 
parte, Holyland, 12 Vez. junr. 11. Judge Wilson’s Bacon’s ab. v. % 
p. 300. 

The stat. 32 and 34 Hen. 8 on this subject are not adopted by the 
judges of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in their Report. See 3 
Binney's Rep. append. But I apprehend the law of Pennsylvania ne- 
vertheless is, that a minor cannot make a will of lands; for such was 
the law at the time of our act of assembly concerning wills 1705, and 
no alteration has been since made in this respect. The wills therein 
spoken of, must be taken as meaning such wills as could then be legal- 
ly made. . 

§ 2. De prodigo, p. 133. The law of England takes no notice of pro- 
digals. 

§ 4. De caeco, p. 124. Formerly the blind were permitted to make a will. 
Paul. L. 3 sentent. tit. 3 $ 4. and the comments on Dig, 28. 1. 22. 6. 
which permits a will to be signed at night. But when the emperors 
Diocletian and -Maximinian ordained that a testator should see and be 
seen by his witnesses, this permission was vi rtually repealed. 9. 
12 Cod. de testament, Justinian regranted this privilege. 

In England the testator and the witnesses to a written will, must be 
within sight of each other at the time of executing and witnessing the 
will; Longford v. Eyre, 1 P. Wms. 740. Grylev. Gryle, 2 Atk. 176 
Casson v. Dade, 1 Br. ch. ex. 99. but a blind man may make a nü&cu- 
pative will, or may acknowledge a written will in presence of wit- 

nesses. Swinh, 9G. 
) 


NOTES. 495 


$ 5. *De eo. qui est apud hostes, p. 124. Although a captive could 
not make a will, his codiciis might be rendered valid by: a subsequent 
will after his return. Dig. 49. 15. 12. 5. 

Tit. 13. De exheredatione liberorum, p. 124. Under the civil law, 
the appointment of a heir, is an essential part of a will, If the son, 
under power of the father, be passed over and not named, the will is 
void. He must be simply and unconditiorally disinherited. Dig. 28. 
2.3.1. Dig. 28. 5. 4. Dig. 35.1.83. L.4. Cod. de inst. et subst. 
L. 15. Cod. de condit. inst. nor could disinherison take place by 
codicil: § 2. Inst. de Codic. Nor though the unnamed son should die 
before his father, would this give validity to the instrument originally 
defective in its formation, Dig. 28. 2. 7. Dig. 28. 3. 12. 17. joining 
Ulpian, tit. 33. $ 6. But the will would not be invalid by the preterition 
of daughters, or grand-children, Dig. 28. 3. 8. 1. ; but they had their 
portion though omitted tobe named. Thus, if heirs were instituted 
from among the children of the testator, the daughter and grand-chil- 
dren would have equal parts with each of the heirs: as if there were 
three heirs, each heir would have three ounces, and the omitted 
daughter or grand-son three ounces, the estate being divided into 
twelve. Ifthe heirs were three strangers, they would have six ounces, 
and the omitted daughter or grand-son six. Nam scriptis heredibus, 
accrescebant suis in virilem (a man’s share) extraneis vero in semissem. 
Justinian took away these distinctions, and nullified the will if any of 
the offspring of the testator, and in his power, were omitted. For the 
causes of disherison see Nov. 115. which also requires, that it shall be 
express and by name, and cum elogio, or stating some one of the 14 
allowed causes, in all cases of legitimate, children born. 

In England, the law is notso. A testator may disinherit his own 
children, by express words, or by omission. But the practice of leav- 
ing a shilling to a child intended to be disinherited, seems to have ori- 
ginated in the above doctrine of the civil law. Swinburne, part s. $ 1. 
But semble that as a. general doctrine, an heir cannot be disinherited 
by implication: yet.in Trent v. Hanning, three judges, dissentiente 
" Lawrence, went very near if not quite that length; 7 East. 106. see 
Piggot v. Penr ice, Gilb. Eq. Rep. 138. Johnson v. Haines, 4 Dall. 
rep. 64. Cresoe v. Laidley, 2 Binney, 279. In England, the heir isa 
favourite upon feudal principles, and as connected with the institution 
of primogeniture, which does not operate in this country ; but the ge- 
neral rule above laid down is in unison with the dictatesof natural jus- 
tice. 


496 - | NOTES. 


$ 1. De posthumis, p.125. A posthumous child not named might have 
setthe will aside : but it was not void if the offspring was born dead, 
Dig. 37. 6. ult. Posthumous children were so called when born after 
executing the will, as appears by the 1st Chap. of the Lex Vellea. 
Gaires 6. lib. 2. Inst. tit. de exhzred. lib. 2. $ 2. 

Children born after the death of the parent and within ten months 
were accounted his. As to the English law on this subject, see Har- 
greave’s Co. Litt. 86 and 123. b. with the notes. 

By the present French code, the subsequent birth of a legitimate 
child revokes a will. 

Agnatione posthumi.] The rights of posthumous children seem to 
be regulated by the rights of those, who are born in the life-time of 
their parents. Thus the civil law permits the birth of a posthumous 
child te annul a testament ; because it is by that law in the power of 
any child, who hath been either omitted in his father’s testament, or 
disinherited nominally without cause, to set that testament aside; and 
where preterition is a sufficient reason to destroy a will, at the instance 
ofa child born in the life-time of his father, it would be extremely 
hard not to allow this reason atleast an equal force, in regard to a post- 
humous child. But by the law of England the birth of a posthumous 
child does not affect the testament of the father in any degree ; which 
is in appearance a very rigid doctrine : but with us the testament of x 
parent can not be annulled on account of the preterition, or causeless 
disinherison of a child, born in his life-time ; for the law permits eve- 
ry man to dispose of his own fortune, as he pleases: and therefore, 
if a posthumous child was allowed to annul a will, it must follow, that 
such child would have a greater right, than if he had been born in his 
father’s life-time ; namely, the right of annulling his father’s will on 
account of preterition. And, ifthe law was to pursue a middle way, 
and admit a posthumous child to take a share of the deceased’s estate 
without annulling the whole testament, this would be in effect to make 
a new will for the deceased, and to remedy a less evil by the introduc- 
tion of a greater, in countenancing a practice so very dangerous, and 
contrary to that established rule of law, which gives every man an un- 
controuled power in the disposition of his own fortune. What has 
been here said is intended only in regard to wills of personal estate ; for, 
in respect to the wills of real estate, there are, besides the statute of 
frauds, many other reasons, which might be urged to evince, that the 
birth of a posthumous child can not be allowed to operate asa revoese 
tion. Harris. 


The English law seems now settled that marriage alone does not; 
but that marriage and’ birth of a child, even a posthumous child, does 
amount to a revocation of a prior will. ‘The reader will find all the old- 
er cases cited in some or otherof the following more modern ones, 
which may slightly assist those who may have occasion to trace the his- 
tory of this question jn England. The civil law doctrine is discussed 
in Lord Kenyon’s, argumentin Lancashire v. Lancashire, 5 Term rep. 
59. His Lordship highly approves of the rejection of the citil law re- 
gulations respecting the Testantentum inofficiosum, wherein I confess 
I can hardly coincide ; but in cohformity to prior decisions, he adopts 
their rule of revocation on matriage and the birth even of a posthu- 
mous child. 

Forse v. Hembling, 4 Co. rep. 60. 
Overbury v. Overbury, 2 Show. 242. " 
See the cases referred to in the note of Afr. Leach, on. this case. 
Brown *. Thompson, 1 Eq. Ca. ab. 415. 
Ib. cited by Swinburn, 535. 
Cooke v. Oakley, otherwise } 1 P, Was. 301: 
yre v. Eyre 
Christopher v. Christopher, 4 Burr. 2182. n. 
Wellmeton v. Wellington, 4 Burr. 2171. 
Brady v. Cubit, Doug. 80. 
Shepherd v. Shepherd; Doug. 37. n. 
Same 5 T. Rep. 58. ' 
Lancashire o. Lancashire, 5 T. Rep. 58; 
this seemé the latest and leading case, in which the authorities afe ' 
fully discussed. 

The decisions proceed on the principle, that as wills are ambulatory 
till the death of the testator, Lord Beauclerk v. Dr. Mead,2 At. 16Y- 
any intermediate act, or any change of circumstances» inconsistent with 
the will, amounts to an iniplied revocation. Gilbert on devises 93. 
Christopher v. Christopher, 2 Dickens, Ch. Rep. 447. But an implied 
revocation may be rebutted by evidence of circumstances that. imply 
éthetwise: and where the subsequent change of situation of the testa- 
tor, is got inconsistent with the provisions of the will, there may be 
& revocation in part only. Kennebel v. Scrafton, 2 East, 530, 5 Vez. 
563, Expte lichester, 7 Vez. 348. Whether the birth of more children af- 
ter the execution.of the will, and the testator's second marriage after 
thàt, amount to a revocation, see Gibbons v. Caunt, 4 Vez. 840. 

_ The taw of Pennsylvania has as I think been very judiciously altered 
_ W thencts of 83 March 1764 and 19 Ap. 17945 which enact that a 
3S 


498 NOTES. 


testator having made his will, and afterwards married, and then dying 
and leaving a widow, or a child born subsequent to the will, it shall 
amount to a revocation as to them ; and they shall be in the same situa- 
tion as if he had made no will. On these acts the following decision has 
taken place. 

In Coates v. Hughes, 3 Binney, 498, it was determined that asub- 
sequent marriage and birth of a posthumous child do not amount by 
the law of Pennsylvania to a total revocation of a will even where the 
subsequent issue is the testator’s only child. They amount to a revo- 
cation pro tanto, namely, so far as regards the widow and the child, but 
not as to the appointment of executors, nor as to a power to sell for 
the payment of debts. The reader will find most of the learning of 
the books collected briefly in this case ; which turned upon the expres- 
sions of the acts of assembly on this subject. 

In 1 Washington’s Virg. rep. 140. Wilcox v. Rootes, et al. it is ta- 
ken for granted by the court, that a subsequent marriage and birth of 
a child is an implied revocation of a former will. This was in 1792; 
but in 1802, came on the case of Yerby v. Yerby, 3 Call’s Virg. rep. 
which was this : 

A man married and had six children: he made a will in 1785. His 
wife dying, he married again in 1790, and had two children, to wit, 
the present plaintiffs, by his second wife. 

It appeared in evidence, that previous to his second marriage He had 
promised that the children he might have by his last wife, should be 
as well provided for, as those he had by his first wife. It appeared 
further in evidence, that during his last illness, it was proposed to him 
to alter his will and provide for the present plaintiffs: but he refused, 
saying he wished some alterations to be made, and when he got well 
he would have them made. He appeared much distressed, and wishy 
ed to evade the eonversation. 

This case was argued against an implied revocation on the following 
grounds. 

istly, The Virginia act of assembly provides only for post- 
humous children pretermitted: the court cannot go farther: they:can- 
not by extension make a new law. 

2dly, This is not the case of a testamentary disposition in. favour of 
strangers, which is required to be revoked, but of children, who had at 
least as strong a claim as the plaintiffs. 

3dly, Implied revocations may be rebutted, by expressions | in the 
will, or by circumstances, 1 lord Ray. 441. Doug. 31. and a refer- 
ence to a willas a subsisting one, rebuts the presumption of revocatiosi 


"n 
i 07 





NOTES. 499 


A 


Doug. 31. An expression of an intention to revoke a will hereafter, 
does not operate as a revocation. Pow.*Dev. 534, much less an ex- 
pression of a mere intention to alter it. The court unanimously con-. 
firmed the will; and I think the law was with them ; butis it possible 
to read such a case as this, without regretting the want of the civil 
law principle de inofficioso testamento ? The unfeeling exclusions, im- 
periously demanded by the institution of primogeniture, are sufficient- 
ly odious, but they fall far short of such a case as this, under the re- 
publican laws of Virginia. 

By an act of Massachusetts, 1700, and Feb. 6. 1784,a child not men- 
tioned in the will of his parent, shall be entitled to such distributive 
share as he would have had by law, had the parent died intestate: but 
in Terry v. Foster, Mass. Rep. 146, and in Church v. Crocker, 8 Mass. 
Rep. 17. the court held it sufficient to bar the claim of a chiid to a dis- 
tributive share, if noticed by name in the will, though a small legacy 
er even no legacy, were bequeathed to such child. 

The other points apppertaining to the law of revocations, are not 
sufficiently connected with the subject of this section to be dwelt on. 

§ 2. De quasi posthumis, p. 126. If a grandfather passed over his 
- grandson being his proper heir at the time of making the testament, 
it might be done designedly to exclude him from the possession, and 
the will might pevertheless be valid. But if the grandson was not 
the proper heir at the time, the father being alive, the grandfather was 
not presumed to have passed him by, with intent of disinherison, but 
that the father would regularly succeed in the first place. In this case 
therefore the will might be broken. Dig. 28. 3. 15. Cujas comment 
ad Dig. 28.2. Now by Nov. 115 and I. 3. Cod. de post. hzred. inst. 
the passing over any children of the testator is fatal to the will, except 
only that posthumous children not named must be born alive for that 
purpose. See on the subject of this sectionl. 3 Cod. de post. hzred. 
inst. Dig. 37. 4. 8. 4. As to the law Velleia, see Dig. 28. 2. 29. 

6 4. De adoptivis, p. 127. We have no adopted children in the Roman 
sense of the word. 

Que de naturalibus, &c. Natural children, in the phraseology of the 
English and American law, are children born out of wedlock, and are 
contra-distinguished from legitimate children: but in the/ language of 
the civil law, natural are contra-distinguished from adoptive children ; 
that is, they are the children of, the parents spoken of. by natural pro- 
eveation. 

§ 5. fus novum, p. 128. — Nostra vero constitutio. Cod. 6. 28. 4. 


NOTES. 





In nostra consiituticnc. Cod. 8. 48, 10. 

Tit. XIV. De heredibus instituendis, p. 130. Formerly ail legacies and 
provisions in a will that preceded the nomination of the heir were void, 
so necessary was such an appointment to the validity of the will itself. 
Ulp. tit. 24. $ 14 and tit. 25. $ 6. Juncto Paulo 1. 2. sentent. 6. $ 1. 
But by l. 15 and 24. Cod. de test. this precision was rendered unneces- 
sary, and if by apt and irtelligible words, a heir was named in any part 
of the will, it sufficed. It was necessary that the will should compre- 
hend the whole of the testator’s property, for he could not die intestate 
for one part, and testate as to another. If the heir was nominated. of 
the first degree, he was instituted, if one more remote, he was substi- 
tuted. 

Qui possunt heredes institut, P- 130. Lx nostra constitutione. Cod. 
6.27. 5. 

$ 2. De servo hereditatic, p. 152. For this translation of the testa- 
znenti factio, see Inst. Lib. 1. Tit. 19. § 4. Hereditariis servis testa- 
memti factio est: that is, not factio activa, the right of making a will, 
but factio passiva, the right of taking by will. 

.$ 4. De numero heredum, p. 132. Usque in. infinitum, means as 
many as he pleases within reasonable bounds. For instance, all the 
inhabitants of. China, would be plainly absurd. He may appoint a 
corporation or community if he pleases. 1. hereditas, Cod.h. tit. 

6 5. De divisione hereditatis, p. 132. Hares ex asse, a. whole and, 
sole heir. .4s, among the Romans was an unit. 

Ex parte testatus, et ex parte intestatus. In England, this is other- 
wise. If atestator disposes of only half his estate, he will be deem- 
ed intestate as to the rest, which will go according to the statute of dis- 
tributions. | 

6 8. Si plures uncie quam duodecim, &c. p. 184. Suppose THREE 
heirs: tothe first is left four ounces; to the second three ounces; to 
the third, twa ounces. Thenthree ounces will remain undisposed of. 
These are to be divided into nine parts; of which the first heir will 
be entitled to four, the second to three, the third £o twa. | 

Again suppose THRrEhceirs : to the first is left ezgAt ounces, to the se- 
cond six ounces, to the third four ounces, in all ezzAteen ounces, Each 
heir must suffer a deduction in proportion to his share. Thus: if 
18—12—8? Answer, 52. If18—12—6? Answer, 4. -If 18—192— 
4? Auswer, 2}That is, the first devisee will bc entitled to 55 ounces, 
the second, to 4 ounces, and the third to 2} ounces, or twelfth parts 
of the estate devised. 

— T£ xine ounces be left specifically indifferent proportions among three 


- NOTES. 201 


heirs, and three ounces are left generally to three others, the last will 
share in equal portions. 

. Suppose a testator to institute six heirs, bequeathing to three of 
them portions amounting to a whole As : six ounces for instance to one, 
four to another, and £wo to a third, and the other three are named heirs 
simply without any specific assignment of portion. In this case, the 
estate will be divided into two asses, of which the three sbecific devi- 
sees will take one in their respective proportions, and the three 
others another as in equal proportions. | 

But if the first three had specifically assigned to them eighteen oun- 
ces, then the puponpium or double as would again take place; and 
the estate being divided into two asses or 24 ounces, the three heirs 
nominated simply; without assignment of sbares, would divide be- 
tween them in equal portions six asses. Ferriere in loco. 

§ 9. De modis instituendi, p. 136. None but a military man could 
by the Raman law, be partly testate, and partly intestate. Dig. 50. 
. 17. 7 and 29. 1. 41. But where the condition annexed is in itself in- 
certain, the event must be waited for ; and if the condition should not 
take place the willis void. If it do take place, then the hcir is consi- 
dered as in from the death of the testator, quia dies incertus retrotrahi- 
tur ad initium. Dig. 28. 6. 33. 

In England, an executor, who may be considered as quasi heres, 
may be appointed from a certain time, or untj] a certain time, and the 
next of kin may be appointed administrator as to the vacant time. 
Swinburn, 310. . 

§ 10. De conditiene impossibili, p, 135. Impossible conditions arc 
regarded as not seriously meant by the parties. Dig. 44. 7.31. Pos- 
sible conditions may be casual, or potestative, or mixt. Thus, I appoint 
Titius my heir, if my ship arrives from Asia. "This is a casual condi- 
tion. With this condition, a stranger may, but a proper or domestic 
heir, cannot be appointed heir. Dig. 28. 5. 4 and 86. 1. 4. Cod. 
inst. et subs. A mixt condition is partly casual, and partly potestative, 
as provided he shall go to the capitol, so soon as Mzvius becomes Con: 
sul. Mieviusnever may become Consul, In this case, a stranger may, 
but.a properheir cannot be instituted. Ifanheir bc appointed, pro- 
vided that immediately after my decease, he shall go upto the capi- 


tol, this i$ potestative and valid, because the nominee may at his owa 


pleasure put an end to the condition, 


-— 


Impossibilis conditio.] “ Although impossible conditions, whether - 


* they are so by nature or by law, do not hinder the effect of the dis- 
'* position, being reputed as if they were not written or uttered; yet, 


502 NOTES. ~ 


* if a testator supposes a condition to be possible, which is ín reality 
** impossible or illegal, then such condition is not void, but will render 
“the disposition void, to which it is added: as for instance ; if the 
** testator makes T?tius his executor, or gives him an hundred pounds, 
* if he marries his, the testator's daughter; supposing her to be liv- 
* ing, when she is dead : in this case, the condition is impossible ; and 


* * yet Titius can not become executor, or obtain the legacy ; because it 


* js not probable, that the testator would have made him executor, or 


* given him an hundred pounds, if he had known,or believed, his 


* daughter to have been dead.” Swinb. part 4. sect. 6. 

§ 11. De pluribus conditionibus, p. 135. see Dig. 35. 1. 6. as tà 
joint conditions. 

In alternativis, sufficit alterum adimpleri. 

Tit. XV. § 1. De numero heredum, p. 136. Thus: let Primus and 


' Secundus be my heirs. If default should take place in case of Primus, 


let Tertius be my heir inhis room. Orif Primus and Secundus refuse, 
let Tertius, or Tertius and Quartus, become my heirs. 

Plures in unius locum.] This kind of substitution, which is called 
ordinary or vulgar, is of no small use in England, and we do therein, 
for the most part, follow the precepts and rules of the civillaw : for 
it is nothing else but the adding a condition, which we commonly call 


fails in the case of lands ; namely, a limitation of heirs, to whom a tes- 


tator intends, that his lands should descend. Strahan on Domat. vol. 

D. p. 221. Cowel’s inst. tit. 15. Harris. 

Substitutions are rejected by the code Napoleon. Art. 896. 

§ 2. Suam partem singuli, &c. p. 136. Suppose Primus, Secundus, 
and Tertius, are heirs and reciprocally substituted each for the other: 
Primus, having assigned to him one ounce, Secundus eight ounces, and 
Tertius three ounces. If Primus resigns, his ounce must be divided 
into cleven parts, of which Secundus takes eight, and Tertius three 
parts. Ferriere. 

Jta Divus Pius. Ccd. 6.26. 1. Dig. 28. 6.24. 


§ 3. Si coheredi substituto, p. 137. If Primus and Secundus, are 


appointed heirs, and Secundus substituted to Primus, and Tertius: to 
Secundus, then if. Primus, and Secundus, both die, Tertius is considered 


as entitled to the heirship of Primus, as well as of Secundus, and the 


share of Primus, does not escheat to the treasury. 

If Secundus should die, and Tertius succeed to him, and then Pris 
mus should die, a question arose whether the treasury or Tertius, 
should succeed to the share of Primus. Itshouldseem at first -that 
the decision wasin favour of the treasury from Dig. 28.6. 27, But 


NOTES. 503 9 


it appears that Severus and Antoninus, leaned against the claim of the 
treasury. Mysinger. h. 1. Whether the same doctrine takes place 
in pupillary substitution, see Cujas on Dig. 28. 6. 41. and Ferriere in 
loco. 

§ 4 St quis servo, qui liber existimabatur, Gc. p. 137. In this case, 
the heirship was divided, from the total incertainty of what the testa- 
tor might have willed had he not been mistaken. Jn dubiis enim cau-, 
sis, ad judicium rusticum esse returrendum, ipsa ratio suadet ; et in ambi- 
guis, quod minimum est, sequimur. Neither is this opposed to Cod. de 
heredib. instit.1. 3, where it is said to bea question of inclination: for 
this question can only arise where there is room for rational conjec- 
ture. | 

Cujas corrects Dig. 28. 5. 40. from ita ut alter semis, to itaut As: 
and as Ferriere supposes, rightly ; scribes frequently making mis- 
takes by their abbreviated characters, Sigia. 

Tit. XIV. Depupillari substitutione, p. 138. This could not be exer» 
cised by the parent over emancipated, whether at the execution 
of the will, or the death of the testator. Dig. 28.6. 2 and 41. Nor 
could the mother exercise this right over her son, being as yet impu- 
ber. Nor is this contrary to Dig. 28. 6. 33. because this last is a mere 
case, not of pupillary, but of common substitution, for the heritage 
does not attach till the son arrives at fourteen years of age. This is 
the tabula pupillaris, of the jurisconsults, and an heir may be appoint- 
ed for a future time. Sup. inst. heredib. inst. tit. 14.§ 9. Butthen * 
such an appointment by that section of the institutes, is directed to take 
place immediately, notwithstanding the limitation. Or if it be consi- 
dered as incertain whether the impuber will arrive at puberty, then 
the condition being incertain, the validity or nullity of the will de- 
pends upon that event. Dies vero incertus vim habet conditionis et pe- 
rinde ad initium potest retrahi. Cod. de hered. inst. 1. 9. and this 
seems to be the true light. 0 

$ 1. De substitutione mente capti, p» 138. Infirmari sancimus, Cod. 
6. 26. 9. Dig. 28. 6. 43. 

$ 2. Proprium pupillaris euletitutionis, p. 139. 9uodam modo duo 
testamenta. Duplices Tabula, as they are called, Dig. 35. 2. 70. Dig. 
18.4.2. $ illud. The father might make a substitution to his son being 
impuber, after having made his own will, and before other witnesses, 
Dig. 28. 6. 16. buta mother could not. Sup. Still, these being in fact 
the will of one person, viz. the father, they were regarded conjointly 
as one will, Ib. 1. 2. $ 4. and 1. 20. and Dig. 42. 5. 28. Wherea father 


ha ERR RD e —"—— we 


* 504 "NOTES. 


substitutes to a disinherited son, he must make his own will first, end 
so, must be understood, Dig. 28. 6. 2. 2. Fernere. 

Ifa child, not arrived at puberty, do not fall within soine one of the 
causes of disinherison stated in Nov. 115, he may cffectually prefet 
the allegation of invalidity from neglect of natural duty; (inofficiosi 
testamenti ) agamst the will. These causes are briefly as follows: 
all comprehended under the general dendmination of ingratitude ; 90 
that itseems a commentary upon the old adage, ingrati quem dixerit 
omnice dicts. 
1stly, If the child hath assaulted the parents : or 2dly, inflicted upon 
them a great and dishonorable injury: or 3dly, accused them of 
crime, except where the emperor or state was concerned : or 4thly, 
practised sorcery: or Sthly, attempted the life of either of his pa- 
rents by poison, or any other secret means, or 6thly, debauched hi$ 
stepmother, or his father’s concubine : or 7thly, turned informer agains 
his parents, and thus put them to expence : or 8thly, if he do not attempt 


. to relieve his parent out of prison, by offering so far as he can, te 
: become security : or 9thly, if he should ynfairly prevent his patents 


from making a will: or 10thly, if he has joined a company of gladiators, 
(arenarii_) or stage players, (mimi, ) or 11thly, ifa daughter should re- 


\ fuse to marry a husband provided by the parent, who 1s also willing te 


bestow on hera reasonable portion, but chuses to live a libertine sin- 
gle life. However, if the parent hath not taken care to provide her a 


| proper husband before the age of 25, and she should then have a child; 


itis the faultof their neglect, and no cause of disinherison : or 12thly, if 
the child should neglect to succour and take care of a parent, who may 
become lunatic or insane : or 13thly, should neglect to exert himself ho: 
nestly to redeem his parent from captivity: or 14thly, if being brought 


up by his parents, in the orthodox doctrine of the church, he should 


swerve from the catholic faith. This last to be sure, niightbe converted 


into a fruitful source of complaint. 


$ 5. Pupillure testamentum sequela paterni, p; 140. Pupillary substitu- 
tion is founded on the will of the father: so that if this be set aside; 
the pupillary substitution falls with it. Dig. 28. 6. Dig. 50. 17. 129. 
1. ahd l 17.6. ib. So the pupillary substitution holds good in the. 
same manner as the will holds good. Dig. 29. 2. 4; 1. - 

§ 6. Quot liberis substituitur, p. 140. In this case, the substitute 
cannot succeed till the death of the last child under age; 
- Ferriere puts this case: A father making his will appoints Primes 
Secundus and Tertius Patres familias, Quartus an impuber, and Syjfi- 
tus a slave, his heirs, with assigrmert ef various portions. He diam. 


NOTES. 563 


herits his s son not of age, and appoints as substitutes in case of his 


son’s death before puberty, such of the five persons as may become . 


heirs to himself. Primus declines: Secundus and Tertius accept: so 
does Quartus at command of his father ; so does S'uintus at coramand 
of his master. Secundus dies: Quartus becomes filius familias and is 
emancipated: Quintus is manumitted. Who shall be the substitute ? 
shall Primus ? shall the heir of Secundus? shall the father of Quar- 
tus ? or the master of Quintus ? It is answered, that the substitution 
applied to the persons of the substitutes, not to their representatives : 


to those who had actually been the heirs of the father, as well as the ' 


instituted heirs: and therefore the substitution fell to Tertius, Quar- 
tus, and Quintus in the respective proportions of their original shares 
under the will of the father. 

6 7. De substitutione nominatim aut in genere, p. 141. See on this 
section the paraphrase of Theophilus, which is of great authority. 
** Moreover I may substitute to a minor within puberty, by name, and 
* say, if my sonshould be my heir and die within puberty, let Titius 
* be my heir. And I may substitute to him generally, as when I in- 
* stitute many persons as heirs together with my son, or by instituting 
* many heirs, I disinherit my son. I may so substitute generally, by 
*5 saying, whoever shall be heir to me the father, I substitute him ‘to my 
“son if he should die before puberty. By which form of words 
“ those who are the written heirs and remain so at the timc, will by sub- 
* stitution become heirs also to the son dying within puberty. For 


sa 


‘© if the persons instituted reject the heirship as to the greater part, 4 


** they will take nothing by the pupillary substitution : for the pupillary 
* heirship will be divided between them, in the proportion of the ori- 
** ginal heirship, that is according to the portion they were respectively 
** entitled to under the father's institution of them as heirs to him.” 

I have already mentioned (Tit. 15,§ 1) that substitutions are abo- 
lished in France by the Napoleon code. 

* So detrimental has an unqualified and unlimited powet of settlement 
** been found, even in France, that it has been made a question inere, 
‘© whether it would not be for the advantage of the nation ot iarge, 
** that all settlements and trusts should be abrogated. This question 
* so far ds it related to moveables, was by the orde1 of Louis 15, pro-osed 
* jn the year 1744 by the chancefor D‘Aguesseau to all the 2-rlia- 
* ments and superior councils of France, See Questions concernen. les 
** substitutions, avec les Responses de tsuts les Parliamens, et cours «ou- 
* gerains du Royaume, et les ofservatizns de M. Le Chancelier D‘ Agues- 
* seaustr les dits responses. Toulouse, 1770. And see also Commentaire 

3 T 


506 NOTES. 


* de KOrdonance de Louis 15. sur les substitutions per M. Feugole. Pa- 
ris, 1767. Butler’s elaborate note on the doctrine of uses, Co. Litt. 272. 
a. sub finem, 279, a. See Code civil Nap. ou Recueil. Tom. 2. p. 429. 

Tit. XVII. § 1. Quando testamentum dicatur rumpi, p. 142. Secun- 

« dum nostram constitutionem, Cod. 8. 48. 10. 

Not only in the cases mentioned inthe text, but by the birth of a 
child subsequent to the will. Formerly the adoption of a son set aside 
the will, Dig. 28. 3. 7. if he was not instituted heir therein. Dig. 38. 
3. 18. Dig. 28. 3. 23. 1. Dig. 37. 4. 8.7. but by this law of Justi- 
nian, an adopted son, does not invalidate the will, unless he be a pater 
familias, or if being a filius familias he be adopted by some relation 
paternal or maternal in the ascending line. Cod. de adopt. lex penult. 

As to the general doctrine of revocations, see Viners's Ab. under 
this head, and the note 4 of Serjeant Williams to page 276 of Saun- 
der's Reports, and the cases there referred to, particularly Brydges v. 
the Dutchess of Chandos, 2 Vez. jun. 417. and Goodtitle 9. Otway, 
7 Term Rep. 399. The following cases on the subject have occurred 
Since that note. 

Cave v. Holford, 3 Vez. 650. Revocation by susequent convey- 
ance. 

Lord Temple o. Dutchess of Chandos. lb. 685. Bya mortgage, 
or a conveyance in fee of a devised estate for the payment of debts, 
the will is revoked pro tanto only. 

Hinckley v. Simmons, 4 Vez. 160. Mutual wills by two unmarried 
$ sisters under 21, the marriage of one, does not revoke the will of the 
* other. 

Crosbie v. Macdonald, 4 Vez. 610. All codicils are part of the will: 
therefore a codicil for a particular purpose only, does not revive a part 
of the will revoked by a former codicil. 

Ib. T'wo inconsistent wills : a codicil referring to the first by date 
as the last will, revokes thc intermediate will. 

Gibbons v. Caunt, 4 Vez. 840. Quere, whether by the birth of more 
children subsequent to the will, and the testator's second marriage 
after the birth of those children, but no issue by that marriage, the 
will is revoked ? 

Lord Carrington v. Payne, § Vez. 404. A codicil applying to a 
particular part of the will only, was considered as a substitution for, 
and not a revocation of that particular part. 

Knollys v. Alcock, Ib. 654. A contract for sale revokes a devise 
of the land But itis not revoked by a mortgage in fee to the de- 
visee. Baxter v. Dyer, Ib. 656. 


NOTES. 507 


Kennebel v. Scrafton, Ib. 663. Marriage and birth of a child (ut 
semble) does not revoke a will made in contemplation of such mar- 
riage and issue by it. 

Harmood v. Oglander, 6 Vez. 199. Devise revoked by a conveyance 
in trust, operating beyond the mere purpose of securing a mortgage. 

At law, the courts only consider the great question whether the in- 
terest remains the same in the devisor, as it did at the date of the will ; 
if not, whether the charge be for a general or a partial purpose, it isa 
legal revocation of the devise ; but at equity, if the deed be only for a 
partial purpose, introducing only a particular charge or incumbrance, 
and not otherwise affecting the interest of the devisor; there, the use that 
would enure to the testator and his heirs, if alive, after that partial pur- 
pose was effected, will be held by equity to enure to the devisee if the 
testator be dead. Hence, a devise is not revoked by a mortgage in fec, 
or by a conveyance in fee for the payment of debts. Ib. A court of law, 
looks at the deed only, and compares the interest at the date of the 
will, with the alteration made in it by the deed: but equity looks also 
at articles, at covenants, and at the real intent of the transaction con- 
nected with the deed. 

Equity controuls the law in cascs ofrevocation under the two follow- 
ing circumstances only. 1st." Where the beneficial interest is devised, 
distinct from the legal estate, and the testator afterwards takes the 
legal estate without any modification or alteration. 2dly, Where hav- 
ing the legal as well as the beneficial estate at the date of the will, he 
divests himself of the former, but retains the latter: as in the case 
of a mortgage, or conveyance for the payment of debts. Ib. 

Elliscn 9. Ellison, Ib. p. 656. Ellison in 1791 conveyed leasehold 
estate in trust to Wren: in 1786 he made his will, devising his per- 
sonal estate, &c. In 1797 he took a conveyance to himself from 
Wren of the trust estate. Held this was no revocation; especially 
as no intent to revoke appeared in the proceedings. 

Ex pte. lichester, 7 Vez. 370. Montague v. S'efferys, Moore 4. An 
act inconsistent with the ‘will, though by accident not carried into ef- 
fect, is a revocation : as a covenant with letter of attorney to make live- 
ry, though no livery made. Inchoate acts inconsistent with the will, 
amount to revocation if accompanied with power to destroy the provi- 
" sions of the will. See further in lord Alvanly's argument as to the 
effect of parol and inchoate revocations previous to and under the 
statute of frauds. - 

Where the instrument inconsistent with the will is complete in itself 
to show the intentiqn, it is a revocation, though something further ree 


508 NOTES. 


mains to be done to give it legal effect in favour of the person to whom 
it is madc, as a bargain and sale without enrollment : a feoffment with- 
out livery, &c. but a second will unattested, is incomplete, and there- 
fore cannot revoke. 

Agreeable to the rule of the civil law, tunc prius testamentum rum- 
pilur cum posterius perfectum est, which in Limbery v. Mason, Comyn. 
rep. 451, is laid down as the English law. Dig. 28. 3. 2. 

Kncllys v. Alcock, 7 Vez. 564. and Attorney General 9. Vigor, 8 
Vez. 281. Maundrel v. Maundrel, 10 Vez. 256. Mere partition, whe- 
ther by compulsion or agreement is not a revocation : but the slightest 
addition, as a power of appointment to the limitation of uses is suf&- 
cient. In what case an instrument abandoned, ceases to be a revocation. 

A codicil reciting a specific and limited purpose will revoke the 
whole devise, declaring the trusts again with the proposed alterations, 
and will confirm the will in all particulars not revoked. ‘The omis- 
sion of atrust though against the intention of the testator cannot be 
supplied. Holder v. Holder, 8 Vez. 97. 

Harmood v. Gglander, 8 Vez. 126. Thére is no instance of a revo- 
cation at law, not being a revocation in equity, where the partial par- 
ticular purpose wag not for charges, or incumbrances, or to pay debts. 

Rose 9. Cuninghame, 11 Vez. 554. Where an agreement for the 
purchase of an estate has been executed, the purchaser may devise it, 
and the subsequent conveyance of the mere legal estate, will not be a 
revocation of the will, while the equitable estate remains. Dee v. 
Pott, Doug. 684. Watts v. Fullerton, Doug. 891. 

Pemberton 9. Pemberton, 13 Vez. 297. Duplicates ofa will, The 
presumption is, that cancelling one of the duplitates amounts to can- 
celling the other, though both are in the testator's possession, and the 
cancelled instrument had been altered. 

Charman v. Charman, 14 Vez. 580. Devise of real estate not revok- 
ed by bankruptcy. - 

5 Tcrm Rep. 134. Shoveo. Princk. An imperfect and inefficient 
deed, evidencing an intention to revoke, revokes a, will. 

1 Bos. and Pull. 576. Goodtitle v. Otway. No man has a right to devise 
an estate of which the title is not in him at the time of the devises it 
must be Ais own: legally, according to the doctrines of the courts of law 3 
equitably at least, if not legally, according to the doctrines of the courts 
of equity : no subsequent acquisition of the title, wil] make that will 
good, which was bad when it was executed. This appears from J- 
ler and Baker’s case, 3 Co. Rep. 30. b. Sparrow v. | Hardcastle, 3 At. . 
803. per Lord Trevor in Fitzg. 249. 


NOTES. 309 


Hence in Swift ex dem. Neale and Roberts, Burr. 1497, Lord Mans- 
field denied that a joint tenant could devise his estate, either by law 
or by statute. For by the express words of the statute of 34 and 35 
Hen. 8, a devisor must Aavethe estate he pretends to devise: and an 
after purchased estate will not pass. A will under the Roman law, 
essentially consisted in the appointment of an heir: in England it is 
. ‘ambulatory, and revocable, and more in the nature of a donatio mor- 
tis causa. 

Andthis estate must continue in the devisor till the time of his 
death : for if, by any form of conveyance, he passes away the whole 
estate, although he takes it back again instantaneously by another con- 
veyance, and whether this be done animo revocandi or not, the retaking 
is a new estate ; it is not the same estate, and the former will without 
republication, does not pass it; for a will can not operate upon an es- 
state which a man has wholly conveyed away. Lord Mansfeld, in 
Roe ex dem. Noden v. Griffith, 4 Burr. 1960, laments this; but the law 
was so settled in Lord Lincoln v. Rolls, Show. Parl. Cases 154 and 
1 Ab. Ca. in Eq. 411. to the same purpose, are, Sparrow v. Hardcastle, 
sup. and Parsons v. Freeman, 3 At. 740. and the other decisions cited 
by Buller, and by Eyre, in the present case of Goodtitle v. Otway, 
which is very instructive. Eyre however, like Lord Mansfield, seems 
to me to regret that this rule of positive law, was ever carricd further, 
than thata disposition of the whole estate, amounted to evidence of an 
intention to revoke, which might of course be rebutted. But so the law 
is. This law is no otherwise modified by equity, (which doubtless 
cannot supercede the statute) than by protecting those equitable inte- 
rests, which a man reserves by articles and covenants that a court of 
law cannot investigate ; and by declaring that when the legal convey- 
ance is only a mere matter of form with a view of charging or incum- 
bring the estate for the purpose of paying debts or otherwise, it cannot 
be considered as exhausting the fee—as amounting toa conveyance of 
the WHOLE estate. 

* 3 Bos. and Pull. Largins v. Larkins, a devise to two as joint tenants. 
Devisor afterwards strikes out the name of onc. This is only a revo- 
cation pro tanto. 

As to the decisions in Pennsylvania. 

A second will containing an express clause of revocation, revokes 
the first. 2 Dall. Rep. 268, Boudinot v. Bradford. 

Where a second will is destroyed without more, the preceding will 
not having been cancelled, generally speaking is ipso facto revived. Ih. 


510 NOTES. 


and evidence will be admitted to show whether the testator cancelled 
the second with an intent to revive the first will, or to die intestate. Ib. 

The mere act of making a second will, is arevocation of the former, 
as to the personal estate, thc law throwing that on the executor as 
trustee. Ib. 

A will revoked by a subsequent will, but not cancelled, is re-esta- 
blished by cancelling the second will. 2 Dall. rep. 289. Lawson v. Mor- 
rison. 

A will in writing revoking a will in writing, must be attended with 
all the solemnities necessary to the first will. Presumptive and impli- 
ed revocations from change of state, or acts inconsistent with the will, 
may be rebutted by counter evidence. Ib. 

A will in writing may be revoked by the parol republication of a 
former willin writing. And ifthe republished will cannot be found, 
its contents may be proved. 2 Binney, 406, Havard v. Davis. 

A subsequent marriage and birth of a child, under the acts of Penn- 
svlvania, operate as a revocation pro tanto only. 3 Binney, 498, 
Coates 9. Hughes. 

I have found nothing as to the revocation of wills in the New-York 
decisions, nor in the Southern cases, other than I have already referred 
to. 

§ 2. De posteriore testamento, p. 142. By Dig. 28. 3. and Cod. de 
testam. 27, itis said to be sufficient if the revocation be made before 
three witnesses, 10 years after the first will. 

Theodosius and Valentinian, declared a will revoked, at the end of 
ten years from its execution, althoügh the testator should have shewn no 
change of disposition. Cod. Theod. de testam. 6. But Justinian re- 
quired a formal revocation as above, in presence of three witnesses. 

§ 3. De posteriore in quo heres certa rei, tc. p. 143. see Dig. 28. 
3. 12. 1. see Havard v. Davis, 2 Binn. 406. 

In ea constitutione. Dig. 36. 1. 29. 

Ex lege Falcidia. vid. Title 22 of this book of the institutes. 

$ 4. De testamento irrito, p. 143. Even the lowest diminution as 
Jf a pater familias became adopted, his former will was annulled. For 
his rights are thus merged in his situation as adopted son, and belong 
to hisadopted father. Dig. 28. 3. 6. cum seq. Dig.29. 7. 9. 3. But. 
this would not be the case with a military will. Dig. 4. 5. l. ult. nor 
with a testamentary disposition of the peculium castrense of a son be- 
fore emancipation. Dig. 28. 3. 1. ult. 

§ 6. Quibus modis convalescit, p. 144. Per omnia: that is, not 
throughout, but, not always, or not inall cases, Thus a will made im- 


NOTES. 511 


effectual, (irritum) by captivity, may be restored on return by the 
jus postliminit, or by the fiction of the /ex cornelia, by which his death 
Is considered as having happened at the moment preceding captivity. 
So the diminution by deportation, may admit of compleat reinstates 
ment by the imperial decree. Dig. 28. 3. 6.12. So in the smaller 
diminution by adoption of a pater familias, his. will made as pater fa 
milias, might be re-established before the prator, provided, ist, It was 
in writing: for the pretor took no cognizance of nuncupative wills. 
Sly, That the pater familias, becoming by adoption filius familias, re- , 
gained his quality of patcr familias and died in that state. 3ly, That 
he declared his desire, that his former testament should stand good, 
by codicil to that purpose. Dig. 37.10.1. 2and3. | , 

§ 7. De nuda voluntate, p. 145. — Pertinacis Oratione. I have alrca- 
dy observed, that the emperors sometimes in person, and sometimes by 
their quzstors, addressed orations to the senate, proposing the laws 
they wished to be adopted. Dig. 23. 2.16. Vinn. 

Thelaw of England is the same with that here laid down, viz. hat 
if a testamentary paper is begun, but left unfinished, and the party 
lives a sufficient time to have finished itif he chosc, the law presumes 
either that he did not chuse tu finish it, or had not made up his mind 
concerning it. Cranvell v. Sanders, Cro. Ja. 497. Burton et al. v. 
Gowell, Cro. El. 306. Powél on Dev. 534. Matthews v. Warner, 4. 
Vez. 197. Griffin v. Griffin, Ib. in not. Thomas ex dem. Sones v. 
Evans, 2 East. 488. Sce also Cogdill v. Cogbill, 2 H. and Mun. 467. 

§ 8. Si princips litis causa, vel in testaments imperfecto, Wc. p. 145. 
Dig. 1. 3. 31. Cod. de testam. 1. 3. Cod. de legib. l. 4. Digna vex 
est majestate regnantis, legibus alligatum se principem profiteri. — Adeo - 
de auctoritate juris nostra pendet auctoritas. Et revera m uus amperio 
est submittere legibus principatum. Lt oraculo presentis edicti, quod no- 
bis licere non patinnir, aliis indicamus. 

Domitian declared, the emperor might accept the heirship of cae 
of his subjects, if any onc witness should prove that the deceased had 
made him his heir: but according to Suetonius, he was obliged torepeal 
this decree. 

Tit. XVIII. De inoffivioss testamento, p. 146. The allegation of ;n- 
validity as being contrary to the duties of his station in life, lay against 
the testament of a testator, who unnaturally disinheritcd his naturai 
heir without sufficient cause. This allegation, was not properly speak- 
ing an action, nor a suit to recover the heirship, for the will is set 
aside. The process was, by notice to the instituted hcir by the legi- 
timate heir, and the cause was usually carried frem the magistrate or 


419 NOTES. 


court below to the Centumvirs. Dig. 5. 2. 13. 17. The suit turned 
Tipon proof of some one or other of the fourteen causes or reasons of 
disinherison included in the 115th Novel; the onus probandi be- 
ihg thrown upon theihstituted heir. Hence, it was in the nature of 
our motion for a rule to show cause. I have already abridged the 
fourteen causes’ of disitlietison in that novel, but they are also briefly 
comprized in the following verses. 
'' Bis septem ex causis exhzeres filius esto : 
Si patrem ferit; vel maledicat ei: 
Carcere detrusum, si negligat, aut furiosum : 
Criniinis stccuset, vel paret insidias : 
Si dederit damnutti rave ; si nee ab hoste redemit: 
Testarive vetet; se societve malis. 
Si mimos sequitur; vitietve cubile paternum : 

" Nonorthodozus; filia si meretrix. 

The last cause however, was insufficient, if the parent did not pfo- 
vide her a husband before she arrived at the age of twenty-five. 

I have already mentioned the English law of revocations: and the 
rule that the heir shall not be disinherited by implication. To the 
same principles may be referred the rule that a wife shall not be de- 
prived of dower by implication. Webs v. Evans, 1 Binn. 565. 

S uia plerumque parentes.] The plaint, or action, in the case of an 
undutiful testament, which civilians call testamentum inofficiosum, is not 
in use in England ; where, by the common law, all persons intitled to 
make a will, have ever hada free power of bequeathing their goods 
and chattles, in whatever manner they thought best ; and it was only by 
the particular custom of some places, that this power was restrained : 
VG that the writ called breve de rationabili parte bonorum, which the 
wife or children of the deceased had against the executors for the re- 
covery of part of the goods, was not general throughout the kingdom, 
but peculiar to certain countries, where the custom was, that, debts be- 
ing paid, the remainder should be divided into three equal parts ; viz. 
one to the wife, another to the children, and a third to attend the will 
of the testator. Cowel lib. 2. t. 18. 

The custom of reserving a reasonable part of the goods for the wi- 
dows and children of testators is still in force in the city of London, ss 
to the widows and. children of freemen; but in other parts of the 
kingdom, where this custom did formerly prevail, it has been abolish- 
ed by act of parliament ; see 4 and 5 Will. and Mary, cap. 6. The in- 
habitants of the province of Zor£,are also impowered to dispose of 
their personal estates bz their wills, notwithstanding the custom of that 


NOTES, 518 


province, as to the reasonable part claimed by widows and children ; 
but the act excepts the cities of York and Chester ; yet the same liber 
ty was afterwards extended to the freemen of the city of York, by the 
statute of the 2d and 3d of Queen Anne. And by the 7th and 8th of 
William the 3d, cap. 38. the same custom was abolished in the princi- 
pality of Wakes. See Dr. Strahan’s notes on Domat, vol. 2. p. 109.— 
But, by the law of Scotland, a testator can not by testament deprive 
his wife or children of their legitimate or reasonable parts Stazr’s 
inst. lib. 3. t. 8. Mackenzie's inst. Jib. 3. t. 9. p. 251. * . 

Hoc colore.] This pretext was made use of 86 avoid the appear: 
ance of impugning the testament of a man in lllisenses, contrary to 
the authority of the 12 tables, which give all persons, capable of mak- 
ing a will, a free and untontrouled power of bequeathing their effects 
just as they think proper. “ Verbis legis 12 tabulatum his, uti legassit 
* sus: rei, ita jus esto, latissima potestas tribüta videtur, et heredis in- 
* stituendi, et legata et libertates dandi, tutela’ quoque constituendi ; sed 
« id interpretatione coangustatum est, £9. J- 50. t. 16 4. 120. de verbs 
“sign.” Harris. 


$ 1. Quide in officioso agunt, p. 146. Conatitütionibus, Cau. 8.28.21; 


and 27. 
Aut agentes vincere, Dig. 8. 2.6. 
The eight causes for which a parent might be disinherited, are ini 
cluded in the following verses, and may be found in Nov. 1135. ch, 4: 
5 capitis natum pater accusaverit ; ejus 
Aut vite insidias, clamve palamve struat : 
Se vetuit cupidum secreta novissima mentis 
Prodere; nec veritus sit temerare mirum: 
St pater et genetrix sibi fata scelesta minentur : 
Fulera non ad nati cleusa furentis eant : 
Filius auxilio ei non patris hostica Enquit 
Limina? si genitor numen inane colit. 
That is, pareats are not to be pretermitted, of disinherited by fname; 
unless for one or othet of the following causes specifically alleged. 
ist, Ifthe parent hath by accusation put in jeopardy the son's life; 
unless in case of treason: 2dly, or attempted it by poison or by sor- 
Gery: or 3dly, debauched the wife or concubine of his son: or 4thly, 
prevented the lawful exercise of the son’s right of devising: or 5thly, 
been convicted of attempting by poison or otherwise the life of his 
wife; or the life of her husband: or 6thly, refused to take care of 
tary of their children who might be deprived of reason: or 7thly, ue: 
ML aU 


- 


A 


! 


i 
I 


514 NOTES. 


glected to redeem a child from captivity : or &thly, abandened the or- 
thodox faith. 

The allegation of inofficiousness was extended in favour of brothers 
and sisters; Cod. h. t. 21. 27. Cod. Theodos. eod. Dig. 5, 2. 14 f. 
and Ib. l. 1. 24. 25. 

$ 2. Qui alio jure veniunt et de inofficioso non agurit, p. 147. Thies 
allegation did not lie, in favour of 

ist, A son omitted in his father's will; for this would suffice te 
nullify it. 

2dly, Daughters or grand-children omitted : for they had a remedy 
under the constituti of Marcus Antoninus. 

3dly, Emancipated children omitted: for they might be called te 
the possession by the pretor, fer possessionem bonorum contr: tabulas, 
Dig. 5. 2. 23. Yetthe father of an emancipated son, seems to have 
both these remedies; Dig. 37. 12. 1. ult. 

4thly, an omitted posthumous child ; for he can break the will. Dig. 
5. 2. 6. 

Sthly, An adrogated minor under fourteen, disinherited by his 
adoptive father: for he is entitled to his fourth part, under the law of 
Antoninus Pius. Dig. 5. 2. 8.15. 

6thly, A child to whom his father has left his portion. Dig. 5. 2. 25. 
Cod. eod. lh. 30. | | 

The right to urge this complaint, (which must be brought in five 
years, Dig. 37. 4. 4. and. 37. 4. 8. 1. Cod. eod. tit. 28.1. 3. $ 34.) passes 
by a decree of Justinian to the immediate legitimate heirs of the per- 
son, who might have urged it during life. Cod. eod. si quis, &c. and 
scimus, &S9c. 

$ 3. De eo cui testator aliquid reliquerit, p. 147. ‘The action to re 
cover the legal portion, or the difference between the bequest and the 
fourth part, was entitled condictio ex lege; and enured tothe heirs of 
the person originally entitled to bring it. Nor was it renounced by 
implication: it must have been expressly given up, if at all. Pére 
grinus fidei comm. Art. 36. num. 93. Cod. de inofficioso test. 1. 30. 

§ 6. De quarta legitime partis, p. 148. See Cod. 3. 28. 34. 

I have already mentioned, that, in my opinion, the right of be 
queathing by will, is no natural right: it is the creature of society, 
and may fairly and prudently be limited. 

Plato considers a man's property as belonging to his family, lil m 
de leg. which was the Roman doctrine of suitas. In Greece, Belen 
first introduced the right of devising. Plut. in Solon. Demosth ddp. | 
Lept. The law of the twelve tables on this eubject was imported from 


NOTES. 515 


Athens. But the Romans made frequent attempts to restrain the right, 


Thus the Lex Furia, a plebiscitum, A.U. C. 570. restricted the a- 
ount of legacies to other persons than the heir, at a thousand Asses ; 
and the legatee receiving it, was subject toa penalty. The Lex Vo- 
conia, A. U..C. 584, enacted that no legatee should receive more than 
the heir. The Lex Fulcidia, under Augustus, secured to thé heir a 
fourth part of the estate, by restraining the testator from bequeathing 
in legacies u/tra dodrantem or nine ounces. Justinian, by the 18th 
novell. assigned one third of all the goods of the testator to the chil- 
dren if they amounted to four or fewer, and one half ifthey were more 
than four. Thus two children would divide between them four oug- 
ces, five children six ounces; agreeably to these verses. 

Quatuor aut infra dant natis jura Trientem: 

Semissem vero dant natis quinque vel ultra. 

Sce on this subject, Dig. 48. 20. 7. Cod. de inoffic. testam. 3€. 
Mov. 1. princip. et $ 1. Cod. de inoff. test. 31. Cod. ad leg. Jul. 
majest. 5. $3. Nov. 66. ch. 92. 

The children excluded from this legitima pass, or share of the pater- 
nal property thus secured to them by law, whether excluded by volun- 
tary or legal reasons, do not on this account augment the quarta pars 
or legal portion of the rest. As if one out of five children were disin- 
herited for just cause, or took the veil, the other four would not be en- 
titled to six ounces, for the legal portion was founded on the right of 
heirship or succession. 

Grand children were reckoned fer stirpes, by stock : thus all the chil- 
dren of a son counted as the son. 

In cases of dispute as to the mode of division or remuneration, it 
was usually referred to arbitration ; arbitrio boni viri. Cod. 1.3. tit. 
28. $ 36. 

The action for the recovery of the supplement, or difference betwten 
alegacy bequeathed and the legal portion, enured to the heirs of these 
who had a right tosue. It was even assets to the creditors, although 
the heir should have renounced. Cod. de repud. bon. possess. L 2. 
Dig. 38. 9. 1. 7. 

Previous to the115th novel. whatever the heir had received whether 
as heir, as legatee, mortis causa, or by way of trust, was considered as 
advancement, and deducted from his portion or fourth part ; except & 
donation inter vivos, or gift with actualtrgnsfer by the testator in his 
lifetime. After this novel. the heir entitled to his legal portion became 
entitled without these deductions as it should seem ; see Cujas in Dig. 
38. 2. 15. penult. and perhaps reasonably, for the legal portion 1s due 





/ 


514 NOTES. 


bv the settled provisions of positive law; the gifts and legacies arige 
from the casual inclination of the testator; who therefore could nei- 
ther transfer or burthen with debts, usufructs, or trusts, even for 
pious purposes, the portion cast by operation of law. Cod. de inoffic. 
test. ]. 36. 

In the modern French code (art. 913. of Code civ. Nap.) the Quotite 
or portion of disposable property is limited in favour of the children. 
* Les liberalites soit par actes entre vifs, soit par testament, ne pourront 
** exceder la moite des biens du disposant s'il ne laisse a aon deces qu'un 
* enfant legitime ; le tiers s'il laisse deux enfants; le quart s'il laisse 
** trois ou un plus grand nombre.” 

In England the law permitted devises of personal property time 
out af mind : 2 Fonbl. B. 4 pt. 1 ch. 1 $ 1. n. (a): but devises of land 
were first allowed by Stat. 32, 34, 34 Hen. 8. see Hungerford 9, Nos- 
worthy, Show. P. C. 147. As to the civil and canon law authority in the 
£cclesiastical courts on the subject of legacies, see 2 Fonbl. Ib. $4. note, 

By the law of England, and most part of the American states (New- 
Orleans I believe adopting the principle if not the regulations of the 
Code Napoleon) there is no restriction on the permitted right of be- 
queathing. Doubtless the parent ought to retain some check on the 
inisbehaviour of children, and so I think ought the laws on the ca- 
pric«. the injustice or the dotage of parents. In Holland, Germany and 
Spain, andas I have understood in other parts of Europe, the principles of 
the Falcidian law more or less limited or extended, have been generally 
adop: ed; and it is worth notice, that the experience of the Empire 
fÍroz: the time of Avjsustus to that of Justinian, led toa gradual exten- 
sion of ihose priacipics. 

The civil law doctrine of advancement by gift to children, during the 
life-time of the testator, briefly laid down ‘in this section, gave birth to 
the moJcrn law of England respecting the satisfaction of portions by 
legacies, anu the ademption of legacies by the advancement of portions ; 
concerning which, the cases are numerous and complicated. * El&son 
v. Gookvor, (| Vez. jun 105, 


p—— — -— eee = 





* Lhe general doctrine of satisfaction, relates eitherto children: to 
huaband and wife : or to strangers. The first class only, is immediste- 
ly coonzcted with the subject of the present section; but it may he 
useful to refer shorily to the leading cases of the two other classes, . 

As vo husbaad and wife. 1 Vez. sen. 323. 2 Vez. sen. 409. 1 Eq. Co. 
ab, 203. Finch’s &rec. Ch 240. 2 Vern. 498. 555. 709. 724. 1 P. Wan 
$24. 2 P. Wins. 341. 614. 3 P. Wms. 15. 228. 353. 3 Atk, 419. 1 P 


* 


NOTES. 517 


Where a parent is under covenant to provide portions for children, 
provision by will shall be held to go in satisfaction, unless the contrary 
appear: and legacies shall be adeemed, by portions advanced during 
. the testator’s life-time, unless the terms or circumstances of the legacy 
negative this implication. For it shall not be intended that a parent 
means to give any child a double portion. 

Jenkins v. Powel, 2 Vern. 115. 

Thomas v. Keymish,2 Vern. 348. 

Brown v. Dawson, Ib. 498. 

Wilcox v. Wilcox, 2 Vern. 538. 

Phinney v. Phinney, 2 Vern. 638. 

Atkinson v. Atkinson, 1 Vez. Senr. 262. 

Graham v. Graham, 1 Vez. Senr. 263. 

Barret v. Becáford, 1 Vez. Senr. 520. 

Pune Con” } 2 Ventr. 847. 

Ward v. Lant, Finch’s Prec. Ch. 183. 

Hoskins v. Hoskins. Ib. 263. 

Hartop v. Whitmore, Ib. 541 (and 1 P. Wms. 681. but i incorrect, 
gee 1 Br. Ch. Ca. 306). 

Bromley v. Fefferies, Ib. 138. 

Copeley v. Capeley, 1 P. Wms. 147. 

Lechmere v. Earl of Carlisle, 3 P. Wms. 211. 

Graves v. Boyle, 1 Atk. 509. 

Biggleatonv. Grubb, 2 Atk. 48. 

Rosewell v. Bennet, 3 Atk. 77 e. con1 Eq. Ab. 204. 

Clark v. Sewell, 3 Atk. 98. 

Lee v. Cox, and D' Aranda, Ib. 419. 

Upton v. Price, Cas. Temp. Talb. 71. 

Watson v. Earl of Lincoln, Ambl. 325. 

Richman v. Morgan, 1 Br. Ch. Ca. 63. and 2 Br. Ch. Ca. 394. 





ch. ca. 82. 129. 2 Br. ch. ca.95. 1 Vez. jun 357. 2 Vez. jun. 463. 644, 
4 Vez. 391. 5 Vez. 382. 6 Vez. 385. 30 Vez. 1. 17. 18. 5 Br. Par. Ca. 567. 
7 Br. P. Ca. 12. compared with 2 Vern. 504. Ambl. 466. 682. 730. 

As to relations and strangers. 1 Vez. sen. 126. 263. 519. 636. 
Finch’s Pr. Ch. 236. 394. 2 Vern. 478. S. C. 1 Eq. ab. 203 8. C. 2 Eq. 
ab. 352. salk. 155. 508. 1 P. Wms. 408 2 P. Wms. 132. 343. 553. 3 
P. Wms. 226. 353. 1 Atk. 426. 2 Atk 300. 493. 519. 632. 3 Atk. 65. 
96. Gilb. ch. 334. Gilb. Eq. rep. 89. 1 Br. ch. ca. 170. 3 Br. ch. ca 
192. 3. Vez. jun. 529. 561. 564. 4 Vez. jun. 483. 574. 5 Vez. 369. 
882. (cases of double legacies). 


518 - NOTES, 


JMoulson *. Moulson, 1 Br. Ch. Ca. 82 

Warren v. Warren, 1 Br. Ch. Ca. 305. 

Ackworth 9. Ackworth, Ib. 307. , 
Finch v. Finch, 4 Br. Ch. Ca. 38. 

Hinchcliffe v. Hinchcliffe, 3 Vez. jun. 516. 

Sparkes v. Catar, Ib. 530. 

Tolson v. Collins, 4 Vez. 491. 

Leake v. Leake, 10 Vez. 489. 

On these cases it may be observed 

1st. That the intent and meaning of the testator is to be sought, and 
parol evidence may be admitted to discover it. Deacon v. Smith 3 
Atk. 326. Ellison v. Cookson, 3 Br. Ch. Ca. 61. Mascal v. Mascal, 1 
Vez. sen. 323. Rosewell v. Bennet, 3. Atk. 77. 1 Eq. Ca. Ab. 204. 
Chapman v. Salt, 2 Vern. 646. 

Rosewell v. Bennet, 3 Atk. 77. All these cases go generally to the 
admissibility of evidence, whether to aid or rebut a presumption. But 
in Freemantle v. Banks, 5 Vez. 79. and Eden v. Smith, Ib. 341. and 
Trimmer v. Bayne, Y Vez. 508, it is. laid down that parol evidence 
eught only to be admitted to rebut an equity or presumption. In 
Pole v. Lord Somers. 6 Vez. 321. the doctrine is discussed. I m- 
eline to think that parol evidence ought not to be originally admitted 
to establish a presumption, but the question seems not perfectly at 


rest. 
Qly. There seems to be a distinction between ademption or satis- 


faction, and performance ; though this is rather discountenanced by 
Prime v. Stebbing, 2 Vez. sen. 411. But it seems to me that the more 
modern rule is reasonable ;"viz. that wherc the question is, whether a 
legacy shall be considered as the performance of a covenant, more 
strictness is required, than where the question is, whether a portion 
shall adeem a legacy. ‘The first has parties, and is more inthe nature 
of a debt: the second moves from the parent alone, and the only diff 
culty arises from the appearance of'a double bounty, and family parti- 
ality. See Clark v. Sewell, 3 Atk. 98. Trimmer v. Bayne, 7 Vez. 515. 

3ly. Courts disincline to extend the doctrine of satisfaction, and there- 
tore take hold of circumstances that will reasonably enable them to 
consider a legacy as a bounty, Clark v. Sewell, 3 Atk. 98. Tolson w 
Collins, 4 Vez. 483.  Rickets v. Livingston, 2 Johnson's Cases, N. &- 
101. 

Hence, it has been decided, 

That the devise of a residue is not a satisfaction, for it is nests 
tain. dileyn v. Alleyn, 2 Vez. sen. 37. : 


NOTES. 519 


That a legacy is no satisfac.ion of an open account. Cms case 
1 P. Wms. 408. , 

"That a legacy is no satisfaction if it be less in amount; Eastwood. 
Vincke, 2 P. Wms. 6. 14. Phipps v. Annesley, 2. Atk. 57. Nichols v. 
Judson, 2 Atk. 300. But in some cases, a legacy has been decreed a 
satisfaction pro tanto Fessonv. Fesson, 2 Vern. 255. Thomas v. Key- 
mish, Ib. 348. Bruen v. Bruen, Ib. 439. Warren v. Warren, 1 Br. 
ch. ca. 305. Sparkes v. Cator, 3. Vez. 530. Graham v. Graham,1 
Vez. sen. 263. 

That a legacy depending upon a contingency is no satisfaction. yed- 
cock v. Falkner,1 Br. ch. ca. 295. Bellasis v. Uthwaite, 1 Atk. 426. 
Spinks v. Robins,2 Atk. 491. Clarke v. Sewel, 3 Atk. 98. 

That money and lands are not mutually satisfactions. Eastwood v. 
Vincke, 2 P. Wms. 614. Chaplin v. Chaplin, 3 P. Wms. 245.  Cran- 
-mer’s Case, 2 Salk. 508: and generally, that the presumed satisfaction 
should be of the same nature, extent, and certainty, as the covenant or 
obligation. Barrct v. Beckford,1 Vez. 519. Hanbury v. Hanbury, 
2 Pr. ch. ca. 352. 549. Powell v. Cleaver, 2 Br. ch. ca. 499. Baugh 
v. Read, 3 Br. ch. ca. 192. 1 Vez. jun. 247. Smith v. Strong, 4 Br. 
ch. ca. 493. Grave v. Salisbury, 1 Br. ch. ca. 425. 

That where the legacy is disadvantageous as to its time of payment, 
it is no satisfaction in case of a debt; as a legacy made payable in a 
month; where the debt is due presently. Clarke v. Sewell, 3 At. 97. 
Though this is not held so strictly in cases of portions, fesson v. Fesson, 
2 Vern. 255. 

That a sum arising from distribution undcr an intestacy, is no satis- 
faction, T'wisden v. Twisden, 9 Vez. 4. 25. 

That legacies or beneficial interests, bequeathed by, or proceeding 
from strangers, are no satisfaction of a covenant entered into by the 
testator. Hanbury v. Hanbury, 2 Br. ch. ca. 352. 549. 

That a legacy is not prima facie a satisfaction of the testator’s cove- 
nants by settlement or otherwise to provide for his family, wherever 
the claims are protectéd by securities strictly legal, as bends. Couch 
v. Stratton, 4 Vez. junr. 491.  Tolson v. Collins, Ib. 483. Kirkman 
v. Kirkman, 2 Br. ch. ca. 95. Feacock 9. Falkener, 1 Br. ch. ca. 295. 
Haynes v. Mico, 1 Br. ch. ca. 129. 133. 

That a legacy is not asatisfaction for monies received by the testa. 
tor in trust for his children. Chidley v. Lee, Finch. 928. — Meredyth x. 
Wynn, Ib. 314. (Sed vid. Seed v. Bradford, 1 Vez. 501.) or generally, 
ef claims arising aliunde. — Baug v. Reed, 3 Br. ch. ca. 192. 

That where ay express fund is pointed out, or am express direction 


530 NOTES. 


given for payment of debts and legacies, the court will infer that Bath 
ate to be paid. Chancery’s case. 1 P. Wms. 408. Richardson v. Greese, 
3 Atk. 65. 

These are the leading principles, and distinctions that occur to me 
en this prolific subject. 

As to the release of debts by legacies, the intention of the testatd? 
must be clear, or the inference will not take place. See hereon Brown 
v. Sehwyn, Cas. Temp. Talb. 240. Sibthorp v. Moxon, 1 Vez. 49. 
Wilmot v. Woodhouse, 4 Br. ch. ca. 227. 

Tit. XIX. $2. De suis haeredibus, p. 150. Sed his pretor permitti. 
But not after they have begun to act; immiscere se. Cod. de repud 
vel. abst. heredit. 1 and 2. Dig. 29. 2. 20. 21. 


Immiscere se, means to act as heir. ) These are expressions apper- 
Abstinere, to decline the heirship. § taining to the heir. 


Adire, to approach: to act in succession. - ^) Are ex ions ap 

Pro herede res gerere,to transact business as { propriate to the Àe- 
^ heir. | res exiranews, Of 

Repudiare, to renounce the succession. ‘stranger. 


§ 4 De testamenti factione, p. 151. Testamenti | factio ai activa ; ; the 
right of devising. — Testamenti factio passiva ; the right of taking by 
devise. Testamenti factio, also sometimes means the capacity of being 
a witness to the last will of another. 

Sui ut diximus tua tempora inspici debent. See Dig. 28. 5 49.50. 
Dig. 28. 1.16. This relates to stranger heirs. The haredes sui, pro- 
per or domestic heirs, are only required to posses the right of taking 
( testamenti factio passiva ) at the death of the testator. 

6 5. Dejure deliberandi, p. 152. By the ancient law no time was 
limited for deliberation. Sometimestestators assigned a period of 100 
days. When they did not, the prztor on application of a substitute or 
a creditor, would himself assign a time, usually 100 days at least. 
Dig. 28. 8. 1. 2. cum seq. Cod. de jure delib. l. 19. Dig. 29. 2. 28. 
Justinian extended it to one year. Cod. eod. |. 19. afterwards he abridg- 
ed this period to three months, Cod. eod. 1. ult. unless under peculiar 
circumstances, wherein the praetor might extend it toa year, and an 
inferior magistrate to nine months. Cod. de jur. delib. 1. ult. 

But minors, from their inexperience in business, were allowed to re- 
nounce, Cod. si minor, ab hered. abst. 1. Dig. 4. 4. 7." 1. unless 
where it became insolvent by accident after he took it. Dig. 4. 4 11. 
24. $2. Cod. de integ. rest. minor. 1l. ult. 

Sed nostra benevolentia, 9c. In Ferriere and. others, this 
begins another section, relating to the privilege of invegtory. 


, NOTES. 821 


The inventory by which the claims upon the heir were to be bound, 
required 1st. To be commenced within one, and finished within three 
months, from the death of the testator. Cod. de jur. delib. !. ult. 
2ly. It was to be made out in the presence of creditors and legatees 
duly notified, Novell. 1 ch. 2. $2. Ib. 119. ch. 6. 3ly. It was to cons 
- tain a full and fair account of all the property of the deceased real 
. and personal, Cod. de jur. delib.l.ult. $ 10. 4ly. It was to be sign-« 

ed by the heir claiming under it. Beyond this inventory the heir was 
not liable, unless he had thought fit to ask timeto deliberate, which 
was considered asa waiver of inventory. Cod. eod. 1. ult. 

§ 6. De acquirenda vel omittenda, &9c. p. 153. Strangers might ac- 
. cept three ways: 

ist, By Adition: (adire magistratum ) and formally declare their 
intention of accepting the heirship: this must be simply and uncondi- 
tionally, without power of subsequent renunciation. Dig. 29. 2. 51. et 
ult. 1. 80. eod. $ 2. L 90. eod. $ 3. 

+ 2dly, By Cretion: declaration being made before the magistrate 
within the time limited by the testator. From Crevi, a cernere, to 
decree. — _ _ , 

3dly, Pro herede gestio: Acting as heir. Dig. 29. 2. 20. et seq. Ib. 
1.88.67. © ' 

They might renounce, 

1st, By repudiation before a magistrate. 

2dly, By any expression or act implying renunciation. Dig. 29. 
2. 95. Em 
3dly, By omittingto take up the heirship within the limited period, 

After the time of Theodosius the younger, and Justinian, Adition, 
Crelion and Repudiajion, were laid aside. Heirghips were accepted in 
two ways only, pro herede gestione, and agnatione nuda. Cod. de jur. 


.delib. 1. 6. 12 and 17. Cod. Theod. de bon. mat. 1.1. 4 and 8. Ib. de - 


Cretion, Ib. et bonor. possess. sublat. Cod. qui admitt. ad bonor. pos- 
sess. Scrupulosum cretionum solemnitatem hac lege penitus amputari 
decernimus, Cod, 6. 30. 17. ] 

Item extraneus heres.] The law of England takes no notice of pro- 
per or domestic heirs, and therefore can make no distinction between 
sui heredes and extranei ; but in England, if an executor, [who may be 
regarded as the heir of personal estate] once intermeddles with the es- 
tate of the testator, he will not afterwards be permitted to renounce 
his executorship ; and ycthe is not liable de bonis propriis to pay more 
than he has received, unless in some particular cases, as when he 
hath wasted the estate of the deceased, or acted otherwise improperly 

3X 


522 NOTES. 


and dishonestly— and even an executor de son fort will in general be 
charged only to the amount of the goods wrongfully administered by 
him. 1 Mod. 213. Parten v. Baseden.—Swinb. 337. Harris. 

Tit. XX. $ 1. Legatum. itaque est donatio, p. 154. In England 
under the word /egacy, land may be included. Doug. 40. Brady *. 
Cubitt, and the cases cited in the note. Also Hardacre et al. v. Nash 
et al. 5 Term rep. 716. 

Itis truly said here that a legacy is a gift, a bounty. This is cer- 
tainly the prima facie intention of the testator: hence it is, that the 
courts rather lean against the doctrine of ademption and satisfaction 
asto debts: for it is converting a gift intoa payment. See in addi- 
tion to the cases already cited lately, 1 Brown's civil law, 304. 3 
Woodeson, 538. 2 Fonb. 320. 2 Johnson's New-York cases, 101. 

€ 2. De antiquis generibus legatorum sublatis, p. 154. Sed ex consti- 
tutionibus. Cod. 6. 37. 21. Nostra autem constitutio. Cod. 6. 43. 1. 

_ The forms thus abrogated were, 1st, Per vindicationem. As, I give 

and bequeath, positively. 2dly, Per damnationem. I direct my heit 
to deliver over and pay. 3dly, Sinendi modo. My willis that Titius be — 
permitted to take, &c. 4thly, Per praceptionem. Let Titius take so 
much of such athing, or such a thing, except, &c. The first and 
fourth amounted to a transfer in full right, and were recoverable under 
the action familie erciscundae. The two others allowed only of a per- 
sonal action ex testamento. Under the later ordinances, the legatee 
might have his action against the heir or any other possessor of the 
thing devised: and an hypothecary action for immoveable or real 
property, so cermed, under the fiction that all the goods of the testa- 
tor were hypothecated or pledged for the delivery of each legacy from 
the time of his death. But co-heirs were not bound beyond their pro- 
portion. Cod. comm. de legat. 1. 1. 

It may be remarked, that the courts in England, after having beet 
long tramelled by particuler decisions, and technical construction, 
have adopted the golden rule of this section for the expounding of last 
wills and testaments, viz, that whatever be the form of words made 
use of, the intention of the testator must govern if it can be gotten at, 
even in' opposition to partial expressions; unless that intention mili- 
tates against some known :'ule of positivé law, as in creating à mort. 
main or a perpetuity. 

€ 3. Collatio legatorum, &c. p. 154. See Cod. Commun. de legat.. 
2. The passages to the same purpose, to wit, that legacies are inall . 
yespects likened to trusts in Dig. 30. ‘1. only as to the deduction under 


NOTES. 523 


the Falcidian law of the fourth or legal portion, according to Cujas, 
}. 8. obseryat. ch. 4. 

64. De re legata, p. 156. See Dig. 30.14, 1. Dig. 30. 67. 1. and Dig. 
$30. 71. 3. as to paying over the value. If a specific legacy, can be reason- 
ably obtained by purchase, it is of no consequence, whether the testa. 
tor knew it to be the property of another or not. Dig. 30. 49. 3. The 
onus probandi was thrown on the legatee. Dig. 22. 3. 21. Cod. eod. 1. 23. 

$ 5. De re aliena post testamentum a legatario acquisita, p. 157. 

Nam traditum est, duas lucrativas causas, (9c. See Dig. 44. 7. 17. 
Dig. 30. 82. Astothe latter part of this section see Dig. 30. 34. 8. 
and 30 84. 2, juncto Cujacio, Dig..50. 16. 88. Dig. 4 4. 35. 

Nam traditum est.] When it^is said, that two lucrative titles can 
never concur in the same person on account of the same thing, this must 
be understood in regard only to something certain and determinate, 
as a particular purse of money, an horse, a diamond, &?c. for the max« 
im does not hold in general with respect to things, which consist in 
quantity, and may be numbered, weighed or measured .-— Possunt enim 
dua cause lucrative in candem ^ersonam et eandem quantitatem concur- 
rere, quia quantitates per rerum naturam multiplicantur ; licet enim ea- 
dem res mea sepius fieri non possit, eadem tameh quantitas possit quia 
res eadem non videtur. Cujacius J Ferriere. Harris. 

Agere potest : In England no suit lies fora legacy at common law. 

The mayor of Southampton v. Graves, 8 Term. Rep. 593. Unless . 
upon the express promise of the executor in consideration of assets, 
Atkyns v. Hill, Cowp. 284. Hawkes v. Saunders, Ib. 289. But the 
case of Deeks v. Strutt, negatives an implied assumpsit by virtue of 
assets. Whenever the ex’or. assents, the legacy vests from that moment. 
Doe v. Guy, 3 East. 120... 

In Pennsylvania, by act of 21 March, 1772, legatee may bring suit 
after reasonable demand, and offer of sufficient security in double 
amount, conditioned to refund if necessary. 

€ 10. De re legatarii,.p. 159. Et licet alienaverit eam. That is, 
according to the old Catonian rule; and also quod ab initio vitiosum est, 
tractu temporis non patest convalescere, Dig. 50. 17. 29. but this rule 
does not apply to conditional legacies, Dig. 34. 7. 1. $ ult. 

6 12. De alienatione et oppignoratione, &c. p. 159. As in this case 
the heirs could object to paying the value of, or redeeming the thing 
bequeathed, on the ground that the testator, by his alienation, had in 
fact repealed the bequest, he will be bound to make out this plea, 
The contrary, however, seems intimated in Dig. 34. 4. 15. but in this 
last case, the plea is put in by the legatee, that the desire of bequeaths 


$24 NOTES. 


ing returned upon the testator. Sane si probet legatarius novam vo- 
luntatem testatoris non submovebitur. 

It should seem that if the testator hath only mortgaged or pledged 
the thing bequeathed, this docs not amount to an evidence of a change 
of intention. Precisely the rule adopted by the English court of 
chancery as to a devise of lands, or any other specific property. But 
it would be otherwise had he sold it or given it away. Dig. 34. 1. 
18. Andsois the law of England. 

§ 14. De debito legato creditori, p. 160. This case involves the 
confliction of two rules apparently opposite. Que semel utzliter con- 
stituta sunt, durant licet ille casus extiterit a quo initium capere non 
potuerunt. Dig. 35. 2. 5. And the rule negotium extinguitur, cum i 
casus postea incidit unde incipere non poterat. Dig. 30. 1. 82. Con- 
cerning which see Dig. 50. 17. 85. 1. where this latter rule is repeated: 
and Dig. 50. 16. 98. with the note of Vminius. 

I have already stated most of the cases, where a legacy will be con- 
sidered as an extinguishment of a debt. The general rule doubtless 
is that a legacy equal to the debt or exceeding it, shall be considered 
as a satisfaction; see the cases before cited hereon; and Roper on 
legacies, 163, where also many of them are collected: and Gibson et 
ux. v. Scudumore, Moscley rep. 7. butif less than the debt, it shall not 
be satisfaction, Jfinuel v. Surrazine, Mosely rep. 295. 1 Vez. sen. 
263. Finch. 394. Nor unless the bequest ‘be at least equally bene- 
ficial. Roper on leg. 165. Nor if the bequest be not eyusdem generis. 
Garret v. Evers, Mosely rep. 364.  Norif the debt be contracted sub- 
sequent to the date of the will. 2 Salk 508. Cranmer’s case. "Thomas 
v. Bennet, 2 P. Wms. 343. and Fowler v. Fowler, 3 P. Wms, 353. 
See also the observations of lord Thurlow in Haynes v. Afico, 1 Br. 
ch. ca. 130, expressing strong leaning against any extension of the 
doctrine of satisfaction. 

$ 15. Dedote uxori leguta, p. 161. The dower or marriage portion 
was payable in three annual payments only, annua, bina, trina die. 
Hence, if it was bequeathed also, it became due from the day of the tes- 
tator's death, and hore interest from that time. Cod. dereiuxor. act. 

I have already referred to the cases wherein question, has arisem 
whether the interest of a wife by settlement or otherwise is satisfied 
by legacy. Neither in England, nor in Pennsylvania, can a husband 
deprive the wife of her election to take under the wills or to resort to, 
or forego her dower. | 

§ 16. De interitu et mutatione rei legate. p. 161. If a testater be- 
queath generallv a cask of wine, and all his wine by accident runs:qeti 


NOTES. 525 
the heir will be bound to pay the legacy : but if he should bequeath by 


description, some particular wine in the cellar, and it runs out, the loss 
falls on the legatee. Dig.delegat. 34 $ 3. Cod. si certum petat. 1. 11. 

§ 18. De grege legato. p. 162. Ten sheep makea flock. Dig. +7. 
14. ult. Dig. 7. 4. ult. Grege autem legato, tc. Dig. de legat. L 21. Fef- 
ferys 0. Fefferys, 3 Atk. 121. 

$ 19. De edibus legatis. p. 163. As to what things will pass by 
the words house, furniture, goods, &c. ; see the cases collected by Ro- 
per on Leg. 136. et seq. addto those cases, as to plate: Phillips v. 
Phillips, 2 Freeman 11. Flay v. Flay, Ib. 64. Kelly v. Pawlet, t 
Dick. ch. rep. 359. 

Asto books: Allenv. Allen, Moseley 112. Kelly v. Pawlet, Ambl. 
605. ' 

As to apparel: L'Farrant v. Spencer, 1 Vez. sen. 97. Hunt v. Hort, 
S Br. ch. ca. 311. 

As to the general exposition of what passes by particular exprebsi- 
ons, see the cases of Stuart v. Earl of Bute, 11 Vez. 657, and Kelly v. 
Pawlet, Dickens ch. Rep. 359, and Ambl. 605. 

The general doctrine of fixtures is discussed in Ehwes v. Maw, 3 
East 38. 

If a testator having bequeathed ground, afterward builds upon it, 
the building will fall to the legatee, as an accessary. Dig. delegat.39. — 
44. 

€ 21. De rebus corporalibus et incorporalibus. p.165. This is agree- 
able to the English law, by which a possibility may be bequeathed. 
Bank notes whether considered as cash, or securities for cash? 11 
Vez. 662. Chapman v. Hart, 1 Vez. sen. 273. 

There is some difficulty in the English law,as to bequests over, and 
limitations of personal estate: the general rule is that no remainder 
over of personal estate can be devised : butthere are many distinctions 
taken as to the operation of words of limitation, in bequests of personal 
estate > see Roper on Leg. 202. et seq. and Cambridge v. Rous, 8 Vez. 
24. 

§ 22. De legato generali, p. 164. This abrogates the law, conse- 
quent upon the bequest per damnationem which gave the election to 
the heir, see tit. XX. ante. 

§ 23. De optione lerata, p. 164. Sed ex constitutione. Cod. 6. 43. ult. 

§ 25. Tus antiquum de incertis personis, p. 165. Sacris canstitutrant- 
bus. These are not extant. 

§ 29. De errorc in nomine legatarii, p. 167. 

Nomen, was the family name. 


$26 NOTES. 


Cognomen, the name of that branch of the family placed after the 
nomen. 

Preenomen, the name of the individual prefixed to the nomen. 

Agnomen, a name assumed from some particular circumstance. 

Thus, Publius, Cornelius, Scipio, Africanus: Caius Julius Ceesar’: 
here Cornelius and Julius were the nomina, the family names. 

Scipio and Casar were the cognomina, the one of the gens or family 
Cornelia; the other of the gens Julia. 

Publius and Caius designated the individuals. The individuals in 
respect of the original family or clan, were agnati; in respect of the 
particular branch of the family, they were gentiles. 

The rule here laid down asto the name, holds also under the civil 
law, as to the thing. Although it may be miscalled, yet if the de- 
_ scription or appellation be sufficient to designate the article or person 
intended, it is sufficient. Dig. de légat. 1. Dig. 33. 10. 7. 2. Dig. 
34.° 5. 3. 

As to mistakes and incertainty in a bequest under the English law, 
see Roperon Leg. 157. et seq. and the following cases, Thomas v. Tho- 
mas, 6 Term rep. 671. Doe ex dem. Hayter v. Ffoinville et ab 3 East, 
172. Earl cf Scarborough v. Parker, 1 Vez. Jun. 267. Parsons 9 
Parsons, Ib. 266, and the cases in the note, p. 267, which bear upon 
the present section. See also Ex pte Wallop, 4 Br. ch. ca. 90 and Ken- 
nel v. Abbot, 4 Vez. 802, where a legacy given to a person under a 
particular character, which he has falsely assumed, and which moved 
the testator to the bequest, the rule of the civil law is adopted, and the 
legacy fails. Dig. 35. 1. 72. 6. Cod. 6. 42, 27. cited. See Swinbume, 
473, et seq. 

§ 30. De falsa demonstratione, p. 167. Dig. 35. 1.19. 34. Dig. 12. 
1. 6. But this rule could not apply to a legacy of a thing that did not 
exist, for of this there could be no delivery. Dig. de legat. 73. 1 and 
2. Lexeod. 108, § 10. See 5 East, 51. Roe on the demise of Connolly 
v. Vernon and Vyse. . 

§ 31. De falsa causa adjecta, p. 168. Dig. de legat. L 17, 6 2. cum 
seq. First, because the legacy is fairly referrable to the good will 
&nd intention of the testator, which remain at all events. Secondly, 
‘the legacy itself, and not the reason of it, attaches to the legatee. 

§ 32. De servo heredis, p. 168. The legacy has relation to the time 
ef the testament. and it was then clearly void: for a slave could ac- 
quire only for the use of his master; i.e. as a general rule. Hense 
the dictum of Cato applies, quod ab initio vitiosum est, tracts empor 
non potest convalescere, Dig. de diversis reg. jur. 29. 


NOTES. XY 


Queritur.) 1f a testator gives a legacy to the slave of his heir with- 
wut annexing any condition, such a legacy is void; for a bequest, 
made to the slave, is in effect made to the heir; andit would be highly 
absurd in & testator to command his heir to pay a legacy to himself. 


And although the slave of the heir should afterwards cease to be under - 


the power of his master in the life-time of the testator, either by pass» 
ing to another master, or by obtaining his freedom, yet this would 
give no fotce to the legacy ; for it is laid down asa rule by Cato ; quod, 
si testamenti facti tempore decessit testator, inutile foret ; id legatum, 
quafitlocungue decesserit, non valere. ff 34. t. 7. But when legacies are 
conditional, this rule is not observed ; for in such bequests nothing is 
regarded but the event of the condition. Harris. 

§ 33. De domino heredis, p. 169. The legacy cannot belong to the 
slave as heir: for it isevident the master may prohibit him from be- 
coming heir, or sell him to another master. 

6 34. De Legato post mortem heredis, p. 169. Formerly, as has 
been already remarked, the institution of an heir was so necessary to a 
testament, that any bequest in a will previous to such institution was 
void. By degrees the pretors excepted Trusts, ( fidei-commissa ) Ulp. 
in frag. tit. 24, § 14; and tit. 25, $ 6, Juncto Paulo, l. 3 sentent. tit. 6, 
$1. Justinian abolished this strictness, and gave validity to bequests, 
whether placed before or after the clause by which the heir was ap- 
pointed. Cod. de testament. l. ambiguitas. 

§ 36. 5: poene nomino relinguatur, p. 170. Antoninus Pius first raised 
an objection to these conditions #omine pane: thinking that a legacy 
ought to be founded simply on the kindness and good opinion of the tes- 


tator concerning the legatee ; and that burthening a legacy with any thing. 


like a penal condition, was contrary to the fair and reasonable intent of 
a gift. Ulpian in frag. tit. 24, 25, § 13. Justinian reinstated the old 
Jaw. Cod. de his que pens caus. relinq. 

The very fruitful subject of conditions, is no farther related to the 
presenfsection, than as it embraces testamentary conditions. The 


doctrine of conditions, says Mr. Butler in his note to Co. Litt. 201. 6.. 
is derived to us from the feudal law. Doutless much of that doctrine * 


s0 far as relates to tenures, services, and rents, is so. But as much of 
it, is derived to us from the civil law: see beside the present section 
concerning testamentary conditions, Inst. 2. 14. 11. Inst. 3. 16. 4, 5 
and 6. Dig. 26.7. 5. 8. Dig. 28. 7. l.1,3. 14 Dig. 30. 1. 7. 9. 
Dig. 35. 1. 1. 7. 17. 22. 31. 41. 62. 64. 72. 75. 79. Dig. 36. 2. 4. 


‘Dig. 44. f. 31. Dig. 50. 17. 77. 174. Cod. 6. 25. 1. Ccd. 6. 40. 


authent. cyi relict. Cod. 6. 46. 4. and the summary of the French 


| 


law of conditions in Pothier on obligations, eh. 3. articles 1 and 2. 
(page 118—135. of the American translation. Newbern, N. C.) which 
4s the same with the civil law on the same subject. 

By the civil law, all conditions imposing celibacy, or widowhood, 
unless till the puberty of the orphan children were void : but legacies 
might be well given on the condition of marrying or not marrying such 
a person. Dig. 35. 1. 22. 62. 63. 64. 72. 100. But whether by ampli- 
ation this is to be construed against any conditional restraint of mar- 
rying a particular person? Swinb. 282. 

As to the (English) common law doctrine of conditions, genegally, 
see Butler's notes, Co. Litt. 201—207. and 213. 237. Comyn’s Dig. 
tit. Conditions. 

Ás to conditions precedent and subsequent, and covenants depend- 
: ant and independant in contracts, see the useful note of Serjeant Wil- 
liams to Pordage v. Cole, 1 Saund. rep. 319. which includes the cases 
to Trinity term, 1799 ; also 1 Fonbl. ch. 6, § 1 and 2. p. 249. 388. 391. 

The leading case as to DEPENDANCE or INDEPENDANCE Of covenants, 
is Kingston v. Preston, quoted in ones v. Berkely, Doug. 689. As 
to the doctrine of cowPENsATION, Boone v. Eyre, 1 Hen. Bl. 373. 
Campbell v. "ones, 6 Term. rep. 573. Hall v. Cazanove, 4 East. 477. 

Add to the cases cited in Williams’s Saunders, Glazebrook o. Wood- 
row, 8 Term rep. 366. Hall v. Cazanove, 4 East. 477. Martin v. 
Smith, 6 East. 555. Smith v. Wilson, 8. East. 437. Havelock v. Ged- 
des, 10 East. 555. Smith v. Woodhouse, 2 Bos. and Pull. New. rep. 
233. JBornmann v. Tooke, 1 Camb. N. P.rep. 377. 

When equity will relieve the breach of a condition: see 1 Fonb. 
209. 220. 387. 391. 

As to the subject immediately connected with the present section, 
viz. conditions in restraint of marriage ; the cases are well collected 
and the general principles arranged by Fonb. vol. 1. p. 245. See alsó 
'Rop. on leg. 59—66. | | 

- Tadd the following references on the same subject. » 

Randallv. Payne, 1 Br. ch.ca. 5. cot v. Tyler, 2 Br. ch. ca. 431. 
See lord Thurlow's opinion and decree in this case at full length im 
2 Dicken's Ch. rep. 712. The general law before this was, that con- 
-ditions in restraint of marriage, were to be considered as in terrorem 
only, it not being to be presumed, that for a breach of duty of this par- 
donáble nature, the parent would incurably deprive the child of an in- 
tended provision. Harvey v. Aston, Forrester's rep. 212. 1 .At. 361. 
Comyn's rep. 726.  Reynish v. Martin, 3 Atk. 330. — Elton v. Elton, 
1 Wils. 159. Long v. Dennis, 4 Burr. 2052. In which lord Mansfield 


NOTES. 529 


began by saying, “ Conditions in restraint of marriage are odious, and 
* are therefore held to the utmost rigour and strictness. They are 
* contrary to sound policy. By the Roman law they are all void.” 
That is to be understood however, under the restrictions I have above 
laid down ; to wit, the cogditional injunction of celibacy—of widow- 
hood, unless till the children arrive at puberty—of not marrying with- 
out the consent of some other person—or by ampliation of not marrying 
some particular person, was void: and the legacy was demandable 
free from the condition; Dig. 35. 1. 106: but the marrying of A. B. 
or Ce might be made a condition precedent. Swinb. 281. 

Besides this notion of conditional restraints against marriage being 
in terrorem only, the courts had also laid it' down, that unless there - 
was a devise over, so that some other person had an interest. in the 
- performance of the condition, the condition annexed to personal lega- 
cies, in any manner restraining marriage was void. Bellasis o. Ermine, 
1 Ch. ca. 22. Semple v. Bayley, Finch. Prec. in Ch. 562. Pulling 
v. Reedy, 1 Wilson, 21. Wheeler v. Birgham, 3 Atk. 365, and the 
other cases collected in the instructive note of Mr. Williams to ZZer- 
vey v. Aston, in his edition of Forrester's Cases temp. Talbot, 216, and 
even in case of a devise over of residue, it had been held doubtful or 
even void. Garret v. Pretty, 2 Vern. 293. 2 Freem. 220. Wheeler v. 
Birgham, 3 Atk. 365. Paget v. Haywood cited 1 Atk. 378. Eastland : 
v. Reynolds, 1 Dickens, Ch. rep. 320. 

Lord Thurlow in Scot v. Tyler, combated the doctrine of legacies 
in terrorem, and decided that wherever the residue was devised over, 
it supperted the condition. ' 

The generat law (civil and canon) respecting legacies in restraint 
of marriage, is elaborately discussed by Swinburne in his chapter 
on that subject, p. 282- Having made these remarks on the law as 
settled in Scot v. Tyler, I proceed to add a reference tothe few sub- 
sequent cases of conditions in restraint of marriage. 

Hutcheson 9. Hammond, 3 Br. ch. ca.128. Dashwood v. Lord Bulke- 
ly, 10 Vez. 230. Eastland v. Reynolds, 1 Dicken’s ch. rep. 317. 
Knight v. Cameron, 14 Vez. 289. 

All conditions of whatever nature, are liable to be avoided, or con- 
trouled, if they be, absurd, or impossible, or contrary to the precepts 
of religion, or positive law, or public safety, or public decorum, or 
grossly unjust. 

And it will be frequently regarded as sufficiently fulfilled, if it be 


3 Y 


530 NOTES. 


substantially so, according to the intent and meaning of the contract or 
devise, though not formally so. 

And where circumstances unavoidably prevent its being perfectly 
and completely fulfilled, equity will suppórt the partial fulfillment of it, 
if compensation can be made for the omission of the remainder : or if 
the partial fulfillment of the verbal direction, be a reasonable fulfil. 
ment of the intent. 

And further, where circumstances unavoidably prevent its being per- 
fectly and completely fulfilled, equity will consider it as fulfilled, if all 
be donc that could reasonably be expected, under the doctrine of Cy- 
fres, concerning which see the following cases and references. 1 Pow. 
Contr. 448. Attorney General v. Guise, 2 Vern. 266. Attorney . Generd 
v. Green, 2 Br ch. ca. 492. Frekev. Lord Barrington, 3 Br. ch. ca. 281. 
Routledge v. Dorril, 2 Vez. jun. 357. Attorney General v. Boulthee, 
Ib. 380. Bristow v. Ward, Ib. 336. Attorney General 9. Whitchurch, 3 
Vez. 141. Attorney General v. Boultbee, Ib. 220. on appeal from the 
former case before the master of the rolls: Attorney General o. Andrea, 
Ib. 633. 645. Attorney General v. Bowyer, Ib. 714. Attorney General 
v. Minshull, 4 Vez. 14. Corbyn v. French, Ib. 418. Brown v. Higgs, 
Ib. 713. The Bishop of Hereford v. Adums. Lady Twisdenv. Adams, 
y Vez. 324. Andrew v. Trinity Hall, Cambridge, 9 Vez. 525. Attor- 
ney Generalv. Whiteley, 11 Vez. 251. 

The case of the Holland Company against the intruders on lands north 
and East of the Alleghany and Conewago, was also a case of Cy pres. 
4 Dall. 170. 

Tit. XXI. De ademptione legati, p. 172. A legacy might be revoked 
under the Roman law, by word, or by act. As in the latter case, ifa 
Testator having bequeathed the debt to the Debtor, should afterward 
sue him: or if having bequcathed a specific article, he should after- 
wards sell or give itaway. There was this difference between the ex- 
press and tacit revocation of a legacy, that in the former case it be- 
came void, in the latter only voidable. Though the demand might be 
repelled by the circumstances of a tacit revocation. Ulp. in Frag. 24,$ 
22 : and arg. ad1. 17 Dig. de adimend. legat. Dig. eod. 1. 3, $ ult. and 
l. 22. | 

I have already spoken of the ademption of legacies; and of the se 
tisfaction of legacies ; in the note refetring to those decisions that re- 
lated to satisfaction in cases of mere relations, and of strangers. — ' 

Where a devisee shall be put to his election, see Judge Wilson's 
edition of Bacon's abridgement, Appendix, title ExroTtox. 


NOTES. 531 


As to the general doctrine of Revocatiow whether express or im- 
plied, it is a subject too copious to be treated of at the length it re- 
quires, in these notes. ‘The reader may consult Swinburne 524—536 : 
Judge Wilson's or Gwillims's Bac. Ab. under the last section of the 
title Wills, and 2 Fonbl. 357. I shall refer generally to the later cases 
in East, Bosanquet and Puller, Vezey, jun. Dickens, and some Ame- 
rican cases, thinking such a reference may assist the reader's research- 
es. 

Revocations may be express, or implied, or intended so to be. 

Aa express revocation may be compleat (a): orincompleat (b) : or 
partial, pro tanto (c). 

An implied revocation may be from change of state (d) : ‘so far as 
this relates to marriage and birth of a child by a man, or marriage by 
a woman, the cases have already been referred to in these notes: orit 
may be from acts on the part of the testator inconsistent with the be- 
quests of his will (e): or from the testator parting with the. whole es- 
tate, or article bequeathed (f). ; 

The following are decisions that bear upon the class of cases (a). 

Eilfis v. Smith, 1 Vez. jun. 11. Dickens, 225. Buckramv. Ingram, 
2 Vez. jun. 652. (wherein also, a legacy charged on a real estate by 
a wil duly attested, may be revoked by an unattested instrument.) 
Harrison 9. Foreman, 5 Vez. 207. Humphrey v Taylor, Dickens 257. 
Havard v. Davis, 2 Binney rep. 406. (a case of parol revocation). Ba- 
tes v. Holman, 3 Hening and Munford, 502. Cogdill v. Cogbell, 2 , 
Hening and Munford, 467. 

Class (b). Thomas v. Fones etal. 2 East. 488. Short ex dem. Gas- 
irell v. Smith et al. 4 East. 419. Bowes v. Bowes, 2 Bosanq. and Pull. 
500. (a case of after purchased lands). JMaggison v. Moore, 2 Vez. 
jun. 630. Cave v. Holford, 3 Vez. 650. Crosbie v. Macdonal, 4 Vez. 
610. Lord Carrington v. Payne, 5 Vez. 633. Ellison v. Ellison, . 6 
Vez. 656. Holder v. Howel, 8 Vez. 97. Pemberton v. Pemberton, 19 
Vez. 290. 310. Dufour v. Pereira, Dickens 419.  Boudinot v. Brad- 
ford, 2 Dall. rep. 266. Lawson v. Morrison, 2 Dall. rep. 286. Cog- 
bill o. Cogbill, 2 Hening and Munford, 467. Bates v. Hglman, 3 Hen. 
and Munf. 502. 

As tothe cases (c). Larkins v. Larkins, 3 Bos. and Pull. 16. 109. 
Earl Temple v. Dutchess of Chandos, 3 Vez. 685. Wiliams v. Owena, 
2 Vez. jun. 595. Cave v. Holford, 3 Vez. 680. . 

Asto the cases (d). Charman v. Charman, 14 Vez. 580. 

As tothe cases (e). Selwood v. Mildmay, 3 Vez. 310. Hinckley 
v. Simmons, 4 Vez. 160." Knollys v. Alcock, 5 Vez. 642. 7 Vez. 548 


532 . NOTES. 


Baxter v. Dyer, 5 Vez. 656. (which contains also a case of marriage 
with birth of a child under peculiar circumstances.) Ex pte. Lord 
Ilchester, 7 Vez. 348—381. much at length. Ex pte. Fearcn, 5 Vez. 
633. Attorney General v. Vigor, 8 Vez. 256. Maundrel v. Maundrel, 
9 Vez. 256. Sparrow v. Hardcastle, Dickens 257. Digby v. Legard, 
Ib. 500. Peach v. Philips, Ib. 538. Arnold v. Arnold, Ib. 645.  , 

As to cases (f). Goodtitle v. Otway, 1 Bos. and Pull. 576. the lead- 
ingcase. Dose ex dem. Dilnot v. Dilnot, 5 Bos. and Pull. 401. Perry 
v. Philips, 1 Vez. jun. 255. (a case of after purchased lands ; a possi- 
bility deviseable). Brydges v. Duke of Chandos, 2 Vez. jun. 417. 
(this is also aleading case; and includes after purchased lands, and 
the distinction thereon between the Civil and the Englishlaw). Wit 
Jiams v. Owens, 2 Vez. 595. Stewart v. Titchbone, 2 Vez. 602. 
Cave v. Holford, 3 Vez. 650. Hurmood v. Oglander, 6 Vez. 199. 8 
Vez. 106. Ellison v. Ellison, 6 Vez.656. Attorney General v. Vigor, 
8 Vez. 256. Rose v. Cunningham, 11 Vez. 554. Darley v. Darley, 
Dickens 397. — Mayer v. Gowland, Ib. 563. ) 

$ 1. De translatione, p. 172. A legacy is also said to be transfer- 
red when it is appointed to be paid by one heir and afterward by ano- 
ther. Dig. 34. 4. 6. There was some nicety depending on the form 
of words used in transferring bequests. Thus, I give and bequeathto 
JMavius, the legacy I before gave to Titius. This is a legacy trans- 
ferred. Dig. 34. 4. 5. I give and bequeath to Sempronius the same 
share that I have already given to Seius : this is an additional legacy 
to the same amount, for there is no clear and positive exclusion, no 
undgubted specification of intention. I institute Sempronius as heir 
to the same portion wherewith I have instituted Seius; this is an ap- 
pointment of co-heirship. Dig. 28. 5. 15. Dig. 50. 16. 142. 

Tit. XXII. De lege Falcidia, p. 173. I have already noted the Lex 
Furia, and the Lex Volconia, which were superceded by the Lex Fal- 
cidia, enacted on the motion of Falcidius, a tribune of. the. people, un- 
der the sanction of Augustus, 714, A. U. C. By this law a testator 
was obliged to leave one fourth of his property to his heir; he could 
‘not bequeath awitra dodrantem, beyond nine ounces out of the twelve 
which made up the /sjór whole estate. This law was, in fact, equally 
beneficial to testators and to heirs, because it ensured the execution 
ofthe will, by ensuring a competent reward to the heir who had he 
trouble. The Lex Falcidia, at first regarded legacies only: it wasaf- 
terwards very properly extended by ampliation andlégal construction 
, totrusts: or,as some say, it was thus extendcd by the Senatus cessul- 
tum Pegasianum. ‘Trusts were certainly included within the equity 


NOTES. 833 


ofit. Byaconstitution of Antonine, it was then extended to intesta- 
cies, and by. Severus to donations mortis causa. Cod. de legat. 1. 5 
and 12. 

§ 1. De pluribus heredibus, pP. 173. Suppose Titius and Seius, two 
heirs; Titius's moiety is charged with legacies nearly to the amount of 
the whole ; and Seius’s moiety is uncharged ; and the moiety of Titius 
should, by death, dereliction or otherwise, accrue to Setus; he would 
hold it under the right of deducting from the legacies so asto leave 
one fourth clear. Dig. de legat. 1. 78.1. 1. $ 13,14. But if the unbure 
thened part of Seius should accrue to T?tius, the legatees of Titius’s 
part would be benefitted, for the Falcidian retrenchment would not 
take place. The reason is, that Seius takes the share of Titius, of 
course, with all the rights of Titius attached toit; he stands in the 
place of Titius. Whereas if Titius succeeds to the share of.Seius, the 
reason of the Lex Falcidia fails; for Titius in this case, willhave his 
fourth clear, notwithstanding the over charge of legacies on his own 
share. Cujas l. 4. obs. ch. 35. 36. 

€ 2. Quo tempore spectetur, &9c. p. 174. The death of the testator 
is the period that fixes the relative situations of the ]egatees and heir. 
If in the intervening time between the making ef the will and the de- 
cease of the devisor, the estate should be encreased, the legatees are ex- 
onerated from deduction in proportion. If it hath decreased, the in- 
stituted heir may renounce. Dig. de leg. 30. 73. Cod. de caduc. tabl. 
11. Dig. delegat.l. 1. $ 17. 1. 43. $ 35.1. 22. $ 3. Dig. 36. 1. 14. 
5, 6. . - 

§ 3. Que detrahuntur ante Falcidiam. p. 175. The retrerichment of 
legacies by the civil law was pro rata; except perhaps as in our law, 
as to the case of specific legacies: see Vinnius in loco, and Paulus l. 
4 sentent. tit. de senat. consult. Pegasiano. 

The lex Falcidia, might be made inoperative, 1st. By the express 
declaration of the testator, that it shall be so.  Authent. sed cum tes- 
tat. Cod. h. t. from novel. 1 2ly, When the heir acted without an 
inventory, for then it is to be presumed that he knew the Falcidian de- 
falcation would be unnecessary Sly, When the heir pays all the 
legacies with knowledge, that the Falcidian law might have been 
' broughtto bear upon them. 

Tit. XXIII. De fidei commissariis hereditatibus. p. 176. Truste 
are ugiversal or particular : universal, when the estate, or some given 
portion of it is charged: particular, when the heir or. some | legatee i is 
charged in favour of the person to be benefitted by the trust. The 
present title relates to universal, the next, to particular trusts. 


534 NOTES. 


€ 1. Origo fidei. commiesorum. p. 176. Cod. de delat. 1. 1. Dig. de 
legat. 1. 1. 103. Dig. 284. Ulp. in frag tit. 25, $ 1. Dig. 50. 16. 178. 2. 
juncto Quintiliano, lib. 3. Inst. orat. ch. 6. Justinian put legacies and 
trusts on the same footing. Cod. commun. delegat.l. 1 And this he 
was, induced to do from the complexity and difficulties of the practice 
under the senatus consulta Trebellianum, in the reign of Nero, and 
Pegasianum, in the reign of Vespasian. By the first, the instituted heir 
being indemnified, gave up to the person to whom the trust was be- 
queathed, either a part or the whole of the heirship, according to the 
nature and extent of the trust created. So that the Pretor gave to 
the cestui que trust, all the actual rights and privileges of anm heir, 
with a powerto commence suits,and liability to actions in that capaci- 
ty : and the instituted heir was discharged either in whole, or pro tanto 
according to his renunciation. He was thus released from loss, but 
was entitled to no recompence. Hence the senatus consultum Pege- 
sianum was enacted, by which two points were established, 1st, the 
heir might act if he pleased and retain his fourth: and 2dly, if he did 
not choose to act, he might, on request made by his universal fidei com- 
missary, or cestui que trust, and at his risque, be compelled to take it and 
perform the duties : the fidei commissary bearing all the expences. In 
this case the heir was not entitled to his fourth. This alteration, again 
brought into play the stipulations empte et vendite hereditatis between 
the heir and the fidei commissary. Dig. 15. 1. 37. Dig. 50. 16 59. 1. 
and also the stipulation partis et pro parte, where there was a partial 
trust of the heirship. See the Jurisconsult Paul. lib. 4. sentent. tit. 3. 
Ulpian in fragm. tit. 26. and the paraphrase of Theophilus on this title. 

The stipulation partis et pro parte took place between the fidei com- 
missary and the heir, when the latter acted under the senatus consul 
tum Trebellianum, and took his remuneration of a fourth, or as it might 
happento bc. The stipulation empte et. vendite hereditatis took place 
when the proceedings were under the senatus consultum Trebellianum, 
and the whole duties and privileges fell on the fideijcommissary. These 
stipulations indeed were in use before the senatus consultum Trebel- 
lianum, but were brought up again by the senatus consultum Pega- 
sianum. 

Under these senatus consulta, the heir had his action of warranty 
against the fidei commissary ex stipulatu. But this occasioned se 
much controversy, that it gave rise to the ordinance of Justininggherse 
after to be noticed under section 7 ofthis title. 

§ 2. De fidei commisso heredis scripti, p. 177. Vel pure, vel sisbest 


NOTES. | 335 


eitione, Fc. This might be done in case of a trust, because the heir 
nominally instituted, was sufficient to supportthe will, 

Heres instituatur. In England, the appointment of an executor, is 
as cssential to a will, as the appointment of an heir under the Roman 
law  Awill without an executor, will render necessary an adminia- 
tration cum testamento annexo. Swinburne, part 4. sect. 2. 

No particular form of words are required to create a trust in a will. 
I will, I desire, I request, &c. are imperative. See the note to Van- 
dycke v. Vanbeuren, 1 Caine's N York rep. 85. 

6 4, Desenatus consulto Trebelliano, p. 177. Utiles actiones, Inst. 
4. 6. 16. 

§ 5. De senatus consulto Perasiano, p. 177. 

Post quod senatus consultum ipse heres.] The best way to explain 
this section, will be to transcribe'a passage from. the paraphrase of 
Theophilus, as it is translated by Gul. Otto Reitz ; to whom the litera- 
ry world is much obliged, for his late most complete edition of Theo- 
philus in Greek and Latin, to which is added a great variety of notes 
by the editor and others. This edition consists of two volumes in 4to. 
and was published at the Hague, in the year 1751. “ Post hoc au- 
“tem hzres solus subjacebat oneribus hereditatis, non vero fidei-com- 
* missarius: sed denique placuit, fidei-commissarium vicem obtinere 
“legatarii partiarii, id est, partem dimidiam accipientis. Quondam 
“enim quintum genus legati erat, dicebaturque fartttio, etrelinqueba- 
“tur hoc modo: "Titius mihi heres esto, et cum Seto hereditatem divi- 
* dito in dimidia portione. | Porroigitur hujusmodi inter eos stipulati- 
* ones fiebant. Heres legatarium sic interrogabat ;—spondes, leeata- 
“ rie, si ego conventus viginti aureos solvero, eorum mihi semissem dare? 
* et dicebat, spondeo — Rursusque legatarius heredem sic intérroga- 
* bat ;—spondes, si ab hereditario debitore viginti aureos acceperis, se- 
* missem mihi dare, i. e. decem? et dicebat, spondeo : atque hzc stipu- 
*“latio vocabatur PARTIS ET PRO PARTE. Ad exemplum igitur lega- 
** tarii partiarii stipulatio procedebat heredem inter et. fidei-commis- 
* sarium: et interrogabat heres fidci-commissarium sic ;——spondes, 
4* fidei-commissarie, si quadraginta aureos poscar a creditore heredita- 
** rio, dare mihi triginta? et hxres interrogabatura fidei-commissario ; 
«€ spontles, heres, siu debitore hereditario quadraginta aureos acceperis, 
U fririnta mihi dare? et dicebat, spondes. Atque hoc modo fidei- 
** commissarius universalis vicem obtinebat legatarii: oportebatque 
“commune esse pro rata, fidei-commissarium inter et heredem, lu- 
* crum et damnum." Theoph. h. t. Harris. 


536 NOTES. , 


§ 6. Quibus casibus. locus est senatus. consulto, E9c. p. 179. See 2. 
Black. Comm. p. 328. 

§ 7.. Pegasiani in Trebellianum, transfusio, p. 180. Justinian hav- 
ing thus blended the two senatus consulta, it followed, 1st, that al- 
though the heir was required to give up to the fidei commissary an 
heirship burthened with trust legacies beyond the dodrans or three 
fourths, still the heir might retain his fourth, improperly called the 
Quartum Trebellianum: for it was the Falcidian fourth extended*to 
trusts, not bythe Trebellian, but the Pegasian senatus consultum. 
Qdly, All actions were divided in proportion to their shares: if the 
nominated or instituted ‘heir retained his fourth, he bore one fourth 
of the expence: if he restored the whole heirship to the fidei com- 
missary he bore no part. 3dly, If he refused to take upon himself 
the duties of the heirship, he might be compelled so to do, on being 
indemnified, by the fidei commissary. 

Quam in fidei-commissarium.] The term cestui que trust, used at 
present in our own law, seems in general to convey the meaning of the 
word fidei-commissarius; but yet not precisely : it was therefore 
thought most proper to anglicise it in the translation, as we have no 
single English word, adequate to the sense of it: fora fidei-commis- 
sary, in the Roman law, denotes a person, who has a beneficial interest 
in an estate, which for a time is committed to the faith or trust of ano- 
ther. Harris. 7 

§ 10. De fides commissis ab intestato. relictis, p. 183. Cum alioqui 
legata. That is, according to the former law: for by the law of Jus- 
tinian, Cod. 6. 43. which puts legacies and trusts on the same footing, 
a legacy bequeathed by codicil, or otherwise included in the present 
section, is good as a trust if not as a legacy. 

§ 12. De probatione fidei-commissi, p. 183. De calumnia juraverit 
Cod. 6. 42. 32. 

Tit. XXIV. De singulis rebus. per fidei-commissum, p. 185. The 
former title, as was observed, related to universal, the present relates 
to particular trusts. But since the ordinance of Justinian, the dis- 
tinction is not of much import. 

Quamvis a legatario.] This was the ancient law ; but by Tustini- 
an’s constitution [Cod. 6. t. 43.] legacies, and gifts in trust, are allow- 
ed to come in aid of each other reciprocally : so that, to use the words 
of the ordinance, omnia, que naturaliter insunt legatis, et fidci-comr 
missis inharere intelligantur ; et contra, guicquid fidei committitur, hoc 
intelligatur. esse legatum—from which it follows, that a legatary may 
now be charged with the payment of a legacy. Harris. 


NOTBS. sar 


$ 3. De verbis fidei commissorum,p. 186. See the above cited sete 
to 1 Camte’s N. York rep. 85. and the note to Deen. Aldridge, 4 Term 
sep. 265. 

Tit. X XV. Codicillórum origo, p. 187. Formerly codicils made be- 
fore a will were void. After trusts began to be favoured, they were 
considered as sufficient to support atrust; if tot actually repenled by 
a subsequent wil. But when Justinian put legacies and trusts on the 
‘Same footing, either the‘one or the other might be given by a codicil, 
whether before or after a will, or by an intestate. But the ingtitution 
of an heir can only be by will. . 

Codicillorum jus.] ‘The word codicillus, « or codicil,is a dimieptive 
from codex, a book ; and denotes any unsolemn last will, in which no 
heir or executor is named, ** Codicilli dicti sunt parvi codices; id 
“est, tabelle ex codicibus aut ligno. Itaque, quemadmodum testa- 
* mendum codex, appellatur, 

“ Codicesevo 

* Heredes vetat esse suos, £9c. Fun. Sat. 10. quia test&mentum in 
“ codicibus tantum scribebatur, sive tabulis grandioribus, ita voluntas 
** suprema, mimus solemnis aut plena, codicHli, et aliquando numeto 
* anitatis codicillus; propterea quod scribi solita erat im codicillis, id 
** est, tabulis brevioribus et tenuioribus, ita factis, ut facile, quo cui- 
** que commodum esset, circumferri possent. Heineccio autem judice, 
* codicilli apud veteres sunt epistole vel scriptare ad alios misse: 
* quia ergo codicilli plerumque perscribebantur in forma epistolarum, 
* hinc et nomen retinuerunt" Vinn. 

§ 1. Codicilli fieri possunt, vel ante, vel post, Fc. p. 188. 

Non tantum. testamentum.] ** Itis granted of all, [says Swinburn] 
* that a codicil may be made either by him, who died intestate, or by 
* him, who died with a testament. If the codicil is made by a per- 
'" son, who dies intestate, the legacies therein must be paid by him, 
** who shall have the administration of the goods of the deceased, with 
* the codicil or testamentary schedule annexed. And, if a codicil is 
‘© made by him, who hath also made a regular testament, then, whether 
** jt was made before or after the testament, it is to be reputed &s part 
** and parcel of the testament, and it is to be performed as well ‘as, the 
* testament; unless, being made before the testament, it appears to be 
* revoked by the testament, or to be contrary to that, which is contain- 
^ ed in the testament.” Sign. part 1. sec. 5. 

“ Codicilli etab intestato cenfici possunt, ct facto testamento, Ab 
* intestato facti suis ipsis virtbus nituntur et vicem testamenti exhi- 
“bent: proinde quicunque jntestati successor erit, sivc legitimus, sive 

3 Z 


$88 NOTES. 


* honorarius, etiam postea natus codicillis relicta praestabit. Testa- 
** mento autem condito, codicilli, quocunque tempore facti fuerint, ad 


' * testamentum pertinent, viresque ex eo capiunt, etiamsi in eo confir- 


*. mati non sint ; et infirmato testamento codicilli concidunt. Illud ve- 
** ro interest inter codicillos testamento nominatim confirmatos et non 
* confrmatos, quod illis relicta etiam directo jure valent, veluti lega- 


. “4 ¢a-et libertates directo date ; perindeque omnia habeantur, ac si in 
, * testamento scripta essent, excepta causa hereditatis; at, que cg- 
. ** dicillis non confirmatis relicta sunt, sive verbis directis sive preca- 


* riis, debentur jure fidei-commissi. Sed non est, quod de his am- 
* plius dicamus; cum enim confusa nunc sit legatorum et fidei«com- 
** missorum natura, dubitandum non est, quin legata, codicillis etiam - 
** non confirmatis data directo, nunc valeant? Vinne 

§ 2. Codicillis hereditas directo dari non potest, p. 188. 

But it can be given indirectly : as if a-testator by codicil, charges 
his testamentary heirs to renounce in favour of the fidei-commissary 
of his codicil: Dig. de hered. inst. 77. Dig. de condit. instit. 10. 
-And in one case there may be a direct substitution by codicil, as in 
Dig. ad senat. consult. Trebell. 76, where a direct pupillary substitu- 


. tion is converted into a trust denigna interpretatione. — Weirship then, 


asit cannot regularly be given, cannot be taken away by codicil, which 


. does not suffice for disipherison direct or conditional. 


Codicillis autem hereditas. Groenewegen, in his book of abrogated 


- laws, says, that the distinctions between testaments and codicils havc 


now ceased to be observed almost every where. Landem enim ordina- 
tionis solemnitatem requirunt, atque ita subrema Hollandie curia censuit; 
et confusis. eorum nominibus hafedi institutionem ad substantiam testa. 
$nenti necessariam esse negant pragmatici ; hinc quoque codicillis 
hereditatem directo dari et adimi, ideoque et exheredationem scribi, 
moribus nostris nil vetat. Groenew. de ll. abr. in Inst. 2. t. 21. 

In England the appointment of an executor makes the only differ- 
ence between a testament and a codicil; and this difference is little 
more than nominal; for whatever may be done by the one, may be 


. also done by the other; so that a condition may be imposed, an estate 


may be given, or an heir disinherited, as well by codicil: as by testa- 


"ment ; . and even lands may be disposed of by a codicil, if it is signed 


by the deceased, and attested by three witnesses in his presence, though 
the deceased left no testament; (fora codicil, in its true sense, denotes 
any testamentary schedule, and may stand singly, without relation to 


"any other paper ;) and, even where there is a testament, disposing of 


real estate, that testament may be altered or revoked by a codicil pre. . 


NOTES. 339 


perly executed. And, where personal estate only is bequeathed, the 
same degree of proof, (and it has already been said what degree of. 
proof is sufficient,) will establish either a testament or a codicil; and 
the one may revoke or confirm the other, either wholly or in part, ac- 
cording to its respective contents. Harris. 

§ 3. De numero et solemnitate, p. 189. 

A will, by the Roman law, is revoked by a subsequent will: a codi: 
eil is not revoked by a subsequent codicil. Hence there may be many 
valid codicils if they be not contradictory. <A willis necessary to an 
heir, and an heir to a will, but it is not so with a codicil. The latter. 
also required fewer ceremonies than a will. But a woman could got: 
witness a codicil any more than a will. E ET 

Nullam solemnitatem. When it is said, that no solemnity is requir- 
ed in making a codicil, the compilers of the institutions must be uader-. 
stood to mean no extraordinary solemnity, as that of bringing seven. 
witnesses to subscribe it,as in case of atestament: for it is necessary 
by the civil law, that a codicil should be supported by five witnesses ; . 
(Cod. 6. t. 36.1. 8, which is the ordinary number required to attegt, se- 
veral other translations. Cod. 4. t. 20. 1. 28. But, in England, thera. 
is in this respect no distinction between a testament and a codicil; 
for either may be supported by an equal number of witnesses : =r. 
two are regularly required to,a testament, and the same number. ia 
also required toa codicil; but, if either a testament or a codicil, cons, 
. tains a devise of a real estate, three witnesses are indispensably ne: . 
cessary by act of parliament. vid. 29 Car. 2. cap. 3. Harris. | 

Lis. III. Titu. I. De hereditatibus, qua ab intestato deferuntur, P 
191. 

The preceding book treats of Wills: the present of Intestacies ; and 
the order of Succession, in cases where a mandies leaving property, 
but no will. - 

The 118th Novel, which still remains a part of the law of England on 
this subject, in cases not otherwise decided or provided for, has alter- 
ed the doctrine laid down in this book of the Institutes; so that a 
brief history of the changes which the Roman law has undergone on 
the subject of successions ab intestato, will be more than expedient. 
I am chiefly indebted for the present preliminary remarks, to those 
which Ferriere has prefixed to the third book of the Institutes. 

By the law of the 12 tables, there were but two classes of legitimate: 
heirs: eui heredes, or proper heirs, and agnati or paternal heirs, the 
last succeeding only in default of the others. 


540 1 NG. ['ES. 


A suus heres, was required to be a. descendant in the first degree 
from the intéstate in a direct line,and.to have been in the power of the 
intestate, at the time of his decease; hence the children of a deceased. 
son whoshared with the uncle, were sui heredes. to the uncle by repre- 
sentation only. § de heredit. que ab intest. defer. 

The pretors and the emperors altered the law of the twelve tables. 
The pretors called to the succession emancipated children per bono- 
rum possessionem unde liberi, on condition that they brought into hotch- 
pot the property acquired during emancipation; so that the whole 
might: be subject to an equal division among all the children of. the 
deceased. §9 eod. tit. 

The imperial constitutions placed the children of deceased daugh- 
ters: in the rank of proper heirs, on condition that when they shared 
with proper heirs, they should take one third part less, and when with 
agnates, a fourth part less. § wt. ibid. 

In defquit of proper heirs, agnates or. collaterals. on the male side, 
were called : as consanguine brothers, (born of the same father) pater- 
nal ‘uncles and grand. uncles, and their children, and other descendants. 
of the paternal line, who had not quittcd the family by any change of. 
state. 

Hence, in defect of proper heirs, the law of the twelve tables called. 
the nearest agnate to the succession, without distinction of sex : herein. 
observing, that there was no right of representation among agnates, 
but the nearest excluded all the rest; and also, that if the nearest. age 
nate renounced, the succession did not. go to the next in order, but es- 
cheated to the treasury. 

The jurisprudence of the middle age, retrenched from the disposi- 
tion of the 12 tables, excluding all females from the succession, except 
sisters, and preferring more distant males.’ Vid. Vinn. $3. de legi- 
tima agnat. success. 

As the law of the 12 tables called up the ncarest agnate only, if 
there were none such, or he renounced, the property cscheated. But 
the pretorian law, moderated this rigour, and in these last mentioned: 
cases, admitted the nearest cognates per bonorum possessionem, unde. 
cognati: and still further, in defect of agnates and cognates, the hus- 
band or wife surviving, succeeded to the exclusion of the treasury, 
per bonorum possessionem unde vir et uxor. 

According to the above account, the.father was not considered s 
agnate to his emancipated son; but Justinian by the last law of Opals 
de emancip. liber. disregarded the circumstance of emancipation. Ade. 
59 the mother could not rank with the agnates of the son, nor the 


NOTES. 544. 


daughter with the agnates of the mother; but the pretor admitted. 
them reciprocally: to süccesaion ex ordine cognatorum, puta per bone-- 
rum possessionem unde cognati. But by the Senatus Consultum Tres 
belliznum, a.mother of several children was ranked in the first degree 
of agnation to her son, in default of 1st, proper heirs of the deceased : 
2udly, the father of a.deceased. son or daughter: 3rdly, the consan- 
guine brother of the deceased, i. a. by the same father: the mother 
was admitted jointly with a consanguine sister, (a sister by the same 
father); but this. underwent some changes, which will be noted. 

Finally, by. the Orphitian Senatus Consultum, under Marcus Aure- — 
Jius, the sons-and: daughters of a mother, were preferred to all the. age 
nates.of the mother, without excepting even brothers born of the same 
fathers. | 

These Senatus Consulta, regarded also the claims of children bora 
out of wedlock. 

These remarks relate to the five first titles of the present Book o£ the: 
Institutes. ' 

We come next to succession in cases of Intestacy, under the 118th. 
Novel, which establishes three degrees of legitimate succession, de- 
scendants, ascendants, and collaterals. And: first of Descendants. 

It calls to the succession all legitimate children without distinction ; 
so that sons.and daughters, grand-sons and grand-daughters exclude 
uneles or others in the ascending line, except as to the property acqui-, 
red by the deceased for the father by virtue of the paternal power: 
for the ueufruct granted to the father of certain property acquired by 
and belonging to the son, was preserved to the father. Without con-- 
sidering also any difference of stute or quality of such children, whe- 
ther under power or-not at the death of the deceased; without regard 
to difference of sex or dge, and of coursc neglecting all consideration. 
of primogeniture. Without regard also, whether the descendants. 
claimed from the male or female side, and. without consideration of 
degree ; enquiring only, whether they were in the direct line descend 
ig. c 
This Novel. akered the former law in the.following points: 

1st. In making no difference, whether the deceased. were under 
power asa filie familias, emancipated, or pater famikae, at the timc 
of his decease: under the previous law, the uncle succeeded toan in- 
testate fWius familias, in. exclusion of the children, except in military 
and quasi military property ; peculium castrense et quasi castrense 3.0% 
the Iastitete remarks in the title 9uibus non est permissum facere-tea- 
famentum: and all-adventitiqus property-belonged. by right of peculi« 


542 NOTES. 


um to the father of the deceased, though he leftchildren. "This Novel, 
cut off the claim of the uncle except as to the mere usufruct of adven- 
titious property. | 

2ndly. In admitting to equal participation, male and female children ° 
without distinétion : though this change, as to emancipated children, 
consisted in making this admission a part of the civil law instead of the 
pretorian law, which admitted them per bonorum possessionem unde 
liberi cum onere collationis, - 

3rdly. In admitting equally descendants from the intestate, whether 
in the male or female line; and taking away the diminution of share 
before required from the latter, when they were called in conjunction 
with proper heirs: and directing this succession to be, not per capita, 
but fer stirpes. 

As to the fourth and last point, the admission of descendants with- 

.out regarding the prerogative of degree; this does not differ from the 

former practice respecting the legitimate succession of descendants. The 
right of children to represent or stand in the placc oftheir deceased pa- 
rent, having been allowed before that Novel was enacted. 

As to the right of represcntation, which was never limited in the 
direct line, it may be observed, 

: Ist, That the children of one who has renounced the succession to 
his father, or been disinherited, could not succeed to the uncle, who left 
children of the first degree, or grand-children from a child deceased : 
for this right of representation is derived through the father, where it 
is cut off. But when the uncle leaves no children or grand-children, 
then the nephews.and neices do not succeed in right of their father, but 
theirown. 2dly, The children of a person civiliter mortuus succeed to 
an uncle, although they share with their uncles and aunts in the suc- 
cession. Dig.1. 6. 7. 3dly, Children in the'first degree succeed ta 
equal portions. 

— The next chapter of the 118th Novel, relates to the succession of 
Ascendants, and embraces two cases. 18st, where fathers and mothers 
alone succeed to their children. 2dly, Where the deceased hath left 
relations in the ascending line, with brothers and sisters of the whole 
blood, or connected by each side; ex utriusque parentibus conjuncti. 

As to the first case. Fathers and mothers and all ascendants, exclude 
all collaterals, except brothers and sisters; although such colaterals 
may bein ancarer degree: partly in consideration that they gave ex«-. 
istence to the deceased; partly from considerations of natural rever- - 
ence (pietatis intuitu ); and partly as some consolation for: the 
loss. ‘The paternal ascendants were preferred by the Trebellian 


NOTES. 543 


senatus consult; but by this Novel, ascendants on the one side and 
. the other were equally admitted. If there was a father only, ora 
mother only, such would succeed in exclusion of an ascendant in a 
more distant degree. Also, if there were no fathers or mothers, but 
several ascendants in equal degree, the property was not therefore al- 
ways equally divided between them: but one half was given to the 
ascendants being representatives of the father, whatever their number, 
andthe other half to the ascendants representing the mother. For 
had father and mother been living, they would have succeeded 
equally. Thus an uncle on the father's side, will take as much as an 
uncle and. an aunt together on the maternal side. | 

Hence where succession is regulated by this chapter of the Novel, 
no distinction is made between property that came by the father’s side 
or by the mother’s: and the rule faterna paternis, materna maternis 
does not hold : but a maternal uncle will succeed to'property descend- 
ed from or bestowed by the father, equally with an uncle on the pa- 
ternal side. . 

Nor is difference of sex regarded under this rule of succession. 

Astothe second case under this second chapter, where ascendant rela- 
tions concur with brothers and sisters of the whole blood, they succeed 
with them per capita: and it is only brothers and sisters thus doubly 
connected, on each side, that do partake with near ascendants, exceptis 
inquit Sfustinianus solis fratribus ex utroque parente conjunctis. 
The father in this case acquiring his own portion in full right, 
cannot claim the usufruct of his children's portion. But when 
there is no father or mother, brothers and sisters do not exclude 
uncles or aunts or other ascendants in default of uncles and aunts, 
but concur with, or partake in the succession with them, per capita. 

Suppose three brothers of the deceased ; an uncle and aunt on the 
paternal side; and an uncle on the maternal side; each brother will 
have a sixth; the paternal uncle and aunt a sixth and a half between , 
them, and the ascendants the other half between them. 

Ascendants a second or third degree distant, exclude brothers and 
sisters connected on oneside only, or the half -blood. ‘This is acon- 
clusion from the passage of the text si vero cum ascendentibus inveni- 
untur fratres et sorores ex utriusque parentibus conjunctis (of the whole 
blood) cum proximis gradu ascendentibus vocabantur. Of course, if these 
only are called, the half blood are not called. 

According to this second chapter of the 118th Novel, nephews of 
the whole blood, do not partake with ascendants, when the father of 
the deceased is dead, although there should be brothers of the whole 


744 NOTES. 


Pood. This however was changed by the first ‘chapter of the 137sh 
Novel, which'enacted that when there were brothers of the whoie blood, 
the nephews of the whole blood might be admitted to concur with 
tach brothers and with escendants. But as they come im only as re- 
‘presenting theit father, they take not per capita but per stirpes ; imd suc- 
‘ceed to that portion only which their father would ‘have claimed, af 
he ‘had been alive. 

As to the third chapter of the 116th Novel on the succession of Cosa- 


Act, 8f the deceased leave neither descéndants nor ascendants, 
the succession falls to his brothers and sisters of the whole blood, in 
exclusion of the half blood. See Nov. 84. But in case of brothers and 
seers of the half blood only, they are admitted to equal shares. . 

ly, Nephews of the whole blood succeed with their own uacles 
and aunts of the whole blood ( germani : ) but by stock only per stir- 

pes: for they succeed solely as representatives of their parent. 

3dly, Nephews of the whole blood, exclude those of the half blood, 
as a brother of the whole blood would exclude nephews and nieces 
of the half blood. 
|. 4thly, Nephews exclude uncles and aunts of the deceased, though 

each are in the third degree. Fi fratrum in hoc casu representationis 
jure finguntur esse in gradu secundo, et sic patruos excludunt. On the 
‘principle also, that collateral descending, should be preferred to colla- 
*eral ascending relations ; guia hereditas naturaliter descendit pottus 
quam ascendit. 

5thly, If the deceased left neither brothers or sisters, nephews or 
neices, the other collateral relatrons are admitted in the order and de- 
gree of their relationship, without regard to sex The ancient differ- 
ence between agnation and cognation in this respect being abrogated by 
the 4th chap. of this Novel. 

The right of representation granted by this third chapter of the 118¢h 
Novel to nephews and neices, and to no other collaterals, takes place in 
the three following cases only. 

1st, When nephews and neices concur or share with a brother or 
sister of their deceased uncle or aunt: in this case they succeed. per 
stirpes. The former law admitted a right of representation among - 
collaterals, in no case. See $ 4 of Instit. de legitim. ugnat. success. 
This being in fact a new law, was construed strictly. Hence, when me- 
phews of different brothers and sisters succeeded to their uncle or'aunt 
who had left neither brother or sister, the division was made per- ea 
pita, and not per stirpes. | | 


NOTES. 545 


And as itis usually held, representation does not take place in the 
collateral line, unless in favour of the children of brothers and sisters, 
when they share in the succession with their uncle or aunt, the brother 
and sister of the deceased. 

2dly, Representation takes place when the nephews of the whole 
blood, are preferred to brothers and sisters of the half blood: which 
€ould not take place büt by representaticn; for a nephew is in the 
third degree, and brothers and sisters in the second. 

3dly, When there is an uncle and a nephew of the deceased. Hence 
by the 3rd chap. of the 118th Novel, Justinian would have the nephew 
exclude the uncle, which could only be done under the privilege of re- 
presentation, which brings the nephew a degree nearer than the great 

uncle, who is but uncle to the deceased. This also is an innovation 
 €n the former law. 

The preference of the whole blood, is a privilege accorded by this 
Novel, to certain collateral relations, and no doubt a reasonable one. 
Duplex enim vinculum quod est in fratre germano fortius est unico illo 
quod intercedit inter fratres consanguinéos aut uterinos. The fourth 
chapter takes away the distinction between agnates and ccgnates. 
When an unmarried person dies without relations ascending, descend- 
ing, or collateral, his property escheats to the public treasury. But 2 
legitimate unbroken marriage, protects the succession to the survivor. 
This privilege of the Exchequer or public treasury proceeds from the 
want of an heir, Cod. 10. 10. 1. 4. Creditors in this case have a lien on 
the property. Dig. 49. 14. 11. If the deceased died a member of 
any lawful company or college, that shall succeed before the exchequer. 
Cod. 6. 62. t. 

Succession being not a natural but a civil right, varies in almost eve- 
ry country. The rule paterna paternts, materna maternis, was adopted. 
in France, Loix civiles. Tom. 3 pref. § 4. and in England 1 Co. Litt. 
13. a. 

So in England, the whole blood universally excludes the half blood, 
‘and succession ascending by right line takes place in no instance. It 
is of little consequence what regulations society adopts on this subject, 
provided they be clear, and of easy application. The variations in 
England dependant upon feudal principles whose reason has long ago 
ceased to operate—and upon the right of primogeniture which, in this 
country, we have discarded, still gives a perceptible tinge to much ot 
the law of descent and succession on this continent. "Though it must 
be allowed that the statute of distributions of this state, is founded as 

much on principles of natural equity, as can reasonably be expected. 


4A 


546 NOTES. 


Yr common cases, the state of Pennsylvania has made as fair aud 
judicious a will, as men usually make for themselves. 

The 118th Novel will be found at the end of the text, and I shall m 
sert at the close of this note, a translation of those sections of it, that 
bear immediately on the present subject. 

In the mean time, however, I am strongly tempted to insert the fol- 
lowing entertaining and useful remarks of Dr. Taylor (Civ. Law, p 
537.) on the subject of succession ab intestato : an author, who, though 
he may be desultorv and immethodical, as Gibben complains he it, 
presents his reader notwithstanding, with notes of great learning, great 
taste, and grea: instruction. 

* The succession into the estates of intestates is one of the most ut- 
certain points of.law. I-call it uncertain, 1st, because there are not 
found perhaps two nations upon earth, that have fixed upon the same 
method of conveyance: aad 2dly, because there is scarce one, but 
what has at some time or other differed even from itself. With the 
Romans particularly, the distribution, which prevailed for some time, 
took a different turn, even while the Emperor was compiling his Be 
dy of Law, and the system of the Novels (the CX VIIIth particolarly) 
entirely defeats the doctrine laid down in several titles of the third 
Book ofthe Institutes, where that matter was considered, and eneant 
to he established. With the Novels it settled. 

To contemplate thercfore this question, the stream of nature con 
ducts us first to~4ew succession in the order of 

Descendants. This was the natural course, and the general direc 
tion of Providence. And be it observed, that Natural Law is sali 
by some to be interested no farther, than in the succession of those 
who claim from under us: and that Ascerdants and Collaterals are 
called in by Civil Law. Which yet by others is denied, and, I think, 
with sufficient reason However the primary distribution of mnatere 
is very apparent. 

Cum Ratio Naturalis, quasi Lex quaedam tacita, liberis parentium he 
reditatem addiceret velut-ad debitam successionem cos vocando, propter 
quod et in "fure Civili suorum heredum nomen cis inductum est, ac se 
judicio parentis, nisi meritis de causis summoveri ab ca successigne por 
sunt. D. 48. 20. 7. 

The great rule of succession among the Romans, in the method 
which lyes before us, viz. the succession of descendants, is. comprige 
ed in these few rcfl. tions ; That (1) descendants, while they last, ex 
clude all other relot-o1s whatsoever : That (2) there is no respect had 
to primogeniure, and (3) no preference. in regard to sex: ZAof there 


NOTES. "o0 54 


is (4) no exclusion of any ever so remote degree: and lastly (5) 
That the estate of the intestate makes so many general shares, as 
there are distinct heads in his immediate descendants. 

I. For, as this downward direction was the primary and principal 
recommendation of natural law, it followed, that inheritances could 
never revert, or be thrown upwards (inter Ascendentes ), nor be turn« 
ed aside (inter Collaterales), as long as any were to be found in the 
line below, or that of descendants, in infinitum. For the principle, 
upon which this succession rested, was the Jus Repraesentationis, 
which can not be fairly or reasonably imagined in any other line than 
in that, to which we give existence. There is something of successive 
in the idea of representation, something which looks like keeping up 
an orderor a series; and though to. brothers it may be applied in 
some sense,to fathers and grandfathers it can be applied in little or 
none. 

II. III. The second and third particulars, viz. the disregard of sex 
and primogeniture, in which these people differed from most others, 
as well before, as after them, are of that arbitrary consideration, that 
little nemains to be observed upon that disposition. But natural e- 
quity has a great stroke in the two.Jast, and cails for some regard : 

IV. V. That descendants of the second, third or. fourth degree, 
should be raised to a kind. of level. with those of: the first, and not stand 
excluded, even while some ofthe first remain: That children of a re- 
mote descent should inherit along- with the immediate one (I suppose 
the way cleared before them) is agreeable to truth and justice. The 
grandchildren etc. of Sempronius by a son that is gone, stand to Sem- 
pronius.in the placeof that son. They would have had their shares 
through that father, if he had lived ; and represent him therefore, or 
succeed to his rights, now he is removed. 

And hence, because many children may succeed into one father’s. 
rights, it follows, that the "fus Repraesentationis, which transmits the. 
estate of Sempronius to his immediate descendants, shall: undergo a 
considerable alteration in those descents or generations. that follow af- 
ter. Though Sempronius may be represented by any number of' chil- 
dren indifferently and cut into so many shares accordingly, yct will 
each of those children be represented by their whole families; not by 
so many distinct heads of children, as Sempronius was, but by all their 
children collectively (let their number be what it will) laying, as it 
were, their heads together to form one common sfock. For all those 
grandchildren gregatim, bave that right in common, not separate to 


548 NOTES. 


each, which their father had to himse/f. And thisis called successio £n 
stirpes : the other when all share alike, in Capita. ‘Thus in the scheme, 


A 
(c 
B C 
(MÀ 
D. E. 


The estate of Sempronius A will be divided into two equal parts, and B 
and C will each be heirs ex semisse. But supposing that C is gone be- 
fore his father, then shall B still be heres ex semisse, and D and E ex 
quadrante, each. Or put the case 


p —À 
D. E. 


ee 

F. G. H 
that C and D should both be gone, and D be represented by F G and 
H then will B as before be heres ex semisse, E, ex quadrante, and F 
O and H will succeed each of them ex vneta. Or put the case, that 
E is dead, without issuc also, then will F, G, and H, be each of them 
heres ex sextante 

But, taking leave of descendants, supposing that Sempronius dies in- 
testate, without heirs of his body, w we ure then directed to the conside- 
ration of 

Ascendants, Though this may be against natural order, it is not a- 
grainst natural affection. And I think therefore that doctrine is not to 
be admitted, which maintains, that parents had no right to the goods 
of their children, dying childless and intestate, unless they had been 
relieved by the civil law. We have seen what title the indigent fa- 
ther has to a maintenance, and the same way of reasoning will serve in 
the one case as well as the other. See Gothofred. ad Nov. 1 Praef. $ 2. 

And when St. Paul said, 2 Cor. XII. 14. The children ought not to 
lay up for the parents, but the parents for the children, it is spoken with 
a view io the ordinary course of providence. It is the rule, without 
regard to the exception. 

But I observed, that this is up the stream, and against the commoti 
order of succession. And the ancients always gave it that melancholy 
consideration. We find it a constant matter of complaint in their fue 
neral sorrows, when such calamities befell them. Turbate ordine more 


NOTES. 549 


talitatis—parentes filio contra ordinem—et quod miserrimum. est mater 
fecit filiae—ordine retrogado defuncto—parentes male ivdican tibus fatis 
supertites—memoriam posuerunt contra votum—quod filius patri facere 
debuerat ipse fecit—aequivs enim fuerat vos hoc mihi fectsse——quae 
prior debui mori DCLXXXVI. 9—Aare the common expressions upon 
this occasion. 

To give these considerations some little attention: 

This is the language of the Poet Ovid. 1. Heroid. 101. 

Di precor hoc jubeant, ut, euntibus ordine fatis, 
Ile meos oculos comprimat, ille tuas. 
- And of the lawyeralso: D. 5 2. 15. pr. . 

Nam etsi parentibus non debetur filiorum hereditas, propter vo- 
tum parentium, et naturalem. erga filios caritatem, turbato ta- 
men ordine mortalitatis, non minus parentibus, quam liberis pie 
relinqui debet. 

Thus the inscriptions : 
ANTONIUS SEVERUS AQUILA HIC TACET 
SINE ANIMA MISERABILI FATO QUI VIXIT 
ANNOS BISSENOS ET SEX MENSES CUI VOTA 
ERANT UT PARENTIBUS ISTA PARARET 
SET MORS IMMATURA FECIT UT FACERENT 
PARENTES FILIO CONTRA ORDINEM. 

' Gruter. DCLXIX. 4. 

Another remarkable expression is contra votum, as we have just 
seen from Papinian D. 5. 2. 15. pr. Add. 29. 4. 26. 1 738. 6. 7. 1.— 
38. 2. 50. 2. And so the inscriptions run, 

MOTARIAE P. F. PIISS. 

MASCELLIO F. FELIX ET 

TUTATIA CRISPINA 

FILIO DULCISSIMO 

MEMORIAM POSUERUNT 

CONTRA VOTUM. Gruter. DCXCVI. 10. 

Thus we read in Plutarch in Vita Catonis Maj. 

H sere usrsp KATAPAN, xx EZ XHN swyseras 6, SUTOy urep Ans aworiwtiy 

Hujus Mater, exsecrationem, non votum, duxit, ipsum superstitem 
relinquere. 

And it is not to be doubted, but that, from this strain of affection, 
and this parental suPERsTITION,that very word has gained its signifi- 
cation : 

Qui totos dies precabantur, et immolabant, ut sui sibi liberi enpersti- 
fes essent, superstitiosi sunt appellati, quod nomen postea latius pa- 

tuit Cic. II. de N. D. 28. 


569: NOTES. 


L. SPIERATI DESIDERATI ADULESCEN 
TIS SPEI ET PIETATIS INCOMPARABI 
LIS SPERATI HERMODORUS ET IVLIA 
NA PATRES MALE INDICANTIBUS 
FATIS SUPERSTITES POSUERUNT. Gruter. DCCVII. 5. 
Jon evt ignotum, qualem te in personam patris tui gesseris - quem 
non minus quam liberos dilexisti: excepto eo, quod non optabas 
sup?rstitem Senec. de Consolat. ad Marciam. init. 
Plautus hegins his Asinaria with a memorable passage : 
Sicut tuum vis unicum gnatum tuae 
Superessc vitae, sospitem et superstitem ! 
Jta te obtestor, ber senectutem tuam. 
Perque illam, quam tu metuis, uxorem tuam. 
Siquid med erga tu hodie falsum dixeris, 
Ut tibi superstes uxor aetatem sict, 
Atque illa viva vivus ut pestem oppetas. 
The Superstition | in this passage, between the case of the son, and df 
the wife, is considerably different. 
And lastly, this leads me to recommend a new word to the Lek 
cons, (I donot recommend the age of it) : | 
M. L. FLORUS M. FL. F. M. L. FL. PRONEPOS INFELI 
CISS. PARENS AFFLIGTUS PRAEPOSTERITAE 
NAT. HV. FILIUM VN. H. COND. QUEM IMPORTUNA 
MORS ADEMIT PRAEREPSITQUE SENII BACULUM 
CUI JAM DEFESSA AETAS ADNITENS PERBREVES 
ANNOS 8S. ALLEVABAT. HUNC. ANTE MORS ADSE- 
QUITUR 
QUAM TRISTES LACHRIMAE DESERVERINT 
NOTA POST. | Gruter DCLXXXIV. ¢ 
Praeposteritas is a very uncommon expression, and I believe a he 
barous one. But the idca it represents, is very suitable to our subjects . 
It is upon all these accounts, that the succession of the parent iate 
the estate of the child is always attended with these unfavorable-ex 
pressions, Luctuosa Hereditas, C. 6. 25. 9. Luctuosa Portio, C. 3. 9% 
98. Triste Lucrum, C. 6. 59. 14. Durae Fortunae solatium, C. 6 $8. 
4. Tristis Successio, Inst. 3.3. 9. And it was imagined by lawyers 120 
pass in Orbéatis solatium. There is a law often quoted upon this occasion: 
Non sic Parentibus Liberorum, ut Liberis Parentium debetur. Heredi- - 
tas: Parentes ad bona liberorum Ratio miserationis admittit, liberos 
naturae simul et parentium commune votum. D. 38. 6. 7. 1. . 
To settle therefore thc rule of successions in Linca Ascendente, these 
are two cases to be supposed possible, d 


NOTES. 651 


K Either there are no collaterals besides, II. or there are. 

1. If there are no collaterals, then the succession of the intestate’s 
estate, dying, as we suppose, childless, reverts in that melancholy or- 
der, we have been justobserving, and falls to his father and mother, or 
to either of them surviving, to thc exclusion of every body above. 

For it must be observed, that here is no "fus Repraesentationis ; 
which I observed followed the order of nature and of blood, and is 
eonstantly imagined downwards. Therefore, contrary to what was 
found to be the rule in descendants, here every nearer degree excludes 
the remoter, and even the mother shall exclude the grandfather. 

II. But if we suppose collaterals to be left along with ascendants, the 
succession shall be divided. And put the case, that there is left a 
father and mother, a brother and sister, all the four shall succeed in 
equal portions. However, some caution is necessary to bc observed, 
and these rules are not to be forgotten : 

(1). Collaterals never can exclude ascendants, even in the remotest 
degree. For the preference is with the ascendants; and collaterals 
can only share, not exclude. 

(2). The' collaterals that share with ascendants must he. brothers, or 
brothers children at farthest. No one can be admitted to a dividend 
beyond that degree. For, asbefore, the preference is properly with 
the ascendants ; brothers were not called in till late in. law, viz. by the 
CXVIIIth Novel, and brothers children still later, v;z. by the 
CXXVIIth. | 

(3) The succession of ascendants alone, of ascendants joined with 
brothers and sisters of the whole blood (for the haifblood is excluded) 
is, as was obsurved, in Capita: but the succcssion of brothers and sis- 
ters chiilrcn, in concurrence, is in Stirpes, because they represent their 
parent, and many may represent one. 

The last considcration regards 
Collaterals. Ait here we suppose, that no one 1s left either in the as- 
cending or desc:nding line whatever. I can imagine 

1. Brothers and sisters alone. 

2. Brothers and sisters together with brothers and sisters children. 

$. Brothers and sisters children alone. 

1. Brothers and sistcrs alone of, the whole blood, succeed in Capita, 
t9 the exclusion of the haif blood. 

2. Brothers and sisters children, concurring with brothcrs and sis- 
ters, succeed in Stirpes. 

3. Nephews alone succeed in Capita, nou in Stirpes: for they suc- 
aged (now) in their own right, and not by represchtativn. 


552 NOTES. 


The half-blood succeeds for want of the whole blood, regularly and 
uniformly, in the manner of the whole blood. And because the half 
blood is called into the succession in failure of the whole, it will fol 
low, that a riephew of the half-hlood shall exclude an uncle of the 
whole. Because the uncle’s right only commences, when represente 
tion ceases. 

In a concurrence of half-blood, viz. when brothers, etc. by the fs 
ther’s side succeed along with brothers by the mother’s side, the 
rule of law is, that they succeed separately into the goods of the sepr 
rate sides: :and into the common goods in common. 

If none of these are given, then the next relation indifferently, sw- 
ceeds in ord er of proximity. For the fus Ref.raesentationis is specific, 
fot general: it is extended to brothcr’s children, but goes no farther. 
Thus the uncle of the intestate would be excluded by the nephew, be 
cause the nej »hew by this right of representation is, as it were, in the 
entail: Butt he uncle of the intestate would not be excluded by a sm 
of that nephe w. For the right of representation being now stopt, the 
uncle is neai*er in degree, than the brother’s grandson. 

If there bc: two next kindred of equal degree, they are equally ex 
titled to the succession, whether on the father's side, or on the mo 
ther's and sv iccced zn capita. 

These are the general principles of Jfustinian's last regulation upoa 
this head. Butin many of these distributions which stand so far. re 
moved from natural right: where the stream of blood must run but 
cool, and lar iguid : where it is impossible to balance the affection to- 
wards one r :lation, with the affection towards another, by principles of 
nature ; ther 'e, human invention has insinuated its assistance, and thet 
is one great reason of what I observed above, viz. that no two nations 
can ever be found that agree in these delicate circumstances, 

In the En glish law again, a great deal depends upon the distinction 
into real an | personal estates, which the Roman law knew nothing of 
This was a; rreeable to the genius of our ancestors, who distributed 
their lands i n fee, and expected some emolument in return, As the 
Saxons ther efore were perpetually loading descents with services, and 
of conseque) ace were led to direct those descents where those sertices 
were likely tobe maintained with the greatest vigor and advantage; 
This, I say, is the fairest reason, and looks likely to be the true one, 
why the fatl i;r cannot succecd (in this kiizdom) into the landed es- 
tate of his s on. Because he cannot be supposcd in a condition to per- 
form the sc rvicethat is expected from it. It was one reason given in 
thc fcudal "iw, for the exclusion of daughters, Sc ilice servika 

Praestare n qn possunt. 


NOTES. bli 


Ihave here exhibited what I professed, viz. an account how this 
distribution stood by civil law: I am sensible it deserves a fuller con- 
sideration, and it might be useful,to bring it into comparison with the 
distribution of other states, who have laid themselves out upon thé 
equity of assigning the order of successions: In which some have 
been pretty successful. But of this hereafter ; if that hereafter should 
ever come, when I shall be called upon to improve these element 
into a system, and these énetitutes into a digest. Taylor. 

NOVEL 118th. 

Prevacz: Declaring the provisions of former laws on this subject 
consolidated and re-enacted in the present Novel, under the heads of 
the succession of relations in the descending line ; the succession of rela- 
tions in the ascending line ; and the succession of collateral relations. 

Cn &». 1. Of the succession of descendants. 

Every relation of a deceased person in the (right) line descending, 
of whatever sex or degree, whether related by the father's or by 
the mother’s side, whether under powet or free, is preferred te 
every relation in the ascending line, or collateral. Although the 
deceased were himself under power, yet his children, of whatevef 
sex or degree, shall be preferred to the parent under whose -powe¥ 
the deceased was, in respect of that property which, by our laws, 
was not acquired for the parent. for the usufruct of such pro- 
perty we reserve to the parent; but with this proviso, that if any 
such descendant should die leaving children, such children or other 
descendant shall succeed in place of their pfopet parent, whether they 
be under power of the deceased at the time of his death, or not; 
taking in such case, that portion of the property of the decedsed intes- 
tate, which their own parent would have been entitled to, had he been 
living; which succession our predecessors have denominated per 
etirpes, or by stock. (6 6. Inst. de heredit. ab initestato. 2 Gaius 8. § 7. 
€od. de suis.1. 2.) Inthis order of succession we make no enquiry as 
to the degree, but call up grand-children generally to the succession 
ooncurrently with the sons and daughters of a son or a daughter pre- 
viously deceased ; and this without consideration of sex, or whether 
they sprang from the paternal or maternal side, whether they be free 
(sui juris ) or still under power. Thus we have enacted as to descend- 
ants, and we now proceed to ascendants. (N.B. By throwing aside 
all considerations whether the claimants in succession sprang from the 
male or female side, the old law was changed. Nov. 18. 4. ult —Cod. 
de suis. 9. 13. which is thus repealed, Inst. de heredit. ab intest. § 4.— 
CO. Theod. de legit. hered. 


43 


554 NOTES: | 


Cuap. 2. Of the succession of ascendanfs. 

If the deceased hath left no descendants, his father or mother, or any 
other surviving relatives, in the right line ascending, shall succeed ia 
preference to all collaterals, except brothers of the whole blood, as shall 
be noted presently. If there be many ascendants, let the nearest in 
degree be preferred, whether male or female, whether descended from 
the paternal or maternal line. If there be many in the same degree, 
let the inheritance be equally divided between them, so as that the 
heirs on the paternal side, however numerous, shall receive the one 
half, and those on the maternal side the other half. Should-there be 
brothers and sisters of the deceased living, connected with him by de- 
scent from both parents,* as well as ascendant relations, let them be 
concurrently called to the succession. If the ascendants, should be 
father or mother, let the inheritance be divided between them and hro- 
thers (and sisters) that each shall have an equal part. Nor shall the 
parent claim an usufruct of the portion assigned to the brothers aed 
sisters,] for in lieu thereof we have by the present law assigned him his 
own share of che succession in full property. No distinction is tobe 
made between pzrsons thus called to the inheritance, whether they be 
male or femalc, or connected with the deceased by the fatheg's.er 
the mother's side; or whether the deceased were sui juris or under 
power when he died. We proceed therefore to the consideration of 
- collateral succession, which relates either to agnates or cognates. . 

Cuap. 3. On the succession of collaterals If therefore thede 
ceased hath left neither descendant or ascendant rclations, we first. cell 
to the inheritance brothers and sisters born of the samc father and the 
same mother, (i. e. of the whole blood,) whom we before called in ose 
currence with the parent. 7 

If brothers and sisters of the whole blood be wanting, we call in begs 
thers (and sisters) of the half blood, whether on the father’s side, oy 
the mother's side. 

But if the deceased left brothers, and also the children of a decet 
ed brother or sister, these last willbe called to the inheritance concup 
rently with their uncle or aunt of the whole blood, and will be entitled 


£.. 


Mu ES ef 
* cxpepsbarsis adsages brothers of the whole blood: germani. «egsemasgnt 
by the same father; consanguinei (and sometimes improperly. ger 
mani.) euepxsei by the same mother, wterini. 
t This repeals Cod. de legitim. heredit. 1. 13. and Cod. com. nce’. 
l. ult. in fin. em 
188€. 


NOTES. 553 


to the same portion whatever it be, that their parent would have been 
entitled to if alive. - 

Hence, if a brother be dead, leaving children, and he was of the 
whole blood, while the living brothers may be of the half blood only, 
those children are preferred to their uncles, although they are in the 
third degree; and this whether the surviving uncles (or aunts) be con- 
nected in relationship with the deceased, by the father’s side, or the mo- 
ther’s side; in like manner as their parent if living would have been 
preferred. Contrariwise, if the living brother be of the whole blood 
to the deceased, and the dead brother be a half brother only, the chil- 
dren of the latter are excluded, as their parent also would have been 
if alive. For the privilege of representation thus given, is conceded 
only to this class of relations, and extended no farther, than that the 
children of the deceased brothers or siters, may succeed to that which 
their parent if living would have been entitled to. We confer this be- 
nefit on the children of brothers, when brought into consideration with 
their own uncles and aunts, whether of the paternal or maternal side. 

If surviving relations in the ascending line should be called to the 
inheritance conjointly with brothers and sisters of the deceased, in that 
case we do not permit the children of a deceascd brother.or sister to 
be called in, even although their parent was of the whole blood. 

Whenever, therefore this privilege of representation is given to the 
children of a (deceased) brother or sister, that they should succeed in 
the place of their parent, and being in the third degree should be call- 
ed concurrently with those who arein the second degree, it is mani- 
festly for this reason, because they are preferred to uncles or aunts of 
the deceased, whether paternal or maternal, who also count no higher 
than the third degree. 

If the deceased hath left ncither brothers, nor the children of a bro- 
ther, collaterals are calledto the inheritance according to the respec- 
tive degrees they occupy, the nearest in degree being preferred to the 
moreremote. If many persons be found related in the same degree, 
let the inheritance be divided equally between them according to their 
number, which our laws denominate, a division per capita. 

Cuap. 4. Takes away the distinction between agnates and cognates. 

Citar. 5. Relates to the legitimate tutelage of children. 

CHAP. 6. On the authority of this law. 

Alterations made by the 127th Novel. 

We never regret anyalteration in our laws, that may be of benefit 
tooursubjects. We remember to have enacted (by the 118th Novel) 
that if a deceased persenleft brothers alive, and also children of a bro- 


$56 NOTES, 


ther who died before him, those children should. be called to the inh» 

ritance equally with their uncles, filling the place of their father, and 

entitled to his portion. But that if the deceased left any relations ia 

the (right or direct) ascending line, together with brothers of the. 
whole blood, and also children of à brother previously: deceased, we . 
directed the brothers of the deceased to be called to the inheritance atm. 

currently with the surviving relations in the (right) line mocnding, md. 

excluded the dead brother's children. 

Crap. ist, For the purpose of correcting this, we enact, that if ade 
ceased person shall leave a living relation in the (right) aseemding 
line, and brothers also who may be called concurrently with such relaties, » 
and children also of a brother previously deceased, the latter shall be 
called in, concurrently with the rest, and succeed to the portion the 
their own parent, if alive, would have been entitled to. This we de. 
cree in respect of the children of a previously deceased brother.o£ si» 
whole blood: directing that they shall occupy the same rank, wbether.- 
called concurrently with their uncles only, or with their uncles «optem : 
rently with a parent of the deceased in the ascending line. "i 

The rest of the Novel does not relate to this subject. *-wh" 

Lis. INI. itu. J. Definitio intestati, p. 191. Heirship dante: 
guccession to the universal right of the deceased. Dig. 50.63. — demi. 
tamentary heirship takes effect presently on the death of the tests: 
a legitimate or lawful heirship, (cast by operation of law) tales. plage 
30 soon as it is ascertained that the deceased died intestate. . wor: 

An heir under the Roman law, is properly likened to an emagutek 
under our law, but executors separate from heirs were also lafgeniia 
under the later periods of the civil law, and their history is slight 


but well touched by Dr. Brown. 1 Civ. Law. 310. Ei: 
§ 1. Primus ordo succedentium, t9c. p. 191. This law of the. tfe! 
tables 1s not extant. eae 24 tage’ 


§ 2. Qui sunt sul. heredes, p. 91. Naturalis sint. Naturekieblyn 
dren, do not, in the expressions of the Roman law, mean bastardayiuita 
the actual children by procreation of the person spoken of, in eetitsays 
distinction to adopted children. Cod. de natur. lib. l. L 10 12. + Sites 
tural or illegitimate children, in the English sense of the werd, sealife! 
not be proper heirs, guia pater. eorum incertus est, and pater utat 
juste nuptiae demonstrant. cbe pnd 
— lllegitimat^ children, born of a concubine, not of promiseypubsapwt 
pulation, or of auultcrous or incestuous commerce, might, unde: ihe 
twelve tables, be instituted heirs by the will of the father to whaeseet: 
portion he thought fit: this was afterwards restrained to cases wig ve 








. NOTES, £5Y 


no lawful wife orlegitimate children were left, and confined to asixteenth. 
af the whole estate, between the mother and the children. Arcadius and 
Honorius, directed that where a deceased left a wife and legitimate 
ahildren, he could not dispose by will of more than one ounce among 
his illegitimate children, or a twelfth of the As, or whole estate: but 
i£ the lawful wife and children were dead, he might bequeath one 
fourth of the whole among the concubine and her children by him. 
But this also, was altered by Justinian. Ferriere. 

§ 3. Quomedo sui heredes fiunt, p. 193. 

4 morte parentum ) Persons aresaid to be sui heredes, or proper 
heirs, quod non alienarum sed suarum, sive propriarum, quodammodo re- 
yum hayedes esse videantur ; i. e. because they scem to be the heirs of 
their own property, und not the heirs of another's: for a proper heir is, 
jn the life time of his parent, the co-heir or partner with that parent in 
his possessions : so that a son, who is a proper heir, does not acquire a 
sew property at the death of hisfather, but only possesses in a fuller 
yaanner what was before vested mhim. — Vinny, h. f. Harris. 

Hence, sui heredes are scized ipeo jure on the decease of the parent, 
and if they die before they act, their rights are transmitted to their own 
heirs; whereas in other cases the rule is, that hereditas nondum adita 
nton transmittitur. They were also, not only proper heirs sui, but ne- 
ceseary heirs, haredes necessarii ; for they became so of course, with- 
out any previous consent of theirown. See Instit. lib. 2. tit. 19. $ 2. 
together with Dig. 29. 5. and Dig. 29. 2. 

An heir who has once acted in that capacity, becomes always liable 
after that to the creditors of the estate. Dig. 28. 5. 88. 

§ 4. De filio post mortem patris, ab hostibus reverso, p. 193. As te 
the Fus Postliminii, see lib. 1. of the instit. tit. 12. parag. 5. Dig. 49. 
15. De captivis et Postliminio at length. 2 Dall. rep. 4. Miller, li- 
bellant v. Miller. Wade v. Barnewell, 2 Bays S. Car. rep. 229. 1 Brown's 
civil and admiralty law, 127. and 2 Ib. 266. under the title recapture 
and salvage, to which the modern cases of postliminy principally ap- 
ply. See also the head of fus postliminii in Grotius, book 3. ch. 9. 
andin Vattel. But particularly in Mr. Du Ponceau’s valuable trana-- 
lation of Bynkershock's treatise on the law of war, with thc notes 36— 
44. and 113—122. Postliminium fingit eum qui captus. est, in civitate 
semper fuisse Instit. ub. sup. Fus quo perinde omnia restituuntur 
jura, de si captus ab hostibus. non esset. Dig. ub. sup. 

$ 6. De divisione hereditatis inter suos heredes, p. 194. 

dem ex duobus filiis.] By the civil law, representation takes place 
tn infinitum in the right line descending ; and therefore it follows, ac- 


558 NOTES.. 


cording to that law, that, when any person dies, leaving grand-children 
by sons or daughters, who died im his life-time, such grand-childvex, 
though equal in degree and unequal in their number in regard tothe 
respective stocks, will divide the estate of their grand-father per stirpex, 
i. e. according to their stocks : for example, if Adie worth nine hu» 
dred aurei, and intestate, leaving only grand-children by three som, 
already dead, to wit, three grand-children by one son, five by anothes, 
and six by another, then each of these classes of grand-children would 
be intitled toa third; that is, to three hundred aurei, no regard beng 
paid to that class, in which there were most persons. Jn Aoc omm, 
(says Vinnius,) maxime conspicua est vis reprasentationis; licet eum 
omnes hic pari gradu sint, ut proprio singuli jure succedere posse vide 
antur, tamen postquam semel placuit, nepotes in locum potris sui. demer 
tui, aliave ratione exuti jure sui. heredis, succedere, non debuit hoc ja 
ex accidenti aliquo variari, puta ut. soli nepotes ex diversis filiis et. ap. 
mero inequales, ceu pauciores cum pluribus ex hac vel illa stirpe eene. 
rentes, in capita hareditatem dividerent. Cod. 6. t. 55. ]. 2 he 
sic in universum recte definiemus, descendentes ex masculis omnes, quixemi 
diversarum stirpitm, quantumvis ejusdem omnes gradus, in stirpe m. 
£n capita, succedere. But, in England, although representation mayeiié 
be said to extend in infinitum in the right line descending, yet thiadap 
prehend must be understood to be in those cases only, where repris - : 
tation is absolutely necessary to prevent the exclusion of gremdwlib | 
dren, great-grand-children, &c. For example therefore, if oe | 
leaving a son, and D, E, F, his grand-children by another son, whe did | 
before Titius, then the surviving son would take one moiety, apdedg - 
grand-children D, E, F, would take the other, as the representsai»s 
ef their deceased father: for in this case representation would be stili 
sary ; because, if répresentation was not allowed, the grand.ebildgg - 
ef Titius, being in a more remote degree, than his son, would betesily — 
excludgd ; which would be highly unjust.. But, if Titius dies Qed — 
leaves only grand-children by two sons, already dead; eges - 
grand-children by one son, and six by the other, then represented 
would not cn!ly not be necessary, (as all the persons are in ,thenbdini, 
degree, sothat none of them can be excluded ;) but it would occadied 
à very unequal distribution of the cffects ; namely, of only haies | 
tate to six of the grand-children, and of half to the other three,: wh. 
does not seem agreeable either to the sense, or even the 
statute. Sce 22, 23, Car. 2, cap. 10. Harris. “wi mien 
This section in some editions of the institutes is entitled Reds 
eui haredes succedunt. 2005 2 ruined wq 




























ant 


NOTES. 559 


. '$ 8. Dé nato post mortem avi, t?c. p. 195. 

"Plane si et conceptus et natus.) . * Sunt, qui velint hunc nepotem, et« 
“i ad hzreditatem avi jure suo non veniat, posse nihilominus jure 
* paterno eam adipisci: ctenim certum est, liberos parentum - h:redi- 
* tatem, quantumvis non acquisitam, ad liberos suos transmittere." 
Cod. 6. t. 51. Ll 1. sect. 5. Cod. 6. t. 52. |. 1. . * Filjus porro in proposi- 
“ta facti specie, si.adhuc viveret, posset patris hereditatem acqui- 
“rere; sifagitur ad flium suum posthumum, etsi post avi mortem 
** conceptum, haereditatem ejus transmittere posse putant. ileus ne- 
* poti huic, per Novellam 118, succursum esse censet, ut suo jure avo 
* succedere possit; et hoc quidem suadet equitas ; sed non favent sg- 
* tis. perspicue verba legum." — Doujacius. Harris. | 

Dig. 1. 5. 7. and 26. Dig. 38. 16. 7 and 8. 

§ 9. De liberis emancipatis, p.196. It may be remarked that the 
pratorian bonorum-possessio, is not synonimoüs with possessio bono- 
rum. The latter consists of two wórds, and means the actual possession 
of goods, the former is one word, and means an order of court con- 
veying the right of possession of the goods to the person in whose 
favour itis issued. Dig. 37. 1. 3. 1. 

6 10. Si emancipatus se dederit in adoptionem, p. 196. Dig. 38. 8. 4 

Ad liberos, an ad agnatos.] ‘For the arrogator, by retaining under 
his power the emancipated son of the deceased, might make room for 
the agnati of the deceased; or, by emancipating his arregated son, 
who was the natural son of the deceased, the arrogator might. exclude 
the aznati; so that thus the right of inheritance would depend upon 
the will and pleasure. of a stranger, which the law hw woullypot permit. 
Harris. 

The pretorian fiction cannot extend to one person belonging at the 
“game time to two families, Cod. de adopt 1. penult. 

$ 11. Collatio filiorum naturalium et adoptivorum, p. 197. In somc 
editions this section is entitled Differentia filiorum naturalium et adep- 
tivorum, post quam fuerint emanctpati. Sce Dig. 38. 6. 4. 

§ 12. De bonorum possessione contra tabulas, p. 198. Sce Dig. 37.4. 

$ 14. De Emendatio juris antiqui. De adoptivis, p. 199. 

Constitutionem scripsimus, Cod. 8. 48. 10. De adoptionibus. ' 

Ex Sabiniano, senatus consulto. By this law,a man who adopted one 
of the threc sons of another person, was compelled to leave him a fourth 
part of his property. As by the constitution of Antoninus Pius, a 
fourth part also was to be left to a boy ugder puberty, taken imto a 
family by arrogation. Vinn. 


560 NOTES. 


§ 15. De descendentibus ex faminis, p.200. Neither the law of che 
twelve tables nor the prxtorian law, admitted descendants by the fe- 
male line to the succession of a natural grand-father, or other matermaf 
ascendant: for never having been under power of such ascendant they 
gould never have been proper heirs. Nor could the pretor assist 
them as he did emancipated children bonorum possessione unde 
beri, which proceeded on the fiction that emancipated children re- 
mained under power of their natural father: this fiction odald not be 
extended to females}for the rule was, that children quoad nomen et fa- 
miliam, followed the condition of the father. Hence natural grand- 
children were only called to the succession of their grand-father as cog- 
nates, and after the agnates were exhausted; this was the case, even 
after the Orphitian senatus-consult, had called sons and daughters to 
the legitimate succession of their mother. 

The emperors mentioned in the text, admitted grand-children of 
either sex to the succession, whether descended ex filio or ex filia. 
Cod. Theod. de legit. heredit. 1 4. copied nearly by Justinian. Cod. 
de suis et legit. hered. 1.9. These emperors, however, so far leaned 
Toward ancient usage, that they defalked the portion of natural grand- 
whildren, by making that portion one third less than their parent would 
Rave had, when they were called conjointly with sons and daughters. 
And as persons frequently died, without leaving either proper heirs 
by the law of the twelve tables, orby the prextorian fiction, or legiti- 
‘mate heirs under the Orphitian law, if the question was as to a suc- 
-gession to adeceased person of the maternal side, the agnates with 
whem the cognates concurred, were entitled to a fourth part of the 
property ofdine succession. This was corrected by Justinian. Cod. de 
suis et legit. hered. who put agnates and cognates on the same foot- 
ing. 

As to the defalcation of a third from the portion of cognates, when 
the grand-children descended from a daughter, succeeded concurrent; 
ly with sons and daughters to a deceased in the maternal line, that was 
nct corrected till the 118th Novel, ch. 1. by which children were called 
without distinction to the succession of their relations in the ascending 
lirie, and to the exclusion of all others. 

Sed ut amplius aliquid. Suppose a man deceased had left a son, 
and a grand-child by a daughter, who died before the deceased, that 
grand-child would have only four ounces, and the son eight; lese 
a tthird than the daughter, if living, would have been entitled to» supt: 
pose a woman deceased, left a son or a daughter, and a grand-som et 
grand-daughter by a deceased son or daughter; the som or daughtet 


NOTES. 561 


would be entitled to eight ounces, the grand-son or grand- daughter to 
four ounces. 

Portionem nepotum vel neptum. Descendants by a female, were after- 
wards exempted by Nov. 18, from defalcation, when they concurred 
with descendants from a male. Nov. 18, ch. 4. and Nov. 118. 

Ex cujusdam constitutionis auctoritate. Cod. Theod. de legit. hzred. 
l. 4. compared with Cod. 6. 55. 12. de suis et legit. hercd. 

Nostra autem constitutione. Cod. 6. 45. 12. which forbids agnates to 
claim the fourth, granted to them by Cod. Thcod. 1. 4. de legit. 
hered. 

Sine ulla diminutione. | Suarte silicet agnatorum; tertie. enim de- 
ductionem tributam tis, qui etiam juris veteris suffragatione nituntur, 
intactam reliquit :. sed jure novissimo par est omnium liberorum condi- 
tio. Vinn. Nov. 118, ch. 1. 

Sed nos cum adhuc dubitatio maneret, p. 201. In some editions a 
sixteenth section conimences at these words, entitled, Altera emendatio 
Juris antiqui circa nepotes aut pronepotes ex filia. 

Titul. II. De legitima agnatorum successione, p. 203. 

The law of the twelve tables says, Ast si quis moritur intestatus, 
cui suis heres non est, proximus agnatus familiam. habeto. Hence, if 
a suus heres renounced, the agnati could not succeed, but the estate 
eschcated ; for the suus heres remained, and the agnates were exclud- 
ed. This gave rise to the pretorian law, which let in agnates and 
cognates by the bonorum possessio unde legit. and unde cognoti. Cujas 
in paratit. Cod. de usucap pro herede. This was extended by thé 
senatus consultum Tertyllianum. Dig. 38. 17. 2. 8 and 10. and by the 
emperors Dioclesian and Maximinian, Cod. de leg. hered. 1. 3, and 
lastly, Justinian admitted the agnates fully iu default of sui Acredes, or 
their not acting in the succession. 

61 De agnatis naturalibus, p. 203. Agnates are relations of the 
same family on the male side, and who have suffered no diminution 
of state (rank). Cognates are relations on the female side, or who 
have lost the right of agnates by diminution. Vinn. h. t. 

Illegitimate children can have no agnates.. Quia neque gentem ne- 
que familiam habent. 

Consobrini, Strictlv speaking, conscbrini, ( consororini ) are sisters 
children. 

Qui post mortem patris nanziscuntur. Dig. 38. 7. ult. and 38. 16. 1. 
penult. 

§ 2. De adoptivis, or, as it is sometimes entitled, De agnatis per . 
adoptionem, p.204. Adcpticu joins the adopted son to all the agnates 


4C 


668 NOTES. 


of the father: adopted children, like proper heirs, are technical de 
scriptions, and the crzatures of the civil law. Dig. 38. 10. ult. 4 
Dig. 38.16. 2,3. They are improperly called consanguine, inasmuck 
as this is strictly applicd to natural relationship. Dig. 38. 16. penult 

$ 3. De masculis et feminis, p. 204. This is otherwise entitled 
Agnati, ad legitimam successionem ab intestato admittuntur absque whe 
sexus discrimine. | 

By the old law of the twelve tables, the female line was excluded. 
cognates yielded to agnates 

Ijv the middle law, sisters of the same father were admitted ; coe 
sapguine sisters : and the pretor ‘called women to the succession whe 
they were related by the male linc, but only in virtue of the right of 
proximity ; ex tertio nimirum ordine, per bonorum possessione unde cog: 
nati. Hence they succeeded after agnates. 

Justinian called all agnates, male and female, indiscriminately to the 
succession. 

Germane: of the whole blood ; consanguinee: by the same father; 
uterine: of the same mother. Consanguinei, and consangruinea, mt 
expressions relating to brothers and sisters only ; not beyond. 

Nostra constitutione sancimus : Cod. 6. 58. penult. ' 

§ 4. De fillis sororum, p. 207. By the old law (i. e. the law of te 
twelve tables) if there were no agnates, the estate escheated. Te 
avoid this, the prztor called in cegnates. per bonórum posscssiongm wir 
de cognati : afterwards the emperor Anastasius, directed that emas- 
cipation per rescriptum principis, should not take away the right of 
agnation between brothers and sisters, if inserted in the resoript 
Cod. de legit. hered. 1. 11. Then maternal brothers and sisters, aad 
their children, were ranked among the agnates, if the deceased left so 
brothers and sisters, or if they rejected the succession: and nephéws, 
‘of different branches, were ordered to succeed per capita, and not ger 
stirpes. hic, et Cod. de legit. hered.1. 14. §1. Finally, all theee dif- 
ferences were abolished by the 118th and 127th Novels. The Jeet 
direction of ihe present section of the Institutes is not altered by the 
Novels. 

Non in stirpes sed in capita.) It appears from this section, that as 
ye: jrxXthers chillren were not allowed to represent their parents: for 
instance; if Sempronius had died intestate, leaving a brother, and 
children by two other brothers deceased ; then, if the surviving bro- 
ther had accepted the succession, the children of the deceased brothers, 
(i. e. the nephews of Sempronius ) would have been entirely. ousted ; 
but, i£ the surviving brother ef Sempronius had declined the inheri- 


— oe 


ao 


NOTES. 563 


tance, the children of the two deceased brothers would have been en- 
titled to a distributive share of their uncle's estate fer capita, that is, 
by poll; because they would then take suo quisque jure each in his 
own right and not by representation. But by Nov. 118. cap. 3. and 
Noy. 127. cap. 1. brothers and sisters children are allowed to repre- 
sent their parents ; and yet this representation is only permitted by 
the civil law to prevent exclusion, when the party deceased leaves a 
brother, and nephews by another brother; and then the uncle and 
nephews take per stirpes ; for, when there are only nephews, there 
is no representation ; and the distribution of the estate is consequent- 
ly made per capita, each person taking in his own right. ‘This is also 
the certain rule of distribution in England in the case of collaterals. 
vid. 22. 23. Car. 2 Bacon’s abr. verb. executors and administrators. 
Abridgment of cas. in eq. pag. 249. Walch v Walch. Harris. 

Sec the case of Carter v. Crawley, in prohibition. B. R. 1681. Sir 
Thomas Raym. 496. in which the question was this: A man died, 
leaving no relations alive, save an aunt, and the children of another 
aunt deceased in his life time— shall the children succeed jure repra- 
sentationis ?. This was a case on the construction of the Stat. of Dis- 
tributions, 22 and 23. Ch. 3. ch. 20. and appears to have been decided 
in favour of the right of representation in the children. The opmion 
of civilians given atthe end of this case is as follows: “ In making 
** distributions of intestate estates amongst collatcrals, our civil law 
** and the practice of the ecclesiastical courts have constantly observed 
* these two rules : 

^ The first is, Representatio in filtus fratrum et sororum tantum Ios. 
* cum habet, ad ulteriores vero collaterales non extenditur. 

* The second is, that in case there be no brothers nor brother's 
** children, vocantur ad successionem. reliqui. collaterales quicumque in 
€ gradu sint proximiores, remotioribus exclusis Ita quod infallibiter 
* semper prior in gradu sit potior in successione, whereby representa- 
** tion must needs be out of doors; the next of kin, whether one or 
* more being only admitted to tlie distribution." 

ROBERT WISEMAN, 

THOMAS EXTON, 

RICHARD LLOYD, 

EDWARD MASTER, 

WILLIAM TRUMBAL, 
10 May, 1681. 

6 5. De proximis vel remotis, p. 207, Otherwise entitled de agnatis 
diversi eradufe 


364 NOTES. 


As the law of the 12 tables called in the ncarest agnate only, it lef 
no room for representation. Ulp. in frag. tit. 26. $ 3. The 1188 
Novel, admits nephews to the succession of their uncles, or aunt's ese 
tate, conjointly with the brothers and sisters of the deceased. 

$ 6. uo tempore proximitas spectatur, p. 208. Sce Dig. 38. 16.8. 
4. 5, and 6. 

§ 7. De successcrio edicto, p. 308. Otherwise entitled successio i8 
agnatorum hereditatibus, a Fustiniano introducta. 

Successionem non csse.] — Veluti; decessit aliquis. intestatus, extents 
fratre, extante et patruo: frater. vocabatur, nimirum ut proximus ; t 
igitur contingat, ut. frater, aut, antequam adeat, decedat, aut heredite- 
tem repudiet, patruus aut agiatus venire non poterit, propterca quod lex 
duodecim tabularum successionem nesciat ; hereditas igitur ad fiscum de 
ferebatur. "Theoph. A. 7. 

Nostra constitutione.] This constitution is not to be found; mot 
would it be of use, if it was still extant, since the 118th Novel. hath 
destroycd all distinction between agnates and cognates, and put them 
upon an equality. Harris. 

The law of the 12 tables (proximus agnatus familiam habeto ) called 
only the nearest agnatc. If he died or renounced, the other agneses 
were excluded, and the estate escheated. Ulp. in frag. Tit. 26. §@ 
Dig. 38. 16. 2. Paulus Lib. 4. sentent. Tit. 8: The pretor correeteá 
this in some degree by calling in the second agnate, when the firgt died 
without accepting, or renounced ; but he cailed them in the ordes-ef 
cognates. Dig. 38. 9. 1. 6. The constitution mentioned in the egg 
as well as the law of the text, was rendered null by the provisions of 
the 118th Novel. 

§ 8. De legitima parentum successicne, p.209. Formerly a fate 
emancipating a child pacto contracte fiduciw, became legitimate heir to 
the child, under a supposed analogy of à master and an emancipatel - 
slave. Sce Inst. Lib. 1. Tit. de legitima parentum tutela. But Jest” 
nian by his constitution, Cod. 8. 49 6. de emancipationibus liberare. 
reduced all emancipations to that of contracte fiducie ; and the father. 
succecded to an cmancipated son, as a patron did to his freed más, - 
But all this was again altered by the 115th Novcl. But the parents 
of a child &yiag without descendants, succeed per sizrpes. " 

Tit Hil. De scnatus consulto. Tertulliano, p. 210. Justinian says, . 
this law was made by Adrian, but Zonaras, Lib. 2. says it was made: 
in the time Gi Antoninus Pius, called also Adrian, as being the adopts - 
cd son of Adrian. Tibcrius Claudius Casar, began to reigg 6e 
16, and Adrianbegan A. C. 120. tuat 


= 
= 


NOTES. 565 


$ 1. De constitutione Divi Claudi, p. 210. It is probable accord- 
ing to Vinnius and Heineccius, that this indulgence extended only to 
the mothers of children who fell in battle. Sueton. in Vita, ch. 19. 
Claudius jus quatuor liberorum feminis dedit. | 

$ 2nd. Senatus consultum Tertullianum, p. 211. This privilege 
granted to the mother to succeed to her children, was not conceded by 
positive law to uncles ; but they were called in. by Pretorian law per 
bonorum possessionem unde cognati, so that a consanguine sister being 
regarded as an agnate was preferred to them. 

§ 3. Sui preferuntur matri vel cum ea admittuntur. p. 211. Mater 
liberis onerata, Cujas in ulp. frag. Tit. ult. for onerata read honerata. 
The Claudian law gave them as we have just seen the jus quatwuos li- 
berorum ; hence children were an honour and a credit, not a burthen. 

By this section, the mother was postponed to a suus heres, (a proper 
or domestic heir) to the father, and to the consanguine brother. 

As to the suus heres. Domestic heirs in powcr, or emancipated, 
or persons considered as sui eredes, excluded the mother; but chil- 
dren given in adoption, and in power of their adoptive father, at. the 
decease of their natural father, did not. But by a constitution of An- 
toninus, they were adinitted concurrently with the mother, per bona 
poss. unde cognati, which inthis case excluded the bancrum posessio- 
nem unde legitimi. Dig. 38. 7. and Dig. 38. 8. 

Further by the Tertyllian senatus consulti, children were not ud- 
mitted to the succession of their moth:r, in preference to their grond- 
mother : the senatus consultum Orphitianum, made about 20 years aftcr- 
ward, called them in. Hence a conflict arose between claimants un- 
der these decrees, the mother of the deceased, claiming under the Ter- 
tyllian, and the children of the deceased under the Orphitian decrees. 
This was at length decided in favour of the children Dig. 28 16. 11. 

Secondly, the father was preferred to the mother, in military pro- 
perty, in adventitious property, and in respect of emancipated chil- 
dren however emancipated. 

Thirdly, the consanguine brother was preferred to the mother. Cod. 
Theod. de inofficioso, testamento,1. 2. Th: consanguine sister was call- 
edin concurrently with the mother. But Justinian introduccd many 
alterations. At first, when the deceased left a mother, with consan- 
guine or uterine brothers, or with sisters, the mother was admitted in 
equal proportion. Cod. h. Tit. l. ult. when the mother was found 
with sisters only, she succeeded to half the property. Ib Afterward 
by Nov. 22. 47. 2. when the mother was left with sisters of the deceas- 
ed, they inherited in equal portions: finally by Novel, 118. ch. 2 fa- 


566 NOTES. 


thers and mothers, were preferred to all collaterals, save brothers and 
sisters of the whole blood. 

Suorum loco sunt.] Emancipated children by the pretorian law, and 
by the constitutions grand-children and great-grand-children by a 
daughter, arc numbered in loco suorum, i. e, in the place of proper 
heirs. vide t. 1. sect. 15. of this book. Harris. 

Ex constituticnibus.] | Si, matre superstite, filius vel filia, qui quave 
moritur, filios dereliquerit, omnimodo patri suo, matrive sua, ipso jure 
euccedant ; quod sine dubio et de pronepotibus observandum. esse cense- 
mus. Cod. 6. t. 54. |. 14. Cod. 6. t. 57. 1. 4. ad senatus-consultum Or- 
ficianum. Harris. 

Frater autem consanguineus.| “ Porro, cum fratres duntaxat et so- 
* rores hoc loco matri objiciantur, existimandum est, ceteris a latere 
* venientibus, sive agnatis sive cognatis, matrem preferri. Sed et, 
“ quia consanguineorum tantum mentio fit, credibile est, fratres et so- 
** rores uterinos senatus-consulto fuisse exclusos: ceterum Fustinia- 
* anus hos etiam cum matre admisit, vid. sect. 5. Novella autem, 
** 118 totum hoc jus mutatum est." Vinn. Harris. 

$ 4. Sus novum de jure liberorum sublato. p. 212. Constitutions. 
Cod. 8. 59. l. 1. and]. 2. and Cod. de infirm. pen. celib. et orbit. 1. 1. by 
which it will appear, that Censtantine first abrogated the law inflicting 
penalty on celibacy: Honorius extended to every one, the privileges 
of those who had children; and Justinian accorded to all mothers, 
the jure trium aut quatuor liberorum. 

§ 5. Quibus mater proponitur et guibus admittitur, p. 212. 

This section is also entitled, Abrogatio eorum in quibus constitutio. 
nes partim matrem adjuvebant, partim pragravebant. 

Cum antea constitutionce.] vid. U, 1, 2, et penult. Cod. Fheod. de lea 
git. hered. 

Partim matrem.] Exempli gratia ; “sicontigisset, ut quis decede- 
* ret relinquens matrem, jure liberorum cohonestatam, superesset au- 
“tem et patruus, qui est legitimus, aut patrui filius, mater octo capi- 
* ebat uncias, sive bessem hzereditatis; patruus autem aut ejus filius 
* trientem ; hoc est, quatuor uncias Quod si ex contrario jus libe- 
* rorum mater non habuisset, tunc patruus aut fibus ejus bessem here- 
* ditatis capiebat, at mater trientem solum." Theoph. h. t. 

Ka tamen, &c.] “ Que sequuntur pertinent ad modum succedendi, 
* give rationem distribuends hzreditatatis inter matrem defuncti, ejus- 
*' que fratres et sorores. Constituit autem imperator, ut, si cum 36» 
* tre concurrant sorores sole, sive consanguine® sive uterine, duo se 
** misses fant, quorum unum mater, alterum sorores capiant; sin fyge 


NOTES. 597 


st tres, sive soli, sive etiam cum sororibus, in capita hereditas divida- 
“tur, totque partes fiant, quot sunt persone succedentium. Cad. 6. 
€ t. 56.1. 7. Haciterum mutata sunt Novel. 118. qua fratres et soro- 
* res omnes, ex uno tantum latere defuncto conjuncti, tam a matre, 
** quam a fratribus utrinque conjunctis, excluduntur ; mater cum his ex 
* sequis partibus succedit. Vinn.h. i. But in England the civillaw 
takes place almost in the same manner, as it prevailed before the Novel 
constitution: for brothers and sisters by the half blood take equally 
with brothers and sisters by the whole blood : so that, if a man, whose 
father is dead, dies intestate, and is survived by a mother and by bro- 
thers and sisters, or by brothers only, or sisters only, then the mother, 
and the brothers and sisters, will all be intitled to take an equal share 
per capita, whether such brothers and sisters were related to the de- 
ceased by the whole blood, or by the half blood only. Smith's case 
1 Mod. 209. 1 Sac.23. cap. 17. Harris. 

Tit. IV. De senatus consulto Orphitiano, page 214. This was en- 
acted in 930 ab urb. cond. in the time of the emperor Aurelius; 20 
years after the Tertyllian senatus consult. 

§ 1. De nepote et nepto. p. 214. 

Constitutionibus principalibus.] The Tertyllian decree conferred 
upon tothers the right of legitimate succession to thcir children; and 
the Orfician decree gave children the same right in regard to their 
mothers: but neither of these decrees went farther out of reverence 
to the old law; so that hitherto grand-mothers were called to the 
succession of their grand-children; and grand-children to the suc- 
cession-of their grand-mothers, by the indulgence of the pretor only ; 
1. €. per bonorum possessionem unde cognati, and in default of aznates. 
$. 38. t. 8. Butthe emperors, Valentinian, Theodosius, and Arcadius, 
called grand-sons and grand-daughters to the succession of their 
grand-mothers; prohibiting them nevertheless to take more than two 
thirds of that sum, to which their father or mother would have been 
entitled. l. 4. Cod. Theod. de legit. hered. But the emperor 7 usti- 
nian, by his 118th Novel, cap. 1. makes the condition of all children 
equal, when they succeed their parents upon au intestacy. And, by 
the 2d chapter of the same Novel, the emperor calls also the grand- 
mother to the succ.ssion of her grand-children. Harris. 

§ 2. De capitis diminutione. page 215. Otherwise entitled, suecesst- 
ones que ex illis senatus consultis deferuntur, non perimuntur, minima 
napitis diminutione. 

See Dig. 38. 16. 11 and 38. 17. 1. 8. 


568 NOTES. 


$3. Devulgo quesitis, page 215. Otherwise naturales liberi matef 
succedunt. 

Qui vulgo quesiti sunt. The onlgo quesiti are those, whom the lav 
emphatically calls spurious, their father being incertain and not known; 
but the mother, who is always ccrtain, is allowed to succeed even hef 
spurious issue; which is not permitted in England, where a bastard 
is reckoned as a terminus a quo, and the first of his family ; he em 
therefore have no heir but of his body, and isdeemed in law to have 
no consanguine relations, except his children; yet this must be un- 
derstood, as to civil purposes; for, as to moral purposes, his natural 
relation to ascendants and collaterals is regarded by the law, which 
will not suffer such a person to marry his mother, or his base sister. 
The Queen v. Chafin, 3 Salk. 66, 67. 

Ad matris hereditatem.] The vulgo quesiti or spurious children, are 
allowed to succeed their mother, unless she is a person of illustrious 
birth, having lawful children; for, if she has no lawful children, her 
illegitimate issue will succeed her. Cod. 6.t. 57.1.5. And in gene 
ral spurious children will succeed their motherequally with those, who 
arc legitimate: and,even if spurious children are pretermitted in the 
testament of their mother, they may by the civil law complain of that 
testament as inofficious and undutiful. De inofficioso testamento matris 
epurii quoque filii dicere possunt. ff. 5.t. 2. 1. 29. Yet spurious childrest 
are not in like manner entitled to succeed to the possessions of theif 
father, whom the law does not regard, but supposes to be unknows 
Children nevertheless, who are born of a concubine, when their fathet 
is certain, and dies without a wife or lawful issue, arc entitled, together 
with their mother, to the sixth part of their father’s inheritance, which 
is to be divided among them fer cupita, or by poll. Nov. 18. t. Sx caps 
5. Butbastards, begotten in adultery or incest, are wholly incapable 
of succeeding to their father's or mother's estate. Nov. 89. cape 1& 
But in England bastards are not distinguished into species, being ali 
regarded in the same light, and estecmed equally incapable of sucused> 
ing to the personal estate of their intestate parents, being feigned eot 
nullus filii; so that no illegitimate child can take any part either.uf 
his father's or mother’s estate upon an intestacy; neither can am odi 
nary or ecclesiastical judge grant the administration of an intestate’ 
estate to the base born issue of that intestate. Swinb. 373. -Yet any 
person, although he hath legitimate children, may by the law of Ef 
land, bequeath any part, or the whole of his estate without comerdely 
and may consequently benefit his illegitimate children, or their mother, 
in what manner he pleases; for such persons are not incapable of tak- 


NOTES. 669. 


ing by purchase, gift, or testament: and in this respect the law of 
England is more favourable to natural children, than the civil law ; 
for, by that law, a man, who had lawful children, could not bequeath 
more than a 12th part of his possessions to his illegitimate issue. 
Nov. 89. cap. 12.  Itis also observable, that, though the law of Eng- 
land pays no regard immediately to bastards, yet it favourstheir issue 
under particular circumstances, in respect to realestates ; insomuch 
thatthe issue of a bastard eigne, who died seized, shall barthe right 
of a mulier puisne. For example; if a man dies seized of certain 
lands in fee, leaving two sons, by the same woman, and his eldest son 
1s a bastard, being born before his father's marriage, and the younger 
js a mulier, (that is, legitimate,) in this case, if the bastard enters upon 
the land, claiming as heir to his father, and occupieth it all his life 
without any interruption or entry made upon him by the mu#er, and 
the bastard hath issue and dies seized of such estate in fee, and the 
land descends to that issue, then the mulier will be without remedy. 
For he may not enter, nor have any actionto recover the land, because 
there is an ancient law in this case used; namely, Justum non eat ali- 
quem post mortem facere bastardum, qui toto tempore vite sua pro legitt- 
mo habebatur. See Coke’s first inst. sect. 399, &c. Bridal’s lex spuri- 
erum, pag. 100. Here note, that the term mulier is used, by the writers 
upon the common law, to denote either a son or a daughter lawfully 
begotten ; but, how they came to apply the word mulier so very fanci- 
fully or rather perversely, it is hard to say, and immaterial to inquire; 
the most probable conjecture seems to be, that mulieris a corruption 
ef melior or the French word melieur. Vide Terms de la ley, and Godol- 
phin's repertorium. Harris. 

§ 4. De jure accrescend: inter legitimos hercdes, p. 215. 

Survivorship under the Roman law takes place among leyitimate; 
and among testamentary heirs ; and the share of thoge who renounce, 
will even fall to the heirs of those who accept. Survivórship, is real, at- 
tached tothe estate, notto the person like substitution. Dig. de usu- 
fructu l. 36. Dig. 38. 16. 9. It was allowed, lest the testator should 
die partly testate and partly intestate, partly represented and partly 
unrepresented. 

Under the English law survivorship takes place only when a legacy 
is given Im joint tenantcy; and is allowed by the courts of equity, but 
not by the ecclesiastical courts. See on this subject Humphrey v. Tay ' 
Mur, Ambl. 137. Mosley e. Bird, 3 Vez. jun. 628. Russel v. Long, 
An Vez, 3961, Bolger,y. Mackell, 5 Vez. 509, In which it is laid down 

AMEND 4D . | 


- 


sO | NOTES. 


that a legacy to two or more share and share alike, is alegacy in cam 
men, with no survivorship. 

The jus accrescendi ‘has already been touched upon in another 
connection ante ad Instit. Lib. 2. Tit. 7.$ 4. 

Fit. V. De successione cognatorum, p. 216. - 

Post suos heredes.| * Lex antiqua duodecim tabularum duos tantum 
t hseredum ab imtestato ordines fecit,suorum et agnatorum. Nove 
** leges et senatus-consulta nonaddiderunt quidem ordinem novus, sed 
* personas quasdam, que nec sui hzredes, nec agnati, reverà sunt, suo- 
* rum heredum et agnatorum numero esse voluerunt, atque in ordine 
** suorum vel agnatorum, una cum veré suis haeredibus aut agnatis, ad 
* hereditatem intestati admitti. Inter suos heredes nove leges nume- 
« rant, suisque per omnia exzquant, liberos legitimatos ; inter eosdem 
** quoque, et simul cum iis, vocant nepotes et pronepotes ex sexu femi- 
* neo: in agnatorum ordinem senatus-consulta transtulerunt matrem 
* et liberos : Justinianus fratres et sorores uterinos, eorumque et so- 
*€ rorum consanguinearum filios et filias : "Anastasius fratres et soreres 
* emancipatos. Praetor verotres succedemtium ab intestato ordines 
* fecit; primum /iberorum ; (non dixit storum, quia ex liberis vocat 
“ etiam non suos ;) alterum legitimorum,in quo vocantur agnati et ju- 
* ra agnationis habentes, ex posterioribus legibus aut ex senatue-con- 
** sultis ; tertium cognatorum, in quo admisit omnes, quos sola sangui 
“ nis ratio vocat ad hzreditatem, licet jure civili deficiant; item eos, 
* qui, quod prioribus ordinibus exclusi essent, ex nullo alio capite 
* venire poterant. Tandem Justinianus cognatos omnes etiam here- - 
* des legitimos fecit, adempta agnatis omni prerogativa. Nov. 118. 
* Vinn. Harris. 

See as to the pretorian law calling in cognates in default of proper 
and legitimate heirs, Cod. delegit. hered. 1. 5. and Dig. 38. 8. f and 
scq. Cognates are maternal relations. Legitimate heirs are agnates, 
and others considered as agnates, and called to the succession by the 
T'ertyllian and Orphitian senatus-consults, and the imperial constitutions, 
as a mother in respect of her children, children in respect of a mother 
consanguine brothers and sisters emancipated by rescript, uterine 
sisters, and the children of emancipated brothers and sisters. ' Coll. 
de legit. hered. l. penult. $ 1 and 1. ult. $ 2. 

§ 1. Qui vocantur in hoc ordine, Sc. p. 216, | 

Quos lex Anastasiana.| This constitution is not now extant; it "A 
nevertheless without doubt inserted in the first edition of the Cae, 
because it is here referred to ; but it was probably omitte d-i the. Oldie. 
vepetite prelectionis, on account ofthe last law in Cod. 6.0 58 de # 


NOTES. 511 


git. hered. Sua plenius fratribus et sororibue emancipatis consulitur, ei 
eorum quoque filiis ac filiabus jue legitime successionia datur. Harri. 

Non equis tamen partibus. Theophilus says that emancipated bro» 
thers and sisters received one half less than those under power: that 
a brother capite diminutus should receive but four ounces while a bro- 
ther integri juris should have eight : but by Cod. de leg. hered. 1. ult. 
€ 1. emancipated brothers, and those under power were placed on a 
footing. 

Aliis vero agnatis. If the deceased left an emancipated brother, and 
an uncle, the former would succeed in exclusion of the latter. 

$ 2. Decanjunctis per feminas, p» 217. The 118th Novel. has supers 
ceded this section. 

6 4. De vulgo quesitis, p. 217. The mother only is considered as re- 
lated to a spurious child ; hence they were permitted tosuccced to the 
mother, if they were not the issue of adultery or incest. Justinian how- 
cver admitted them to a share in the succession ab intestato to their fa- 
ther, if there were no lawful progeny, and the bastarde were the eff- 
spring of a concubine. Dig. 38. 8. 4. compared with Dig. 1.5 19 and 23. 
Dig. 1. 5. 19 and 24. Cod. de natural. lib. By the 118th Novel. they were 
admitted to share in their mother's estate with legitimate children. 

§ 5. Ex quoto gradu vel arnati vel cognati ssccedunt, p. 217. 

Usque. ad sextum gradum cognationis.] It is not casy to determine 
what should induce the pretor to fix upon the sixth rather than the fifth 
or any otherdegrec; and, concerning this, the writers have differed 
much in their opinions. But ail, except Hoffman, agree, that the diffcr- 
ence in the limits of succession between agnates and cognates hath 
ceased, since the distinction between ugnation and cognation was abo- 
lished by Novel. 118. Taking it then for granted, that cognates can be 
called in as distant a degree as agnates, the next question will be whe- 
ther agnates, can succeed in a more distant degree,.than the tenth ; 
which some deny ; and urge, that Justinian would not have named the 
10th degree, if agnates could have been admitted in a degree beyond it 
and that, unless some period -had been put to the succession of 
agnates, the third and the fourth order of succession, in which are 
husband and wife, could never or very rarely be admitted; and- from 
hence they conclude, that, though in consequence of the 118th. Novel-- 
both agnates and cognates must now be admitted without distinction, 
according to their proximity, yet this. must be in the tenth degree, and. 
not beyond it; and of this opinion are Mynsinger, Faber, Wesembecius, 
and others. But the words of Justinian, in the 3d sect. of the 2d title 
of this book, very strongly evince the contrary. v..g. Inter masculos qui- 


433. | NOTES. 


dem agnationis jure hereditas, etiamsi longissimo gradu sint, vitre 
eitroque capitir, &c. And again,in paragraph the 1st, tit. 7. of this 
book, the . mperor writes thus—Amotis suis heredibus, agnatus, etiamsi 
longissimo gradu, plerumque potior habetur, quam proximior cognates 
sit. T. de servili cognatione. This isalso the doctrine of the law of the 
twelve tables, which declares generally, without specifying any limits, 
that upon a failure of proper heirs, the nearest agnate shall succeed, 
And, as to the before-mentioned arguments, they may be answered with- 
out much difficulty ; for we may safely pronounce, that the words deci 
o gradu are not here used determinately, but merely for the sake of 
giving an example. Non enim (says Vinny) eodem modo de agnatsd ° 
cognatis imperator loquitur ; de agnatis nan loquitur determinative, sed 
ait, eos succedere, etsi decimo gradu sint, utens rotundo et certo numere 
pro incerto. — De cognatis contra loquitur determinative; ait enim, et 
succedere usque ad sextum gradum. And,to the second argument, % 
may be answered, that a deceased person may leave no agnates by meam 
of emancipation, or that his agziates, as. such, may be ousted of their 
succession, by the death or refusal of the nearest agnate. See sett. T. 
t.T. lib. 3. So that there is no great reason to fear, that the tbid 
and fourth order of succession would have been always excluded by 
allowing agnates to succeed inthe most distant degree. It therefore 
follows upon the whole, that cognates and agnates are now called to sut« 
ceed equally, according to their proximity, and without any lizitatios. 
Harris. "T 
Tit. VI. De gradibus cognationum, p. 218. See on this subject da 
note to Justin. Inst. Lib. 1. tit. 9. $ 1. Definitio nuptiarum, ante. ^" 
$ 1. De primo secundo et tertio. gradu, p. 218. see Blackborough® 
Davies, 1 Lord Raym. 684. 12 Mod. 619. but best in 1 P. Wms. # 
wherein it was determined that the grandmother was nearer of kin dah 
the aunt. Woodroff v. Wickworth. Prec. in ch. 527. 1 Eq. ca. ab. 9493 
England all relationship respecting personal. estate, is settled acoprdiig 
to the civil law computation. ane 
dus. Thii: the grecks called their parents ws, divinities ; and- o> 
plied the term divine, even to those who held the place of paresis 
Hence come the Italian words Zio, Zia, and the Spanish, Tio, Tia. (3b 
yiere makes three sections, of this first section-) "s 
§ 2. Quartus gradus, p. 219. "d 
Consobrinus, consobrina.] It will be necessary to.explain the fefe 
ing terms of relation before we proceed.—Consobrini and Consedédilit - 
denote cousins german in general; i. e. brother's and sister's.olíifüell- 
Fratres patrucles and sorores patrucles signify cousins germ, ubl 














NOTES. 57S 


they are the sons or daughters of brothers.—Consobriné and consobrine 
in a limited and strict sense denote cousins german, who are the chil- 
dren of two sisters, quasi consororini.——Amitini and amitine are cou- 
sins german, ‘who are the children of a brother on the one side and a 
sister on the other.———Sobrini and sobrine denote the children of cou- 
sins german in general.——-Propior sobrino and propior sobrina denote 
the son or daughter of a great-uncle or great-aunt, paternal or mater- 
nal. Harris. 

§ 4. Sextus gradus, p. 221. This section seems to distinguish inter 
fium proprioris sobrini, and nepotem sobrint; which however have 
the same meaning. Hence Vinnius thinks that the words item proprius 
eobrino sobrinave filius should be omitted.  Ilest vrai (says Ferriere) 
que si mon cousin issu de germain m'est parent au gixieme degre, 
son fils ne m'est parent qu'au septieme: c'est aussi ce qui est dit 
dans le. $ 5. du titre precedent. Mais Justinien ne le compare pas ici 
avec moi, qui suis le cousin issu de germain son pere, car nous serions 
au septieme ; mais il le compare avec mon pere, qui lui est parent d'un 
degre plus proche que moi, et qui est par consequent a son egard, parent 
au sixieme degre. 

Tit. VII. De servili cognatione, p. 222. Nostra constitutione: this 
is not extant. 

Tit. VIII. § 2. De lege Papia, p. 226. This law was passed A. U. 
C. 761, in the consulship of M. Papius Mutilus, and Q. Poppzus 
Secundus. Hence it is sometimes called Lex Papia Poppaa. 

§ 3. De constitutione Justiniani, p. 326. Nostra constitutio. Not 
extant. Ex constitutione nostra repleatur. 1. omnimodo Cod. 3. 28. 
de inoff. testam. 

6 4. S uibus libertinis succeditur, p. 328. Nostra constitetione. Cod. 
7. 6. de latina libertate tollenda. 

Tit. IX. De assignatione libertorum, p. 230. 

Censuisse senatum. Under Claudian, A. U. C. 798. 

Tit. X. De bonorum possessionibus. p. 231. 

Thisis a branch of the pretorian law, by which a right of succes. 
sion was granted, to all the property, estate, goods, chattles, rights 
and credits of the deceased. Qua propter plurimum differt. bonorum 
possessio a possessione seu corporali detentione rerum, qua facti est. 1. 

2. $ 1. Dig. hoc. tit. 1. 208. Dig. de verb. signif. Sed bonorum posses- 
eio tota juris est. 

The bonorum possessio, was of various kinds, according to the con- 
dition and exigency of the claimants. — Bonorum possessio, UNDE LIBE- 
ST > UNDE LEGITIMI : UNDE COGNATI: SECUNDUM TABULAS: CONTRA 





iin SOLES. 


' Tapucas: URDR DRCEM PERSONAE: TANQUAM EX FAMILIA: unde vir EF 
UXOR : confirming, supplying, correcting, or controverting the civil law. 

The bonorum possessio, did. not constitute an heir Inst. 3. 10. 2. 
The heir, is a creature of the civil, not of the pratorian law; though 
the person so called to the succession by the prator, had many of the 
rights of aa heir. Butthe heir uader the civil law, held in absolute 
proprietorship, Inst. 2. 19. 7: the pratorian successor had the pos- 
session, and the dominium utile, but not the dominium directum. 1.1. 
cum. seg. Dig. hoc titulo. 1.117. Dig. de reg. juris. 1.138. Dig. dc 
verb. signif. It was theright of claiming and recovering, and of re- 
taining the eflccts of the leceased. Dig. h. tit, 1. 3. $2. It might be 
demanded by Proctor, which a heirship could not. Dig. 29. 2. 90. 
where for curatorem, read procuratorem. 

Succession per bonorum posscssionem, must have been demanded of 
the praetor : this was not necessary in case of heirship, wherein it wag 
only necessary to act. A heirship might be entered upon within 30 
years. <A pratorian succession must be claimed within one year by 
descendants and ascendants, and a hundred days by other persons: 
Inst. 3. 10. 5. Succession per bonorum possessionem, was part of the 
equitable jurisdiction of the praetor. Thus by possession unde liberi, 
he aided the rights of emancipated children ; calling them to the suc- 
cession (cum onere collationis ) together with proper heirs, by unde 
cognati, he assisted the natural pretensions of cognates who were be- 
forc excluded : by secundum tabulas, he supported a testament others 
wise void by the civil law, by calling in a posthumous stranger : con- 
tra tabulas, when achild was called to the succession, whose natural 
claims had been neglected and passed over by his father the testator : 
yade vir ct uxor, by which the surviving husband or wife succeeds in 
defcct of kindred: unde legitimi when parents or children (agnates) 
were called in, who would otherwise have been excluded. Tanquam 
ex familia; tothe patron, cr his agnates. Unde decem persona, the 
enumeration of ten persons preferred by the pretor to a stranger who 
had manumitted a filius familias under the ancient forms of contract 
and sale. Unde patroni patronegue, when patrons were specilically cal- 
led in to the succession of freed men : unde cognati manumissorie.: when 
cognates of a patron manumittor were admitted. Hence there aye two 
pratorian successions in case of a testacy, and eight in case ofan mteg 
tacy. Concerning all of which see post inst. lib. III. tit. 10. § 2- aggl. 3v 

Justinian abolished, unde decem persone, tanquam ex familia, unde 
patroni, and unde cog. manumittoris. 

In the case of possession granted conira tabulas, the claimagt, @ 
whom the succession was granted, was called upon to bring into hotch 


NOTES. 885 


pot or common stock, allthe property he hed at &&y time received of 
the testator by way of advancement; Cod. 6. 21. 12. 16, This was 
the CorrzaTro: bonorum possessio contra tabulas cum onere collationis, 
Dig.S3T.6. 1. This Collatio, might have been exacted also in cases 
of intestacy from descendants, whether of the male or female side, 
(Nov. 18. 6.) but not from ascendants, collaterals, or mere legatees. 
Cod. 6. 21.16. This was an exception to the general rule, inter diver- 
so jure succedentes, mon est locus collation. 

* Regularly these goods are brought into Collation or common fund, 
(Cod. 6. 21. 12 and 16.) which came from the ascendant, while alive, 
for the maintenance or provision of the descendant. But not gifts or 
rewards for services, Cod. 6 21. 10. and 20. t. Nor the price of ran- 
som from captivity in war, Cod. 8. 51. 17. Though money paid for 
a fine, or to save one from punishment, ought to be brought into con- 
tribution, for the fault of one, ought not to be prejudicial to another. 
So the portion, the jewcis, the precieus garments, the gold chains 
given to a daughter at marriage, Cod. 6. 21. 5. but not the expences of 
the marriage feast, for that seems to be given for the credit of the father 
and not as a portion; nor the charge of necessary education, for every 
child hath alfeady had such a share, nor the charge which a father hath 
been at in books for his son, Dig. 10. 2. 50. Nor the charge that a 
father laid out for the son that he might take a degree, or acquire any 
other honourable title, Dig. 37. 6. 16. for if the son dies, his successor 
tan derive no advantage by it. On this account, therefore, the cost 
expended in equipage for a son to go to the wars, shall come to the 
common contribution, because he receives pay from the publick. Cod. 
6. 21. 20." Woods Inst. civ. law. fol. 200. 201. 

As to Apvancement, I have already referred to all the principal 
English cases on the subject. As to Hotcu Por, Collatio bonorum, 
In partem positio, see Co. Litt. 177. — Phiney v. Phiney, 2 Vern. 638. 
Edwards v. Freeman, 1 Eq. Ca. ab. 249—254. and 2 P. Williams 445. 
Hedges v. Hedges, Finch Pre. ch. 269. Hume et ux. v. Edwards ex. 
Fe. 3 Atk. 450. Finner v. Longland, 2 Eq. Ca. Ab. 253. Northey 
~- Strange, 1 P. Williams 340. and the Stat. of Distributions, 22 and 
23. Ch. 2.'ch. 10. ] 

(2 Fus bonorum possessionis.] The bonorum possessio is not now in use 
even in those countries, where the civil gw prevails: fur succession 
. by testament, or by law, comprehends every case. Jus civile et pre- 
“torium hodic inunam consonantiam redactum est; idéoque hujus 
“ tituli nullus amplius est usus : etenim, qui aliis ex testamento et ab 
* intestato succedunt, in universum hzredes appellari solent." Groe- 


56 . NOTES. 


zewegen, de legibus abrogatis. h. t. In England, estates in general, ttiay 
be divided into two sorts, real and personal; and successions to these 
two different kinds of estates are governed by . different rules of law. 
But it is necessary to premise, that by rea/ estate is most commonly 
meant an estste in land in fee, i. e. descendible from a man to his heirs 
for ever, and that by personal estate are meant estates in land, determi- 
mable upon years, money in the funds or upon mortgages, plate, jew- 
els, &c. and that such personal estate is generally comprehended, in 
technical and artificial language, under the terms goods and chattles. 
Now in real estates there is no room for the bonorum possessio of the 
Roman law to take place in England; for all such estates vest in and de- 
scend instantly to the heir, at the death of his ancestor; but inregard 
to goods and chattles the office of the ordinary or ecclesiastical judge 
seems to be similar to that of the oman pretor in granting the pos- 
session of goods. : For, when a man dies, who has disposed. of his per- 
sonal estate by testament, the heirs or executors, appointed by that tes- 
tament, must prove it before an ecclesiastical judge, who by granting 
probate gives the possession of goods to the executors secus. 
dum tabulas, according to the will, or at least confirms them in the pos- 
session already taken. — Cowell, ^. |. And, when any person dies in- 
testate, the ordinary (by virtue of 31 Edw. 3. chap. 11, and 21 Henry 
8. chap. 5) grants the possession and administration of the intestate's 
goods to the widow or next of kin to such intestate, or to both, at his 
discretion, And by the 22d and 23d of .Charles the second, cap. 10. 
itis enacted, “that all ordinaries and ecclesiastical judges may call 
* administrators to an account and order nisTRIBUTION, after debts and 
** funeral expences are paid; to wit, one third to the widow of thein- 
** testate, and the residue among his children and those who legally re- 
« present them, if any of them are dead : that, if there are no children, 
** orlegal representatives of them ,one half of the intestate's estate shall 
* be allotted to the widow, and the residue tothe nextof kindred to 
* the intestate in equal degree, and those, who represent them: that no 
* representation shall be admitted among collaterals after brothers and 
* sisters children; and that, if there is no wife, allshall be distributed 
“among the children ; and if no child, to the next of: kin to the intes- 
* tate in equal degree and their representatives.” And by 1 Fac. 2. 
cap. 17. itis enacted, “that, if a brother or sister dies, each brother 
* and sister, and their representatives, shall have an equal. share with 
* the mother.” From all which the analogy, between the civi? law ond 
the law of England, is verv observable. Harrie. 


NOTES. 577 


'Fhe Proem, Cur introductc bonorum possesiones ; contains in Har- 
tis's edition, the first section of Ferricre’s ; which begins at ues «utem 
solus Praetor, &c. p. 232 of the present edition, prope mediam payi- 
nam. 

§ 1. De speciebus ordinariis. Fus vetus, p. 233. 

A nostra constituttone.] This constitution is not extant, 

Extraneo manumissori | * E.xtrancus manuniissor erat, qui non con- 
* tracta fiduciaemancipasset.” — Mynsinger. A. fl. 

Tanquam ex fumilia.] “ Puto familiam significari. patroni ; i. e. hat 
* bonorem possessione vocari patroni agnatos.’ — Vinn.  Marris. 

$ 2. "fus novum, p. 233. 

I have already dwelt sufficiently on the different kinds of donorum 
possessiones in the note to the beginning of this title. 

Nostra constitutio.] Cod. 8. t. 49. |. ult. * Hac constitutio, quam de 
* ejmancipationibus conscripsit imperator, omnibus parentibus et ma- 
* numissoribus presumptionem contracte fiducie admisit, ut ipsa e- 
* mancipatio tacité id in se habeat; meritó igitur. prefata bonorum 
** possessio pro supervacua habenda est, cum extraneus posthac manus 
* missor nullus inveniatur. TZheoph. 

Per constitutionem nostram.] “ Hzc est cadem greca constitutio, 
* cujus superius quoque aliquotics meminit imperator; et quà totam 
* se causam successionis libertorum plene definivisse ‘estaiur : non ex- 
“tat hec constitutio, scd epitozi^u cjus nobis ex Buszlicts repr.esentat 
* Cujacius.” lib. 20. obs. 54 Harris. 

The Basilica, were the new ordinances and code in Greek, began by 
Leo Philosophus in 886, and finally published by Constantine Porphye 
rogoneta, in 920. 

§ 4. De successorio edicto, p. 835. Certum tempus. Dig. 58. 9. De 
succ. edicto. 

§ 5. De jure accrescendi et iterum, &e. p. $36. Ex successorio edicto. 
Dig. 38. 9. 

$ 5. Explicctio dict? temporis, p. 236. 

Dies utiles. * Dies injure nostro alii sunt continui, alii utiles. Con- 
* tinui, qui sive ipterruptione, nullisque exceptis, currunt ; utiles sunt 
*t illi duntaxat, quibus cxperiundi sui juris potestas est; et hi neque 
** ignoranti, nequc agere non valenü, currunt, ff. 44. t. 3.4 1 Vinn: 
Theoph. het. Harris. 

Tit. XI. De acguisitione per adrogationem, p. 237. 

Formerly under the acquisition by adrogation, the adoptive father 
@ucceedcd to all the property of the son who was adopted by adroga- 

| 4 E. 


578 NOTES. 


tion, and died in that state, But latterly, the father succeeded to 
the usufruct only, unless when the son died impuber, and without chil- 
dren, and under power of his adoptive father. § 1. et ult. Ccd. commun. 
de success. 

* 1. Que hoc modo acquiruntur. Fus vetus, p. 237. This is entitled 
in Ferries :re , Quanam clim acquirebantur per adrogationem: 


Prohibuit nostra constitutio. Cod. 3.33.16. De usufructw. 

Freed men, were generally bound in services of labour to their pat- 
rons, fabriles seu artificiales opere, which might be prolonged or com- 
mut-d ; and the right passed to the heir of the patron. Dig. 31 10. 6. Dig. 
33. 2. 2. So, duties of personal respect on account of the gift of 
liberivy conferred: these were attached to the person of the patron 
only. Dig. 31. 10 9. 1. juncto Cujacio,lib 17. ch. 14. These did not 
ce7* ^ on the smaller change of state. 

§ 2. Sus novum, p. 258. Ex constitutione nostra Cod. 6. 59. ult. 
Comm. de success. This section is entited £renam jure novo fer 
adr2tationem aciniruntur, in. Ferriere. Justinian in this section has 
properly limited the rights of adcptive by those of natural parents; 
exc:pt in the case alrcacy mentioned of decease within puberty, with- 
ou: children, and under power of the adoptive father. 

Tit. XII. De eo cui libertatis causa bona addicuntur, p 239. 

§ 1. Reseribtum Divi Morci, p. 239. "This requires, 1st, That the 
application and adjudication shail be Judicial. 2dly, That there shall 
be no heirs or persons called to the succcssicn, civil or pratorian. I. 1. 
Cod. fideicom. lihbert. 2dle, That the person petitioning, shall give 
security, if the adjudication be inhis favour. 4thly, This relates to 
libcrtv given by testament. 

$ 3. Ubi locum habeat, p 241. This section is otherwise headed, 
Quibus casibus huic rescripto locus est 

From the 4th circumstance just above mentioned, Cujas appears to 
be right in supposing that instead of certe si intestatus decesserit, we 
ought to read certe si testatus decesserit. 

§ 7. De speciebus additis a Fustiniano. p. 242. 

' Plenissima constitutio, Cod. 7. 2. 15. de test. manumiss. 

Tit. XIII. De successionibus sublatis, tc. p. 243. This section is 
divided by Ferriere, at the words Erat ct ex senatus consulto Claugie 
an^, 9c. " 

Quals fuerat bonorum emptio.] “ Bona debitoris, postquam aliqnan- 

« din celeberrimis in locis proscripta pependissent, ex edicto posaideri 

* jubebantur ; deinde magister postulabatur et creabatur, pet qué 


5 


NOTES. | S79 


[4 


** distrahebantur et emptori addicebantur, qui omnibus in solidum sa- 
* tisfaciebat : aut, antequam emeret, cum creditoribus de ccrta. parte 
* decidebat? vid Theophilum in Aunc locum, et Heineccii antig. Rom. 
Jur lib. 2. tit. 17. This exact species of sale is not in use in Eng- 
land; but there is a sale not very unlike it in the case of bankrupts, 
whose estates and gocds are sold and divided among their creditors 
by commissioners, appointed for that purpose. vid. 127. Eliz. cap 7. 
1 Fac. 1 cap. 15. 21 Fac. 1. cap. 19. 10 Ann. cap. 15. 7 Geo. 1. cap. 
31. 5. Gro. 2 cap. 20. 

Ex latioribus digestorum libris.] D. 42.1. 5 De rebus auctoritate 
Judicis possidendis. DD. 42. t. 4. Quibus ex causis in possessionem ea- 
tur. | 

Quod indignum nostris temporibus.] vid. Ccd. T. t. 24. De senatus- 
consulto Claudiano tollendo. Harris. 

Tit. XIV. De obligationibus, p. 244. 

Justinian begins first with obligation, and then proceeds to those 
contracts and agreements, from whence obligation arises. He confines 
it within the bounds of practice, namely to that motive of action which 
the sanction of tie law presents to us. The civil law indeed treats of 
duties of imperfect obl: gation, but so far only as they are aidedeby the 
sanction which the iegislative or judicial authority may annex to them. 

Obligation may be divided into moral obligation, or that which re- 
ceives its saaction foro conscientiae alone: and civil obligation, or that 
which receives its sanction from the positive law of political commu- 
nities. 

Thetrze source and foundation of moral obligation, has been a dtu 
vexata questio. With me itis settled: it has but one rational source 
and foundation, sc/f inierest: our own happiness: our grcatcst and 
most permanent good upon the whole. 

I conside:ed this subject at full length formerly, in an cssay pub 
lished among a collection of essays on ethical and metaphysical sub- 
jects (1787): and as I nave nad no reason hitherto to alter my opinion, 
I shall briefly abridge that essay, and adopt tue same view of thc ar- 
gument here. 

It is universally allowed, that in certain cases, I ought (morally 
speaking) to act in a certain manner. But why ought I to do so? 
What is the titimate reason or motive which on an att. ntive conside- 
ration of the subject should induce me to act,in this, rather than in that 
manner? Because, say some, | 


+ $80 NOTES, . 


I. It is agreeable to the will of God. a 
IL. To the -ternal and necessary fitness and congruity of things.4 
TLL. It is the dictate of the moral sense. c 

IV. It is thc dictate of common sense : of the sena; even; d 

V. You are conscious of a sensation that impels you so to do. e 

VI. Your understanding represents such an actión to you as right, aq 
of course that you ought to do so f£ : 

VA. tis agreeable to right reason. & ] 

VILL Itis agrecahle to the truth of things. & 

IX. Itis conducive to general utili 

X. Ix is conducive to the bene esse, to your own greatest good upa 
the whole. 4 

The above is the substance of the answers which the authors ii 
notes may be supposed to give to the question. 

Each of these hypothesis, except the last, admit of a further: 
tion. Yeutellme I oughtto act agreeably to the will of 
the eternal fitness of things io the dictate of the moral 
&c.? why ought todoso? It is evident this question may 





















a Acguinas, Occam, Scotus, Suarez, Hobbes, Leibnitz, 
Warburton. - 

b Grotius, Rust, Clarke, Balguy. 

c Hutcheson. 

d Lord Herbert, Reid, Beattie aud Oswaid. 

e Ellis. 

f Cudworth, Butler, Adams, Price. 

g Burlamagui 

h Wollaston. 

i Hume 

k Gastrell, Cumberland, Puffendorj,* Narris,; Gay, 
Rutherforth | Soame Fenyns,4* Dr. SfohnsonT 


* Law uf N and N book I. ch. iv. $ 8 aud the note thercon of B 

d Miccellanies. p. 214. 

$ Preliminary Dissertation, andnote ta King's Origin of Ev: 
quari. dit. 

$ Note to Heineccins, fr. 16. €| Essay on Virtue, ch. vii. 

a* Orsi of Evil Letter IV. 

Mi ero FS, ri Fenyn’s Origin of Evil, in the Misi 
fished by Davies, 3 vols, 





NOTES. | 581 


geasonably : if so, the solution lies deeper than the hypothesis that ad- 
mits of the question. 

This question cannot reasonably, or consistent with common sense 
be put on the tenth or last hypothesis. It is manifestly, palpably ab- 
surd to ask, why ought I to pursue my own happiness? why ought I 
to fellow that course of conduct which upon the whole of my existence 
will most effectually afford me the greatestsum of happiness? For im 
fact, are not all our motives of action, founded upon this consideration? 
Does it not arise from the very nature and constitution of man? 
‘Why should I obey the commands of God? Because it *s my in:er- 
est soto do: [shall be happy if I do, and miserable if I donot. But 
put the case, that any clear and precise command of the creator, would 
upon the whole of my existence and all things considered, afford not 
a balance of happiness but of misery, can I be under any obligation to 
pursue it?—-The controversy then, can only be settled, by an answer, 
that does not reasonably admit of any further question ; and this is it. 

But in the course of education in civilized society, we are taught 
incessantly by our parents and tutors, we hear in their conversations, 
and in discourses from the pulpit, and we learn from our intercourse 
with society even from our childhood, that certain conduct ought to be 
pursued, and certain actions ought to be shunned. That we should 
obey and reverence our parents, love our kindred, perform acts of kind- 
ness to our neighbours, speak truth, pay our debts, perform our promis- 
es, Kc. &c. : these complex associations give rise at length to that 
feeling that we call conscience, and to the ideas of obligation and duty, 
which are associated with many actions that positive law cannot expc- 
diently embrace. Actions that mankind generally agrce, ought to be 
performed or abstained from, when not sanctioned by thelaws of soci- 
ety, give rise to imperfect obligations + actions that are enjoined or for- 
bidden by those laws, are called actions or duties of perfect obligation. 

By the civil law, rights and duties of imperfect obligation, such as 
arose from the acknowledged precepts of natural law, or the dictates 
of conscience, or ex nudo pacto, (naked promises not binding for want 
of consideration,) although they could not of themselves support an ac- 
tion, might be brought in aid of the law in certain cases. ‘They gave 
rise to compensation, or set off ; todetention of a pledge ; to fide jussion. 
Or action against a guarantee ; to aconstitutum, or promise founded 
on natural obligation ; to novation ; and to retention of money paid un- 
der a mistaken notion of its being legally due. 

To instance each of these. As to compensation: A owes B a hund- 


red dollars, ona legal claim. B owes A fifty dollars, ona considera- 


382 NOTES. 


tion Sounded in morality, but not Mraiching ground for suit: Aca. 
‘set this of Oo 15 2. 6 le compensationibus. 

Ust (interest for mon-v) vois not supported by the Roman law, 
unless where the loan, had furnished a profit; Cod. 4 3: 26. Cod 
4. 34. 4. or where it was piliciitiy deor «d. 42e poene for impro 
per detention of the sum lent, or on account of fraud. Dig. 22.1.4 
ani 22. 1.17. 3. Suppose, however, A. lends B a hundred doilas 
upon interest, and B pledges a diamond ring for repaynignt: the pro 
Mis. to pay intercst simpli wea lhe nude fact, but sill as promises 
ou-h: to ! «e rcrfo cond, Dic. 2. 14 1. A, may revam the diamond, 
till in: rest as weil 2s principal be paid. C od. de usuris. 1. 4. 

As to Jed (juseizn. Ai imantalnos.: of age makes a promise, UM | 
sanctioned by his tutor: this would support no action. A íriendd | 
th: infant becom:s his security forthe periormance. Here, notwith 
standing the maxim accessorium sequitur suum principale, the fide jur 
sor or guarantee, is liable, becausc it 13 the dictate of natural equity thst 
a promise should be kept, although positive law will not enforce i 
Dig. 46. 1. 2 and 6. 

Coustitutum,is a promise before the prevor to pay what was pretr 
ously due, either by the prorsissor, or some other person fer whom br 
becomes surety. Ouch a promise so soi cmnly made, was supported by 
the pratovian acuion a> fecuna constituo, Dig. 13.5.1. 7. quia gram 
est, f em felicre, r viue ul? gemiusta fees est. 

Novation Die 40. 2.1. Novation, is the transferring or conve 
sion of one ocligazien. into anoincr obligation, or from one person 
another person. ‘ihus, A owes B a hundred dollars: this debts 
transferred by cenasent to a pozil who promises without authority ef 
the tutor: is he bound? Yes: for the promise of the pupil though & 
will not support a suit, is founded upon a. promise that would supped 
ene : and this natural cilig:tion of the punilio pay, is converted i$ 
a civil obligation, by Ea; sucstituted for 2 civil onc : novwithstst- 
ng, Dig. 46.2. 20. wincn (o5un7h ttee was uo "ox nur. other way, don 
not furnish an objection. poss eusd stu? debetur. non potest wilt 
tuloris auctzritetle rzoure ne «6 (ct cone et qm aur: a detericrem focittt 
but this is fur his own sa&e, aut docs pot appty toa case when she ber 
gal right of a third person is involved in i7 pani "n 

Repetition, or redemand of money paid w ithou: regular compulief 
ef law, is prohibited where au imperf ct oblig rion mtervenes. - Digg 
44. 7. 10. A by nude pact, promises to pay inv 2 hundred. dollegeg 
he pays it tome: but r.pinanug, sas ier hb rosvorv. by candela 
indebiti (action for money had and receivcuü). He cannot recae ilb 


“= 





! 
4 








NOTES. 583 


Hr he ought to keep his promise, and he has put mé in possession of 
th: iaon: v. which he was undcr a natural obligation to give me, though’ 
not alegal one. Dig. 12. 6. 14 and 66. For the: oondictio indebiti 
would not avail against money paid, which ex equo et bono ought ta 
have been paid. Dig ub. sup. 

This is like the casesof Brown. AL Kinnally, 1 Esp. Ca. at N. P. 
279. JBurdonv. Webb, lb. 528. Cartwright v. Rowley, lb. 723. Whe- 
ther an express promise founded on an antecedent moral obligation will 
support an assumpsit is discussed at length in note (a) to HWennad v. 
Adney, 3 Bos. and Pull. 249. This doctrine of the Roman law is a- 
dopted bv Lord Mansficld, in Moses 0 MP Farlane, 2 Burr. 1005. Dale 
v. Sollet, Burr 2133. and though the particular case of Moses v. M’- 
F'aríane, has been shaken by JMarriot v. Hampton, 7 Term. Rep. 269, 
yet the general doctrine has never becn denied. 

§ 1. Divisio prior. p. 44. The prietorian, is as much a part of the 
Roman law,as the civillaw. By the latter, technically speaking, 1s mcant 
the law of the 12 tables, the Plebisciies, the senatus consulta, the im- 
perial constitutions, and the responsa peredentum. The pretorian 
law, jus honorarium, is composed of the equitable decrees of the pre- 
tors at various times: to which we owe many obligations not strictly 
comprehended in the above named sources of the civil law, suci as the 
eonstitutum, hypothecation, &c. 

§ 2. Divisio posicrior. p 244. 

By the Roman iaw there arc two grand divisions of private conyen- 
tions, to wit, ConTRActTs and Pacts. (Contractus est Conventio ha- 
bens certum nomen, vel causam, sua natura oóligationem ad agenduin, effi- 
cacem producens. Dig. 2. 14. 7. 1 and 2. 

Contracts between parties arc sonumerous, and so varicus, thatthe civil 
law, unable to assign a specific denomination to every onc, classed by 
appropriate and distinct names, those contracts only, which were most 
generally in us.;in societv. Hence contracts were divided into. /;o- 
minate and tnnominate. Nominate coniracts were suchas the Cor mo- 
datum,* Mutuum, Depositum, tignus, Stipulatio, Eriptio Vendatio, Lo- 








* Commedatum: the loan of a specific thing, of which the owner- 
ship is not changed, to be returned in good plight: as of a house, a 
horse orabook.  Mutuum: a loan to be returned in kind, as money, 
grain, fruit, &c. Depositum : bailment of a thing to be kept wichout re- 
ward for keepimg it, and to be returned in good püght. -Pignus: a 
pawn of a moveable for security e^ a creditor. Hizotheca: is amort- 
gage of the right to real property, or things incorporeal; the debtor 


LL d NOTES. 


eatio, Conductio, Emphyteusis, Societas, Mandatum, tc. all which will 
be noticed in their turn. These had their appropriate remedy by 
action founded upon them. Some of them derived their obligation 
from natural, some from civil, and some from pratorian law. . 

Nominate contracts had alse a four-fold classification. 1st, Exre 
from sumeihing done. 2dly, Ex verdis, from something said. Sdly, 
Ex literis, from something wriucn. 4thly, Ex consensu, from some 
thing agreed to. 

In contracts also were considered, the substance, the nature, andthe 
accidental parts of the contract; but I do not find any important cav 
clusion dependant on this division. 

Contacts were also divided into equitable contracts, ex equo et bet 
and contracts stricti juris. Thus, if I sell an estate and deliver pee 
session, and the money is not paid me till long after it is due, I hav 
a right not merely to the principal, but also to interest for the deter 
tion of it. To this class of contracts may be referred those of our oii 
law that admit of compensation when not literally fulfilled, and the 
cases of Cy pres performance. Contracts of strict construction, am 
those where the termsarc precisely settled by the parties themselyest 
as the cases of damage liquidated by the previous agreement 
parties, as so much per acre for the ploughiag up of meadow 

Imominate contracts, are those innumerable agreements, 
pend upon and include the peculiar circumstances that form the ai 
ject of them, and for which no certain or precise remedy was appointed, 
but a general action on the case only : actio in factum. prescriptis ses 
bis. Dig. 2.14. 7. 2. Dig. 19. 4. and Dig. 19. 5. 

But for the more convenient division of this kind of 
‘were classed thus. Do ut des: I give that you may give. 
facias: I give that you may perform. Facio ut des: I 
you may give. Facto wu! facias: 1 pcriorm that you may 

The first is sale and barter: the second payment for work 
to be done, or services to be performed: the third work 
or services, to reccive payment: the fourth work and labour: 
ed, or services rendered, for work and labour to be per! 
tices rendercd. This last had the remedy by action de dole 
nexed to it. Dig. 4. 3. 18. 




























continuing,in possession. StiPwlatio; a verbal contract by 
andanswer. Emptio Venditio : buying and selling. 
letting and hiring. £mphyteusts: an improving lease. 
acommission or power. docietas ; partnership.- 





NOTES, 685 


In all these innominate contracts, the obligatien to performance on 
one side; is founded ‘oti actual performance by the other. Otherwise 
it amounts to no more than a mere promise, a covenant, af agreement, 
& Pact, which the parties may be under a natural, but under no civil 
ebligatitwi to perforin. Dig. 2. 14. 7. 4. such a pact is called nude (rus 
dum pattum) when wo cohsideration (causa) attaches to it} but obli« 
gation e#tises, when the otie side by performance in conformity to thé 
Agreement, suffers a loss, privation or inconvenience, or the other sidé 
by aceepting becomes benefitted and a gainer, either as principal or 

Thus, I promise to give you one horse in exchange for another. 
This is not binding on either side, till one of us perform his part of the 
agreement. Then and then only, a consideration attaches to the pact, 
‘and an obligation arises thereupon coextensive with the consideration, 
This is like our doctrine of conditions precedent, where performance, 
or tender of performance with a touts tems prest, must be set out. 

In all these innominate contracts and nude pacts, time was’ allowed 
to the parties toreconsider their agreement: /ocus penitentie. Thus, 
if I tender my horse in lieu of a horse agreed to be given me by my 
Beighbour, and he takes no step thereupon to perform his part of the 
agreement, I can send for my horse back and refuse to accede to the 
bargain. n contractibus nominatis, poenitentie locus est, rebus saltem 
integris, tta ut is qui dedit ob causam, altum statim obligzet, ipse vero et 
non obligatur priusquam alter conventionem impleverit. Quapropter re- 
bus integris quod dedit potest repetere, per condictionem causa data cau- 
sa non secuta. Sue quidem actio non nascitur ex contractu, sed ex na» 
turali equitate que non patitur rem mcam esse penes. alium sine causa. 
God. de condict. causa data, causa non secuta. Dig. 12. 7.- 

There are some good observations on the locus ponitentia in Lord 
Kaimes’s principles of equity Book, 1. part 2. scct. 7. and many cases 
put where it appears to one that in equity it ought to be allowed. 

Pacts, were divided into civil, pretorian and simple. Civil were those 
to which a civil right of actien was subsequently attached, as to the 
Donatio inter vivos by Justinian.  Pretorian, such as the pretor gave 
a right of action upon, as the Hvpotheca, and the constitutum. Sim- 
ple, such as raised a natural obligation only to performance. 

The doetrine of Nudum pactum has been long recognized in the 
English law. Bracton (who as Justice Wilmot says, interyove a great 
fnany things out of the Roman law) divides pacta, conventa, into nuda 
pacta and pacta vestita. Ch. 1. de actionibus. See also Br. ab. tit. 
action sur le case. 40. Ib. Dette pl. 36. 79. 996. 11 H. 4. 32. 2. 9 H. 5. 

4F 


$86 NOTES. 


14 3H. 6. 36. 4$ E. 3. 21. Sharrington and Pledall o. Strutfla 
Plow. 302. 308. 309. 7 and 8 El. Foselyn v. Laciere. 12 Mod. 295. 

Wilmot in Pillans and Rose v. Van Mierop and Hopkins, 3 Burr. 166%, 
inclines to think that where an obligation is deliberately entered iss 
by writing, that there can be no nudum pactum. The good sense of di 
opinion is rather pettishly contradicted by Skinncr in his argumenthe 
fore the lords in Rann v. Hughes, reported in Br. Parl. Ca. and in the 
note to Mitchinson v. Hewson, 7 Term Rep. 350. a. which 
technical distinction of contracts, into contracts by parol (i 
sealed written contracts) and contracts by specialty. It isofnog 
quence how the law is, when itis once known; but it was surely 
lowable mistake to suppose that a contract deliberately put | 
writing, was not a parol contract. Wilmot seems to have had. 
mind the obligatory effect given by the Roman law where the pi 
forms of verbal stipulations were observed. See post. Inst. 3. 16 
De verbis stipulationum. But among the Romans, the Practices 
put all nominate contracts and stipulations in writing, whicl 
carricd to a magistrate were inserted inter acta, registered or re: 
and the parties had a copy delivered to them under seal. 
not the case with mere pacts or promises, which might intei 
means of any informal words, and between absent parties. St 
Wilmot's opinion I apprehend is law in most nations on the cont 
See the references in Wood civ. law 206. 

^ Although in the words of the lord chancellor in Jfiddleton v. 
2 Vez. junr. 408. “a bargain without consideration is a con 
in terms and cannot exist ;" yet in England this does not apply 
Bargains enter:d into by writing under seal. 2dly, Mercantile 
negotiable paper when once negotiated by indorsement : 
tween the maker of a note and the payee, and the drawer of a 
the payee, equitable defences may be sct up. The exce; 
upon its negotiability, and that negotiability is given by its 
into circulation by indorsement. 

With respect to other parol contracts, whether verbal or 
have adopted in substance the civil law doctrine on this 
the want of consideration will defeat a contract : but 

Any labor, loss or inconvenience sustained by the plaintiffat 
of the defendant—any express promise to pay or perform ¥ 
missor was under a moral otiligation of paying or performi 
see Wenna! v. Adiey, 3 Bos. and Pull. 247.——Any pro 
on the strength of a consideration already passed, but or 
ed into at the request of the promissore-or in considei 





























NOTES. 587 


to be rendered on a future day—or in consideration of any permission 
given by which the promissor is benefitted——or any voluntary performe 
ance of an act beneficial to the promissor, which the pertormer was le- 
gally comp-llable to perform, as in case of a surety—will support an 
action of assumpsit. 

But though natural affection, be sufficient to raise a use, aid a trust 
er support a deed, (/ My4dleton v. Lord Kenyon, ub. sup.) it will not 
support an assumpsit : nor willlove bctwecn the sexes. 

But considerations founded on promise of marriage, will support a 
subsequent promise. Argenbright v. Campbell, and wife, 3 Hen and 
Munf. 184. Cro. El 59. 

See on all these points, and the other parts of the doctrine of consi- 
deration when coupled with assumpsit, the modern compilers, Comyns 
Dig. Powel on contracts, Espinasse and Selwyn’s, law of nis. pri: and 
Comyns, on contracts. * 

The subject is!but meagerly treated in Pothier. The equitable na- 
ture of the action for money had and received, is treated in //oses v. 
A Farlane, 2 1 Burr. 003. Hawkes v. Saunders, Cowp. 290. 

I think the following rules collected by Wood (p. 207) for the con- 
@ruction of contracts, worth inserting in this place. 

These rules ought to be observed in the interpretation of contracts, 

b The agreement in a contract is the law of it. 

€ The beginning and consideration of every contract is to be consi- 
dered. 

d If the sense of the contract is obscure, that sense must be followed 
which is most likely and probable, or most according to common prace 
tice. 

€ Ip doubtful cases the mildest i interpretation 1s tbe safest. 





b Contractus legem ex Conventione accipiunt. D. 16. 3.1.6. - 

c Uniuscujusque contractus initium spectandum est, et causa. D. 17. 
1. 8. Hoc servabitur quod initio convenit. D. 50. 17. 23. Cuyusque Rei 
potissima pars Principium est. D. 1.2. 1. 

d In obscuris inspici solere quod verisimilius est, aut quod plerumque 
feri solet. D. 50. 17. 114. 

e Sem£er in dubiis bentgniora praferenda. D. 50. 17. 56. 

In re dubia benigniorem interpretationem segué non minus justius eet, 
quam tutius. D. 50. 17. 192. t. Semper. in obscuris quod minimum est 
sequimur. D. 30.17. 9. Eligendum eet quod minimum habet iniguitatis. 
BB. 60. 17. 200. 


bà NOTES. 


f All parts of the contract ought to be explained, the one by the 
other, and regard ought to be had to the preamble of it 

g If the intention of the Parties does evidently appear, the inten 
tion ought to be followed rather than the words or literal sense; sf 
gometimes regard ought to be had tothe custom of the country. 

h ff the terms ofa contract are equivocal, that meaning eopun 
be followed which rclates to the subject of the agreement. 

i Interpretation ought to be in favour of him thatis to be oblig4 
by the covenant. For he that is obliged may be presumed that he de- 
signed to perform theleast- And it was the other's fault thet he did 
not express himself in better terms. 

k If an agreement is in the disjunctive, he that is to be beund beh 
his election. 

1 Sometimes conjunctive words are ta be taken disjunetiyely, what 
the sense leads to it. 

m Those expressions which cannot be understood in any sense ogee 
be rejected, as if they had never been written, 

n Superfluous words do not make a writing void. 

















f Plerumque ea que in prefationibus convenisse concipiuntur, — 
etipulationibus repetita creduntur. D. 45. 1. 184. 1. 

g In ambiguis orationibus maxime sententia spectanda est ejus em 
protulisset. D. 50. 17. 96. In Conventionibus contrahentium volue 
em potius guam verba spectari placuit. D 50. 16. 219. Hea 

Semper in Stipulationibus et in ceteris contractibus id segquisiup.qiel 
ctum est. dut si non appareat quid actum est, sequamur quod id 
one, in qua actum est, freguentatur. D. 50. 17. 32. 

h Quoties idem sermo duas sententias exprimit, ea poliseimum ami 
tur qua rei gerende aptior est. D. $0. 17. 67, Quoties in Stipulation: 
bus ambigua Oratio est, commodissimum est id accipi, quo res de quee 
&ur intuto sit. D. 41. 1. 80. Ug 

i Jn Stipulationibus cum queritur quid actum git, verba contra. 
torem interpretanda sunt. D 45. 1. 38.18. Pactio obscura 
gua Venditori et qui locavit nocere. placet, in quorum. fuit 
gem apertius conscribere. D. 2. 14. 39. 

k Ubi verba conjuncta npn sunt, sufficit alterutrum. esee 
&O. 17. 110. 3. 

1 Conjunctia nonsunquam pro disjunctione accipitur. D, 5 

m Que itg sunt acripta ut. intelligi ton possunt, peeinde 
ripta non essent. D. 50. 17. 73. 3. 

n Non solent que abundant vitiare scripturas. D. 50. 1T. 











NOTES. . 49 
e Express words sometimes are prejudicial, which, 3 omitted, had 


done no harm. 

p If the error of the notary in writing is apparent, the contract ought 
to be supported. 

q In all contracts, where no day of performance is added, the per- 
formance ought to be presently. 

r He that is to pay or deliver,is in no delay, till after the last me- 
ment of the day appointed. 

s A time is fixed for the sake of him that is to be obliged. 

t No one ought to be answerable for inevitable accidents, unless-he 
entered into covenant to stand to them. 

u Every thing may be dissolved by an act contrary to that which at 
first made it. 

w No one can do an aet to himself ; as one cannot mortgage to him- 
self, or buy, &c. what is his own. . 

x The agreements of private persons are not valid, if they are dero- 
gatory to the public interest. 

y Those that do mistake do not consent. 


JDubitgtionis tollenda causq contractibus inseruntur, fus. commune non 
ledunt. D. 50. 17. 81. 

o Expressa nocent, non expressa non nocent. D. 50. 17. 195. 

p S¥ Lidrarius in transcribendis Stipulatienis verbis errasact, nihil noe 
cet. D. 50.17. 92. 

q Jn omnibus obligationibus in quibus dies nom panitur, prasenti die 
debetur. IJ. 50. 17. 14, 

r. Totus dies arbitrio soloentis tribui debet. I. 3. 16. 2. 

a tn Stipslationibus promissoris gratia tempus adjicitur. D. 50. 17. 17. 

t Que sine culpa accidunt anullo prestantur. D. 50. 17. 23. 

u Ail tam naturale est quam eo genere quodque dissolvere, quo colliga- 
tum est. D. 50. 17. 35. Omnia qua jure contrahuntur contrario jure pe- 
reunt. D. 50. 17. 100. Fere quibus cunque modis, obligamur in contra- 
rium actis, liberamur, et cum quibue modis acquirimus, iisdem in contra- 
rium actis amittimus. D. 50 17.153. 

w Neque pignus, neque depositum, neque precarium, neque emptio, 
neque locatio rei sue consistere potest. D. 50.17 45. | 

x Privatorum conventio Furi publico non derogat. 1. 50. 17. 45 1. 
—ÜUtilitas publica prefertur contractibus privatorum. C. 12. 63. 3. 

y Non videntur, qui errant, consentire, D 50.17. 116. 2. In omni- 
bus Rebus qua Dominium transferunt, concurrat oportet Affectus. ex 
titraque parte contrahentium. D. 44. 7. 55 


$90 NOTES. 
z What is prejudicial to the Parties contracting, is prejudisial p 


their heirs or successors. 

a No Man is cheated that knows it and consents to it. 

b An obligation to perform what is impossible is void. 

c He thatis to bear the loss of any thing, ought to receive the pro 
fits of it. 

d He that contracts with another, ought to know who he deals with 
his state and condition. 

€ An agreement to cheut is not valid. 
: .$ No one ought to enrich himself by doing injustice to others. 

* No man shall take a bencfit of his own wrong. 

g Contracts against law and good manners are not to be observed, 

h No one ought to be suffered to act against his own agreement, 

i If. one confirms what has been done in his name, he shall be & 
ateemed to have given a commission for it. 








z Quod ipsis qui contraxerunt obstat, et successoribus eorum cbetali, 
D. 50. 1Y. 143. Non debeo melioris Conditionis esse quam auctor sut 
D. 50. 17. 175. 1. 

-a Nemo videtur. fraudare eos qui sciunt. et consentiunt. D. 50; % 
145. Uc 

b Impossibilium nulla obligatio est. D. 50. 17.185. Ea gue darilm 
possibilia sunt, vel que in rerum natura non sunt, pro non adjectie halite 
tur. D. 50. 17. 135. vid. D. 50. 17. 182. and 188. eto; 

c Secundum naturam est commoda cujusque Rei eum segui impe ur] 
tur incommoda, et e contra. D. 50. 17. 10. Ex. qua persona we 
erum capit, ejus factum prestare debet. D. 50. 17. 149. 

d Qui cum alio contrahit velest,velesse debet, nox ignarus 
ejus. D. 50. 17. 19. ^o RSÓÁ 

e Nonvalet si convenerit ne Dolus praestetur. D. 50.17.93. :. .+ 3." 

f Jure nature equum est neminem. cum alterius. detrimento fil " 
etipletiorem. D. 50. 17. 206. ul 

& Nemo ex suo delicto meliorem suam Conditionem facere pre 

. 17. 134. 1. 

g Pacta qua turpem causam continent non sunt observanda. D. & led 
27.4. ij 

h Nemini licet adversus pacta sua venire et. contrahentes. acier C. 
2. S. 29. uL af 

1 Si quis ratum habuerit quod gestum est, obstringitur 
D. 50. 17. 60.  Rgtihabitis retrotrahitur et mandato comparatep; * 
de Reg. Juris 10. | L* wy eq, 














NOTES. 491. 


k The solemn form of contracts cannotbe altered by private agree- 
ment, though the accidental circumstances may be altered. 

1 A legal contract may continue in force, though a case afterwards 
happens from whence it could not commence. 

m A debtor is rather to be favoured than a creditor. 

n Creditors upon good consideration ought to be paid before those 
that claim by gift, &c. 

o He that has been forgiven a debt may be supposed to have received 
60 much moncy. 

P It is one thing to se//, and another thing to consent to a sale ; where 
there is a different reason for it, or where the consentis to be from a dif- 
ferent person. 

q He that may alienate may consent to the alienation, where there’ 
is the same reason for the one as well as the other. 

r He that may give a thing, may sell it, unless a particular law for- 
bids it. 

s No one takes away a thing by force that pays the full price of 
Pd 

t The creditor of my creditor cannot make a demand of me by pay- 
ing my debt. 





k Nec ex pretorio necex solenni fure privatorum conventione quic- 
immutandum est, quamvis obligationum causa pactione possunt 
tmmutari et ipso "fure. D. 50. 17. 27. 

1 Non est novum ut qua semel et utiliter constituta sunt, dutent licet 
ille casus extiterit, a quo initium capere non potuerunt. D. 50 17. 85. 1. 
m Favorabiliores Rei potius quam Actores habentur. D. 50. 17. 38. 
—X Gui damus Actiones, eidem exceptionem competere multo magis quis 

dixerit. D. 50. 17. 156. 1. 

n Inte obscura melius est favere. repetitioni quam adventitio lucro, 
D. 50. 17. 41.1. 

o Si quis obligatione liberatue sit, potest vidert cepisse. D.:50.. 1T. 
115. 
| p- Aliud est vendere, aliud vendenti consentire. D. 50. 17+. 26. 

q Cum quis alienare, poterit et alienationi consentire. D. 50. 17. 
165. 

r Cujus est donandi, eidem et vendendi et concedendi jus ‘est. D. 
50. 17. 163. 

s Nemo prado qui pretium numeravit. D. 50. 17. 126. 

t Nemo ideo obligatur quia recepturus est ab aiio quod prastiterit. D, 
50 17. 171. 


592 NOTES, 


u He that delays to pay what is due, pays less than 1s due. 

w He ceases to be a debtor that has & good" exception or pleaiá 
his defence. 

x He does not delay payment who is willing and urgent to try th 
sight. | 

y The creditors are not defrauded if. a debtor does not improve he ! 
estate, but when he alienates a part of it. 

z He is defrauded who is hindered from advantages that might have 
been made, as well as from present profit. 

a In buying and selling the law of nations connives at some ae 
nirg, and over-reaching in respect of the price. 

b Noone is supposed to be deceived while he acts according $i 
law. 

c The same thing cannot be demanded twice of the same person b 
virtue of the same obligation. 

d In contracts the heir is answerable for the frauds of the deceased, 
where there is a covenant to bind him. 

e No one can have a title by the fraud of another that acts for ‘iss 


u Minus solvit qui tardius solvit. Nam et tempore minus solbeit.2. 
50. 16. 12. 1. Plus est statim dare, minus est post tempus dare heh 
20. 5. " 

w Desinit Debitor esse is qui nactus est exceptioners. justam, siet ai 

equitate naturali abhorentem. D. 50. 17. 66. 

x Qui sine dolo malo ad Fudicium provocat, non videtur moran fo 
cert. D. 50.17. 63. 

y Non fraudantur Creditores cum quid non acquiritur a Debitore, al 
cym quid de bonis diminuitur. D. 50. 17. 134. 

z Generalitur cum de Fraude. disputatur non quid habeat Actor, 8i 
guid per Adversarium habere non potuit, considerandum. D. 56, 1f. 

a Jn pretio emptionis et venditionis naturaliter licet contrabentibée & 
carcumvenire. D. 4. 4 16. 4. 

b Non capitur qui Fus publicum sequitur. D. 50. 17. 116. 4. 

c Bona fides non patitur ut bis idem exigatur. D. 50. 17. 57. 
dies concurrunt. plures Actiones ejusdem rei nomine, una quis agen c 
debct. D. 50. 17. 43. 1. e 

d dn contractibus qu ibus Dok pretatio vel bona fides inest, A 
solidum tenetur. D. 50. 17. 152. In contractibus successoris ex. p 
eorum quibus successerunt, non tantum in id quod £ervenit, Verum. 
in solidum tenentur. D. 50. 17. 157. 2. 

e Alterius circumventio alii non prabct actionem. D. 30. 1», ^ 


od 
| 






DNE 


NOTES. 595 


f Fraud is not to be judged of by the event only, but also by the 
design. 

g He who is persuaded that he hasa right, may be guilty of a mis- 
take, and not of deceit. 

h He that promises to pay, must have so much time allowed for pay- 
ment, as the distance of the place, or the nature of the thing promised 
does require. 

i A madman cannot contract at all, no not with the consent of his 
guardian ; but a minor above seven years of age may contract by him- 
self, where it is to his own advantage ; and in all cases with the consent 
of his guardian when he is above that age. 

Thus far of obligations, covenants and contracts in general. 

Tit. XX. $1. De mutuo, p. 245. Loan. "This is a nominate contract, 
stricti juris, unilateral. The remedy is by personal action: certi con- 
dictio. Dig. 12. 1. 

Hence interest is not due unless by express stipulation, or agreement. 
Dig. 22. 1. 3 and 30. Dig. 16.3. 261. It relates to perishable articles 
chiefly ; res fungibiles ; quarum una alterius vice fungitur, as wine for 
wine: grain for.grain : money for money. 

The borrower has the property in the thing lent: herein the mu- 
tuum differing from the commodatum. Mutuum as the civilians say 
quaintly, quia ex meo tuum fit. Hcrein, it is required, 1st, that the 
loaner should own the commodity with power of disposal : 2ly, in case 
of loss, it falls on the borrower. 

$2. De indebito soluto, p. 245. This 1s agreeable to the general 
principle, Zn re obscura melius est favere repetitioni quam adventitio lu- 
cro. Itis more expedient to favour the Plaintiff in re-demanding what 
ought not to have been received, than the accidental or adventitious 
gain of the defendant. See further on the subject of this section post 
Inst. 3. 28. 6 & 7. 





f Fraudis interpretatio semper in Sure Civili non ex eventu duntaxat 
sed ex consilio quoque consideratur. D. 50. 17. 79. 

g Nemo videtur dolo exequi, qui ignorat causam cur non debeat petere. 
D. 50. 17. 177. 1. 

h Nihil peti potest ante id tempus quo per rerum naturam persolvi pos- 
sit. D. 50. 17. 186. 

i In negetiis contrahendis alia causa habita est Furiosorum, alia eo- 
rum qui fari possunt, quamvis Actum ret non intelligerent. Nam Fue 
riosus nullum negotium contrahere potest: Puptilus omnia Tutore au- 
thore agere potest. D. 50. 17. 5. 

4G 


595 NOTÉS. 


. 

The condictio indeliti, approaches more nearly than any other form 
of action in the Roman law, to our action for money had and received; 
and the leading principle of that action is stated in the present section 
viz. si apparet eum dare opportere ; if the defendant ought as. an hones 
man, to pay the money. 

The Jaw laid down inthe present section, that money paid by Mu 
TAKE whether of fact or law may be redemanded (repetita) if in justice 
it ought to be repaid, is acknowledged not only in Tom&ins v. Barnet, 
1Salk. 22. ses v. Af Furlun, 2 Burr. 1012. Farmer v. Arundel, 2 Sir 
W Dlack. rep. 824. Bize v. Dickason, 1 Term Rep. 286. Buller v. Harrie 
son. Cowp. 565. Stevenson v. Mortimer. Cowp. 806, but in the later de 
cisions also of the English Luv. Thus, in Yotonson v. Hilson, et a.i 
Camp. N P. Rep. 290, assumpsit lies against Parish officers by the 
putative father of a bastard child, to recover the surplus of money paid 
to them as an indemnification for expences, the child soon after dying. 
So, no action can be maintained upon a note given by such putative f- 
ther, beyond the amount oi damnification. Cole v. Gower, 6 East, 116. 
Wildo. Griffin, 5 Esp. Ca. 141 : agreeable to the rule of the Roman lay, 
that condictio indesiti non datur ultra quam locupletior factws est "- 
cepit. Dale v Sollet, 3 Burr. 2133. 

So in Buck v. Buck, 1 Campb, 547, the ground whereon the ouis 
suited the plaintiff was the illogality cf the transaction, and plaintiff 
and defendant being in pari delicto, there was no reason to contravese 
the rule melior est conditio possidentis : this conforms with Tombinrp 
Bennet, cited 1 Viner, 269, see also Howson v. Hancock, 8 Term Rep 
575. m 

So in Rogers v. Kelly, 2 Campb. 123, The same principle was sor 
tended sor, viz. that money mistakenly paid may be recovered x 
nonsuit procceded on the action being brought against the wrom, 

The general principle is also laid down by Shippen i 
of U. States, 1 Binn. 27. 

Bur wHERE both parties are under a common mistake, the 
recover of the other, if the person suing has derived any benefit. 
ever from the transaction. Taylor v. Hare, 1 new rep. (4 Bos, & 

Non caw moncy paid with full knowledge at the time of j 
cumstances of lw. and fact, be recovered back. Bildie v. 
others. 2 East, 4, 69. Cartwright v. Rowley, 2 Esp. Rep. 
Hall. 1 Esp. rep. 84. Brown v. M Kinally, Ib. 279. 

Nor can money be redemanded, if it be paid where the 
not compel payment, but where natural equity would dictate it. 






























NOTES. 595 


Dic&ason, 1 Term Rep. 286. Astley v. Reynolds, Str. 915. Farmer v. A- 
rundell, 2 sir W. Dl. rep. 824. Moses v. M'Farlan, 2 Burr. 1012 

WHERE MONEY is paid bv a person deceived, he may recover it. Has- 
ser v. Wallis, 1 Salk. 28. 289. Thomas v. hip, Bull. IN. P. 150. 35. 

Wuere MONEY has been paid under judgement of a court of compe- 
tent jurisdiction, it cannot be recovered. The great case of /Moses and 
AMacferlan, 2 Burr, 1005, in which Ld. Mansfield traced the liberal prin- 
ciples that ought to govern the action for money had and received, 
has not met with the perfect sanction of the profession. lt was shaken 
in principle by AMarriot v. Z/ampton, 7 Term Rep. 269. and Brown x. 
AM Kinally, 1 sup. and Ch. J. Eyre strongly combats the form of action 
in Philips v. Hunter, 2 Hen. Black. 416. The old cases are discor- 
dant; see Barebone v. Brent; Mead v. Death and Follard ; and str 
Rich. Newdigate v. Davy, cited by Vincr, 1 Vin. ab. 268. 269. from 
Vern. 176. 1 Salk. 22. Lord Ray. 742. I fully concur with the prin- 
ciples of Lord Mansfield's decision in Moses v. Macfarlan. The 
court of conscience determined, that they were not competent to enter 
into a consideration of the agreement set up as a. defence against the 
indorsements. "The money therefore, was not recovered by Macfar- 
lan against Moses by the judgment of **a court of competent juris- 
diction:" else, I allow, it would be conclusive. If my suit de- 
pends upon considerations, which the court before whom Jam brought, 
is prohibited from discussing, surely my case hasnot been determined 
by their passing upon evidence incomplete and imperfect, not from 
any fault or neglect in me, but incapacity in them. The form of 
action, in my opinion, sufficiently embraces the principle of the case. 

WHERE MONEY has been paid ona void authcrity it may be recover- 
ed. Lamine v. Dorrell, 2 Lord Raym. 1216. Sir Rich. Newdigate 
v. Davy, 1 Lord Ray. 742. Bull. N. P. 133, which was for moncy for- 
merly recovered in the high court of commissioners temp. Jas. 2: 
Feltham v. Terry, Cowp. 419. Lot 207. where money was paid to an 
Overseeron a conviction afterwards quashed. Facob v. Allen, 1 Salk, 
27. where the attorney of an administrator improperly appointed, was 
held liable to an Executor. 

But see the following cases which are at first sight adverse to these 
last mentioned decisions. Pond v. Underwood, 2 Lord Ray. 1210. 
Sadler v. Evans, 4 Burr. 1986. Allen v. Dundas, 3 Term rep. 125. 
The question is, whether the person or the court who gave the authori- 
ty, were competent to give it, at the time when it was ziven. If a0, mo- 
ney received under such an authority is not recovcrable again by the 
person paying it: otherwise it is. 


596 NOTES. 


Money PAID ona consideration thathas failed, or on a contracte 
performed, may be recovered, per Ashurst in Stratton v. Rastall,% 
Term Rep. 369. 

So in cascs of contracts for the sale ofhouses and lands, where they 
are not compleated, or where the title is defective. The cases herein 
ted by Comyns (on contr. 2d Vol. p. 52. N. seq.) I shall merely ene 
merate for the present, Burrough v. Skinner, 5 Bur. 2. 2639. Flurem 
v. Thornhill, 2 Bl. rep. 1078. Richards v. Barton, 1 Esp. N. P. rep. 268 
Camfield v. Gilbert, 4 Esp. N. P. rep, 223. Chambers v. Griffiths, etall 
Esp. N. P. Rep. 150. compared with Johnson v. Fohnson, 3. Bos. sad 
Pull. 162. Hunt v. Silk, 5 East 449, Farru v. Nightingal, 2 Esp. N. P, 
Rep. 639. Elliot v. Edwards, 3 Bos. and Pull. 181. Alpass o. Wathim, 
8 Term. Rep. 516. Bree v. Holbeach, Doug. 654. Cripps v. Reade, 6 
Term Rep. 606. Robinson v. Anderton, Peake’s N. P. Ca. 94. Gum 
et al. v. Erheart, 1 Hen. Bl. rep. 289. All these cases are cited in th 
same order by Comyns. 

I forbear to notice here the question of damages in case of evi 
tion, because although connected with this part of the subject, it my 
be more properly treated under the head of bargain and sale, eed 


action ex empto. 2 


This Actron lies in England for money paid on  purchase:ofttk 
nuities, where title is not ready to be tendered on the day agreed eti 
See the cases in 2 Comyns Contr. 66. ie 

Cases where this action has been brought to recover money restitk 
ed on contracts, rescinded or not performed, depend upon the ated 
rescinding or putting an end to the contract itself. If one of the pan 
ties is empowered to do this, or if both parties consent that it shells 
done, then the actien for money had and received may be brought 
but if the contract still continue open, the remedy is an action feeit —- 
mages, wherein the contract must be stated and breaches assigns: 





| 
| 
| 
| 


| 
| 


1 
I 


Towers v. Barrett, 1 term, rep. 134. 1 Com. Dig. 134. citing 3386. - | 


364. Weston v. Downey, Doug. 23. Power v. Wills, Cowp. 4i. 
Payne v. Whale, 7 East. 274. Cooke v. Munstone, 4 Bos. and Pak. 
351. Dutch v. Warren, Str. 406. 2 Burr. 1010. Holmes v. I. ria 
Mod. 161. Hogan v. Shee, 2 Esp. rep. 522. Giles v. Edwweqiliqtte: 
term. rep. 181. Dewbury v. Chapman, Comber. 341. Holts* iso 

Comyns under this head states the case of fees received by. 










for business not performed, which are not considered as re BA. 


this action. a ud 
Notwithstanding a dictum in Marsh v. Kavenford, Cro. Ely <5: 
and a case in 2 Leon. 111. fees to counsel are now considered aa gilt 


NOTES. 597 


dam honorarium ; à present, not a payment; and they are not reco- 
verable by legal suit if not paid, nor subject to repetition when they 
have been paid Thornhill v. Evans, 2 At. 332. 3 Bl. Comm. 28. 
Turner v. Philips, Peake’s cas. N. P. 122. Chorley v. Bolcott, 4 term 
rep. 317. The fees of physicians are on the same footing; but this 
rule does not extend to surgeons, apothecarics, attorneys, solicitors or 
proctors, who may demand by this action pay for their services. In 
the courts of Pennsylvania the practitioners act in the capacities of at- 
torneys and counsel also, and can demand fees as I apprehend, in the 
former capacity only. But if a fee be given as a consultation fee, a 
retaining fee, or for legal advice, these will be sufficient considerations 
to prcvent the repetition of it. That a fee may be recovered from an 
attorney in whatever capacity acting, paid beforehand for the perform- 
ance of business not subsequently performed, has been directly deter- 
mined in our courts. 

At Rome, the counsel ( Defensores ) were the Patroni, who were the 
orators and pleaded the cause: Advocatz, assistant counsel: Procura- 
tores, proctors, managed the affairs of absent clients under specjal au- 
thority: the Negotiorum Gestores, were agents, or attornies in fact, 
undera general appointment: Cognitores, transacted the business of 
clients who were on the spot. For a long time, the patroni, received 
no fee as such for any particular cause ; but it was the custom for 
their clients to make them presents, and bequeath them legacies. 
Cicero mentions it to the honour of Lucullus, that he received great 
sums in this way; and boasts that he himself had gained by this sin- 
gle article about £200,000. sterling. Nepos also mentions the sums 
so givento Atticus, as much to his credit. Middleton’s life of Cicero, 
V. 2. p. 514. In the time of Cicero, only one counsel was allowed 
on a side: hence he occupied four days in his oration pro Cluentis, 
according to Pliny, Ep. L. 1 Ep. 20. 

In the time of Pliny the younger, there were two allowed in cases 
of impeachment : but they had their portion of time assigned to them. 
Plin. Ep. L. 2 Ep. and Lib. 4. Ep. 9. In his time also, they received 
fees; and the senior counsel were accustomed to take into causes, the 
younger members of the bar. Ib. Lib. 6. Ep. 23. But by some of the 
later emperors the practice of taking fees, was strictly prohibited. In 
Justinian's time the fee Praemium, Honorarium, was not to exceed 100 
aurei, for each cause. Dig. 50. 13. 1. 12. But if nothing was given or 
promised, they might sue for a reasonable compensation. Their office 
was publici juris, and they might be compelled to act. Cod. 2..6. 7. 
Cod. 1. 16. 7. Dig. 3. 1. 4. Students underwent an examination. 


598 NOTES. 


Cod. 2.8 3. Cod.2. 7. 8 and 17. If counsel used abusive language, 
or detended their client by false statements, or betrayed his cause, 
( Pr«varicatores ) they were suspended, removed or otherwise punish 
ed. Cod. 2. 6. 6. Dig. 48. 10. 13. 1. Cod. 3. 1. 14. Cod. 2.7.1. 
There was a treasury advocate, similar to our attorney general; a 
salary officer, employed in public prosecutions. Cod. 2. 9. 4 and 10 
11. 5. 

Notorious criminals were not allowed advocates. Cod. 3. 13. &. 
this seems to be the origin of the English practice, where counsel al- 
lowed to a defendant in a criminal cause, is ex gratia. Criminals were 
bound to appear. Dig. 48. 1. 3. 

In England, and in this country also, as I presume, the courts inter- 
fere in a summary way respecting the conduct of the bar. Turner. 
Philips, ub. sup. 

Moncy had and received will lie for premiums paid on marine insur 
ance, in cases dependant upon condition—where no risk has bees 
run—Xc. &c. whereon consult 2. Comvns Contr. 86. and the com 
pilers on insurance for references to the cases, Park, Marshall, &e 

The action lics to recover back money paid on an illegal content 
not executed, and when the suit aids the spirit of the law, by proceed» , 
ing in disaffirmance of the contract. Sec the cases collected Bp 
Comyns, 2 Com. Contr. 108. et seq. . 

SowrETIMES the right to an office mav be tried by indebitague se. 
sumpsit against the present holder of it, to recover the legal feesse 
ceived: and here also I refer to Comyns's collections of the cases; 
which I have adopted, not for the purpose of borrowing from á besk 
that deserves to be popular among the profession, but because his s 
rangement gives me an opening for observations that I can the mores 
propriately introduce. i. 

I wish money had and received, had been brought long ago foe fees. 
in cases of removals from office, by the governors of this state s: fep 
there are so many objections to the practice, that I cannot consulem 
the right of removal as fully settled even atthisday. It is indes@d 
crying evil; tending in the last degree to degrade and demoralizethe 
political character of the citizens; exciting and fostering an inemaser. 
ble spirit of political party, of selfish and insidious hostility, of aw 
cious and ambitious turbulence, destructive of private harmony;ued- 
and public confidence, and it threatens to fill the offices that ouglitá. 
be the rewards of knowledge, experience and good character, withamen 
who have nothing to recommend them but noisy insolence and cordis . 

eas. 











NOTES. TU. — 599 


.* Ld 


ignorance. I most sincerely wish the constitution itself could be freed 
from the imputation of giving sanction to this practice. "Therefore, 
whatever may be the result of the attempt, I shall offer a few conside- 
rations to show that some doubts may be entertained, whether a fair 
consiructien of that instrument will justify the practice in question. 

By Section 8. Article 2. of the constitution of Pennsylvania, the 
. governor has a general power of appointing ** all officers, whose offices 
are established by that constitution, or shall be established by law, and 
whose appointments are nct otherwise provided for." 

Can he make an appointment for a less term than for life, undcr the 
powerthus given to him by the constitution? For he has no other 
power in this respect, than what he derives from the words above quo- 
ted. The law of April, 3, 1804, ch. 2501, contains nothing to affect 
this question. 

The constitution is a part of the law of the land; and must be con- 
strued according to the common rules of construing all legal instru- 
ments assigning powcrs, conferring privileges, or enjoining duties; to 
wit, in the way most likely to promote the public good, and least like- 
ly to infringe on the liberties of the people. The governor of the 
state is (not the servant, but) the agent of the people: and his pow- 
ers, privileges, and duties, are to be construed, not inthe way most 
serviceable to his interest, but to their’s. Premising these observa- 


tions, I submit to the reader, that 
1st, A power to appoint to an office that is vacant, does not imply 


a power to remove from an office that is filled. 

2ly, A power to appoint to public offices becoming vacant, is neces- 
sary tothe public good, which requires them to be filled: but the 
power to remove a deserving officer, may serve to gratify private ani- 
mosity, or promote clectionecring interests, or remunerate electioncer- 
ing services, but itis not necessary for the public good. The public 
interest, requires no other condition to the appointment, than deve se 
gesserit, solong as tie person appointed shall behave himself well. 2 
Anstruth. Rep. 620. 621. Devereli’y case. ^ 

Sdly, A power to appoint generally, does not imply a power of re- 
moval according to modern, as well as ancient decisions. Co. Litt. 
233. a. b. 1 Sid. 74. 2 Anstr. 619. Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 157. 
et seq. : this litter case seems to me to afford strong reasons in favour 
of my position. Sce also 3 Mass. rep. 160. 

Aly, A power to appoint generally, will not authorizea special ap- 
pointment. This follows from thc known doctrine of the law, that c- 
wery power and authority vested in an individual by law, must be 


X 
600 @& NOTES. 


strictly pursued, and strictly construcd: and the mode of appointment 
(where power of appointment is given) must follow the terms of the 
power. Marbury v. Madison,1 Cranch 157. 162. 174. Com. Dig 
Poiar. 

Sly, A power to appoint generally, amounts to a power to appost 
for life, or quam dui bene se gesserit. For if no term of limitation ie 
made, how can the office legaily terminate, but by death or misbebe 
vior? This indeed, seems to follow ofcourse. The law expressly — 
that grant of an office quam diu bene se gesserit, and grant for life, amount 
to the same. Co. Litt. 42. 3 Inst. ch. 12 p. 117. 1 Show. Rep. 510 
523.531 536. Harcourt v. Fox. 

6ly, A power to appoint either for years, or durante bene plait 
implics a coextensive power of removal, ex vi termini. For the same 
reáson, a general power of appointment, so far from implying, negatives 
such a power of removal More especially as it is the settled lepl 
construction of such a general power, that when executed it is for lik, 
or which is the same, during good behaviour. 

7ly, The constitution furnishes no words that clearly give an uncor 
trolled power of removal If it be not given, itcannot be taken. Pow 
ers cannot be assumed by construction, or implication, unless where 
they are absolutely necessary to effectuate the purpose enjoined byte 
instrument conferring them: and even this case admits of some doubt 
In the case before us, if an office be already filled by acompetentoffiett, 
the purpose ofthe constitution is fully answered. The public good 
quires no further interference. 

This reasoning holds stronger in the case of an executive magisttate- 
of a republic, whose powers and privileges should be cautiously dé 
fined, and strictly construed in favorem libertatis. I know of we 
croachments so dangerous, as constructive powers. 

8ly, I would urge, that every office is an estate, a frechold : of: which 
according to the known principles of law,no man can be legallyde 
prived but for some cause known to the law. This is consi 
point settled in Harcourt v. Fox, 1 Show. ut. sup. 

9ly, This practice, is contrary to all the analogy of offices, 
which the governor has not this power. For misdemeanor in 
judge may be impeached. For gross misconduct out of 
tained by verdict in court—for mental or bodily incapacity, he 
removed by address. Conviction by indictment of an i : 
fence will furnish causc to displace a justice of the peace. ' 
conviction, no offence is so efficacious to remove an officer of 
"office, a Prothonotary, a Clerk of the Sessions, of the 




















NOTES, eoi 


of the Supreme Court, a Register, or a Recorder, as an offence against 
the good will and pleasure of the governor for the time being. Nor 
can any degree of knowledge, capacity, industry or integrity, retain 
such a man in office, who happens to have exercised his indubitable 
right of suffrage against the opinion of a successful chief magistrate. 
Surely, it could not have been intended that the innocent or conscien- 
tious exercise of the most important right that a freeman possesses if 
a representative government, should be convertible into a crime suffi- 
cifpt to divest him summarily of his vested freehold, and deprive him 
and his family of their support, without accusation, without proof, with- 
out trial, at the arbitrary will and pleasure of agovernor. And this 
is not an imaginary case ; but what happens almost universally on 2 
contested election for a governor; and is become so common, that the 
depravity of public opinion begins to consider as right, this iniquitous 
system of political warfare and corruption. 

10ly, In every grant, whether of a chattle, a landed estate, or an of- 
fice, the grant is to be construed favourably to the grantee. 

11ly, In offices that relate to the administration of justice, or that 
require much skill and experience, (as all those do, which I have enu- 
merated) the bearing of the law founded on public expedience, is tow- 
ard appointment for life, or during good behaviour. Harcourt v. Fox, 
1 Show. ub. sup. and 4 Mod. Rup. 169. 174. 9 Co. Rep. 97. Sim 
George Reynel’s case: the reasoning arguendo in Veale v. Priour, Har- 
dress, 351. Deverell’s case, in 2 Anstr. 620,621. 

That most of the offices I have enumerated, are considered as of 
great public consequence, appears from the requisites by law annexed 
tothem. They require bond to be entcred into for the due perform- 
ance of the duties : previous residence within the county or district 19 
required of the candidate: they are declared incompatible with the 
holding of officcs under the United States. Would a man be required 
to have these quulifications, and to make these sacrifices for a tenure 
that may be put an end to at any moment?  Morcover in the case ofa 
Prothonotary or Clerk of a court, it is often three or four years before 
he can receive fees enough to support liis family: they lie over till the 
eventofthe suit. Is it reasonable that a man should take an office of 
this description pro hac vice ? In the case of Avery v. the Inhabitants 
of Tyringham, 3 Massach. Rep: 160, the court unanimously held 
that the contract with a minister for an indefinite period, was a con- 
tract for life with the usual condition of good behaviour, and that he 
could not be turned out at will. Otherwise, no man of education would 


accept the offices 
433 


G02 NOTES. 


In England all officers of justice, have a frcehold for life in their 
offices, and cannot be removed but for misdemeanors: see all this 
strongly laid down in judge Wilson’s Bacon Ab. Vol. 5. p. 200, and 
the casesthere cited. Nor can the king himself grant an office, but ac- 
cording to ancient usage, (Ib. 199): nor can he appoint an incompe- 
tent person as prothonotary, or master, or clerk of a court; otherwise, 
the court may refuse to admit him, or may remove him for incompetes- 
cy, (Ibid. 203.) It would be very well for the state, if such were the 
settled law at the present day. 

12thly, If power be given to appoint for life, or during good be 
haviour, or what is the same, to appoint generally, the iaw is, that aay 
limitation is void ; and the officeris in, not by the limitation, but by 
the prerogative, statute, instrument, or custom, that confers the power 
of appointment. The wording cf the commission therefore is of mo 
importance. 4Zunt v. Eslisdon et al. Dyer, 152. cited and confirmed by 
Justice Eyres, 1 Show. 517. Colt v. Glover, Hob. 153. cited amd 
confirmed by Holt, 1 $n. 535. Harcourt v. Fox. 12 Mod. 43. 200 
Saunders v. Owen, 5 Mod. 386. 

I do not again touch on the public good so manifestly requiring tii 
construction, or on the public evilsso strongly marking the prevailug 
practice : but I quit this side of the argument with observing, that, ia 
a doubtful case the construction is by law in favour of the grantee. 

I am well aware that formidable considerations arrange thermseless 
on the opposite side of the question. 

T urs practice has been acquicsced in during the whole of the adili- 
" uistrations of Gov. M'Kean, and Gov. Snyder, and in two cases Ue. 
der Gov. Mifflin, Scott vice Redick, and Ross vice Jacks. But Ide. 
not wonderatthis. All parties agrce in the practice, as necebssrpde 
reward their partizans ; and the officer removed, expects of course t 
be reinstated, when his faction shall again succeed to their opposeiig 
in politics. During the proprietary government, no man was evegite. 
moved from office compulsorily. . 

THe. question, I have beentold, has beenagitated in N. York state, and 
the officer left without remedy : but I am not acquainted with the que 
or its circumstances. At any rate, wc are not bound by the precedam) 

It has been urged, that the officers subjected to this posue 
of removal, have no punishment for delinquency, or incapacáty, A 
nexed to them, and therefore that such a discretion is necesaarily i 
vested in the governor for the time being: but the legislature bam 
nexing penalties to offences, as in the case of duelling, or by decladiing: 
the causes of a motion, can take away this necessity whenevep E 









NOTES. 603 


please. In the meantime the officer for mis-uscr or non-user is open 
to indictment, and his bonds are liable to be put in suit. 

Tn constitution it is said, ought to be censtruec popularly, and not 
by the rules of strict law: but I do not know how to define a poputar 
construction ; and the rules of law are founded not mercly on experience, 
but on considerations also of general cxpedience. 

Tne people (it is said) by the governor, “heir agent, have 5 right to 
resume ad libitum powers conferred for nu cerzón tine: te waich 1 re- 
ply, that powers so conferred have alwrys been construed appointments 

,for life, with the usual impli.d condition cf good behaviour. Nor have 
the peonle or their agent, any rijbt to interfere in the conscruction of. 
powers given hy the constitution, while that constitution -contitucs in 
existence. The incumbent ouce arpomted, must bz displaced by h gal 
adjudication. 

Tue spirit of the Eaciish constitution loans to permanent sppoint- 
ments, wherees arcquent chatur-s, 2nd even exclusion hy rotation best 
harmonize with the spirit ofa republican constitution. 

Still, removals ought to be subject to some rule founded on the 
terms of the power given: nor is ita very republican construction; 
that converts the chief magistrate into an aruitrary tyrant, that exone- 
rates him from responsibility, and authorizes him to punish his poli- 
tical opponents as criminals, and substitute private rancour for’ public 
justice. 

My construction it may be said, would deprive a governor of the 
choice of his confidential officers, such as a secretary of state, and 
compel him to retain his political or personal enemy in such a station. 
But this would seldom happen if tlie office were for life ; and at all e- 
vents, the officer is compellable to do his duty, and obcy the directions 
of the chief magistrate, who may chuse his advisors where he pleases. 

THE most permanent objcction to mv reasoning is, the undisputed 
practice under the constitution of the United States, wherein the word# 
of the power are alinost the same with those above quoted. 

But I cannot think the analogy of the two cases will hold, consider- 
ing that under the constitution of the United States, the exercise of the 
right of removal is subject to the formidable check of the senate’s con- 
currence in the successor nominated by the president. A difference 
80: important, as to destroy the force of all reasoning from the ont to 
the other. A power in every instance controlled in its exercise by. 
the senate, cannot be compared with a powcr in evcrv instance uncon- 
trolled} and exercised as the caprice of the governor for the time he-- 
ing, heated by recent opposition, and goaded by revenge, may dictate. 


604 NOTES, 


I do not pretend to urge these reasenings as conclusive, but Fess 
not help chinking that under the magnitude of the evil, they are worth 
discussion. 1 state them with hesitation, but not without hope, thata 
similar view of the subject may be taken by some person more com 
petent than myself to bring the subject imo full day. 

U..der the mild administration of Gov Mifflin, there was not muchta 
cons;-lain of on this subject. ‘The personal virulence indulged in, against 
Thomas M*Kcan, (upon the whole, the most able and independant Ge 
vernorthissiate has yet known) might excuse many of his removals, eva 
where reasonable objections to thc officer in other respects, would. not 
justily them. But the power itself, is not necessary to the public i.' 
terest ; it affords too much temptation to the exclusive gratification di 
private fe¢ling ; and its exercise of late years, has not tended to less 
the slight.st of the objections to which it is liable. 

As to the other cases wherein the action for money had and receryed 
will lie, I refer to 2 Comyns, 1—137, Selwyn and Espinass’s Nisi Prim 
compilations, and Evans’s Essays on this action. 

§ 2. De commodata, p. 245. According to Ferriere and lord Huh, 
not merely exactam but exactissimam diligentiam is required. Cogit. 
Bernard. so; 

§ 3. De deposito, p. 247. This section is copied in substappe Byt 
Bracton, lib. 3. ch. 2.99. b. and adopted by Lord Holt in the leadisig 
case of Cozgs v. Bernard, 2 Lord Ray. 915. I refer generally on aiti 
doctrinc ei bailments, to Mr Balmanno's edition of sirW. Jones's qe 
tise. ont a 

§ 4 De pignore,p. 247. Dig. 13. 7. 4. Ib. 13. 7. 6. Ib. 13. 7.9. 9. 
13. 7. 40. 2. This is a nominate contract done fidei. The cortespem. 
dent remedial action, is actio pignoratitia. Itlies for the debtor tage 
cover the goods pledged or pawned, and for the creditor for expeneett 
interest, &c. i, e. Damages, where the thing pawned did not belawjs. 
the debtor. Dig. 13. 7. 3. 8 and 9 The pawnee may retain his. Gay, 
out of the valuc of the thing pawned before any other creditor. 

1.10. The creditor 1s bound to exact diligence; for rotat ec) 
be clas« d under, the strictest care; strict care; ordinary care 9 Auer 
negligence ; gross negligence. The application of these shades efdéll9 
ference will be found exemplified in sir W. Jones's treatise qnd shay. 
ses r:‘ferred to in Balmanno's edition. Strict care being required, Ai 
bailee wili b. liable for the consequences even of slight ncgligenps, ap 

Pignus, ig the pledge of goods capable of delivery: Hypothiqe, da 
the mor: gage of real property, or of rights not capable of déljedag& 
judge Burnet, enquires ipto this subject at seme length in Jysiflfip: 



























NOTES. 605 


Rolle, 1 Atk. 165. and determines that under the Roman law actual de- 
livery was not always necessary in cases of pawn; butin che English 
law it is. See on the same subject Cortelyon v. Lansing, 2 Caine’s N. 
¥. ca, in error, 202. and "ones v. Smith, 3 Vez. jun. 278. 

Tit. XVI. De verborum obligationibus, p. 248. 

Leonina constitutio. Cod. 8. 38. 10, 

Stipulation, is a nominate contract, stricti juris: for the party pro- 
mising only, is bound; and is bound only, according to .he terms of his 
promise. The correspondent actions, are certs condictio, and ex séipu- 
latu. The former being the remedy when some specific thing is the 
subject of the contract, the latter when there is no specific thing stipu- 
lated for. You promise to deliver me your brown gelding on sucha 
day. Here the remedy is certi condictio. You promise to deliver me 
on such a day a sound horse of such a value. Here it is ex stipulate, 
See Dig. 45. 1. 74 and 75. 

For a commentary on the law of England as relatingtothis section, 
I refer to the case of Brymer v. At&yns, 1 Hen. Bl. Rep. 175. 

$2. Quibus modis stipulatio fit, p. 249. 

Priusquam is dies praterierit : so in our law, if. mortgage-money be 
to be paid by various installments, the mortgage cannot be sued till the 
day of the last installment be expired. 

4 3. De die adjecto perimendz obligationis causa, p. 250. 


Pacti exceptione submovebitur. Id est pacti conventi. 
9 4. De conditione, p. 250. À bond is not due till the event of the 


condition either by the Roman or the English law. Dig. 50. 16. 34 
and 50 16. 213. Bacon’s Ab. Debt. B. 

The chance is transmissible. Dig. 45. 1. 57. Dig. 44. 7. 44. Condi- 
tional legacies might be received in presenti by giving the Mutian 
security against the condition. Dig. 35.1. 9. 35.—1. 18. 35.—1. 79. 3: 
, All the learning of conditional bonds, will be found in Serjeant Wil- 
liams's note 1, page 66 to Butter v. Wigge, 1 Saunders, 66: and te 
Fowel v. Forrest, 2 Saund. 48. and to Holdipp v. Otway, 2 Saund. 108 : to 
which may be added when there are sevcyal alternatives ina condition, 
option is with him who is to perform the act. Doug. 14. Layton v. 
Pearce. 

If Defendant is the cause why a condition precedent is not per- 
formed, it is to him tantamount to performance. 1 Powcl, 372. Sir Rd. 
Hotham v. East, I. Comp. 1 Term Rep. 638. 

If obligor renders the performance of the condition impossible, the 
bond is forfeited. Secus as to the act of God, the act of the law, or the: 
apt of theobligee. Zulbut v. Watts, ct tux. 1 Ld. Ray. 112. Co. Litt. 


608 | NOTES. 


208. But it. was decided in South Carolina, 3 Bay’s 108, that if sab 
sequent to a contract for the delivery of slaves, an act of the legislature 
forbids the delivery, the contractor is liable for their value in. mogey, 

§ 5. De loco, p. 250. So, bills of exchange are frequently drawn ani 
accepted payable at a particular place. 

§ 7. Que in stipulatum deducuntur, p. 251. The damages heres 
ticed under the form of a penalty for non performance, seem liable te 
our equity decision, necesse est actori probare, quod ejus intersit, 

The following references on the subject of damages, may be of uss. 

Cases of damage assessed and stipulated by: the centract itself? f& 
Vin. 58. Lowe v. Peers, 5 Burr. 2238. Stintonv. Hughes, 6 Term Reg. 
13. Orr v. Churchill, 1 Hen. Black. 232. Astley v. Weldon, 2  Bos.and 
Pull. 346. Smith v. Dickenson, 3 Bos. and Pull. 630. Arangwin v. A 
rot, 2 Sir W. Bl. 1190. T 

Wherever damages are clearly assessed by consent of parties, a«out 
of equity willnot interfere on either side, but leave the party to hisle- 
gal remedy. Lowe v. Peeres, 5 Burr. ub. sup. Woodward v. Gyla,§ 
Vern. 119. Rolfe v. Peterson, 2 Br. Parl. ca. 436. Ponsonby v. Adm, 
Ib. 431. Black v. East India Comp. Finch. 117. Roy v.'.D. of Beesfert, 
2 Atk. 190. Small v. Williams, Prec. in Chan. 100. But in allemig 
where the penalty can reasonably be construed into a. mere seeusij 
against contingent damages, equity will relicve; in the spirit efle 
words of this section above cited. Benson v. Gibson, 3 Ath: mere 
Fonb. Eq. 142. 156. 2 Ib. 423, 424. DO 

Damages are sometimes given beyond the penalty. Br. ca. ig mh 
16. Elliot v. Davis, Bunb. 23. Hugh Audeley v , Hard.- 186/48 - 
ca. 226. 271. Yea v. Lethbridge, 4 'Term rep. 433 compared with Gas 
nen v. Lethbridge, 2 Hen. Bl. 36. and Evans v. Brander, Ib. 5s Me 
the case of a sheriff. Lord Lonsdale v. Church, 2 Term rep..388 ib 
everrules White v. Sealy, Doug. 49 and Brangwine v. Perrot, 8 tt! 
Bl. 1190'which two last however are conformable to Wilde e. € 
6 Term rep. 503. Hobson v. Trevor, 2 P. W. 191. 1 Ser. 533.19 MI. 
511. Blunden v. Barker, 10 Mod. 462. Perit v. Wallis, 2 Dait Midi 
252. Graham v. Bickham,4 Dall. 149. Smeedes v. Hoogtaling,- beh 
Caines N. Y. Rep. 48. d/c‘Clure v. Dunéin, 1 East. 436. But s : 
case of Clarke v. Seton, 6 Vez. 411. mes Ls 

Damages include debt, costs, and interest, ZZoldipp v. Otway, 
107. Blackmore v. Fleming, 7 Term Rep. 447. Philip v. Bacon, ! 
298 and 304. uoi - 

That the court may assess damageson a Judgment by défgedidti 
plain cases without a writ of enquiry, or refer them to the protisadig® 















ae’ Se oe cinch nh tn 








NOTES. | 607 


wherever they are easily liquidated or depend on calculation, see Serj. 
Williams’s note 2, to Zoldipp v. Otway, 2 Saund. 107. to which add the 
following references. Buthen v. Street, 8 Term rep. 326. Nelson v. She- 
ridan, Ib. 395. Byrom v. Fohnson, Ib. 410. Maunsell v. Ld. Masureene, 5 
Term rep. 87. Thelussch v. Fletcher, Doug. 302. Rashieigh v. Sal- 
mon, 1 H. Bl. 252. Andrews v. Blake, ib. 529. Longman v. Fenn, 
Ib. 541. 7 Vin. Abr. 301—308. Bailey on bills of exch. 66, 67. App. 
5, Kidd, on bills of exch. 155. 

The practice of the exchequer is contra. 1 Anstr. 249. Chilton v. 
Harborn. 

As to the American cases to this point, see Brown v. Van Braam, 
3 Dall. rep. 355. Purviance v. Angus, 1 Dall. rep. 185. Graham v. 
Bickham, 4 Dall. rep. 149. 

In England the arrears of an annuity are not allowed beyond the 
penalty of the bond ; nor interest ; unless in very special cases. Afack- 
worth v. Thomas, 5 Vez. 329. Indeed the whole doctrine of interest 
beyond the penalty, even in cases of bond, where the penalty is the 
debt, is shaken by Clar£e v. Seton, 6 Vez. 411. but aliter where the 
action is on the judgment. 

The cases respecting damages on eviction by title paramount, I 
will briefly refer to here, but I shall have occasion to Uiscuss that 
question hereafter. ‘That damages in this case are not recoverable 
beyond the purchase money and interest, Staats o. Executors of Ten 
Eyck, 3 Caines N. Y. rep. 111. Pitcher v. Livingston, 4 Johns. N. Y. 
rep.1. 4 Johns. N. Y. rep. 18. f. rris v. Phelps, 5 John. N. Y. rep. 
49. Bender 9. I'romóerger, 4 Dall. rep. 441. 2Mursto v. Hebbs, 2 
Mass. rep. 433. Gore v. Brasicr, 3 Mass. rep. 523. Semble, Melscn 
v. Matthews, 2 Hen. and Mum. 164. 

The contrary doctrine is held, Kirkby’s Cornect. rep. 3 arid in Li- 
ber and wife v. The Executers of Persons, 1 Bays Souih Car. rep. 19. 
Z£xecutors of Guerard v. Rivers, lb. 265. and 4 Massach. rep. 108. 

But one damages for one injury. You mav sue scveral, and without 
entering up judgment, elect de meliorióus dampnis. Bull. N. P. 7. 19. 
11 Co. rep. 6. 7. Roll. ab. 31. 1 Com. Dig. 125. Burr. 1423. Cro. Jac. 
118. 1 Salk. 10. 1 Lord Ray. 270. 2 Bac. 9. Esp. Dig. N. P. 318. 518. 
1 Johns. N. Y. rep. 290. 1 Hen. and Munf. 488. 2 Hen. and Munf. 
38. 355. 

These are some of the more general heads of the doctrine of damages, 

which I have thus referred to, because I do not know witere the cases 

 appropriated to them are elsewhere collected. The technical doctrines 
on thie subject, are beside the purpose of these notes. 


608 NOTES. 


The dimages here alluded to by Justinian for the purpose of cover 
ing a breach in the stipulation, do not apply to the damages arisng 
from injuries done, or reasonably expected ; which will be treated 
Lib. IV. tit. XV. de obligationibus que quasi ex delicto oriuntur. 

Tit. XVII. $ De stipulatione Pura, p. 253. See Dean v. Newhal, 
8 Term rep. 168. Nain v. Battie and Wardle, 5 East. 147. 

Tit. XIX. $1. De judicialibus stipulationióus, p. 255. Judicial asd 
pretorian stipulations agree in this, that they are both compulsory a 
the party. They differ, in as much as, 1st, The judicial relate to the 
jurisdiction of the judge, the prztorian are confined to subjects aad 
persons under the jurisdiction of the praetor. 2ly, The judicial stipe 
lations, are subsequent to the hearing of the cause, guia tum demum 
dex quis esse incipit. Cod. de lite contest. Prztorian on the contre 
ry take place prevjous to or, pending a case; etiam lite non contestale 
Dig. 3. 2. 40. penult. 3ly, Judicial stipulations act upon the pary 
only, and do not require sureties or pledges; while the Preetorian, ab 
ways require security, Dig. 46. 5; 7. 

$ 2. De pretoriis, p. 255. 

Ut in iis contineantur Hdilitie. — Edilitie stipulationes eunt, quilt 
venditor cavet de morbis etvitiis rerum venalium: puta rem merbeun 
non esse: aervum fugitivum non esse: et de ceteris, que edicto edd 
promittuntur. Dig. 21. 1. 

Pretoris ergo vocabulum hic in sensu latissimo, accipi videtur pro que- 
eis magistratu cui est jurtsdictio. — Heinecc. 

An instance of these Pretorian stipulations, is our wfit of Ee 
trepement. In Jefferson v. The Bishop of Durham et al. 1 Bos. ah 
Pul. 108. it was determined that no court of law, had the power of i-' 
suing a writof prohibition to prevent a bishop from committing wast! 
and it was not settled whether the court of chancery had. InJillsee 
v. Macnamara, 8 Vez. 70. injunction against cutting trees that cos 
TRIBUTE te ornament.” In Smith v. Collyer, 8 Vez. 89. injumetiod 
against cutting timber was refused, where the title was disputed, he 
cause it was trespass and not waste. It would have been better had te 
law been otherwise, for the reason of the thing is clearly with mid 
plicants. 

These dilitian stipulations, were the warranties of scund cog 
modity and good title, exacted of every seller in favour of oer 
buycr. - 

The old. £gilitian law was very strict, and required the sellos wit 
only to declare all the faults of the slave, the animal, the 
he sold, but held him bound even fer those faults he did not 








fie hm . 


- a m A 2, 


NOTES. 699 


know. Thus Dig. 21. 1. 1. 2. Causa Aujus edicti proponendi Sst, ut oc- 
curratur fallaciis vendentium et emptoribus succurratur, quicunque decep- 
tia venditoribus fuerint. Dummodo sciamus venditorem etiam si igno- 
rarit ca, que /Edies prastari jubent, tamen teneri debere. Nec est hoc ini- 
quem. — Poterit enim ea nota habere. venditor :. nec interest emptoris 
cui fallatur ignorantia venditoris an calliditate. To remedy these ca- 
ses of fraud or of ignorance on the part of the seller, they gave the 
action quanti minoris, the aciion redhibitoria, and the action ex emfto. 

The action guanti minoris, was given to a purchascr who was induced. 
to pay an extravagant price for a commodity, beyond its value. Cer- 
tainly rcjected with great propricty in mod.rn times, as an inconveni- 
ent practice, encouraging law suits without number. 

The actio redhibitoria compelled the seller to take back the commodi- 
ty and return the price, where the quality was worse than might rea- 
sonably be expected, and rendered the article purchased unfit for the 
purposes of the purchaser. In some cases of refual on part of the 
seller, this was an actio in duplum, compclling the seller to pay double 
the original price. 

The actio ex empto, was given on defect of title, and in cases of e« 
viction ; of which hereafter. 

The civil law maxim doubtless is, that a sound price warrants a 
sound commodity: 1 Domat. 80. and so it has been determined in 
Whitefield v. M'Cleod, 2 Bays, 380: and so indeed it seems to me the 
case ought to be determined. But this is not the law of England or 
of Pennsylvania, where the maxim is Caveat Emptor, and where in 
common cascs, the scller warrants nothing but his title to the commo- 
dity sold. Norhas the purchaser any remedy on discovery that his 
purchase is defective or unsound, unless he made a previous and spe- 
cial stipulation, that the seller should stand to all defects, « The cases 
in England establish these principles. . 

1st That the seller is bound by his warranty of title at or just before 
the sale. But he is not bound by a warranty made after thesalc is com- 
pleated. Finch's law, 289. 

2ly That a warranty given at one time, when no sale takes place, does 
not bind even betwcen the same parties, at a subsequent time, when a 
new contract with sale does take place, 1Str. 414. anonymous. 

3ly That no action lies as to the quality ofthe thing sold, unless there 
was fraud or deccit in the conduct of the seller at the time, or unless 
there was on his part an express warranty of the quality. If the plain- 
tuff procceds on the ground of fraud, he must prove that it was with 

4 I . 


610 NOTES. 


knowledge in the seller at the time, scienter; and this must be laid 
and »roved in an action of trespass on the case. 

If he proceeds on an express warranty, he may bring assumpeit fet 
the moncy, but he must distinctly prove such a warranty. 

4ly That where there is no deceit, or no warranty pretended, the ad. 
ler is without remedy as to the quality. 

5ly That the sale of a personal chattel raises an implied warranty d 
title, has been decided in Defrees v. Trumper, 1 Johns. N. Y, Rep 
after 2 Bl. Comm. 451. and the civil law: thatit is sufficient to sup 
port assumpsit for the price paid. 

6ly But noaction of deceit willlie against the seller who seis 
without title, wiless a scienter be proved: Medina v. Stoughton,1 Lol 
Ray. 593. Nor even then, if thescller was out of possession; fd 
thar ought to have put the purchaser on his guard. Ib. and. Raswells. 
Vaughan, Cro. Jac. 196. 

‘That there is no implied warranty of quality, appears from the fd- 
lowing cases. Co. Litt. 102. 1 F'onb. 109. 371. 373. n. k. 2 BL Com 
451. Gov. and Co. of the B. of. England v. Neuman, 1 Lord Ray. 4 
Price v. Neal, 3 Burr. 354. Steuart v. Wilkins, Doug. 20. Bree s. Hot 
bech, Doug. 630. Pasley v. Freeman, 3 Term Rep. 57. per Belle. 
Fenn v. Harrison, 3 Term Rep. 757. Mead v. Young, 4 Term Rep. % 
Fydeil v. Clark, 1 Esp. Rep. 447. Williamson v. Ailison, 2 East, 444 
Parkinson v. Lee, 2 East, 314. a leading case. Dunlop v. Waugh, Peake’ 
Ca.N. P. 123. 

AMusgrove v. Gibbs, 1 Dall. 217. Moses Levy, v. Bank of the U.S. 
4. Dall. 434. 1 Binn. 27. Seixas v. Wood, 2 Caine’s N. Y. Rep. 48S 
et al. v. Moses etal. 1 Johns. N. Y. 96. Perry v. Aaron, Ib. 199. " e 
Jrees v. Trumper, Ib. 274. 

This seems to me a most demoralizing principle of decision. - 1 ! 
know of no argument, that can be adduced to prove, that if I givwa 
hundred dollars for a commodity that ought to be worth a hundred dél- 
lars, I am defrauded if it be worth only ten. You say the seller kuew 
nothing of it. My answer is, that before he took a hundred doliis 
from me, he ought to have known that the thing he pretended’ to (di - 
was reasonably worth that price. He had every means of rer 
this; and to sell it for a hundred dollars without knowing ity 
much a fraud as if he had asked achousand. Generally, the 
relies on the seller. Nor can the buyer cheat the seller; wheress; the 
seller under cur law, in nine instanccs out of ten, may cheat hid bayer 
with impunity. The rule of caveat emptor, ought to be changed : "Mato 
caveat venditor. Itis a disgrace te the law that such a maxim should 


— — Mea mes eee —m— —— — — 


—- — PASE 2h. c —— 














NOTES. - 611 


he adopted, and I rejoice to sec that the good sense of the South Ca- 
rolina bench has revolted at it. 

The chancery cascs in support of this rule, ought to be classed as 
cases in support of falsehood and fraud. Oldfield v» Round, 5 Vez. 
508. Shirley v. Davis, cited 6Vez. 678. Dyer v. Hargrave, 10 Vez. 
405. Bowles v. Atkinson, Sugd. 199. Anon. in chan. 1803. Ib. 214. 
Notwithstanding some gleams of common honesty appear in Medlish 
v. Motteux, Peake’s ca. 115. compared with Oidfield v. Round, 5 Vez. 
508. 

That it is the duty of the seller to declare the faults of the commodi- 
ty before sale, is not only conformable to the J/Edilitian injunctions, 
but is sanctioncd by Cicero, Grotius, Puffendorf and Valer. Maximus. 
Sec the reference in Sugden's law of vendors and purchasers, page 1. 

Tit. XX. De inutilibus stipulationibus, p. 257. Things to which no 
title can be made, are not the subjects of stipulation. But ifthey be 
sold by contract, the purchaser thus deceived has his action ex empto. 
Dig. 18. 1. 25. 1. Dig.18.1.4.5. Dig. 18. 1. 62. 1. 

§ 3. De facto vel datione alterius, p. 258. I do not sce the valid rca- 
son of this; for if A promise that his debtor B shall pay C a hundred 
dollars, and C gives a fair consideration, rclying on. the promise, it is 
in fact the promise of A to pay the money: there is an implied gua- 
ranty. 

6 4. De co in. quem confertur obligatio vel solutio, p. 258. This is 
headed in Ferriere, Alteri stipulari ncn licet. 

To the doctrine of this section there are three exceptions: a father 
may stipulate for his son, or vice versa: a debior may stipulate in fa» 
vour of hisown agent, or his cretiior: where the promissor ts bound 
In a penalty whercin the stipulator is intcrested. 

§ 10. De conditione ünpossibi, p. 261. I have already treated of 
impossible conditions. By the English law, a | ond with an itpossi- 
ble condition, is a single bond. Co. Litt. 206. 209. Bui if a possible 
condition be made void by the act of God, the act of the law, or the 
act of the obligee, the obligation is saved. In Vuteng v. Hubbard, 3 
Bos. and Pull. 291. a Swedish vesscl freighted by a. British subject was 
embargoed : held that the freight could not be carricc by proceeding af- 
ter the embargo was taken off whenthe goods embarked would have 
been out of season. T'he reason ofthis section will apply to immoral 
and illegal conditions. 

$ 11. De absentia, p. 261. nostra constituttone, Cod. 9. 38. 14. 

$ 12. De stipulatione post mortem, p. 262. Because it may enure to 


























ea NOTES. 


the heir. Scea case somewhat like this, Burgh et ah v. Preston, 8 Tem. 
Rep 483 " 
$ 16. De promissione scripta in Instrumento. p. 263. This is anale 
gous to justice Wilmot’s idea, that there canbe no nude pact, if delibe- 
rately written. . 

Tit. XXI De fide jussoribus, p. 266. That stipulation and promisit 
may be more certain, Caution and Sureties may be added to them. 
Jussor, a surety, called otherwise repromissor, adpromisscr, spontan. 
prades, vades, is one who binds himself in the same contract conjoint 
with the debtor, for the greater security of the creditor or stipulato | 

Fide-jussor, differs somewhat from Expromissor, who di 
the first debtor, and assumes the debt. Dig. 12.4.4. Fide jussio dit 
fers from Constitutum, which is a promise on a nude pact without stiph 
Tation. Inst. 4. 6. 9. " 

Dr. Wood, from whom I have taken the above, adds gravely, “lt 
** is made a question whether our Saviour was fide jussor, or spo 
** only, or expromissor for the Fathers under the old testament.” A 
question that may safely be left to the Canonists to discuss. | 

The obligation of a surety binds his heirs, though no m b 
made of them. Inst. 3.21. 2. In England, the executor is, but tl 
4s not so bound. 1 Inst. 209. a. 210. b. 

If there be more sureties than one, each is bound in soli: 
$. 21. 4. whether it is agreed ornot; but by the later law, tl 
allowed three advantages, viz. 

1. Beneficium ordinis, sive excussionis, seu. discussionis > 
he may compel the creditor to sue the principal debtor, fi 
3.c. 1. Unless security were given judicially in'a. cause” 
against the principal. , 

2. Beneficium divisionis. Inst. 3. 21. 4. by which the c 
driven to resort to each surety for his proportional share only; 

3. Beneficium cedendarum actionum. By which a surety 
the whole debt, can demand of the creditor to transfer over, hi 

' tions against the other sureties, before he shall recover the whol 
the one sued. . 

The surety becomes bound co-extensively with the t 
spect both of sum and time. Nor can he bind himself. 
Inst. 3. 21. 5. Dig.46.18. 7. If the surety is in danger, 
before the time of payment, or demand indemnification. Dig. 
1. If the surety being sucd, makes a bad defence, the 
except to paying him. Dig 17. 1. 8. 8. and 29. 4. 

Minors, Inst. 3. 20. 9. and Soldiers, Cod, 4. 65. 31. 





DENN 


NOTES. 613 


from being sureties. So are women, under the senatus consultum 
Velleianum, Dig. 16. 1. pr. Wood. civ. l. 226, 227. 

The judiciary cautions or securities belong to another place. 

The common fide jussion, is an accessary stipulation. Dig. 45. 1. 5. 2. 

Fide jussors might be taken in cases ex delicto et quasi ex delicto. 
Dig. 45. 1 8. 5. and 45. 1.70 but in respect of pecuniary penalties 
&nd punishments only. 

Fide jussors bind their heirs, because the latter receive the benefit 
of all the civil contracts of the decedent. Dig. 44. 7. 49. Dig. 50, 
17. 59. 

In a former part of the notes, I gave an account of the case of 
Thursby 9. Gray’s administrators, at the court of common pleas, Nor: 

 thumberland county ; vide ante p. 462. Since writing that note I have 
had occasion to enquire further concerning that case: and I find by 
my fri-nd, Mr. Watts, who took the exception to my charge, that al- 
though the case was but slightly argued either before me, or before 
the supreme court, the substance of his objections to my opinion, waa 
as follows: | 

That as the seller did not chuse to sell his goods on the credit of the 
purchaser alone, but thought fit to insist. on two persons to be joint- 
ly bound, he had a right so to do: therefore as to him, they were both 
principals ; though with respect to each other, they might stand in the 
relation of principal and surety. Of their contracts, interests, ormotives, 
he could not have, and need not have any knowledge: allhe was to 
look to, was, two securities equally and jointly bound ; and such were 
Spring and Gray. ‘They might dispose of the goods between them 
as they pleased: the one might be a nominal, the other a real purcha- 
ser; or they might be joint purchasers; or neither might be the real 
purchaser; but both become joint and equal obligors. His right 
therefore was against both and either. 

The cases of negotiable notes do not apply: for the course of mer- 
cantile transactions, require that mercantile paper should be current 
onthe faith of each and every name that appears upon it: for one man, 
may prefer it for one name, another for another. — 

Every indorser is a fresh drawer, and every name on the paper a 
principal. The reason of speedy notice is, that the person who has 
passed the note, and to whom notice is tobe given, has put the right of 
calling for payment out of his own power, and transferred it to the 
holder. 

The cases of security for the performance of services, have no rela- 
tion to the present case. - 


614 NOTES. 


Here, both parties undertake the performance af the condition of 
the bond; in the cases of services to be performed, one only is to pere 
form them : and if hencglects the duty, his employer alone can know 
it, and alone can give notice of the neglect. 

Ido not know what answer to give to this agreement, conclusive to 
myown mind: and I incline therefore to agree with the decision & 
the court. Nesbit v. Smith, would go near to bear out my charge; 
but in that case the surety gave notice to the obligee to sue, who after 
ward gave time at his own risk. The early chancery cases go the fall 
length of my doctrine ; but they arc too bricf,and too loosely reported 
to be relied on. To the list of references that require strict constra- 
tion in favour of sureties, add ex parte Rushworth, 10. Vez. 409. E 
dowes v. Neill, 4 Dall. 133 and Ludlow v. Simond, 2 Cain’s cases in e» 
ror. N. Y. pages29 and 57. Ihave dwelt the longer on Thursby s 
Gray’s, Adm’rs. because I regard it as a case of great practical impor 
tance, and which I hope to sec more fully reported with the —— 
the decision at length. 

6$ 4. De pluribus fide jussoribus. p. 267. In Cowell v. ierit | 
Bos. and Pull. 268. and the next case, Sir Edward Deering we 
TVinchelsca, it was determined that one of many co-sureties py 
the whole debt, could only sue each of the other co-sureties for | 
table proportion. These cases are commented on with som 
probation by the Lord Chancellor in Craythorne v. Swinburne, 
appear however to be conformable to the civil law doctrine 
well founded in equity, though perhaps not in publi¢ exp 
asmuch as they no doubt, tend to the multiplication of suits. 

To this title respecting fide jussion, should be added In: 
tit. 14. $ 4. Que exceptiones fide jussoribus prosunt vel non, 
the gcneral rule is laid down, that sureties may avail themseh 
the defences which their principal might have used. 

Tit. XX HI. De literarum obligationibus. p. 269. 

Ex principalibus constitutionibus. See the constitution of th 
perors Honorius, Theodosius, and Constantine, in the second. 
the Codex Theodosianus, title Si certum. 

Per nostram constitutionem. Cod. 4. 30.14. 

"This proceeds on the principle of our limitation acts, 

Tit. XXII. De obügationibus ex consensu. p. 270. J 
from stipulations wherein the presence of the parties was 
Dig. 44. 7. 2. 

Tit, XXIV. De emptione et venditione, p. 271. Thi: 
contract confirmed by the civil law. It supercedes B: 





















DEN 


NOTES. 615 


change, the most ancient mode of traffic. It gives rise to the action 
ex vendito against the buyer, for the price agreed on ; and to the action 
ex empto against the seller, in case of defective title or defective quality, 
in the thing sold. Dig. 18.1.28. The buyer bringing the action ex 
empto must tender the price, and the seller suing ex vendito must ten- 
der the thing sold. 

Hence, nothing forbids that one man should sell the property of ano- 
ther : he does so at the risk of the aczion ex empto, in case of eviction. 
Dig. 18. 1. 28. 

The seller is considered as in all cases warranting the title. After 
the bargain is completed, the purchaser stands to all losses. Even an 
express agreement, that the seller should not warrant the title against 
his own act, was void, as encouraging fraud. Dig. 2. 14.7. 7. 

Warranty under the Roman law, is either express or implied. It is 
implied in every case, but may be enlarged or restrained by express 
covenant. Dig. 19. 1. 11. 18. unless the warranty be so restrained, 
-the seller is bound to auswer not only the price paid but the damages. 
Evicta re, non ad pretium dumtaxat recipiendum, sed ad. id quad interest 
competit ; ergo et 8i minor ( minoris pretii ) esse cepit, damnum emptoris 
est. Dig. 21. 2. 70. Thisisfairreciprocity. The value is considered, 

not at the time of the sale, but at the time of eviction, and each party 
runs his chance of what value the article may then be. Dig. ub. sup. 
Dig. 19. 1. 45. Sub init. and Dig. 21, 2. 66. 3. infin. If one hath built 
or planted on an estate, and is evicted, either the person recovering or 
the person who made sale without title, must stand to the damages sus- 
tained by the bona fide purchaser. Jnd expeditius videbatur : si mihi 
alienam arcam vendideris, et in eam ego adi ficavero, atque ita eam do- 
minus evincit. Nam, quia possim. petentem dominum, nisi impensas 
ed;ficiorum solvat, dolo malo exceptione summovere; maris est ut ea res 
ad periculum venditoris non pertineat. Quod et in servo dicendum est, 
et in servitutem,non in liberfatem evinceretur, ut domtnus mercedes et im- 
pensas prestare debent. Quod si emptor non possideat adifictum vel 
seroum, ex empto habebit actionem; in omnibus tamen his casibua, si sciens 
quis alienum vendiderit omnimodo teneri debeat. Dig. 19. 1. 45. 1. It 
appears to me that both cases should be put on the ground of the scien- 
ter: viz, if the over £uew the building was proceeding, he ought to 
pay the value to the person evicted ; ifthe seller énew he had no title, 
the whole damages oughttofallon him. And such [ apprehend would 
be the law even in Pénnsylvania and New York, in cases of eviction 
from real property by title paramount. Ifthe seller énew his defect of 
title, he ought to be liable not merely. to principal and interest, but to all 


616 NOTES. 


damage. The buyer was liable for mesne profits, and if the impro 
ments exceeded the mean profits, the buyer had the advantage. Dig.& 
1. 48. If the buyer makes a weak defence, and does not vouch the selle 
to warranty, the latter is discharged. Dig. 21.2. 53. When the buyer hs 
given notice to the seller of the adverse suit, the latter is bound to a 
tend to the defence. Dig. 21 2 63. 1. The buyer might bring ex emp 
on discovery that his title was bad, even before suit brought by thered 
owner. Dig.19. 1. 30. 1. 
There was no distinction as to warranty, between real and seu 
property. Cod. 8. 45. 6. 
Under the Roman law, the contract by mutual consent of th 
constituted the Emptio vénditio: which was compleated by iiem 
one side, and payment on the other. The payment of the. 
price, or even of earnest money ( Arrha ), was not of the essence ofthe 
Contract: it was binding by mutual consent alone. It was icons 
mated indeed by payment and delivery, but its obligatory n: 
ed before. The arrha (earnest) was evidence only of the 
‘gumentum emptionis et venditionis contracte. The Locus 
was allowed, while the mutual assent was as yet incomplete inj 
form; (section 1 of this title) and if exercised, was exerci: 
terms prescribed in this section. Butthe emptio venditio, 
quire the verbal forms prescribed in the contract ex i 
Roberts on the statute of frauds (note 84) erroneously supp 
By that statute, the Bargaiz and Sale has different 
-Emptio venditio, and the earnest is a part, and not evidence 
contract ; and furnishes the right of action, but not without 
the price on one side, or of the commodity on the other. 
ministratix, of Tyler, 1 Salk. 113. Hob. 41, 
** If a man by word of mouth sells me his horse or any o 
** and I promise nothing for it, this is void and will not alter the 
** of the thing sold. But ifone sell me a horse, or any. other 
** money or other valuable consideration, and the same’ thin 
“ delivered to me at a day certain, and by our agreement 
* pointed for the payment of the money—or all or part of the 
* paid in hand—or I give earnest money to the seller—or Ltak; 
“ bought by agreement into my possession, where no money 
“ earnest given or day appointed for the payment, in. all €] 
* there is good bargainand sale of the thing to alter the. 
“ And in the first case I may have an action for the thing, o 
** for his money : (upon tender that is) : in the second 
** for and recover the thing bought : in the third case En 
































ae MM 


NOTES. ' 617 
* thing bought, and the seller for the recovery of his money: in the 


9 fourth case where earnest is given, we may have reciprocal remedies 
€ against each other: and in the last case, the seller may sue for his 
* money." Sheph. Touch. of Comm. Ass. 222, 

But, notice of readiness to receive the goods, and to pay the price 
at the time and place agreed on, is equivalent to tender: and will be 
a sufficient averment to support the declaration: for the terms on each 
side are concurrent contracts. RKuwsonv. "fohnston, 1 East, 203, and 
- the cases therein cited. 

Bargain and sale may be rescinded by mutual consent before the 
vights of other persons are concerned, but not afterward, Smith v. Field, 
S Term Rep. 403. 

In Cooke v. Oxley, 3 Term Rep. 653. it was determined that though 
the seller give time to the proposed buyer to deliberate upon the pur- 
chase, and the latter within the time agrees to buy, yet, if no conside- 
ration intervene, the seller may refuse to sell. The same principle 
in Hanson v. Meyer, 6 East, 614. 

See further on this subject, the cases digested by the compilers Sug- 
den, 174. 1 Com. Contr. 83. 89. 90. 2 Com. Contr. 210. Bailey and 
Bogert 9. Ogden and Ogden, 3 Johnston, N. Y. Rep. 399, also con- 
tains a good investigation of some of the points first above noticed. 

The doctrine of sales dependant upon market overt, is not adopted 
in New-York state, so as to give title to a bona fide purchaser to goods 
which he bought of A, but which at the time belonged to B, and A. 
had no title to, or right to sell. So that here, where there is no market 
evert, a bona fide sale does net change the property as against the right- 

ful owner. See Kent’s observations in Wheelwright v. Depeyster, 1 
Johnson's N. Y. rep. p. 479, 480. who cites the civil law maxim, ne- 
mo plus juris in alium transferre potest quam ipse havet ; Pothier traite 
de vente, part 1. 7. 2 Erskine’s Inst. of the law of Scotland, 481. and 
Lord Kaime's Hist. law tracts. tit. History of Property. 

I am not at present aware of any other case on this point, in this 
-Sountry. 

In Pennsylvania, by act of 28 May, 1715. $6. The words grant, bar- 
-gain, sale, shall be adjudged an express covenant to the grantee, that 
the grantor was seized of an indefeasible estate in fee, freed from in- 
cumbrances done or suffered from the grantor, and also for quiet en- 
joyment against the grantor, his heirs and assigns. ‘These words how- 
ever do not amount toa general warranty. 2 Binney 95. Lesse of Gratz 
*. Ewalt. 

I have already stated the civil law, and our law on the general sub- 

4K - 


618 NOTES. 


ject of the sale of chattels, under the /Edilitian regulations. Thece 
of eviciion irom real property under an cjectment with verdict aad 
judgineucz in favour of ttle paramount, is by no means settled by us» 
formity of decision in this country, 

As to the measure of damages to be allowed to a bona fide purchy 
ser of land under a warranty, or covenant of seizin in the seller, @ 
covenan: for quiet enjoyment, where the purchaser is afterward evice . 
ed by title paramount, and where no fraud is alledged against the sd. 
ler, ditierent courts have considercd che subject differently. 

N.ither in Pennsylvania or in. Eagiand, has it ever been held dut 
the real owner recovezin; his possession, was in any way liable & 
pay for the Luprovemen.s Mace on Ais land. If indeed he lay by, asd 
concunled his tite, while those improvements wcre carrying on wi 
his kaowledge, he oughi not vo recover atall. Last India Company 
Vineeit, 2 Atk. 83 Anonymous, Bunb. 53. Savage v. Forster,9 
Mod. 27 Hunning v Ferrers, 2 E.q. Ca. ab. 357. Anonymoms,§ 
Eg. Ca ab. 522. 523. Mex v. Inhabitants of Dutterton, 6. 'T'erm ree 
554. Doe oa demise of Winckly v. Pye, 1 Esp. rep. NN. P. 364 
Fuiskes v. Joyce, Prec. Ch. 7. Kecch v. Ziall, Doug. 22. Weelliy 
v. Bucknell, Cowp. +73. E suspect we do not know enough of thesi... 
cumstances under which the successful owner was held liable ne : 
value of improvements under the civil law. 

In Es. gland, «he measure of damages, was the value of the inde 
the time when the deed wich warranty was exccuted. For whickia 
our American cases, the following authorities have been cited: Bra - 
ton, 584. 19 Hen, 6. 45. a. 61. a. Bro. ab. tit. Voucher, pl. 69; Db. 
tit. Recouver in value, pl. 59. 22 Vin. Ab. 144, 145, 146. . Ab. pl, 

,9. «Tb. 1,2, 3. 1 Reeves’ histury of the English law, 448. Gli 
Ute. G. 3. ch. 4 Bullst v. B uist, Godhbold, 151. fame 

Such was the determination in New-York ; (to wit, that howeer iii . 
land might have risen in value, or whatever improvements the purdaskt 1 
might have made, yct that) the micasure of damages was the paschat : 
money and imerest. Staats v. Enxccutsrs of Ten Eyck, 8 Cains My ' 
Pitcher v. Lisingsiza, 4 Johns. rep. 1. AMorris v. Phelps, 5 join, i 
rep. 49. Fron ta's doctrme Judge Spencer dissented, 4 Johns, a. 
18; ho.diug ibac the purchas.r was entiiled tothe value of, the lad 
with the imp-ov: ments at the time of evictions a oa GN 

In Massachus*its, auurston v. Hobbs, 2 Mass. rep. 407. ..08 
Bladfer.t o. Page, Uh. 455. Parsons, Ch. J. lays downthe old 
method 9: proceeding by vouching the warrantor, or À 
zaude chate upox the warranty ; and dociarcs the law to be, ip4iop post 


















DM 


NOTES. 619 


'' before the court, that the mcasure of damages was the consideration 
money paid and interest ; that being the amountof the plaintiff's actual 
loss, who received no estate by the convcyance to him: but gave no 
opinion what the damages would be, where a grantee actually sc zed 
by virtue ef the conveyance, was ousted bv a paramount title: proba- 
bly in that case a different rule would obtain. This question aiter- 
ward came before the court in Casweil v. Wendell, 4 Mass rep 108. 
(Anno 1808 ) Parker, Judse on the circuit, on covenants for breach of 
warranty, had directed the jury, that the measure of damages vias the 
value of the land at the time of eviction. The supreme court sev, the di- 
rection was right; and that the value of the land at the time when che 
covenant was broken, (to wit, whem the conveyance was excc.ited,) as 
agreed hy the parties, was the proper measure of damages: wherein 
there is something like a dissonance. 

Vhat the value of the land at the time of the eviction, isthe: measure 

of damages in an action of covenant broken, was also determined in 
Massachusetts, in Gorev. Brasier, 3 Mass. rep. 523. 

lhe same point was also determined. in Connecticut, Kirkby's 
Conn. rep. 3. 

The same point was determined in South Caroiina, Lider and Wife 
v. Parsons, 1 Bay's, 19. and in Gruerand's E ecitzrs v. River, lb Lo5. 

Domat also assents to this being the doctrine oi tac civil law. 1 Dom. 
77. sect. 15,16. 

In Pennsylvania, the supreme court have decid-d in conformity to. 
the New-York cases, in Bender t. Fronberger, 4 Dall. rep. 441. Any. 
1806, which settles. the law in this state 

In 1804, a case came before me at Chambersburgh, in Frankiin 
county, of the same kind; wherein I charg.td the jury, that the mea- 
sure of damages was the improved value of the land, together wich the 
value of suchimprovements as had been made for the better and more 
effectual enjoyment of the land itself, as fences, barn, stables, &e. 
conceiving, that a man being evicted after having spent some of the 
best years of his life in directing and superintending reasonable and 
suitable improvements, was entitled to all the increase of value, which 
was little enough too. Sothought the jury, and brought in a verdict 
accordingly : and the decisicn was acquiesced in. But in Gleis Ex- 
ecutors v. Washmood, tried in Cumberland county, 9th May, 180€, the 
Court (whose opinion was not given tillabove a twelve month after) 
adopted the rule in Fromberger’s case, and on special verdict where- 
by the measure of damages was left as a legal point for the court ro 
decide on, directed the average purchase money per acre, with inier- 

































GRO NOTES. 


eat from the time of eviction to be allowed for 23 acres, 128 perch, 
recovered by title paramount. The purchase money was 34. 15». ps 
acre, and the land would have sold at the time of eviction, for for 
times as much. 

Upon the rule of caveat emptor, adopted by the English, and som 
of the American states, all this is just. Noman ought to be bosnd - 
beyond the value he receives for a commodity, valued by the muted 
consent of buyer and seller He cannot, it is said, be bound by pom 
bility for £1000, in consequence of selling that for which he receives 
butahundred. The answer is, that he ought not to warrant generally 
that which he is not quite sure belongs to him. Every body whe 
buys in this country, buys with an expectation that his land will ris | 
in value, and is capable of improvement. These are qualities attach - 
ed to every American purchase; and if a manis induced to spesd 
much time and much money in confidence of the title conveyed to kia, 
and warranted to him, he ought to be remunerated, as I think, at de 
expence of the negligent or dishonest seller. I do not know a mos 
goodly and comfortable doctrine for the land-jobbers of this couitif 
than caveat emptor. Doubtless, if the purchaser can taint the ale 
with fraud, or prevea scienter of bad title on part of the seller; tie 
latter would be liable te full damages in covenant, in this state, auh® . 
an action on the case for deceit, where the English law prevaily. G@ 
Litt. 384. 1 Fonb. 366. Com. Dig. 236. a. 8. 4 Johns. repo 
But how seldom can this be done, in Pennsylvania at least, wiests . 
patent itself is nothing more than prima facie evidence of title 3. «vt 

In Virginia, Nelson v. Matthews, 2 Hen. and Munford, 164. da 
same measure of damages is adopted as in New-York and Pepi 
vania. (See inthat case a discussion of the meaning of the wast - 
more or less, in a deed.) e (t 

De emptione pura. 271. (nd. s 

In iis autem.] vid. Cod. 4. t. 21. De fide instrumentorum. — cd - 

By the civil law all covenants of sale were good, whether vidus. 
or unwritten, to whatever value they extended. But in Engind | 

hath been enacted by 29 Car. cap. 3. sect. 17.  *'That no centseatdllp : 
“the sale of any goods, wares, and merchandize for the price-a£: We: 
* pounds sterling or upwards, shall be allowed to be good, exoegg>alt:: 
* buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually xecotvedis-.‘ 1 
“same, or give something in earnest to bind the bargain, ‘ow: nui 
* of payment, or unless some note, or memorandum in writing: dile. 
“said bargain be made and signed by the parties to be 








eae: - 


NOTES. 621 


* such a contract, er their agents thereunto lawfully authorized.” 29 
Car. 2. | | 

§ 1. De pretio certo. p. 272. Sed nostra decisio. Cod. 4. 38. 15. 

6 2. Inquibus pretium consistat. p. 273. In nostris digestie. Dig. 
18. 1. De contrahenda emptione 

§ 3. De periculo et commodo rei vendite, p. 274. The doctrine here 
laid down astothe purchaser bearing the risk, is acknowledged im 
Phillimore v. Barrey, 1 Camp. N. P. Rep. 513. Sugd. L. of Vend. 
and Purch. 176. 177. 

Tit XXV. De locatione et conductione, p. 276 This contract is more 
extended than our letting and hiring; including as in the next sec- 
tion, a quantum meruit, for work and labour. | 

§ 1. De mercede cellata in arbitrium alienum. p. 276. 

Actio prescriptis verbis. p. 277 — Dicta est actio PRESCRIPTIS VER- 
BIS, ex eo quod prescriptis verbis rem gestam demonstrat. Ob eandem 
quoque causam, hec actio dicitur YN FACTUM ; et interdum plena orationc 
ACTIO UTILIS PRESCRIPTIS VERBIS IN FACTUM. Vinn. 

€ 3. De emphyteusi. p. 277. 

Emphyteuseos contractus. An emphyteusis (from Purse to plant) 
is a contract made by consent, by which houses or !ands are given to 
be possessed forever, or at least for a long term, upon condition, that 
the land shall be improved, and that a small yearly rent or pension 
shall be paid to the proprietor. And this pension, rent, or canon, 
may be paid in money, grain, or any other thing. The perpetuity, or 
long term, granted, distinguishes this contract from letting and hire- 
ing: for an emphyteusis was originally made on account of barren 
lands, which no person would take for a short time, through a fear of 
the charge of cultivation; but afterwards the best lands were often 
granted out upon this emphyteutical contract; the nature of which 
was first fixed by the emperor Zeno, who determined it to be a dis- 
tinct contract from buying and selling, letting and hircing .vid. Cod. 4. 
t.66 De jure emphyteutico. For some thought it to be the contract 
of hireing, when they considered, that a rent was paid for it to the pro- 
prietor; and others imagined it to be the contract of buying, when 
they saw the tenant had a perpetuity, or at least a very long time, and. 
2 sort of property init: but the tenant had only utile dominium, not a 
direct dominion; and therefore the contract was distinct from buy- 
ing and selling. 

The tenant is called emphyteuta, being under an obligation to plant 
and improve the land : and he has such an interest, that he may sell 
the profits of his right in the estate to another, with the consent uf the 


€22 . NOTES. 


proprietor, to whom two months must be allowed to determine whed 
ther he will himself become the purchaser. But, when there sa 
new tenant, a Juudimium, (which is almost the same as a relief, ssd 
generally amounts to the value of the 50:h part of the estate,) must be 
paid to the proprictor by the new tenant, as an acknowledgment fe 
being put into possession. Cod. 4. t. 66.1. 3. 

' There is also a pension or rent called a canon, which must be pad 
annually, as an acknowledgement of a superior title ; and this cams 
is always due every year, whether the tenant receives any profits & 
not: for itis not pald, in. consideration of profits received, but a 
an acknowledgment of the tenure. 

The emphyteusis of the Koman law seems to have given rise to ow 
{ee-farm and copyhold estates in England. Harris. | 

§ 4. De forma alicui facienda ai artifice, p. 288. This section seems 
intelligible only on the supposition, that the labour of the workman 
considered as let out by him, and hired by his employer. Hes, 
Hesketh and Blanchard, + East, 144. where, a man contracts to give age 
ther half the profits ofa concern for managing it, would be a Locstis, 
Conductio,as well as a partnership. 

Tit. XXVI. De societate, p. 280. As to the general doctriss .ó 
partnerships, and sleeping partners, sce Coope et al. v. Eyre, e$ ab 
Hen. Bl. 37. and Waugh v. Carver, et al. 2 Hen. Bl. 235. in which es 
the civil law doctrine of partnership, is also touched upon, as to whe 
constitutes partnership. Sce to the same purpose, Bond v. Giless;t 
Campb. N. P. Rep. 185. Dry v. Boswell. Ib. 329. Wist v. Small, Bv 
331. N. Alderson v. Pepe, Ib. 404. N. Peacock v. Peacock, 2 Camb. Bi- 
P. Rep. 45. Guiden v. Robson, Ib. 302. Neersome v. Coles, Ib. Gtfo 
Rartonv. Harrison, Ib. 97. 2 Taunt. 49. eoa. 

The French Commandite, where a party ina concern is liable odp 
in respect of the share hc brings into partnership, is not known in Baga: 
land. But it appears to be introduccd in the banking establishmetts 
ef this country ; with whatlegal success is yet some what dubionsv€t* — 

Commanditv, sometimes signifies partnership, where one advesweáe | 
money, and the other skill. Expte. Garland, 10 Vez. 114. from the: 
Dictionaire de l'Academie Francoise. 

§ 8. De cessione bonorum, p. 283. ZEE LIMIT, 

See on the effect of cessio bonorum, Expte. Burton, 1 Atk. 955. Jade 
lantine v. Golding, Cooke’s B. Law, 522. Warring v. Knight, Ib. Sibi 
Sinn v. Keefe, 2 H. Bl. 553. Robinson v. Bland, 1 Sir W. Bi: BBs 
2 Burr. 1078. Mullzy v. Barker, 5 East, 319. Hunter v. Potts, "letum 

vp. 182. Silv. Worswick, 1 Hen. Bl. 665. Smith v. Huchenepy d 


die land Salle... me mem eno MR 


mee ee: when 


ee 





DENEN 


NOTES. | 628 


East 6. Folliot v. Ogden, 1 Hen. Bl. 123. Potter v. Brown, 5. East, 
124. Cornelius Van Raughv. John Van Arsdaln, 3 Caine's N. Y, 
Rep. 154. 

The cases under the insolvent debtors acts, of New York state, are 
of such frequen occurrence, that I must decline a reference even to 
their names, referring to the indices in Caines and Johnson. 

In Pennsylvania see Yumes v. Allen, 1 Dall. Rep. 188. Miller v. 
Hall, 1 Dal. Rep. 228. Thompson v. Young, 3 Dal. Rep. 294. Gorgerat t. 
Hurray, Ib. 366. Harris v. Mandeville, 2 Dail. Rep. 256. Emory v. 
Greenough, 3. Dall. Rep. 369. Baker's case, 1 Binn. 462. Croxalls 
case, Ib. 589. and as to the mutual operation of cessio bonorum, Smith 
v. Brown, 3 Binn. 201. confirming, Donaldson v. Chaméers, 2 Dall. 
100. and Afiller v. Hall, 1 Dall. 228. 

If defendant pleads a discharge as a certificated bankrupt, i in a fo- 
reign country, he must prove that the cause of action arose in that coun- 
try, Green v. Sarmiento, April Sessions, 1811, Coram Washington, in 
Philadelphia. 

The mode of distributing an insolvent's estate in Virginia, will be 
found in Anderson v. Anderson, 1 Hening and Munford, 12. and Finsley 
v. Anderson, 3 Call’s Rep. 329. 

As to the effect of :he insolvent laws of Virginia, on the future pro- 
perty of the debtor (sh;zh is not protected by those laws.) Sce Payne 
v. Dudley, 1 Wasluugton, 198. 

On the effect of the insolvent laws of Maryland, see Reily v. Lamar, 
2 Cranch, 344. On the effec: of the prior lien of the United States. see 
AL Lean v. Rank, and Heyer, 5 Joluson’s N. Y. Rep. 369. and Cried 
States 9. Fisher et al. 2 Crancn, 858. and United States v. Hooe, 3 
Cranci, 73. 

In the Massachusett’s Reports, in Bays, and in M'Henry. I can 
find nothing of :noment to the present purpose. 

In Simms v. Slacum, 3 Cranch, 300. A discharge undcr an insol- 
ventiaw obtained by fraud, was decided to be a discharge in due course 
af law. 

€ 9. De dolo et culpa a socio prastandis, p. 283. See on this sub- 
ject the case of Z4omzson and Hipsip v. Frere, 10 East, 418. The 
American editor has 442«J a note io this case, including the Ameri- 
can decisions on this poir* up to 1810. 

Tit. X XVIL De mandato, p. 284. This title has reference to the 
gencral principles of the prolific head of powers; which is too cxten- 
sive to be treated here. I mustreicr to Powel, and the Chancery de- 
cisions on this subject sincc his book. If the persom empowered, is 


624 NOTES. 


paid for his services, the contract is not mandatum, but locatio ap 
ductio 

§ 13. De mercede, p.288. This is another instance wherein thehin 
ef the labour and service of another, whatever is to be performed, 
is ranked under the /ocatio conductio ef the civil law. 

Tit. XXVIII De obligationibus que Quasi ex contractu nascuntat, 
p- 289. These are obligations that arise on account of services reader 
ed for a person, without his express command or direction. As wha 
ene manages the affairs of an abscntce, for his benefit, without ls 
knowledge: negotiorum gestio: which gives the attion negetienm 
grstorum. 2dly, Guardianship: tutele administratio. Sdly, Wher 
business is transacted for common benefit by one joint tenant, team 
in common, or co-partner. Communio bonorum. ‘This is connected 
with the actions, familie erciscunde; and de communi disidumhi 
which being for common benefit, the expences are proportiossily 
divided. 4thly, Fudicium finium regundorum, under the laws for keep 
ing up common fences, and boundaries. Sthly, Aditio hareditatis,y 
which the heir is bound to pay the legatees; who cannot be said ® 
have any contract, either with him orthe deceased. ‘Though the e» 
ditors have. 6thly, Solutio indebiti, where money is paid by mie 
take; of which I have treated in speaking of the action de condiction 
indebiti, or money had and received. See also Cod. 4. 5. hoc. tials 

The money must not be due: and it must be paid by "mistake, at 
knowing the circumstances ; otherwise it is tantamount to a gift, Dig 
12. 6. 1-12. 6. 24—12. 6. 26-12. 6. 62—12. 6. 52—12. 6. 06i 
50. 17.53. This quasi contract, includes our action of trovesz, ssp 
its form. If money be unlawfully paid, as to a woman with intem. 


seduce her; it cannot be recovered. If it be unlawfully recelepdtt | 
by duress, fraud, or extortion, it may be recovered. If unlwwélf. 


paid and received, as the wages of prostitution, bribes, kc. it caemesin 
recovered. 7ly, By accidents, as when a man interferes to ropait.er 


prevent some sudden misfortune happening to another: or finde dm. 
property of another and recovers it. Dig. 47. 2. 43. 4. So in Hap 


land, if a man nt the moment of necessity relieves a pauper aasiieael, 


"eme am MK coo el 


and who cannot be conveyed safely to his settlement. sly, Freue | 


ates a quasi contract in all cases, in favour of the injured party: 
§ 6. De solutione indebiti, p. 292. Sce Taunton’s Rep. 359. : = ‘sud 
6 7. Quibus ex causis indebitum. solutum non repetitur, p. 08 ak 


ante, Lib. 3. Tit. 15. $ 1. and the notes thereto : and Havelock exiled. 


wood, 7 Term Rep. 268. "o fef 
Ex lege Aquilia. Dig. 9. 2. 9. 10. UC orfmetTuSE 


DEMNM 


\ 


NOTES. | €x 


Nostra autem constitutio. Cod. 6. 43. 2. which puts legacies and 
trusts on the same footing. But the constitution here particularly ree 
ferred to, is not extant. 

Tit. XXIX. Per quas personas obligatio acquiritur, p. 293. 

Quam nostra decrevit constitutio. Cod. 6. 61. 6. cum oportet, &es 

Novelle constitutionis, Cod. 6. 61. 8. 

6.3. De servo communi, p. 294. 

Per nostram decisionem. Cod 4 27. 3. si duo, &c; 

Tit. KXX. Quibus modis tollitur obligatio, p. 295. 

De acceptilatione, p. 295. This is a verbal discharge or release. 

Liser IV. 7:t L De obligationibus ex delicto, p. 299. 

$ 1. Definitio furti, p. 299. See the case of the King v. Egging* 
ton et al. 2 Bos. and Pull. 511. wherein it was argued by Clifford, 
with some appearance of law in support of the position, that :t is of 
the essence of the offence that the articles should be taken agatnst the 
will of the owner; invito domino, Bracton deleg. 3. 2. 32; p. 150. be 
and the King v. Donally, 1 Leach, 232. But surely this may well be 
presumed, from the taking being fraudulent and without the énow- 
ledge of the owner. This however tallies with the civil law. See post. 
§ 7. of the present title. 

§ 3. Divisio, p. 300.  Furtum manifestum; is the same a» when the 
thief is taken with thé mainour; or the thing stolen in his hand of 
possession. 

$ 4. De furto concepto, oblato, prohibito, non exhibito, p. 301. 

Requisitio vci furtive. This inquiry after things stolen, was made 
entiently, Lance et Licio: and is noticed in the 12 Tables. Aul. Gell. 
Noct. Att. Lib. 11. ch. 18. and Lib. 16. ch. 10. With their loins 
girded with a thin cloth, and a metal plat, dish or shield before their 
eyes. For they were required to gu otherwise naked to search for 
stolen goods: and the Lanx and Licium were used lest they should 
happen to mect women. Sce 8 Gibb. Rom Hist. 9. 22. I follow him 
in adopting the explanation of Hcineccius. - 

$ 5. Prna, p. 302. Sometimes corporal punish nent wes added to 
the fine: but this was altered by Justinian, Novell. 134. ch. 13. de 
penarum moderatione. I fancy it is a general rule that punishments 
are milder, as knowledge and civilization advance: but this would 
be a change for the worse, if they were not encreased in certainty on 
sufficient proof given, asthey decreased in severity. 

Jonathan Wild, the notorious receiver of stolen goods, was cone 
victed and executed on the clause in 4 Geo. 1 ch. 11. which makes i$ 
capital to receive a reward.on pretence of helping another to recovep 

4 J. 


GR6 NOTES. 


stolen goods, unless he also caused the thief to be apprehended ad 
tried.  Hale's Hist. Pl. Cor. 620. 

The party robbed may bring his action for restitution, after having 
done his duty by prosecuting criminally; but not before. Hale, B 
Cor. 546. See post Inst. 3. 9 11. 

6 7. De affectu furandi, p. 302. 

Si se intelligant id invito domino facere. This with us and in Bap 
land, would not amount to a criminal offence. 

Furtum sine affectu furandi non committitur. Hence with us, v 
must lay the action as having been done felonice, feloniously. 

6 8. De voluntate Domini, p. 303. Per nostram constitution» 
Cod. 6. 2. 20. 


A bare intention to commit a crime unaccompanied by an overt «f, | 


was not punishable: nemo cogitationis ponam patitur. Dig. 48. 19.18 


but in England, to solicit a servant to steal his master’s goods ism — 
indictable misdemeanour, although the goods were actually not stdis | 


The King v. Higgins. 2 East, 5. So the endeavour to provoke another 
to commit a misdemeanour, as to fight a duel, is indictable; foris 
these instances there is an overt act. 2 East, 614. The King vw, fib 
lips. The case put by Justinian inthis section, will be found: in Te 
King v. Eggington, et al. 2 Bos. and Pull. 508. EI 

'$9. Swuirun rerum furtum fit, p. 304. Kidnapping: Lex Ph 


| 





Plagium > : Pagiarió: manstcaling. Dig.48.15.1—48.15. 3 & e NA. | 


Cod. 9. 20. 7 and 16. 4 Black. Comm. 219. Literary thieves, Ji» 
giarii, are noticed by Martial, Lib. 1. Ep. 53. See also Cic. psal 
birio: and ad Quinctil. I. 2. co AM 

$ 11. Qui tenentur furti : De eo cujus ope, ccnsilio, furteme facta 
est, p. 304. This includes the doctrine of accessaries. Qui herido 


est ad furtum faciendum, non tenetur furti; is otherwise by the tse. 


England according to the cases quoted just above, under $ 8-of 3h 
title. a Ed M 


€ 12. De his qui sunt in potestate, p. $05. Action of theft. waspAitd 


allowed against children and slaves, on account of the power thewge - 


ter had over them. Dig. 47. 2. 17. . wA 





$ 13. Quibus datur actio furti, p. 306. Indictment lies for » 
the preperty Cujusdam ignoti. Hale. Hist. Pl. Cor. 5312. — . m it. 





. § 18. An impubes furti teneatur, p. 308. The only questidà wid 
us, is, whether the child had sufficient knowledge of the nature.of Aie 
action he was about deliberately to commit, and that it was-aceifse. 
Hist. Pl. Cor. 26, 27. 4 Blacks. Comm. 22,23. Perhaps no evel 
srould amount to proof that a child was doli capax under coves geass 
of age. 











NOTES: 6v 


Tu. Lh 64. .— Adoersus quos datur, p. 310. Sit ab omni rapina. 
Dig. 4. 2. 13. Cod. 8. 4. 7. Our law against forcible entry and de- 
tainer, are founded on similar consideratiens. 

Tit. ZI. De lege Aquilia, p. 312. This wasa plebiscite, proposed 
by Aquilius a tribune of the people. A. U. C. 572. Almost all the 
causes of action damni injurie under the Lex Aquilia, arc also the sub- 
jects of our action of Trespass on the Case. 

A great deal of nice distinction has been employed in ascertaining 
whether Trespass vi et armiz, cr Trespass on the Case should be 
brought, for an injury done. See Bourdon v. Alloway, 11 Mod. 180. 

For some time the criterion was thought to be, whether the ac was 
done wilfuily or ueyligently. Tripe ct al. v. Potter, and Cele v. 
Barnes, cited in Leame v. Bray, 3 East, 595. At present, the crite- 
rion adopted is, whether the Injury complained of ensues directly and 
immediately from the act of the defendant, or is only a consequence of 
such act and collateral toit, and which might or might not have happen- , 
ed. - Thus, I forcibly or carelessly throw, or negligently lct fall, or by 
not securing as [ought I permit to fall, alog into the street ; whereby 
one passenger is wounded, and an hour or two afterward another pas- 
senger by stumbling over the log, is lamed. Here, the first man if he 
suc me, must bring trespass ei et armis, and the sccoud man, Case 

So, a New England schooner on a West India voyag-, was fired into, 
and her crew so disabled, that unableto proceed on her voyage, she 
turned back. The owner brought case for loss of freight and profit 
en the vovage. Tie Court determined at once, that this was case. 
Adams and others o. Hemingway, 1 Mass. Rep. 145. 

The Court of King’s Bench, say, the criterion by whick. we are to de- 
eide, is, whether the injury is immediately and directly connected with 
the action or an accidental consequence only. To which purpose the 
chief or leading cases arc, Reynolds v. Clarke, 8 Mod. 272. 1 Strange 
638. 2 Lord Raym. 1402; Scot v. Shepherd, 3 Wils. 40); Day. * Ed- 
wards, 5 Term Rep. 649; Weaver v. Wood, Ho. 134. Leame v. Bray, 
3 East 593. where all the cases were considered: this was in 1803. 
But in Rogers v. Anbleton, § Bos. and Pull. 117 Anno 1806. Sir James 
Mansfield, put the Criterion on the point of willutness or negligence 5 
and intimated that Leamev. Bray, was not settled law. That court did 
so again in Huggett v. Montgomery, "Trin. 1807. 5 Bos. and Pull. 
446. 

The court of king’s bench however, decided Covall v. Laming, 1 
Gampb. N. P. Rep. 497. Mich. 1808, according to Leame ». Bray : 
And declared somewhat sharply in Letan 4. Gross, 3 Campb. N. Pa 




























as NOTES. 


Rep. 464. Ann. 1810, that they would not permit the principle of Ia 
ame *. Bray, to be canvassed in a motion for anew trial. The qu» 
ion must be raiscd if at all, upon the record. 

The principle of Leame v. Bray, has been recognized in Virgi, 
Taylor v. Rainbow,2 Hen. and Munf. 423 and in the case before à 
ted in Massachus:tts, viz. Adams et al v. Hemingway, 1 Mass. mp 
145. In New-York Vail v. Lewis et al. 4 Johns. 450. In Hughas 
Heiser, 1 Binncy, 463. action on the case for a nuisance: held suf 
cient though the damage was consequential. Judge Blackstone à 
Scot v. Shepherd laid down a very convenient doctrine on this subjed, 
which J think may be considered as law at this day ; to wit, tht 
where the injury is immediate, plaintiff may bring trespass vi et armi, 
with a per gud for the consequential damage, or, bring case for Us 
consequential damage alone and pass over the immediate injury, 2.58 
W. Bl. rep. 197. which doctrine is like Pitts v. Gainee, 1 Salk. 10. 

But where the injury is both immediate and wilful, the better wy 
isto bring trespass vi et armis. Leame v. Bray, Sup. Ogata » 
Barnes et al. 8 ‘Verm Rep. 188. 

The difficulty suggested by Le Blancin Leamev Bray, as to enti 
where vessels run foul of each other, the immediate agent 
winds and the waves, is settled by Lord Ellenborough in CovaZ 
ing, who very propcrly states that the helms-man ought to be 
ble; that is I presume, in common cases, not in violent s 
further on this subject Savignac v. Roome, 6 Term. Rep. 125. 
nus v. Cricket, 1 East, 106. and Morley v. Gainsford, 2 H. Bl. 
ty has also taken some pains on the question inthe first volume; 
pleadings p. 122. On actions in form ex Delicto. ty apie 

Injuria occiderit. By 33 Ch. 2. ch. 7. treble damages are given fet 
ma'icionsly maiming cattle, destroying a plantation ef trees, 
ing down an inclosure. 

Jn e» anno. vid. post. § 9 of this title. 

See further respecting actions on the case under the civil 
Tas: s-crion (16th) of this title, De actione directa, utili, et in, 

$1. De Quadrupede, que pecudum numero eat, p. 312. Ne 
bua. Bv the English and our law, damages are recoverable for 
Ty killing a dog, Hale's Pl. Cr. 5. 12. Townsend v. Wathen, 
977. S» for wild creatures reclaimed. Ib. and felony may 
tedbe — aling them. Hawk. Pl. Cr. Lib. 1. ch. 34. 

6 2. De injuria, p 313. 24 Hen. 8 ch. 10. 1 Hale Pl. Cr. 

§ 6. De curatioue relicta, p. 34. s-¢ 3 Bl. Comm. 157. 
tw Prentice, 8 East, 348. where it is held, that an action om. 





NOTES. 629 


= ies against a surgeon, not only for negligence, but gross ignorance and 
| want of skill. 

$ 9. Quanti damnum estimatur, et de heredibus, p. 315. The gen ral 

t principle of our law is, that actio personalis moritur cum persona: and a 
a bad principle itis. For, if my father was maimcd or slaughtered, zr my 
) sister seduced, what good reason 1s there that the oilender should cs- 
j capefrom damages under this maxim? See post Inst. 4. 12. 1 

» 611. Deconcursu hujus actionis et capitalis, p. 9316. If a feion should 
; be pardoned, or be allowed his clergy, or be burned in the hand, he 
| may afterward be sued civilly : 1 Bac. ab. 64. but not pending the In- 

Qictment. Style 346. Ante tit 2. $ 5. 

Tit IV. § 1. Quibus modis injuria fit, p. 319. 

Quast debitoris qui nihil deberet. See Page v. IVipple, 3 East, 314. 
no action will lie for permitting and suffering the plaintiff to be arrest- 
ed, after he had paid debt and costs. Malice, is the gist of all these ac- 
tions. Hence, case does not lie against a plaintiff who brings a vcxa- 
tious suit, Pacton v. Honnor, 1 Bos. and Pull. 205. Saville v. Roberts 
Salk. 13. for plaintiff may be amerced pro falso clamore suo, and is 
liable to costs. 

But. it will ie when a man is maliciously sued for a greater debt than 
he owes, and thereby held to excessive bail Daw v. Swuine, 1 Sid. 
424. Skinner o. Gunton, etal. 1 Saund. 228. But there must be a scien- 
ter that so much is not due. Fackson v. Burleigh, 3 Esp. Rep. 34. 
But if plaintiff having no cause of action donot hold defendant to un- 
reasonable bail, the action will not lie. Meal v. Spencer, cases in K. B. 
257. If A bring this action against B, and prove that B was largely 
indebted to him on balance, the suit will lie, although A might be 
indebted in a small sum to B on their running account, Wetherden v. 
Embden, 1 Campb. N. P 295. Wilkinson v. Mawbry, Ib. 297. But 
knowledge and malice must be shewn, Sebiel v. Fairbain, 1 Bos. and 
Pull. 388. Gibson v. Charters, 2 Bos. and Pull. 129. 

As to Libel, * Libellum aut Carmen aut Historiam." The civil 
law was very severe against this offence. 

A libel was regarded as with us, more serious than slander. The 
Author, the Transcriber, the Publisher, the Seller, were all liable to pu- 
nishment, whether it was anonymous or not. Dig. 47. 10. 5 and 29. 
Cod. 9. 36. abusive pictures, statues, inscriptions, &c. are libellous 
Dig 47. 10 5. 10. like thecase of Philip Thicknesse, wherein the send- 
ing a wooden gun to Lord Orwell, was held to be a libellcus r: flection 
on his military character. The falsely charging aman with a capital 
crime was punished even with death. Cad. 6. 36. See the case de libellis 
famosis. 5 Ce. Rep. 125. 






























639 NOTES. 


Ihardly know any subject so important as the liberty of the Pra, 
and the right of discussion. All the difficulties involved in it, rds 
either to political questions, to religious questions, or to question 
tfespecting private character. 

Political questions relate either to the investigation of political The 
eries, or the examination of the measures of Government, or the che 
racter and capacities of our actual rulers I do not know a pluie 
position, than this: a government that forbids the investigation of the 
principles on which it is founded, must feel that they will not bem, 
(and for that very reason the public good requires) such an investigation 
In England, I know of no objection to the temperate ciiscussion of te 
preference of a republican to a monarchical form of gov:-rnment, when 
it is not a cover to incite insurrection. No prosecution was seta 
foot againt the innumerable disquisitions on the inadequacy of parie 
mentary: representation: the republican sentiments of Dr. Price, Dr. 
Priestley, and Mr. Godwin, were allowed without molestation. li 
my own case, Sr. John Scott, then attorney gencral, took a distinctis 
that I had no right to complain of : “ continue if you please to publish 
“your reply to Mr. Burke in an octavo form, so as to confine it prom 
“bly to that class of readers who may consider it coolly: so soomasit 
** js published cheaply for dissemination among the populace, 
* be my duty to prosecute.” It was on the same principles 
and fordan were prosecuted for dispersing in a cheap form, 
of Man. A defensive measure on the part of government, 
ly excusable, probably justifiable. In this country, a defence.ohem 
marchical government would be borne with less patience, than. ade. 
fence of republics in England. But if the manner be decent and. 
perate, such discussions ought to give offence in neither 
if in either country they should be merely the cover for 
civil commotion, let a jury judge of the intent, and the author, 
lisher proceed at their peril. 

So in discussing the actual measures of a government, or 
fies of those who direct it, the temper and manner of the 
will always furnish a clue to the design of the author. It is 
talk of freedom in a country, where the public characters 
conduct of public men, are shielded from investigation. * 
injustice, the absurdity, the tyranny of the sedition law 
istration of the president Adams. There should be no 
trictions on the press. The public are deeply interested in 
ry public measure, and every public character, sifted to. 
‘The people are deeply interested that such investi; 





DE 


^ 


NOTES. 631 


cénducted, should incessantly take place. But ifthe charges be found- 
ed on falsehood or forgery, if there should be groundless insinuation 
of base and unworthy motives, or needless and malignant attacks upon 


‘ private character, under cover of public dicussion, let the hand of 


justice fall heavy on the offender. "The only way to preserve the liber- 
ty oí the Press, is to punish its prostitution. 

Hereon it may be observed, that the doctrine advanced by judge 
Chase (a man of admirabletalent, but whose political opinions from the 
Bench, were neither dictated by wisdom or by virtue) is strongly to be 
reprobated. Namely, that a political writer should be prepared with 
legal proof of every fact he means to advance, before he publishes. Ie 
was a doctrine calculated, as he well knew, to prohibit all political dis- 
eussion whatever. 

No man will venture to publish, who is required before a court in 
Massachusetts, to prove that the Sun shone at mid day in South Carolina; 
or that Mr Pickering, with the knowledge of Mr. Adams, wrote to 
judg. Bee on the case of Jonathan Robbins, previous to the Trial. In po- 
litical prosecutions, a defendant ought to be allowed to introduce what- 
ever evidence he pleascs of the facts he has published, and submit it 
(not to a court guided by the technical rules of evidence, as to meum 
and tuum, but) to the jury, whether it was reasonably sufficient to jus- 
tify che assertion in the extent to which it was made. In writing upon 
popular and public facts, popular documents and common faine may 
fairly be resorted to, provided the mode of stating the fact be com- 
mensurate with tl;c proof relied on. Indeed no writer ought to be called 
upon for proof of such facts, till they are denicd upon aifdavit. 

The president Adams, was not singular in wishing the sentiments of 
government to be communicated to the judiciary on a political question. 
That has been done in Eng'and duriug Mr. Pitt’s administration, aud 
since : at least the particulars detailed in a public paper as matters oi 
notoriety, have not to my knowledge been denied. In fact, what in- 
dividual or what set of men does not feel averse to be dragged before 
the tribunal of public opinion, in cases where they feel conscious of 
misdeed? But inthat country, the high character and station of the 
judges, and the great confidence so universally (and a few instances 
excepted) so descrvedly reposed in them, and the attention due to the 
opinion of the bar, us well as of the bench-—form a public safeguard of 
great practical importance : a much more efficacious ore,than the farce 
ef a written constitution in this country; which every party, bold and 
unprincipled in proportion to its ignorance, construes and miscor- 
strues, uses and abuscs, as the temptation of the moment may happen 


632 NOTES. 


to dictate. Self-prescrvation, the first law of our nature, will slum 
rais. the arm of pr wer, where it can descend with impunity and effea: 
but ifin krcglan? ss well as in this country, interferences on politial 
questions now anc then take place, which neither law nor right ea& 
fully justify, that country at least docs not tolerate in any formidslk 
extent, the abominable nuisance so prevalent here, of tying up to à& 
stake, the priva.e characier and domestic life of every political opposes 
to he exposed to the caiumnies of the vulgar, and worried by ever 
mongrel description of slanccrers andlibellhists. Yet the public tas 
of this country seems gratified by the practice ; whereas the intermixmm 
of personal slander with public discussion, cught to be regarded as i 
and complete evidence, that the writer was not actuated by motives d 
public good. Among the antient Democracies of Greece, every mad 
superior station, wealth, talent, or character, was considered as a fi 
ob:ect for popular calumny: from whi:h, no public or private virt 
could effcctually shield him. This was carried to a prodigious exces 
nor can any man peruse the history of those turbulent republicm 
without strongly fecling that the character of their governments, yt 
to the people themselves, a character of cruel, unfeeling, insole 
justice; of ferocious and ambitious rapacity ; and a morbid jeskeij 
of the most honourable evidences of supcriority, that furnish Bk 
cause for regret, if such democracies be extinguished to focii 
more. “a 
In New-York and some other of our states, something like ira 
this subject still holds its place in public estimation: but every whit 
there is too much rancorous abuse of every political opponent, endde 
most flagrant imputation of corrupt and sinister motive on smeéiiss 
too slight for a cool observer to consider of any weight. Ame 
every where among us, the anticnt hatred, not merely to the avi 
cracy of rank, and the aristocracy of wealth, but to the aristossif 
of talent also, strongly prevails; and the liccntiousness of pulli» 
tion almost universally indulged in, renders it doubtful, whethigde : 
Freedom of the Press itsclf, may not be purchased at too high & | 
In this state, the dread of infringing on personal liberty 
earried to a morbid extent; in so much, that in many cases of ‘why, 
even the verdict of a jury will afford ncither present compensatitilit 
future security. An insolent or unprincipled disturber of the 
peace or domestic intercourse, seduces your wife, debauches 
daughter, maims your person, or defames your character. You pee, 
self to the trouble and expence of suing him for the injury códésuiéted: 
the jury find a verdict against him, and allow you a compensi 



















D———ÁE E 


NOTES. 633 


damages. He goes to jail for a week or two, applies for the benefit 
of the insolvent act, is discharged from prison, andlaughs in your face. 

You indict him for the offence: and he is convicted. But he is a 
noisy partizan of the prevailing politics whatever they may be. His 
fellow brawlers send round a petition; the Governor is urged by po- 
litical adherents; a pardon puts an end to the punishment, and the in- 
solvent act, pays the costs. 

There is no reply to be made to the arguments in favour of Republi- 
eanism over Monarchy : in theory they are triumphant. But in practice, 
there are objections that may give occasion to a considerate man to 
pause: especially, where under the influence of universal suffrage, the 
ignorance of the community is almost exclusively represented, and wis- 
dom and wealth, are held in equal distrust. 

“With respect to religious discussion, long experience has now shewn, 
that the less opposition is given, the more peaceably such controver- 
sies proceed, and the less mischicf they produce. Complete tolcra- 
tion on the part of the government, and the laws, is the parent of mutual 
toleration among the pcople. The more the public is accustomed to 
dissonance of opinion on these subjects, the more clearly will itbe seen, 
that a man may be a good child, a good father, a good husband, a 
kind friend, and 4 good citizen, under any and every system of reli- 
gious faith, however rigid or however lax: and ifa man possesses these 
qualifications, it is all that society can require. Nor is it easy to 
draw the line between questions of this description which shall be in- 
eluded, or those that shall be excluded from the Index expurgatorius : 
every man will be apt to consider his own crecd, as all-important to 
socicty ; and experience will consider none of them as of consequence, 
except as they tend to make a man a good citizen in the points above 
mentioned; and each stands forward wi similar pretensions in 
this respect, and perhaps with nearly equal merits. 

On the subject of private character, I have said sufficient. It is 
never attacked from the press with a good motive. If the statements 
be true, the laws are open for conviction, and punishment: if dubious, 
they ougbt not be advanced ; if false, the calumniator ought himself to 
be considered a3 a public nuisance. The absurd privilege of giving 
the truth in evidence oti an indiclment, only encreases the mischief, 
and gives a legal sanction to the practice itsclf. Ina crvilaction. .he 
first principles of justice require that a man shall not ask for damages 
for cahimny, of which he is afraid to meet the proof. 

I shall not dwell upon the Law of libels in England, which may be 
well gatheredfrom the popular compilations: but it may be useful to 
notice the principal cases that have occurred here. 

4M 


$34 NOTES. 


By an act of Pennsylvania of 16th March, 1809, which i£ not renes. 
ed will expire by its own limitation in April, 1813, the truth is allow- 
ed to be given in evidence on every prosecution for libel. I believe ths 
doctrine is adopted no where but in this state, and in New-York state, 
nor ought it to be. The public have nothing to do with the truth a 
falsehood ofa libel on a private individual, Has he been guilty ofa 
crime? Indict him. Otherwiseit is reasonable to conclude, that your 
own bad passions give rise to the publication. 

The cases of libcl hitherto reported in the U. States, so far as I have 
met with them, are mostly couformable to the principles of the English 
decisions. 

1 Binney, 393. Kennedy v. Lowry. It is sufficient to lay the s- 
stance of the words spoken, and prove it. 

1 Binney, 601. Respud. v. Duane, in which the above mentioneded 
of Asscmbly, was held to put an end to an indictment for libel, com 
menced before that act passed. 

2 Binney, 34. Brown v. Lamberton. Words are to be taken according 
to their plain and obvious meaning. 

2 Binney, 514. Respub. v. Sharf, wherein judgment was revered, 
in consequence of the finding of the Jury not corresponding to thes 
dictment. - it 

Green v. Long, 2 Caines, 91. * He is perjured.” Itis sufficiente 
prove that the words were spoken of the plaintiff, in allusion ton 
oath taken in court. If the court was incompetent to administer Ji 
Defendant must shew this. u nA 

The People v. Freer, 1 Caines, 485. The intent of a writer of alid, 
on the court, is of no conscquence, if the court are of opinion k P^ 
libel. " 

Lyle v. Clason, 1 Caines, 581, sending a sealed libel to the past, 
is not a publication, sufficient to ground a civil prosccution : but itu 
a criminal one. Hicks case, Poph. 139. v " 

Clason v. Gould, 2 Caines, 47. In libel there must be affidavit x 
cial cause to hold to bail. Nor will the court change the Venu gn. 
the common affidavit, Clinton v. Croswell. , 2 Caines, 245. die 

Foot v. Tracy, 1 Johns. Rep. 46. Can defendant give in evidenes: 
on the gencralissuc, the general character of the plaintiff im gpistione - 
tion of damages? - . iad 

, AisteAkiss v. Lothrcp. 1 Johns. 286. A libel by the plaintiff 
defendant, may be given in evidence in explanation, but not in ji i 
tion. Lo 


Tillotson v. Cheetham, 3 Johns. 56. Judgment by i i 














D——————— 


NOTES. | 633 


the fact of publication and the truth of the inuendoes. Nor can 
defendant give a former recovery in damages by the same plaintiff in 
mitigation, although it was for part of the words charged in the second 
suit. The one publication being on the 3d, and the other on the 171h 
cf the month; and they might go into different hands. 

Clinton 9. Mitchell. 3 Johns. 144. If defendant gives notice of cer- 
tain facts on which he means to rely, he shall not withdraw that notice, 
unless on affidavit that the facts so stated, are stated without sufficient 
grounds. This is founded on the practice of New-York state, where 
defendant may plead the general issue to this action, and give notice 
of special matter to be used in his defence. 

Lew: v. Few. S Johns. 1. U. States, is sufficient to support 
United States. 

It is no justification that Defendant signed the libel as Chairman of 
a public meeting. 

Whether the plaintiff was the person meant to be libelled, 1s a ques- 
tion of fact for the jury. Van Vechten v. Hopkins. Ib. 211. 

Witnesses are not admissible to prove that on reading the libel they 
understood by it that the plaintiff was the person meant. Án inuen- 
do cannot be proved ; but extrinsic matter introduced by an averment 
er colloquium may be proved. 

Where one count is bad for want of sutficient averments, and entiro 
damages assessed on the whole declaration, judgment must be set. a- 
side. Cheetham v. Tillotson, in error, 5 Johns. 430. Sed vide, Kennedy 
v. Lowry, 1 Binney, 397. Neal v. Levis, 2 Bays, 204. and Nelson v. 
Emerson, 2 Bays, 439. 

A petition of divers inhabitants to the authority under which a 
district attorney is appointed, and by which hc may be removed, 
charging him with improper motives of conduct, is not a libel. 
Thorn v. Blanchard in Error. 5 Johns. 508 ‘The English authorities 
are well considered in this case, and the cause was decided in error 
against the opinion of the law characters on the Bench. The Court of 
errors in New York consisting of the Chancellor, and of senators who 
are not lawyers. 

Thomas v. Rumseu, 6 Johns. 26. One satisfaction for one injury. B 
and C being partners in a newspaper, A brought suit against B for 
libel: and then against C: against whom he recovered. B pleaded 
this recovery puis darein continuance, and well: Genet v. Mitchell, 7 
Johns. 120. Plaintiff may abandonone count of his declaration, and 
use the libel therein stated but abandoned, in explanation of another 
count A jury may decide under the circumstances, whether a pub- 


636 NOTES. 
lic minister publishing his instructions, has thereby traitorously betrap 
ed the secrets of his government. 

Andries v. Wills. Ib. 261. Action for libel lies against the proprie 
tor of a Gazette, edited by another, though the proprietor did me 
know of the publication. 

But where the proprietorship is cast upon a person by operation of 
Jaw, he does not become thus liable. 

Thomas v. Croswell. Ib. 264. To publish of a member of cw 

gress that he is a fawning sycophant, and has abandoned his post a 
pursuit of office, is libellous : and of this, the jury may decide. . 
. Quere, whether words charged in the declaration, and in thew 
selves libellous, can be admitted to shew malice in other words relied 
on? Afeade v. Daubigny, Peake’s N. P. Ca. 125. A man may publisj 
a plain and fair account of proceedings in a court of justice, but nots 
companied with comments and insinuations against the characters ef 
the parties concerned. 

Brooks v. Bemiss, 8 Johns. 455. Defendant stated that this was ami 
the first time that. falsehood had been associated with the plaintifja 
the minds of many honest men. Evidence that seven persons sw 
others, believed tic plaintiff not to be a man of truth, is not admis 
ble: for it leads to vague and additional calumny. The fact o£ fil 
hood must be proved. 

Commonwealth o. Crips, 4 Mass. Rep. 163. The truth of the ses 
is no justification in a criminal prosecution for libel. . ; 

I find nothing to the purpose in 5 and 6 Mass. Rep. in 1 MHeng 
1and 2 Washington; 1, 2, 3 Call; 1, 2, 3 H. nning and Munford. 
1—6 Cranch. But lately, (21 Jan. 1811) it was decided in thegme 
preme court at Charleston, S. C The State v. Thomas Lehre, that Au 
truth of the libel could not be given in cvidence on an indicta, 
Judge Waties, in delivering the opinion of the court, cites the pegas 
section of the institutes. Shaw v. AM Combs, 2 Bays 232. Verdictindue 
der on Sunday void. Sunday is not dies juridicus. m 

Sive quis matrem familias aut pretextatum prutextatamve 

fuerit. The same law in Rigaut v. Gallisard,7 Mod. 78. ja 
strange how slightly the crime of pederasty was regarded amongdhé 
ancients. Virgil’s Formosum, pastor Corydon ardebat Alexiss, . EUM. 
Nisus amore pio pucri, are instances. A quarrel between two men alius. 
a youth, is also the subject of one of Lysias’s orations, containing 
remark in disfavour of the practice. caia 
§ 2. Quiet per quos injuriam patiuntur, p. 320. 405 vinspt 

So a husband may have assault and battery against one. 






























NOTES. ' 637 


mits adultery with his wife, though with her consent. 7 Mod. 81. per 
Holt. 

8 Mod. 26. Read v. Marshall.  Eiusband alone may have an action 
for beating his wife. But husband and wife cannot join in an action 
for battery on them both. They may join for battery committed 
on the wife alone ; for the damages in this last case survive to the wife. 
Newton et ux. *. Hutter, Lord Ray. 1208. Hoffin v. Byles,’ 1 Sid. 387. 
In an action for.negligencc, whereby plaintiff's wife was killed, he is 
not entitled to any damages forthe loss of her society, orfor his men- 
tal sufferings on her account, after the moment of her death. Baker v. 
Bolton, et al. 1 Campb. N. P. Rep. 493. 

Damages beyond the mere loss of service. giving for debauching 
plaintiff's daughter. Jrwinv. Dearman,11 East, 23. In suchan ac- 
tion the daughter cannot be a witness to prove a previous promise of 
marriage in aggravation of damages, for she has a right to her own ac- 
tion for breach of that promise. Foster v. Scofield, 1 Johns. N. Y. 
Rep. 297. 

§ 7. Pena injuriarum ex 12 tabulis p. 321. Aulus Gellius, Lib, 
20. Ch. 1. says that retaliation was never enforced, in as much as the 
punishment might be commuted for money. The law of the 12 Ta- 
bles according to him was, si injuriam faxit alteri 25. aris pane sur 
to. 

€ 8. De lege Cornelia, p. 322. Passed under Sylla: Lex Cornelia 
de injuriis, See Dig. 47. 10. 5. 

$ 9. De estimatione atrocis injurie, p. 322. The Locus injurir, is 
recognized also by the English law, in the doctrine of Mayhem, the 
Coventry Act, &c. See also 5 Hen. 4 Ch. 5. and 22 and 23. Ch. 2. 
Ch. 1. 

§ 10. De judicio civili et criminali, p. 323. Zenoniana constitutio ; 
See Cod. 9. 35. 11. and 12. 8. 2. ut dignitatum ordo servetur. 

Tit. V. De obligationibus que ex quasi delicto nascuntur, p. 324. Si 
Fudex ltem suam fecerit. The judge below was liable to damages in 
such a case. Dig. 50. 13. lex ult. De var. et extraor. cognit. and Cod. 
"49. ' 

- Judges of courts of record are not liable to actions, on account of 
their decisions. See Yates v. Lansing, 5 Johnson's N. Y. Rep. 282. 
$ 1. De dejectis vel effusis, &c. p. 324. Dig. 9. 3. 1. This section in- 
cludes our law respecting nuisances that work injury to individuals. 
If damage was apprehended only, there was a writ, nuntiatio novi ope- 
ris, or Cautio de damno infecto. Dig. 39. 1. 1. 1. and 17—39. 1. 5. 3. 
and 30. 2. 3. and 4. 3. 


$^8 NOTES. 


§ 3. De dur:no aut furto, &c. p, 325. An Innkeeper is liable if hebe, 
1st. The keeper of acommon Inn. Jjfason v. Grafton, Hob. 245 

2. To a guest or traveller, using the house as an Inn. Cages cm 
8 Rep. 32. 

8. And received as such by the Innkecper, Birdo. Bird, 1. And. 3B 
Anon. Moore 78. Bennet v. Mellor, 5 Term Rep. 273. Dig. 49. 7. 

4. Provided the loss happen, by the act or neglect of the Innkeepa, 
er his scrvants. Calye’s case. Co. Rep. Ub. Sup. 

5. Respecting goods deposited in the house. Ib. 

6. But not if the Innkeeper requests and enables the traveller tokeg 
them under lock and kcy, and he omits so to do. Brand v. Gla, 
Moore, 158. Dyer 206. 

7. Where the Innkeeper reccives no profit, he is liable to no rib 
Dig. 4. 9. 3. 2: as if atraveller leaves his trunk, and promises to come 
again at a future day. Gelley v. Clark, Cro. Jac. 188. 

But this does not relate to a short absence for an hour or two: @ 
to a horse, by which profit is made. Sandy’s case, Cro. Jac. 189. Torts 
Grindestone, 1 Salk. 388. 

8. Noris it an excuse that the Innkeeper is sick: for he ong " 
keep servants. — Cross v. Andrews, Cro. El. 622. 

9. The liability does not extend to a personal injury, domne t “ 
guest. 

10. A master may bring this action, if his servant was robbed at 
the Inn, of goods belengingto the master. Beedle v. Morris, re 
Jac. 224. Yelv. 162. Drope v. Thayne, Noy 79. Popham 179. 


1 
| 


By the civil law, if the loss happened by means of the Innkeegértr | 


his servants, the action brought on double damages: but if dont We . 
stranger, the damages were single only. Dig. 4. 9. 8—47. 5. Ge: alae 

Tit. VI. De actionibus, p. 326. § 1. Divisio prima. p. 326.° «' oi 

Fudices, arbitrosve. The Judices decided upon actions. aétik 
juris, the Arbitri, upon actions bone fidet. The referees chasm: 
consent of the parties, were sometimes called Zréitri, but mergi 
nerly Compromissarii. pant 

6 6. De recissoria, p. 329. Cod. 8. 51. 18. See the acts of quei 
liament protecting the rights of absentees. 5 Hen. 4. ch. 14 4 Jiliige 
7. ch. 24, &c. Co. Litt. sect. 436—440. Continual claime. Heirrind: 

§ 6. De Pauliana, p. 330. This is the principle of the Englislsigg.: 
against secret conveyances to defraud creditors, 13 Eliz. chi s& Mee 
the cases illustrative of this statute, see Roberts on fraudulent conueyt: 
ances, and the references in Cooper’s bankrupt law, 1441515, ZU 




















ee 


NOTES. 639 


How fara voluntary conveyance, of adebtor’s property for the be- 
nefit of his creditors yencrally, or of suchas will assent to the deed, is 
‘valid, does not appear to me as yet completely settled under all its 
distinctions, cither in England or here. 

An assignment of all a trader’s .:ffects and property, is an act of bank- 
rup:cy; though for the general benefit of the creditors. 2 Vez. Sen, 
19. Clavey v. How, Burr. rep. 476. 8:0—833. 2241. Sir W. Bl. rep. 
1862. Buli. N. P. 40, 

In Eastwick v. Caillaud, 5 Term. rep. 420. a deed of part of a debt- 
or’s property to certain creditors was held good, where there was ne 
fraudulent intent, and where the other property remained. 

Inglis v. Grant, 5 Term. rep. 630. a deed in trust for the bencfit of 
creditors made in India, was supported, and declared not an object of 
the bankrupt laws in England. So in Alexander v. Vaugian, Cow. 
402 an actof bankruptcy committed abroad, cannot be a foundation 
for acommission at home. 

But in Eckhardt c. Mellish, 8 Term rep. 142. the court said that an as- 
signment by deed, by tradcra of all their effects, unless all their cre- 
ditors concurred, was not only fraudulent and void as against creditors 
who did not concur, but was an act of bankruptcy. Soin Lekhardet v. 
Wilson, 8 Term rep. 140. Tappenden v. Burgess, 4 East, 232. 

In Nunn v. Wilsmore, 8 Term rep. 521. the dced of all the effects 
was supported, because there appeared to be a solvency. 

Meux 9. Howel, 4 East. rep. 1. the transaction was supported, 
being honest and well intended for the common benefit of creditors, 
though some of them might be delayed. 

Burd v. Smith, Lessee of Fitsimmons, however, 4 Dull. 76. has de- 
eided in Pennsylvenia that a voluntary conveyance made bona fide in 
favour of such creditcrs as would acc.de to the terms of it within nine 
months, was good — Semething like the same principle was also held 
in Wilt v. Frartón, 1 Binn. 502. But in Bown’s executors v.. Burrell, 
Aon. 1751, and H:zci v. Clirk, 1788, RooUs rep. 252. a. general con- 
veyance oftall.a man's interest for the bencfit of his creditors, was held 
fraudulent and vo:d as against those who did not agree to it. See dlse 
Leech v. Lecch, 1 Ch. cases, 249. 

§ 7. De Serviana et quasi Serviana seu hypothecaria, p. 330. The 
frst part of this section, is in principle the same as our suit for rent. 
The last part is the foundatioa of maritime hypothecation and bot- 
tomry. 00. 

The Servian action was introduced by the Prator Servius, in Cice- 
t9g'stime. The quasi Serviana, by subsequent pretors. or tie. prac- 


$40 "NOTES. 


tice of the bar. The Servian action, was a pretorian, real, action; gives 
to landlords, for the recovery of rent of farms, Pradia rustica; not tt 
the rent of houses, Pr::diaurbana. Itlay against the property where 
on by previous contract, the landlord had a lien for rent in arrear, ln 
the tenant kept the possession and use of it. Thelien held good, # 
whosesoever hands the property was found. Tribuit enim Acc comet 
tio domino furidi jus in re quod cum re ambulat, et semel. guasitum p» 
petuum est nec mutatione dominii extinguitur. The property mig! 
redeemed by tendering the demand. tem 

Hypotheca, means somctimes the right of the Pawriéej and. s5 
times the thing pawned or hypothecated, asinthe digest and co 
pignoribus et hypothecis. Dig. 20. 1. 
- A pledge, requires delivery of the article into the possession o 
ereditor: an hypothecata, is the subject of contract only, and 
with the debtor ; but is liable to the lien of the creditor-in whostscet! 
hands it may be found. Dig. 20. 1. 2. 2. sometimes the' conti 
tacit. Dig. 20. 2. 4. and 20. 2. 7. . 
* The action for a pledge was pignoratitia : it was a civil ac 
pothecaria, was a pretorian action. Pignoratitia, was p 
theearia, was real. Pignoratitia, lay against the creditor, h 
pledge whenthe debt was paid. Hypothecaria, lay against 
subjected to lien by the contract,to compel the payment of th 
Pignoratitia lay, though the pledge did not belong to the deb 
‘was grounded on his delivery to the creditor, who was bound 
itno longer than till payment. Hypothecaria, could not'be s 
in rem, if the thing hypothecated by the debtor, did not belo 

Hypothccation, was subject to limitation of suit: v 
brought within 30 years, against a possessor mala fide: 
bond fide : and 20 years in cases of absence. 

§ 8. De actionibus pratoriis personalibus, p. 331. Retey 
action to recover money deposited with a banker. 

Ex nostra constitutione, Cod. 4. 18. 2. 

§ 9. Actio de constituta. pecunia, p. 351. Dig. 13. 5. 1 
personal pretorian action, founded on a promise, or a co 
tutum, to pay what might be due from the proprietor hi 
person for whom he chose thus to become guarantee, 
+ $11. De actione in factum ex jure jurando, p. 332. \ 
whatlike the ancient practice of compurgators, or mt 
swearing in this country to a book account. 

$ 13. De prejudicialibus actionibus, p. 832. These 
























eee 


NOTES: 64% 


Bracton says, (who describes them in the same manner, L. 3. ch. 4. 
n.9.) Prajudiciales, quia prius judicantur quam actio principalis. 

6 15. De nominibus actionum, p. 333. Condtcere, prisca lingua sig- 
nificat denuntiare; nam qui olim cum aliquo litem habebat, denuntiabat 
ei, UT ILLO DIE AD JUDICIUM ACCIPIENDUM ADESSET.  Zlodie vero 
per abusionem, condictio, dicitur actio. euam. actor intentans dicit, st 
PARET HUNC DARE OPORTERE. Nulla enim hoc tempore adversario 
fit denuntiatio. Thesph. in loc. Sir W. Bl. rep. 391. Price v. Neal: 
this is the action condictio indebiti, for moncy had and received. 

$ 16. Divisio secunda, p. 334. The first part of the division, is our 
&ction in detinet. 

$ 20. De mistis, p. 336.  Herciscere, an old word meaning to di- 
vide, from sex, a hedge or inclosure. Cic. de orat. 1. 1. Heins. syn- 
tag. l. 3. tit 18. Tre writs in England that ausvcr the purpose of 
the familie erciseunde, the de communi d'oidundo, and the finium re- 
gundorum, are the writs de partitione facie da." rationalibus divisis-& 
dé perambulatione faciendu— le curia claudendu—de reparatione facien- 
da. Fitz. nat. brev 

$ 21. Divisto tertia, p. 336. In some actions in England, double 
and triple damages are given: and by 38 Ed. 3. ch. 12. tenfold da: 
mages are recoverable against a Juror who receives a bribe for bring- 
ing in a verdict. 

§ 25. I» quadruplum, p. 337. Extortion. 

$ 28. Divisio quarta, p. 339. Cod. 3. 31. 3. To the 14 actions 
here cnumer: ted as bonz fidci, may be added actio ex siipulatu de dote; 
ef the next section. 

§ 29. De rei uxoric actione, Sc. p. 339. Cod. 5.13. 

$30 De potestate judicis, Gc. Ev de compensationibus, p. 340. This 
is the foundation of all our law of defalcation or set off: first given 
by 2 Geo. 2. ch. 22, and 8 Geo. 2. cli. 4. In Pennsylvania by act of 
Assembly, a defendant is required to bring forward every set off he 
may have against the plaintiff, otherwise he is barred from any future 
action. This seems however by the hundred dollar law of March: 
1810 to be confined to suits originally brought before a justice of the 
peace. See post $ 39. of this title. Mostra constitutio. Cod. 4. 31. 
d. 

|. $ 31. De actionibus arbitraris, p. 341. We have no such action. 
All actions bone fidei, bclorg to our equitable jurisdictions, whether 
at law (as in money had and received) or in chancery. | 

§ 33. De pluris petitione, p. 342. Lege falcidia vide Lib. 2. Tit. 22. 
of the Instit. Lex Zenonia ct nostia..— ‘These constitutions are not ege 


tant. 
4 N 


P d 


G4 NOTES. 


Swancott o. Westvarth, 4 East, 75. was an action for goods sold sd 
delivered on credit, and -he question was, whether the action was com 
m.aced before the credit had expired. Held not; inasmuchs 
thoagh he writ was issued before, the bill was filed after the credi 
had exoired ; but if d-fcndant had been actually arrested, semble le 
wonld nave becn entitled to damages. 

In JLisen v. Price et al. 4 East, 147. Credit for three months al 
then payment by a bill at two months, was held a credit fer five months; 
and assumpsit could notbe maintained at the end of three months, a 
neglect of paying by a two months bill, but the remedy was a speciale 
tion on tus case for damages. 

Duan v. Spurrier, 3 Bos. and Pull. $99. A lease granted for 7, 4a 
21 years; Lessee has his option at which of the periods the lease shal 
determine. 

§ 40 Deco qui bonis cessit, p. S48. By Cod. 7. 71. 1 and 8. andly 
Dig. 42. 3. 4. it should appear, that though the person of a debtor és 
discharged by a cessio bonorum, his property subsequently acquiredis 
not. Buc this L apprehend is to be understood with the limitations 
ted in this section of the institutes, which is also confirmed by the pre 
visions of Diz. 42 3. 6—242. 1. 17 and 30—42. 1. 19. 1— 423. 1.16 
and Nov. 135. provisions which are similar in principle, to the Eg 
lish law, that forbids the tools and instruments of 2 man’s trade 
be seized. The creditors might either allow the debtor five yeast 
pay his debts in, or take his property and discharge his person. Col. 
7 7.8. 

I: would be a judicious regulation in my opinion, if future exonete 
tion were denied to tradesmen, who neglected to keep fair and regular 
books of account, or who could not explain clearly the causes of diit 
failure, and deficiency. 

Asto thc ques.ion abont cutting a debtor in pieces, de debitore in 
tes secando, notwithstanding Bynkershoek’s observations and Dr. Ts- 
lors dissertation, doubt yet remains whether the literal be not de 
triacs nse. Probably it was a law in terrorem only. Aul, Gall. Lib. 
en, Ch 1—5, ribbon" s Rom. Hist. p. 933. n. The semoto cmni crede 
tu, of the Con . B is an caprcssion of late date, that supporte tle 
cruzl v of th: lie ral meaning in the law of the 12 tables. 

Lit VIT. MP eun co qui in aliena potestate cst, negotium gestum 
ers uc. pe 348. This title. relates for the most part to cases net 
very prevar n. here, except so far as they may be analogous to ‘the 
law, hew for a master is answerable fer the contracts of his servant, 
£r which sec th had of master and servant iv Esp'nagse’s Dig. ‘of N. 
P. and Comyi’s on contracts, where the cases are well collected. —— 





4 


NOTES. G45 


$ 4. De peculio et in rem verso, p. 350. 

Aliquando tamen. When an action de peculio is brought for the full 
value of a peculium, which is worth, for example, an hundred aerei, 
and the slave, to whom the pectulittm belongs, owes 50 aurci to the son 
of his master, or to some other slave under the power of the same 
master, the judge must then deduct those fifty aure? ; sothat the plain- 
tiff can only receive the remaining fifty. But, when a suit is commenc- 
ed for 100 aurei against a peculium, which is worth but 100 «avrei, and 
the slave, to whom this peculium, or separate estate belongs, is indebted in 
50 aurei to another slave, who is under the same mastcr, but yet makes 
a part or parcel of the pecultum, by being app«ndant to it, in this case 
the judge is not authorised to order the 50 aurei, due to this vicarial 
or subordinate slave, to be deducted, but must cause the payment of the 
100 aurei, i. e. of the whole value of the peculium, to bc made to the 
plaintiff; and the reason, assigned for this by Theophilus, is the follow- 
ing: ct, cum ita se res habeat, non potest vicarius, cujus «stimattone pe- 
cultum augetur, et ipse illud minuere, eo nomine, quod sibi aliquid debea- 
tur; ne eadem persona duas contrarias habere functiones. vidcatur, ut 
simul et augeant et minuat peculium. Àh. t. Harris. 

$ 7. De senatus-consulto Macedoniano, p. 353. 

Senatus-consultum Macedonianum.] This decree was called Macedo- 
nian form Macedo, the name of the person, who gave rise to it; but, 
whether this Macedo was a young patrician under the power of his {a- 
ther, or an old usurer, the learned. commentators are in very great 
doubt ; and they are even fur from being unanimous, as to the time 
when this decree was first made. But it is certain, that the emperor 
Claudius published a law, by which, to use the words of Tacitus, he 
restrained the cruclty of creditors ; Sevitzam creditorum coercuit ; ne 
in mortem parentum pecunias filiis-familiarum fancri darent. Tac. fib. 
11.annalium. And this law is conjectured to have been the J/acedo- 
nzan Senatus-consultum ; which, in order to reconcile the two historians 
Zacitus and Suetonius, is supposed by some to have grown obsolete 
in the reign of Nero, and afterwards to have been revived by Vespasi- 
sn; for Suctontus writes as follows in the life of that emperor, viz. 
Auctor senatui fuit Vespasianus decernendi, nefiliorum-fam. faneratori- 
bus exigendi crediti jus unquam esset, hoc est, ne post patris quidem mor- 
tem. Those, who have time and inclination to read more upon this 
subject, are referred to the Syntagma of Heinneccius, lib. 4. t. 7. but 
particularly to Peter Faber’s Semestrium, lib. 1. cap. 25. Harris. 

Upon the subject of the Macedonian decree, and catching bargains, 
where heirs bargain on the credit of their expectanciés, the leading 































ou NOTES. 


cases are Chesterfield and Jansen, 1 Atk. 301—855. and Gwynnts 
Heaton, 1 Brown's Ch. Ca. 1. I refer to Fonblanque’s references,{ 
Fonb. 124, 125. to which add Berney v. Tyson, 2 Ventr. 259. Toa 
9. Trigg, Cas. Temp. Finch, 314. 

Chancery also applies the principle of the Macedonian decree, 
con:racts for the prize money of Sailors, Baldwin et ak v. Rochwi 
1 Wils. 229. Taylor v. Rochford, 2 Vez. 281. How v. Weldon, 2 Va 
$16. his last class of bargains however were made void by 2069 
2. Gh. 24, 

It is also ex:e: "T d some degree to contracts between Parent al 
Child, Cocking v. ! ratt, i Vez. 400. Young v. Peachey, 2 Ark. 254. 2d 
Glisson v. Ogden, ther: cited, p. 258. Heron v. Heron, 2 Atk. 15 
Blunden v. Barker, 1 P. Wms, 639. Hawes v. Wyatt, 3 Br. Ch @ 
156. 

Also to cases of Guardian and Ward, Trustee and Cestui que ud 
Purse v. Waring, 1 P. Wms. 120. Coxe’s note. Hilton v. Hiltmi 
Vez. 547. Cray v. Mansfield, 1 Vez. 379. Hamilton v. Mohun, 1 P.W. 
118. Osborne v. Chapman, 2 Ch. Ca. 157. Hutch v. Hatch, 9 Ve 
junr. 292. a strong case in point of time, for 24 years had elapsed. Se 
also as to time elapsed, Randall v Ennington, 10 Vez. 423. 

Analagous to these, are the cases of sales made by trustees and pu 
chases for themselves: concerning which the doctrine scems nearlfiüt 
tled,tbat no person whether guardian, trustee, attorney, so! 
signce interested to sell, can be permitted to buy : Bovey v. Ssmi 
60. Wielpdale v. Cookson, 1 V«z. Senr % confirmed in ex pte... 
Vez. Junr. 349. Fox v. Macreath, 4 Br. Ch. Ca. 526. 425. 
Ballard, 3 Br. Ch. Ca. 120. WAichcote v. Lawrence, 3 Vez. 
(the rule somewhat narrowed) Lord Hardwickev Vernon, 
411. In Campbell, v. Walker, 5 Vez 680. Sir W. Grant, M. 
down thz rule,that a trustee so purchasing, purchases under, 
bility of the sale being s:t aside by certui que trust. It 
better to stick to Lord Thurlow’s rule in Crowe v. Ballard, q 
employed to sell, should not be permitted to buy, even with 
of the purty selling. Though, Sir W. Grant, denies there 
such a rule, In ex pte. Reynolds, 5 Vcz. 707. assignees of 
ruptcy were discharged, because one with knowledge of 
chased at auction, part of the bankrupt’s estate. 

The estates were directcd to he ri sold, ex pte. Lacey, 6 V, 
pte. Hughes, Yb. 617. Lister v. Lister, th. 631. 

So purchase of a Lankrupt’s estate by the solicitor to the: 
dion, set aside ex pte. fumes, 8 Vez. 343. wherein the 





EEE 
wN 


NOTES. 645 


far to conf&rm Thurlow’s position. See also Coles *. Trecothicl, 9 
Vez. 247. expte. Bennet, 10 Vez. 395. Morse v Royal, 12 Vez. 364. 
and Wright v Froud, 13 Vez. 108. Sugd. L. Ven. and Pur. 331. to 
367. in Campbellv. Walker, 5 Vez. 681. Sir W. Grant, M. R. who seems 
inclincd somewhat to rciax the rule, says “ the only thing a trustee can 
** do to protect his purchase, is, if hc sees it is absolutely necessary the 
* estate should be sold, and he is rcady to give more than any one else, 
** that a bill should be filed, and he should apply to the court to become 
“a purchaser." "This may be convenient occasionally; still Lord 
Thurlow’s rule is the best upon the whole. Itcloses at once, all the 
doors against fraud. 

So trustee whether sole or joint cannot be receiver, 
8 Vez. 72. 

The general principle of the Macedonian decree, viz. the protecting 
from fraud, those who by reason of inexperience, or want of know- 
ledge, arc unable sufficiently to protect themselves, has also bcen adopt- 
ed in other cases in England. Cicveland v. Osmord, 3 P. Wms. 129. 
Griffin v. Deveui'le, cited 3 P. Wms 131. Bridgeman v. Green, 2% 
Vez. 627. Nantes v. Corrock, 9 Vez. 182. 

So in cases of attorney and client, any undue advantage of. superior 
knowledge, confidence reposed, or fear excited, vill be suppressed. 
Walmsley v. Booth,2 Aik. 25. 27. Draper's company 9. Davis, 2 Atk. 
294. Saunderson v. Glass, Ib. 295. Newmanv. Panne, 2 Vez. jun. 199. 
Middleton o. Wills, 4 Br. Par. Ca. 245. Gibson v. asc; 6 Vez. 266. 
Beaumont v. Boltbee, 5 Vez. 485. 7 Vez. 599. So couns-lare forbid- 
den to make conditional bargains. Sáap/clene v. Hart, Rep. ‘Temp. 
Finch. 477. 1 Eq. Ca. ab. 86. All these cases relate to the coniinu- 
ance of the relationship betwcen attorney and elicit: otherwise they 
do not apply ; Oldham v. Hand, 2 Vez. 259. ‘Tne practices of admi- 
nistrators in this state, render the application of these cases, too often 
necessary. 

Tu. VIII. De noxalibus actionibus, p. 354. 

Ex maleficiis servorum.] The acticn noxalis, which tics against mas- 
ters for the crimes of their scrvants, was always unknown in England: 
for even villeins, before the tenures in villenaye were abolished, might 
have been convened for their own crimes. Cow. inst. 1. 4. 1.8. But 
there is something in the law of England similar to a noxal action, in 
regard to animals and things inanimat:, by which the death of a man 
is occasioned: for ifa vitious horse, or bull, ora cart drawn by horses 
or oxen, occasions the death of any person, the thing, or animal, 
which did the mischief, becomes, as it were, sacred, and is called a 





v. Folland, 






























646 NOTES. 


Deodand ; (i. e. a thing given to God ;] because it was sold in andes 
times by the king’s almoncr, who distributed the money to pious wa, 
But, in regard to Decdands, the law makes many distinctions; e g-# 
a ship or boat is laden with merchandise, and a man is killed, or drowr 
ed by the motion, yet the merchandise are no Decdand, though the 
dent happened in fresh water: but, if any particular merchandise 
upon a man, and kills him, that merchandise shall be Deodavid, buti 
the ship.——Sve Hul?s Hist. of the pl. of the Crown. Vol. 1. pn 
Haw. pl. of the Crown. lib. 1. cap. 26. Harris. 

lam answerable for the misconduct, unskillfulness or negligent 
ef those whom I employ. Yarvis e. Hayes, 2 Str. 1004. Anon 1 
Lord Ray, 739. 2 Salk. 441. Bush v. Stainman, 1 Bos. and Pull. 4& 
Stone v. Cartwright, 6'Terin. Rep 411 Brucker v. Fromont, 6 Tra 
Rep. 659. Hugget v. Montgomery, 2 Bos. and Pull. New Rep. 44 
Bussy v». Donaldson, 4 Dall. 206. Snell v. Rich, 1 Johns. Rep. 50% 
1 Camp. N. P. 497. But not where the injury arises from wild 
violence or gross negligence, not reasonably connected with the duty 
which I employ him, and in my absence. Savignac v. Roome, 6 Tem 
Rep. 123. Af\ Manus v. Cricket, 1 East, 106. Morley v. Gaisfird, 
2 Hen. Bl. 442, 2 Bays, S. Car. 345. 

Tit. IX. Si. quadrupes pauperiem fecisse dicatur, p. 357. 

The point here made, of eguus calcitrosus, a horse 
kick—!os cornu petere solitus, an ox accustomed to run at 
adopted in modern decisions. So case lies against the owner 
necustomed to bite: and of this the owner must have 
Jason v. Keeling, 1 lord Raym, 606. Buxenden v. Sharp, 2 
Smith v. Pelah, 2 Str. 1264. Brook v. Copeland, 1 Esp. N. 
203. Bolton v. Banks, Cro. Car. 254, Kinnion v. Davis, 
487. Senkins v. Turner, 1 lord Ray. 118. 

$ 1. De actione edilitia, concurrente cum actione de pauperie, 

De cadem re concurrentes.] The same doctrine is delivered 
an, ff. A4. t. 7. 1.60. f. 50. t. 17. 130. which doctrine we 
derstand to regard penalactions, concurring on account of 
thing, but yet arising from different facts and offences; as for 
if aman steals a slave, and afterwards murders him, sucha 
bc doubly prosecuted, for theft and injurious damage ; for as 
of theft and injurious damage would arise in this case from 
offences, the one will not bar the other: but, on the contrary, if 
actions, concurring on account of the same thing, should arise / 
same offence, the one would destroy the other; and th 
tiff must make his election. vid Cj. observ. lib. 8. c. 24. 
last, qxaest. 29. Harris. 











— — 


NOTES. “7 


Yit X. De iis per ques agere possumus, p. $58. 

* 40 sua noinine aut alieno.] In England the liberty of constituting 
an attorney to prosecute suits is given chiefly by the statute law. vid. 
20. H. 3. cap, 10.12 Edw. 2. cap. 1. 15 Edw. 2. cap. 1. 7 Ric. 2. cape 
14. 7 Hen. & cap. 13. 29 Eliz. cap. §. For, by the common law, the 

: plaintiff or defendant, demandant or tenant, could not appear by at- 
torney without the king’s writ, or letters patent, but ought to followhis 
suit in his own proper person. Abusion est [says the author of the Mir- 
vor] a reteiner attorny sans breve de la chancerie: Co. Litt. 128. a. 
Harris. 

In cases requiring corporal punishment, a proctor was not allowed 
Dig. 48. 1. 13. 

A proctor in England must file his power by 4and 5 Ann. ch. 16. 

Mandamus will not lie to reinstate a proctor. — Leig/'s case, 3 Mod. 
332. 

When a proctor ccases to be so, and in what cause, see Halls prac- 
tice of the court of admiralty, p. 20. A letter of attorney is only a 
power to transact business ad negotia: a warrant of attorney is ad litem. 
Sce an instructive case as to the acts of an attorney, and the distinc- 
tion between our attorneys at law, and the proctors of the Roman law. 

enton v. Noyes, 6 Johns. rep. N. Y, 302. et seq. 

Tit. XI De satisdationibus, p. 360. Dig. 46. 7. 9. and 46. 7. 20. 
Dig.2.8. The securities or cautions judicially required, are, judicie 
sisti : to attend and appear during pendency of the suit. De rato: 
to confirm the acts of his attorney or proctor. Judicium solvi: to pay 
the sum adjudged against him. 

These were taken either by sureties, Cautio fide jussoria. By depo- 
sit, Cautio pignoratitia. By oath, juratoria: and in some cases by 
bare promise only, ntdi promissoria. Sce an useful book, Hall’s ad- 
miralty practice, p. 13. 

The plaintiff also is required, by the civil law generally, to find cau- 
tion, to prosecute the suit ; to pay costs if the judgment be against him, 
and to confirm the acts of his attorney; see Nov. 33. 1and2. Noy. 
96.2. Noy. 112.2 and Edict 7 Justiniani. 

Tit. XIL De perpetuis et temporalibus actionibus, p. 363. 

Perpetuo solere. As to the English acts of limitation, sce Co. Litt. 
118. a. 2 Co. Inst. 94, 95. 32 Hen. 8 ch. 2. 21 Ja. 1 ch. 16. General- 
Jy in England this act must be pleaded: in New-York the limitation 
act may be given in evidence under the general issue. and notice. In 
Pennsylvania, it is pleaded, except in ejectment. 





































548 NOTES. : 


Constitutionibus introductum. Cod. 7. 39. 4 and 5. Cod.7.& 
Dig. 5. 5. 

$1. De actionibus que in heredes transeunt vel non, p. 364. 

In England, and generally in America, Actio personalis moris 
cum persona. Thisought not to be the case in several kinds of acia, 
as battery, mayhem, seduction &c. Under the Roman law, actions ia 
torts descended to the heirs, but did not survive against the heirs. Dip 

50.16. 38. Dig2.10 1. Dig 4.7 4and 5. 

Tit. X. De excepiionibus, p. 865. This isa general view of vd 
may be called the special pleading of the Roman law. 

$ 6. Decateris exceptionibus, p. 367. Ex latioribus digestorum liri 
Dig. 4. 1. 

$ 10. De dilatoriis, p. 368. Subjacere censemus. Neither the o 
stitution of Zeno or of Justinian here r:f.rrcd to, is extant. 

$ 11. De dilatorjis ex persona, p. 369. Pleas in abatement. 

Tit. XIV. De replicationibus, p. 370. Rejoinders, surrejoindem, 
"rebutters, surrebutters 

§ 4. Qua exceptiones fide-jussoribus pro sunt vel non, p. 371. 

Sce ante Inst. 3. 21. de fide-jussoribus : and Inst. 4. 13. 3. 

On the subject of mutuality between principal and surety, see ajtti 
Gifford, 6 Vez. 805. and Wright v. Morely, 11 Vez. 12. 22. 

Tit. XV. De interdictis, p. 372. Interdicts are now out 

There is no difference between interdicts and actions. See 
section of this title. 

§ 3- De interdictis adipiscende, p. 374. The Salvian interdictéai 
drawn up by Salvius Julianus at the order of the emperor Adtims 
Dig. 43. 33. 

§ 4. De interdictis retinende, p. 374. This section 
common legal maxim of our law, in equali jure, melior est c. 
sidentis. 

Uti possidetis. Dig. 43. 17. Ulp. Lib. 69. Cod. 8. 6. 

Utrubi. Dig. 43. 31. 

$ 6. De interdicto recuperande, p. 377. Sed ex cons 
Cod. 8.4.  Tenentur lege Julia. Dig. 43.16. Dig. 47. 1. 

Tit. XVI. De pena témere liti santium, p. 379. 

$ 1. De jurejurando et pzna pecuniaria, p. 379. 

‘Chis includes our Pennsylvania practice, of an affidavit of 
an affidavit that a certiorari is not taken out for the py 
&c. The ancient action of calumny, was similar to our 
case for malicious prosecution. Asto amerciament itt 
suits, misericordia, and the capiatur pro fine of the 
ace Serjeant Williams’s note 1. to. Mzrt/ate v. Charlt2n,2 





NOTES. — 649 


Ex eonstitutione.] The oath of calumny was in use long before the 
reign of Fustinian, as appears from many passages in the digests; . /f. 
10. t. 2.1. 44. f. 12. t. 2. i. 16. 34. f: 39. 6,2. 1 13. 63. Qué damni in- 
| Sectt caveri sibi postulat, prius de calumnia jurare debet. And in sec- 

tion 4 of the same book are these words —— 52 alieno nomine caveri 
mihi damni infecti postulem, jurare debeo, NON CALUMNIE CAUSA ID EUM, 
GUJUS NOMINE CAUTUM POSTULO,FUISSE POSTULATURUM. Ulpian. 

But the oath seems afterwards to have fallen into desuetude, and to 
have been only revived by the constitution referred to; part of which 
1s conceived in the following terms. Actor quidem jurat, NON CALUM- 
NIANDI ANIMO LITEM SE MOVISSE SED ASTIMANDO BONAM CAUSA 
HABERE. 

Reus autem non aliter suis allegationibus utatur, nisi prius et ipse ju- 
gaverit ;—QUOD, PUTANS 8E BONA INSTANTIA UTI, AD RELUCTANDUX 
PERVENERIT. Cod. 2. t. 59. [. 2. 

The canon law permits even a proctor to swear in animam domini 
eui, vid. decret. Greg. ix. lib. 2. t. 7. And this was formerly the prac- 
tice in all the ecclesiastical courts in England, vid. ord. judiciorum. tit. 
99. and 110.—canon 132.— But the oath of calumny is now disused not 
only in England, but also in those countries, where the canon law is in 
full force, and where the civil law is the law of the land, vid. La juris- 
prudence du Code conferee avec les ordonances Royaux de France. tom. 1. 

p- 297.—— -Groenw. de ll. abr. in 4tam. inst. t. 16.—Philibertà Bugnt 
en il. abr. tractatus lib. 1. cap. 3. Harris. 

Aka nostra constitutione.] vid. Cod. 3. t. 2. 1. 14. et novellam. Patre» 
i autem causarum, &c. Harris. 

§ 2. De infamia, p. 380. Jgnominiosi fiunt, Dig. 3. 2. Cod. 2. 12. 

Non contraris actionibus. Nam in contrariis judiciis de dolo aut per- 
jidia non agitur ; sed tantum de calculo et supputatione ejus, quod con- 

érario judicio agenti abest. Vinn. 

Pennsylvania, to the infinite disgrace of her jurisprudence, makes 
no difference between a debtor on account of crime, and a debtor on ac- 
oount of contract: under the insolvent laws, a convicted criminal is 
permitted to defraud the officers of court of their fees ; and though in 
jail for damages given for the most atrocious injuries to person or cha» 
racter, this is no bar to his deliverance. Under the practice of the ine 
solvent laws of this state, they appear to be enacted for the protec- 
tion of criminals, and swindlers, as the favourites of the legislature: 
and this, under the notior, that all imprisonment on account of pecuni- 
ary obligation, is contrary to the mild character required in the laws of 
a.demoeracy. 

40 


G50 NOTES. 


€ 3. De in jus vocando, p. 381. Dig. 2. 4. Cod. 2. 2. 

Tit. XVII. De Officio Fudicis, p. 382. 

§ 4. l'umilie erciscundc, p. 384. ‘This isour suit by writ of parts 
See acts of assembly of Pennsylvania digestedby Purdon tit. Pertit 
and Walker v. Dilworth et al. 2 Dall. 257. and Al‘ Kee et al. v. Stra 
al. 2 Binn. 1. by which it was settled that 8 and 9 W. 3 ch. 31. cong 
ing partitions, does not extend to this state. 

§ 6. Linzum regundorum, p. 385. 

$i finium regundorum | The writs de perambulatzone faciendae 
ratonalióus divisis, are of the same use in the law of England,m 
jode finium regundorum in the Roman law. 

The writ de perambulationelis s, when two lordships are near ea 
ther, and some encroachment hath becn made; for then, by asea 
both lords, the sheriff. shall take with him the parties and their ne 
bours, and shall make perambulation, and fixthe bounds, as they: 
betere. But, if one iord encroaches upon another, and will not s 
to a poranouluion, the party aggricved shall have the writ rations 
divis; ajgunst the other. vid. Terms de lu ley, and Fitsherberte 
órez, p 202. 509. Harris. 

Tit. XVII De pubiicis Fudiciis, p. 386. 

§ 2. Exempla. Dr lesa majestate, p. 387. a 

Lex juna magistratis.]v a ff. 18.0 4. and Calvin's lexicon surá 

In E:glind the stated judgin: ni for high treason, in all caseset 
countcricuing the coin, 1s; that the offende r shall be drown to the| 
of execution, and there hinged by the neck and cut down aliye4: 
his entrails shall Ge taken out and burned, his-head cut off, is 
quarc rd, and liis head and quarters put up, where the king abel 
recite The jucign.ent in the case of a woman is, ** that she. sha 
drawn and burned.” 


In this judgment is implicd, the forfeiture of all the offender 
nors, lands, tenements, and hereditaments: his wife loses her dii 
his children become base and ignoble: he loses his posterity s.d 
blood is stained and corruptcd. Allhis goods and chattles dei 
wise forfeited. 32 Co. Inst. 200, 211. Strahan’s Domat. supp. Ad 
of the crown, 258 — Harris. "P 

6 4. De adultertis, p. 387. e 

Lex Julia vid. ff. 48. t. 3. ad legcm Fuliam de adulteria cool 

Gludio punit.] In England, and most other countries at elsi. di 
dul:crers arc punished by fine en PET. 

Cuin mas ‘ts nefandum libidinemn.] The crime here means ali 
ry or sodomy ; under which words all unnatural carnal comudagias 





NOTES. | 651 


to be understood. ‘Phe ancient Fnfi-^ lawyers all agree, that it enght 
to be punished with death, d/06mo supplicio ; thesi they dut ias to 
the manmer of inflicting it. Britton says, that Sedomites and. 5i 1.cre- 
ants shalt be burned :—Z/eta writes, that. th-y shall be burned alive; 
pecorantes et sodamite in terra vivi confsdiantur —Vhe author of the 
mirror also delivers himself much to the same purpose ;: and ad.is, chat 
Sodomic est crime de majestic vers le roy celester. At this day by 25 
Hen. 8. cap. 6. and 5 Elrz. 17. the commi.crs. of. this crime, whether 
male or female, are no otherwi;s punishable, than as. common € loas, 
who are denied the benefit of the clergy. 3 Co. Inst. ca^. 10. Hawk. 
pl. of the crown, lib. 1. cap. 4. But it was doubted by some of the 
judges in the 4th year of Ge. 1. (though with little reasun according to 
Fortescue) whether a man, indicted for buggery with a woman, could 
legally be convicted upon the above mentioned statute of 25 AH. 8. Sce 
the King v. Wiseman, Fortescue’s Repts.91. Harris. 

Se: the notes of 8 Gibb. R. Hist. 19. 

Sturrum. In Dean v. Peel, 5 East, 45. it was decided, that a father 
could not haves per quod servitium amisit, i his daughter, though a mi- 
nor lived at the time of the scduction in another person's family but re- 
turned to her father who maintained her. ‘This 18 something like a sa- 
crifice of justioe to form. 

- 5 5. Lex Cornelia de sicariis, p. 587. vid. fJ. 48.0.8. ad lerem Cor- 
nelir» de sicarizs et veneficis. 

Ve3efici capite damnatur] In Englund, all persons suspected of con- 
juration, witchcraft, or inchant:nents, were ancienily cited into the spi- 
ritual courts, where, if they were found guilty, suntence was pronoun- 
ced: upon which the aid of the secular power was demanded by. the 
eccirsiastical judge, and the supposed delinquents were burned, as he- 
retics, bv virtue of the writ de heretico combureado ; v hich wastakon 
away by the 29th of Charles the 2], cep. 9. Vid. 3 Co inst. 44, 45. 

Thus the ecclesiastical Judges had the entire jurisdiction in respect 
to sorceries and enchantments, which were 211 renked under dic ec- 
neralterm heresies, till the statute ef the 22 7. 8. which was the first 
statute, bv which any of these offences were made felony ; bur this act 
was repealed by the 1st of ZLiivcard VU cep. 13. 

Conjuration and the invocation of wicked spirits were aft rvards 
made felony by 5 Eliz. cap. 15. And again, bv à. statute: iu the first 
year of ames the first, by which the ach of E^z. i5 ro pealed. 

The 1st of Fae. 1. cap. 12. 13 to thy following purport 

“Phat the act of 5 Eliz. agains: cv inritions, inchanincnts, and 
“witclicrafts. be utterly repealed ——That if any person or persons 


642 NOTES. 


* shall use, practice, or exercise any invocation or conjuration of any 
* evil and wicked spirit; or shall consult, covenant with, entertain, 
“employ, feed, or reward any evil and wicked spirit to and for any in- 
* tent or purpose ;——or take up any dead man, woman or child, out 
* of his, her, or their grave, or any other place, where the dead body 
* resteth, or the skin, bone, or any other part of any dead person, to 
“be emploved in any manner of witchcraft, inchantment, charm or sor- 
* cerv, whereby any person shall be killed, destroyed, wasted, consum- 
* cd, pined or lamed in his or her body, or any part thereof; that then 
* every such offender, or offenders, their aiders, abettors, and counsel- 
“lors, being guilty of any of the said offences, duly and lawfully con- 
** victed, shall suffer pains of death, as a felon or felons, and shall lose 
* the benefit of clergy and sanctuary. 

** And further, to the intent that all manner of practice, use or exer- 
* cise of witchcraft, inchantment, charm, or sorcery, should be from 
“henceforth utterly abolished, be it enacted, that, if any person or per- 
** sons, shall from and after thc feast of St. Michael next coming, take 
* upon him or them by witchcraft, inchantment, charm, or sorcery, to 
“tell or declare in what place any treasure might be found, er where 
“ goods, or things lost or stolen, should be found, or to the intent to 
* provoke any person to unlawful love ; or whereby any cattle or goods 
“of any person, shall be destroyed, wasted or impaired ; or to hurt or 
* destroy any person in his or her body, although the same be not effect- 
“ed; that then all persons, so offending, and being convicted, shall 
“suffer a year's imprisonment, and stand in the pillory once every 
“quarter for six hours, and there openly confess his, or her error, and 
“offence.” The second offence is felony. 1 Fac. 1. cap. 12. 

Lord Coke hath written a learned comment upon this statute, in 
which he declares, that it would be a very great defect in government 
to suffer so great an abomination, as conjuration, witchcraft, and sor- 
cery, to pass with impunity. 3 Inst. 44. 

But the tendency of the statute of the 1st of Fames the 1st, may 
best appear from the cheats, perjuries, and various other mischiefs, 
which it produced, to the ruin of many innocent persons; all which 
are but too well known to require any particular mention. vid. Affe 
ther's Hist. of New England ; and Salmon’s Universal Traveller. wol 
II p.695. This act nevertheless continued to be a scandal andre. 
proach to the good sense of thc nation, till the 9th year of 
2d, when it was enacted by parliament.—— ** That the statute, mide 
“inthe first year of king James the first, intitled, 4n act against cing. " 
* ration, witchcraft, and dealing with evil and wicked spirite, shaliig: - 


* 5 





NO'PES. 653 


“repealed and utterly void, except so much as repeals the statute of 
“the 5th of Elizabeth, intitled an act against conjuration, &c. &c.—that 
“an act passed in Scotland, in the ninth parliament of Queen Mary, in- 
“titled Anentis witchcrafts, shall be repealed——— and that from the 
** 24th of Fune no prosecution, suit or proceeding, shall be carried om 
* against any person for witchcraft, sorcery, inchantment, or conjura- 
“tion, or for charging another with any such offence, in any court 
* whatsoever in Great Britain——but that any person, pretending to 
* exercise witchcraft, tell fortunes, or discover stolen goods, shall suf- 
¢- fer imprisonment for one whole year, stand in the pillory once everp 
* quarterfor an hour; andif the court shall think proper, be obliged 
“to give surcties to behave well for the future.” 9 Geo. 2. Harris. 

Thus far Harris : to whose note add Cod. 9. 18. ‘Those who desire 
further information on the practical comments that have taken place, 
on that notable passage in thc old Testament, “ Thou shalt not suffer a 
witch tolive? may consult sir James Melville's memoirs as to the 
examination of the witches before James 6th of Scotland : the trial of 
Amy Duny and Rose Cullender, widows, both of Leystoff, in Suffolk, 
before sir Matthew Hale, on the 10th of March 16th Ch. 2nd. at Bury 
St. Edmonds, where says the account, '* in conclusion, the judge and aH 
** the court were fully satisfied with the verdict, and thereupon gave 
* Judgment against the witches that they should be hanged. They 
* were much urged to confess, but would not: on the 17th of March 
** following they were executed ;" much to the credit of sir Matthew 
Hale! See also the statements which Ch. Justice Marshall in his life 
of Washington Vol. 1. Appendix page 9, gives of the proceedings of 
the bigots of New England in 1692, from Hutchinson ; and Dr. Feriar’s 
essay on popular illusions in the Manchester transactions. 

$6. De parracidiis, p. 388. Vide Dig 48. 8 and 9. Cod 9. 16 and 1r. 
De lege Pompeia de parracidiis. On the laws de sicariis et parricidiis, 
see further Cod. Theodos. 9. 14 and 15. with Godefroy’s commentary, 
V.3 p. 84—118. 

$ 7. De falsis, p. 389. Dig. 48. 10. 5 Eliz. ch. 14. 8 Geo. 1. 
ch. 32. 12 Geo. 1 ch. 22. 2 Geo. 2 ch. 25, &c. Our Pennsylvania act res- 
pecting forgery. 

$ 8. De vi, p. 389. Dig. 48. 6. 7. Cod. 9. 13. 

$ 9. De peculatus, p. 390. A pecore, in which wealth chiefly con- 
sisted in early times, Dig. 48. 13. 

§ 10. De plagiariis, p. 390. Dig. 48. 15. Cod. 9. 20. I have already 
spoken of Kidnapping, at sect. 9. of Tit. 1 of this book of the Insti- 


tyfese 


^ 


654 NOTES. 


$ 11. De ambitu, p. 391. 
Lex Fula de ambitu.] vid. f 48. 1. 14. 
. The erime, which the Romans called anditus, is committed by pro- 
curing any pablic office with money, or other gifts ; and it seems to be 
the same offence it rcgard to temporal offices, as simony is in regard to 
spiritual preferment. Deeret Greg ix, lio. § t. 3. 

But améitus, or the buying and selling of offices, ceased to be crimi- 
nal, and became common among the Romans, soon after the dc molition 
of the republic; and this practice continued, ull Fustinien, becoming 
sensible of its evil tendency, enforced the ancient laws in order to res- 
trainit. Nov. 8. cap. 1. 7. 

In France judicial offices are publicly set to sale, and generally sold 
to the highest bidder; and perhaps, as Vinny observes, thcre may be 
less reason to prohibit this species of commerce in a monarchy, than in 
a democracy. 

But in England the statute of the 5th and 6th of Edw. VI. restrains 
«+ all persons. under pain of forfeiture and disability for the future, from 
* buying certain offices, which concern the king’s revenue, and the ex- 
* ecution of justice." And under these offices not only that of the chan- 
cellor of a diocess is comprehended, but also that of a commissary ard 
register ; for it was resolved in the case of doctor Trevor, the chancel- 
lor of a diocess in IVales, that both the offices of chancellor, and regis- 
ter, are within the statute, because they concern the administration of 
justice. 3 Co. Inst. 148. 12 Co. rep. 78. 79. 3 Lev. 289. — ]Woodward 
v. Fox. Harris. . 

Lex Julia repetundarum.] This law forbids all persons in publice of- 
{ices ta take money or presents, either for administering justice, or 
committing injustice. Lege Julia repetundarum [ pecuntarum) tenetur, 
qui, cum aliquam potestem | haberet, pecuniam ob judicandum decernen- 
dumve acceperit. ff. 48. t. 11. ) 

. F'ortescue, on thelawsof England, declares “ bribery to be a great 
* misprision, which is committed, when any man in a judicial place 
* takes any fee or pension, robe or livery, gift, reward or brocage of 
“any person, who hath to do before him any way, for doing his office, - 
* or by color of his office, but of the king only, unless it be of meat 
* and drink, and that of small value. cap. 51.” 3 Co. Inst. 145. Harris. 

De anona.] The crime fraudate anone is that of abusing the mar- 
kets, by raising the price of provisions, forcstalling, monopolizingg LP eo 

This offence is punishable in England hy imprisonment and forfei- 
ture of the goods or merchandise forestaHed. Svc 25 Ed. 3 eai. da. - 
2 Ric. 2. cap. 2. 27 Ed. 3. cap. 11. 5,6 Edw. 6. cap. 14. 3 Can. lin 
pr 195. " 


NOTES. 653 


De residuis.] Crimen residui is committed by retaining the public 
Money, or converting it to other uses than those, to which it was ap- 
propriated. Lege ulia de residuis tenetur, qui publicam. pecuniam de- 
legatam in usum aliquem retinuit, neque in eum consumpsit. ff. 48. t. 
13. Harris. 


END OF THE NOTES. 


656 APPENDIX f 


FRAGMENTS 
OF THE 
TWELVE TABLES, 


From Fathers Catrou, and Rouillé. 


Hook’s Rom. Hist. Vol. 2. p. 314. 8vo. 


—— 


TABLE I. 


OF LAW SUITS. 

I. Law. Go immediately with the person who cites you before the 

dge. 

t Law. If the person you cite refuses to go with you befere the 
judge, take some that are present to be witnesses of it, and you shall 
have a right to compel him to appear. 

III. Law. If the person cited endeavours to escape from you, or 
puts himself into a posture of resistance, you may seize his body. 

IV. Law, If the person prosecuted be old, or infirm, let him be 
carried in a J'umentum, or open carriage. But if he refuse that, the 
prosecutor shall not be obliged to provide him an Arcera, or a cover! 
ed carriage. 

V. Law. But if the person cited find a surety, let him go. 

VI. Law. Only arich man shall be security for a rich man. But 
any security shall be sufficient for a poor man. 

VII. Law. The judge shall give judgment according to the agree 
ment made between the two parties by the way. 

VIII. Law. If the person cited has made no agreement with his 
adversary, let the Pretor hear the cause from sun-rising till noon? 
and let both parties be present when it is heard, whether it be in the 
Forum, or Comitium. 

IX. Law. Let the same Pretor give judgment in the afternoon, 
though but one of the parties be present. 3 
X. Law. Let no judgments be given after the going down of. 8e 


sun. Wu. 


APENDIX?! . | ésT 


XI Law. When the parties have pitched upon a judge or arbi- 
trator by consent, let them give securities that they will appeat. 
‘Let him who does not appear in ceurt, pay the penalty agreed upon, 
unless he was hindered by some great fit of sickness, or by the per- 
formance of some vow, or by business ofstate, or by some indispens- 
‘able engagem:nt with a foreigner. If any one of these impedtments 
happen to th. judg: or arbitrator, or either of the parties, let the hear* 
ing be put off to another day. 

XII. Law. Whoever shall not be able to bring any witnesses to 
prove his pretensions before the judge, may go and make a clamout 
for three days together, before his adversary’s house- 


TABLE II. 


OF ROBBERIES. 

I. Law. He that is attacked by a robber in the night, let him not 
be punished if he kills him. 

II. Law. If the robbery be committed by day, and if the robber be 
taken in the fact, let him be beaten with rods, and become the slave 
of him whom he robbed. If the robber be a slave already, let him 
be beaten with reds, and thrown down headlong from the top of the 
capitoh If he be a child, under the age of puberty, let him be cor 
rected, according to the Pretor’s discretion, and let reparation be 
snade to the injured party. 

III. Law. When robbers attack any person with arms, if the per- 
son attacked has cried out for help, he shall not be punished if he kill 
the robbers. 

IV. Law. When upon alegal search any stolen goods are found in 
a house, the robbery shall be punished upon the spot, as if openly and. 
publickly committed. 

V. Làw. Por robberies cemmitted privately, the robber shall be 
condemned to.pay double the value of the things stolen. 

VI. Law. Whosoever shall cut down trees, which do not belong to 
him, he shall pay 25 Asses of brass, for every tree so felled. 

VII. Law. Ifany one comes privately, by night, and treads down 
another man's field of corn, or reaps his harvest, let him be hanged up, 
and put to death, as a victim devoted to Ceres. But if he be a child, 
under the age of puberty, let the Praetor order him to be corrected as 
he shail think fit, or let double satisfaction be made for the damage he 
has done. 


4P 


658 APENDIX I. 


VIII. Law. If a robber and the person robbed agree together ypon 
terms of restitution, no farther action shall lie against the robber. ! 
IX. Law. Prescription shall never be pleaded as a right to stolen 
goncs, nor shall a forcigner have a right to the goods ofany Z?oman ci- 

tiz-n, by the longest possession. 

X Law. If any one betrays his trust, with respect to what is depe- 
site} in his hands, let him pay double the value of what was so deposit- 
ed, to h:m who entrusted him with it. 

Xt. Law. If any one finds any of his goods in another man's postes- 
sion, who became. posscssed of them by a breach of trust, let the Pra. 
tor n'minate three arbitrators to judge of it. And let the wrongfu 
possessor pay double the value of what he has gained by detaining 
them. 

XII. Law. If aslave has committed a robbery, or done any dam- 
age, with the privity, and at the instigation of his master, let the mas- 
ter deliver up the slave to the person injured, by way of compensation. 


TABLE III. 


OF LOANS, AND THE RIGHT OF CREDITORS OVER THEIR DEBTORS. 

I. Law. Let him who takes more than one per Cent. interest for mo- 
ney, be condemned to pay four times the sum lent. 

II. Law. When any person acknowledges a debt, or is condemned 
to pay it, the creditor shall give his debtor thirty days for the payment 
of it: Aftcr which he shall cause him to be seized, and brought before 
a jucige. 

III. Law. If the debtor refuses to pay his debt, and can find no se- 
curity, his creditor may curry him home, and either tie him by thc 
neck, or pui irons upon his fect, provided the chain does not weigh a- 
bov« fifteen pounds; but it may be lighter, ifhe pleases. 

IV Law. If the captive debtor willlive at his own expence, let him; 
if not, lethim who kceps him in chains allow him a pound of meal a 
day, or morc, if he pleases. 

V. Law. The creditor may keep his debtor prisoner for sixty days, 
If in this time the debtor docs not find means to pay. him, he that d£- 
tains him shall bring him out before the people three market-days, and 
proclaim the sum, of which he has been defrauded. 

. VI. Law. If the debtor be insolventto several creditors, let Xa. bd 
dy bc cut in pieces on the third market-day. It may be cut pi 






or fower pieces with impunity: Or, if his crediters consent to i 
him be seld te foreigners beyond the Tiber. = 


ia 


APENDIX 1. | 659 
TABLE IV. 


OF THE RIGHT OF FATHERS OF FAMILIES. 
J. Law. Let a father have the power oflife and death over his legiti- 
smate children, and let him sell them when he pleases. 
IL. Law. But if a father has sold hia son three times, let the son then 
be out of his father's power. 
. IIL Law. Ifa father has a child born, which is monstrously de- 
formed, let him kill him immediately. 
. IV. Law. Let nota son, whose father has so far neglected his cdu- 
cation as not to teach him a trade; be obliged to maintain his father 
in want ; otherwise let all sons be obliged to relieve their fathers 


V. Law. Letnota bastard be obliged to work to maintain his fa- 
ther. 


TABLE V. 


OF INHERITANCES AND GUARDIANSHIPS. 


I. Law. After the Death of a father of a family, let the disposition 
be máde of his estate, and his appointment concerning the guardian- 
ship of his children be observed 

IL. Law. If he dies intestate, and aas no children to succeed him, 
let his nearest relation be his heir; if he has no ncar relation, let a man 
of his own r.ame be his heir. 

lil. Law. When a freed- -man dies intestate, and, without heirs, if 
his patron be alive, or has left children, let the effects of the freed- 
man go to the family of nis patron. 

IV..Law. ;ifcr the death of a debtor, his debts shall be paid by 
his heizs, i in proportion to the share they have in his inheritance. Af- 
ter this they may divide the rest of his effects, if they please, and the 
Pretor sha!l appoint three arbitrators to make the division. 

V. Law. If a father of a family dies intestate, and leaves an heir 
under age, let the child's near:.st relation be his guardian. 

VI. Law. If any one becomes mad, or prodigal, and has no-body to 
take carc of him, let a relation, or if he has none, a man 9f his own 
name, have the care of his pcrson and estate. 


TABLE VI. ° 


OF PROPERTY AND POSSFSSION. 


I Law. When a man conv: yg his estate to another, let the terms af 


the conveyance create the right. n 


660 APENDIX I. 


II. Law. Ifa slave, who was made free on condition of paying ae 
tain sum, be afterwards sold, let him be set at liberty, if he pay thep 
son who has bought him, the sum agreed upon- 

III. Law. Let not any piece of merchandize, though sold and t 

iver:-d, belong tothe buyer, till he has paid for it. 

IV. Law. Let two years possession amount toa prescription’! 
lands, and one for moveables. 

V.Law Inlitigated cases the presumption shall always be oat 

side of the possessor: And in disputes about liberty or slavery, 
presumption shall always be on the side of liberty. 


TABLE VII. 


OF TRESPASSES AND DAMAGES. 
Y. Law. If a beast does any damage ina field, let the master of! 
beast make satisfaction, or give up his beast. ^ 
II. Law. If you find a rafter or a pole which belongs to 
ther man’s house or vineyard, and they are made ‘use of, 
down the house, or ruin the vineyard ; but make the posse: 
ble the value of the thing stolen; and when the house is de 
the pole taken out of the vineyard, then seize what’s your 
HI. Law. Whoever shall maliciously set fire to nichil n 
or an heap of corn near his house, shall be impriso ‘ 
burnt to death. If he did it by accident, let him 
And if he be a poor man, let him be slightly 
IV. Law. Whoever shall deprive another of the 



















dred pounds of brass if the sufferer be a 
and fifty if he be a slave. 4^ 
VI. Law. For common blows with the 
the punishment shall be twenty-five a 
VIL. Law. Whoever slanders: 
ses, and injures his reputation 
VIII. Law. Let him who hi 
bear witness again, tho 


the Capitch, 


APENDIX I. G1 


X. Law. Whoever shall wilfully kill a freed-mam or shall make use 
ef magical words to hurt him, or shall have prepared poison for him, 
or given it to him, shall be punished as an homicide. 

XI. Law. ' etall Parricides oc thrown into the river, sewed up ina 
leather bag, and with their heads veiled. 

XII. Law. The guardian who manages the affairs of his ward ill, 
shall be reprimanded ; and if he be found to have cheated him, he shall 
restore double. 

XIII. Law. A patron who shall have defrauded his client, shall be 
execrable- 


TABLE VIII. 


OF ESTATES IN THE COUNTRY. 

I. Law. Let the space of two foot and an half of ground be always 
left between one house and another. 

II. Law. Societies may make what by-laws they please among them» 
selves, provided they do not interfere with the public laws. | 

III. Law. When two neighbours have any disputes about theit 
bounds, the Pretor shall assign them three arbitrators. , 

IV. Law. When a tree planted in a field does injury to an adjoin- 
ing field by its shade, let its branches be cut off fifteen feet high. 

V. Law. If the fruit of a tree falls into a neighbouring field, the 
owner of the tree may go and pick it up. 

VI. law. If a man would make a drain, to carry off the rain- 
water from his ground to his neighbour's, let the Pretor appoint three 
arbitrators, to judge of the damage the water may do, and prevent it. 

VII. :.aw. Roads shall be. eight feet wide, where they run strait, 
and where they turn, sixteen. 

VIII. Law. If a road between two fields be bad, the traveller mar 
drive through which field he pleases. 


TABLE IX. 


OY THE COMMON RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE. 


' Y. Law. Let not privilege be granted to any person. 
IL Law. Let both debtors who are got out of slavery, and stran- 
gers who have rebelled, and returned to their duty, be restored to 


their ancient rights, as if they never offended. 


682 APPENDIX I. 


HI. Law. It shallbe a capital crime fora judge of arbitrator te 
take money for passing judgment. 

IV. Law. Let all causes, relating to the life, liberty, or rights of s 
Roman citizen, be tried only in Comitia by Centuries. 

V. Law. Let the people appoint Questors, totake cognizance f 
all capital cases. 

VI. Law. Whoever shall hold scditious assemblies in the city by 
night, shall be put to death. 

VIL Law. Let him who shall have solicited a foreigner to declare 
himself against Rome, or shall have delivered up a Roman citizen tox 
foreigner, lose his life. 

VIII. Law. Let only the last laws of the people be in force, [i. e. 
det the last supercede all former ones, in the same case made and provided] 


TABLE X. 


OF FUNERALS, AND ALL CEREMONIES RELATING TO THE DBAD. ' 


l. Law. Let no dead body be interred, or burnt within the city. 

IL Law. Let all costliness and excessive wailings be banithtd 
from funerals. 

ILL. Law. Let not the wood, with which funeral piles are built} te 
cut with a saw. * 

IV. Law. Let the dead body be covered with no more thanithiee 
habits, bordered with purple ; and let no more than ten players upawdii 
Gute be employed in celebrating the obsequies- 

V. Law. Let not the women tear their faces, or disfigure thensicer | 
or makc hideous outcries. 

VI. Law. Let not any part of a dead body be carried . m" 


erder to perform other obsequies for the deceased, unless hedialter 


war, or out of his own country. a 

VII. Law. Let no slaves be embalmed after their death 5 : leiiunh. 
be no drinking round a dead !*^dy; nor let any perfumed liquors w 
poured upon it. 

VIII. Law. Let n» crowns, festoons, perfuming-pots, or oy Vd 
of perfume, b:. vurried to funcrals. 

IX. Law." If the deceased has merited a crown in the pul 
by any exploit of his own, or the cxpertness of his slaves, or 
ness of his horses, lct his panegyrick be made at his fi 
Sis relations have lcave to put a crown upon his head, as 













APPENDIX L. 052 


‘the seven days he remains in the house, as when he is carried to bo 
buried. \ 

X Law. Let no man have morc than one funeral made for him, or 
than one bed put under him. * 

XI. Law. Let no gold be used in any obsequies, unless the jaw of. the 
deceased has been tied up with a gold thread. In that case the corps 
may be interred or burnt with the gold thread. 

XII. Law. For the future, let no sepulchre be built, or funeral pile 
vaised, within sixty feet of any house, without the consent of the 
«wner of the house. 

XIII. Law. Prescription shall never be pleaded agamst & man’s 
wight to bis burial-place, or the entrance te it. 


TABLE XI. 


OF THE WORSHIP OF THY. GODS, AND OF RELIGION. 


I. Law. Let all persons come with purity and piety to the assem: 
blies of religion, and banish oe extravagance from thence. If any 
one does otherwise, may the Gods themselves revenge it. 

II. Law. Letno person have particular Gods of his own; or wor- 
ship any new and foreign ones in private, unless they are authorised 
by publick authority. 

III. Law. Let every one enjoy the temples consecrated by his fore- 
fathers, the sacred. groves in his ficlds, and the oratories of his Lares. 
And let every one observe the rites used in his own family, and by his 
ancestors, in the worship of his domestic Gods. 

IV Law. Honour the Gods of Heaven, not only those who have 
always been esteemed such, but those likewise whose merit has raised 
thein thither, as Hercules, Bacchus, £sculapius, Castor, Pollux, ane 
Romulus. 

V. Law. Let those commendable qualities, by which heroes ob- 
tained Heaven, be ranked among the Gods, as Understanding, Virtue, 
Piety, Fidelity; and let temples be erected to them. But let no wor- 
ship ever be paid to any vice. 

VI. Law. Let the most authorised ceremonies be observed. 

VII. Law. Let law-suits be suspended on festivals, and let the 
slaves have leave to celebrate them after they have done their work. 
That it may be known on what days they fall, let them be sct down in 
the, calendars. 

VIII. Law. Let the Priests offer up in sacrifice to the Gods, on 
certain days, the fruits of the earth, and berries: And on other days 





























664 APENDIX I. 


abundance of milk, and young victims. For fear this ceremony shod 
be omitted, the Pricsts shall end their ycar with it. Let them like 
wise take care to chuse for every God the victim he likes.  Letther 
be priests appointed for some Gods, Flumines for others, and Pontifica 
‘to preside over thc mall. 

IX. Law. Let no woman be present at the sacrifices which area 
Tered up in the night, except at those which are made for the pcoph, 
with the usual ceremonies. Nor Iet any one be initiated in any -- 
teries brought from Greece, but those of Ceres. 

X Law. Ifany one steals what belongs, or isdevoted to the Gods, 
lethim be punished as a Parricide. 

XI. Law. Leave perjury to be punished with death by the Gods, esi 
let it be punished with perpetual disgrace by men. 

XII. Law. Letthe Pontifices punish incest with death. 

XIII. Law. Let every one strictly perform his vows: But letm 
wicked person dare to make any offerings to the Gods. 

XIV. Law. Let no man dedicate his field to the service of the d- 
tar; and let him be discrect in his offerings of gold, silver, or 
Let no man dedicate a litigated estate to the Gods: if he does, pie 
Bay double the value of it to him whose right it shall appear tobe 

XV. Law. Let every man constantly observe his family-fe 

XVI. Law. Let him who has been guilty of any of those 
«make men execrable, and are not to be atoned for by expi: 
deemed impious. But let the priests expiate such as are to be. 





TABLE XII. 


OF MARRIAGES. AND THE RIGHT OF MUSBAXDS. 
_ Y. Law. When a woman shall have cohabited with a man 
year, without having been three nights absent from him, 
deemed his wife. 
II. Law. If a man catches his wife in adultery, or finds 
he may, with the consent of her relations, punish her even 
III. Law. When a man will put away his wife, the form 
it shall be by taking from her the keys of the house, and gif 
what she brought. This shall be the manner of a divorce, 
IV. Law. A child born ofa widow, inthe tenth month after 
cease of her husband, shall be deemed legitimate. 
V. Low. It shall not be lawful for the Patricians to i; 
the Plebeians, 





DpD——— 


APPENDIX II. . 665 


Fro», Bravrn's TRANSLATION OF FERRIERE'S HisTonY— age 166. 


"€ M 


oem oin. 


OF THE QUOTATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS- 


As it is necessary in the first place, to know how to make use of the 
otations which we meet with in thc books of the civi daw ; and to 
d out the several /aws quoted by authors; I thought it my business 
to lay down some rules tor that purpose. 
The body of the civil law, as we said before, is composed of four 
parts, the digest, code, institutes and novels. 
The /aws of the digest, are generally quoted by the first word, and 
" gumber of the /aw ; tor instance, Lege siquis tertia Digestis de jure co- 
dicillorum ; sometimes the number only, or the first word of the /aw — 
from whence the quotation is taken, is set down. 

When a /aw is divided into several paragraphs, after the number 
of the Jaw, that of the paragraph, or the first word of it, is set down; 
for example, Lege 32. $ 11. Digestis de donationibus inter virum et ux- 

| orem. 

Sometimes a /aw of a title in the digest, is quoted by the first word 
only, with the title, without mentioning whether it be out of the digest 
or code ; and in that case, it 1s an indication that the /aw quoted is in 
the collection before spoken of; that is, in the digest or code, accord- 
ing as they were before mentioned. 

The Jaws of the code, are quoted after the same manner as those of 
the digest. 

The paragraphs of the insti*utes, are quoted after the same manner 
as the /aws of the digest or code; thusa paragraph of the institutes ie 
quoted, by shewing the number, and mentioning the first word of the 
paragraph, or by either; but the £it/e under which the paragraph is, 
must always be mentioned, as thus, paragrapho testes 15. Institutioni- 
bus, or else apud f ustinianum de testamentis ordinandis. 

The novels are quoted by their numbir, with that of the chapter and 
the paragraph: For example, Novella Fustiniant, 185. Capite 2.'1a- 
fagrapho 4. or else a Novel is quoted by the Collation, and by the Title, 
ehapter, and paragraph, after this manner, in Authentico, Collatione, 1. 
Titulo 1. Cap. 281. 

As to the Authenticks, they are quoted by the first words of them, af- 
ter which is set down the title of the code under which they are. plac- 
ed ; for example, Authentica cum testator, Codice ad legem falcidiam. 

This being laid down, let us now see how we shall go about to find 
eut a quotation in the body of the law. 

If the passage quoted is taken from the digest or the code, it will be 
best for beginners to turn to the alphabetical table of the tit/es, at the 
beginning of the body of the /aw; where having found the ¢it/e men- 

‘tioned in the quotation, they must then look in it for the /aw; by the 
number of first word. 

If the quotation is taken from the Institutes, they must likewise have 
recourse to the table of tit/es ; and after having found the beok in which 
it is, look after it there, and then the paragraph which is quoted. 


4Q 


a uf 








656 APPENDIX I. 


If we would find out a Novel, there is nothing more to be done, tha 
v the number it is under. 
tick, we must look in the table of the Code, for th 
h itis placed: It isso much the more easily found, be 
li the dutnenticéy arc inscricd inthe Code in a different letter. 
t, asiliusc who ha.e a mind t6 look after any aw, wast 
turaing over the table or index, they may uw 
‘hat troubk, by rendering the titles of the body of thed 
ng them by heart, by which means, they will scquire 
m pv of the pl where every particular matter is 
wal without the leasi difliculty, be able to find out any /aw they hav. 
ccasion to consult. 
mpl at these insiructions for young students how to find outthe 
quotaiions in our books, it remains only that 1 explain the abbreviation. 

























ABBREVIATIONS. 
AP. TUSTIN, Apud Jusinianen, in Justinian's institutes. 

A! rat. dr 4, bv ar argument drawn from sucha lem 
ho Authentich; that is to say, the Símmar 
. emperor» A.vei coustitutions inserted in the Code unde 















chapter of such a Novel. 
Justi "s c.de. 

«stan^4, m the Thesdosian code. 

or sccund celunin of the book quoted 
tion, in the esllation of such or such a Novel. 

". Contra, ihis is gencrally used to denote a contray 





‘VD .Ji:to or Dita, that is, the aforesaid, or /zw or chapter bekam 
que 





EOD U..rih 
^ Finaliv, h- ls: 6 
Jf its Paadec ‘The Grecians having made use 
Litros to signify audects, the Romans changed them into 
jowed together, Digestsriur liter ideo drplici ff. signatur, 
ndvctas perm un accent. circunflexc nctabant, sub 















H. Hic, here, in th: same title, law or paragraph. 
H. VLC) Hec titulo, in dus Tide 
Leer INE, B.fra. heneath or below. 
L^. Y»nc/a Grisssu, the gloss jc 
1. Jn authentico, collatione 1. in b 
: n 1, E. 
IN F. J: fine, at the end of the title, law or paragraph 
IN PR dn principio, in the beginning, and before the fiysg. 
ef a law. 
IN F. PR. Zu fic principii, toward the end of a 












ee 


APPENDIX III. 067 


IN SU M. Jn summa, in the summary. 

L. Lege in such a law. 

LI. or LIB. Libro, in the first or second book, £e. 

NOV. Novella, in such a Novel. | 

PAR. Paragrapho, in such a paragraph or. article of the Jaw, or of 
a Title in the Znstitutes. 

PR. or PRIN. Principium, the beginning of a Title or a daw. 

II. Pandectis, in the pandecte. | 

Penult. The last but onc. 

Q QU. or QUAS. Suzstione, in such a Question. 

RU. or RUB. Insuch a Rubrick or Title. Th: Titles were called 
Rubricks, from their being formerly written in red letters. 

SC. or SCIL. Scilicet, that isto say. 

SOL. Solutio, the answer to an objection. 

SUM Summa, the summary of a daw. 

§ Paragrapho, in such a paragraph. 

T. or TIT. Titulus, Titulo, Title. 

T. or V. Versiculo, in such a verse, which is a part of a paragraph. 

WLT. Ultimo, Ultima, thc last Title, Paragraph or Law. 


Kup A Omm 


APPENDIX III. | 
AUTHORS ON THE CIVIL LAW. 


1st. Such as treat on the law previous to Justinian. 
2dly. Such as treat histerically on the Roman law generally. 
3dly. The principal editions of the Corpus Juris Civilis. — 
y. Commentators un the Corpus Juris Civilis. 
vy. Compilations on the civil law. 


a 


———— $9 Grew 


Finsr. Historical treatises on the Leges. Regis, Jus Papirianum, 
Duodecim Tabulz, and the laws and collections intervening between 
them and Justinian. 

Franciscus Balduinus, Libri duo in leges Romuli et duodecim tae 
bularum. The third edition isthe best. Basil. 1559. 8vo 

-Pardulphus Prateius. Jurisprudentia vetus: sive Draconis et So. 
lonis, nec non Romuli Romanorum regis, ac 12 tabularum leges col 
lectz interpretateque. Leyden. 1557. 

3- Gothofred. Quatuor fontes juris civilis: sive leges 12 ta^ula» 
rum, cum earundem historia, &c. Legis Julie ct Papie fragmentac 
edictum perpetuum : librorum Sabiniorum ordo et scries.  4to. 
Genev. 1653. ° 
- Rosinus also mentions several of the l-z smgie as insert-d by - 
Paulos Mauuties. Rosinus himsclf gives a very brief and abridged. 


1 


G68 APPENDIX III. 


account of the history of the Roman law from Pomponius, whids 
worth perusal. Rosini Antiq Rom. quto. Amstelod. 1685. p 54 
On the subject of the Jaws of the twelve tables in particular, he refs 
to the collections and comments of Julius Pacius, Antonius Aug» 
tinus, Joannes Oldendorpius, Joannes Crispinus, Antonius Contm 
lr. Hottomannus, Dionysius Gothofredus, Sizphanus Pighius E 
Balduinus, Hadrianus Turncbus, Ludovicus Charondas, Justus Li 
sius, and ‘Theodorus Marcilius: of whom but few are noted by G 
mus in his fettr.s sur Ja Profession D'*Avocat. Paris, 1776. 

The edition of J. Gotholred, in the book above cited, Quatuor fe 
tes, &c. is in the most esteem. 

Autores ct fragmenta veterum jurisconsultorum, de origine et pe 
gressu juris romani, cum notis Arnoldi Vinnii et variorum. Ex eds 
Sim. Van Leewen, Leyden, 1571. Jena, 1697 8vo. 

Jurisprudentia vetus ante Jusinianea. Ex recens. et cum dX 
Schultingii, Leyden, 1717. Leipsic, 1737. qto. This comprehesd 
the fragments of Gaius, Paulus, Uipian, and other jurisconsults pre 
ceding Justinian. 

F Gathofredus. Codex Theodosianus, cum amplissimo commente 
rio, studio Ántonii Marvilit Levden, 1665. 6 vol. fol. 

Srcovpty. Iistorical treatiseson Roman Jurisprudence generally. 

Sg. Gothofredi. Manuale juris 12mo. Several editions. 

Fo. Vin Gravina. Origines juris civilis, seude ortu et progres’ 
juris civilis. With the annotations of Mascou. Leipsic, 1737. q& 
Ven. 17.9 to 4. 

Hen. Chr. Hausotter. Historia legum romanarum.  Leipst 
1758. 8v0o 

J? Gstl. Heineccius. Antiquitatum romanarum jurisprudegti i 
illustrantium Syntagma. This is comprehended in the Geneva ee —- 
tion of his works in 8 vols. qto. 1743 and 1748. But there are sl» 
several separate editions; the best at Strasburg (Argentor.) injf9, 
1741 and in 2 vol. 8vo. 1755. , 

Ejusdem historia juris civilis, 8vo. the best edition is Ritter’s, 
published at Strasburgh. This aud the preceding treatise form de 
fourth volume of his works, in qto. 

Burchard Gotthelf Struvius. Historia juris romani, 4to. Jena, 1ft$. 

go. Fr. Eisenhardt, Historia juris literaria. 8vo. Helmand 


1752, 1763. 2. 
Fo. Douatii. Historia juris civilis romanorum. Paris, 1678.10. 
Sbanhcim. Orbis Romanus. op 


Thomasius. D.lneatio historiz juris Romani et Germanisii Ee 
furt. 8vo. 1750. Nevorum jurisprudentiz romans, lib. due Mak 


Magd. 1707. (ww. 
Brunquellus, Historia juris Romano-Germanici. 8vo. Ametel.’ 

Gravina, Hc; ;neccius, Struvius and Brunquellus, may be } 

as the best of this ciass of writers. Trae ae 


. _ Histoire du droit romain par Claude Joseph de Ferriere. 49288. 
Paris, 1718. This is taken chiefly from Gravina. Der. Beaver lan 


», 
- : wf. « 
f. - Be 





—— 


», 
A 
l 
I 
[n 


s-T"», - 


APPENDIX III. 669 


wanslated it, and added Duck's treatise de usu et auctoritate juris 
civilis. 

Ant. Terasson. Histoire dela Jurisprudence Romaine. Paris, 1750, 
in folio. Coinpiled at the direction of Chancellor D'Aguessau. A 
work, says Mr. Gibbon, of more promise than performance. It con- 
tains howcver a curious and interesting collection of ancient documente 
and ir..gments. ' 

Dr. Beuver'’s history of the legal polity of the Roman state. 4o. 
1781. ! 

Dr. Taylor's elements of the civil law 4to. 1755. There is ag 
anonymous abridgement of this desultory but very interesting book, 
by the Rev. Mr. Ellis, with a preface on the nature of moral obliga- 
tion. 

Bouchaud’s Recherches historiques sur les edits des Magistrats Ro- 
mains in tom. 41. page 1. of the Memoires de Academie Francoise. 

TurnDLYv. The principal editions of the Corpus juris civilis. 

Corpus juris civilis cum glossis Genev. 1614. 4 vol. qto. 

Idem cum notis D. Gothofredi. Paris. Vitray. 1628. 2 vol. fol. 
This is the edition I have employed. 

Idem Daniel Elzevir. 1664. 2 vol. 8vo. Amst. 

" Jdem. Elzevir et Bleau, 1681 1700. 2 vol. 8vo. 

Corpus juris civilis academicum. Col. Mun. 1759. 1 vol, qto. 

The editions of the Institutes, are too numerous to catalogue. There 
are also about a doz«n editions of the Paraphrase of the Institutes, by 
Theophilus, in Greek and Latin, and in Latin. 

QEOURTHLT. Commentators on the Corpus juris, or particular parts 
OF it. 

These may be reduced to the works of Cuyacius, Vinntus, Voetius, 
Noodt, and Boehmer. Harris quotes Foachim Muysinger frequently. 
Tam not acquainted with any work of Mysinger’s but his commentary 
on the title, de fide instrumentorum lib. 2 decretalium, Helmst. 1582, 
in fol. and Marp. 1602 3vo. I have found the brief notes of D. Gothofred 
to his edition of the Corpus Juris civilis, worth attention. 

Fir: irv Compilations on the civil law. 

I possess a grzat number of them, but I know of few worth noticing, 
except the following. 

Cujacii Paratitla in pandectas et Codicem : of which there are about 
eight editions in 12mo. and 8vo. separate from the general collection of 
his works. 

Heimeccit Elementa juris secundum ordinem Institutionum, 

Idem sccundum ordinem Pandectarum. 

Of these there are several editions in 8vo. and 12mo. separate from 
his works. | 

Barriga de Montvallon. Epitome juris et legum Romanorum. 8vo. 
Paris 1756. 

Claude Fos. de Ferriere. Nova et methodica juris civilis tractatio. 
2vol. 12mo. Paris. The last of four editions is tn 1734. | 


670 APPENDIX. III. 


Ferriere. La Jurisprudence du Code de Justinian, 
du Digest. 
des Novelles. ' 
I have freely used the Nouvelle traduction des Institutes de: 
reur Justinian of the same author, with notes, in 6 vol. 8vo.- 
-Pothier's Pandecta Justiniane. 3v. fol. 1748. — 
Jean Domat. Les Loix civiles dans leur ordre naturel, 
and with a supplement by D'Hericourt in 2 vol. fol. Paris, 1 
This has been edited in English by Srrahan ; and is d 
generally used in England on this subject ; though /ood"s. 
the civil law (fol.) is a very ufeful digest upon the whole. 
Ayloffe’s Pandect of the Roman civil law, fol. 1734, is 
ficient in learning, but too desultory and short. 
Inconvenient brevity, also renders the following works of | 
than they might be, though they are not destitute of merin — 
Schomberg's Elemcnts of the Roman Law. 8vo. 1780. 
Dr. Halifax's Analysis of the civillaw, a pamphlet 1775, 
Dr. Arthur Browu’s Elements of the civil and Admi: a 
lin, and London, 180*, is commonly used among the bar $n 
try, and therefore I have purposclyomitted many obs. 
be found also im that book ; which though fartoo brief, 
popular. 








671 


ze 
"e. ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. 


v Page 42. Insert, as a title to the second section of tit. 15., Quis dica- 
eur intestatus. N. B. The titles to the several sections being arbitrary, 
i differ in different editions: and sometimes the sections themselves are 
'rlifferently divided. But there is a sufficient similarity in general to lead 
2 to the same passage in all the editions, I follow Harris in this respect. 
1x Page 99. Insert, as a title to section 8, Quando conjunguntur tempora. 

Page 188. For hareditatis, read hereditas. 

Page 409, line the last. Cambaceres. I was mistaken in ascribing the 

3 CodeNapoleon to Cambaceres. Mr. Du Ponceau has enabled me to 
correct this mistake. The authors or redacteurs of the Code civil N apo- 
g leon, were Portalis, Tronchet, Bigot-Preameneu, and Maleville, as ap- 
_pears by the Discours Preliminaire to the ** Projet de Code civil," pre- 
; sented by those gentlemen as a committee appointed by government on 
" the 24th Thermidor, year 8, and published the year after. Cambaceres 
indeed reported a project of a code civil to the convention some years 
before, which, although Portalis and the others praise sufficiently, they 
adopt sparingl:. Cambaceres was consul in the year 9. 

Page 462. By the civil law goods sold and delivered might be re- 
claimed, if not duly paid for. Quod vendidi non aliter fit accipientis 
quam si aut pretium nobis solutum sit, aut satis eo nomine datum, vel 
etiam fidem habuerimus emptori sine ulla satisfactione. Dig. 18. 1. 19. 
Dig. 18. 1. 53. Dig. 19. 1. 13. 8. and 14. 4. 5. 18. It is with this medi- 
fication that the civil law doctrine is to be understood, that the obligation 
of the contract emptio venditio arises not from the delivery of the goods 
to the vendee, but upon the mutual consent of the parties, the one to 
sell and the other to buy. Ut primum de re et pretio convenit, Emptio 
perfecta intelligitur, quamvis nec res traditur, nec pretium numeratuin, 
nec arrha datasit. Atque in contractibus qui consensu perficiuntur, dis- 
tinguenda perfectio contractüs, à consummatione sive implemento. Emp- 
tionem et venditionem perficit solus consensus de re et pretio; consummat 
rei traditio et pretii numeratio, qui extremus est contrahentium finis. 
Simulatque autem emptio perfecta est, nascitur utrinque obligatio, te- 
neturque emptor actione ex vendito ut, nummos quos pretii nomine pro 
re vendita promisit, solvat: venditor actione exempto, ut rem venditam 
tradat emptori. Vinn. l. 3. tit. 24. To this general doctrine, an excep- 
tion was allowed in cases where earnest was given: in those cases, if the 
buyer repented, he forfcited his earnest money, and was free from the 
contract; if the seller repented, he forfeited the earnest money paid, and 
as much more. See also Inst. 2. 1. 4. 

Formerly, by the general law of France, the seller might seize the 
thing sold, and not paid for, if he could find it in the possession of the 
buyer, and need not have shared it with the othe: creditors: a:«d in 
some places of France, the seller might even pursue the article in pos- 






672 


session of a subsequent purchaser. See Domat's Civil Law, books) 
art. 3., with the notes on that article, and on book 3. ü 
ight by the new commercial code of F 
art. 576, 577, et seq. is confined to stoppage in transitu, under 
very similar to our own law. See Mr. Du Ponceau’s translation 
commercial code, 2 Walsh’s Review, p. 191, 192. 
In England, before the statute of frauds, 29 Ch. 2. chap. 3. §] 
(which enacts, that * no contract for the sale of goods, wares, anda 
“ chandize, for the price of ten pounds sterling or upwards, shall bet 
“ lowed to be good, except the buyer shall accept part of the goolt 
** sold and actually receive the same, or give something in eai 

** bind the bargain, or in part payment, or that some note or 
“ dum in writing of the said bargain be made and signed by the 
“ charged by such contract or their agents thereunto law; 

“ riz. d") no bargain for goods was valid without earnest, deli 
pay ment, except a contract to deliver at a future day appointed, 
B settled price; which might have been supported. Since that 
verbal contract of bargain and sale unaccompanied by delivery 
delivery, payment or part payment, or earnest money (which mi 
may not be a part of the price, according to the intention of the 
Pinnel’s case, 5 Rep. 177., Pordage v. Cole, 1 Saund. 319., M 
Western, 2 Vern. 606., and Hamersly v. Knowlys, 32: Esp. N. 
666., which are comments on the rule, quicquid solvitur, solvit 
dum solventis) can be supported. It was for some time thoi 
ecutory contracts might be taken out of it; but all that class of 
lates to those sales only where the goods to be delivered are 
and cannot be delivered at the time of the contract; not to tl 
exist in solido, and are capable of present delivery. See 
Wyatt, 2 H. Bl. 63, and Cooper v. Elston, 7 Term Rep. 14, 

Page 463. The case of the United States v. The admin 
Hillegas, in the Circuit Court of the United States for the 
Pennsylvania, reviews all the authorities, and settles, that 
discharged by indulgence given to the principal on a new se 
to the cases on surety, 10 East 39. 1 Bos. & Pull. 419. 4, I) 
Page 464. Stoppage in transitu. In Hodgson v. Loy, 7 
440, Lord Kenyon, and in ex parte Gwynne, 12 Ves. 382, Lo 
state, that the right of stoppage in transitu is not founded onthe ri 
vendor to rescind the contract, but on an equitable lien, ind 
vendor, from motives of reasonable expedience in the case of b 
sale. To me, this right appears to have been suggested by the pre 
of the civil law. 

I believe it is considered that delivery to a common car; 
delivery to the consignee, as to take away any right in the 
rescind the contract, though it leaves unimpaired the righto 
in transitu ere the guods arrive at their place of destination, 
of Walter and Fillis v. Jenks, Judge Washington determined 
dor had a right in case of insolvency to seize his goods on b 
ral vessel, to which they were sent by the purchaser who had 
for them, and for whose use they were ostensibly shipped, wii 












































eee 


672a 


issignment of the bill of lading, though they were in fact intended for 
the use of a distant creditor of the purchaser: for under the circum- 
stances they remained completely in the power of the purchaser who 
ihipped them, and who could at any time alter their place of destination. | 

int the case of a sale of land, where the purchase money is not paid, 
the Court of Chancery considers the purchaser a trustee for the seller, 
Pollexfen v. Moore, 3 Atk. 272., Blackburn v. Gryson, 1 Brown's Ch. 
Rep. 420. 

Add to the cases of stoppage in transitu, Stubbs v. Lund, 7 Mass. 
Rep. 452, an instructive case, decided by a judge of no common talent. 

Page 465. To the cases on the subject of delivery of goods to car- 
riers, add Potter v. Lansing, 1 Johns. N. Y. Rep. 215. 

Page 467. Servitudo. Servitudines. Services, servitudes, easements. 
I have stated, page 467, 468, that of the three translations, I have pre- 
ferred services: here in agreeing with Dr. Wood, Dr. Taylor, and Dr. 
Harris, the compilers of the Napoleon code being neuter, I have against 
me, Lord Mansfield, in the case cited from 1 Burr. 443; Gibbon, 8 
Rom. Hist. 73; Mr. Du Ponceau of Philadelphia, whose opinions on 
subjects of the civil law, I hold in great respect; and Mr. Jefferson, in 
his late learned and elaborate defence of the proceedings of the United 
States, in respect of Mr. Ed. Livingston's claim to the New Orleans 
Batture. In this tract the reader will meet with much collateral infor- 
mation on a/uvion, servitudes, predia rustica et urbana, and other points 
connected with the civil law. All these learned men translate servitudo 
by servitude. But to my ear, the last word seems exclusively appropri- 
ated in common languag:, to the situation of servants and slaves. 

Page 553. I sent to Philadelphia the pages of Harris's edition that 
contained the 118th novel, to have the Greck printed there. Hence, 
not having it before me, I inadvertently translated that novel anew. 

Page 582. Novation. This is somewhat allied to the English doctrine 
of extinguishment. 

Page 583. For peredentum, read prudentum. 

Page 615, near the top, for defective quality, read, non-delivery. 

Page 617. Add to the cases respecting sales in market overt, Cheriot 
9. Foussat, 3 Binn. 220. 258. 

Page 622. Commandite. I borrow the following note from Mr. Du 
Ponceau, to whom the bar are obliged.for the useful translation of the 
French commercial code in the second volume of Walsh’s Review, and 
very ably elucidated by the notes he has added to it. 

Societé en commandite. Our language has no corresponding words to 
express this technical phrase, nor that of associé commandataire which is 
derived from it. We are therefore obliged to adopt the French words 
themselves as wellas we can to our own idiom, with some variations for 
the sake of euphony and analogy, as far as these can be obtained. 

This species of partnership, like the greatest part of the mercantile 
customs of Europe, draws its origin from Italy. Hence the words com- 
mandite and commanditatre are derived from the Italian commando, which 
itself takes its derivation from the Latin mandatum. Societé en comman- 
dite is as it were, societas cum mandato, a contract of partnership coupled 


6725 


with a contract of mandatum or bailment. Such a partnership ise 
posed of one or more acting and responsible, and one or more dom 
partners; the latter of whom are not bound by the acts of theirm 
ciates, beyond the amount they bring into the general stock. They ma 
ly place their funds in the hands of others, to be employed in trades 
their benefit; and therefore these different partners, not only as betm 
each other, but as between them and the rest of the world, stand ty 
ther in the relation of principal and factor: mixed indeed, with some 
the circumstances attending ordinary partnerships, but only in a cet 
degree, and toa limited extent. From this mixture of relative rig 
and duties, this species of contract has received its denominatios, 
These partnerships are useful in countries, where there are grati 
pitalists, who wish to employ a part of their money in trade with 
exposing themselves to unlimited risks. They furnish empl d 
funds, which would otherwise remain inactive. The laws 
and Great Britain however do not recognize such associations, 








INDEX 


AD 


Libros, Titulos et Sectiones Institutionum. 


roemium de Confirmatione Institutionum. 
De usu armorum et legum. 
1. De bellis et legibus Justiniani. _ 
2. De compositione codicis et pandectarum. 
3. De tempore, auctoritatibus, fine et utilitate compo- 
sitionis institutionum. 
3. Divisio institutionum. 
5. Quid in institutionibus contineatur. 
6. Ex quibus libris composite sunt institutiones atque 
earum recognitio et confirmatio. 
7. Adhortatio ad studium juris. 


Ib. 1. Tit. 1. De Justitid et Jure. 
Definitio justitia. 
1. Definitio jurisprudentiz. 
2. De juris methodo. 
3. Juris precepta. 
4. De jure publico et privato.- 


b. 1. Tit. 2. De Jure naturali Gentium et Civili. 
De jure naturali. 
1. Distinctio juris gentium et civilis, à definitione et 
etymologia. 
2. Ab appellatione et effectibus. 
3. Divisio juris in scriptum et non scriptum; et subdi- 
visio juris scripti. 
4. De lege et plebiscito. 
5. De senatus-consulto. 
6. De constitutione. 
7. De jure honorario. 
8. De responsis prudentum. 
9. De jure non scripto. 
10. Ratio superioris divisionis. 
11. Divisio juris in immutabile et mutabile. 
12. De objectis juris. 
4R 


674 INDEX. 


Lib. I. Tit. 3. De Jure Personarum. 
Prima divisio personarum. 
1. Definitio libertatis. 
2. Definitio servitutis. 
3. Servi et mancipii etymologia. 
4. Quibus modis servi constituuntur. 
5. De liberorum et servorum divisione. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 4. De Ingenuis. 
De ingenui definitione. 
1. De erronea ingenui manumissione. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 5. De Libertinis. 
Definitio et origo libertinorum et‘ martemisstons 
1. Quibus modis manumittatur. 
2. Ubi et quando mai potest. 
'8. De libertinorum divisione sublati, 








Lib. 1. Tit. 6. Qui et quibus causis manumittere non Lew] 
Prius caput legis Zlie Sentiz, de manumitteate aí 
dem creditorum. 
1. De servo instituto cum libertate. 
2. De servo instituto sine libertate. 
3. Quid sit in fraudem creditorum manumitteis; 
+. Alterum caput legis Llie Sentie de miens 
annis. 
5. Qui sunt just cause manumissionis. 
6. De causa semel probatá. 
7. Abrogatio posterioris capitis legis /lim Seats 


Lib. 1. Tit. 7. De lege Fusid Caniniá Tollendá. 









Lib. 1. Tit. 8. De his qui sui vel alieni juris sunt. 
Altera divisio personarum. 4 
1. De jure gentium in servos. 4 

2. De jure civium Romanorum in servos, 


Lib. 1. Tit. 9. De Patriá Potestate. 
Summa tituli. 
1. Definitio nuptiarum. 
2. Qui habent in potestate. 
3. Qui sunt in potestate. 





Lib. 1. Tit. 10. De Nuptiis. 
Qui possunt nuptias contrahere. . 
1 1. Que uxores duci possunt vel now, 
primum de parentibus et liberis, — 


2. De fratribus et sororibus. 


INDEX. ^— 615 


3. De fratris et sororis filiá vel nepte. 
4. De consobrinis. 
5. De amitá materterá, amità magna, matertera magni. 
6. De affinibus et primum de privigna et nuru. 
7 Desoeruetnovercà, — — 
8. De comprivignis. 
9. De quasi privigná, quasi puru, et quasi noverca. 
10. De servili cognatione. . 
11. De reliquis prohibitionibus. 
12. De penis injustarum nuptiarum. 
13. De legitimatione. 


b. 1. Tit. 11. De Adoptionibus. - 
Continuatio. 

1. Divisio adoptionis. 

2. Qui possunt adoptare filium familias, vel non. 

: 3. De arrogatione impuberis. 

4. De state adoptantis et adoptati. 
5. De adoptione in locum nepotis vel neptis, vel dein- 
- — ceps. 
6. De adoptione filii alieni in locum nepotis et contra. 
7. De adoptione in locum nepotis. 

8. Qui dari possunt in adoptionem. 
9. Si is, qui generare non potest, adoptet. 

10. Si femina adoptet. 

11. De liberis arrogatis. 

12. De servo adoptato, vel filio nominato, à domino. 


ib. 1. Tit. 12. Quibus modis jus patria potestatis solvitur. 
Scopus et nexus. Dc morte. 
1. De deportatione. 
2. De relegatione. 
3. De servitute pena. 
4. De dignitate. 
5. De captivitate et postliminio. 
6. De emancipatione, item de modis et effectibus ejus- 
dem. 
7. Si alii emancipentur, alii retineantur in potestate. _ 
8. De adoptione. 
9. De nepote nato post filium emancipatum. 
10. An parentes cogi possunt liberos suos de potestate 
dimittere: 


ab 1. Tit. 13. De Tuteks. 
De personis sui juris. 
1. Tutelz definitio. 
2. Definitio et etymologia tutoris. 
3. Quibus testamento tutor datur: et primum de libe- 
ris in potestate. 


676 INDEX. 


4. De posthumis. 
5. De emancipatis. 





Lib. 1. Tit. 14. Qui testamento tutores dari possunt. 
Qui tutores dari possunt. 

1. De servo. 

2. De furioso, et minore viginti quinque annis. 

3. Quibus modis tutores dantur. 

4. Cui dantur. 

5. De tutore dato filiabus, vel filiis, vel liberis, vett 
potibus. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 15. De legitimá agnatorum tutelá. 
Summa. 
1. Qui sunt ugnati. 
2. Geis dicatur intestatus. 
3. Quibus modis agnatio vel cognatio finitur. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 16. De capitis diminutione. 
Definitio et divisio. 

1. De maxima capitis diminutione. 

2. ‘De media. 

3. De minima. 

4. De servo manumisso. 

5. De mutatione dignitatis. 

6. Interpretatio sectionis ult. sup. tit. prox. 
- Ad quos agnatos tutela pertinet. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 17. De legitimá patronorum tutelá. 
Ratio, ob quam patronorum tutela dicitur legitima. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 18. De legitimá parentum tutelá. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 19. De Jiduciariá tutelá. 
Filii familias à patre manumissi, pater tutor est 
mus; ¢o vero dcfuncto, irater tutor fiduciarius existé 


Lib. 1. Tit. 20. De Atiliano tutore, et eo, qui exc lege Jud d 
Titiá dabatur. 

Jus antiquum, st nullus sit tutor. 

_ 1. Si spes sit futuri tutoris testamentarii. 
2. Si tutor ab hostibus sit captus. 
3. Quando et cur desierint ex dictis legibus, tutore 

dari. 

4, Jus novum. 
5. Jus novissimum. | 
6. Ratio tutelie. - 
7. De tutele ratione reddendi. 





INDEX. 671 


Lib. 1. Tit. 21. De auctoritate tutorum. 
. In quibus causis auctoritas sit necessaria. 
1. Exceptio. 
2. Quomodo auctoritas interponi debet. 
3. Quo casu interponi non potest. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 22. Quibus modis tutela finitur. 
De pubertate. 
1. De capitis diminutione pupilli. 
2. De conditionis eventu. 
3. De morte. 
4. ‘De capitis diminutione. 
5. De tempore. 
6. De remotione et excusatione. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 23. De curatoribus. 
De adultis. 
1. A quibus dentur curatores. 
2. Quibus dentur. ' 
3. De furiosis, et prodigis. 
4. De mente captis, surdis, &c. 
5. De pupillis. 
6. De constituendo actore. 


Lib. i Tit. 24. De satisdatione tutorum vel curatorum. 
Qui satisdare cogantur. 

1. Quatenus satisdatio in iis, qui satisdare non com- 
pelluntur, locum habere possit. 

2. Qui ex administratione tutelz vel curationis tenen- 
tur. 

3. Si tutor vel curator cavere nolit. 

4. Qui dictá actione non tenentur. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 25. De excusationibus tutorum vel curatorum. 
De numero liberorum. 
1. De administratione rei fiscalis. 
2. De absentia reipublice causa. 
3. De potestate. 
4. De lite cum pupillo vel adulto. 
5. De tribus tutele et curz oneribus. 
6. De paupertate. 
7. De adversà valetudine. 
8. De imperitia literarum. 
9. De inimicitia patris. 
10. De ignorantia testatoris. 
11. De inimicitiis cum patre pupilli vel adulti. 
12. De status controversia à patre pupilli illatá. 
12. De atate. 


678 


INDEX. 


14. De militia. 

15. De grammaticis, rhetoribus et medicis. 

16. De tempore et modo proponendi excusatione. 
17. De excusatione pro parte patrimonii. 

18. De tutelz gestione. 

19. De marito. 

20. De falsis allegationibus. 


Lib. 1. Tit. 26. De suspectis tutoribus vel curatoribus. 


Unde suspecti crimen descendat. 


1. Qui de hoc crimine cognoscunt. 
2. Qui suspecti fieri possunt. 

3. Qui possunt suspectos postulare. 
4. Ad pubes vel impubes. 

5. Quidicatur suspectus. 

6. De effectu remotionis. 

7. De effectu accusationis. 

8. Quibus modis cognitio finitur. 

9. Si tutor copiam sui non faciat. 


10. Si neget alimenta, decerni posse vel tutelam re 


merit. 


11. De liberto fraudulenter administrante. 
12. Si suspectus satis offerat; et quis dicatur suspec 


Lib. 2. Tit. 1. De rerum divisione, et acquirendo carum dom 


Continuatio et duplex rerum divisio. 


1. De aére, aqua profluente, mari, littere, &c. 
2. De fluminibus et portubus. 

3. Definitio littoris. 

4. De usu et proprietate riparum. 

5. De usu et proprietate littorum. 

6. De rebus universitatis. 

7. De rebus nullius. TEN 
8. De rebus sacris. 

9. De religiosis. 


10. De rebus sanctis. 
11. De rebus singulorum. 


2. De occupatione ferarum. 


13. De vulneratione. 
14. De apibus. 
15. De pavonibus et columbis, et cseteris anim 


mansuefactis. 


16. De gallinis et anseribus. 

17. De occupatione in bello. 

18. De occupatione eorum que in littore inverium 
19. De foetu animalium. 

20. De alluvione. 








21. 
22. 


INDEX. 089 


De vi fluminis. . 
De insulá. 


23. 'De alveo. 


24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 


30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 


44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 


De inundatione. 

De specificatione. 

De accessione. 

De confusione. 

De commixtione. 

De his que solo cedunt. De zdificatione in suo 
solo, ex alienà materia. 

De edificatione ex sua materia in solo alieno. 

De plantatione. 

De satione. 

De scripturá. 

De pictura. 

De fructibus boná fide perceptis. 

De fructibus à fructuario et colono perceptis. 

Qus sunt in fructu. 

De officio fructuarii. 

De inventione thesauri. 

De traditione. 1. Regula ejusque ratio. 

Limitatio. 

Ampliatio. 

De quasi traditione. Si traditio ex alia causa pre- 
cesserit. 

De traditione clavium. 

De missilibus. 

De habitis pro derelicto. 

De jactis in mare levandz navis causa: Item de 
his, qus de rhedá currente cadunt. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 2. De rebus corporalibus et incorporalibus. 


Secunda rerum divisio. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 3. De servitutibus rusticorum et urbanorum pre- 


diorum. 


De servitutibus rusticis. 
1. De servitutibus urbanis. 
2. De reliquis servitutibus rusticis. 
3. Qui servitute debere vel acquirere possunt. 
4. Quibus modis servitus constituitur. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 4. De Usufruotu. 
Definitio usufryctüs. 
1. Quibus modis constituitur. 
9. Quibus in rebus constituitur. 
3. Quibus modis finitur. 
4. Si finitus sit. 


680 INDEX. 
Lib. 2. Tit. 5. De Usu et Habitatione. 


Communia de usufructu ct usu. 
1. Quid intersit inter usufructum et usum fundi 
2. Adium usus. 
3. De servi vcl jumenti usu. 
4. De pecorum usu. 
5. De habitatione. 
6. Transitio. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 6. De Usucapionibus et longi temporis pre 
scriptionibus. 

Praecipua usucapionis requisita. 1. Bona fides. 2. Ps 
sessio per tempus definitum continuata. 3. Jus 
titulus. 

1. De his, que sunt extra commercium. 

2. De rebus furtivis et vi possessis. 

3. De vitio purgato. 

4. De re fiscali et bonis vacantibus. 

5. Regula generalis. 

6. De errore false causz. 

7. De accessione possessionis. 

8. Quando conjunguntur tempora. 

9. De his qui à fisco, aut imp. Augustzve domo s 
quid acceperunt. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 7. De Donationibus. 
De donatione. 
1. De mortis causa donatione. 
2. De simplice inter vivos donatione. 
3. De donatione ante nuptias vel propter nuptias. 
4. De jure accrescendi. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 8. Quibus alienare licet vel non licet. 
De marito, qui, licet fundi dotalis dominus sit, alieae 
nequit. 
1. De creditore qui, licet not sit dominus, tamen sli 
nare pignus potest. T 
2. De pupillo, qui, licet dominus; non tamen aine Uu 
toris auctoritate alienare possit. 
3. Continuatio. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 9. Per quas Personas cuique acquiritur. 
Summa. 
1. De liberis in potestate. 
2. De emancipatione liberorum. 
3. De servis nostris. 
4. De fructuariis et bona fide possessis. 
5. Continuatio. 





INDEX. 673 


6. De reliquis sui extraneis personis. 
7. Transitio. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 10. De Testamentis ordinandis. 


Etymologia. 

1. De antiquis modis testandi civilibus. 

2. De antiqua testandi ratione pretoria. 

3. De conjunctione juris civilis et pratorii. 
4. Solemnitas addita à Justiniano. 

5. De annulis, quibus testamenta signantur. 
6. .Qui testes esse possunt. 

7. De servo qui liber existimabatur. 

.8. De pluribus testibus ex eadem domo. 

9. De his qui sunt in familia testatoris. 

10. De harede. 

11. De legatariis et fidei commissariis, et his, qui sunt 
.. In eorum familia. 

12. De materia, in qua testamenta scribuntur. 
13. De pluribus codicibus. 

14. De testamento.nuncupativo. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 11. De militari Testamento. 


In militum testamentis solemnitates remissa. 


. 1. Rescriptum Divi Trajani. 

2. De surdo ct muto. 

3. De militibus et veteranis. 

4. D-: facto ante militiam testamento. 
5. De milite arragato vel emancipato. 
6. De peculio quasi castrensi. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 12. Quibus non est permissum facere Testamentum. 
De filio-familias. 


1. De impubere et furioso. 
2. De prodigo. 

3. De surdo et muto. 

4. De ceco. 

5. De eo qui est apud hostes. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 13. De Exrheredatione Liberorum. 


Jus vetus. de liberis in potestate. 

1. D« posthumis. 

2. De quasi posthumis. 

3. De emancipatis. 

4. De adoptivis. 

5. Jus novum. 

6. De testamento militis. 

7. De testamento matris aut avi materna. 


AS 


674 INDEX. 
Lib. 2. Tit. 14. De Heredibus instituendis. 


Qui possunt hercdes institui. 
1. Si servus heres institutus, in eadem causa 
. vel non, 

2. De servo hereditario. 

3. De servo plurium. 

4. De numero heredum. 

5. De divisione hzreditatis. 

6. De portionibus singulorum hseredum, si testa 
assem non diviserit, aut partes im quorundam per 
sona, non ultra assem expresserit. 

7. Si pars vacet aut exuperet. 

8. Si plures uncie quam duodecim distributa sunt. 

9. De modis instituendi. 

10. De conditione impossibili. 
11. De pluribus conditionibus. 
12. De his quos nunquam testator vidit. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 15. De vulgari Substitutione. 
De pluribus gradibus heredum. 

1. De numero heredum in singulis gradibus. 

2. Quam partem singuli substituti accipiant. si pases 
in substitutione non expressae sint. . 

3. Si coharedi substituto alius substituatur. 

4. Si quis servo, quo liber existimabatur, instituto se 
stitutus fuerit. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 16. De pupillari Substitutione. 
| Forma, effectus, origo, et ratio pupillaris substitutions. 
1. De substitutione mente capti. 
2. Proprium pupillaris substitutionis. 
3. Alia forma substituendi pupillariter. 
4. Quibus substituitur. 
5. Pupillare testamentum sequela paterni. 
6. Quot liberis substituitur. 
7. De substitutione nominatim aut generaliter facti. 
8. Quomodo substitutio pupillaris fiaitur. 
9. Quibus pupillariter non substituitur. 


Lib 2. Tit. 17. Quibus modis Testamenta infirmantur. 
Quibus modis testamenta infirmantur. 
1. Quando testamentum dicatur rumpi: primum de 
. adoptione. 
2. De posteriore testamento. | 
3. De posteriore, in quo heres certe.rei institutus, 
4. De testamento irrito; et quibus modis fit irsitug.- 
5. Cur dicatur irritum. 
6. Quibus modis convalescit. 


1 
' " 
wa ^ 
3 
uo 
. A 
“ew 


INDEX. 675 


7. De nudi voluntate. 
8. Si princeps litis causa, vel in testamento imperfecto 
institutus fuerit. . 


wib. 2. Tit. 18. De inofficioso Testamento. 
Ratio hujus querelae. 

1. Qui de inofficioso agunt. 

2. Qui alio jure veniunt, de inofficioso non agunt. 

3. De eo cui testatur aliquid reliquit. 

4. Si tutor, cui nihil à patre relictum pupilli nomine 
. legatum acceperit. | 

§. Si de inofficioso nomine pupilli agens succubuerit. 

6. De quarta legitime partis. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 19. De heredum qualitate et differentia. 
Divisio heredum. 
1. De heredibus necessariis. 
2. De suis heredibus. 
3. De extraneis. 
4. De testamenti factione. 
5. De jure deliberandi, et de beneficio inventarii. 
6. De acquirendá vel omittendá hereditate. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 20. De Legatis. 
| Continuatio. . 
1. Definitio. 
2. De antiquis generibus legatorum sublatis. 
3. Collatio legatorum et fidei commissorum. 
4. Dc relegatà. Et primum de re testatoris, hzredis, 
alienà cujus non est commercium. 
5. De re pignorata. 
6. De re aliena post testamentum à legatario acquisitá. 
7. De his que non sunt in rerum natura. 
8. De eádem re duobus legata. 
9. Silegatarius proprietatem fundi alieni sibi legati 
emerit et usus fructus ad eum pervenerit. 
10. De re legatarii. 
11. Si quis rem suam, quasi non suam legaverit. 
12. De alienatione et oppignoratione rei legata. 
13. De liberatione legata. 
14. De debito legato creditori. 
15. De dote uxori legatá. 
16. De interitu et mutatione rei legate. 
17. De interitu quarundam ex pluribus rebus legatis. 
18. De grege legato. 
19. De sedibus legatis. 
20. De peculio. 
21. De rebus corporalibus et incorporalibus. 
22. De legato generali. 


676 


23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 


INDEX. 


De optione legata. 

Quibus legari potest. 

Jus antiquum de incertis personis. 
Jus antiquum de posthumo alieno. 
Jus novum de personis incertis et posthume 
De posthumo alieno herede instituto. 
De errore in nomine legatarii. 

De falsà demonstratione. 

De falsà causa adjecta. 

De servo heredis. 

De domino heredis. 


. De modo et ratione legandi: de ordine scripem 
. De legato post mortem haredis, vel legatarü 


Si penx nomine relinquatur, adimatur, vel tra 
ratur. | 


Lib. 2. Tit. 21. De Ademptione legatorum et translation 


De ade imptione. 


1. 


De translatione. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 22. De lege Falcidiá. 


Ratio et summa hujus legis. 


1. 
2» 


3. 


De pluribus heredibus. 
Quo tempore spectatur quantitas patrimoai 


quam ratio legis Falcidie redigitur. 


Qua detrahuntur ante Falcidiam. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 23. De fidei commissariis hereditatibus. 


Continuatio. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6 


10. 
11. 
12. 


Origo fidei commissorum. 

De fidei commisso heredis scripti. 

Effectus restitutionis hereditatis. 

De sena:üs consulto l'rebelliano, 

De senatis consulto Pegasiano. 

Quibus casibus locus est senatus consulto Tr 

' ano vel Pegasiano. 

Pegasiani in Trebclliannm transfusio, 

De quibus heredibus, et in. quibus fidei coma 
riis, supra dicta locum habeant. 


. De eo, quod hares voluntate testatoris dei 


precipitve. 
D« fidei commissis ab intestato relictis, 


. . . « * ! 1 
De fidci commisso relicto à fidei commiagsetit 
De probatione fidei commissi. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 24. De singulis rebus per fidei commisseim ye 


Summ:t. 


1. 


Qua relinqui possunt. 


s 


, 
*. 
. re! 
w ae: 
. 
- 





1 
* 
e 


INDEX. 677 


2. De libertate. 
3. De verbis fidei commissorum. 


b. 2. Tit. 25. De Codicillis. 
Codicillorum origo. 
1. Codicilli ficri possunt vel ante, vel post testamentum, 
imo etiam ab intestato. 
2. Codicillis hereditas directo dari non potest. 
3. De numero et solemnitate. 


b. 3. Tit. 1. De herecitatibus que ab intestato deferuntur. 
Definitio intestati. 
1. Primus ordo succedentium ab intestato. 
2. Qui sunt sui hzredes. 
3. Quomodo sui heredes fiunt. 
4. De filio post mortem patris, ab hostibus reverso. 
5. Dc memoria patris damnata ob crimen perduellionis. 
6. De divisione hzreditatis inter suos heredes. 
7. Quo tempore suitas spectatur. 
8. De nato post mortem avi, vel adoptato à filio eman- 
cipato. 
9. De liberis emancipatis. 
10. Si emancipatus se dederit in adoptionem. 
11. Collatio filiorum naturalium et adoptivorum. 
12. De bonorum possessione. contra tabulas. 
13. Unde cognati. 
14. Emendatio juris antiqui. De adoptivis. 
15. De descendentibus ex feminis. 


ib. 3. Tit. 2. De legitimd agnatorum successtone. 
Secundus ordo heredum legitimorum. 
1. De agnatis naturalibus. 
2. De adoptivis. 
3. De masculis et feminis. 
4. De filiis sororum. 
5. De proximis vel remotis. 
6. Quo tempore proximitas spectatur. 
7. De successorio edicto. 
8. De legitima parentum successione. 


ib. 3. Tit. 3. De senatus-consulto Tertylliano. 
De lege auodecim tabularum et jure pratorià. 
1. De constitutione divi Claudii. 
2. Ad senatus consultum Tertyllianum. De jurc libe. 
rorum. 
3. Qui preferuntur matri, vel cum ea admittuntur. 
4. Jus novum de jure liberorum sublato. 
5. Quibus mater praeponitur et quibuscum admittitur, 


678 INDEX. 


6. De tutore liberis petendo. 
7. De vulgo quesitis. 


Lib. 2. Tit. 4. De senatus-consulto Orfictano. 
Origo et summa senatus consulti. 
1. De nepote et nepte. 
2. De capitis diminutione. 
3. De vulgo qusesitis. 
4. De jure accrescendi inter legitimos hzeredes. 


Lib. 3. Tit. 5. De successione cognatorum. 
Tertius ordo succedentium ab intestato. 
1. Qui vocantur in hoc ordine. De agna! 
minutis. 
2. De conjunctis per feminas. 
3. De liberis datis in adoptionem. 
4. De vulgo quasitis. 


5. Ex quoto gradu vel agnati vel cognati succed 
Lib. 3. Tit. 6. De gradibus cognationum. 


Continuatio, et cognauonis divisio. 
1. De primo, secundo ct tertio gradu. 
2, Quartus gradus. 
3. Quintus gradus. ! 
4. Sextus gradus. 
5. De reliquis gradibus. 
6. De gradibus agnationis. 
7. De graduum descriptione. 


Lib. 3. Tit. 7. De servili cognatione. 
Collatio ordinum et gradum. - 
Lib. 3. Tit. 8. De successione libertorum. 
Qui succedunt, de lege duodecim tabularum. 
1. De jure pretoria. 
2. De lege Papia. 
3. De constitutione Justiniani. 
4. Quibus libertinis succeditur. OF 


Lib. 3. Tit. 9. De assignatione libertorum. | 1 
An assignari possit, et quis assignationis effectus 


1. De sexu assignati, et de sexu gradaqui 
assignatur. | 


2. De liberis in potestate vel emancipatis. 
3. Quibus modis aut verbis assignatzo fit: ecd 


consulto. 





M NEUE ueni uu 
D ÁÉN — c 


INBEX. 679 
, 3. Fit. 10. De bonorum possessionibus. 


Cur introducte bonorum possessiones; et quis sit earum 
effectus. 
1. De speciebus ordinariis. Jus vetus. 
2. Jus novum. 
3. Species extraordinaria. 
4. De successorio edicto. 
5. De jure accrescendi et iterum de successorio edicto. 
6. Explicatio dicti temporis. 
7. Quomodo peti debet. 


, 8. Tit. 11. De acquisitione per arrogationem. 
Continuatio. 
1. Quz hoc modo acquiruntur. Jus vetus. 
2. Jus novum. 
3. Effectus hujus acquisitionis. 


, 9. Tit. 12. De eo, cui libertatis causá bona addtcuntur. 
Continuatio. 

1. Rescriptum D. Marci. 

2. Utilitas rescripti. 


3. Ubi locum habeat. 
4 0 * 


5% & . a 
6. Si libertates date non sunt. 
7. De speciebus additis 4 Justiniano. 


, 8. Tit. 13. De successionibus sublatis, que fiebant per bo- 
norum venditiones, et ex senatus consulto 


Claudiano. 
3. Tit. 14. De obligationibus. 


Continuatio et definitio. 
1. Divisio prior. 
2. Divisio posterior. 


3. Tit. 15. Quibus modis re contrahitur obligatio. 
De mutuo. 
1. De indebito soluto. 
2. De commodato. 
3. De deposito. 
4. De pignore. 


3. Tit. 16. De verborum obligationibus. 
Summa. 
1. De verbis stipulationum. 
3. Quibus modis stipulatio fit. De stipulatione pura vel. 
in diem. 


680 INDEX. 


3. De die adjecto perimendz obligationis cao 

4. De conditione. 

5. Dc loco. 

6. De conditione ad tempus presens vel 
lata. 

7. Quz in stipulatum deducuntur. 







Lib. 3. Tit. 17. De duobus reis stipulandi et promittent. 
Quibus modis duo rei ficri possunt. 
1. De effectu hujusmodi stipulationum. 
2. De stipulatione pura; et de die et conditione. 


Lib. 3. Tit. 18. De stipulationibus servorum. 
An servus stipulari possit. 
1. Cui acquirat. De persona cui stipulatur. De 
latione impersonali, 
2. De stipulatione facti. 
3. De servo communi. 


Lib. 3. Tit. 19. De divisione stipulationum. 
Divisio. | 
1. De judicialibus stipulationibus. 
2. De pretoriis. 
3. De conventionalibus. 
4. De communibus, 


Lib. 3. Tit. 20. De inutilibus stipulattonibus. 
De his qua sunt in commercio. 

1. De his quz non existunt. 

2. De his quz non sunt in commercio. 
De facto vel datione alterius. 
De eo, in quem confertur obligatio vel selutio, 
De interrogatione et responsione. ott m 
- De his qui sunt vel habent, in potestate. 
. De muto et surdo. 
. De furioso. 
- De impubere. 
10. De conditione impossibili. MP 
11. De absentia. | 
12. De stipulatione post mortem, vel pridie quam 4 

contrahentium moriatur. s 
13. De stipulatione przposterá. 
14. De stipulatione collata in tempus mortis. 
* * * * * : = 


(© o0 ^t Oo Gr BP 0 


16. De promissione scriptá in instrumetto, "t Aw 
17. De pluribus rebus in stipulatione deductis, 

18. De pena adjecta stipulationi, alii dazi, 

19. Si intersit ejus, qui alii stipulatur. 





INDEX. 689 
20. De paws’ adjecta promissioni facti alieni. 
21. De re stipulantis futura. 
22. De dissensu. 
23. De turpi causa. 
24. De morte contrahentium. 
25. Quando agi potest ex stipulatione. 


». 3. Tit. 21. De fidejussoribus. 

Cur accipiuntur fidejussores. 
1. In quibus obligationibus. 
2. De herede. 
3. Si fidejussor precedat vel sequatur obligationem. 
4. De pluribus fidejussoribus. 
5. In quam summam obligatur fidejussor. 
6. De actione fidejussoris. 
7. Si fidejussor grzcé accipiatur. 
8. Si scriptum sit, aliquem fidejussisse. 


». S. Tit. 22. De literarum obligationibus. 
». 3. Tit. 23. De obligationibus ex consensu. 


3. 9. Tit. 24. De emptione et venditione. 

e emptiohe pura. De pretii conventione, arrhis, et scrip- 
tura. 

1. De pretio certo, vel incerto vel in arbitrium alienum 
collato. 

2. In quibus pretium consistat. Differentia emptionis 
et permutationis. 

8. De periculo et commodo rei vendita. 

4. De emptione conditionali. 

5. De emptione rei, que non est in commercio. 


b. 3. Tit. 25. De locatione et conductione. 
Collatio emptionis, et locationis. De mercedis conven- 
tione. 
1. De mercede collata in arbitrium alienum. 
2. In quibus rebus merces consistat. 
3. De Emphyteusi. 
4. De formá alicui faciendá ab artifice. 
5. Quid prséstare debet conductor. 
6. De morte conductoris. 


b. 3. Tit. 26. De societate. 
Divisio à materia. 
1. De partibus lucri et damni. 
2. De partibus inzqualibus. 
3. De partibus expressis in uná causó. 
4T 


690 


INDEX. 


4. Quibus modis socictas solvitur. De 1 
5. De morte. 

6. De fine negotii. 

7. De publicatione. 

8. De cessione bonorum. 

9. De dolo et culpa à socio prestandis. 


Lib. 3. Tit. 27. De mandato. 


Divisio à fine. 


1. Si mandantis gratiá mandetur. 
9. Si mandantis et mandatarii. 
3. Si aliená gratia. 
4. Si mandantis et aliena. 
5. Si mandatarii et aliena. 
6. Si mandatarii. 
". De mandato contra bonos mores. 
8. De executione mandati. 
9. De revocatione mandati. 
10 De morte. 
11. De renunciatione. - 
12. De die et conditione. 


13. De mercede. 


Lib. 3. Tit. 28. De obligationibus que quasi ex: conitractii 


cuntur. 


Continuatio. 


1. De negotiorum gestione. 
2. De tutela. 


| $. De rei communione. 


4. De hzreditatis communione. 

5. De aditione hzreditatis. 

6. De solutione indebiti. 

7. Quibus ex causis indebitum solutum non repeti 


Lib. 3. Tit. 29. Per quas personas obligatio acquir itu; 


De his qui sunt in potestate. 


1. De bona fide possessis. 
2. De servo fructuario, vel usuario. 
3. De servo communi. 


Lib. 5. Tit. 30. Quibus modis tollitur obligatio. 


De solutione. 


1. De acceptilatione. 
2. De Aquilianá stipulatione et acceptilatiqne,.. 
3. De novatione. U- 

4. De contrario consensu. 


€ 


. «a 
roe “se. 
" a à EL 





» Lib. 4. Tit. 1. 


INDEX. 691 
De Obligationibus, que ex delicto nascuntur. 


Continuatio et divisio obligationum ex delicto. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 


Definitio furti. 


. Ety mologia. 


Divisio. 

De furto concepto, oblato, prohibito, non exhibito. 
Pena. 

Quomodo furtum fit; de contrectatione. 

De affectu furandi. 

De voluntate domini. 


9. Quarum rerum furtum fit. De liberis hominibus. 


10. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 2. 


De re propria. 

Qui tenentur furti. De eo, cujus ope, consilio fur- 
tum factum est. 

De his, qui sunt in potestate. Et de ope ac consilio 
extranei. 

Quibus datur actio furti. 

De pignore surrepto creditori. 

De re fulloni, vel sarcinatori, vel bonz fidei emptori 
surreptá. j 

De re commodatá. 

De re depositá. 

An impubes furti teneatur. 

Quid veniat in hanc actionem; et de affinibus ac- 
tionibus. 


De vi bonorum raptorum. 


Origo hujus actionis, et quid in eam veniat. 


1. 
2. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 3. 


Adversus quos datur. 
Quibus datur. 


De lege Aquilia. 


Summa. Caput primum. 


1. 
2. 


10. 
11. 
12. 
. 13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 


De quadrupede, que pecudum numero est. 
De injuria. 

De casu, dolo, et culpa. 

De jaculatione. 


- De putatione. 


De curatione relicta. 

De imperitià medici. 

De imperitia et infirmitate mulionis aut equo vecti. 
Quanti damnum ezstimetur et de heredibus. 
Quid estimatur. 

De concursu hujus actionis et capitalis. 
Caput secundum. 

Caput tertium. Quod damnum vindicatur. 
De dolo et culpa. 

Quanti damnum zstimatur. 

De actione directa, utili, et in factum. 


692 INDEX. 
Lib. 4. Tit. 4. De Injuriis. 


Verbum injuria quot modis accipitur. 
1. Quibus modis ii inju in fit. 
2. Qui et per quos injuriam patiuntur. De 
liberis, viro et uxore, socero et nuru. 
3. De servo. 
4. De servo communi. 
5. De servo fructuario. 
6. De eo qu’ bona fide servit. | 
7. Pena injunarum ex x11 tab. et ex jure praetore 
8. De lege Cornelia. 
9. De zstimatione atrocis injuriz. 
10. De judic o civili et criminali. 
11. Qui tenentur injuriarum. 
12. Quomodo tollitur hzc actio. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 5. De Obligationtbus, que quasi ex: delet 
cuntur 
Si judex litem suam fecerit. 
1. De dejectis vel effusis, et positis aut suspensis. 
2. De filio familias seorsum habitante à patre. 
3. De damno aut furto, quod in navi aut cauposl 
stabulo factum est. 





Lib. 4. Tit. 6. De Actionibus. 
Continuatio et definitio. 

1. Divisio prima. 

2. De actione confessoria et negatoria, 

3. De actionibus pretoriis realibus. - 

4. De Publiciana. 

5. De rescissoria. 

6. De Paulians. s 

7. De Serviana et quasi Servianá seu hypotbecari 
8. De actionibus pretoriis personalibus. 

9. De constitutá pecunia. 4 
10. De peculio. 
11. De actione in factum ex jure jurando. 
12. De actionibus penalibus. 

13, De prejudicialibus actionibus. 
14. An res sua condici possit. 
15. D+ nominibus actionum. 
16. Divisio secunda. 
17. De actionibus rei persecutoriis. 

18. De actionibus penz persecutoriis. 

19. De mistis; hoc est, rei et penz persecutegiia 
20. De mistis; id est, tam in rem quam in perm 
21. Divisio tertia. 
22. De actionibus in simplum. 











30. 


31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 


39. 
40. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 7. 


~ 


INDEX. . 608 


In daplum. 

In triplum. 

In quadruplum. 

Subdivisio actionum in duplum. 

Subdivisio actionum in quadruplum. 

Divisio quarta de actionibus bone fidei. 

De rei uxoris actione, in ex stipulatu actionem trana- 
fusa. . 

De potestate judicis in judicio bone fidei, et de com- 
pensationibus. 

De actionibus arbitrariis. 

Quinta divisio, de incertz quantitatis petitione. 

De pluris petitione. 

De minoris summ» petitione. 

Si aliud pro alio petatur. 

Divisio sexta. De peculio. 

De repetitione dotis. 

De actione adversus parentem, patronum, socium, 
et donatorem. 

De compensationibus. 

De eo, qui bonis cessit. 


Quod cum eo, qui tn akend potestate est, nego- 
gotium gestum esse dicitur. 


Scopus et nexus. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7° 
8. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 8. 


De actione guod jussu. 

De exercitarià et institorià actione. 

De tributoria. 

De peculio, et de in rem verso. 

De concursu dictarum actionum. 

De filiis familias. 

De senatus-consulto Macedoniano. 

De actione directa in patrem vel dominum. 


De noxalkibus acttonibus. 


De servis. Summa. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 


Quid sit noxa et noxia. 

Ratio harum actionum. 

Effectus noxz deditionis. 

De origine harum actionum. 

Qui conveniuntur noxali actione. 

Si servus domino noxiam commiserit vel contra. 
De filiis familiarum. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 9. S: quadrupes pauperiem fecisse dicatur. 
De actione, si quadrupes ex |; x11 tab. 
1. De actione sdilitia, concurrente cum actione de 


pauperie. 


694 INDEX. 
Lib. 4. Tit. 10. De iis, per quos agere possumus. 


Per quos agere liceat. - 
1. Quibus modis procurator constituatur. 
2. Quibus modis tutores vel curatores constitu 


Lib. 4. Tit. 11. De Satisdationibus. 
De judicio personali. 
1. De judicio personali. 
2. Jus novum. De reo. 
3. De procuratore actoris. 
4. De procuratore rei presentis. 
5. De procuratore rei absentis. 
6. Unde hac forma discenda. 
7. Ubi hzc forma observanda. 


Lib. 4. Tit. 12. De perpetuis et temporalibus actionibus et 
ad heredes et in heredes transeunt. 
De perpetuis et temporalibus actionibus. 
1. De actionibus, quz in heredes transeunt vel m 
2. Si pendente judicio reus actori satisfecerit. 


Lik. 4. Tit. 15. De Exceptionibus. 
Continuatio. Ratio exceptionum. 
1. De exceptione, quod metus causa, de dolo, i 
tum. 

2. De non numerata pecunia. 

3. De pacto. 

4. De jurejurando. 

5. De re judicata. 

6. De ceteris exceptionibus. 

7. Divisio prima. 

8. Divisio secunda. 

9. De pereinptoriis. 
10. De dilatoriis. 
11. De dilatoriis ex persona. tec 


Lib. 4. Tit. 14. De Replicationibus. 
De replicatione. 
1. De duplicatione. 
2. De triplicatione. 
3. De ceteris exceptionibus. 
4. Quz exceptiones fide jussoribus prosunt vel » 


Lib. 4. Tit. 15. De Interdictis. uou 
Continuatio et definitio. c 
1. Divisio prima. 
2. Divisio sccunda. 
3. De interdictis adipiscende. 





. INDEX. 695 


4. De interdictis retinendi. 

_5. De retinenda et acquirendá possessione. 

6. De interdicto recuperandz et affinibus remediis. 
7. Divisio tertia. 

8. De ordine et vetere exitu. 


b. 4. Tit. 16. De pená temer? litigantium. 
De penis in genere. 
1. De jurcjurando et pena pecuniariá. 
2. De infamia. 
. 8. De in jus vocando. 


sib. 4. Tit. 17. De Officio Judicis. 
De officio judicis in genere. 
1. De judicio noxali. 
2. De actionibus realibus. 
3. Deactione ad exhibendum. 
4. Familie erciscundz. 
5. Communi dividundo. 
6. Finium regundorum. 
T. De adjudicatione. 


aib. 4. Tit. 18. De publicis Judiciis. 
' Dedifferentià à privatis. 
1. Etymologia. 
2. Divisio. 
3. Exempla. De lesa majestate. 
4. De adulteriis. 
5. DeSica 
. De parricidiis. 
7. De falsis. 
8. De vi. 
9. De peculatüs. 
10. De plagiariis. 
11. De ambitu, repetundis, annona, residuis. 
12. Conclusio. 








INDEX 


TO THE 


NOTES AND REFERENCES. 


A 


Accession - - + 459 
Actions - - - - 638 
Actiones, — A rbitrarii 641., ad ex- 
. hibendum 383. 459., edilitiz 
. 358. 646., bone fidei et stricti 
juris 339. 340. 584. 641., capi- 
tales 316., civiles 408., com- 
muni dividundo 384. 650., con- 
fessoriz 327., constitute pecu- 
niz 640., damni injurie 312., 
directe 317., directa in patrem, 
&c. 353., de damno aut furto 
638., exercitoriz 349., exempto 
609. 615., ex stipulatu 641., ex 
vendito 609. 615., familie er- 
- ciscunde 384. 641. 650., finium 
regundorum 384. 650., furti 
304., furti manifesti 310., hy- 
pothecariz 640., incitoriz 349., 
injurie 323., in heredes transe- 
untes 648., in factum (on the 
case) 305. 318. 627., in factum 
jurejurando 640., in simplum 
336., in duplum 337. 609., in 
triplum 337. 641., in quadru- 
plum 337. 641., locati 306., mis- 
te 641., negotiorum gestorum 
452. 624., noxales 645., pauliana 
638., de pauperie 646., pene 
persecutorie 334., pignoratitie 
604. 640., personales 328. 331., 
perpetue 647., penales 332., 
prejudiciales ' 640., — praetoris 
408., publiciane 328., private 


ex lege aquilia 316., de peculio 
331. 346. 643., quasi ex male- 
ficio 324., quanti minoris 609., 
quod jussu 349., reales 328. 333. 
382., redhibitoriz 609., recisso- 
rie 329., de in rem verso 350., 
rei persequende 334., repeti- 
tione dotis 346., rei uxoriz 641., 
serviana, quasi serviana 639., 
servi corrupti 303., si quadrupes 
357., subsidiary 453., tempora- 
les 647., tributoriz 350., tutelz 
452., ex testamento 522., vi bo- 
nor. raptorum 309., utiles 317. 
621. 


Abjuration - - - 441 
Acts of limitation - - 647 
Adoption 440. 561 
Adopted child - - - 499 
Ademption of legacies 516. 530 
Adition - - - 521 
Ad promissor - - 462 
Adrogation - - 441. 577 
Advocate - » - 597 
Advancement - . 515.575 
ffs et libra - ~ 443. 487 
Affinity - - - 442 
Age - - - - 4381 


Agnates, 430. 445. 539. 561. 564. 


570. 571 
A gnatio nuda - - 521 
Agnomen - - - 526 
Albericus Gentilis - 405 
Alfenus - - - 404 
Alcibiades - - - 432 
Alexander (Papa.) - 425, 


4U 


698 
Alluvion . - - 458 
Amber - - - 460 
Amita ^ — - - - 439 
Antestator - . - 442 
Anastasiana - - + 570 
Animals mischievous — - ‘646 
Antistius Labeo - 459 
Apparel - - - 525 
Apothecary - - $96 
Aqueduct  - - - 467 
Arrha (earnest) - 616 
Arroi  - - - - 431 
Aristotle - - - 431 
Arbiter - . - 638 
Assignment - : 470 
Ascendants. See succession. 
Atteius Capito - 2 459 
Attorney - 597. 645. 647 
"B 
Bank notes - - 525 
Banishment - = + 44 
Barbeyrac - . - 405 
Bargain and Sale 616. 617. 
Bargains catching 642-3, 645 
Barrington’s Observ. - 414 
Basilica - - - 87 
Bastard - - - 416 
Bees - - - - 458 
Beneficium ordinis - 612 
discussionis 612 
cedendar. action 612 
Bequests over - 522. 525 


Bonorum possessio 559. 573. 575 
Bon. poss. unde liberi — 540. 573 
legitimi 565. 573 
cognati, 540. 562. 
565. 567.573 
viret uxor, 540, 
573 
decem personz, 
573 
secundum tabulas 573 
contra tabulas 573 
tanquem ex familia 573 
Books - . - 525 
Boundary - - + 460 


INDEX. 












Bracton - - . 
Bribery (Ambitus) - 
Burlamaqui  - - 
Bynkershock 


Caius - - . f 
Callistratus - - 
Capiatur pro fine - 
Captive - - 


Captivity ^ - = x 
Captive joint - - 
Case, action on - -. 


CASES AMERICAN, 


Adams v. Hemingsway, 


. Adams v. Frothi 


Adams qui tam v. 
Anderson and Starks v. Fé 
Anderson v. Anderson, 
Andries v Wills, 

rgenbright v. mp 
Avery v. Inhab. 
ham, - = 


Baker’s case, 
Bates v. Holman, 
Bayley v. Ogden, 
Beasley v. Owen, 
Bender v. Fromby 
Blackford v. Pa; 
Brown's exors. v. B 
Boudinot v. Bradford, ™ 
Brent v. Chapman, 
Brooks v. Bemiss, 
Brown v. Lamb 
Brown v. Van 
Buckner v. Smith, 
Bull v. Horlbeck, 
Burd v. Smith, 
Bussey v. Donald 


Butler v. ‘Boarman, 


SV 








INDEX. 699 
Cheetham v. Tillotson, = 635 Hart v. Hosack, - -- 449 
* Cheseldon v. Brewer, * 450 Henderson v. Allens, - 482 
Cheriot v. Foussat - 672a Harris v. Mandeville, - 628 
Church v. Crocker, . 499 Hart v. Cleiss, - - 479 
Clemson v. Bush, - 449 Hartness v. Thompson, etal. 449 
Clinton v. Crosswell, - 634 Havardv. Davis, - 510.531 
Cluson v. Gould, - - 634 Hight v. Wilson, . 491 
Coates v. Hughes, - 498.510 Holland Company's Case, 430 
Cogbill v. Cogbill, - 511.531 Hotchkiss v. Lowthrop, 634 
Commonwealth v. Blaine, 480 Hollingsworth v. Napier, 466 
Conroe v. Bridshall, — - 449 Hoveyv.Clark, - 639 
Cortelyon v. Vanbrundt, 455 Hudgins v. Wright, - 482 
v.Lensing, — 476.605 Hughes v. Heiser, - 628 
Cresoe $. Laidley, - 495 
Croxall’s Case, - . 623 Jack v. Eales, - 480 
Cowperthwaite v. Jones, 480 Jackson ex dem. Renselaer v. 
Whitlock, - - 
Dade v. Alexander, - 482 Same ex dem. Dunbar v. 
Defrees v. Trumper, . 610 Todd, - - - 450 
Denton v. Noyes, - — - 647 Jackson v. Jackson,’ - 428 
Dick v. Coleman, - - 482 James v. Allen, . - 623 
Dighton v. Freetown, - 478 Jenkins v. Tour, - - 482 
Donaldson v. Chambers, 623 fees v. Haines, - 495 
Dunn v. Bray, - + 483 Jordon v. Murray, - 483 
Eddowes v. Niell, - 614 Kennedy v. Lowry, 634. 635 
Emceryv. Greenough, - 623 Kettleby v. Fleet, . 479 
Knapp v. Crosby, - 450 
Finsley v. Anderson, - 623 
Fish v. Fisher, - . 478 Lawson v. Morrison, 510. 531, 
Fitzhugh v. Anderson, - 450 Lane v. Gover, - - 450 
Foot v. Tracey, - 634.635 Lewis v. Maris, - 491 
Forrestiere’s Case, - 450 ——--v. Few, - - 635 
Foster v. Scofield, - 637 Levy v. B. U. States, 594. 610 
Fox v. Crosby, . - - 448 Liber et ux. v. Ex. of Parsons, 
607. 619 
Genet v. Mitchell, - 635 Lindsay et al. v. the Commis- 
George v. Elliot, - - 482 sioners, coe 457 
Gillet v. Mason - - 455 Linkv. Benner, - - 478 
Glen’s exors. v. Washmood, 623 Ludlow et al. v. Van Ranse- 
Gore v. Brasier, - 607.619 laer, - - - 488 
Gorgerat v. Murray, - 623  ——-— v. Browne and Eddy, 463, 
Grant v. Kearne, - 475 465. 466 
Graham v. Bickham, 606. 607 v. Symond, - 463.614 
Gratz v. Ewalt, - - 617 Lyle v. Clason, - + 034 
Green v. Sarmiento, - 623 
Green v. Long, . - 634 Marburyv. Madjgoo, — 599. 600 
Guerand' sexorsv, Rivers, 607, Marston v. Hobha, Ot. G18 
619 M'Keeetal. v. Sep the e 


700 


M‘Lean v. Rankin, 
Miller v. Hall, . - 623 
Miller Libellant v. Miller, 5:7 
"Moore's exors v. the Auditor, 483 
Morris v. Phelps, - 607, 608 
‘Musgrave v. Gibbs, 610 


- 623 


Neal v. Lewis, PM 635 
Newby’s Admrs. v. Blakey, 484 
Negro Tash’s case, - 484 
Nelson v. Matthews, 620, 623 
——— v. Emerson, . 635 
Noble v. Smith, - - 475 
Pallas et al. v. Hill et al. 482 
Patty et al. v. Colin et al. 482 
Paynev. Dudley, - - 623 
Perit v. Wallis, — - — 606,607 
Perry v. Aaron, - - 610 


The People v. Jansonet al. 463 

















v. Freer, -. 634 

Picrson v. Post, - - 457 
Pirate v. Bolt et al. - 480 
Pitcher v. Livingston, - — 607 
Potter v. Lansing, - 618 
Purviance v. Angus, -. 607 
Putnam v. Wilie, - - 460 
Ramsay v. Lée, - - 483 
Respub. v. Duane, - 634 
v. Crips, - 636 
v.Sharp,  - 634 

v. Sparhawk - 456 

v. Negro Betsey 480 
Ricketts v. Livingston, 518 
Reilly v. Lamarr, - 620 
Sable v. Hitchcock, — - 478 
Sally a negro v. Bealty, - 484 
Scot v. Dobson, - - 481 
——*. Negro London, - 483 
Scixas v. Wood, - - 610 
Shaw v. M*Combs, - 636 
Silver v. Shelback, - 449 
Simos v. Slocum, 623 
Smith v. Brown, — - - 623 


Smeeds v. Hoogtaling,* 606, 607 


INDEX. 






Snell et al. v. Moses et al. 
———— v. Rich, - 
Somerville v. Johnson, - 
Spiers v. Willison, - 4 
Staats ex. v. Ten Eyck, 
Stansbury v. Minx, 
The State v. Gee, 

9». Welsh, 
ve Thackham et 
v. Lehre, - 
Stubbs v. Lund, - 











Taylor v». Rainbow, - 
Tabb et al. v. Archer etal. |; 
Terry v. Forster, 9 
Tillotson v. Cheetham, 
Thomas v. Crosswell, 
umsey, 
Thompson v. Young, 
——— — ». Ketcham, 
Thorn v. Blanchard, =). 
Thursby’s Ass. v. 
ministrators, 
Negro Tom's Case, 







— v. 










Van Bramer v. Coo; 

Vanhorne v. Dorrauce? : 
Van Raugh v. A rsdaln, 
Van Vechten v. Hopki 
Van Winkle v. K e 






U. States v. Fisher et al. 
v. Hooe, P 
9. Schooner 












Wade v. Barnwell, 
Wallisv. Mease, =. 
Webb v. Evans, ave 
Weed v. Ellis,” ^. 
Wilcox v. Rootes, 
Wilt v. Franklin, 
Winkendon v. Hatfii 
Wheelright v. Depe; 


Yerby v. Yerby, 
Yeates v. Lensing, 


INDEX. 


CASES ENGLISH. 


Alderson v. Pope, - . em 
Alexander v. Vaughan, - 639 
Alfred v. Marquis Fitzjames, 478 


Allen v. Ormond, - 468 
—— v. Arme, - - 474 
—— v. Allen, - = 525 
— v. Dundas, - - 595 
Alleynv. Alleyn, - - 518 
Alpass v. Watkins, - 596 

Andrew v. Trinity Hall, Cam- 
bridge, - - - 530 
Andrews v. Blake, ^. 607 
Anonymous,  - - 444 
- - 445 
- - 618 
. v.Jollnd, - 645 
Ansley v. Downing, - 490 
Antrobus v. Smith, - - 474 
Arkworth v. Atworth, - 518 
Arlington, lord, v. Merrick, 463 
Arnold v. Arnold, - 532 
Astley v. Reynolds, - - 595 
——— — v. Weldon, - 606 
Atkinson v. Atkinson, - 517 
Atkyns v. Hill, T0 523 
Attorney Generalv. Vigor, 508. 
v. Guise, 530 
— s ———— v. Greene, 530 
v. Boultbee 530 

v. Whit- 
church, - - - 530 


v. Andrew, 530 
v. Bowyer, 530 
v. Minshull, 530 
v». Whitely, 530 
v. Vigor, 532 
Andeleyv.——  -  - 606 
Bagget v. Frier et al. . 
Bagott v. Orr, - - 


441 
456 


Baker v. Bolton et al. - 637 
Balandine s. Golding, - 622 
Baldwin v. Rochford, > 644 
Ball v. Herbert, LES 456 


Ballot v. Ballot, - 618 








701 

Barebone v. Brent, - 595 
Barcklay v. Lewis, - 463 
Barker v- Parker, - 463 
Barton v. Harrison, - 622 
Barret v. Beckford, 517. 519 
Baxterv. Dyer, - — 506.532 
Baugh v. Read, : 519 
Beauclark, lord, v. Dr. Mead, 497 
Beaufort, duke of, v. Berty, 454 
Beaumont v. Boltbee, - 645 
Bellasis v. Uthwaite, " - 519 
= v. Ermine, - 529 
Bennet v. Mellor, - - 638 
ex parte, - 645 
Benson v. Gibson, - - 606 
Berney v. Tyson, - 644 
Biggleston v. Grubb, - 517 
Bilbie v. Lumley et al. - 594 
Birdy. Bird,  - = 638 


Birkett v. Jenkins, - - 464 
in Vale v. Bale, 465 
Bishop of Hereford v. Adams, 530 








Bize v. Dickason, - 594 
Black v. East India Com. 606 
Blackmore v. Fleming - — 606 
Bloisv.Blos,' -  - S17 
Blount v. Burrow - 474 
Blunden v. Barker, - 606 
v.Parker, - - 644 
Bolton v. Banks, - 646 
Bolgerv. Muckell, - — - 569 
Bond v. Gibson, - 622 
Boone v. Eyre, - - 528 
Bornmann v. Tooke, - 528 
Bourden v. Alloway, - 627 
Bovey v. Smith, - 644 
Bowes v. Bowes, - - 531 
Bowles v. Atkinson, - 611 
Brady v. Cubit, - + 497 
Brand v. Glasse, - 638 
Brandywine v. Perrot, - 606 
Bree v. Holbeach, 596. 610 . 
Bridgman v. Green, - 645 
Bristow v. Ward, - 530 
Bromley v. Jefferies = - 517 
Brook v. Copeland, - 64e 
Brownv. Thompson, - — 497 
v Dawsops ^ o 


Brown ». Selwyy, * 
> 








702 
v. Higgs, - 530 
v. M'Kinally, 583, 594 
Brucker v. Fromont, - 646 
Bruen v. Bruen, - e 519 


Brummel v. Macpherson, 470 
Brydges v. Dutchess of Chan- 
dos, 506 


Brydges v. Duke of Chandos, 532 


Brymer v. Atkyns, . 605 
Buck v. Buck, - - 594 
Buckram v. Ingram, . 531 
Budle v. Morris, . - 638 
Buller v. Harrison, . 594 
Bullock v. Pope, - - 462 


Burgh et al. v. Preston, 612 
Burghall v. Howard, - 465 
Burdon v. Webb, . 583 
Burrough v. Skinner, - 536 
Burton et al. v. Gowell, 511 
Bush v. Stainman, -. 646 
Bushel v. Bushel, - - 473 
Butler v. Baker, -- «+ 508 
Butter v. Wigge, - - 605 
Buthen v. Street, - 607 
Buyenden v. Sharp, - 646 
Byrom v. Johnson, - 607 
Cacanen v. Lithbridge, - 606 
Calye’s case, - 638 
Cambridge v. Rous, - $25 
Camfield v. Gilbert, - 596 


Campbell v. Jones, - = 528 
v. Walker, 644, 645 
Carrington, Lord, v. Payne, 506, 

531 





Carter v. Crawley, - 563 
Cartwright v. Rowley, 583, 594 
Casson v. Dade, - - 494 


Cave v. Holford, 506. 531. 532 
Chamberlain v. Harvey, 415. 477. 
480 


Chambers v. Donaldson, 441 











v. Griffiths, - 596 
Chancey’s case, - 519, 520 
Charman v. Charman, — 508. 531 
Chaplin v. Chaplin, - 519 
Chapman v. Emery, - 473 

v. Salt, - - 518 

v. Hart, - 525 

Chesterfield v. Jansen, - 644 


INDEX. 


Chidley v. Lee, . 
Chilton v. Arborn, - 
Chorley v. Bolcot, - . 
Christopher v. Christopher, 4 
Clark v. Sewel, 517, n 
Clarke v. Seton, 
Clavery *. Howe, - (| 
Claude Ferricre’s case, 1 
Cleveland v. Ormond, « 1 
Cccking v. Pratt, - | 
Coggs v. Bernard, e 604 
Coke v. Brooking, 
Coles v. Trecothick, - 
Collet’s case, - - 
Colt v. Glover, - 
Cooke v. Oakley, " 
- ». Munstone, - - 
v. Olley, - - 
Coope et al. v. Eyre, . 
Cooper v. Elston, - € 
Copeley v. Copeley, - 
Corbyn v. French, - 
Cordage v. Pole, 2 ce 
See Pordage v. Cole. . 
Couch v. Stratton, - 
Covill v. Lamington, 
Cowel v. Edwards, '- 
Coxe v. Harden, - oF 
Cranmer’s case, - 
———- ex parte, o AY 
Cranvel v. Saunders, 
Cray v. Mansfield, 
Craythorne v. Swinburn 











Cripps v. Reade, ^ .-- 
Crosbie v. Macdonal 

Cross v. Andrews, d = ‘a 
Crouch’s case, -  % es 
Crowe v. Ballard, 2 7T 
Cuming v. Brown, uc 


Dale v. Sollet, - m 
Dance et al. v. Girdler, e 


Darley v. Darley, DE E 
Dashwood v. Lord B 

Daw v. Swaine, - D'un 
Daws v. Peck, a: 4-4 
Day v. Edwards, . --7- a3 
Deacon v. Smith, - AT 
Dean v. Peal, eo thu. 
Decks v. Strutt, E 


INDEX. 


Beering, Sir Edw. v. Lord 
'. Winchelsea, - 

De Mainbray v. Metcalfe, 
Deverell’s case, - 599, 601 
Dewberry v. Chapman, - 596 
Digby v. Legard, 532 
Dilnot, Doe ex dem. v. Dilnot, 532 


614 


Dixon v. Baldwin, - .466 
Doe v. Routledge, - 478 
—— v. Pott, - - 508 
— v. Guy, - = $23 
—— ex demise Hayter v. 
Joivileetal. | - — - 
—— on demise of Winckby 
v». Pye, - - . 618 
Dormer's case, - - 445 
Douglas v. Ward, - 474 


Draper’s Company v. Davis, 645 








Drope v. Thayne, - 648 
* Drury v. Smith, - - 474 
Dry v. Boswell, - 622 
Dufoir v. Pereira, - 531 
Dunlop v. Waugh,  - 610 
Dunn v. Spurrier, - 642 
Dutch v. Warren, - + 590 
Dutton v. Solomonson, 464 
Dyer v. Hargrave, - 611 
East Ind. Com. v. Vincent, 618 
Eastland v. Reynolds, - 529 
Eastwick v. Caillard, - 639 
Eastwood v. Vincke, - 519 
Eckhardt v. Mellish, . 639 
9. Wilson, - - 639 
Eden v. Smith, - -. 518 
Edmonson v. Machell, 440 
Edwards v. Truman, - 575 
Elliott v. Edwards, . 596 
—— v. Davis, . -  606- 
Elisv.Hun, - - 465 
—— v. Smith, - + 580 
Ellison v. Ellison, — 507. 531, 532 
v. Cookson, 516, 518 
Eltonv. Elton, - - 528 
Elwes v. Maw, - - 525 
Essex v. Atkins, - - 475 
Evans v. Brander, . 606 
Eyre v. Eyre, - - 497 
Fairfax. Trigg, - - 644 








703 

Farmer v. Arundel, 594, 595 
Farrerv. Nightingale, — - 596 
Fearon v. Bowers, -. - 465 
—— ex parte, - . 532 
Feize v. Wray, - 466 
Feltham v. Terry, - 595 
Fenn v. Harrison, - 610 
Finch v. Finch, -  - 518 
Finner v. Longland, - 575 
Flay v. Flay, - - 525 
Flureau v. Thornhill, - 596 
Folliott v. Ogden, 452. 623 
Forse v. Hembling, - 497 
Foster v. Denny, - - 454 
Fowler v. Fowler, . 524 
Fowel v. Forrest, - 605 
Fowkes v. Joyce, - 618 
Forv.Macrcath - - 64% 
Freemantle v. Banks, - 518 
Freke v. Lord Barrington, — 530 
Fydell v. Clarke, - 610 
Garland ex parte, - - 622 
Garrett v. Evers, - 524 
v.Pretty, — - - 529 
Gelyv.Cleve, - - 477 
v. Clarke, - - 638 
Gibbons v. Caunt, - 506.497 


Gibson et ux. v. Scudamore, 524 








v. Charters, - 629 
v. Jeyes, - - 645 
Gifford ex parte, - 648 
Glazebrook v. Woodrow, 538 
Glisson v. Ogden, - 644 


Goodtitle v. Otway, 506. 508, 509. 
532 
Gov. and Comp. of the B. of - 
Eng. v. Newmann, - 610 
Graham v. Graham, $17. 519 
Grantham's, Sir Thomas, case, 415, _ 





477 

Grave v. Salisbury, — - 519 

Graves v. Bovle, - - 517 

Griffin v. Griffin, - 511 

*». Devenille, - 645 

Gryle v. Gryle, - [0494 
Gull v. Bennett, - pd 

3 . v. t. 

Gunnis etal. 0. E. years n 


Guidon v. Robson, H 








704 
Gwynne v. Heaton, - 644 
exparte, - - 672 
Gyles v. Edwards, - 596 
Haines v. Jeffel, - - 438 
v. Jescott, - 427 
Halbut v. Watts et ux. - — 605 
Hall v. Cazanove, - + 528 
Hamilton v. Moheen, = 644 
Hammersly v. Knowlys, - 671 
Hammon v. Anderson, 466 
Hanbury v. Hawbury, = - 519 
Hanning v. Ferrers, - 618 
Hanson v. Mayer, - - 617 
Harcourt v. Fox, — 600, 601, 602 
Hardacrev. Nash, — - 522 


Hardwicke, Lord, v. Vernon, 644 
Hare v. Mitchell, - = 463 
Harman v. Anderson,  - 466 
Harmood v. Oglander, 507. 508. 

532 
Harrison et ux. v. Dr. Burwell, 428 











——— — v. Foreman, - 531 
Harper v. Wallis, - 595 
Hartop v. Whitmore, - S17 
Harvey v. Mangles, = - 466 
v. Aston, - = 528 

Hassel v. Tynte, - 474 
Hatch v. Hatch, - - 644 
Havelock v. Geddes, - 528 
v. Rockwood, - 624 

Hawkes v. Saunders, — 523,587 
Hawes v. Wyatt, - 644. 
Haynesv. Mico, - 319. 524 
Hedges v. Hedges, - 575 
Heron v. Heron, - = 644 
Hervey v. Aston, - 529 
Hesketh v. Blanchard, — - 622 
Hick's case, - - 634 
Hill v. Good, -  - 498 
v. Mills, - - 455 
Hilton v. Hilton, - 644. 
Hinchcliffe v. Hinchcliffe, 518 
Hinckley v. Simmons, — 506. 531 
Hobson v. Trevor, - 606 
Hodgson v.Loy, - 464.671 
Hogan v. Shee,  - - 596 
Hollin v. Byles, - 637 
Holder v. Hower, 631 


INDEX. 







Holderv. Holder, - - 
Holdipp v. Otway, 605, 
Holmes v. Coghill, 
Holmes v. Hall, - 
Holyland «x parte, . 
Horton v. Day, . 
Hoskins v. Hoskins, . 
Hotham v. East Ind. Comp 
Hovey v. Clarke,  - 

How v. Weldon, - 
Howson v. Hancock, - 
Hugget v. Montgomery, 
Hughes v. Hughes, "yO . 
ex parte, - 
Hume et ux. v. Edwards, 
Humphrey v. Taylor, 
———- v. Taylern,  - 
Hunt v. Hort, - . 
—— v. Silk, - 
—— v. Ellisden et al. 
Hunter 2. Potts, - 
Hungerford v. Noswo: 
Hussey v. Dillon, này, 
Hutcheson v. Hammond, i 





r1 
‘ 
a 
a 
i 
a 
a 
4 
1 
3 
4 


Ilchester, Lord, ex parte, sara 


“y 
Inglis v. Usherwood, - 4 
——- v. Grant, - -d4 


Irwan v. Dearman, 








Jacob v. Allen, - - d 
Jackson». Burleigh, — -.. 4 
James, ex parte, i 
Jarvis v. Hayes, 
Jeacock v. Falkner, 
Jefferson v. Bish. of 
Jefferys v. Jefferys, 
Jenkins ». Turner, 
v. Powel, 
Jerrard v. Saunders, 
Jesson v. Jesson, 
Johnson v. Smith, 

—- v. Johnson, 
Jones v. Jones, - 
- v. Selby, 

v. Smith, - 
—- v. Berkely, 
Joselyn v. Lacicre, 

















INDEX. 


Keech v. Hall, . - 
Kelly v. Powlett, . - 


Kennel v. Abbot, - 526 
Kennebel v. Scrafton, 497, 507 
Kidney v. Coussmaker, - 475 














King v. Loper, . - 438 
v. de Manneville, - 438 
v.: Mosley, - - 438 
v. Hopkins and wife, 438 
v. Tottington, - 441 
—— *. Broad Hembury, 441 


v. Witton cum T wam- 














brooke, - - - 441 
v. Roach, - - 441 
v. Inhabitants of Cawho- 
neyborne, 441 
v. Taunton. St. M. Mag- 
dalene, - 


— 9. Inhabitants of Dar- 
" lngton -- -- - 

v. Higgins, - 626 
—— v. Philips, - - 626 
v. Eggington et al. 625, 626 
v. Donally, - - 625 
v. Wiseman, - - 651 
Kingston v. Preston, - 528 
Kinlock v. Craig, - - 465 


445 














Kinnion v. Davis, - 646 
Kirkman v. Kirkman, - 519 
Knibs v. Hall, - - 594 
Knight v. Cameron, - 529 


Knollys v. Alcock, 506. 508. 531 
Kymer v. Sowercropp, — - 466 


Lacey,expartt, - - 644 
Lamine v. Dorrell, - 595 
Lancashire v. Lancashire, 497 
Larkins v. Larkins, 509. 531 
Latouche v. Lord Dusany, 473 
Law v. East Ind. Comp. 463 
Lawson v. Lawson, . 474 
Layton v. Pearce, - - 605 
Leake v. Leake, | - 518 
Leame v. Bray, - 627, 628 
Lee v. Cox & D'Aranda, 517 
Leech v. Leech, - 639 


Lechmere v. Earl of Carlisle, 517 
. Leigh’s case, 647 


«$ " - 





705 
Le Neve v. Le Neve, - 478 
Liverpool Company v. Atkin- 
son, - . 463 
L'Farrant v. Spencer, - 525 
Lickbarrow v. Mason, 464, 465 
Limbery v. Mason, . 508 
Lincoln, Lord, v. Rolls, 509 
Lister v. Lister, - - 644 
Long v. Dennis, - 528 
Longford v. Eyre, - 494, 
Longfort v. Administrators of 











Tyler, - - - 616 
Longman v. Fenn, - 607 
Lonsdale, Lord, v. Church, 606 
Lotan v. Cross, - - 627 
Lowe v. Peers, - - 606 
Mackworth v. Thomas, 607 
Maclure v. Dunkin, - 606 
Macmanus v. Cricket, 628. 646 
Maggison v. Moore, - 531 
Malloy v. Barker, - 622 
Manby v. Scott, . - 433 
Manning v. Western,, - 671 
Marshall v. Rutton, 433. 441 
Marriott v. Hampton, 583. 595 
Martin v. Smith, - 528 
Marsh v. Kevenford, .- 596 
Mascal v. Mascal, - - 518 
Mason v. Grafton, - 638 

v. Keeling, - 646 
Matthews v. Warner, - 511 
Maundrel v. Maundrel, 508. 532 
Maunsell v. Lord Mazarene, 607 
Mayor of Southampton v. 

Graves, : - . 423 
Mayer v. Gowland, - 532 
Mead v. Death et al. - 592 

v. Younge, - - 610 
Meade v. Daubigny, - 636 
Medina v. Stoughton, - 610 
Mellish v. Da Costa, - 454 

v. Motteaux, - 611. 
Meredith v. Wynn, - 519 
Middleton v. Dodswell, 444. 455 
v. Lord Kenyon, 583 

v. Wills, T 645 

Miller v. Milley et a - — 447 


4 X 





1706 
Mills v. Ball, - - 466 
Minncl v. Sarrazine, . 524 
Mitchinson v. Hewson, 586 
Moile v. Roberts, - 463 
Montagne v. Jefferys, - $07 
Morley v. Bird, - - $69 
v. Gainsford, 646, 628 
Mortlake v. Charlton, - 648 
Morse v. Royal, : - 645 
Moses v. M‘Ferlan, 583, 587, 
594, 595 
Moulson t. Moulson, - 518 
Murray v. Lord Elibank, 475 
Mussen v. Prile et al. - 642 
Nadin v. Battie and Wardle 605 
Nantes v. Corrock, - 648 
Neal v. Spencer, - - 629 
Neersome v. Coles, - 622 
Nelson v. Sheridan, - 607 
Nesbitt v. Smith et al. 614. 463 


Newdigate Sir Richard v. Davy, 


395 
Newson v. Thornton, 464, 465, 

466 
Newman v. Payne, . 645 
Newton et ux. v. Hatter, 637 
Nichols v. Judson, - 519 
Noden v. Griffith, - 509 
Northine v. Craig, - 466 
Northey v. Strange, - 575 
Nunn v. Wilsmore, - 639 
Ogle v. Baines, - - 627,628 
O’Keefe v. Casev, . 454 
Oldficld v. Round, - 611 
Oldham v. Hand, . 645 
Openheim v. Russel, - 466 
Orr v. Churchill, - - 606 
Osborn v. Chapman, - 644. 
Overbury v. Overbury, - 497 
Owenson v. Morse, - 465 
Oxenham et ux.v. Gayre, — 423 
Pacton v. Honnor, - 629 
Page v. Whipple, - 629 
Paget v. Hay wood, - 529 
Parkinson v. Lee, - - 610 
Parten v. Baseden, - 522 
Parse v. Waring, - 644 


INDEX. 








Parsons v. Mills et al. - MW 

— v. Freeman, - 509 

——- v. Parsons, - 5% 
Pasley v. Freeman, - 610 
Payne v. Whale, - - $95 
Peach v. Phillips, - 533 
Peacock v. Peacook, - 621 
Pearne v. Lisle, - - 49$ 
Pemberton v. Pemberton, 508, 531 
People v. Ruggles, - 400 
Peppin v. Shakespear, - 468 








Perry v. Phillips, - 533 
Phillips v. Phillips, - 535 

v. Hunter, - - $9 

v. Bacon, - - 606 
Phinney v. Phinney, 517, 575 
Phipps v. Annesley, =. 519 
Piggot v. Penrice, 495 


Pillans et al. v. Van Mierop et 


al. 486 
Pindar v. Wadsworth, - 40 
Pinnele case, - - 671 
Pitts v. Gaince, - - - ) 68 
Pole v. Lord Somers, - $1 
Pond v. Underwood, e 695 
Ponsonby c. Adams, - Cor 
Pordage v. Cole, . - 598, 671 
Potter v. Brown, - . 633 
Powel v. Cleaver, - 519 
Power v. Wills, - - 539 
Price v. O'Neal, - 610, 641 
Prime v. Stebbing, - 518 
Pulling v. Reedy, 529 
Pyne’s case, - 517 


Quin v. Keefe, - 


Radeliffe v. Buckley, 

Randall v. Morgan, 

v. Payne, 

— v. Ennington, 

Rann v. Hughes, - 

Rashleigh v. Salmon, 

Rawson v. Johnston, 

Read v. Marshall, - 

Reeves v. Brymer, 

Rees v. Barrington, 

Regina v. Inhabitants of 
worth, -- 


Rexv. Meade, = 























Roc on the demise of Connelly 








INDEX. 707 
Rexv.Sowerby, - —- 441 Scottt. Shepherd, - 527,628 
2—- v. Woburn, - - 441 Seare v. Prentice, . 628 
——- v. Taunton St. M. Mag- Sebiel v. Fairbaine, - 629 
* dalene, — - 445 Seed v. Bradford, - 519 
—- v. Sir Richard Haines, 455 Selwood v. Mildway, - 531 
— v. Inhabitants of Batterton, Semple v. Bayley, ' - - 529 
618 Shapholmev. Hart, — - 645 
z— v.Thickness, == - © 629 Sharpev.Sharpe, — - «498 
ReyoallSir George's case, — 601 Sharrington et al. v. Strotton, 586 
Reynish v. Martin, -. 528 Shell v. Rich, - : 646 
Reynolds v. Lady Tenham — 454 Shepherd v. Shepherd, - — 497 
v. Clarke, - 468,627 Shipman v. Stevens, - 447 
v. Ex parte, = 644 Shirly v. Davis, - 611 

Richards v. Barton, $96 Short ex dem. Gastrell v. Smith 
Richardson v. Goss, - 466 etal. . - - 531 
v. Greese, * $20 Shove v. Princk, - - 508 
Richman v. Morgan, Sibthorp v. Moxon, - 520 
' (Ridgeway v. Darwin, — - 452 Silv. Worswick, - —- 622 

Rigaut v. Gallisard, - 636 Simpson and Simpson v. Jack- 

hv. Garvan, - - 454 son, - - - 44T 
Robinson v. Anderton, - 595 Skinnerv. Gunton, - 629 
v. Bland, — - 622 Skip v. Hay, - 463 


Slubey et al. v. Heyward, et al. 466 








*. Vernonand Vyse, ~- 526 Smallv. Williams, - 606 
Rodney v. Chambers, — - — 433 Smith v. Gould, 480, 479, 414, 415 
Rogers v. Imbleton, . 627 ———»v. Goss, . 466 
Rolfe v. Peterson, - 606 -——— v. Casen, - - 474 
Rondeau v. Wyatt, - 672 v. Strong, - - 519 
Rose v. Cunninghame, 532, 508 v. Wilson, - 528 
Rosewell v. Bennett, 517,518 !—— v. Woodhouse, - 528 
Roswell v. Vaughan, . 610 ———’s Case, - - 567 
Routledge v. Dorril, - 580 —— v. Buchanan, - 622 
Roy v. Duke of Beaufort, - 606 —— v. Collyer, . 608 
‘Rushworth ex parte, -* 614 ——— v. Dickenson, - 606 
Russel. Long, — - — 475,567 ——~ v. Pelah, - - 646 
Ryaliv.Role,  - = 604 ——v. Field, + 617 

Snee and Baxter v. Prescott 
Sadler v. Evans, - - $95 etal. -. - - 464 
Sandy's case, - - 638 — 9» — - . 465 
Saunders v. Owen, . Solomon v. Nissin, . 465 
v. Churchill and Smith Somerset the Negro’s case, 477, 

462 478 
Saunderson v. Glass, - 645 Sparkesv.Cator, - — 519,518 
Savage's case, - . 418 Sparrow v. Hardcastle, 508, 509, 
——.Forster, — - — 618 532 
Savignac v. Roome, 628,646 Spirksv. Robins, - - 519 
Saville v. Roberts, - 629 Stevenson v. Mi oret, 594 
Scarborough Earl of v. Parker, 526 Stewart. Tichjone. ~ 58% 
Scott v. Petit, - 466 ——— v. Wilkio5s ^ SS 
—— 9, Tyler, - "528, 539 St. John v. Sx, X P dis 





708 
Sunton v. Hughes, - 606 
Stokes v. Riviere,  - - 464 
Scone v. Cartwright, - 646 
Stratton v. Rastall, - 463 
v. Ralston, - 463 
Stuart v, Earl of Bute, - 525 
Sturgis v. Corp, - - 475 
Sutton v. Moody, - 457 
Swancot v. Westgarth, - — 642 
Sweet v. Pvm, - 466 
Swift ex dem. v. Neale and 
Roberts, - - - 509 
Tappendon v. Burgess, - 639 
Tate v. Hilbert, - -. 474 
Taylor v. Hare, - - 594 
-— v, Rochford, - 644 





Temple Ld. v. Duchess of Chan- 
dos, - - - 506, 531 
Thelussen v. Fletcher, - 607 
Thomas v. Keymish, 519, 517 
—-— cx dem. Jones v. Evans, 








311 

v. Bennet, - 524. 

v. Thomas, - 526 

—- v. Jones et al. - $31 
Thomason and Hipgip v. Frere, 

623 

Thompson v. Havelock, 415 

Thornhill v. Evans, - 597 


Tolson v. Collins, 459, 460, 518, 





519 

Tomkins v. Barnet, - 594. 
Tomkings v. Ennis, - 473 
Townsend v. Wathen, - 628 
Townson v. Wilson, - 594 
Towers v. Barrett, - 596 
Trent v. Hanning, - 495 
Trimmer v. Bayne, - 518 
Tripe et al. v. Potter, - 627 
Turner v. Philips, - 597 
Tutens v. Hubbard, - 611 
T waites v. Smith, - 490 
T wisden Lady v. Adams, 536 
v. T'wisden, - 519 

Upton v. Price, - - 517 
Vale v. Bayle, - - 464. 
Vaugh's case, - - 452 


INDEX. 





Veale v. Prieur, - = 601 
Vere v. Lord Cowdon, - 451 

v. Loveden, - 470 
Walley v. Montgomery, 466 
Wallop ex parte, - - 526 
Walmslev v. Booth, - 645 
Walsh v. Walsh, - - $63 


Ward v. Turner, - - 44 





v. Lunt, - - 517 
Waring v. Griffith et al. 461 
Warren v. Warren, 518, 519 
Warring v. Knight, - 622 
Waterman v. Soper, - 459 


Watson v. the master of Hems- 














worth Hospital, - 470 
—v. Earlof Lincoln, 517 
Watts v. Fullerton, . - 508 
Waugh v. Carver et al. - 622 
Weakly v. Bucknell, - 618 
Weaver v. Wood, - 637 
Weatherall». Gearing, - 470 
Wellington v. Wellington, 497 
Wennall v. Alney, - 583, 586 
West v. Small, - 622 
Weston v. Downey, - 596 
Wetherden v. Embden, - 629 
Wheeler v. Bingham, - 829 
Whelpdale v. Cookson, .- 64% 
Whichcote v. Laurence, - 544 
White v. Sealy, - - 606 
Whitfield c. M‘Cleod, - 609 
Wilcox v. Wilcox, - S17 
Wilde v. Clarkson, - 606 
Wilkenson v. Mawby, - 629 
———— v. King, - 473 
Willams v. Owens, - 531, 532 
——- v. Macnamara, 608 
Williamson v. Watts, - 449 
- v. Allison, - 610 
Wilmot v. Woodhouse, | - 520 
Wilson v. Knubley, - 418 
W mklev v. Pye, - - . 619 
Wiseman v. Vandeput, 464, 465 
Woodward v. Cox, - 6st 
—— v. Gyles, - 606 
Woollands v. Croucher, -« 


Wortes v. Clifton, - 
Wright v. Proud, - 
v. Morley, - 








INDEX. 











—— v. Russel, - 463 
v.Lawes,  - - 466 
‘Wyndham v. Chetwynd (Preface.) 
Wythe v. Thuriston, - 445 
* Yea v. Lethbridge, . 606 
"York v. Grindstone, - 638 
Young v. ~ 456 
- *. Peachy, - 644 
Caveatemptor, - 610.620 
Cavillatio, - 2 + 409 
Caution, - - 452, 647 
Cautio de damno infecto, 637 
Cautores, LES -. 409 
Celsus, - - - 404 
Census, - - - 416 
Certi condictio, - - 593 
Cessio bonorum, - 622.642 
Chamberlain, . . 403 
Child, - - - + 445 
Child posthumous, - 496 
Christianity, . - 432 
Code Justinian, - - 403 
Theodosian, - 614 
Tuscan, - - 409 
Russian, - - 409 
Napoleon,  - - 509 
Codicil, - 537. 539 
Cognitores, - - - $597 
Cognomen, . . - 526 
Cognates, 430. 445. 561. 570. 
572 

Collaterals, see Succession. 
Collation, (Hotchpot,) - 575 
Commandite, - 622. 6724 


Compensation, (set off) 347. 528 
Compromissor, - - 638 
Commodatum, 583, 584. 593 
Coemptio, - - - 421 
Comprivign, — - — - 428 
Concilium semestre, - 453 
Concubinatus, - 490. 432 
Conditions, ^ 501, 529, 605. 611 
impossible, 501 
precedent, 528 
testamentary, 528 

in restraint of mar- 
riage, - $28 
Confarreatio, - 421. 436 


709 
Conjugium, - - 420 
Consanguinity, ^ - 422. 562 
Consortium, . . 420 
Contubernium - 416. 420 
Consensus, - . 422 
Consensus sponsalitius, 430 
matrimonialis, 430 
Consobrini. consororini, 439, 561, 
H 562 
Constitutum, - 581. 612 
Constitution, - -  - 406 
Contracts, - - - 888 
nominate, - 583 
innominate, - 58S 
stricti juris, - 584 

bone fidei, 338. 348, 
584. 641 
paro;  - - 586 
written, - 586 
unilateral, - 593 
construction of, 587 
Conventioin manum, - 421 
Covenants, - - . 528 
Counsel, . - - 597 
Cretion, - - - 521 
Crimen, - - - 454 
Cy pres, - - . 530 


Cum elogio, (a specification) 495 


Curator, 444. 450. 454. 476 
Cures, LEE - = 405 
D 

Damages, - — 606.637.641 
Debtor, - - - 642 
Decurion, - +  - 439 
Decreta, - - - 407 
Decree Macedonian, - 643. 
Dedetitii, - - - 417 
Delivery of documents, 466 
Denunciations, - - 333 
Defalcation, - - 560 
Defensores (counsel) ^ - 597 
Depositum, - - 583,584 
Detention ofa pledge, — - 581 
Deportation - - € 
Degrees leviti 7 
Deeises of lang” 7 1 


Digest, - 





710 
Diffarreatio, - - 436 
Discidium, . - - 436 
Disinherison, 495. 504. 513 
Dies utiles, . - - 677 
Divi fratres, . - 453 
Divorce, - 433, 434. 438 
Domi ductio, . - 421 
Dolicapax, - - - 626 
Dolus malus, . . 473 
Dogs, - = * = 629 
Donatio mortis causa, — - 474 
inter vivos, - 474 
ante nuptias, - 474 
Doutdes, - - = 584 
facias, - 584 
Du Ponceau, Mr. 557. 67 1, 672, 
672 a 
Dupondium, -  - 404.501 
Dower, . - - - 524 
Dominium eminens, 456, 457 
utile, - - 456 
jure nature, 456 
jure civili, 456 

E 

Easement, - - 468 
Edicta, - - 406, 407 
praetorum - 408 
Edictales, - - - 404 
Election, - - 530 
Electrum, - - - 460 
Emancipation, 442, 443.477 
Emperor, - - - 402 
XEmptio bonorum,  - 578 
venditio, 614. 616. 583, 
584 
Emphyteusis, 583, 584. 621, 622 
Enmity, 4 e; 459 
Enfranchisement, - 417 
Epistolz, . . 406, 407 
Erciscundz, - 384. 641. 650 
Erciscundi, - - 459 
Erciscere, - - 641 
Herciscere, . . 641 
_Eeues, - - - 641 
Esquire, - - 416 
Excellency, T e. 416 


INDEX. 


Extranei, - - - «V 
Exile, - . - Al 
Executor, - - - Se 
Exquestor, - - 403 
Expromissor, - - 462 
Ex empto, - - 609. 615 
Ex vendito, - - 615 
Eviction, . ~ 607. 616 
E 
Facio ut des, - ° 584 
facias, ^ - 504 
Fabia lex, - 626 


Familie erciscundz, 384. 522. 641. 


650 
Falsa causa, - - 526 
Farre, - - 421 
Fees to Counsel, - 596 
Physicians, - 597 
of office, - - 598 
Females, " - 446 
Fere nature - 45 
Fictio brevis manus. - 466 
Fide jussion, 
FE de) ussor, } 452. 581. 612. 614 
Fidei commissa, 505. 534. 536 
Filius familias, - 44-4. 541 
Fishery, - - 455 
Fixtures, - - 525 
Flamen dialis, - 421 
Florentinus, - - 406 
F reedman, - 417.578 
Furniture, 525 


Forestalling (fraudatze annone),654 


G 
Germani, - - 564 
Gillies, Dr. - - 431 
Goods, . - - $35 
Grotius, - - 4408 
Grandchild, - 446 
Guardian, . 4445. 454. ow 
Guarantee, . 
Gypsum, . - 


inh i 


r 
T. 
B 


INDEX. 715 
Prescription, - = 471 S 
Prodigals, - - 452,494 
Proctor, - . - 647 Sabinians, - - - 459 
Pybertv, - - - 445 Sailors, - - - 644 
Pueritia, - .- + 445 Satisfaction, of portions, of dower, 
Public decorum, - 422,430 4 of debts, of legacies, — 516, 530; 
Purchaser without notice, 473 Sanctuaries, - - 419 
Puffendorf, - =  »- 405 Scotch marriages, - 433 
Pupils, .- - - 444453 Sed - . - © 488 
Punishment, — - - 625 Selden, - - 428 
Security, Surety, 452, 462, 613, 
648 
Q Senium, - . - 446 
Serfs, - . - 413 
Quartum trebellianum, - 536 Servi: Slaves, slavery, - 410 
Quasi contract, . - 624 Servipenge, -  - 415,442 
posthumous, - 499 Services: Servitudes, - 467 
privignus, - - 481 Seduction, - - 636, 651 
nurus, . - 431 Semi matrimonium, - 420 
noverca, - 431 Senatus-consultum, 406, 541 
serviana, - [| Pegasianum, 532, 536 
ex maleficio, - Sabinianum, - 558 
usufruct, - - 468 Trebellianum, - 541 
Quiddam honorarium, - 597 Tertyllianum, 564, 567 
Quires, - . - 405 Orphitianum, 565, 567 
Quirinus, - .- $- 405 Set-off,(Compensation) - 581 
Questor, - - - 403 Sestertium, . - - 442 
Quotite, - - - 416 Settlement, -  - - .505 
Sicle, - - - « 403 
Sinendi modo, - - 525 
R Slavery. See servi. 
Somerset, the negro case, 414 
Rank, - - <= 422,431 Socage, - 0 l[| 454 
Ratahabitio, . . 422 Sontica causa, - - 435 
Relationship, - 7; 422 Socrates, - 431 
Relegation, - - 441 Solicitor, -  - 597, 644 
Repudium, - - 434,521 Sodomy, - 636, 651 


Renunciation, - 436, 521 
Representation, - 539, 546, 558 


Res fungibiles, - - 593 
Responsa, - - 408 
Respectum parentele, - 424 
Rescript — - - 

Divi Marci, - $578 
Retention, . - 581 
Revocation testamentary, 497, 539 
Rivers, - . 455, 456 
Road, - - - = 467 
Rotherforth, - -  - 405 


Societas, (Partnership) 583, 584- 


672a 
Spurious children, - 568, 571 
Spado, - - - 441 


Sponsalia, — - - 430, 432 
Stoppage in transitu, — - 463 
Stuprum, (Seduction) 636, 651 
Stipend, - - 462 
Stipulation, - 583, 584, 605 
paru ct wo Verve 554 


4Y 


714 INDEX. 


Stipulation, judicial, pretorian U 
zdilitian, 608 
Substitution, - 502, 505  Ulpian, - - ° 
pupillary, 503 Umbricia, - - € 
Succession ab intestato, . 539, 546 Uncie, - - 
Suitas, - - - 514 Use: Usufruct, - « 
Surgeons, - - - 597 Usucapion, - =e: 


4 
Uterini, - - - 8 
| 1 


T 
v 
Tavlor, Dr. - - - 546 
Tabule, - - - 503 Vattel, - - ~ 4 
Testament, 416, 485, 492, 510 Ventre mittendo, . e 4 
military, - 491 inspiciendo, - 14 
in procinctu, 491 Victor, - 4 
inofhcious, 407, 504 Villenage, 413, 417,. 49,4 
511, 514 Vinculo matrimonii, -:.À 
irritum, - 510 Vindications, - - 43 
Testamenti factio, 488,500,520 Vindicta, - - 41644 
Testes, . - - 412  Virilitas, - e 4 
Tertullian, - - - 435 Vulgo quesiti, (bastards) (3 
Thelypthora, . . 432 t. 
Theft, - - - . 625 AK 
Thii, . - - - 572 Ww X 
Towing path, - - 456 2" 
Transfer, - - - 470 Waif, - - -. . af 
Tribute, - = © 462 Warranty, - 609. 6250 
Treasure trove, . - 461 Way, - - - «d 
Triumphator, - - 402 Widow, - " 
Trespass, vi et armis } 627 Will. See Testament, - 
on the case, Wild creatures reclaimed, ' u 





Trustees, - - - 644 Wild, (Jonathan) 
Trusts, - 536, 534, 644 Witchcraft, - ewe cd 
Tutelage: Tutor, - — 444,447 Witnesses testamentary, : 44 





To be had at the Bookstore of Patrick Byrne, Philadelphia. 


THE OPINION delivered by Judge Cooper in the Court of Errors 
and Appeals, on the Effect of Sentences in Foreign Courts of Vice- 
Admiralty. 


The Introductory Lecture of Thomas Cooper, Esq. Professor of 
Chemistry at Carlisle College, Pennsylvania. With Notes and Refe- 
rences. 


Contents of the ‘Lecture. 


General observations. 
General classification of scientific knowledge. 
Reasons for attempting a sketch of the history of chemistry. 
Plan of the Lecture. 
Chemistry noticed or alluded to in the Scripture. 
Brass and Iron. Wine. Oil. Resins. Pitch. Bitumen. Engraving. Dyeing. 
Gilding. Plating. Butter: Milk. Bread. Corn Mills. Soap. Nitre. Beer. 
Egyptian chemistry: viz. Glass. Dyeing and Painting. Beer. Vinegar. Me- 
dicines.* Perfumes. Oil Linen. Poultry. Salt. Natron. Paper. Brass and 
Gold. Causes of the flourisbing state of Egypt. 

Grecian Chemistry. - 

Roman Chemistry. 

Hindoo Chemistry. 

Chinese Chemistry. 

Chemistry of what are called the dark ages. . 

State of Chemistry in the time of Boyle, Mayow, Hooke, and Halcs. 

Stahl's theory of Phlogiston. 

Black’s discoveries in 1752. 

Dr. Priestley's and Scheele's, 1771 to 1774. 

Lavoisier's discoveries. French nomenclature. 

Doctrine of Heat. 

Galvanic Chemistry. 

Mineralogy. 

Geology. 

Uses Sl Chemistry. 

Conquerors. 


Contents of the Notes. 
Note 
1. Hieroglyphic and alphabetic writing. Boustrophedon, Kionedon. Lord 
Elgin’s collection. 
. Hindoo astronomy and chronology. 
. Effect of chemical and mechanical science in augmenting the disposable 
force of a country, instanced in Great Britain. 
Turnpike roads and Rail roads. 
Reasons for adopting the Septuagint ion. 
Tubal Cain, Vulcan? Scriptural ‘Meaty. 
. Wine as noticed in Scripture. ur 
Embalming. Mummies. 
Uil and Resins, among the Egyptian. iy 


en 


LETT 


. Pitch, Tar and Bitumen noticed in the Old T'estament. 
. Rosin. Burgundy Pitch. 

. Gems. Engraving among the Jews. 

. Dyeing. 

. Gilding and Plating. 

. Golden Calf. 

. Butter and Milk. 

. Bread making. 

. Grist Mills. 

. Vinegar. 


Settlement of Egypt. 


31. Ancient Knowledge of Glass. Nitre or Natron. Artificial Gems ad c 


22. 
23. 


24. 
25. 


26. 


. Aristotle. 

. The shield of Achilles. 

. Nepenthe. Kaif. 

. Sugar. Saccharin. 

. Greek engraving. 

. Filtration. Calcination. Distillation. 

. Greek Fire. 

. Dyeing in Homer's time. 

. The Tea urn borrowed from the Romans. 
. Substances used in medicine. Pottery. Portland Vase. Mosaic Work. 
. Gunpowder, see note 45. 

. The Chinese of Hindoo origin. 

. The Egyptians, blacks. 

. Gunpowder known to the ancients? to the Hindoos and Chinese. 

. Scholastic Metaphysics. 

. State of the Iron Founderies in Great Britain in 1806. 

. French acknowledgment of Dr. Priestley’s discovery of Oxygen. 


loured Glasses. Drinking Glasses. Burning Glasse-. Window Gis 
Lapis Specularis. Hothouses. Sudaria, or steam baths. 

Egyptians and Hindoos compared. 

Beer. 

Oil. 

Pitch and Tar. 

Egyptian Linen manufactory. Transparent drapery. 


. Common Salt. 

. Natron. Sal Ammoniac. Alum. 

. Ancient Method of separating Gold from the Ore. 
. Serpents of Gold. 


Papyrus. Books of the ancients. 





Remarks on Mineralogical Nomenclature and Classification. 
Werner’s arrangement of Mincrals. 

Hauy’s arrangement of Minerals. 

Suggestions of the author. 





Acc. No. 


CLass Mx. Load 








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