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JOURNAL 


OF  THE 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association 


VOLUME  XXXVI 

1922 


PUBLISHED   BY 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  WATER  WORKS  ASSOCIATION 

715   TREMONT  TEMPLE,    BOSTON,   MASS. 


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The  four  numbers  composing  this  volume  have  been  separately  copyrighted  in  1922 
by  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association. 


ail|f  Wort  ^iii  |lrf00 

Samuel  Usher 

•0«TON.   MA»SAeHU«KTT« 


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Volame  36.  MARCH,    1922.  $4.00  a  Year. 

Number  1.  $1.25  a  Number. 


JOURNAL 


OF    THE 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 


ISSUED    QUARTERLY. 


PUBLISHED    BY^ 
THE    NEW   ENGLAND   WATER   WORKS   ASSOCIATION, 
715  Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass. 

Entered  as  second-class  matter  September  23,  1003.  at  the  Post  Office 
at  Boston,  Maaa.,  under  Act  of  Congress  of  March  3.  1879. 

Copyright,  1922,  by  the  Naw  Englano  Water  Wobks  Association. 

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OFFICERS 

OF  THE 

New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 

1922. 


PRESIDENT. 

Frank  A.  Barbour,  Consulting  Hydraulic  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass. 

VICE-PRESIDElTrS. 

Patrick  Gear,  Superintendent  of  Water  W^orks,  Holyoke,  Mass. 
George  A.  Carpenter,  City  Engineer,  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 
Reeves  J.  Newsom,  CommiBsioner  of  Water  Supply,  Lynn,  Mass. 
Davis  A.  Heffernan,  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Milton,  Mass. 
Frank  E.  Winsor,  Chief  Engineer,  Water  Supply  Board,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Theodore  L^  Bristol,  President  Ansonia  Water  Company,  Ansonia,  Conn. 

BECRETART.' 

Frank  J.  Gifford,  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Dedham,  Mass. 

TREASURER. 

Frederick  I.  Winslow,.  Division  Engineer,  Metropolitan  District  Commisson,  Consult- 
ing Engineer,  Framingham^  Mass. 

EDITOR. 

Henry  A.  Symonds,  Consulting  Engineer  and  Manager  of  Water  Companies,  70  Kilby 
Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

ADVERTISING   AGENT. 

Henry  A.  Symonds,  70  Kilby  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

ADDITIONAL  MEMBERS   OF  EXECL^TIVE   COMMITTEE. 

George  H.  Finneran,  Superintendent  Water  Service,  Boston,  Mass. 

Frank  A.  Marston,  of  Metcalf  &  Eddy,  Consulting  Engineers,  Boston,  Mass. 

Melville  C.  Whipple,  Instructor  of  Sanitary  Chemistry,  Harvard  University. 

finance  committee. 
A.  R.  Hathaway,  Water  Registrar,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Edward  D.  Eldredge,  Superintendent  Onset  Water  Company,  Onset,  Mass. 
Stephen  H.  TaylOr,  Assistant  Superintendent  Water  Works,  New  Bedford,  Mass. 


'ITHE  Association  was  organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  on  June  21,  1882,  with  the  object 
*  of  providing  its  members  with  means  of  social  intercourse  and  for  the  exchange  of 
knowledge  pertaining  to  the  construction  and  management  of  water  works.  From  an 
original  membership  of  only  twenty-seven,  its  growth  has  prospered  until  now  it 
includes  the  names  of  800  men.  Its  membership  is  divided  into  two  principal  classes, 
viz.:  Members  and  Associates.  ,  Members  are  divided  into  two  classes,  via.:  Resi* 
dent  and  Non-Resident,  —  the  former  comprising  those  residing  within  the  limits  of 
New  England,  while  the  latter  class  includes  those  residing  elsewhere.  The  iNrnATiON 
fee  for  the  former  class  is  five  dollars;  for  the  latter,  three  dollars.  The  annual  dues 
for  both  classes  of  Active  membership  are  six  dollars.  Associate  membership  is 
open  to  firms  or  agents  of  firms  engaged  in  dealing  in  water-works  supplies.  The 
initiation  fee  for  Associate  membership  is  ten  dollars,  and  the  annual  dues  twenty 
dollars.  This  Association  has  six  regular  meetings  each  year,  all  of  which,  except  the 
annual  convention  in  September,  are  held  at  Boston. 


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liy 


INDEX. 


Arnold,  H.  S.     Monel  metal  and  its  suitability  for  water  works  uses.     86,  Mar. 

Barrows,  H.  K.    The  water  supply  of  Fall  River.     549,  Dec. 

Bonds.    The  proper  term  for  which  Water  Works  bonds  should  run.    By  Charles  W. 

Sherman.    589,  Dec. 
Booth,  G.  W.     High  pressure  fire  systems  from  the  underwriters'  viewpoint.     495,  Dec. 

Cement  joints  for  cast-iron  pipe.     By  D.  D.  Clarke.    309,  June. 
Chase,  W.  G.     Reinforced  concrete  pipe  as  applied  to  water  supply  lines.     102,  Mar. 
Chlorine.     Making  chlorine  at  point  of  consumption.     By  Clarence  W.   Marsh. 
1.  Mar. 

The  chlorination  of  New  England  water  supplies.  By  William  J.  Orchard.  99,  Mar. 
Church,  S.  R.    Tars,  new  and  old.    571,  Dec. 
Clark,  H.  W.    A  new  method  of  purifying  water.     385,  Sept. 
Clarice,  D.  D.     Cement  joints  for  cast-iron  pipe.     309,  June. 
Conard,  William  R.     Manganese  bronze  for  valve  stems.    32,  Mar. 
Consumption,  Some  observations  on  water.    By  Charles  W.  Sherman.     273,  June. 
Corrosion  of  Pipe.    A  history  of  the  corrosion  of  the  36-inch  steel  force  main  at  Akron^ 

Ohio.    By  G.  Gale  Dixon.     157,  June. 
Court  decisions  incident  to  the  purchase  of  the  Braintree  Water  Supply  Co.,  Some. 

By  Henry  A.  Symonds.    426,  Sept. 

Dean,  F.  W.    Steam  boilers.     115,  Mar. 
Dean,  Pajne.    Electrification  of  gate  valves.     264,  June. 

Dixon,  G.  Gale.    A  history  of  the  corrosion  of  the  36-inch  steel  force  main  at  Akron, 
Ohio.     157,  June. 

Electric  Pumpmg  at  Concord,  N.  H.    By  Percy  R.  Saunders.    517,  Dec. 
Electrification  of  gate  valves.    By  Payne  Dean.    264,  June. 
Electrolysis. 

Investigation  of  electrolysis  on  steel  force  main  at  Akron,  Ohio.     By  Victor  B. 

Phillips.     170,  June. 
Relative  to  the  report  of  the  American  Committee  on  electrolysis.     By  Alfred 

D.  Flinn.     307,  June. 

Fall  River,  The  water  supply  of.    By  H.  K.  Barrows.    549,  Dec. 
Financing  of  municipal  water  works.    479,  Sept. 
Fire  protection. 

Boston  high  pressure  fire,  system  and  general  problem  of  special  fire  service.     By 

Frank  A.  McInnes.    483,  Dec. 
The  use  and  discard  of   auxiliary  fire  protection  from    a    polluted  source.      By 

Caleb  M.  Saville.     392,  Sept. 
High  pressure  fire  systems  from  the  underwriters'  viewpoint.     By  G.  W.  Booth. 

495,  Dec. 
FlttShometer,  The.     (Topical  Discussion).     467,  Sept. 


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IV  INDEX. 

Garratt^  J.  E.    Application  of  copper  sulphate  to  Hartford  Reservoir  and  some  effects 

upon  length  of  filter  runs.    522,  Dec. 
Goodnough,  X.  H. 

Proposed  extension  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.     189,  June. 

Water  supply  of  Southeastern  Massachusetts.    527,  Dec. 

Inspection.    Why  we  should  inspect  water  works  equipment.    By  Thomas  E.  Lally. 
450,  Sept. 

Jackson,  J.  Frederic.     Pollution  of  streams  affecting  industrial  uses.     14,  Mar. 
Johnson,  R.  F.     Proper  underground  records.    95,  Mar. 

King,  George  A.    Should  the  water  department  be  merged  with  other  municipal  de- 
partments in  its  management  and  finances.     434,  Sept. 

Lally,  Thomas  C.    Why  we  should  inspect  water  works  equipment.    450,  Sept. 

Management  and  finances.    Should  the  water  department  be  merged  with  other 

municipal  departments  in  its  management  and  finances?    By  George  A.  King. 

434,  Sept. 
Manganese  bronze  for  valve  stems.    By  William  R.  Conard.    32,  Mar. 
Mclnnes,  Frank  A.     Boston  high  pressure  fire  system  and  general  problem  of  special 

fire  service.     483,  Dec. 
Marsh,  Clarence  W.     Making  chlorine  at  the  point  of  consumption.     1,  Mar. 
Marston,  Frank  A.     The  design  and  construction  of  the  Gloverville  standpipe.     288, 

June. 
Metropolitan  Water  District.  Proposed  extension  of.    By  X.  H.  Goodnough.     189, 

June. 
Monel  metal,  and  its  suitability  for  water  works  uses.     By  H.  S.  Arnold.    86,  Mar. 

New  Bedford  water  system,  Description  of.    By  Stephen  H.  Taylor.    370,  Sept. 
New  England  Water  Works  Association. 

Address  by  President-Elect  F.  A.  Barbour.     153,  Mar. 
Address  by  President  Frank  A.  Barbour.     476,  Sept. 
Address  by  Hon.  \V.  H.  B.  Remington.     474,  Sept. 
Address  by  William  Ritchie.     475,  Sept. 
Address  by  President  Charles  W.  Sherman.     154,  Mar. 
Affiliation  of  technical  societies.     311,  June. 
Dexter  Brackett  medal,  award  of.     478,  Sept. 
Proceedings. 

Annual  meeting,  1922.     141,  Mar. 

February,  1922,  meeting.     311,  June. 

Convention,  Sept.  12-13-14-15,  1922.     474,  Sept. 

November  meeting.     618,    Dec. 
Reports. 

Auditing  Committee.     148,  Mar. 

Editor.     148,  Mar. 

Secretary-.     143,  Mar. 

Tellers.  '  152,  Mar. 

Treasurer,     145,  Mar. 

Newsom,  Reeves,  J.     The  economy  of  high  initial  cost  and  extreme  care  in  service 
pil)e  installation.     79,  Mar. 


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INDEX.  V 

Obitoaiy. 

Robert  Carter  Pitman  Coggeshall.    614,  Dec. 
Florence  M.  Griswold.      472,  Sept. 
Herbert  L.  Hapgood.    320,  June. 
Alfred  Earl  Martin.    321,  June. 
Charles  E.  Pierce.     616,  Dec. 
Samuel  Everett  Tinkham.    318,  June. 

Orchard,  William  J.    The  chlorination  of  New  England  water  supplies.    99,  Mar. 

Painting  fire  hydrants.    Topical  Discussion.    470,  Sept. 

Phillips,  Victor  B.     Investigation  of  electrolysis  on  steel  force  main  at  Akron,  Ohio. 

170,  June. 
Pipe  joint  compounds.    Discussion.     Ill,  Mar. 

Pollution  of  streams  affecting  industrial  uses.    By  J.  Frederic  Jackson.    14,  Mar. 
Pratt,  Major  Arthur  H.    The  deep  core  wall  of  the  Wanaque  Dam.    457,  Sept. 
Providence,  R.  L,  The  new  water  supply  of.    By  Frank  E.  Winsor.    323,  Sept. 
Purification  of  water. 

A  new  method  of  purifying  water.    By  H.  W.  Clark.    385,  Sept. 

Application  of  copper  sulphate  to  Hartford  Reservoir  and  some  effects  upon  length 
of  filter  runs.    By  J.  E.  Garratt.    522,  Dec. 

Qualities  of  the  water  supplies  of  Massachusetts,  A  rating  of.    By  Prof.  George  C. 
Whipple.    40,  Mar. 

Reinforced  concrete  pipe  as  applied  to  water-supply  lines.    By  W.  G.  Chase.    102, 
Mar. 

Salem,  Ohio,  Additional  discussion  of  water  supply  conditions  at    By  H.  F.  Dunhau. 

262,  June. 
Saunders,  Pcrqr  IL    Electric  pumping  at  Concord,  N.  H.    517,  Dec. 
Sarille,  Caleb  M.    The  use  and  discard  of  auxiliary  fire  protection  from  a  polluted 

source.     392,  Sept. 
Service  pipe.    The  economy  of  high  initial  cost  and  extreme  care  in  service  pipe  in- 
stallation.   By  Reeves  J.  Newsom.     79,  Mar. 
Sherman,  Charles  W. 

Some  observations  on  water  consumption.     273,  June. 

The  proper  term  for  which  water  works  bonds  should  run.     589,  Dec. 
Standpipe.    The  design  and  construction  of  the  Gloverville  standpipe.     By  Frank  A. 

Marston.    288,  June. 
Steam  boilers.    By  F.  W.  Dean.    115,  Mar. 
Symonds,  Henry  A.    Some  court  decisions  incident  to  the  purchase  of  the  Braintree 

Water  Supply  Co.    426,  Sept. 

Tars,  new  and  old.    By  S.  R.  Church.    571,  Dec. 

Taylor,  Stephen  H.     Description  of  the  New  Bedford  Water  Supply  System.     370, 
Sept. 

Underground  records,  Proper.    By  R.  F.  Johnson.    95,  Mar. 

Wanaque  Dam.    The  deep  core  wall  of  the  Wanaque  Dam.     By  Major  Arthur  H. 
Pratt.    457,  Sept. 

Water  shed  land.    Can  high  value  water  shed  lands  be  put  to  profitable  use?     Dis- 
cussion.    279,  June. 


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VI  INDEX. 

Water  supply  of  Southeastern  Massachusetts.    By  X.  H.  Goodnough.    527,  Dec. 

Whipple,  Prof.  George  C,    A  rating  of  the  qualities  of  the  water  supplies  of  Massachu- 
setts.   40,  Mar. 

Winslow,  Frederic  T. 

Discussion  —  Should  water  department  be  merged  with  other  municipal  depart- 
ments?   612,  Dec. 
Why  we  should  inspect  water-works  equipment.     613,  Dec. 

Winsor,  Frank  F.    The  new  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Providence.    323,  Sept. 


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Table  of  Contents. 


PAGE 

Making  Chlorine  at  the  Point  of  Consumption.    By  Clarence  W. 

Marsh 1 

Pollution  of  Streams  Affecting  Industrial  Uses.    By  J.  Frederick 

Jackson 14 

Manganese  Bronace  for  Valve  Stems.    By  William  R.  Conard 32 

The  Rating  of  the  Qualities  of  the  Water  Supply  of  Massachusetts. 

By  Prof.  George  C.  Whipple 40 

The  Economy  of  High  Initial  Cost  and  Extreme  Care  ifi  Service-Pipe 

Installation.     By  Reeves  J^  Newsom 79 

Monel  Metal  and  its  Suitability  for  Water  Works  Use.    By  H.  S. 

Arnold 86 

Proper  Underground  Records.     By  R.  F.  Johnson 95 

The  Chlorination  of  New  England  Water  Supplies.    By  William  J. 

Orchard 99 

Reinforced  Concrete  Pipe  as  Applied  to  Water  Supply  Lines.  By  W.  G. 

Chase 102 

Pipe  Joint  Compound.     Topical  Discussion Ill 

Steam  Boilers.     By  F.  W.  Dean 115 

Proceedings: 

Annual  Meeting.     Jan.  12,  1922 141 

Report'  of  Secretary 143 

Report  of  Treasurer 145 

Report  of  Auditors 148 

Report  of  Editor 148 

Remarks  of  Advertising  Agent 151 

Report  of  Tellers 152 

Remarks  of  President-Elect,  F.  A.  Barbour 153 

Address  by  President 154 

Remarks  by  Retiring  Treasurer  Lewis  M.  Bancroft 156 


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New  England  Water  Works  Association 


ORGANIZED    1882. 


Vol.  XXXVI.  March,  1922.  No.  1. 

ThU  ABSoeUUioit,  ag  a  body,  ia  not  responsible  for  the  atcUemente  or  opinions  qf  any  of  its  members. 

MAKING  CHLORINE  AT  THE  POINT  OF  CONSUMPTION. 

BY   CLARENCE   W.    MARSH.  * 

[Read  September  16 » 19X1,  at  BridgepoH,  Conn.\ 

The  modem  idea  is  to  save  time.  Use  electric  power  at  the  point  of 
consumption  and  make  your  product.  This  saves  time  and  money.  Ask 
the  housewife  who  has  a  home  with  applied  electricity  as  a  servant,  or  the 
superintendent  of  any  factory  with  the  latest  electric  appliances  to  save 
Labor.  There  is  something  real  in  the  smoothness  and  continuity  of  opera- 
tion in  the  midst  of  clean  surroundings  which  always  accompanies  the  use 
of  electric  power.  It  attracts  the  best  class  of  labor.  It  reduces  effort  and 
makes  labor  attractive  and  interesting. 

Finished  manufactured  products  usually  require  additional  work  and 
equipment  to  handle,  control,  and  prepare  these  products  for  use  at  the 
point  of  consumption.  Attendance  is  required  on  these  devices  and 
machines  for  the  final  preparation  of  these  products.  A  great  deal  of  un- 
necessary work  can  be  eliminated  if  the  product  can  be  made  economically 
at  the  consumer's  plant.  It  saves  time,  labor,  equipment,  and  materials, 
and  therefore  real  money.  This  is  the  basis  for  your  consideration  of 
making  chlorine  by  the  consumer. 

The  growing  demands  for  sterilizing  and  purifying  reagents  for  water 
and  sewage  has  caused  a  great  expansion  of  the  use  of  chlorine,  the  cheapest 
and  most  efficient  medium.  Its  commercial  forms  are  bleach,  or  chloride 
of  lime,  and  liquid  chlorine.  In  the  first  case,  lime  acts  as  the  carrier  of 
the  chlorine  and  the  bleach  is  shipped  in  expensive  steel  drums  which  are 
non-returnable.  In  the  second  case,  the  chlorine  gas  is  compressed  and 
liquified  by  refrigeration  and  the  liquid  chlorine  is  shipped  in  steel  cylinders 
under  high  pressure,  and  these  cylinders  must  be  returned  to  the  manu- 
facturer. 

Why  not  make  the  chlorine  gas  on  the  job?  This  is  the  best  and  most 
efficient  way,  because  the  chlorine  is  made  as  a  gas  under  atmospheric 
pressure  or  less,  and  is  immediately  available  for  use  and  in  exact  propor- 
tion to  the  dosage  and  water  pumped,  without  the  need  of  further  control 
apparatus. 


*  Consulting  Engineer,  New  York 
1 


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2  MAKING  CHLORINE  AT  POINT  OF  CONSUMPTION. 

Why  is  it  Dot  done  to  a  much  greater  extent?  Up  to  the  present  time 
there  has  not  been  enough  recognition  of  the  basic  economy  of  producing 
chlorine  as  wanted  at  the  point  of  consumption  without  the  necessity  of 
tying  up  money  in  inventories,  in  shipments,  and  at  the  factories.  There 
is  not  enough  knowledge  of  various  steps  in  the  manufacture  and  distri- 
bution of  chlorine  in  the  possession  of  the  consumer.  Manufacturers  of 
bleach  and  chlorine  have  shown  very  commendable  zeal  in  the  sale  of  their 
products,  and  have  helped  the  consumer  by  placing  in  his  hands  excellent 
devices  for  the  control  and  dosage  of  chlorine  to  water.  There  has  not  ap- 
peared an  efficient  enough  machine  at  reasonable  cost  in  the  market  imtil 
recently,  to  make  chlorine  in  small  quantities  for  the  small  consumer. 
These  machines  usually  are  too  big  in  siae  and  involve  considerable  expense 
for  space  and  maintenance. 

Recently  there  has  been  developed  an  electrolytic  cell  battery  which 
takes  very  little  space  and  is  a  unit,  not  several  units,  which  means  few 
parts  and  a  very  low  cost  of  repairs,  renewals,  and  depreciation.  In  ad- 
dition to  this  the  efficiency  with  which  power  is  used  makes  the  cost  of 
production  of  chlorine  20  per  cent,  less  than  present  methods  and  cuts  the 
wast€  of  materials  used  in  cells  to  less  than  one  half  that  which  formerly 
seemed  necessary.  It  places  a  more  efficient  machine  in  the  hands  of  the 
small  consumer  than  the  largest  manufacturers  of  chlorine  use  to-day- 
Heavy  investments  in  expensive  equipment  which  has  not  been  depreciated 
and  amortized  prevents  manufacturers  acting  promptly  in  adopting  more 
efficient  machinery,  because  it  means  accepting  a  heavy  loss  now  when  he 
can  least  afford  it. 

Let  us  analyze  the  fundamental  reasons  why  it  is  cheaper  to  manu- 
facture chlorine  at  the  point  of  consumption  rather  than  at  a  distant  point. 
It  challenges  the  older  methods  of  manufacture  and  distribution  under 
modem  conveniences  and  conditions  with  electric  power  at  reasonable 
rates  available  to  every  community  in  the  land  and  the  necessity  to  elimi- 
nate every  possible  expense,  such  as  transportation,  the  many  steps  to  put 
the  product  in  the  form  required  for  transportation  and  then  re-trans- 
forming to  the  desired  form  used  by  the  consumer,  and  many  overhead 
expenses  accompanying  these  unnecessary  steps,  including  the  manu- 
facturer's profit. 

The  consumer  will  use  four  times  as  much  bleach  as  chlorine.  Bleach 
contains  35  per  cent,  available  chlorine  when  it  leaves  the  factory,  but  only 
25  per  cent,  or  less  can  be  counted  upon  because  of  deterioration  in  storage 
and  the  losses  of  chlorine  in  making  solutions  of  chloride  of  lime.  We  will 
use  this  figure  in  making  comparisons.  Present  market  prices  will  be  used. 
The  prices  are  approximately  50  per  cent,  above  pre-war  prices  for  bleach, 
and  approximately  the  same  as  pre-war  prices  for  liquid  chlorine.  Ulti- 
mately all  prices  will  probably  be  equal  to  pre-war  prices. 

What  is  the  cost  of  materials  at  the  point  of  consumption  for  bleach, 
Uquid  chlorine,  and  chlorine  made  at  the  point  of  consumption? 

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MARSH.  6 

Bleach  costs  $42  a  ton  at  the  factory.  Freight  averages  $4  per  ton, 
and  cartage  to  the  point  of  consumption  about  S2,  or  a  total  for  trans- 
portation of  $6.  Containers  are  included  in  the  price  and  must  be  disposed 
of  by  the  consumer.  The  cost  for  the  equivalent  of  a  ton  of  chlorine  is  4  X 
S48  =  $192. 

Liquid  chlorine  costs  $160  a  ton  at  the  factory  for  the  small  consumer, 
and  probably  more  unless  under  contract.  Freight  or,  rather,  express, 
because  of  the  small  number  of  cylinders  and  the  necessity  of  keeping 
small  quantities  on  hand  owing  to  the  hazard  and  the  capital  tied  up  in 
inventories,  will  cost  at  least  at  the  rate  of  $0.80  per  100  lb.  weight.  There 
is  100  lb.  of  container  for  every  100  lb.  of  chlorine,  and  this  additional  100 
lb.  must  be  returned  by  freight  or  express. 

Then  3  X  $0.80  (including  cartage  if  by  freight)  =$2.40  per  100  lb. 
chlorine,  or  $48  per  ton.  Containers  wiU  call  for  an  investment  of  $500  for 
the  average-size  consumer,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  deposit  to  cover  the 
value  of  the  cylinders,  and  probably  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  cylinders  will 
devolve  on  the  consumer.  Call  it  "  interest  and  depreciation  "  on  $500  at 
30  per  cent,  for  a  consumption  of  50  lb.  chlorine  daily.  $^^= $16  per  ton 
of  chlorine.    The  total  cost  per  ton  of  chlorine  is  $224. 

The  production  of  chlorine  at  the  point  of  consumption  with  Marsh 
cells  calls  for  the  following  materials  and  power: 

Salt  used  equals  4  lb.  per  1  lb.  of  chlorine,  4  tons  at  $5  =  $20  per  ton  of 
chlorine.  Freight  carloads  lots,  $4  per  ton  and  cartage  $2  per  ton.  Total 
for  salt  =  $44.  This  considers  that  the  caustic  soda  liquor  is  either  sold  or 
chrown  away.  If  the  salt  in  the  liquor  is  recovered,  then  the  cost  will  be 
S22  per  ton  of  chlorine. 

Graphite,  diaphragms,  and  depreciation  of  all  other  materials  in  the 
electrolytic  equipment  will  cost,  including  the  labor  entering  into  these 
materials,  $10  per  ton  of  chlorine.  The  freight  or  express  is  included.  The 
amounts  are  very  small. 

Power  will  be  based  on  an  average  rate  of  2c.  kw.-hr.  A  difference  of 
Ic.  kw.-hr.  above  or  below  this  will  affect  the  cost  by  $25  per  ton.  The 
power  used  per  pound  of  chlorine  is  at  the  rate  of  li  kw.-hr.  per  pound 
<2  500  kw.-hr.)  per  ton.  At  2c.  per  kw.-hr.  cost  =  $60  per  ton  of  chlorine. 
The  total  cost  for  all  materials  will  be  $104,  or  $82  per  ton,  depending  on 
whether  the  salt  is  recovered  from  the  caustic  liquor  or  not. 

What  is  the  cost  of  labor  and  attendance?  In  all  cases  material  must 
be  handled  by  labor,  and  the  equipment  necessary  must  receive  some  at- 
tention and  must  be  frequently  inspected.  The  use  of  bleach,  liquid 
chlorine,  and  the  making  of  chlorine  is  no  exception. 

Bleach  comes  in  steel  drums  weighing  about  800  lb.  each.  These 
<irums  are  stored  away  until  ready  to  use.  Chloride  of  lime  solutions  for 
application  to  water  are  made  by  mixing  the  bleach  with  water  and  allowed 
t(»  settle  for  clear  solutions  before  being  used.  This  solution  is  then  ready 
to  be  fed  by  some  control  device  in  proper  proportions  and  at  the  rate  re- 

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4  MAKING  CHLORINE  AT  POINT  OF  CONSUMPTION. 

quired  by  the  pumping  rate  of  water.  Labor  and  equipment  is  required 
for  handling  these  solutions.  On  account  of  the  dust  and  smell,  the  space 
required  must  be  partitioned  off  from  other  building  space,  or  separate 
buildings  used.  This  makes  it  less  convenient  to  superintend  the  opera- 
tions and  increases  the  cost  of  attendance  if  the  control  apparatus  is  located 
in  the  same  space  as  the  mixing. 

Liquid  chlorine  comes  in  100-lb.  steel  cylinders  which  contain  100  lb. 
of  chlorine.  A  certain  number  of  these  cylinders  is  kept  in  storage,  ready 
for  connecting  up  to  the  control  apparatus.  Shipments  of  cylinders  are 
made  frequently,  and  considerable  labor  is  involved  in  handling  the  cyl- 
inders and  in  connecting  and  disconnecting  them.  On  account  of  the 
hazard  of  storing  high-pressure  chlorine,  separate  buildings  are  recom- 
mended, thus  removing  dangerous  conditions  to  firemen  in  case  of  fire. 
This  means  extra  cost  for  buildings  and  attendance,  but  the  precautions 
against  unnecessary  risks  are  unavoidable.  Control  apparatus  does  not 
last,  and  frequent  replacements  of  expensive  parts  must  be  made  if  the 
apparatus  is  to  function  properly  and  leaks  be  avoided. 

Chlorine  gas  is  made  by  electrolyzing  brine  solutions.  Direct  current 
of  electricity  is  passed  through  these  solutions  in  containers  which  support 
the  electrodes.  Acheson  graphite  is  used  as  the  anode  or  the  positive  pole, 
and  steel  plates  which  are  perforated  for  the  negative  pole.  A  diaphragm 
of  asbestos  cloth  or  paper  is  placed  between  the  electrodes,  and  is  usually 
supported  by  the  negative  plate  or  cathode.  The  chlorine  gas  is  collected 
in  the  top  of  the  container  holding  the  brine  and  is  taken  away  under  a 
slightly  reduced  pressure  through  a  water  ejector,  and  distributed  to  the 
water  to  be  steriUzed.  The  mixture  of  caustic  soda  and  salt  solution 
which  percolates  through  the  diaphragm  is  collected  in  containers  outside 
of  the  cell  proper.  Hydrogen  is  also  evolved  at  the  cathode  and  may  be 
collected  or  wasted  in  the  air.  One  or  more  cells  are  used,  and  this  battery, 
which  is  a  unit,  is  placed  in  one  box  or  container  or  pit  with  partitions  be- 
tween the  cells.  Fifty  lb.  chlorine  requires  a  pit  or  box  2^  ft.  by  2|  ft. 
inside;  300  lb.  chlorine  daily,  4f  ft.  by  5  ft.;  1  000  lb.  chlorine,  4|  ft.  by 
15  ft.  8  in.;  1\  kw.-hr.  per  1  lb.  chlorine  is  required.  If  power  is  2c.  or 
under,  and  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  apparatus  very  small,  then  with  a  rate 
of  If  kw.-hr.  per  1  lb.  chlorine  the  apparatus  can  be  reduced  to  one-half 
these  sizes.  This  indicates  the  small  space  required.  The  cells  can  be 
placed  in  any  laboratory,  and  moved  around  in  the  battery  box  wherever 
wanted,  or  can  be  permanently  located  in  the  floor.  In  an  operating  po- 
sition the  battery  will  be  about  12  in.  high  above  the  floor  line.  If  placed 
in  a  box,  the  battery  will  be  3  ft.  high. 

An  assurance  of  the  very  best  care  and  inspection  is  guaranteed  when 
an  apparatus  is  located  in  a  laboratory  or  in  the  same  room  with  other 
machinery  which  must  be  inspected  and  with  a  mimimum  cost  for  atten- 
dance. The  tops  of  the  cells  are  tight,  and  the  gas  is  evolved  at  a  reduced 
pressure  and  withdrawn  as  fast  as  made  and  ejected  to  the  water  to  be 


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MARSH.  5 

sterilized  through  water  ejectors.  As  soon  as  the  current  is  turned  off  the 
production  of  chlorine  ceases.  Chlorine  is  made  in  proportion  to  the  dosage 
required  and  according  to  the  rate  of  water  pumped  by  changing  the 
amount  of  current  automatically.  Chlorine  is  produced  proportionally 
to  the  electric  current  flowing  through  the  electrolytic  battery. 

Electric  rectifiers  consisting  of  small  vacuum  bulbs  such  as  mercury 
bulb  rectifiers  used  in  charging  automobile  storage  batteries  are  being  per- 
fected to  transform  the  electric  current  to  direct  current  at  a  high  efficiency 
of  transformation.  These  rectifiers  offer  simpUcity  and  a  minimum  at- 
tendance for  the  smaller  capacity  plants.  Small  motor  generator  sets  with 
spare  machines  will  take  care  of  the  larger  capacity  outfits.  These  electri- 
cal devices  or  machines  are  standard,  and,  as  all  know,  are  very  reliable 
converters  demanding  very  Uttle  attention. 

Where  electric  current  is  generated  at  the  plant  it  can  be  generated  as 
direct  current,  thus  saving  the  loss  of  transformation.  In  some  cases 
steam  is  used  for  pumping,  and  then  electric  current  can  be  produced  very 
cheaply  through  the  use  of  small  steam-turbine-generator  units. 

The  salt  may  be  stored  in  a  dry  form  on  the  floor  or  in  bins,  or,  better, 
under  brine  in  outside  wood  or  concrete  tanks,  when  brine  will  always  be 
available.  This  brine  is  mixed  with  a  little  soda  ash  and  caustic  liquor 
from  the  cells,  to  settle  out  calcium  and  magnesia  salts.  It  is  done  in 
batches  in  small  wood  or  concrete  tanks  located  inside  the  building,  and  if 
of  concrete  made  a  part  of  the  building.  The  brine  is  made  neutral  by 
adding  small  amounts  of  acid,  and  is  ready  to  feed  to  the  battery  through  a 
level  control  box  and  automatic  floats  in  the  cells. 

We  must  judge  the  costs  of  attendance  by  the  convenience  of  inspection 
and  the  continuity  and  rehability  of  the  respective  methods.  In  general  it 
may  be  assumed  equal  in  all  cases.  Mechanical  devices  can  be  made  very 
reliable.  Electrical  machinery  had  advantages  which  are  not  denied. 
Users  of  each  type  seem  to  be  satisfied  as  regards  these  features. 

For  small  plants  the  item  of  attendance  is  very  important^  and  in  the 
case  of  producing  chlorine,  using  liquid  chlorine  or  bleach,  even  the  mini- 
mum attendance  amounts  to  as  much  as  all  the  other  costs  put  together. 
^Vhe^e  regular  attendance  is  insisted  upon  or  furnished,  then  it  is  by  far  the 
largest  item  of  costs.  In  the  larger  plants  this  item  of  attendance  is  rela- 
tively a  smaller  cost. 

It  would  seem  that  an  electrical  appartus  for  the  smaller  plants  would 
find  considerable  favor  on  account  of  the  smaller  cost  of  production  for 
materials  and  the  convenience  of  having  the  apparatus  placed  in  a  labora- 
tory or  in  the  same  room  with  other  apparatus,  insuring  a  maximum 
attention  at  a  Tninimnm  cost  and  without  hazard  and  obnoxious  conditions. 
Interest  and  depreciation  is  an  item  of  expense  which  must  be  con- 
sidered in  each  case.  The  life  of  an  apparatus  varies  under  differing 
conditions,  and  estimates  of  this  item  of  cost  will  vary.    Nevertheless, 


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6  »«AK1NG  CHLORINE  AT  POINT  OF  CONSUMPTION. 

equipment  must  be  constantly  renewed,  and  it  is  essential  that  it  be  well 
taken  care  of  and  that  the  parts  are  inexpensive. 

Control  apparatus  for  bleach  solutions  are  usually  crude  devices  and 
subject  to  rapid  deterioration  and  need  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  prevent 
irregularity  of  feed  due  to  the  nature  of  the  corrosive  liquid  and  deposits  of 
lime,  etc.  The  control  apparatus,  however,  is  usually  made  up  of  com- 
paratively inexpensive  parts,  which  probably  makes  this  apparatus  the 
cheapest  to  maintain.  For  a  50-lb.  chlorine  daily  feed  for  interest  and 
depreciation  the  expense  per  ton  of  chlorine  would  be  approximately  $500 
at  50  per  cent.     $^-|-^  tons  =  $28  per  ton  of  chlorine  made  available. 

For  liquid  chlorine  very  satisfactory  control  apparatus  has  been  de- 
signed. The  parts,  however,  are  made  of  expensive  metals  and  they  are 
subject  to  very  severe  conditions.  The  high  cost  of  machinists'  labor  and 
the  necessity  to  make  renewals  of  costly  silver  fittings  makes  the  charges 
for  deterioration  fairly  expensive.  Some  estimates  vary  from  two  years' 
to  five  years'  life.  Apparatus  must  be  installed  in  duplicate  for  this  reason, 
which  makes  it  more  costly.  For  a  50-lb.  plant  approximately  $1  000  at 
33  per  cent,  interest  and  depreciation  would  mean  $^^=$36  per  ton  of 
chlorine. 

For  producing  chlorine  we  have  already  allowed  for  the  materials  and 
depreciation  of  all  parts,  including  labor  on  the  battery.  The  brine  storage 
tanks,  as  in  the  case  of  bleach  liquor  tanks,  are  a  part  of  the  building 
and  may  be  charged  to  building.  There  remains  the  depreciation  on  the 
electrical  transforming  apparatus  which  is  standard  and  reliable,  electrical 
machinery  having  a  long  life,  and  parts  can  be  replaced  at  minimum  cost. 
We  have  the  interest  on  the  investment  of  the  battery  to  consider,  however. 

Interest  on  SI  000  at  6  per  cent,  for  battery  for  50-lb.  chlorine  daily $60 

Interest  and  depreciation,  SI  000  at  12  per  cent,  for  transforming  apparatus  for 

above $120 

Interest  and  depreciation,  S200  at  12  per  cent,  for  all  other  equipment  except 

battery    S24 

Total,  *?*  =S22  per  ton  of  chlorine  produced. 

Charges  for  interest  and  depreciation  on  buildings  and  storage  equip- 
ments may  be  considered  about  the  same,  but  of  course  if  separate 
buildings  are  required  in  the  cases  where  hazardous  and  obnoxious  con- 
ditions exist,  then  this  extra  cost  should  be  considered  as  against  the  factor 
of  convenience  and  small  expense  entailed  when  the  apparatus  can  \ye. 
accommodated  in  a  laboratory  or  in  a  room  with  other  equipment  at  rela- 
tively low  cost. 

Overhead  expenses  for  the  purchase  of  materials,  payment  of  labor, 
shipments  of  materials  and  containers,  and  the  financial  settlements  and 
cost  of  money  tied  up  in  inventories  arc  all  factors. 

Bleach  would  probably  be  shipped  in  less  than  carload  lots  approxi- 
mately once  a  month.  Liquid  chlorine  would  be  shipped  by  express  twice 
a  month.  Salt  would.be  shipped  in  carload  lots  in  bulk  twice  in  three 
years.     The  frequency  of  shipment  may  be  considered  as  a  gage  of  the 

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MARSH.  7 

relative  expense  for  these  three  methods,  and  can  be  assumed  to  be  $20  per 
ton  for  liquid  chlorine,  $14  per  ton  of  chlorine  for  bleach,  and  $3  for  the  salt 
where  chlorine  is  made  at  the  point  of  consumption. 

A  credit  should  be  allowed  in  the  case  of  making  chlorine  when  the 
caustic  soda  Uquor  can  be  used  in  the  vicinity.  It  can  be  used  in  industrial 
centers  and  communities  by  soap  concerns,  laundries,  and  others,  in  the 
form  made  or  by  further  concentration  and  evaporation,  when  the  salt  will 
be  recovered  and  credited  to  the  chlorine  as  stated.  One  and  one-seventh 
pound  of  caustic  soda  is  made  for  every  pound  of  chlorine.  .The  market 
price  at  present  is  4c.  a  pound.  It  seems  as  though  at  least  one  half  of  this 
[)rice  could  be  obtained  for  the  liquid  caustic  soda  solutions.  One  and  one- 
seventh  lb.  x2c.==2fc.  per  pound  of  chlorine,  or  $45.70  per  ton  of  chlo- 
rine, to  be  credited. 

It  is  apparent  that  from  a  financial  standpoint  there  is  an  advantage 
in  making  chlorine  at  the  point  of  consumption,  and  that  from  one-half  to 
THREE-QUARTBBS  of  the  cost  Can  be  saved  yearly.  For  larger  plants  this 
will  be  increased  many  fold. 

A  description  of  The  Marsh  Electrolytic  Cell  Batteries,  which 
has  been  referred  to  in  the  above  comparisons  of  cost  for  the  manufacture 
of  chlorine  at  the  point  of  consumption  to  the  cost  of  using  bleach  or  liquid 
chlorine  for  the  sterilizing  or  purification  of  water  and  sewage,  may  be  in- 
teresting and  appropriate. 

We  will  take,  for  example,  the  average  small  installation  of  a  battery 
to  make  50  lb.  of  chlorine  daily.  The  best  type  for  this  size  will  be  an  in- 
termediate size  known  as  "  Type  6-EC-2."  Three  cells  in  a  battery  will  be 
required,  but  a  fourth  cell  will  be  supplied  for  a  spare.  An  entire  dupli- 
cation of  apparatus  is  not  required,  as  the  spare  unit  will  replace  any  of  the 
others  when  it  is  necessary  to  renew  the  diaphragms  once  in  six  months 
to  one  year.     The  anodes  once  in  two  years  or  longer. 

Each  of  these  cells  will  produce  17  lb.  of  chlorine  daily  at  a  rate  of  ap- 
proximately l^  kw.-hr.  (D.  C.)  per  lb.  of  chlorine  or  IJ  kw.-hr.  (A.  C.) 
after  transformation  of  current  per  pound  of  chlorine  at  the  switchboard. 
The  current  used  will  be  260  amperes  at  2.8  volts  per  cell,  or  8.4  volts  at  the 
cells  for  the  battery  of  3  cells.  This  is  for  a  period  of  six  months.  The 
cells  are  approximately  2^  ft.  long  by  10  in.  wide  by  2^  ft.  high.  In  an 
operating  position,  i.e.,  when  lowered  in  a  box  or  pit,  the  cell  is  less  than 
12  in.  above  the  top  to  the  box  or  floor  line. 

If  electric  current  is  reasonable,  these  cells  can  be  operated  to  produce 
34  lb.  daily  per  cell  at  a  rate  of  1 J  kw.-hr.  (D.  C.)  per  pound  of  chlorine  or 
If  kw.-hr.  (A.  C).  The  current  used  will  be  approximately  520  amperes 
at  3.6  volts.     This  is  an  average  for  four  months'  operation. 

If  a  movable  battery  is  wanted,  the  cells  are  placed  in  a  battery  box 
fitted  with  castors.  If  it  is  not  to  be  moved,  then  the  cells  are  placed  in  a 
pit  in  the  fl.oor.     This  pit,  to  accomodate  three  cells  operating  and  one  spare. 


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8  MAKING  CHLORINE  AT  POINT  OF  CONSUMPTION. 

will  be  2i  ft.  wide  by  5  ft.  long  by  2  ft.  deep.  The  inside  dimensions  of  the 
box  will  be  the  same. 

The  cells  consist  of  three  parts.  The  concrete  top,  which  may  be  sus- 
pended from  above  and  to  which  is  attached  perforated  and  horizontally 
corrugated  steel  plates  carrying  in  turn  several  sheets  of  asbestos  paper 
conforming  in  shape  to  the  steel  plates.  The  steel  plates  are  the  cathodes 
and  the  asbestos  paper  is  the  diaphragm.  The  anodes,  of  Acheson  graphite^ 
are  suspended  from  the  top  and  are  enclosed  by  the  steel  plates  which  form 
the  compartment  for  receiving  the  brine  solution  or  electrolyte.  With  a 
few  fittings  such  as  the  copper  conductors,  the  automatic  brine  feed  floats, 
the  gage  glasses  for  determining  the  height  of  the  brine  in  the  cell,  and  the 
chlorine  outlet  from  the  top  of  the  cell,  the  cell  is  complete.  The  top  is 
solid  except  for  the  openings  for  the  anode,  float  and  the  chlorine  outlet, 
which  are  sealed  tight  against  lea}^age  of  gas. 

Are  there  any  expensive  parts  to  the  cell?    No. 

The  top  is  a  concrete  casting  of  small  dimensions,  and  will  last  five 
years  or  longer.  It  is  subject  to  no  stress  because  it  is  not  restrained  in  any 
direction.     It  can  be  readily  replaced  at  very  small  cost. 

The  cathodes  are  sheets  of  corrugated  steel  which  last  not  less  than 
five  years.    They  are  inexpensive. 

The  anodes  are  the  most  expensive  but  weigh  only  about  85  lb.  for  the 
above  type.  They  last  two  years  without  replacement.  The  material  is 
of  the  cheapest  form.  Cylinders  1 J  in.  to  2  in.  diameter  and  2  ft.  long,  and  a 
post  rectangular  in  shape  and  approximately  2 J  ft.  long,  all  pinned  together 
with  graphite  pins. 

The  fittings  are  glass,  rubber,  and  lead;  all  standard  commercial  forms 
and  cheap. 

There  are  no  expensive  metals  or  other  materials  involved.  The 
machinist's  work  is  limited  to  the  work  of  pinning  the  graphite  together, 
and  this  is  furnished  to  the  user  at  a  minumum  cost,  due  to  the  special 
machine  tools  which  does  the  work  quickly  and  cheaply  because  of  the 
quantity  production. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  Frank  W.  Green.  *  I  might  say,  as  one  of  the  operators  of  a 
plant  where  we  generate  our  chlorine  in  this  way,  that  although  we  have  a 
very  poor  cell,  and  this  cell  of  Mr.  Marsh's  seems  to  be  a  very  great  im- 
provement upon  our  cell,  we  reported  to  the  State  Board  of  Health  the  cost 
of  l^c.  for  home-made  chlorine  and  S^c.  for  liquid  chlorine  purchased  on 
contract.  But  that  does  not  include  the  cost  of  the  electric  current.  Most 
of  the  time  we  are  running  on  water  power,  and  figure  the  current  does 
not  cost  us  anything,  and  therefore  we  do  not  lay  a  charge  for  that.    I 

*  Superintendent  of  Filtration.  Montclair,  N.  J.,  Water  Company. 

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DISCUSSION.  9 

think  Mr.  Marsh's  figures  are  very  conservative.  That  is  to  say,  there 
would  probably  be  more  of  a  saving  with  a  cell  of  that  sort  over  hquid 
chlorine  than  he  claims;  for  instance,  our  salt  costs  less  than  $10  a  ton  de- 
livered. 

I  know  of  any  number  of  men  who  have  had  to  go  to  the  hospitals  due 
to  chlorine  poisoning  on  account  of  the  valves  of  liquid  chlorine  tanks  get- 
ting away  from  them.  Now  they  have  a  better  valve  than  formerly,  and 
there  may  not  be  quite  as  much  danger.  But  where  you  have  a  substance 
like  chlorine  under  a  high  pressure  there  is  always  some  danger,  and  men 
are  apt  to  be  careless  after  they  get  familiar  with  a  thing  of  that  sort,  and 
we  always  have  more  or  less  potential  danger. 

Of  course,  in  the  case  of  generating  it  at  the  point  of  application,  the 
chlorine  is  always  under  a  slight  suction.  Then  on  the  dosage;  —  where  an 
electro-chemical  engineer  makes  chlorine  he  figures  entirely  from  an  electri- 
cal standpoint;  but  I  might  say  for  the  benefit  of  the  chemists,  that  as  the 
chlorine  is  absorbed  by  water,  going  in  to  the  supply  as  a  solution  of  chlorine, 
the  amount  of  chlorine  can  be  very  readily  checked  up  by  taking  the 
volume  and  the  strength  of  the  solution.  In  this  way  one  gets  a  chemical 
check  and  it  works  out  very  nicely. 

I  know  of  four  water  plants  that  manufacture  their  chlorine  at  the 
present  time,  and  all  of  them,  so  far  as  I  know,  are  very  well  satisfied. 
They  all  continue  to  make  it  and  find  a  saving  in  every  way.  At  Trenton 
the  cells  are  in  a  room  with  the  rest  of  their  apparatus,  and  there  is  no  odor, 
no  dirt,  nor  any  other  objectionable  feature.  I  think  that  at  most  of  the 
plants  the  cells  and  apparatus  are  examined  every  hour,  but  every  well- 
managed  plant  would  do  that  when  using  Uquid  chlorine.  There  should  be 
an  inspection  of  any  apparatus  of  that  sort  at  least  once  an  hour,  no  matter 
how  automatic  it  is  supposed  to  be. 

Another  point:  I  noticed  that  with  these  tall  brine  tanks,  as  shown, 
Mr.  Marsh  says  it  is  possible  to  settle  out  all  the  impurities.  I  think 
that  the  four  plants  in  operation  all  filter  their  brine.  They  find  it  is 
quicker,  and  we  are  used  to  filtering,  so  that  we  just  filter. 

Another  feature  for  the  small  plants  which  it  might  be  well  to  bring  out 
is  that  in  all  the  cells  that  exist  at  present  —  I  mean,  the  former  cells  — 
they  insist  on  continuous  service.  I  do  not  know  how  Mr.  Marsh's  cell  is 
in  that  respect,  and  I  think  it  is  quite  important  if  you  can  discontinue  and 
use  at  will. 

With  the  old  cell  —  we  use  a  Nelson  cell  —  our  greatest  difficulty  is 
paphite  sludge  forming  in  the  bottom  and  stopping  the  circulation.  Also 
in  the  "  sulphating  "  of  the  connections  between  the  bus  bar  and  the  indi- 
vidual rods  that  go  to  the  several  square  carbons. 

I  have  asked  our  foreman  a  number  of  times  if  he  would  rather  manu- 
facture chlorine  or  use  liquid  chlorine,  and  which  he  thought  was  the  better, 
and  he  is  very  strongly  in  favor  of  our  generating  our  own  chlorine.  He 
likes  it  much  better  than  the  use  of  liquid  chlorine. 


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10  BIAKING  CHLORINE  AT  POINT  OF  CONSUMPTION. 

Mr.  Marsh.  All  celk  are  alike  if  you  treat  them  right.  The  main 
essential  is  to  purify  your  brine  and  filter  or  settle  it.  Ordinarily,  water- 
works engineers  know  what  to  do  when  they  want  to  settle  out  stuff. 
Filtering  is  a  thing  the  chemist  is  versed  in. 

Mr.  Green.  The  brine  filter  is  a  very  crude  apparatus.  Just  run  it 
through  about  a  foot  of  sand.    We  find  there  is  considerable  dirt  in  the  salt. 

Mr.  Marsh.  A  better  thing  would  be  a  plate  filter,  or  filter  press. 
That  is  what  they  use  in  the  large  chlorine  plants. 

In  regard  to  the  continuity  of  service,  there  is  one  thing  I  want  to  point 
out.  In  the  large  manufacturing  plants  they  have  a  certain  amount  of 
equipment  that  they  want  to  keep  busy  all  the  time.  They  have  a  certain 
number  of  cells,  and  in  order  to  make  money  you  have  to  keep  your  equip- 
ment running  at  normal  capacity.  If  it  runs  under  or  above,  it  is  poor 
manufacturing.  On  the  other  hand,  to  produce  chlorine  as  you  want  it, 
this  cell  has  been  made  for  that  purpose.  It  has  such  a  low  voltage  that 
you  can  vary  your  current  within  wide  limits  and  get  your  chlorine  in  the 
amount  wanted.  In  our  case  it  does  not  make  so  much  difference,  because 
you  can't  control  the  amount  of  liquid  chlorine  within  5  per  cent,  anyway, 
so  that  you  are  well  within  the  limit  if  you  produce  5  per  cent,  excess.  Our 
position  in  water  works  is  entirely  different  from  a  big  manufacturing  plant. 

What  was  the  other  question? 

Mr.  Green.  In  the  continuity  of  service  you  mentioned,  the  number 
of  water  plants  that  run  only  twelve  to  fifteen  hours  a  day. 

Mr.  Marsh.  It  is  undesirable  to  shut  down  the  cells.  I  mean,  it 
would  be  much  better  to  absorb  the  chlorine  in  lime  water  and  keep  the 
cell  running.  But  as  a  rule  I  have  found  in  water-works  service,  you  want 
to  vary  the  amount  of  dosage,  and  keep  a  continuous  flow.  If  you  want 
3  lb.  of  chlorine,  you  turn  your  amp)ere  meter  corresponding  to  3  lb.  Your 
efficiency  varies  a  little  bit,  but  within  5  per  cent. 

In  regard  to  the  sulphating  at  the  connection,  there  are  ways  to  over- 
come this  which  I  will  be  glad  to  show  you.  Almost  every  big  plant 
has  a  different  method,  and  it  is  merely  a  matter  of  conforming  to  certain 
well-known  facts.    There  is  no  secrecy  about  it. 

Mr.  Wellington  Donaldson.  *  May  I  ask  Mr.  Green  how  he 
charges  up  his  power?    He  gets  a  surprisingly  low  figure. 

Mr.  Green.  Well,  I  did  not  consider  power,  because  it  is  all  generated 
by  water  power. 

Mr.  Donaldson.  That  is,  you  did  charge  it  in  the  cost  of  a  cent  and 
a  half  a  pound? 

Mr.  Green.     Oh,  no.    The  electricity  cost-s  2c.  to  4c.  a  pound. 

Mr.  Marsh.  The  power  cost  on  these  cells  with  direct  current  will 
vary  from  1  kw.-hr.  per  pound  of  chlorine  up.  If  you  want  to  double  the 
rate  of  chlorine  you  go  up  to  1^  or  IJ  kw.-hr.,  direct  current. 


*  Sanitary  EnsiQcer,  American  Water  Works  and  Electric  Company.  New  Yoric 

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DISCUSSION.  11 

You  multiply  your  kilowatt-hour  rate  by  1,  IJ  or  IJ,  plus  the  conver- 
sion cost  from  A.C.  to  D.C.  But,  as  I  say,  approximately  li  kw.-hr.  times 
j'our  kilowatt-hour  rate  would  be  the  cost  per  pound  of  chlorine  at  normal 
capacity. 

Mr.  E.  S.  Chase.*  This  paper  of  Mr.  Marshes  is  very  interesting 
and  recalls  various  earlier  attempts  to  produce  chlorine  by  electroljrtic 
methods  for  use  at  the  point  of  disinfection.  If  I  recall  correctly,  there 
were  at  least  two  instances  in  New  York  State  where  electrolytic  chlorine 
was  used;  one  at  Brewster,  N.  Y.,  for  sewage  disinfection,  and  another  at 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  for  water  disinfection. 

In  coimection  with  the  estimated  cost  of  chlorination  by  means  of 
hypochlorite  installations  and  with  liquid .  chlorine  apparatus,  it  would 
seem  desirable  to  secure  actual  costs  from  plants  in  operation.  The  com- 
pilation of  such  costs  would  be  well  worth  while. 

In  Mr.  Marsh's  estimate  he  figures  the  depreciation  of  the  chlorine 
cylinders  as  a  part  of  the  cost  upon  the  consumer,  but  it  is  my  under- 
standing that  such  depreciation  falls  upon  the  manufacturers  of  the  chlorine 
rather  than  directly  ujwn  their  customers. 

Properly  designed  bleach  plants,  for  example  one  at  New  Rochelle, 
X.  Y.,  have  not  been  found  particularly  difficult  or  inconvenient  to  operate. 
In  fact,  it  does  not  appear  on  the  face  of  it  that  apparatus  for  the  control 
and  application  of  chlorine  solution  prepared  from  chlorine  generated  at 
the  water-works  plant  would  be  any  less  difficult  to  handle  and  control  thaji 
bleach  solution  as  ordinarily  prepared. 

Relative  to  handling  liquid  chlorine  cylinders,  the  labor  is  compara- 
tively small.  Furthermore,  the  space  required  for  storage  of  considerable 
quantities  of  chlorine  in  Uquid  form  is  not  large,  as  contrasted  with  the 
storage  required  for  salt  bought  in  carload  lots,  from  which  chlorine  would  be 
generated  electrically. 

It  would  appear  to  me  that  the  apparatus  for  applying  the  chlorine  so- 
lution made  with  chlorine  produced  electrolytically  would  not  be  materially 
simpler  than  the  ordinary  solution  tanks  and  constant  level  orifice  boxes 
used  with  bleach  apparatus.  Furthermore,  were  movable  electrolytic  cells 
used  it  would  seem  that  the  problem  of  conveying  the  gas  to  the  point  of 
application  would  be  somewhat  compUcated. 

While  there  is  no  question  that  such  apparatus  could  be  properly  cared 
for,  as  Mr.  Marsh  suggests,  in  the  laboratory  or  where  machinery  is  located 
which  must  be  inspected,  this  same  advantage  holds  true  with  liquid  chlo- 
rine apparatus.  On  the  other  hand,  many  chlorination  plants  are  located  in 
isolated  spots  where  inspection  is  relatively  infrequent. 

The  automatic  electrical  control  of  the  production  of  chlorine  appears 
to  offer  some  advantages,  but  just  how  this  would  be  applied  is  not  clear 
from  Mr.  Marsh's  paper,  —  presumably  from  the  use  of  a  Venturi  meter  on 
the  water  main.    A  question  which  I  would  Uke  to  ask   Mr.  Marsh  is 

*  Sanitary  EnsiQeer,  with  Metcalf  A  £kldy,  Boston. 

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12  MAKING  CHLORINE  AT  POINT  OP  CONSUMPTION. 

whether  the  evolution  of  chlorine  from  the  brine  takes  place  at  the  same 
rate  with  a  freshly  charged  cell  as  with  a  cell  containing  brine  from  which 
the  chlorine  has  largely  been  hberated,  assuming  the  same  amount  of  elec- 
tricity passing  through  the  cell? 

In  connection  with  the  electroljrtic  cell  it  must  be  noted  that  con- 
tinuous electric  current  is  apparently  essential.  Consequently,  on  services 
where  interruptions  are  liable  to  occur  there  would  appear  to  be  considerable 
opportunity  for  interruption  in  the  chlorination  process  and  danger  of  un- 
treated water  being  delivered  to  the  municipality. 

Another  question  which  arises  is  as  to  how  the  ordinary  attendant 
available  at  a  water-works  plant,  not  employing  a  chemist,  would  know  ! 
when  his  electrolytic  cell  would  have  to  be  provided  with  fresh  brine.  Is  | 
there  not,  therefore,  the  possible  danger  of  the  brine  having  its  available  ] 
chlorine  exhausted  without  the  water-works  operator  being  aware  of  the  \ 
condition?  I 

On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  that  the  electrolytic  production  of  , 
chlorine  for  the  disinfection  of  water  and  sewage  might  well  prove  ad- 
vantageous in  the  case  of  the  larger  installations  where  the  quantities  of 
water  or  sewage  to  be  treated  are  large,  where  adequate  storage  facilities 
are  provided  and  proper  expert  supervision  maintained.  It  would  appear 
to  the  writer  that  in  case  of  the  majority  of  the  smaller  water  works  where 
chlorination  is  the  sole  method  of  purification,  the  complications  of  the 
process  would  render  it  decidedly  difficult  to  utilize  with  any  assurance  of 
proper  disinfection  of  the  water. 

Mr.  Marsh.  Chlorine  gas  is  withdrawn  from  the  electroljrtic  cell 
batteries  under  suction  by  a  water  ejector  and  dehvered  to  the  main  body 
of  water  direct. 

There  is  no  apparatus  needed  for  the  control  and  application  of  a 
chlorine  solution  other  than  a  water  ejector. 

A  water  ejector  is  all  that  is  needed  to  apply  the  chlorine  to  the  water. 

The  chlorine  is  made  proportionately  to  the  electric  current  passing 
through  the  cells.  The  electric  current  is  controlled  by  hand  or  auto- 
matically. 

The  chlorine  is  therefore  delivered  to  the  ejector  and  the  water  without 
the  need  of  such  things  as  solution  tanks,  etc. 

The  chlorinated  water  from  the  ejector  passes  through  a  rubber  hose 
to  the  point  of  application,  in  the  same  manner  as  practiced  in  using  chlorine 
gas  from  liquid  chlorine. 

Either  apparatus  can  be  located  in  a  laboratory  or  in  a  separate 
buUding.  It  is  only  a  question  of  hazard  under  unusual  conditions  such 
as  leaks  or  fire. 

Chlorine  stored  under  high  pressure  is  more  hazardous  than  chlorine 
generated  under  suction  and  which  requires  no  storage  of  chlorine.  Throw- 
ing an  electric  switch  will  stop  the  electric  current  and  stop  making  chlorine. 
This  is  a  simple  and  effective  procedure. 


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DISCUSSION.  13 

Both  methods  need  occasional  inspection  wherever  located. 

Chlorine  is  constantly  generated  at  a  fixed  rate  when  the  amperes  or 
electric  current  is  fixed.  The  difference  in  a  new  and  old  cell  is  about  5 
per  cent.  This  is  allowed  for  by  sUghtly  increasing  the  amperes  in  an  old 
ceU. 

The  brine  is  constantly  fed  to  the  cell,  and  there  is  no  difference  in  the 
quality  or  amount  of  brine  in  a  new  or  old  cell. 

If  electric  current  is  interrupted,  sodium  hypochlorite  can  be  made 
from  the  chlorine  and  caustic  soda  liquor  from  the  cell  and  held  as  a  solution 
for  emergencies.  This  solution  can  be  applied  to  the  water  through  the 
water  ejector  during  the  interruption  of  electric  current. 

Or  steam  generated  or  oil  and  gasoline  generated  electric-power  ap- 
paratus can  be  held  in  reserve  for  emergencies  instead  of  reserve  trans- 
former apparatus. 

Or  liquid  chlorine  and  bleach  can  be  held  in  reserve. 

Fresh  brine  is  being  constantly  fed  to  the  cell  and  held  at  a  prede- 
termined level  by  feed  floats.  A  chemist  is  not  needed.  The  attendant 
simply  observes  if  the  brine  level  is  all  right. 

The  electrolytic  generation  of  chlorine  is  like  other  things  not  yet  in 
universal  use.  Oftentimes  we  imagine  a  thing  is  complicated  if  we  know 
little  about  it.    General  use  removes  this  error. 


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14  POLLUTION  OP  STREAMS. 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  AFFECTING  INDUSTRIAL 

USES. 

BY  J.    FREDERICK  JACKSON.* 

[Read  September  16,  t9£l.] 

The  uses  of  water  in  a  manufacturing  state  like  Connecticut  are  varied, 
but  in  general  divide  into  two  broad  classes,  —  potable  and  industrial. 

The  classes  merge  in  some  cases  where  plants  use  the  municipal  supply 
for  both  drinking  and  manufacturing.  The  effect  of  stream  pollution  on 
either  is  of  considerable  importance.  Plants  using  large  volumes  of  water 
in  the  processes  of  manufacturing  take  most  of  it  from  rivers  where  its 
quality  is  satisfactory.  Where  it  is  not,  they  are  forced  either  to  use  the 
city  supply,  to  obtain  water  from  underground  sources,  or  seek  a  distant 
supply  on  some  unpolluted  stream.  Some  plants  for  economic  reasons 
prefer  to  take  river  water  as  it  is  and  treat  it  for  use  in  their  particular 
process.  The  additional  expense  thus  entailed  is  often  a  considerable  item 
in  fixing  the  price  of  the  manufactured  article. 

In  general,  once  a  stream  becomes  grossly  polluted  by  domestic  or 
industrial  wastes,  it  is  eliminated  as  a  source  of  potable  supply.  No  attempt 
is  made  in  this  state  to  use  grossly  polluted  rivers  for  drinking  purposes,  so 
that  stream  pollution  as  affecting  this  use  of  water  can  be  disregarded  in 
this  discussion.  Exceptions  are  the  use  in  cases  of  emergency,  such  as 
that  of  the  Connecticut  River  by  Hartford  in  the  drought  of  1900  and 
where  dual  connections  are  permitted  for  fire  protection.  The  cost  of 
treatment  in  the  one,  and  constant  and  close  supervision  in  the  other,  re- 
quired to  protect  public  health,  makes  the  pollution  in  these  cases  serious. 
Even  if  the  rivers  were  clean,  under  present  conditions  they  would  be  used 
for  these  pui  poses  only  in  an  emergency. 

Industries  using  Water. 

The  industries  using  the  largest  volumes  of  water  are  the  copper  and 
brass,  iron  and  steel,  the  rubber,  the  textile,  paper  and  the  silk.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  state  the  volume  used  in  each  trade,  because  in  many  plants  no  record 
is  kept  and  estimates  vary  widely.  On  some  streams  the  entire  flow  of  a 
river  is  diverted  through  the  plant  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  Some 
idea  may  be  had  from  the  following  estimates  of  the  volume  of  water  used 
by  all  industries  on  the  Naugatuck  and  Hockanum  rivers : 

Waste  Waters  from  Factories. 

Gal.  per  Day. 

Naugatuck  River 73  082  000 

Hockanum  River 8  000  000 

*  Director,  Bureau  of  Sanitary  Engineering.  Connecticut  Department  of  Health. 

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JACKSON.  15 

Water  Consumption. 

'  Gal.  per  Day. 

Naugatuck  River 21  050  000 

Hockanum  River 1  740  000 

The  relation  between  the  use  for  domestic  and  industrial  purposes  is 
shown  clearly  by  these  figures,  and  even  more  so  if  we  consider  two  specific 
cases. 

The  estimated  water  consumption  of  Torrington  is  2  710  000  gal.  per 
day.  The  plant  of  the  Coe  Brass  Company  in  this  city  used  from  its  own 
private  supply  8  150  000  gal.  per  day. 


The  estimated  water  consumption  for  Waterbury  is  11  600  000  gal. 
per  day.  The  Scovill  Manufacturing  Company  from  its  private  supply 
used  13  950  000  gal.  per  day. 

In  this  connection  the  record  of  gage  heights  of  the  Hockanum  River 
l>elow  the  city  of  Rockville  is  very  interesting. 

By  comparing  flow  for  week  days  and  Sundays,  it  appears  that  twelve 
factories  use  practically  the  entire  flow  of  the  river  in  their  processes  of 
manufacture. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


16  POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS. 

Evidently,  then,  one  of  the  main  considerations  determining  the  lo- 
cation of  industries  on  our  rivers  was  volume  of  flow.  The  constancy  of 
this  volume  is  another  very  important  factor,  but  we  do  not  propose  to 
discuss  that  here. 

The  second  main  consideration  affecting  the  use  of  water  industrially 
is  quality. 

The  quality  of  water  desbable  for  boiler  purposes  has  been  the  subject 
of  much  discussion,  and  the  amount  and  character  of  chemical  constituents 
permissible  have  been  quite  definitely  determined.  Obviously  it  is  of 
much  importance  in  industrial  use,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  it  in 
detail  here,  other  than  to  call  attention  to  the  undesirability  of  attempting 
to  apply  standards  determined  for  one  section  of  the  country  to  others 
where  the  geology,  topography,  and  physical  and  chemical  constituents 
of  the  water  are  markedly  different. 

Use  and  Quality  of  Water  in  Different  Industries. 

Copper  and  Brass. 

In  this  industry  large  volumes  of  water  are  used  in  separating  the 
particles  of  copper  and  brass  from  the  dirt  and  other  mineral  matter  in  the 
ash  from  melting  furnaces,  for  cooling  the  rolls,  and  in  the  pickling  and 
rinsing  processes. 

Sulphuric  acid  and  soda  ash,  sodium  bi.chromate,  sodium  cyanide, 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  used  in  the  pickling  and  rinsing  operation, 
and  any  excessive  amounts  of  mineral  constituents  would  undoubtedly 
affect  these. 

If  free  acid  were  present  in  the  river  water,  machinery  and  piping 
would  be  attacked. 

Iron  and  Steel. 

The  use  of  water  in  this  industry  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  the 
brass  and  in  cleansing  articles  from  rust  and  oil,  in  rinsing  after  pickling 
and  rinsing  after  plating.  Soda  and  caustic  soda  are  used  in  the  cleaning 
process,  sulphuric  acid  in  the  pickling,  and  cyanide  in  the  plating. 

Rubber. 

In  the  manufacture  of  articles  from  crude  rubber,  the  use  of  water  is 
principally  in  the  softening  process  and  on  the  rolls. 

In  the  regeneration  of  rubber  large  volumes  of  water  are  used  in  the 
process  of  devulcanization.  Some  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acid  are 
used  and  a  considerable  amount  of  alkali. 

The  industries  in  the  Naugatuck  Valley  are  for  the  most  part  more 
concerned  with  the  effect  of  the  river  water  on  the  eflSciency  and  life  of 
their  boilers  than  its  effect  on  manufactured  articles.  In  general,  they  feel 
that  any  water  that  would  be  suitable  for  steaming  purposes  in  a  power 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


JACKSON.  17 

plant  would  be  satisfactory  for  general  industrial  use.  It  is  recognized, 
however,  that  pollution  by  decayed  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  acids  and 
excessive  amounts  of  lime  and  magnesia  are  undesirable,  and  in  any  cleans- 
mg  operation,  freedom  from  color,  odor,  suspended  matter,  microscopic 
organisms,  and  fecal  bacteria  is  desirable. 

Woolen  Indusiry. 

The  use  of  water  in  this  industry  is  for  scouring  and  rinsing  the  raw 
wool,  dyeing,  carbonizing  and  fulling.  Soda  ash  and  soap  are  used  in  the 
scouring,  various  dyes  in  the  dyeing,  sulphmic  acid  in  the  carbonizing,  and 
soda  ash  in  the  fulling  and  milling. 

A  water  free  from  suspended  matter,  free  acid  and  peaty  acids  and  iron, 
not  too  high  in  color  and  with  limiting  amounts  of  calcium,  magnesia,  sul- 
phates and  chlorides  and  organic  matter,  even  though  non-fecal,  is  required. 

Paper, 

In  the  paper  industry  large  volumes  of  water  are  used  in  boiling  of  rags, 
in  washing  the  rag  and  paper  pulp,  in  bleaching,  in  cooling  rolls  of  machines, 
in  the  moistening  process  and  in  the  presses.  A  water  similar  to  that  re- 
quired in  the  woolen  industry  is  necessary,  though  in  the  manufacture  of 
strawboard  or  rougher  grades  of  paper  the  limiting  amounts  may  be  much 
greater  than  where  finer  grades  are  made. 

Bleaching  and  Dyeing, 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  are  generally  closely  associated  with  woolen, 
paper  and  silk  industries;  and  where  this  is  so,  constituents  affecting  color 
or  hardness  and  polluting  organic  matter  are  detrimental,  and  iron,  even 
in  traces,  is  very  serious  in  the  dye  baths. 

St'ft: 

In  this  industry  large  volumes  of  water  are  used  in  washing  and  boiling 
cocoons  and  frissons,  in  the  sizing,  and  the  dye  houses.  Two  principal 
factors  are  hardness  and  color.  Except  for  special  purposes  such  as  boiling 
off  the  silk  and  dyeing  very  Ught  shades,  where  the  hardness  and  color  must 
be  reduced  to  zero,  15  to  30  p.p.m.  hardness  and  10  to  25  p.p.m.  color  are 
pemiissible,  any  organic  impurities  and  the  faintest  trace  of  iron  is  detri- 
mental. 

The  quality  of  a  water  is  determined  by  the  amount  and  nature  of 
polluting  materials  it  may  contain.  These  substances  are  those  naturally 
inherent  in  the  water,  which  it  has  taken  by  contact  and  holds  in  a  dissolved 
or  suspended  state,  and  the  added  impurities  due  to  the  discharge  into  them 
of  domestic  and  industrial  wastes. 

To  determine  the  degree  of  pollution,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  suspended  wastes,  the  dissolved  matter  — 
both  mineral  and  organic  —  microscopic  organisms  and  bacteria.  For  the 
use  of  water  by  industries  we  are  mostly  interested  in  the  mineral  content, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


18 


POLLUTION   OF  STREAMS. 


though  in  some  cases  the  organic  nitrogen  and  bacteria  may  have  a  serious 
efifect  upon  the  manufactured  product.  Complete  mineral  analyses  of  the 
rivers  of  the  state  are  very  few,  and  where  taken  have  generally  been  of 
separate  samples,  and  not  of  samples  collected  over  any  extended  period. 
In  our  work,  we  took  full  sanitary  analyses  of  the  Naugatuck  and  Hocka- 


-© 


BRIDGCPORT 


^CmfC  /SLAtf^ 


WAUGATUCK    RIVER 

MArorWTERSHED 


num  rivers  over  a  considerable  period;  and  on  the  Naugatuck  we  have 
from  records  of  factories  full  mineral  analyses  for  similar  points  on  the 
river,  though  taken  at  an  earlier  date.  The  results  of  these  analyses  are 
given  in  the  following  tables. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


JACKSON.  19 

Number  1  in  Table  1  is  of  the  Naugatuck  River  at  Torrington,  before 
its  use  by  the  factories. 

Number  2,  after  the  river  has  received  the  wastes  of  Torrington, 
Thomaston,  and  Waterville,  and  has  imdergone  whatever  self-purification 
takes  place  before  its  use  at  Waterbury. 

Niunber  3  is  from  the  river  at  Waterbury,  a  Uttle  lower  down. 

Number  4  is  from  the  Mad  River,  which  enters  the  Naugatuck  near 
where  Number  3  was  taken. 

Number  5  is  from  the  river  above  Ansonia  and  before  its  use  by  the 
factories  of  that  city. 

Number  6  is  from  the  municipal  supply  at  Ansonia  and  is  introduced 
for  purpose  of  comparison. 

The  analyses  were  taken  monthly,  May  1912,  to  May  1913,  with  the 
exception  of  the  month  of  December. 

The  analyses  in  Table  2  are  for  the  period  June  1918,  to  June  1919. 

Number  1  is  from  the  river  above  Torrington. 

Number  2,  below  Torrington. 

Number  3,  above  Waterbury. 

Number  4,  at  Waterbury,  below  the  Mad  River. 

Number  5,  above  Ansonia. 

Number  6,  below  Ansonia. 

Number  7,  the  Mad  River. 

Table  3  gives  analyses  of  wastes  from  copper  and  brass,  the  rubber, 
the  iron  and  steel,  the  woolen,  paper  and  silk  industries. 

Assuming  that  the  samples  above  Torrington  show  the  condition  of 
the  river  with  the  natural  impurities  inherent  to  it,  the  effect  of  the  dis- 
charge of  industrial  wastes  should  appear  in  the  analjrses  lower  down  on 
the  river. 

The  chemicals  used  in  Torrington  factories  are  acids,  principally  sul- 
phuric, muriatic,  and  nitric,  1  242  000  lb. 

Alkalies,  mostly  caustic  soda  and  potash  and  sodiiun  carbonate, 
128  000  lb. ;  metal  salts,  principally  sodium  cyanide  and  bisulphite,  zinc, 
nickel,  and  copper,  42  000  lb.;  miscellaneous,  122  000  lb. 

At  Thomaston,  acids  250  000  lb.,  alkalies  7  800  lb.,  metal  salts,  1  400 
lb.,  miscellaneous,  principally  soap,  24  000  lb.    This  makes  a  total  — 

Acids.  Alkalies.  Metal  Salts.  Miscellaneous. 

1492000  1b.  135800  1b.  43  400  1b.  146  000  1b. 

Comparing  analyses,  above  Torrington  in  Table  1  with  that  above 
Waterbury,  there  is  a  slight  increase  in  copper,  silica,  iron  and  aluminum 
oxides,  lime,  and  soda;  no  increase  in  magnesia;  the  hardness  is  unchanged; 
a  decrease  occurs  in  free  acid;  a  large  increase,  which  would  naturally  be 
expected,  in  total  sulphuric;  chlorine  increased  and  free  alkalies  decreased. 
Exddently  considerable  self-purification  takes  place  between  Torrington 


Digitized  by 


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20 


POLLUTION  OP  STREA^tS. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


JACKSON. 


21 


TABLE  2. 


Location  of  Sample. 

_«8 

6z 

o8 

.1 
I 
1 

^ 

•a 
< 

0.28 
0.05 
0.12 

0.78 
0".21 
0.51 

9.4 
6.6 

8.2 

105 
42 

74 

5 
2 
4 

7.2 
2.4 

4.7 

34 

"VfinirnuTn.  ,,.,.... 

14 

Mean 

23 

Xft-  2-    MaXTTnum ,....,... 

1.72 
0.18 
0.89 

3.87 
1.01 
2.23 

14.0 
10.5 
12.4 

282 

77 

149 

91 
22 
43 

11.7 
4.0 

8.8 

35 

'MfniTniim 

17 

^eftn 

26 

\o.  3   Masfinrmm 

0.42 
0.08 
0.18 

1.09 
0.19 
0.59 

8.5 
5.2 
6.2 

134 
39 
80 

12 
3 

7 

10.2 
4.1 
6.3 

23 

Minimmn 

10 

Mean 

16 

Xo-  4.  MAximiiTTi 

1.93 
0.24 
0.86 

3.12 
1.06 
1.87 

14.3 

6.8 

10.2 

309 

83 

175 

37 
14 
24 

14.2 

4.6 

10.8 

17 

Minixnvm .....     

5 

Mean 

12 

Xo.  0.  Maximum 

1.78 
0.18 
0.89 

1.87 
0.78 
1.25 

8.6 
7.1 
7.9 

285 

77 
147 

19 

9 

12 

17.4 

5.2 

10.2 

25 

10 

Mean 

16 

Xo.  6.  Maximum 

2.19 
0.73 
1.50 

1.90 
0.22 
0.94 

9.2 
7.0 
7.8 

237 

78 
158 

16 

8 

12 

17.3 

4.8 

10.3 

28 

JidiniTniinn 

9 

Mean 

17 

Xo.  7.  Miun|Ti\iTn  .   

1.09 
0.31 
0.65 

2.35 
1.47 
1.89 

17.2 
12.3 
14.3 

243 
112 
174 

57 
18 
34 

16.5 

7.6 

11.3 

-f-     - 
17    23 

Miniipum 

14      3 

Mean 

Av.  -6 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


22 


POLLUTION   OF  STREAMS. 


TABLE  3. 


ll 

•5& 

il 

SoUd«. 

I 

Suspended. 

5 

k 

Copper. 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean .  .^ 

4.48 
0.05 

6.99 
0.22 
1.74 

184.0 

3.1 

24.0 

2  583 
138 
803 

916 

28 

295 

232 
11 
51 

95 

I 

26 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

9.60 
0.08 
2.27 

6.30 
0.91 
2.35 

44.4 

3.9 

20.3 

502 
185 
316 

222 

37 

102 

139 
26 

68 

111 
20 
49 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

1.04 
0.11 
0.36 

3.84 
0,43 
2.93 

32.0 
17.1 
23.4 

29  860 

905 

7  621 

625 
153 
335 

29  530 

630 

11093 

516 

58 

258 

Iron  and  Steel. 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

1.00 
0.34 
0.67 

68.0 
0.2 

17.8 

3  750 

82 
890 

71000 

1050 

25  510 

47  960 

255 

11309 

67  000 

160 

15  236 

6  405 

80 

2  729 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

3.52 
0.52 
1.33 

1.76 
0.08 
0.75 

315 

7 
85 

44  100 

550 

11356 

32  380 
270 

7  862 

850 

0 

266 

240 

0 

72 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

1.60 
0.08 
0.56 

0.99 

0.201 

0.69 

86 

3 

25 

819 
140 
416 

500 

30 

138 

500 

0 

133 

120 

0 

27 

Rubber. 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

4.32 
0.96 
2.56 

23.52 
3.84 
5.60 

570 
41 
80 

1625 
298 
419 

999 
165 
285 

1395 

70 

185 

960 

48 
127 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

7.2 
3.6 
5.4 

43.5 
2.7 

17.9 

870 

46 

305 

7  105 

433 

2  728 

6  010 

230 

2  183 

5  792 

122 

2  145 

5  772 

89 

211S 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

16.8 
11.2 
13.4 

75.5 
47.5 
66.5  ' 

3  100 
1160 
2  132 

14  091 

8  484 

11392 

5  945 

3  175 

4  279 

602 
212 

378 

386 
148 
271 

Woolen. 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

80.0 
0.08 
14.5 

30.4 

1.2 

11.1 

1900 

49 

822 

5  840 

217 

2  554 

1630 

144 

1264 

1280 

50 

408 

785 

40 

324 

Silk. 

Mean 

2..32 

590 

3  220 

36  800 

14  400 

8400 

7.000 

Paper. 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mean 

2.2 

0.08 

0.49 

14.8 
0.09 
4.80 

421 

20 

153 

5  400 

260 

1047 

2  720 

90 

591 

730 
110 
324 

539 

73 

226 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


JACKSON. 
TABLE  3.  —  Continued, 


23 


1 

i 

1 

Si 

Ill 

Remarks. 

Copper. 
Maximum . . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

86.5 

3.0 

20.2 

28 
-715 
-161 

555 
3 
54.6 

1358 
36.8 
373 

Pickle  and 

Dip  Rinse 

Waters. 

Maximum. . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

26.0 

3.5 

15.1 

87 
23 
56 

5.6 
0.4 
2.3 

110 
33 
67 

Plating 

Rinse 

Waters. 

Maximiun. . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

133 
22.5 

78.7 

290 

22 

124 

332 

12 

109 

... 

Tailings. 

Iron  and  Steel 
Maximum. . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean ,. 

5000 

140 

1803 

33  000 

120 

7  814 

1300 
1.2 
275.4 

... 

... 

... 

Cleansing 

Rinse 
Waters. 

Maximum.. 
Minimum... 
Mean 

1250 

8 

395 

-70 
-20  500 
-4  163 

520 

4 

212 

5460 

175 

2  349 

... 

Pickle  and 
Dip  Rinse 

Waters. 

Maximum. . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

120 
40 
68 

128 

-70 

25 

6.4 
0.0 
2.9 

... 

... 

Plating 

Rinse 

Waters. 

Rubber. 
Maximimi. . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

28.0 

4.5 

14.5 

100 
16 

38 

... 

115 
10 
20 

Crude 

Rubber 

Washings. 

Maximum.  . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

170 

5 

75 

-60 

-3100 

-999 

... 

... 

3  745 

342 

2043 

Acid 

Room 

Waters. 

Maximum.  . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

140 
28 

82 

2  540 

-575 

814 

1926 
1653 
1790 

Tank 
Effluent. 

Woolen. 
Maximum.  . 
Minimum. . . 
Mean 

160 

3 

51 

3  200 

60 

1003 

... 

... 

Silk. 
Mean 

Concentrated 
Composit 
Sample. 

Paper. 
Maximum . . 
Minimum. . . 
Me«m 

108 

5 

36 

390 
12 

82 

... 

.  • . 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


24  POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS. 

and  Waterbury,  and  this  is  confirmed  in  Table  2.  In  the  analyses  below 
Tomngton  there  was  a  decided  increase  in  all  the  determinations  except 
alkalinity,  while  in  the  analyses  above  Waterbury  there  was  a  very  notice- 
able decrease. 

The  amounts  of  chemicals  used,  pounds  per  annum,  in  Waterbury, 
including  Waterville  and  Watertown,  were  — 

Adds.  Alkalies.  Mekd  Salts.  Miscellaneous. 

g693  507  lb.  1  185  982  lb.  2  316  015  lb.  10  921  785  lb. 

The  analyses  in  Table  1  show  a  decided  increase  in  the  copper,  iron 
and  aluminum  oxides  and  soda.  Total  and  mineral  soUds,  total  sulphuric 
acid,  and  the  chlorine,  silica,  lime,  magnesia,  hardness  and  free  acid  were 
sUghtly  increased,  and  free  alkalies  showed  a  decided  decrease.  In  Table  2 
all  determinations  were  noticeably  increased  except  the  alkalinity. 

The  amounts  of  chemicals  used  in  pounds  per  annum  at  Naugatuck, 
Beacon  Falls,  and  Se3rmour  were  — 

Acids.  Alkalies.  Metal  Salts.  MisSdUmeous. 

7  374  000  lb.  1  184  000  lb.  243  000  lb.  12  213  000  lb. 

The  analyses  of  the  river  above  Ansonia  compared  with  those  below 
Waterbury  show  marked  decrease  in  all  constitutents  except  the  soda  and 
free  alkaUes,  which  show  an  increase.  In  Table  2  all  determinations  are 
decreased  except  free  ammonia  and  alkalinity.  Self-purification  has  again 
evidently  taken  place. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  compare  analyses  of  the  Mad 
River  with  analyses  of  the  Naugatuck  above  and  below  its  entrance.  In 
Table  1  the  copper,  soda,  total  and  mineral  solids,  hardness,  free  acid,  total 
sulphuric  acid  and  chlorine  were  considerably  above  those  in  the  Nauga- 
tuck, the  silica  only  slightly  and  the  iron  and  aluminiun  oxides,  Ume,  and 
magnesia  considerably  less.  The  large  increase  in  free  alkalies  is  particu- 
larly noticeable,  and  no  explanation  suggests  itself.  In  Table  2  the  analyses 
of  the  Naugatuck  below  the  entrance  of  the  Mad  River  show  an  increase  in 
the  free  ammonia,  organic  nitrogen,  and  total  soUds;  a  decrease  in  oxygen 
consumed,  suspended  soUds  and  chlorine  and  a  marked  change  from 
acidity  to  alkalinity.  The  beginning  of  the  absorption  of  the  heavy  pol- 
lution of  the  Mad  River  by  the  Naugatuck  is  noticeable  from  these  results, 
and  this  action  apparently  continues  in  spite  of  the  added  pollution  lower 
down. 

The  amounts  of  chemicals  in  pounds  per  annum  used  at  Ansonia  were 

Acids.  Alkalies.  Metal  Salts.  MisceUaneotis. 

1  946  101  lb.  21 123  lb.  25  062  lb.  627  270  lb. 

Full  mineral  analyses  of  the  river  below  this  city  are  not  available,  but 
the  sanitary  analyses  when  compared  with  that  above  the  city  show  an 
increase  in  the  free  anmionia  and  total  solids,  a  decrease^ Jbhe  organic 

Digitized  by  VjOOk 


JACKSON. 


25 


nitrogen  and  slight  changes  in  oxygen  consumed,  suspended  solids,  chlorine, 
and  alkalinity. 

Comparing  analyses  of  the  copper,  iron,  and  steel  and  the  rubber 
wastes  with  the  river  water,  it  is  noticeable  that  while  the  free  ammonia  in 
waste  waters  from  the  rubber  industry  was  as  high  as  16.8  p.p.m.  and  or- 
ganic nitrogen  75.5  p.p.m.,  in  the  river  below  they  were  only  1.78  p.p.m. 
and  1.87  p.p.m.  In  the  waste  waters  from  the  iron  and  steel,  oxygen 
consumed  ran  as  high  as  3  750  p.p.m.,  total  solids  71  000  p.p.m.,  chlorine 
5  000  p.p.m.,  alkalinity  33  000,  iron  1300  p.p.m.,  acidity  20  500  p.p.m. ; 
while  in  the  river,  taking  them  in  the  same  order,  the  highest  figures  were 
14.3  p.p.m..  309  p.p.m.,  14.2  p.p.m.,  and  17  p.p.m.  Even  in  the  Mad  River 
the  acidity  never  exceeded  23  p.p.m. 

The  explanation  for  this  would  appear  to  be  the  effect  of  dilution  when 
mixed  with  waters  of  the  Naugatuck  and  the  opportunity  afforded  for 
sedimentation  by  the  numerous  mill  ponds. 


HAKTropi 


/  Ytiborc  s  I 


HOCKAMUM  f^lVCR 

MAP  or  WERSHED 


Unfortunately,  full  mineral  analyses  of  the  Hockanum  River  are  not 
available,  but  Table  4  gives  results  of  sanitary  analyses  for  the  period  from 
July  1918,  to  July  1919. 

No.  1  is  at  Lake  Schenipsit. 

No.  2  is  below  Rockville. 

No.  3  is  above  Manchester. 

No.  4  is  at  Bumside,  below  the  entrance  of  the  South  Branch,  on  which 
are  located  large  silk  mills  and  paper  companies. 

No.  6  is  analyses  of  rain  water,  collected  at  the  Yale  Medical  School, 
New  Haven,  during  1889-1890.    The  quality  of  water  suitable  for  use  in 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


26 


POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS. 


the  woolen  and  paper  industries  is  often  described  as  that  akin  to  rain 
water,  and  this  is  introduced  here  for  comparison  with  water  from  Lake 
Schenipsit,  which  is  considered  satisfactory. 


TABLE  4. 


a 

II 

II 

i1 

(J 
c 
•c 

0 

J4 
< 

<< 

i 
1 

No.  1. 

Maximum. . 

0.19 

0.82 

6.6 

92 

7.0 

15 

Minimum. . 

0.00 

0.22 

1.2 

23 

1.5 

9 

Mean 

0.08 

0.46 

4.9 

47 

4.1 

13 

No.  2. 

Maximum. . 

1.68 

2.82 

26.0 

207 

16.5 

55 

Minimum. . 

0.29 

0.38 

5.8 

56 

5.0 

21 

Mean 

0.73 

1.33 

11.2 

122 

10.2 

38 

No.  3. 

Maximum.. 

0.37 

2.06 

9.7 

89 

6.5 

28 

Minimiim    . 

0.02 

0.56 

3.4 

54 

4.0 

18 

Mean 

0.15 

0.90 

6.5 

76 

5.6 

22 

No.  4. 

Maximum. . 

1.09 

1.81 

13.0 

170 

14.5 

47 

Minimum. . 

0.04 

0.32 

5.0 

56 

5.0 

17 

. . . 

Mean 

0.50 

1.01 

8.0 

105 

8.8 

35 

No.  5. 

Maximum. . 

5.20 

47.4 

4.6 

0.142 

0.010 

0.16 

Minimum. . 

0.34 

18.0 

0.7 

, , 

0.050 

0.001 

0.02 

Mean 

0.83 

13.4 

1.77 

•• 

0.071 

0.005 

0.06 

Obviously  rain  collected  from  an  atmosphere  laden  with  the  gases  and 
fumes  from  a  manufacturing  community  is  quite  different  from  that  col- 
lected where  the  air  is  free  from  such  contamination.  In  these  analyses  the 
rain  was  collected  monthly  for  fourteen  months.  The  solids  and  nitro- 
genous matter  are  much  larger  that  we  would  expect  tp  find  in  a  pure  water. 
The  chemicals  used  in  the  factories  at  Rockville,  in  pounds  per  annum, 
are, — 

Adds.  Alkalies.  Metal  Salts,  Miscellaneous, 

123  000  lb.  479  000  lb.  184  000  lb.  823  000  lb. 

Acetic  and  sulphuric  predominate  in  the  acids,  soda  ash  in  the  alkalies, 
compounds  of  sodium  in  the  metal  salts,  and  soap  and  dyestuffs  in  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


JACKSON.  27 

miscellaneous.    AU  the  detenninations  show  a  noticeable  increase  below 
Rockville. 

The  chemicals  used  in  Manchester,  in  pounds  per  annum,  are, — 

Acids.  Alkalies.  Metal  Salts.  Miscellaneous. 

329  000  lb.  226  000  lb.  797  000  lb.  2  763  000  lb. 

Sulphuric  predominates  in  the  acids,  soda  ash  in  the  alkalies,  iron  in 
the  metal  salts,  and  soap  and  dyestufifs  in  the  miscellaneous. 

All  the  determinations,  excepting  organic  nitrogen  and  oxygen  con- 
sumed, show  a  decided  increase  in  No.  4  over  those  in  No.  3. 

Comparing  the  analyses  of  the  woolen,  paper,  and  silk  wastes  with 
analyses  of  river  water,  the  marked  decrease  in  oxygen  consumed,  total 
solids,  chlorine,  and  alkalinity  is  noticeable.  This  is  partly  accounted  for 
by  the  passage  of  the  woolen  wastes  at  Rockville  and  the  silk  wastes  at 
South  Manchester  through  the  sewage  treatment  plants  and  the  sedi- 
mentation of  paper  wastes  in  lagoons  on  Lydall  Brook  and  in  Union  Pond. 
The  dilution  by  1:he  flow  of  the  Hockanum  River  undoubtedly  effects  some 
reduction. 

Conclusions. 

Stream  pollution  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  industrial  use  of 
water. 

The  volume  of  water  used  industrially  is  about  three  times  that  for 
domestic  use. 

For  the  industries  discussed  in  this  paper,  it  may  be  assumed  that  any 
water  suitable  for  boiler  feed  purposes  in  one  industry  would  be  satis- 
factory for  all.  The  opposite  is  true  for  other  uses  of  water  by  the  several 
industries. 

In  the  brass  and  copper  and  iron  and  steel  industry,  a  water  suitable 
for  boiler-feed  purposes  would  probably  be  satisfactory  for  manufacturing 
uses.  Excessive  amounts  of  organic  and  suspended  matter  and  free  acid 
would  be  objectionable. 

The  water  of  the  Naugatuck  River  can  be  used  in  its  present  condition 
in  these  industries. 

In  the  manufacture  of  articles  from  crude  rubber,  presence  of  acids  is 
undesirable;  in  cooling  process,  organic  matter,  if  finely  divided,  is  not 
objectionable. 

In  regeneration  of  rubber,  condition  of  water  has  very  little  effect, 
and  the  condition  of  the  Naugatuck  River,  as  it  is,  is  not  considered 
objectionable. 

The  woolen  industry  requires  a  "  soft "  water;  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium compounds  are  detrimental.  They  prevent  a  proper  lather  from 
the  soap,  and  tend  to  form  insoluble  precipitates.  The  water  from  Lake 
Schenipsit  has  always  been  found  satisfactory. 


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28  POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS. 

The  paper  industry  requires  a  water  free  from  acids,  suspended  matter, 
high  color,  iron,  calcium  and  magnesium,  and  organic  matter.  A  very 
soft  water  is  sometimes  detrimental.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  coarser 
grades,  a  small  amount  of  suspended  matter  is  allowable.  The  waters  of 
Lydall  Brook  have  been  found  satisfactory  for  the  manufacture  of  leather 
board,  while  the  waters  of  the  Hockanum  River  at  Bumside  require  treat- 
ment before  use  in  the  manufacture  of  tissue  and  waxed  papers. 

Excessive  hardness  and  high  color,  organic  and  suspended  matter  and 
iron  are  detrimental  to  the  silk  industry.  For  about  two  thirds  of  the  work, 
hardness  of  30  p.p.m.  and  color  of  25  p.p.m.  is  allowable.  In  some  special 
processes  these  must  be  reduced  to  zero. 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  require  a  cleai*,  soft  water,  as  near  akin  to  rain 
water  as  possible.  Calcium  and  magnesium,  and  even  a  trace  of  iron,  is 
undesirable. 

The  wastes  from  many  industries  using  similar  processes  do  not  pollute 
a  stream  so  as  to  prevent  its  use  industrially  by  allied  industries. 

For  example,  one  brass  or  copper,  iron  or  steel,  or  rubber  factory  on 
the  Hockanum  River  would  affect  very  seriously  all  the  industries  lower 
down,  but  the  woolen  factory  in  Torrington  apparently  does  not  affect  the 
use  of  the  river,  one  way  or  the  other,  by  the  brass  companies. 

The  absorption  by  the  rivers  of  the  high  polluting  constituents  of  the 
various  wastes  is  materially  affected  by  the  volume  of  flow  and  the  oppor- 
tunity offered  for  sedimentation  by  treatment  plants  or  in  mill  ponds. 

Many  factories  were  located  on  rivers  before  the  effect  of  pollution  was 
evident.  Locations  were  determined  more  by  the  volume. of  flow  and 
suitability  of  water  for  steaming  purposes  than  for  its  effect  on  manu- 
factured ai-ticles. 

The  removal  of  pollution  would  undoubtedly  be  beneficial  in  its  effect 
on  boiler  efficiency  in  all  the  industries. 

No  intensive  studies  have  been  made  of  the  effect  of  pollution  on  the 
chemicals  used  or  on  the  manufactured  articles. 

It  is  known,  however,  that  some  chemicals  used  in  the  woolen,  paper, 
silk,  and  bleaching  and  dyeing  industries  are  seriously  affected  by  free  acids, 
high  color,  large  amounts  of  suspended  matter,  appreciable  amounts  of  iron 
and  organic  matter,  fecal  or  non-fecal. 

The  copper  and  brass  and  iron  and  steel  industries  are  affected  only  by 
suspended  matter. 

The  rubber  industry  appears  to  be  affected  the  least  of  any  by  pollution. 

The  efforts  of  most  manufacturers  have  been  directed  towards  savings 
effected  in  obtaining  a  water  suitable  for  steaming  purposes.  Little,  if 
any,  attention  has  been  given  to  reducing  cost  of  production  and  increasing 
value  of  product  by  removal  of  stream  pollution. 

It  is  known  that  calcium  and  magnesium  decompose  equal  amounts  of 
many  chemicals;  that  waters  containing  iron  are  liable  to  develop  brown 
gelatinous  growths  that  affect  cleansing  processes  where  soap  or  alkalies 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  29 

are  used;  that  the  bleaching  power  of  certain  chemicals  is  affected  by 
chlorine. 

The  study  of  waters  suitable  for  steaming  has  demonstrated  that  a 
considerable  saving  can  be  accomplished  either  by  care  in  selecting  a 
satisfactory  supply  or  by  treating  an  unsatisfactory  one.  Stream  pollution 
must  cause  waste.  The  large  amounts  of  chemicals  used  in  the  Nauga- 
tuck  and  Hockanum  valleys  should  warrant  intensive  study  of  the  effect 
of  pollution  on  chemicals  used. 

Entirely  aside  from  the  general  benefit  to  public  health  and  comfort, 
the  removal  of  stream  pollution  would  be  beneficial  and  effect  savings  in  the 
use  of  water  for  steaming  and  and  other  industrial  purposes. 

Acknowledgment  for  some  of  the  information  used  in  preparing  this 
paper  is  due  W.  H.  Bassett,  of  the  American  Brass  Company;  John  Goss, 
of  the  Scovill  Manufacturing  Company;  Walter  M.  Scott,  of  Cheney 
Brothers;  Herbert  J.  Regan,  of  the  James  J.  Regan  Company;  T.  R. 
Appell,  of  the  Warrenton  Woolen  Company;  O.  L.  Johnson,  of  the  Aspi- 
nook  Company;  N.  G.  Read,  of  the  Burnside  Mills;  C.  F.  McCarthy,  of  the 
Goodyear  Metallic  Rubber  Shoe  Company,  and  E.  A..  Anderp^^n,  of  the 
Rubber  Regenerating  Company. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  Hajirison  P.  Eddy.*  Mr,  President,  Mr.  Jackson  very  kindly 
placed  in  my  hands  a  copy  of  this  paper  just  before  the  meeting.  I  have 
not  had  time  to  consider  it  in  detail.  However,  it  is  very  evident  that  this 
extensive  study  has  furnished  much  valuable  data  on  an  important  subject. 

In  connection  with  the  water  consumption,  on  page  15,  Mr.  Jackson, 
I  assume  that  the  figures  given  in  the  second  part  of  the  table  are  con- 
sumption for  domestic  purposes. 

Mr.  Jackson.    That  is  right. 

Mr.  Eddy.  The  thing  which  of  course  at  once  appeals  to  one  studying 
this  subject  is  the  very  large  volume  of  industrial  wastes  and  the  very  great 
quantity  of  waste  materials  which  go  into  the  streams  with  the  water. 
It  is  remarkable  that  our  rivers  will  assimilate  and  dispose  of  so  much  of 
this  material  without  creating  more  objectionable  conditions  than  appear 
to  be  the  case,  not  only  from  this  study  but  from  others  of  a  similar  nature. 

Mr.  Stephen  DeM.  GAGE.f  In  some  of  the  western  states,  notably 
in  Illinois,  the  state  has  taken  upon  itself  to  make  studies  of  the  waters  of. 
the  state,  not  only  of  streams  but  also  of  the  ground  waters  and  the  public 
water  supplies,  in  relation  to  their  uses  for  industrial  purposes.  It  seems 
to  me  that  this  is  a  very  important  thing  for  the  state  to  do.  Our  New 
England  states  have  not  done  this  as  yet,  but  there  is  a  demand  for  some- 
thing of  the  kind. 

*  Of  Metcolf  A  Eddy.  Boeton. 

t  Chemist  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  R.  I.  State  Board  of  Health. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


30  POLLUTION  OP  STREAMS. 

I  suppose  I  get,  on  an  average,  four  requests  a  month  from  industrial 
concerns  for  information  of  one  kind  or  another  about  the  quaUty,  either 
of  some  of  our  rivers  in  Rhode  Island  or  some  of  our  public  water  suppUes, 
in  relation  to  their  use  for  some  specific  industry.  Of  course  our  larger 
industries,  particularly  those  using  large  volumes  of  water,  are  located  on 
the  larger  streams,  and  their  requirements  are  pretty  well  defined.  But 
there  are  many  small  industries  —  that  is,  industries  requiring  relatively 
small  amounts  of  water  —  in  which  the  chemical  and  other  characteristics 
of  the  water  supply  are  very  in^ortant.  Many  of  our  newer  industries 
which  are  growing  rapidly  are  based  on  chemical  processes  which  may  be 
afifected  by  the  characteristics  of  the  water  used.  It  seems  to  me  that  it 
should  be  the  duty  of  the  state  to  have  full  information  of  this  kind  avail- 
able for  the  use  of  prospective  manufactinrers.  If  a  new  industry  which  is 
just  being  developed  is  to  come  into  your  state  it  may  mean  a  great  deal 
to  the  industrial  Ufe  of  your  state  in  one  way  or  another,  and  the  state 
should  be  in  a  position  to  aid  that  industry  in  determining  where  it  is  best 
to  locate. 

This  of  course  is  an  economic  problem,  not  a  public  health  problem, 
and  our  state  laboratories  have  usually  been  developed  along  pubHc  health 
lines.  But  with  a  minimum  expenditure  of  funds  the  work  of  our  state 
laboratories  and  our  sanitary  water  surveys  could  be  extended  so  as  to 
obtain  a  great  deal  of  information  which  it  seems  to  me  might  be  of  very 
great  economic  importance. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Baker.  *  I  want  to  express  appreciation  of  the  studies 
that  have  been  made  in  connection  with  this  matter,  and  to  voice  the  hope 
that  such  studies  may  be  continued  in  Connecticut  and  elsewhere,  as  being 
of  great  value.  The  studies  seem  to  be  unique  from  the  points  of  view  that 
have  been  taken.  Heretofore  most  stream  pollution  studies  have  been 
directed  against  pollution,  and  this  seems  to  be  a  broader  study,  as  it  takes 
into  account  the  water  supplied  to  the  industries  and  the  whole  range  of 
important  elements  involved. 

Mr.  Eddy.  The  importance  of  an  adequate  supply  of  suitable  water 
and  practical  means  of  disposing  of  wastes  for  industries  has  come  to  be  a 
very  important  matter,  particularly  in  communities  devoted  largely  to 
manufacturing.  This  subject,  which  formerly  was  given  comparatively 
little  weight  in  the  selection  of  industrial  sites,  is  now  often  carefully 
considered  before  the  establishment  of  an  industry  in  any  particular 
locality. 

In  many  cases,  however,  it  is  difficult,  or  impossible,  to  predict  what 
the  future  conditions  will  be.  A  water  which  is  suitable  to-day  may  be  so 
altered  in  the  future  by  the  discharge  of  wastes  from  some  new  or  enlarged 
industrial  plant,  that  its  usefulness  will  be  seriously  inpaired.  An  industry 
which  is  established  with  a  view  to  the  discharge  of  untreated  wastes  into 
a  river  may  soon  6nd  itself  embarrassed  by  the  erection,  further  down 

*  Aaaooiate  Editor,  Sngineenng  Newi  Record,  New  York. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  31 

stream,  of  a  new  industrial  plant  which  requires  a  better  water  than  that 
flowing  past  its  property.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  treat  the  wastes 
of  the  upper  plant  and  perhaps  also  to  treat  the  water  used  by  the  lower 
industr3^  In  some  cases,  such  treatment  imposes  a  serious  financial 
burden,  and  in  others  it  may  be  considered  impracticable  to  so  treat  all  of 
the  wastes  that  the  waters  into  which  they  are  discharged  may  be  suitable 
for  use  in  certain  industries. 

In  many  cases,  lower  riparian  manufacturers  hesitate  to  resort  to  the 
courts  to  secure  treatment  of  wastes  discharged  into  the  river  above,  even 
though  the  law  appears  to  be  clear  that  they  are  entitled  to  receive  the 
water  in  its  natural  condition,  subject  only  to  reasonable  use  by  upper 
riparian  owners.  Accordingly,  considerable  courtesy  is  often  extended  to 
upper  manufacturers,  although  many  such  cases  have  been  Utigated. 

The  increase  in  manufacturing  and  the  decrease  in  the  number  of 
available  suitable  sites  for  the  establishment  of  industries  using  process 
waters  is  gradually  leading  to  a  demand  for  some  regulation  of  the  quality 
of  our  streams.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  rivers  be  maintained  in  proper 
condition,  but  to  determine  what  is  the  proper  condition  is  exceedingly 
diflScult.  In  some  cases  it  is  probable  that  this  should  be  determined  by 
the  uses  made  of  the  river  by  the  public  and  by  considerations  of  public 
comfort.  In  other  cases,  perhaps  the  requirements  of  all  the  riparian 
manufacturers  should  control,  and  in  some  localities  the  agricultural 
interests  may  predominate  and  require  that  the  waters  be  maintained 
suitable  for  watering  stock  and  for  irrigation. 

It  seems  certain  that  the  same  standard  of  purity  cannot  wisely  be 
adopted  for  all  rivers,  and  that  each  stream  must  be  considered  under  its 
own  peculiar  enviroiunent  and  conditions. 

The  first  logical  step  in  all  cases  must  be  to  ascertain  the  conditions 
and  needs.  This  can  be  done  by  investigations  similar  to  those  which  have 
been  made  in  Connecticut,  under  Mr.  Jackson's  direction.  The  accumu- 
lation of  such  valuable  data  will  greatly  assist  in  the  correct  solution  of  this 
very  intricate  problem. 


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32  MANGANESE  BRONZE  FOR  VALVE  STEMS. 


MANGANESE  BRONZE  FOR  VALVE  STEMS. 

BY  WILLIAM   R.   CONARD.* 

[Read  September  14,  1991. \ 

This  paper  is  chiefly  concerned  with  valves  as  used  for  water-works 
purposes,  so  that  the  type  or  quality  of  valve  stems  as  used  in  valves  for 
other  purposes  will  not  be  mentioned  here. 

Early  water  valves  or  devices  for  shutting  off  the  flow  of  water  in  pipe 
mostly  had  a  shaft  or  stem  for  operating  the  gate  made  of  wrought  iron, 
and  even  up  to  comparatively  recent  times  some  water  works  have  con- 
tinued to  use  wrought  iron.  However,  for  a  fairly  long  period  the  use  of 
a  brass  or  bronze  stem  has  been  the  custom,  because  of  its  non-corroding 
qualities.  The  early  substitutes  for  wrought  iron  were  largely  common 
brass;  then,  in  order  to  get  greater  strength,  bronzes  were  resorted  to, 
the  best  of  which  was  known  as  the  "  Government  mix  "  of  88  parts  copper, 
10  parts  tin,  and  2  parts  zinc,  and  even  yet  some  of  our  water  works  and 
manufacturers  are  satisfied  with  this  material  for  the  valve  stems.  The 
next  step  in  the  use  of  an  alloy  metal  for  valve  stems  was  the  adoption  by 
some  users  of  "  Tobin  bronze  "  and  its  companion  metal,  "  Naval  bronze." 
Tobin  bronze  is  a  patented  trade  name  for  a  rolled  bronze;  Naval 
bronze  is  also  a  trade  name  for  practically  the  same  metal.  Both  of  these 
bronzes,  because  of  being  worked  or  rolled  after  being  cast  into  ingots 
and  rolled  into  billets,  present  a  more  uniform  texture  than  the  same  mix 
in  cast  form,  and  considerably  increased  strength,  particularly  in  the  smaller 
diameters  and  where  they  can  be  used  without  cutting  away  too  much  of 
the  outer  skin  or  section,  which  is  the  part  which  has  the  greatest  strength, 
for,  when  the  inner  section  or  core  is  cut  into,  the  strength  decreases 
quite  rapidly,  though  this  is  true  of  practically  all  bronzes,  though,  in  some 
to  a  lesser  degree.  There  are  a  number  of  water  works  which  regularly 
specify  for  their  valve  stems  one  of  the  rolled  bronzes.  One  of  the  draw- 
backs to  their  use  is  in  the  diflSculty  of  getting  a  proper  collar  on  the  stem 
for  valves  of  the  inside  screw  type,  which  are  largely  the  only  ones  used  in 
water  works. 

At  about  the  time  some  water  works  commenced  to  specify  the  rolled 
bronzed  for  valve  stems,  some  of  the  makers  commenced  making  part  of 
their  output  of  stems  of  manganese  bronze,  but  with  indifferent  success, 
as  tbie  production  of  manganese  bronze  is  a  specialty  in  itself  and  requires 
that  it  be  made  with  the  knowledge  and  studies  which  have  been  given 
it  by  those  who  specialize  in  its  production.    It  can  be  produced  to  give 

*  Inspeciins  Engineer.  Burlington,  N.  J. 

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CONARD.  33 

practically  any  combination  of  physical  characteristics  desired,  such  as 
free  machining  qualities  with  moderate  tensile  strength  and  yield  point, 
or  much  higher  tensile  strength  with  a  combination  of  either  high  ductility 
and  low  yield  point  or  low  ductiUty  and  high  yield  point. 

Confining  ourselves  primarily  to  gate  valves  for  water-works  purpose 
we  find  that  the  valve  is  made  up  of  such  parts  as  —  body,  seat  rings, 
dome  or  cover,  gates,  face  rings,  wedging  mechanism,  stem,  stuffing  box, 
stuffing-box  follower  or  gland,  stem  nut,  gears  in  the  case  of  larger  valves, 
packing  and  gaskets,  bolts  and  nuts,  and  in  the  case  of  what  are  termed 
'*  rising  stems  "  the  "  yoke  "  and  its  parts. 

Of  these  thirteen  or  more  parts,  the  most  important  one  is  the  stem, 
for  upon  it  depends  the  proper  opening  and  closing  of  the  gate  or  gates 
and  the  operation  of  the  wedging  mechanism,  which  in  turn  controls  the 
flow  of  the  water,  and  if  the  stem  fails  the  rest  of  the  mechanism  is  practi- 
caDy  useless.  This  is  also  in  part  true  of  the  other  parts,  yet  unless  there 
should  be  a  complete  failure  of  the  body,  the  other  parts  with  the  stem 
intact  might  function  in  part. 

The  actual  work  that  the  stem  performs  is  lifting  this  load  or  weight 
of  the  gates,  and  the  wedging  device,  overcoming  the  friction  of  the  gates 
against  the  seats  and  the  wedges  in  starting  to  open  with  the  gate  closed; 
the  friction  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  pipe  during  the  later 
part  of  the  travel  in  closing;  the  friction  of  water  seal  or  packing  in  the 
stuflSng  box,  and  the  friction  of  the  threads  on  the  stem  working  through 
the  stem  nut.  The  stresses  set  up  depend  on  the  pressure  of  the  water 
against  the  gates  and  are  tension  on  the  body  of  the  stem,  shear  on  the 
threads  and  collar,  and  torsion,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  during  the  entire 
operations  of  opening  and  closing. 

The  tension  coming  as  it  does  on  the  body  of  the  stem,  the  controlling 
diameter  or  cross-sectional  area  is  that  at  the  bottom  of  the  thread,  the 
shear  controls  the  area  of  metal  of  the  total  amount  of  metal  engaged  in 
the  thread  of  the  stem  nut  when  operating,  and  of  the  collar  operating  in 
its  recess  between  the  top  of  the  bonnet  and  the  lower  part  of  the  stuffing 
box,  and  the  torsion  is  largely  on  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  stem  at 
the  base  of  the  threads.  Therefore  in  determining  the  diameter  of  the 
stem  the  area  at  the  base  of  the  thread  should  control,  and  not  the  full 
diameter  of  the  stem,  and  high  factors  of  safety  should  be  allowed  to  pro- 
vide not  only  for  these  stresses  but  also  for  the  human  element,  which 
always  enters  in  a  device  of  this  kind,  and  which  is  not  always  operated  by 
persons  who  appreciate  the  importtoce  of  the  fact  that  a  valve  is  a  machine 
and  not  simply  a  mass  of  metal  that  can  stand  all  sorts  of  abuse. 

In  years  past  the  big  advantage  of  controlling  and  obtaining  flexi- 
bilty  of  a  water  system  by  a  comprehensive  system  of  valves  did  not 
seem  to  have  as  large  a  place  in  the  planning  and  in  the  construction  of 
our  water  systems  as  it  has  to-day.  What  valves  there  were,  were  prob- 
ably not  operated  as  frequently  as  at  present,  so  that  while  they  had  their 


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34  MANGANESE  BRONZE  FOR  VALVE  STEMS. 

valve  faUures  they  were  not  particularly  numerous;  while  nowadays  with 
the  need  for  conservation,  and  the  desire  to  be  efficient,  more  frequent 
inspection  causes  the  valves  in  our  water  works  to  be  operated  at  shorter 
intervals,  with  the  accompanying  stresses  as  before  described  placed  on 
the  stems  at  shortening  intervals. 

When  wrought  iron  was  used  for  stems,  and  the  valve  operated  at 
irregular  and  fairly  long  periods,  being  of  a  metal  that  probably  had  a 
breaking  strength  of  around  40  000  lb.  per  square  inch,  not  a  great  deal  of 
difficulty  was  had.  Then  when  brass  came  into  use,  having  very  much 
less  strength  than  iron,  it  was  soon  discarded  in  favor  of  bronze  of  about 
the  88-10-2  type,  which  gave  some  additional  strength  and  greater  ductility, 
the  ductiUty  of  valve  stems  having  been  thought  at  this  period  to  be  an 
important  factor. 

It  is  entirely  true  that  if  there  were  nothing  but  the  tension  and  torsion 
stresses  that  need  be  considered,  ductiUty  would  be  of  very  great  impor- 
tance, but  there  are  other  conditions  which  often  develop  that  make  high 
ductility  not  only  unnecessary  but  often  dangerous. 

For  example,  when  the  stresses  on  a  valve  stem  become  great  enough 
to  exceed  the  "  elastic  limit  "  of  the  metal,  the  stem  commences  to  distort, 
either  elongating,  buckling,  or  twisting,  and  with  the  load  removed  the 
stem  remains  distorted  because  the  limit  of  its  elasticity  has  been  passed. 
Now  in  bronze,  while  it  is  possible  to  produce  it  with  a  high  "  elastic  limit 
or  point  of  yield  '*  and  a  high  ultimate  strength,  the  ductiUty  is  reduced; 
whereas  to  attain  a  high  ductiUty  while  a  fairly  high  ultimate  strength  may 
be  retained  the  yield  point  drops  to  a  comparatively  low  point;  in  other 
words,  generaUy  speaking,  the  yield  point  and  elongation  vary  with  each 
other  inversely.  This,  then,  brings  us  to  the  point  where  we  must  decide 
whether  we  desire  a  metal  of  high  yield  point  and  enough  ductiUty  so  that 
we  do  not  get  a  failxure  without  warning  and  with,  of  course,  a  good  high 
ultimate  strength;  or  whether  we  wiU  sacrifice  the  higher  yield  point  and 
obtain  a  metal  that  wiU  flow  or  yield  extensively  before  breaking.  After 
giving  the  matter  extended  study  and  consideration,  I  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  best  bronze  for  valve  stems  is  that  which  has  the 
characteristics  of  high  yield  or  elastic  limit,  moderate  ductiUty,  high  ulti- 
mate strength,  but  not  more  than  100  per  cent,  higher  than  the  yield  point. 

My  reason  for  this  conclusion  is  that  inunediately  a  stem  is  distorted 
by  stressing  it  beyond  the  point  of  yield,  whether  it  be  stretched,  buckled 
or  bent,  or  the  pitch  of  the  thread  upset,  the  valve  is  rendered  practically 
useless  until  a  new  stem  is  put  in,  and  if  a  metal  can  be  obtained  which 
because  it  has  the  virtue  of  a  high  elastic  limit,  thereby  placing  the  likeU- 
hood  of  a  distorted  stem  in  the  range  of  improbabiUties,  I  feel  that  the 
valve  is  that  much  nearer  being  fool  proof,  and  that  the  efficiency  of  the 
water-works  sjrstem  in  which  such  valves  go  is  thereby  increased. 

And  the  one  good  thing  about  aU  of  this  is  that  it  is  being  done  at 
practically  no  increase  in  cost,  for  stems  having  the  quaUties  of  high  elastic 


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CONARD.  35 

limit,  high  ultimate  strength,  moderate  ductility,  cost  little  if  any  more 
than  those  that  have  high  ductility,  moderately  high  ultimate  strength, 
comparatively  low  elastic  limit.  It  is  not  particularly  difficult  to  get  a 
bronze  that  will  have  a  yield  point  of  not  less  than  40  000  lb.  per  square 
inch,  an  ultimate  strength  of  60  000  lb.  to  70  000  lb.  per  square  inch,  an 
elongation  percentage  of  10  in  2  inches,  a  reduced  area  percentage  of  10; 
and,  with  the  importance  of  having  the  stem  retain  its  original  shape 
understood,  purely  that  is  better  than  getting  a  metal  which  has  a  yield 
point  of  not  over  25  000  lb.  per  square  inch,  an  ultimate  strength  of  around 
50  000  lb.  per  square  inch,  an  elongation  of  around  30  per  cent,  in  2  inches, 
a  reduction  of  area  of  around  25  per  cent. 

It  is  hoped  you  catch  the  point  I  am  trying  to  make,  which  is  that  the 
water-works  official  and  the  manufacturer  usually  base  their  calculation 
on  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  material,  figuring  that  the  usefulness  of  the 
stem  is  not  gone  imtil  it  actually  fails. 

This  harder,  stronger  metal  is  of  course  somewhat  tougher  and  not 
quite  so  easily  machined,  but  if  the  proper  tools  are  used  it  doesn't  ap- 
preciably increase  the  cost,  and  surely  is  better  than  increasing  the  size  of 
the  stem  beyond  the  manufacturer's  standard,  to  get  the  added  strength. 

The  more  frequent  reasons  for  valve-stem  failures  are  that,  as  indicated, 
the  factor  of  necessary  strength  is  mostly  based  on  the  full  diameter  of  the 
stem;  the  tensile  or  ultimate  strength  of  the  metal,  and  not  taking  into 
accoimt  that  metals  of  any  kind,  unless  especially  treated  for  it,  do  not 
have  as  great  strength  in  the  center  or  core  of  the  mass  as  near  the  surface, 
with  the  result  that  a  stem  has  scarcely  any  greater  strength  at  the  bottom 
of  the  thread  than  the  simple  working  stresses  that  are  put  on  it,  without 
taking  into  account  added  friction  due  to  corrosion,  sediment,  etc.,  nor 
that  in  many  cases  the  persons  operating  are  likely  to  use  tools  that  exert 
considerably  greater  leverage  on  the\gears  or  operating  nut  than  is  intended 
or  needed. 

Therefore  to  overcome  these  failures,  so  far  as  humanly  possible 
within  reason,  the  calculations  for  valve  stem  diameter  should  be: 

Allowance  for  the  fact  that  the  metal  at  the  base  of  the  thread  does  not 
have  as  great  a  strength  as  near  the  surface  or  the  top  of  the  thread;  a 
further  allowance  for  the  use  of  tools  for  operating,  which  will  exert  greater 
stress  than  the  usual  tool  used;  together  with  allowances  for  friction  due  to 
corrosion  or  sediment  in  the  water,  and  other  factors  mentioned  earlier,  of 
weight  of  mechanism,  friction  of  gates  and  seats  in  operation,  and  friction 
in  stuffing  box,  controls  the  area  at  the  base  of  the  thread,  and  also  that  a 
liberal  allowance  should  be  made  the  governing  feature  for  factors  of 
safety,  and  the  metal  should  have  a  high  yield  point,  a  fairly  high  ultimate, 
and  moderate  ductility. 

In  order  that  the  physical  qualities  of  the  bronze  may  be^  known  and 
kept  uniform,  it  is  very  important  that  frequent  tests  be  made.  The 
proper  way  to  get  the  pieces  for  testing  so  as  to  have  them  as  truly  repre- 


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36  MANGANESE  BRONZE  FOR  VALVE  STEMS. 

sentative  as  the  stems  themselves,  is,  where  the  stem  is  cast  and  large 
enough  to  do  so,  to  have  the  piece  for  testing  cast  attached  to  the  actual 
stem,  and  where  the  stem  is  of  a  size  to  make  this  impossible  the  test  piec^ 
should  be  cast  in  the  same  heat  and  in  the  same  flask  as  the  stems.  In  the 
case  of  hammered  or  forged  stems,  the  test  piece  should  be  a  prolongation 
of  one  end  of  the  stem  reduced  to  a  cross-section  that  will  show  a  close 
approximate  of  the  metal  in  the  stem  itself.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into 
the  details  of  the  methods  of  making  the  physical  tests. 

For  smaller  and  medium-sized  valve  stems  up  to  and  including  those 
for,  say,  24-in.  valves,  a  cast  stem  is  entirely  proper,  but  for  stems  for  valves 
30  in.  and  larger  they  should  be  of  forged  manganese  bronze.  Forging 
adds  very  Uttle  to  the  cost  and  adds  some  to  the  physical  qualities,  but 
their  main  value  lies  in  that  the  forging  on  stems  of  heavy  cross-section 
makes  the  metal  homogeneous  and  of  uniform  texture  throughout,  makes  a 
perfect  metal  for  the  threads  and  eliminates  the  uncertainties  that  are  apt 
to  be  present  in  the  case  of  large  castings,  where  the  central  section  is  sub- 
ject to  different  cooling  stresses  than  the  outer  section. 

In  the  foregoing  I  have  endeavored  to  demonstrate  the  advantages  of 
using  a  high-grade  manganese  bronze  for  your  valve  stems,  and  to  explain 
that  by  specifying  such  metal  no  hardship  is  being  placed  on  the  manu- 
facturer; in  fact,  if  he  will  but  stop  and  think  it  will  work  ultimately  very 
much  to  his  advantage,  for  what  manufacturer  is  there  that  would  not 
rather  have  his  product  praised  than  condemned,  and  his  attention  can  be 
given  to  producing  new  goods,  and  not  have  to  use  part  of  his  shop  facilities 
for  repair  parts,  for  there  are  things  that  can  happen  to  a  valve  outside  of 
the  stem  that  can  be  readily  traced  back  to  the  stem.  And  to  you  men  who 
use  valves,  by  exercising  care  and  specifying  for  your  stems  bronzes  that 
will  have  high  physical  values,  you  will  establish  a  standard  which  will  work 
a  considerable  economy,  —  economy  of  cost,  economy  of  long  life,  economy 
of  efficiency,  economy  of  insurance  against  property  damage  and  even 
possible  loss  of  life.  Your  cooperation  and  efforts,  together  with  the 
cooperation  of  those  who  supply  your  valves,  is  the  thing  that  will 
accomplish  this. 


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DISCUSSION.  37 


Discussion. 


Mr.  J.  M.  DiVEN.  *  While  fully  agreeing  with  the  writer  of  the 
paper  that  the  stem  is  the  weak  point  in  a  valve,  and  that  they  are  most 
often  put  out  of  commission  by  the  breaking  or  buckling  of  the  stem,  and  that 
the  stems  should  be  made  of  the  best  available  material  and  of  the  greatest 
strength  consistent  with  economical  manufacture,  the  speaker  cannot 
fully  agree  that  they  are  the  only  part  of  a  valve  mechanism  that  will  by 
breaking  put  a  valve  out  of  commission,  for  the  breaking  of  a  wedge,  es- 
pecially the  top  one,  or  of  the  bushing  or  nut  in  the  wedge,  will  quite  as 
effectually  render  the  valve  useless  as  the  breaking  of  the  stem.  If  there  is 
nothing  for  the  stem  to  act  on  it  cannot  operate  the  valve. 

The  writer  says  that,  in  the  days  when  valves  were  widely  scattered  on 
the  distribution  systems  and  controlled  large  territories  or  length  of  mains, 
they  were  used  infrequently  and  were  more  apt  to  rust  or  set  owing  to  in- 
action than  with  the  present  practice  of  many  valves  controlling  short 
lengths  of  main.  The  reverse  would  seem  to  be  the  case,  for  two  valves  in 
present  practice  control  each  block;  if  they  had  to  be  used  to  shut  down  five 
or  ten  blocks  there  would  be  five  or  ten  times  more  liability  of  leaks  on  the 
pipe  lines  controlled  by  them  than  if  there  were  valves  for  each  single 
block.  Of  course  we  do  not  now  allow  valves  to  stand  idle  till  needed  to 
shut  off  for  repairs,  but  make  frequent  tests  of  them,  which  was,  probably, 
not  so  imiversaUy  the  case  in  the  old  times. 

Mr.  Patrick  GEAR.t  The  trouble  I  "find  with  the  stem  is  not  in  the 
stem  altogether,  because  you  can  bend  that  up  and  down  for  a  month  and 
the  stem  won't  break.  But  instead  of  talking  about  metal  for  the  stem, 
if  we  would  only  tell  the  manufacturers  how  they  ought  to  make  their  gate 
and  get  them  to  make  it  properly,  we  would  not  have  any  trouble  with  the 
stem. 

I  do  not  think  I  am  stepping  on  their  toes  when  1  tell  them  that  there 
is  not  any  improvement  over  the  gate  that  they  made  forty  years  ago  in  the 
gate  they  are  making  to-day.  They  may  test  the  stem  and  have  a  little 
better  metal  in  it.  Some  of  them  tried  to  put  a  steel  rod  in  the  stem,  some 
years  ago,  but  they  did  away  with  that.  If  they  will  make  the  gate  so 
that  there  will  not  be  any  corrosion  and  the  rust  won't  come  against  the 
gate  when  you  shut  it  and  open  it,  there  will  be  no  trouble. 

Mr.  Van  Gilder  speaks  of  shutting  and  opening  the  gate  when  he  has 
the  leak.  We  all  have  that  trouble  of  opening  and  shutting  the  gat'C. 
If  the  manufacturers  would  only  make  the  gate  properly,  so  that  corrosion 
would  be  kept  away  from  the  face,  they  would  be  all  right.  I  have  taken 
off  some  gates  that  were  in  for  forty  years,  and  the  trouble  I  found  with  one 
of  them  was  that  the  cast-iron  stuffing  box  had  such  a  grip  on  the  stem 
that  it  could  not  be  opened  and  shut.    And  still  they  put  a  cast-iron 

*  Seeretary*  American  Water  Works  Association, 
t  Superintendent,  Water  Works,  Holyoke.  Mass. 


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38  MANGANESE  BRONZE  FOR  VALVE  STEMS. 

gland  and  stuffing  box  on  to-day,  and  it  is  all  cast  iron  around  a  brass  stem, 
and  they  expect,  when  the  packing  is  worn  out,  that  it  can  be  made  tight. 

If  they  would  only  make  their  gates  all  brass,  so  that  there  would  not 
be  the  cast  iron  and  brass  working  together,  you  would  not  have  all  the 
trouble  you  do. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  know  of  some  30-in.  valves  all  composition.  They 
are  making  them  to-day. 

President  Sherman.  I  guess  they  will  make  bronze  valves  if  you 
want  to  pay  for  them. 

Mr.  C.  p.  Davis.*  I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Gear  if  he  uses  any 
grease  on  those  stuffing  boxes. 

Mr,  Gear.  Not  on  those  that  have  been  in  the  ground  for  thirty  or 
forty  years,  in  concrete  streets.  When  we  put  in  a  new  gate  we  use  all  the 
precaution  that  is  required.  You  need  brass  bands,  brass  bolts,  and  brass 
nuts  to  get  the  best  stuffing  box,  with  brass  lining  under  the  shoulder  of  the 
spindle,  —  the  top  of  the  gate  where  the  shoulder  sets  down.  Forty  years 
from  now  there  will  be  no  trouble,  because  there  is  no  packing  there  now. 
The  shoulder  of  the  spindle  up  against  the  brass  lining  of  the  top  of  the  gate 
will  make  it  tight. 

Mr.  Davis.  I  think  there  is  much  to  be  gained  from  the  lubrication 
of  those  parts.  We  have  the  cast  iron  against  the  brass  or  bronze,  or 
whatever  it  is.  We  all  know  that  the  great  majority  of  the  valves  have 
very  little  provision  for  lubrication.  Isn't  it  time  that  we  took  some  step 
not  only  to  see  that  we  get  proper  lubrication  im  new  valves  but  to  lubricate 
the  valves  already  on  hand? 

President  Sherma^.  Can  you  do  much  in  the  way  of  lubrication  of 
a  valve  that  has  only  a  cast-iron  gate  box  over  it?  I  beUeve  the  majority 
of  our  valves  have  only  the  cast-iron  box. 

Mr.  Davis.  Shouldn't  we  provide  some  covering,  like  a  waterproof 
tar  or  cotton  stock? 

President  Sherman.  I  was  wondering  how  you  expected  to  get  the 
grease  into  it. 

Mr.  Davis.  I  think  all  valves  should  be  in  a  box  large  enough  to 
give  easy  access,  without  breaking  the  pavement,  to  the  mechanical  parts 
of  the  valve.  Pavements  are  becoming  more  and  more  costly.  It  probably 
costs  $25  or  $30  every  time  you  break  the  pavement.  I  think  it  pays  to 
put  them  in  a  valve  box. 

PnEsmENT  Sherman.  I  think  that  is  a  great  point,  but  most  of  us 
are  not  doing  it  in  small  places.   « 

Mr.  Davis.  At  present  prices  it  costs  about  $30  or'  $40  to  make  a 
good  valve  box,  to  give  you  access  to  all  the  mechanism  of  a  large  valve, 
and  completely  to  the  small  valve. 

President  Sherman.    What  kind  of  box  do  you  use? 

*  Chief  Bureau  of  Water.  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

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DISCUSSION.  39 

Mr.  Davis.  We  use  a  reinforced  concrete  box  of  sectional  rings.  The 
bottom  course  is  split  to  straddle  the  pipe,  and  subsequent  courses  are  split 
on  opposite  axes  for  bonding.  The  cover  is  a  reinforced  concrete  slab 
about  4  in.  thick,  with  a  hole  for  the  cast-iron  manhole  frame  and  cover 
similar  to  that  used  for  sewers.    The  box  is  about  2  ft.  by  3  ft.  inside. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  used  one  of  cast  iron.  I  don't  know  whether  it  is 
still  on  the  market  or  not.  You  can  build  it  up  to  any  size  you  want.  It 
allows  space  to  get  into,  to  oil  the  valve  or  take  the  stem  out  of  an  upright 
valve.  In  one  case  I  had  a  valve  that  gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  The 
stem  gave  out  twice  and  I  had  to  take  up  a  lot  of  concrete  paving.  The 
last  time  I  fixed  the  valve  I  put  a  piece  of  4-in.  pipe  in  so  that  the  stem 
could  be  run  out  into  this  4-in.  pipe  to  save  tearing  up  the  street  if  we  had 
further  trouble. 


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40  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OP  MASSACHUSETTS. 


A  RATING  OF  THE  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES 
OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

BY  GEORGE   C.   WHIPPLE.* 

[Read  September  IS,  19S1.] 

It  is  a  long  time  since  a  critical  review  of  the  water  supplies  of  Massa- 
chusetts with  reference  to  quality  has  been  published.  The  State  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Health  has  continued  to  make  analyses  of  samples  of  water 
in  much  the  same  way  as  they  were  begun  thirty  years  ago,  but  in  recent 
years  fewer  samples  from  each  source  have  been  analyzed  and  some  of  the 
early  tests  have  been  omitted.  Parsimony  in  state  printing  has  made  it 
necessary  to  emasculate  the  reports  of  laboratory  work,  with  the  result  that 
the  Department  of  Public  Health  has  lost  in  prestige,  the  public  is  not  as 
well  informed  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  Massachusetts  supplies  as  it 
once  was,  and  the  records  are  not  as  readily  available  for  scientific  study  as 
they  ought  to  be.  In  1891  the  annual  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
devoted  190  pages  to  the  analyses  of  domestic  water  supplies;  in  1901,  98 
pages;  in  1909,  52;  and  since  that  date,  8  pages.  The  last  comparative  study 
was  published  in  1909.  For  the  last  ten  years,  only  the  yearly  averages  of 
a  portion  of  the  tests  made  in  the  laboratory  have  been  published. 

It  is  not  now  necessary  to  publish  the  analyses  in  the  detailed  manner 
of  thirty  years  ago,  when  the  subject  was  new,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
print  each  year  comparative  average  figures  for  the  previous  years,  as 
was  formerly  done;  but  the  public  is  entitled  to  have,  and  ought  to  have, 
something  better  than  it  now  gets.  A  satisfactory  plan  might  be  to  publish 
each  year  the  results  for  that  year,  making  mention  of  any  abnormal  or 
imusual  conditions,  and  then  once  in  five  years  to  publish  comparative 
tables  of  the  analyses  for  the  previous  five  years,  accompanied  by  a  critical 
review  of  the  qualities  of  the  different  water  supplies.  According  to  this 
plan,  a  quinquennial  review  of  the  water  supplies  for  the  five  years  ending 
December  31,  1920,  would  now  be  due;  but  inasmuch  as  no  such  summary'' 
of  reports  was  made  in  1915,  this  should  cover  a  ten-year  instead  of  a 
five-year  period. 

Since  the  last  comparative  tables  were  published  in  1909  there  have 
been  almost  no  changes  in  the  art  of  chemical  analysis  which  it  has  seemed 
worth  while  to  introduce  in  the  State  Department  of  Health  laboratories. 
The  Committee  on  Standard  Methods  of  Water  Analysis  of  the  American 
Public  Health  Association  has  suggested  certain  minor  modifications  in 
methods  of  procedure,  but  their  adoption  would  have  made  it  difficult  to 

*  Profeasor  of  Sanitary  Encineerins,  Harvard  University. 


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WHIPPLE.  41 

compare  the  new  results  with  the  old  and,  because  of  the  long  series  of 
analytical  records  in  Massachusetts,  uniformity  with  the  past  seemed  to 
be  more  important  than  uniformity  with  methods  used  in  other  states. 
For  the  same  reason  also  the  method  of  stating  the  results  in  parts  per 
100  000  instead  of  parts  per  miUion  has  been  adhered  to,  although  the 
writer  personally  favors  the  latter  method  and  has  used  it  in  this  review. 

Bacteriological  methods  have  never  been  held  to  the  same  rigid 
system  which  has  been  followed  in  chemical  analysis.  There  are  more 
imcontrollable  variables  in  bacteriological  work.  In  these  tests  the 
Department  of  Public  Health  has  followed  the  changes  recommended  by 
the  Committee  on  Standard  Methods  in  a  general  way,  but  these  changes 
have  been  so  frequent  that  it  has  not  seemed  wise  to  break  continuity  with 
past  records  too  frequently. 

While  improvements  in  methods  of  analysis  have  not  been  great,  a 
decided  change  has  taken  place  in  the  attitude  of  American  sanitary 
engineers  towards  water  analyses.  This  altered  viewpoint  is  exceedingly 
important,  although  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  put  into  words.  In  the 
first  place,  there  has  been  a  shifting  of  the  emphasis  from  the  chemical  to 
the  bacteriological  tests,  as  being  more  definitely  indicative  of  the  sanitary 
quaUty  of  the  water.  There  has  been  a  growing  feeling  that  the  old  method 
of  "  interpreting  "  the  chemical  analysis  was  too  speculative,  and  that 
the  nitrogen  tests  were  too  liable  to  be  upset  by  disturbing  conditions  to 
make  them  trustworthy  as  a  basis  of  interpretation.  At  the  same  time 
the  reliability  of  the  bacteriological  tests  has  failed  to  become  fully  estab- 
lished. In  short,  there  has  been  a  loss  of  confidence  in  water  analyses  as 
an  index  of  the  wholesomeness  of  unpurified  waters.  Fortunately,  as  a 
result  of  various  sanitary  reforms,  prominent  among  which  is  water  filtra- 
tion, there  has  been  a  notable  reduction  of  such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever.* 

Throughout  the  United  States  there  has  been  a  great  extension  of 
the  practice  of  water  filtration.  Water  analyses  have  been  found  essential 
to  the  proper  control  of  filter  operation,  but  the  tests  useful  for  this  purpose 
are  quite  different  from  those  used  as  a  basis  of  interpretation  of  the 
wholesomeness  of  unfiltered  waters.  In  water  filtration  the  nitrogen  de- 
terminations have  little  or  no  value,  but  the  bacteriological  and  micro- 
scopical tests,  the  chemical  tests  of  hardness,  alkalinity,  and  free  carbonic 
acid,  and  the  physical  tests  of  color,  turbidity,  and  odor  are  important 
and  are  being  made  throughout  the  country  in  enormous  numbers. 

In  places  where  the  water  supply  has  been  made  reasonably  safe  against 
infection,  public  interest  in  the  quality  of  the  supply  is  shifting  from  its 
sanitary  quality  to  some  of  its  less  important  but  more  obvious  character- 
istics. One  reason  for  this  is  that  filtration,  while  making  water  supplies 
safe,  also  makes  them  clean.    The  inhabitants  of  cities  are  becoming 


•The  averflce  t>i>hoid  fever  death-rate  for  the  state  of  Maasachuaetts  in  1920  was  2.5  per  hundred 
thousand.  The  highest  death-rate  in  any  city  was  10.7,  and  only  five  cities  had  death-rates  about  5  per 
hundred  thousand. 

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42  QUAUTIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

accustomed  to  clean  water,  water  which  has  little  color  and  a  brilliancy 
not  found  at  all  times  in  unfiltered  surface  waters.  Many  communities 
also  are  supplied  with  ground  waters,  which  are  clear,  colorless,  brilliant, 
and  odorless,  except  in  some  places  where  there  is  trouble  from  iron  or 
manganese.  Without  doubt  the  popular  standard  of  purity  of  public 
water  supplies  is  steadily  rising.  Algse  growths  continue  to  cause  com- 
plaint in  many  places  on  account  of  the  odors  which  they  produce.  It  is 
the  writer's  opinion  that  in  Massachusetts,  where  the  safety  of  the  public 
water  supplies  is  well  assured,  the  people  will  not  and  ought  not  to  be 
content  until  the  water  furnished  is  practically  free  from  odor  and  vege- 
table stain  and  is  as  good  in  appearance  as  the  water  in  the  cities,  once 
supplied  with  muddy  water,  which  are  now  enjoying  the  benefits  of 
filtration. 

There  is  one  other  property  of  water  which  is  attracting  increasing 
attention,  —  namely,  its  corrosiveness.  Plumbing  is  far  more  common 
than  a  generation  ago,  the  amount  of  money  spent  annually  in  the  United 
States  for  plumbing  supplies  running  into  millions  of  dollars;  the  materials 
used  for  piping  have  undergone  changes,  lead  being  replaced  by  iron  and 
steel,  and  brass  pipes  being  much  used;  hot-water  heating  has  become 
more  common;  plumbing  repair  costs  have  increased;  the  use  of  meters 
has  shown  that  the  leakage  of  water  is  greater  in  the  houses  than  in  the 
street  mains.  The  use  of  ground  water  and  mechanically  filtered  waters, 
which  in  Massachusetts  are  more  corrosive  than  ordinary  surface  waters, 
has  increased  the  problem  of  corrosion.  All  of  these  things  are  tending 
to  give  the  corrosion  factor  a  greater  prominence  than  it  has  ever  had 
before.  In  the  future  it  must  be  reckoned  with  as  one  of  the  major  ele- 
ments of  the  water-supply  problem.  It  must  be  attacked  from  both 
sides,  —  that  of  the  quality  of  the  water  supplied  and  that  of  the  character 
of  the  materials  used  for  conveying  and  using  water. 

In  making  a  rating  of  the  qualities  of  the  water  supplies  of  Massa- 
chusetts, then,  we  have  four  major  items  to  consider,  —  namely  (1) 
sanitary  quality,  (2)  general  attractiveness,  (3)  mineral  constituents, 
and  (4)  corrosiveness. 

Rating  of  Sanitary  Quality. 

The  "  sanitary  quality  "  of  a  water  supply  is  the  term  by  which  we 
describe  its  likelihood  of  conveying  disease  germs  from  some  source  of 
pollution  to  the  water  consumers.  It  is  fundamentally  a  bacteriological 
question.  If  bacteriological  tests  were  not  so  imperfect,  it  would  be 
possible  to  base  a  sanitary  rating  of  the  water  on  these  tests;  but  inas- 
much as  the  infection  of  a  water  supply  is  rarely  constant  but  occurs 
suddenly  and  usually  without  warning,  no  rating,  especially  if  based  on 
analyses  alone,  can  be  regarded  as  perfect.  It  may  be  worth  while  to 
consider  some  of  the  underlying  principles  as  we  now  view  them. 

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WHIPPLE.  43 

The  presence  of  disease-producing  organisms  in  water  cannot  be 
reliably  determined  by  analysis.  Certain  relatively  harmless  bacteria  of 
fecal  origin,  such  as  B.  colt  and  B,  Wdchii,  can  be  detected  in  water,  but 
there  are  no  ready  methods  of  accurately  determining  the  number  present, 
and  there  are  no  methods  for  distinquishing  between  those  derived  from 
human  excreta  and  those  derived  from  animals  or  birds.  Nevertheless, 
these  tests,  although  somewhat  imcertain  bacteriologically  and  unsatis- 
factory statistically,  are  of  much  use  as  an  index  of  the  likelihood  of  infec- 
tion. The  presence  of  bacteria  that  will  grow  on  culture  media  at  the 
temperature  of  the  human  body  is  another  index,  and  the  presence  of 
bacteria  that  will  grow  at  room  temperature  is  still  another,  but  is  less 
definite  as  an  indication  of  danger.  All  of  these  bacteriological  tests, 
to  be  of  value,  must  be  made  at  frequent  intervals,  often  enough  to  cause 
the  analytical  results  to  reflect  the  natural  changes  in  the  quality  of  the 
water.  In  local  laboratories,  such  as  exist  at  all  large  filter  plants  and 
in  some  cities  where  the  water  is  not  filtered,  these  frequent  tests  can  be 
made  at  a  reasonable  and  justifiable  cost,  but  obviously  it  is  an  expensive 
method  of  control  if  conducted  continuously  on  a  state-wide  basis. 

The  bacilli  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  known  water-borne  diseases 
do  not  multiply  in  water  but  decrease  at  a  nearly  constant  percentage 
rate  from  day  to  day,  the  rate  varying  with  temperature  and  light,  with 
the  substances  present  in  the  water,  and  doubtless  with  factors  still  un- 
known. The  rate  of  decrease  is  usually  lower  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
Under  average  conditions  it  may  be  considered  as  about  20  per  cent,  per 
day.  At  this  rate,  after  one  day's  storage  80  per  cent,  of  the  baciUi  would 
be  left;  after  two  days'  storage,  80  per  cent,  of  80  per  cent.,  or  64  per  cent.; 
after  one  week,  21  per  cent.;  and  after  one  month,  0.12  per  cent.;  etc. 
There  is  no  way  of  determining  by  analysis  this  "  age  of  pollution.''  Many 
will  remember  the  words  which  Dr.  Drown  so  commonly  used,  "  The  state 
of  change  is  the  state  of  danger."  By  comparing  the  four  tests  for  nitrogen 
and  observing  whether  a  considerable  proportion  of  it  was  present  in  the 
mtermediate  stages  known  as  free  ammonia  or  nitrite,  he  made  inference  as 
to  whether  the  organic  matter  was  in  a  state  of  change,  —  that  is,  whether 
the  pollution  was  probably  recent.  Such  inferences  are  often  sound,  and 
the  methods  are  as  good  to-day  as  they  ever  were,  but  they  are  interfered 
with  to  a  considerable  extent  by  growths  of  algae  in  surface  waters,  and  by 
bacterial  reduction  of  nitrate  in  ground  water,  so  that  taken  by  themselves 
they  are  not  very  trustworthy.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  probable  age  of 
pollution  in  surface  waters  can  in  most  cases  be  determined  quite  as  well 
by  inspection  and  by  hydraulic  methods,  unless  the  pollution  accidentally 
occurs  in  the  reservoir  itself  or  near  the  intake,  as  might  happen  in  the  case 
of  boating,  fishing,  ice-cutting,  and  the  like. 

The  "  population  per  square  mile  "  on  a  watershed  is  a  useful  index  of 
the  opportunities  of  infection,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  basic  measure 
of  the  danger  at  the  source.    This  must  be  multiplied  by  one  or  more 


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44  QUALITIES   OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  BiASSACHUSETTS. 

factors  of  safety,  which  depend  partly  upon  natural  and  partly  upon 
artificial  conditions.  The  natural  conditions  include  character  of  the  soil, 
the  slopes  of  the  watershed,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  reservoirs,  the  nominal 
storage  period,  and  other  minor  influences  which  together  control  the  time 
required  for  pollution  to  reach  the  consumers.  The  nature  of  the  soil  is 
a  matter  of  great  importance,  —  sandy  soils,  and  even  gravelly  soik, 
affording  much  higher  factors  of  safety  than  tight,  clay  soils.  Storage 
reservoirs  which  have  a  straight  axis  are  less  effective  in  their  sanitarj- 
•protection  than  those  which  are  curved,  as  there  is  more  danger  that 
winds  may  drive  the  water  quickly  from  the  inlet  to  the  outlet  without 
mixing,  and  thus  reduce  the  age  of  the  water.  In  a  curved  reservoir,  or 
one  which  has  irregular  shores  or  promontories  between  the  inlet  and  the 
outlet,  as  at  Fresh  Pond,  Cambridge,  there  is  less  chance  that  the  incoming 
water  will  pass  to  the  outlet  unmixed  with  the  water  already  in  the  reservoir. 
Mixture  results  in  the  wide  dispersion  of  any  pollution,  as  well  as  longer 
storage.  The  artificial  conditions  include  methods  used  by  the  people  living 
on  the  watershed  for  disposing  of  fecal  matter.  For  equal  populations, 
towns  and  villages,  if  they  are  sewered  into  the  streams  used  as  water 
supplies  are  more  dangerous  than  isolated  farms,  but  they  are  less  dangerous 
if  they  are  sewered  and  the  sewage  diverted  from  the  watershed.  An  unin- 
habited watershed  ought  not  to  be  considered  as  wholly  without  danger, 
because  of  the  chance  that  people  may  wander  over  it  in  the  course  of 
boating,  fishing,  ice-cutting,  hunting,  automobiling,  and  so  on. 

The  writer  and  his  students  have  attempted  to  express  these  various 
factors  in  figures,  but  the  problem  is  so  complicated  and  the  necessarj- 
data  so  difficult  to  secure  that  none  of  the  results  are  worth  publication. 
It  is  necessary  to  fall  back  upon  the  exercise  of  judgment  in  each  particular 
case,  striving  always  to  reduce  the  chances  of  pollution  and  increasing  all 
possible  factors  of  safety.  In  spite  of  difficulties  in  weighting  and  combin- 
ing the  various  factors  into  a  mathematical  sanitary  index,  it  is  important 
to  recognize  that  long  experience  has  proved  that  the  natural  factors  of 
safety  are  of  real  and  substantial  value. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  index  method  of  studying  the  potential 
danger  of  infection  of  a  water  supply  with  that  used  by  Steams  and  Drown 
some  years  ago.  As  a  check  on  "  persons  per  square  mile  "  they  used 
the  "  excess  of  chlorine  *'  above  the  normal  of  the  region.  They  found 
that  each  person  per  square  mile  increased  the  chlorine  by  0.005  part  per 
million  (State  Sanitation,  II,  p.  139).  They  could  not  very  well  use  the 
nitrogen  detenninations  to  obtain  the  time  factor  of  safety  because  of  the 
interference  of  the  algae  growths  and  for  other  reasons,  but  it  is  evident 
that  in  their  discussion  of  the  analyses  they  did  make  a  mental  allowance 
for  a  time  factor  based  on  the  nitrogen  determinations,  calling  it,  however, 
the  "  state  of  change,"  which  meant  a  state  of  danger.' 

There  is  another  factor  which  enters  into  the  problem  of  safety  from 
infection,  the  factor  of  chance.     It  is  not  possible  to  compute  with  a  satis- 


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WHIPPLE.  45 

factory  degree  of  precision  the  chance  of  infection  of  a  water  supply.  It 
is  not  the  average  condition  which  produces  an  epidemic;  it  is  some 
exceptional  combination  of  conditions.  The  frequency  with  which  these 
may  occur  is  not  subject  to  computation.  It  may  be  asserted,  however, 
that  water  supplies  which  are  uniform  in  quality  as  shown  by  analyses  are 
safer  than  those  which  show  wide  fluctuations  from  time  to  time,  just 
as  reservoirs  which  are  always  full  are  safer  than  those  which  are  sometimes 
nearly  empty,  and  just  as  people  who  Uve  a  regular  life  are  less  subject 
to  untimely  death  than  those  who  are  irregular  in  their  habits.  It  is 
possible  to  study  the  variations  in  the  quality  of  water  by  applying  the 
laws  of  probabiUty  to  the  results  of  analyses  when  these  have  been  made 
with  regularity  over  a  long  period  of  time.  Variations  in  color,  chlorine, 
organic  matter,  nitrogen  as  free  ammonia,  and  especially  in  bacteria  and 
B.  coli  give  opportunities  for  studjdng  the  fluctuations  in  quality,  which 
may  be  due  to  increased  discharge  of  water  frojn  swamps,  increased  wash- 
ing of  the  soil,  sudden  movements  of  water  across  a  reservoir,  effects  of 
unusual  pollution,  or  other  causes.  In  the  same  way  variations  in  the 
quantity  of  water  stored  in  a  reservoir  and  even  variations  in  rainfall  are 
an  index  of  unsafe  conditions.  It  would  be  well  to  adopt  as  a  guiding 
principle  a  paraphrase  of  Dr.  Drown's  dictum,  and  say  that  "  a  state  of 
irregidarity  is  a  state  of  danger," 

These  same  principles  may  be  applied  to  surface  water  supplies 
protected  by  filtration.  The  potential  danger  of  a  filtered  water  depends 
upon  the  density  of  population  on  the  watershed,  multipUed  by  a  factor 
of  safety  suppUed  by  the  filter.  The  value  of  this  factor  may  be  taken  as 
the  per  cent,  which  the  number  of  bacteria  in  the  filtered  water  is  of  the 
number  present  before  filtration.  Ordinarily  this  will  not  exceed  1  or  2  per 
cent,  under  average  conditions,  and  will  often  be  much  less  than  1  per  cent. 
But  here  again  the  element  of  chance  comes  in.  Some  filters  work 
steadily  and  give  results  which  do  not  vary  much  in  eflSciency  from  day 
to  day;  other  filters,  because  of  being  ill  adapted  to  the  service,  poorly 
(le.signed,  or  poorly  operated,  or,  perhaps,  because  of  being  outgrown, 
pve  results  which  vary  considerably  from  day  to  day  or  even  from  hour  to 
hour.  Here  also  one  may  say  the  state  of  irregularity  is  the  state  of  danger. 
Large  filters  are  usually  more  uniform  in  their  performance  than  small 
fikers,  just  as  large  storage  reservoirs  are  usually  more  uniform  in  the 
quality  of  their  water  than  small  reservoirs.  Hence  with  small  supphes 
the  population  factor  is  of  greater  importance  than  with  large  supplies. 
Superintendents  of  small  water  works  need  to  protect  the  original  sources 
of  their  water  supplies  with  especial  care. 

As  to  chlorination,  it  may  be  said  that  the  process  furnishes  a  high 
factor  of  safety  xmder  average  conditions,  but  that  the  factor  of  irregularity 
is  a  more  serious  one  than  in  the  case  of  filtration.  If  chlorination  fails, 
as  it  sometimes  does  for  short  periods,  the  factor  of  safety  is  reduced  to 
zero.     If  this  process  is  to  be  depended  upon,  this  serious  element  of 


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46  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

irregularity  must  be  overcome.  Of  course,  the  combination  of  filtration 
and  chlorination  multiplies  safety,  but  the  policy  of  cheapening  filtration, 
utilizing  it  for  clarification  only  and  depending  upon  chlorination  for 
bacterial  purification,  is  one  that  is  attended  with  great  danger,  and  ought 
not  to  be  followed. 

Unfortunately,  the  factor  of  safety  of  water-purification  works  of 
any  kind  involves  the  human  element,  which  is  somewhat  erratic,  and 
especially  liable  to  be  so  in  small  plants  where  the  attendance  is  not  con- 
stant and  where  the  operation  is  necessarily  left  to  persons  who  are  not 
expert  in  the  special  field  of  water  purification. 

Massachusetts  with  her  many  small  suppUes  has  very  properly  placed 
the  chief  emphasis  on  the  protection  of  the  original  sources  of  the  water, 
has  emphasized  sanitary  inspections,  has  favored  the  acquisition  of  land 
for  protecting  water  suppUes,  and  has  been  opposed  to  such  dangerous 
practices  as  boating,  fishing,  and  ice-cutting  on  reservoirs.  As  the  state 
becomes  more  populated,  as  the  cities  become  larger,  it  will  doubtless  be 
necessary  to  add  to  the  natural  factors  of  safety  those  which  are  obtained 
by  various  methods  of  purification.  In  some  cases  these,  have  already 
been  adopted.  Massachusetts  is  fortunate  in  having  favorable  soil  con- 
ditions and  storage  facilities  for  water-supply  purposes. 

Attractiveness. 

The  word  "  potability  "  was  first  used  to  describe  the  "  drinkable  ^' 
characteristics  of  water,  and  had  reference  to  certain  very  obvious  quaUties. 
Water  which  is  lukewarm  is  not  drinkable;  neither  is  water  which  tastes 
or  smells  bad  or  which  is  offensive  to  the  sight.  Sea  water  is  not  potable. 
Popularly  speaking,  an  infected  water,  however,  may  be  potable,  —  as, 
for  example,  an  infected  well  water.  In  recent  years  the  term  "  potability  " 
has  been  widened  to  include  the  sanitary  quality,  the  safety,  the  whole- 
someness,  in  fact,  all  of  the  quaUties  of  a  pubUc  water  supply,  and  the 
result  has  been  that  a  perfectly  good  word  has  gone  out  of  current  use  in 
America.  Now,  when  we  wish  to  describe  the  potabiUty  of  water,  we 
speak  of  its  attractiveness,  its  "  esthetic  "  qualities.  When  people  say, 
as  they  so  often  do,  that  "  We  have  the  best  water  in  the  state,"  or  "  We 
have  the  best  well  in  the  village,"  it  is  attractiveness  which  they  have  in 
mind,  not  safety  from  infection.  When  the  time  comes  that  all  pubhc 
water  supplies  are  reasonably  safe  we  may  be  able  to  restore  the  word 
"  potability  "  to  current  use. 

There  are  several  properties  which  combine  to  make  up  this  quality 
of  attractiveness: 

1.  Color,  measured  by  comparison  with  standards. 

2.  Clearness,  measured  by  the  turbidity  test. 

3.  Brilliancy,  for  which  there  is  no  accepted  test. 

4.  Odor,  due  in  great  measure  to  microscropic  organisms. 


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WHIPPLE.  47 

5.  Taste,  due  largely  to  dissolved  organic  or  mineral  matter. 

6.  Aeration. 

7.  Temperature. 

8.  Esthetic  surroundings  of  the  source. 

Of  these  properties,  color,  turbidity,  aeration,  and  temperature 
can  be  measured  with  accuracy.  Taste  and  odor  can  be  described  in 
simple,  approximate  terms,  but  cannot  be  measiured  acciu-ately.  Brilliancy 
is  a  quality  which  we  may  some  day  learn  how  to  measure.  It  is  due  ap- 
parently to  an  absence  of  colloidal  clay  and  finely  divided  organic  matter. 
It  is  probable  that  by  the  further  development  of  the  Tyndall  ray  we  shall 
be  able  to  measure,  as  well  as  indicate,  the  amount  of  these  colloidal 
substances.  Every  one  knows  how  dust  particles  in  the  air  over  a  hayloft 
can  be  detected  by  the  ray  of  sunlight  which  enters  through  a  crack  in 
the  bam.  That  is  the  principle  of  the  Tyndall  ray,  and  also  that  of  the 
ultramicroscope.  Brilliancy  is  a  sort  of  extension  of  the  idea  of  clearness. 
Some  waters  are  clear,  —  that  is,  they  have  no  turbidity,  but  they  are  not 
brilliantly  clear;  they  do  not  sparkle.  As  Houston  says,  filtered  waters 
ought  to  have  a  *'  clean,  polished  look."  Some  colored  waters  are  brilliant, 
just  as  tea  is  brilliant,  or  that  ancient  liquor  known  as  beer.  Therefore 
not  all  coUoida]  matter  interferes  with  this  quality  of  brilliancy. 

The  sparkling  of  water  is  due  to  briUiancy  coupled  with  aeration. 
Very  finely  divided  bubbles  of  air  emerging  from  solution  reflect  the  light 
and  make  the  water  sparkle.  Spring  water,  being  cold,  contains  more 
dissolved  air  than  it  can  hold  in  solution  after  it  has  been  warmed.  Con- 
sequently these  gases  come  out  of  solution,  appear  as  minute  bubbles 
which  sparkle,  and  then  coalesce  to  form  larger  bubbles  visible  to  the  eye, 
and  perhaps  collect  on  the  sides  of  the  glass.  We  do  not  reach  perfection 
in  water  purification  until  we  produce  water  like  the  "  sparkling  spring." 
Artificial  aeration  will  make  a  brilliant  water  sparkle. 

The  various  qualities  which  combine  to  make  up  the  attractiveness 
of  water  are  of  immediate  and  daily  concern  to  the  consumers.  Experience 
has  shown  that  some  people  demand  a  water  which  closely  approaches 
the  ideal  of  attractiveness;  others  make  no  remark  at  slight  departures 
from  the  ideal,  but  complain  if  the  water  is  dirty  or  too  highly  colored  or 
has  an  odor.  A  point  may  be  reached,  however,  when,  because  of  ex- 
cessive color  or  turbidity  or  because  of  bad  odors,  nearly  all  persons  object 
to  the  quality  of  the  water,  —  that  is,  the  water  becomes  non-acceptable, 
non-potable.  There  are  also  persons  who  have  a  natural  repugnance  to 
drinking  water  from  a  polluted  source,  even  though  assured  that  the  water 
is  safe  and  even  though  it  is  delivered  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  state.  The 
esthetic  surroundings  of  a  water  supply  are  elements  of  real  value. 

It  is  possible  to  set  fairly  definite  standards  for  the  obvious  qualities 
of  color,  turbidity,  and  odor.  It  might  even  be  possible  to  combine  them 
into  an  index  of  attractiveness  and  use  it  for  comparing  different  water 
supplies.    Such    comparisons   are   more   curious    than    useful,   for   each 

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48  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OP  MASSACHUSETTS. 

community  must  draw  its  water  supply-  from  naturally  restricted  sources 
and  must  also  look  well  to  the  cost  of  its  water  service.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  important  that  every  supply  be  made  attractive  to  the  consumers, 
and  in  the  long  run  the  consumers  are  the  best  judges.  It  is  not  for  the 
engineers  and  chemists  to  set  the  standards  of  attractiveness,  but  to  register 
the  opinion  of  the  consumers,  bearing  in  mind  that  communities  dififer 
in  their  ideas  just  as  people  differ. 

While  the  ideal  color  is  zero,  waters  which  have  colors  less  than  10 
are  nearly  always  regarded  as  practically  colorless.  Colors  between  10 
and  20  are  acceptable  in  New  England  provided  that  the  waters  are  not 
also  turbid.  Dirt  and  microscopic  organisms  in  water  accentuate  color. 
When  the  color  exceeds  40  or  50,  or  even  when  it  exceeds  20  with  suspended 
matter  present,  the  water  is  not  satisfactory  for  drinking,  as  it  looks  dirty 
in  a  glass  or  in  a  porcelain  washbasin  or  bathtub. 

New  England  waters  are  seldom  as  turbid  as  those  of  the  South 
and  Middle  West,  where  the  soil  contains  much  clay.  The  glacial  drift 
which  covered  the  northern  part  of  the  country  did  much  to  guarantee 
attractive  water  suppUes.  Such  turbidity  as  is  found  is  usually  of  such 
a  character  that  it  quickly  settles  on  standing  and  forms  a  sediment. 
It  is  difficult  to  measure  this  sediment  by  the  standard  silica  scale,  and 
the  analysts  have  taken  recourse  to  descriptive  words  such  as  slight, 
distinct,  heavy,  etc.  As  a  rule,  according  to  Mr.  H.  W.  Clark,  these 
terms  correspond  to  weights  of  sediment  about  as  follows: 

Very  slight 0-    2  parts  per  million. 

Slight 3-10  parts  per  million. 

Decided 11-50  parts  per  million. 

ConvSiderable 51-100  parts  per  million. 

Heavy 101         parts  per  million. 

Turbidity  may  be  due  to  microscopic  organisms,  and  this  has  also 
been  described  in  words,  such  as  very  slight,  slight,  distinct,  decided,  etc. 
Hardly  one  sample  in  twenty  has  turbidity  enough  to  enable  it  to  be  ex- 
pressed on  the  numerical  scale. 

The  turbidity  and  sediment  in  water  is  subject  to  seasonal  fluctuations 
and  is  influenced  by  the  erratic  occurrence  of  microscopic  organisms  and 
soil  washings  after  heavy  rains.  In  classifying  the  water  supplies  of  the 
state  according  to  turbidity,  the  best  method  appears  to  be  to  record  the 
per  cent,  of  time  during  which  certain  conditions  prevail. 

No  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to  measure  briUiancy.  This  is  a 
quality  which  needs  to  be  studied.  Waters  which  contain  both  color  and 
turbidity  are  dull  or  "  murky." 

Nearly  all  ground  waters  are  brilliant  unless  they  contain  iron  or 
manganese.  Very  few  of  the  surface  waters  of  New  England  are  constantly 
brilliant,  because  of  microscopic  organisms  or  other  organic  matter,  but 
they  can  be  made  so  by  filtration.  Some  waters  lose  their  brilliancy  by 
picking  up  iron  rust  from  the  distribution  pipes.     A  water  may  have  a 


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WHIPPLE.  49 

color  above  20  and  yet  be  brilliant.  Brilliancy  is  a  quality  much  desired 
and  highly  prized.  A  brilliant  water  of  color  30  is  liked  better  than  a 
duU  water  of  color  15.  It  is  not  possible  to  classify  Massachusetts  waters 
according  to  brilliancy  in  a  reliable  way  on  the  basis  of  present  data. 

Growths  of  microscopic  organisms  are  characteristic  of  the  surface 
water  supplies  of  New  England.  They  occur  intermittently,  and  vary 
greatly  in  different  reservoirs.  Some  of  them  merely  make  the  water 
dull  or  miu-ky;  others  give  rise  to  odors  characterized  as  grassy,  aromatic, 
fishy,  etc.  Decaying  organic  matter,  including  decaying  organisms,  give 
moldy  odors.  Even  the  harmless  organic  matter  which  produces  color 
gives  to  water  a  vegetable  or  swampy  odor.  All  of  these  odors  vary  in 
intensity  as  much  as  they  vary  in  character. 

It  would  be  possible  to  classify  the  waters  of  the  state  according  to 
the  number  of  organisms  present,  but  as  there  are  many  species  of  organisms 
it  would  require  an  elaborate  study.  The  organisms  are  fragile  and  are 
often  destroyed  during  the  transportation  of  the  samples,  so  that  the  re- 
sults of  analyses  are  not  always  true.  Furthermore,  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Health  has  never  adopted  the  standard  unit  system  of 
keeping  records,  the  most  satisfactory  method  yet  devised.  Hence  the 
published  results  have  only  a  general  value  for  purposes  of  comparison. 
It  will  therefore  be  more  practical  to  classify  the  water  supplies  according 
to  the  odor  test,  even  though  the  odors  are  subject  to  change  during  the 
transportation  of  samples  and  also  subject  to  a  personal  equation,  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  sense  of  smeD  of  the  water  analyst.  As  a  rule  the 
algae  odors  as  observed  by  the  analyst  are  less  pronounced  than  those 
observed  by  the  consumer  taking  a  glass  of  water  directly  from  the  tap, 
—  just  as  the  flavor  of  strawberries  purchased  in  the  city  is  not  as  sharp 
and  delicious  as  when  the  berries  are  first  picked.  Moldy  odors,  on  the 
other  hand,  become  intensified  when  water  stands  in  a  closed  bottle. 

The  most  useful  basis  for  comparison  seems  to  be  the  per  cent,  of 
time  during  which  the  water  supplies  have  possessed  odors  of  different 
degrees  of  intensity.  This  assumes  that  all  odors  are  objectionable,  what- 
ever their  character;  that  '*  very  faint  '*  and  "  faint  "  odors  are  noticeable; 
and  that  "  distinct  "  and  *'  decided  "  odors  are  objectionable.  Thus  by 
putting  together  the  weekly  odor  records  kept  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
Metropolitan  Water  Works  during  the  years  1905  to  1920,  and  dividing 
them  into  five  classes.  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  we  get  the  following  results, 
which  have  been  computed  from  data  furnished  by  Mr.  Charles  E. 
Livermore. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


B. 

C. 

D. 

E. 

Odor  too 

Odor  no- 

Odor strong 

Odor 

faint  to 

ticeable 

enough  to 

strong 

Attract 

but  not 

cause  some 

enough 

attention. 

enough  to 

complaint. 

to  cause 

cause 

general 

complaint. 

complaint. 

85.8 

5.8 

3.2 

0.8 

73.3 

15.2 

9.0 

1.0 

80.7 

10.0 

8.1 

0.2 

38.8 

29.5 

23.6 

7.7 

84.4 

8.2 

3.5 

0.9 

78.2 

13.2 

4.8 

0.6 

84.7 

8.0 

4.9 

0.5 

84.5 

7.4 

5.6 

0.8 

50  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  BUPPLIB8  OF  BiASSACHUSETTS. 

Odor  Tests,  Metropolitan  Water  Works,  1905-1920. 
(Figures  indicate  percent  of  lime.) 

A. 

Practi- 
cally 
no  odor. 


Wachusett  Reservoir 4.4 

Sudbury  Reservoir 1.5 

Framingham  Reservoir,  No.  2  ..  1.0 

Lake  Cochituate* 0.4 

Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir 3.0 

Spot  Pond  Reservoir 3.0 

Tap,  180  Boylston  Street 1.9 

Tap,  Ashburton  Place 1.7 

These  figures  show  that  in  the  Metropolitan  District  the  odor  of  the 
water  is  strong  enough  to  be  noticeable  and  cause  some  complaint  for  two 
or  three  weeks  each  year. 

Mineral  Constituents. 

The  surface  waters  of  Massachusetts  are  not  highly  mineralized. 
The  mineral  solids  seldom  exceed  75  parts  pernnillion.  In  the  Berkshire 
district,  where  there  are  limestone  deposits,  the  surface  waters  are  a  little 
harder  than  elsewhere.  The  ground  waters  are  naturally  harder  than 
the  surface  waters.  The  hardnesses  of  the  wells  vary  somewhat  erraticaDy. 
Wells  near  the  coast  are  inclined  to  be  hard.  Household  wells  that  are 
polluted  are  also  hard. 

The  term  "  soft "  may  be  logically  applied  to  waters  which  have  a 
hardness  of  less  than  12  parts  per  million,  this  being  about  the  limit  of  the 
solubility  of  normal  calcium  carbonate.  The  terms  for  the  other  classes 
have  local  application  only.  Popularly  speaking,  hardness  is  a  relative 
term.  All  Massachusetts  waters  would  seem  soft  to  people  acccustomed  to 
the  hard  waters  of  the  Middle  West. 

Iron  and  manganese  are  elements  which  give  rise  to  more  or  less 
trouble  in  our  Massachusetts  water  supplies.  These  troubles  are  confined 
chiefly  to  ground  waters. 

Corrosion. 

According  to  modem  theory,  the  corrosion  of  metals  is  incited  by  the 
presence  of  hydrogen  ions  in  water.  Ions  carry  electrical  charges,  hence 
the  phenomena  of  corrosion  are  properly  regarded  as  electrical.  When 
two  different  metals  in  contact,  or  even  without  being  in  contact,  are  im- 
mersed in  water  which,  because  of  the  presence  of  electrolytes,  conducts 
electricity,  galvanic  corrosion  will  occur.  If  a  current  of  electricity  is 
passed  through  the  system,  corrosion  will  be  accentuated.    The  actual 

^  Held  as  »  reserve  supply  and  aeldom  used. 

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WHIPPLE.  51 

rusting  of  iron  is  brought  about  by  the  oxygen  dissolved  in  the  water,  and 
it  may  be  said  that  most  water  supplies  are  fully  charged  with  dissolved 
ox>'gen. 

Until  within  a  few  years  it  was  not  regarded  as  practicable  to  measure 
the  amount  of  the  hydrogen  ion  as  a  routine  laboratory  procedure.     It 


Fio.  1. 

Lsnow  possible  to  do  so,  and  the  test  is  easily  made.  A  hydrogen  ion  survey 
ought  to  be  made  of  all  of  the  water  supplies  of  the  state  and  extended 
through  an  entire  year  in  order  to  obtain  the  effect  of  seasonal  changes. 
But  even  without  such  a  survey  it  is  possible  to  compare  the  relative 
corrosive  powers  of  waters  on  the  basis  of  certain  chemical  tests  which 

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52  QUALITIES   OP  THE   WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

have  already  been  made,  —  namely,  carbonic  acid,  alkalinity,  color  and 
chlorine.  The  presence  of  dissolved  free  carbonic  acid  means  that  hydrogen 
ions  are  present.  The  presence  of  chlorine  (actually  chlorides)  means  that 
the  water  will  conduct  electricity  and  that  galvanic  action  may  occur. 
Alkalinity  (due  to  calcium  or  magnesium  carbonates  and  hence  making 
up  part  of  the  hardness)  retards  corrosion.  Coloring  matter  means 
organic  acids  and  more  hydrogen  ions.  Hence  soft  waters  which  contain 
free  carbonic  acid  or  coloring  matter  are  corrosive.  Waters  near  the  sea, 
or  well  waters  that  are  polluted,  are  corrosive  because  of  the  presence  of 
chlorides  and  accompanying  salts.  Hard  waters  are  less  corrosive,  even 
though  carbonic  acid  and  chlorides  are  present. 

The  free  carbonic  acid  in  water  is  subject  to  great  variations.  In 
surface  waters,  exposed  as  they  are  to  the  air,  it  seldom  exceeds  2  to  5 
parts  per  million,  as  the  water  is  delivered  to  the  city.  The  stagnant 
strata  of  water  near  the  bottom  of  a  reservoir  may  contain  ten  times  as 
much  as  this.  Well  waters  usually  contain  much  more  carbonic  acid  than 
surface  waters,  and  the  amount  is  subject  to  most  erratic  changes,  so  that 
only  by  making  a  large  number  of  tests  can  the  average  amount  be  fairly 
determined.  Such  tests  have  the  disadvantage  that  for  exact  results 
the  operations  must  be  performed  on  samples  at  the  time  of  collection  and 
not  on  samples  sent  to  the  laboratory.  Many  of  the  surface  waters  have 
their  carbonic  acid  reduced  to  zero  during  the  summer  by  reason  of  growth 
of  algse. 

Recent  studies  have  given  a  basis  for  estimating  the  combined  corro- 
sive effect  of  carbonic  acid  and  hardness,  —  the  one  corrosive,  the  other 
protective.  For  any  given  amount  of  carbonic  acid  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing hardness  which  will  furnish  protection.  This  relation  is  shown  by 
Fig.  1.  If  for  any  given  hardness  the  carbonic  acid  is  more  than  that 
shown  by  the  curve,  the  excess  may  be  termed  "  aggressive  "  and  the  wat€r 
will  be  corrosive.  In  some  sections  of  the  country  where  the  waters  have 
a  hardness  of  one  or  two  hundred  parts  per  million  there  is  very  often  no 
aggressive  carbonic  acid,  but  with  the  soft  waters  of  New  England  nearly 
aD  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  aggressive.  To  make  an  appraisal  of  the  water 
supplies  of  the  state  from  the  standpoint  of  corrosion  is  not  easy.  The 
basis  of  such  a  comparison  is  obtained  by  using  the  chemical  determina- 
tions of  carbonic  acid,  chlorine,  alkalinity,  and  hardness. 

Our  knowledge  of  these  matters  is  not  yet  sufficient  to  enable  us  to 
classify  adequately  the  waters  of  the  state  on  the  basis  of  their  corrosive 
power,  but  a  few  generalizations  may  be  made.  Waters  are  corrosive  in 
proportion  to  their  aggressive  carbonic  acid  and  in  proportion  to  the 
chlorides  present.  The  hard  surface  waters  of  the  western  part  of  the 
state  are  low  in  chlorine  and  are  but  slightly  corrosive.  The  soft  surface 
waters  of  the  middle  and  eastern  portions  of  the  state  are  slightly  corrosive 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  because  of  the  presence  of  small  amounts 
of  aggressive  carbonic  acid.    The  well  waters  of  the  state,  although  gener- 


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WHIPPLE. 


53 


ally  harder  than  the  surface  waters,  are  more  corrosive  because  of  the 
presence  of  more  aggressive  carbonic  acid.  Pollution  increases  the  ag- 
gressive carbonic  acid.  Ground  waters  taken  from  infiltration  galleries 
near  rivers  or  wells  located  in  swampy  places  are  especially  liable  to  contain 
a^ressive  carbonic  acid.  Alum-treated  waters  contain  more  aggressive 
carbonic  acid  than  before  treatment,  as  the  alkalinity  is  reduced  and  the 
free  carbonic  acid  increased.  Water  supplies  near  the  coast  and  polluted 
waters  have  their  corrosive  power  increased  by  reason  of  higher  chlorine 
contents.  The  next  few  years  ought  to  show  a  marked  increase  in  our 
knowledge  of  this  subject. 

The  subject  of  lead  poisoning  is  connected  with  that  of  corrosion. 
Much  attention  has  been  given  to  it  in  Massachusetts,  especially  in  the 
early  days.  There  is  less  lead  poisoning  from  public  water  supplies  now 
than  formerly,  largely  because  less  lead  pipe  is  used  in  house  plumbing; 
but  the  matter  is  one  that  should  not  be  allowed  to  drop  out  of  sight.  In 
some  cities  it  is  still  important,  and  in  a  few  places  it  is  of  serious  import. 
In  Providence  the  water  is  artificially  hardened  in  order  to  reduce  the 
aggressive  carbonic  acid.  This  practice  will  some  day  become  more 
common  than  it  now  is. 

Classification  of  Massachusetts  Waters. 

Having  considered  the  various  elements  involved  in  a  rating  of  the 
quality  of  water  from  the  standpoint  of  the  consumer,  we  may  now  turn 
to  the  water  supplies  themselves  and  set  forth  some  of  the  results  for 
the  purpose  of  comparison,  by  means  of  tables  and  diagrams.  These 
data  were  compiled  by  Miss  Bertha  M.  Brown,  C.  P.  H.,  recently  a  student 
in  the  School  of  Public  Health  of  Harvard  University  and  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology. 

For  the  sake  of  simplicity  the  supplies  were  divided  into  five  classes, 
A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  (represented  by  the  colors:  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange, 
and  red  on  the  maps*),  for  each  of  the  analjrtical  tests  considered.  These 
classes  were  intended  to  represent  the  qualities  of  the  water  from  good  to 
bad,  —  classes  A  and  B  being  satisfactory,  classes  D  and  E  being  unsatis- 
factory, and  class  C  being  intermediate  between  the  two. 

The  analytical  values  used  in  making  this  classification  were  as  follows: 

Significance  of  Colors  Used  on  Classification  Maps. 


Class 


Turbidity 

or 
Sediment. 


Odor. 


Color. 


Pdrt«  per  Million 


Hardnesis. 


Iron. 


Chlorine 


A  Blue 

B  Green 

C  Yellow 

D  I  Oranpce 

E  I  Red  " 


None 

Veiy  slight 
Slight 
Distinr^ 
Decided 


None 
Very  faint 
Faint 
Distinct 
Decided 


0-10 

11-20 

21-40 

41-60 

61 


0-  5 

6-12 

13-25 

26-50 

51 


0.00-0.10 
0.11-0.40 
0.41-1.00 
1.01-2.00 
2.01 


0-  5 
6-10 
11-15 
6-20 
1-21 


*  These  maps  were  displayed  at  the  meeting,  but  are  not  here  reproduced. 


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54  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

On  the  mB,p8  the  circles  indicate  surface  waters,  the  triangles  ground 
waters.  These  are  sometimes  divided  into  proportional  parts,  shown  in 
different  colors  and  corresponding  to  the  percentage  of  time  during  which 
the  different  conditions  prevail  during  the  year.  The  intention  has  been 
to  show  the  quaUty  of  the  water  as  delivered  to  the  consumers,  and  the 
circles  and  triangles  are  placed  over  the  city  or  town  supplied,  regardless 
of  the  location  of  the  source.  The  data  used  in  preparing  the  maps  are 
given  in  tabular  form,  beyond. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  compare  one  supply  with  another, 
but  each  superintendent  of  water  works  will  doubtless  be  interested  to 
see  where  his  supply  stands  in  the  list.  Certain  general  explanations 
of  the  tables  and  maps,  however,  should  be  made. 

No  comparisons  of  sanitary  quality  are  given,  as  no  acceptable  index 
has  been  found  suitable  for  the  purpose.  Furthermore,  the  various 
factors  essential  to  such  an  index  are  not  known  in  so  many  cases  that 
computations  are  practically  impossible.  The  sanitary  quality  of  each 
water  supply  must  still  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  estimate  and  judgment, 
based  on  all  of  the  local  conditions. 

In  the  case  of  color,  hardness,  chlorine,  and  iron,  the  averages  of  the 
monthly  analyses  were  used.  As  a  rule,  the  figures  for  chlorine  and 
hardness  vary  but  little  from  month  to  month  or  from  year  to  year.  The 
color  of  surface  waters  varies  seasonally  and  the  variations  are  consider- 
able. Thus  one  of  the  suppUes  (Cambridge)  included  in  class  C  on  the 
basis  of  its  average  color  would  be  placed  in  the  other  classes  during  a 
certain  part  of  the  time,  as  follows:  A,  0  per  cent.;  B,  5  per  cent.;  C,  90 
per  cent.;  D,  5  per  cent.;  E,  0  per  cent. 

The  data  show  that  practically  all  of  the  unfiltered  surface  supplies 
are  unsatisfactory  at  times  by  reason  of  odor,  turbidity,  and  sediment,  and 
that  many  of  them  are  in  the  unsatisfactory  color  class,  while  most  of  the 
ground  waters  are  satisfactory  in  all  these  respects.  These  qualities 
which  go  to  make  up  the  attractiveness  are  controllable. 

Variations  in  Quality. 

The  writer  has  taken  pains  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  regularity 
in  the  quaUty  of  a  water  supply.  A  water  which  always  has  a  color  of 
15  is  liked  by  the  consumers  better  than  one  which  has  an  average  color 
of  15  with  variations  from  5  to  30.  Consumers  are  apt^  judge  a  water 
supply  not  by  its  best  but  by  its  worst  condition.  To  study  all  of  the 
water  supplies  of  the  state  from  the  standpoint  of  regularity  would  be 
interesting  and  would  go  a  long  way  in  determining  the  relative  safety  of 
the  different  supplies.  The  writer  wishes  to  urge  each  water-works  super- 
intendent to  study  the  analyses  of  his  supply  from  this  point  of  view.  Two 
examples  may  be  given  to  illustrate  the  method  of  procedure.  The  first 
is  a  comparison  between  Wachusett  Reservoir,  which  represents  a  water 


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WHIPPLE.  55 

of  uniform  condition,  and  Worcester,  which  represents  a  water  of  variable 
condition,  the  test  for  chlorine  being  used.  The  second  is  a  comparison 
between  the  color  of  the  raw  and  filtered  water  at  the  Springfield  filter. 

In  Wachusett  Reservoir  during  the  years  1903-1920  the  median 
amount  of  chlorine  present  was  2.72  parts  per  million,  but  during  one  tenth 
of  the  time  this  figure  was  exceeded  20  per  cent.,  and  during  a  hundredth 
of  the  time  by  37  per  cent.  In  Tatnuck  Brook  Reservoir  of  the  Worcester 
supply  the  median  value  was  1.49  parts  per  million,  but  during  one  tenth 
of  the  time  this  value  was  exceeded  by  50  per  cent.,  and  during  a  hun- 
dredth of  the  time  by  60  per  cent.  This  and  other  similar  studies  show 
how  much  more  uniform  in  quality  the  larger  supplies  are  than  the  smaller 
supplies. 

At  Springfield  during  the  year  1912  the  raw  Little  River  water  had 
a  median  color  of  31,  but  one  tenth  of  the  samples  had  colors  of  less  than 
20  and  another  10  per  cent,  had  colors  higher  than  55,  the  extreme  colors 
being  16  and  95.  In  the  case  of  the  filtered  waters,  however,  the  median 
color  was  15.  One  tenth  of  the  samples  had  colors  less  than  13,  and 
one  tenth  more  than  18,  the  extremes  being  10  and  30.  In  other  words, 
the  filtered  water  was  not  only  lower  but  more  uniform  in  color  than  the 
raw  water. 

Certain  constituents  of  surface  waters,  as,  for  example,  chlorine, 
hardness,  and  other  mineral  substances,  vary  but  little  from  month  to 
month,  and  frequent  analyses  are  not  necessary.  But  color,  odor,  micro- 
scopic organisms,  and  bacteria  are  constantly  varying,  and  more  frequent 
sampling  is  needed  if  these  changes  are  to  be  followed. 


The  Question  or  Filtration. 

Comparatively  few  of  the  surface-water  supplies  of  Massachusetts 
are  filtered.  Of  the  large  supplies  there  are  only  three.  The  Lawrence 
filter  was  built  in  1892  as  a  protection  against  the  gross  pollution  which 
the  Merrimac  River  receives.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  water  can  be 
made  safe  by  this  process  supplemented  by  chlorination,  the  supply  is 
not  favorably  regarded  by  the  citizens,  for  sentimental  reasons.  They 
say  that  they  do  not  wish  to  drink  the  sewage  of  Lowell,  however  thoroughly 
purified.  The  Springfield  filteJr  was  built  in  1909,  largely  to  improve  the 
attractivene^  of  the  Little  River  water,  but  also  to  secure  an  added  factor 
of  safety  against  pollution.  By  means  of  coagulation  with  a  small  amount 
of  alum  and  slow  sand  filtration  the  color  has  been  kept  at  a  nearly  uniform 
figure  and  the  water  has  been  made  brilliant.  It  has  a  high  factor  of  regu- 
larity. The  Lowell  filter  was  built  in  1915  and  the  Brookline  filter  in 
1917  to  remove  iron  and  manganese  from  ground  waters.  The  city 
of  Cambridge  has  a  filter  under  construction.  There  are  several  smaller 
filters  in  the  state  built  to  remove  iron  from  ground  waters  or  to  clarify 


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56  QUALITIES   OP  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES   OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

surface  waters.    The  filters  in  Masaehusetts  on  January  1,  1921,  were 
as  follows: 

Filters  in  Massachusetts  ox  Jandary  1,  1921. 

Date  of 
City  or  Town.  Inst^Hation.  Type  of  Filter. 

Athol 1887  Mechanical. 

Cohasset 1914  „ 

Reading 1896  „ 

Scituate 1913  „ 

Brookline 1917  Sand  filters  for  removal  of  iron. 

LoweU • 1915 

Marblehead 1909  „ 

Middleborough 1915  „ 

Athol 1912  Slow  sand  filters  for  filtration  of 

Lawrence  (2) 1892,  1893  surface  waters. 

Milford 1895 

Northfield  (East) 1915 

Norwood 1913  „ 

Southbridge 1908  „ 

Sprini^eld  (Ludlow) 1906 

Springfield  (Little  River) 1909  „ 

West  Springfield 1907  „ 

Attleborough 1908  Filters  to  which  surface  water  is 

Bedford 1909  applied    to    supplement    ground 

Greenfield 1913  sources. 

Hingham 1903  „ 

Leicester  (Cherry  Valley) 1912 

Newburyport  (2) 1908 

Salisbury 1915  „ 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  is  a  slow  sand  filter  at  the  Bridgewater 
State  Farm,  and  the  Metropolitan  Water  and  Sewerage  Board  maintain 
open  sand  filters  for  filtration  of  brook  waters  entering  Lake  Cochituat« 
in  Natick,  Sudbury  Reservoir  in  Marlborough,  and  Wachusett  Reservoir 
in  Sterling.    There  are  also  certain  experimental  filters  not  listed  above. 

The  question,  "  Why  are  there  not  more  filters  in  Massachusetts?  " 
is  one  that  is  asked  outside  of  the  state  more  than  within  the  stato.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  water  supplies  of  Massachusetts  taken  as  a  whole 
are  well  safeguarded  and  reasonably  satisfactory  to  the  consumers.  The 
very  low  typhoid  fever  death-rate  of  the  state  has  already  been  referred 
to.  Yet,  looking  at  the  data  for  color,  turbidity,  sediment,  and  odor,  it 
will  be  seen  that  very  few  of  the  surface  waters  are  attractive  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  In  almost  every  case  there  are  some  weeks  or  months  in  the 
year  when  the  color  is  too  high,  when  the  water  is  not  clear,  or  when, 
on  account  of  growths  of  microscopic  organisms,  the  water  has  an  un- 
pleasant odor.  Even  the  water  supplied  to  the  Boston  Metropolitan 
District  is  no  exception,  as  microscopic  organisms  appear  in  large  numbers 
in  Wachusett  Reservoir  and  the  other  reservoirs  every  few  years.  Lake 
Cochituate  water  in  recent  years  has  been  notably  unsatisfactory.  These 
occasional  unpleasant  conditions  cause  only  passing  comment  by  the 


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WHIPPLE.  57 

people,  but  the  fact  can  not  be  ignored  that  standards  of  quaUty  are  rising- 
With  the  supplies  of  most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  country  made  brilliant 
by  jfiltration,  the  supplies  of  Greater  Boston  will  before  long  suffer  by 
comparison.  For  many  years,  before  the  days  of  filtration,  the  water 
supplies  of  New  England  were  of  much  better  quaUty  than  those  of  the 
South  and  Middle  West,  but  with  the  very  rapid  appUcation  of  filtration 
to  these  natiu-ally  muddy  waters  the  tables  are  being  turned  and  the  New 
England  supplies,  because  of  their  color,  sediment,  turbidity,  and  occasional 
growths  of  odor-producing  organisms,  are  coming  to  be  of  lower  standard 
of  attractiveness  than  the  others.  These  comparisons  are  more  obvious 
to  travelers  than  to  persons  who  reside  continually  in  one  place  and  become 
accustomed  to  their  own  water  supply. 

It  must  not  be  forgdtten  also  that  while  the  surface  water  supplies 
of  Massachusetts  are  well  safeguarded  against  constant  pollution,  any 
unfiJtered  supply  is  subject  to  accidental  contamination.  Heavy  rains 
may  suddenly  wash  polluting  substances  into  the  streams.  The  "  turn- 
over "  of  a  reservoir,  because  of  the  disturbance  of  thermal  stratification, 
may  carry  deposits  from  the  bottom  to  the  supply  pipes  of  the  city.  There 
may  be  accidental  infection  resulting  from  the  practices  of  boating,  fishing, 
and  ice-cutting.  Storage  in  large  reservoirs  gives  a  high  average  factor 
of  safety  but  may  be  subject  to  such  irregularity  that  the  chance  of  danger 
is  one  which  should  not  be  ignored.  Almost  every  year,  especially  in  the 
early  spring,  some  city  of  the  state  suffers  from  the  sudden  occurrences 
of  a  mild  type  of  dysentery,  which  is  so  general  in  its  distribution  that 
the  public  water  supply  would  seem  to  be  the  only  possible  cause.  These 
mild  outbreaks  seldom  result  in  deaths,  and  the  cases  are  not  even  reported. 
They  come  to  the  attention  of  the  health  officers  informally,  often  through 
the  press.  They  are  usually  of  such  short  duration  that  by  the  time  the 
epidemiologist  and  the  sanitary  engineer  take  up  the  study  the  bad  condi- 
tions have  passed.  Whether  these  dysentery  outbreaks  have  been  caused 
by  water  and,  if  so,  whether  they  have  been  due  to  such  an  organism  as 
B.  Wdchii,  whether  to  a  recent  infection,  or  to  the  accumulated  sediment 
on  reservoir  bottoms  is  not  known,  but,  if  due  to  water,  filtration  will 
protect  a  community  from  them,  provided  the  filtered  water  is  not  stored 
in  an  open  reservoir. 

In  my  opinion,  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  people  will  demand 
the  filtration  of  all  surface  water  suppUes,  and  New  England  water-works 
superint-endents  will  do  well  to  keep  this  possibility  in  mind. 

If  filtration  is  to  become  general,  the  type  of  filter  is  a  matter  of  im- 
iwrtance  and  one  which  should  already  be  receiving  attention.  Un- 
fortunately, the  satisfactory  removal  of  color  from  soft  water  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  of  water  purification.  The  exact  nature  of 
the  reaction  between  alum  and  coloring  matter  is  not  yet  known.  Sanitary 
chemists  used  to  say  that  aD  of  the  aluminum  sulphate  was  changed  to 
hydrate*^ and  that  none  of  it  went  through  the  filter.    Mr.  Hiram  F.  Mills 


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58  QUALITIES  OF  THE   WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

stoutly  denied  that  this  was  so,  —  although  he  could  give  no  reason  for 
it,  —  and  we  are  now  coming  to  believe  that  he  was  right.  The  use  of 
alum  with  short  periods  of  coagulation  and  mechanical  filtration  of  the 
ordinary  type  is,  in  my  opinion,  inappropriate  to  our  soft-colored  Massa- 
chusetts surface  waters.  We  must  find  some  modification  of  the  process 
which  will  be  better,  and  I  think  this  can  be  found.  The  corrosion  problem 
in  our  state  is  serious  already  and  must  not  be  made  more  so  by  inappropri- 
ate chemical  treatment.  This  is  no  place  to  enter  upon  a  discussion  of 
this  problem,  but  it  is  one  for  the  State  Department  of  Public  Health 
and  for  this  Association  to  study  in  all  seriousness. 

Use  of  Water  Analyses. 

Finally,  the  writer  wishes  to  urge  the  water-works  superintendents 
of  New  England  to  give  greater  attention  to  the  analyses  of  the  water 
supplies  under  their  charge.  Analyses  are  useless  imless  used.  The 
state  sanitary  engineers  and  chemists  use  them  constantly  in  the  course 
of  their  supervision,  but  even  this  tends  to  become  a  perfunctory  proceed- 
ing unless  the  superintendents  show  a  cooperative  interest.  In  1917 
the  Health  Commissioner  of  Massachusetts  sent  out  a  questionnaire 
relating  to  water  analyses.  In  reply,  thirty-two  superintendents  said 
they  made  no  use  of  the  analyses  sent  out  by  the  State  Department  of 
Health;  19  said  that  they  kept  them  on  file;  18  said  that  they  published 
them  in  their  annual  report;  23  said  that  they  occasionally  showed  them 
to  inquiring  consumers;  28  said  that  they  used  them  to  compare  present 
with  past  conditions;  and  only  four  said  that  they  regarded  them  as  having 
any  important  use.  The  following  extracts  from  the  replies  illustrate 
the  different  points  of  view: 

"  I  have  not  read  a  copy  of  the  analyses  for  a  year  or  more." 

"  About  once  a  year  some  one  asks  to  see  them." 

"  It  is  good  to  be  able  to  say  we  have  the  water  frequently  analysed." 

"  Enables  us  to  give  intelligent  answers  to  inquiries  regarding  water 
supplies  " 

"  If  any  water-taker  growls  about  the  water,  I  just  show  him  the 
last  report,  and  that  seems  to  settle  the  matter." 

"  Very  valuable." 

"  No  use,  except  to  know  that  the  State  Department  is  keeping  tabs 
on  us." 

"  Value  for  reference  and  comparison  year  by  year." 

"  To  show  to  inquiring  strangers." 

**  To  show  to  federal  inspectors." 

"  Have  relied  upon  analyses  for  record  of  purity." 

"  Only  to  show  to  disgruntled  water -takers." 

'*  To  watch  the  need  of  cleaning  reservoir." 

"  I  regard  them  as  of  the  highest  value." 

"  To  determine  whether  there  is  unusual  pollution." 

"  Analyses  make  us  feel  sure  that  the  water  is  all  right." 


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WHIPPLE.  59 

"  To  determine  increas?  in  pollution." 
"  Guidance  in  protecting  the  supply." 
"  To  look  out  for  turbidity  and  nitrates." 
"  To  tell  whether  our  suction  pipe  is  tight." 
"  Essential  to  watch  chlorine." 

"  The  fact  that  the  State  Department  of  Health  makes  analyses  seems 
to  be  sufl5cient  to  satisfy  our  consumers  that  there  is  no  danger." 
"  Requested  by  doctors  in  interest  of  patients." 

All  of  the  consulting  engineers  who  replied  to  the  questionnaire  were 
emphatic  in  their  appreciation  of  the  analytical  work  being  done. 

The  results  of  this  canvass  must  be  regarded  as  a  serious  reflection 
on  the  present  system  of  analysis  and  also  on  the  interest  which  the  local 
authorities  take  in  the  attractiveness  of  the  water  which  they  supply. 
They  show  an  over-confidence  in  state  supervision.  Since  the  active  work 
of  Mills,  Steams,  Drown,  and  Sedgwick,  a  new  generation  of  superin- 
tendent«  has  come  forward,  and  it  is  because  the  men  of  the  present  day 
need  to  have  their  interest  aroused  that  the  writer  has  brought  together 
various  facts  and  ideas  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  not  new  and  which 
are  already  well  known  to  many  of  the  members  of  this  Association.  It 
is  hoped  siao  that  the  State  Department  of  Public  Health  will  revise  its 
present  system  in  order  to  bring  it  into  line  with  the  analytical  standards 
generally  adopted  elsewhere  in  the  United  States  and  in  order  to  make 
the  data  of  greater  practical  value  to  the  water  superintendents. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


60 


QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


TABLE   1 

List  of  Cities  and  Towns  im  Massachusetts  which  have 
Public  Wateb  Supplies,  January  1,  1920. 


surface  water 

Abington 

Hadley 

Pittsfield 

Acushnet 

Hatfield 

Plymouth 

Agawam 

Haverhill 

Quincy  (Metropolitan) 

Amherst 

Hinsdale 

Randolph 

Andover 

Holbrook 

Revere  (Metropolitan) 

Arlington  (Metropolitan) 

Holden 

Rockland 

Ashbumham 

Holyoke 

Rockport 

Ashfield 

Hudson 

RusseU 

Athol 

Ipswich 

Rutland 

Belmont  (Metropolitan) 

Lancaster 

Salem 

Beverly 

Lawrence 

Saugus 

Blackstone 

Lee 

Shelbume 

Blandfori 

Lenox 

Somerville  (Metropolitan) 

Boston  (Metropolitan) 

Leominster 

Southbridge 

Bfaintree 

Lexington  (Metropolitan) 

Spencer 

Brockton 

Lincoln 

Springfield 

Cambridge 

Longmeadow 

Stockbridge 

Chelsea  (Metropolitan) 

Ludlow 

Stoneham  (Metropolitan) 

Cheshire 

Lynn 

Sunderland 

Chester 

Maiden  (Metropolitan) 

Swampscott  (Metropolitan) 

Clinton 

Marlborough 

Taunton 

Colrain 

Maynard 

Wakefield 

Concord 

Medford    (Metropolitan) 

Watertown  (Metropolitan) 

Dalton 

Melrose  (Metropolitan) 

Wayland 

Danvers 

Middleton 

West  Bridgewater 

East  Longmeadow 

Milton  (Metropolitan) 

West  Springfield 

Egremont 

Montague 

Westfield 

Erving 

Monterey 

Weymouth 

Everett  (Metropolitan) 

Nahant  (Metropolitan) 

Whitman 

Fall  River 

New  Bedford 

Williamsburg 

Fabnouth 

North  Andover 

Winchester 

Fitchburg 

North  Brookfield 

Winthrop  (Metropolitan) 

Gloucester 

Northampton 

Worcester 

Great  Barrington 

Northborough 

Groveland 

Peabody 

GROUND  WATER 

Acton 

Canton 

Edgartown 

Amesbury 

Chelmsford  (Centre*  North) 

Fairhaven 

Ashland 

Cohasset 

Foxborough 

Attleborough 

Cummington 

Franklin 

Avon 

Dedham 

Grafton 

Ayer 

Douglas 

Granville 

Barnstable 

Dracut  (including  Collins  ville 

Groton 

Bedford 

Dudley 

Hardwick 

Billerica 

Dunstable 

Holliston 

Bridgewater 

Duxbury 

Hopkinton 

Brookline 

Easthampton 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 


61 


GROUND  WATER  —  Continued, 


Kingston 

Needham 

Tisbury 

Littleton 

Newton 

Uxbridge 

LoweU 

North  Attleborough 

Walpole 

Mansfield 

Northbridge 

Waltham 

Marion 

Norton 

Ware 

Marehfield 

Oak  Bluffs 

Webster 

Matt^joisett 

Oxford 

WeUesley 

Medfield 

Pepperell 

West  Brookfield 

Medway 

Plainville 

West  Stockbridge 

Merrimac 

Provincetown 

Westborough 

Methuen 

Reading 

Westford 

Middleboroiigh 

Salisbury 

Weston 

Millbury 

Sharon 

Westwood* 

MiUis 

Sheffield 

Winchendon 

MoDSon 

Shirley 

Wobum 

Natick 

Shrewsbury 

Wrentham 

BOTH  SURFACE  AND  GROUND  WATER 

Adams 

Hingham 

Norwood 

Barre 

Hopedale 

Orange 

Brookfield  (Centre  and  East) 

Hull 

Palmer  (including  Bondsville) 

Chicopee 

Huntington 

Scituate 

Dartmouth 

Leicester 

South  Hadley 

Deerfield  (Centre  and  South) 

Manchester 

Southampton* 

East  Bridgewater 

Marblehead 

Stoughton 

Easton 

Milford 

Wareham  (including  Onset) 

Framingham 

Nantucket 

Westhampton* 

Gardner 

Newburyport 

WiUiamstown 

GiU 

North  Adams 

Worthington 

Greenfield 

Northfield 

TABLE  lA 

Cities  and  Towi 

fS  WHICH  HAVE  WaTBR  SUPPLIES  IN  CoMMON 

Abington  and  Rockland 

Milford  and  Hopedale 

Brockton  and  Whitman 

Montague 

and  Erving 

Brockton  and  East  Bridgewa 

ter 

New  Bedford  and  Acushnet 

Brockton  and  West  Bridgewa 

ter 

New  Bedford  and  Dartmouth 

Bridgewater  and  East  Bridge 

water 

Randolph  and  Braintree 

Blackstone  and  Woonsocket, 

R.L 

Randolph  and  Holbrook 

Clinton  and  Lancaster 

Rutland  and  Holden 

Concord  and  Tiincoln 

Salem  and  Beverly 

Danvers  and  Middleton 

Springfield  and  East  Longmeadow 

Hingham  and  Hull 

Springfield  and  Ludlow 

Lynn  and  Saugus 

M 

ETROPOUTAN  WaTER  SuPPLT 

^Vrlington          Chelsea            1 

balden            MUton 

Revere             Swampscott 

Belmont           Everett            ] 

Bedford           Nahant 

Somerville        Watertown 

Boston              Lexington        I 

Melrose            Quincy 

Stoneham        Winthrop 

*PubUo  supplies  owned  by  private  pai-ties  not  listed  in  report  of  State  Department  of  Public  Health. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


62 


QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES   OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


TABLE  2. 
Public  Water  Suppues  of  Massachusetts. 

sediment  and  odor. 

Expressed  as  Per  Cent,  of  Number  of  Samples^ 

1910-1919. 


•    Sediment.                          | 

Odor. 

City  or  Town. 

Con- 

£>ecid- 

None. 

Verj' 
Slight. 

Slight. 

sider- 
able. 

High 

None. 

Verj' 
Faint. 

Faint. 

Dis- 
tinct. 

edand 
Strong 

Abington 

28.0 

64.0 

16.0 

2.0 

0.0 

2.0 

24.0 

50.0 

22.0 

2.0 

Acton 

74.0 

16.7 

9.3 

0.0 

0.0 

98.2 

1.8 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Acushnet 

9.3 

74.0 

15.5 

1.2 

0.0 

0.0 

2.5 

36.0 

47.8 

13.7 

Adams 

38.0 

55.7 

5.0 

1.3 

0.0 

28.9 

35.0 

27.8 

8.3 

0.0 

Agawam 

28.1 

44.2 

21.5 

6.2 

0.0 

23.6 

14.7 

32.6 

25.4 

3.7 

Amefebury 

8.0 

34.7 

28.0 

29.3 

0.0 

85.4 

9.3 

4.0 

1.3 

Q.O 

Amherst 

2.8 

63.3 

26.6 

7.3 

0.0 

0.9 

12.8 

42.2 

39.5 

4.6 

Andover 

21.2 

69.0 

9.8 

0.0 

0.0 

3.3 

14.7 

47.5 

31.2 

3-3 

Arlington 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Ashbumham  .... 

39.6 

51.0 

5.6 

3.8 

0.0 

24.7 

37.7 

35.8 

1.8 

0.0 

Ashfield 

58.0 

35.5 

6.5 

0.0 

0.0 

3.2 

19.4 

51.6 

25.8 

0.0 

Ashland 

60.7 

19.7 

16.1 

3.5 

0.0 

94.7 

0.0 

5.3 

0.0 

0.0 

Athol 

11.3 

52.2 

23.9 

12.6 

0.0 

9.5 

14.9 

33.3 

32.6 

9.7 

Attleborough      .    .    . 

93.0 

1.8 

1.7 

3.5 

0.0 

94.6 

1.8 

1.8 

1.8 

0.0 

Avon 

81.0 

16.7 

0.0 

2.3 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Ayer 

58.2 

32.9 

8.9 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Barnstable 

92.3 

7.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Barre 

2.0 

45.1 

39.2 

13.7 

0.0 

2.0 

17.6 

53.0 

21.6 

5.8 

Bedford 

59.0 

37.2 

3.8 

0.0 

0.0 

84.7 

11.5 

3.8 

(f.O 

0.0 

Belmont 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Beverly 

15.1 

26.6 

40.4 

17.3 

0.6 

6.2 

15.5 

18.2. 

40.9 

19.0 

Billerica 

8.2 

50.0 

36.0 

5.8 

0.0 

97.7 

2.3 

0.0 

0.0 

0.2 

Blackstone*    .... 

Blandford 

57.3 

34.6 

6.1 

2.6 

0.0 

26.6 

38.8 

32.6 

2.6 

6.6 

Boston 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Braintree 

59.6 

36.2 

4.2 

0.0 

0.0 

87.3 

4.3 

6.3 

2.1 

0.0 

Bridgewater    .... 

57.6 

30.4 

9.8 

2.2 

0.0 

94.5 

3.3 

1.1 

1.1 

0.0 

Brockton 

3.7 

59.5 

32.5 

4.3 

0.0 

11.1 

46.0 

31.9 

11.0 

0.0 

Brookfield 

84.4 

12.8 

0.0 

2.8 

0.0 

95.8 

0.0 

2.8 

0.0 

1.4 

Brookline 

63.0 

32.2 

4.8 

0.0 

0.0 

95.2 

3.7 

1.1 

0.0 

0.0 

Cambridge 

1.8 

46.2 

43.0 

9.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.7 

30.8 

58.7 

9.8 

Canton 

86.3 

9.4 

3.2 

1.1 

0.0 

97.9 

1.0 

1.1 

0.0 

0.0 

Chelmsford 

78.5 

20.6 

0.0 

0.9 

0.0 

92.5 

5.6 

1.9 

0.0 

0.0 

Chelsea 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Cheshire 

11.8 

78.5 

7.8 

1.9 

0.0 

17.6 

51.0 

25.5 

5.9 

0.0 

Chester 

5.0 

95.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

5.0 

20.0 

70.0 

5.0 

0.0 

Chicopee 

21.6 

51.2 

25.3 

1.9 

0.0 

41.4 

12.9 

30.3 

14.8 

0.6 

Clinton 

4.5 

64.4 

31.1 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

18.9 

60.0 

21.1 

0.0 

Cohasset 

41.3 

28.2 

20.6 

9.9 

0.0 

58.2 

24.3 

13.5 

4.0 

0.0 

Colrain 

30.0 

70.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

23.3 

40.0 

33.4 

3.3 

0.0 

Concord 

26.4 

56.6 

9.4 

7.6 

0.0 

5.7 

35.9 

49.0 

9.4 

0.0 

Cummington*    .    .    . 

... 

... 

... 

... 

Dalton 

9.8 

82.0 

8.2 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

27.8 

41.0 

31.2 

0.0 

Danvers 

10.0 

78.3 

11.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

15.0 

30.0 

46.7 

8.3 

Dartmouth     .... 

9.3 

74.0 

15.5 

1.2 

0.0 

0.0 

2.5 

36.0 

47.8 

13.7 

Dedham 

98.0 

2.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Deerfield 

61.3 

33.9 

4.8 

0.0 

0.0 

29.0 

37.2 

30.6 

3.2 

0.0 

Douglas 

38.8 

47.8 

11.9 

1.5 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Dracut 

67.0 

25.9 

5.3 

1.8 

0.0 

96.4 

1.8 

1.8 

0.0 

0.0 

Dudley 

88.5 

11.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Dxmstable*      .    .    .    . 

Duxbury 

96.8 

3.2 

1     0.0 

0.6 

6.6 

166.6 

6.6 

0.6 

6.6 

6.6 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 


63 


TABLE  2.  —  Continued, 


City  or  Town. 


Sbdiment. 


Odor. 


None. 


Very 
Slight. 


Slight. 


Ckjn- 
sider- 
able. 


High  I  None. 


Very 
Faint. 


Faint. 


Dis- 
tinct. 


Decid- 
ed and 
Strong 


E.  Bridgewater  . 
Easthampton 
E.  Longmeadow 
Easton  .  .  .  . 
Edgartown  .  . 
Ecremont    ... 

ErvinR 

Everett    .    .    .    . 


Fairhaven  . 
Fall  River  . 
Falmouth  . 
Fitchburg  . 
FoxboTough 
Framingham 
Franklin 


Gardner  .... 

Gill* 

Gloucester  .  .  . 
Grafton  .... 
Granville  .  .  . 
Great  Barrington 
Greenfield  .  .  . 
Groton  .... 
Groveland*     .    . 


Hadley  .  . 
Hardwick*  . 
Hatfield  .  . 
Haverhill  . 
Hingfaam 
Hinadale 
Holbrook  . 
Holden  .  . 
Holliston.  . 
Holyijce 
Hopedale  . 
Hopkinton  . 
Hudson  .  . 
HuD  .  .  . 
Huntington 
Hyde  Parkt 

Ipswich    .    . 


Kingston. 


Lancaster  . 

Lawrence  . 

Lee  ...  . 
Leicester 

Lenox  .    .  . 
Leominster 

licxington  . 

Lincoln    .  . 
Littleton 
Lonfoneadow 

Lowell     .  . 

Ludlow    .  . 

L>Tin       .  . 


23.0 
82.4 
28.1 
98.0 
90.0 
57.8 
34.6 
7.4 

87.6 
0.8 
16.6 
7.2 
93.1 
65.5 
93.0 

11.2 


49.2 
13.2 
44.7 
2.0 
10.0 
38.4 
46.2 
72.7 

10.4 
53.0 
79.7 
51.7 

6.9 
29.6 

6.6 

74.2 


24.3 
4.4 

21.1 
0.0 
0.0 
3.8 

17.3 

18.7 

2.1 
42.0 
3.7 
33.6 
0.0 
4.9 
1.4 

13.6 


3.6 
0.0 
6.1 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
1.9 
1.2 

0.0 
4.2 
0.0 
7.2 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

1.1 


7.8 
72.2 
87.8 
15.6 

8.5 
96.0 


70.6 
26.0 
12.2 
56.5 
73.2 
4.0 


21.7 

2.8 

0.0 

22.6 

12.2 

0.0 


0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
6.3 
6.1 
0.0 


24.4 


64.6 


11.1 


0.0 


28.6 

12.6 

23.8 

22.2 

59.6 

41.6 

8.0 

5.5 

63.6 

71.8 

1.2 

23.8 

57.2 

62.6 

0.0 

81.6 

4.4 
20.8 
16.8 
69.7 
14.3 

0.4 

7.4 

16.7 

100.0 

26.6 

7.7 
28.1 

1.0 


66.3 
66.3 
61.0 
66.7 
36.2 
54.7 
56.0 
66.8 
36.4 
26.6 
62.6 
61.0 
38.0 
23.3 

52.7 

18.4 

64.5 
51.5 
76.6 
33.3 
61.9 
34.7 
72.7 
66.7 
0.0 
46.0 
28.9 
44.7 
56.7 


4.1 

19.9 

11.3 

7.4 

4.2 

3.8 

36.0 

36.5 

0.0 

2.6 

28.4 

11.3 

4.8 

19.2 

47.3 

0.0 

31.1 

24.9 

4.5 

5.8 

17.6 

46.0 

18.7 

13.3 

0.0 

21.6 

35.8 

21.0 

37.8 


2.0 
2.2 
3.9 
3.7 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
3.2 
0.0 
0.0 
7.9 
3.9 
0.0 
5.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 
2.8 
2.2 
1.2 
6.3 

19.5 
1.2 
3.3 
0.0 
5.9 

27.6 
6.2 
4.5 


0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.4 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

0.0 


0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 


0.0 


0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.4 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 


41.2 
100.0 

23.6 
100.0 
100.0 

23.0 

13.5 
1.3 

66.6 

0.0 

7.4 

1.7 

96.5 

93.7 

100.0 

1.7 


30.6 

0.0 

14.6 

0.0 

0.0 

46.2 

28.8 

20.2 

20.9 
7.6 

36.2 
9.3 
0.0 
3.5 
0.0 

17.4 


0.0 

100.0 

84.9 

10.9 

3.6 

100.0 


4.5 

0.0 

16.1 

37.6 

46.3 

0.0 


4.6 


24.4 


6.1 

0.5 
18.8 
11.1 
87.3 

1.9 
28.0 

0.2 

85.0 

100.0 

0.0 
18.8 
19.0 
72.6 

00 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

1.1 

74.7 

6.4 

0.8 

1.3 

11.7 

100.0 

22.1 

B7.3 

23.6 

0.0 


26.6 

9.5 

13.4 

18.6 

4.3 

39.6 

16.0 

11.1 

9.0 

0.0 

12.6 

13.4 

23.8 

19.8 

4.0 

0.0 


20.8 

0.0 

32.6 

0.0 

0.0 

30.8 

40.4 

57.3 

6.2 

64.7 

46.3 

53.0 

3.6 

2.1 

0.0 

38.2 


7.4 

0.0 

25.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

17.3 

20.5 

4.2 
25.2 
7.4 
34.4 
0.0 
0.7 
0.0 

33.7 


43.0 

0.0 

0.0 

39.1 

39.0 

0.0 


47.6 
0.0 
0.0 

10.9 
1.1 
0.0 


62.2 


55.0 
48.6 
33.6 
44.5. 

6.3 
46.5 
20.0 
56.3 

4.6 

0.0 
43.3 
33.6 
52.6 

7.7 

43.3 

0.0 

60.0 
16.8 
57.3 
10.3 
36.5 
49.2 
57.3 
43.3 

0.0 
33.6 

5.6 
32.6 
30.0 


8.9 


12.3 

37.0 

26.8 

22.2 

2.1 

13.0 

36.0 

31.2 

1.6 

0.0 

36.3 

26.8 

4.7 

0.0 

48.7 

0.0 

21.1 

0.0 
20.2 

1.2 
11.1 
34.3 
20.5 
18.3 

0.0 
25.5 

0.4 
25.8 
56.8 


0.0 
0.0 
3.5 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.7 

2.1 
2.6 
3.7 
1.6 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

9.0 


6.0 
0.0 
0.0 
1.6 
0.0 
0.0 


0.0 


0.0 
4.6 
7.4 
3.7 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
2.2 
0.0 
0.0 
7.9 
7.4 
0.0 
0.0 

4.0 

0.0 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
1.5 
3.8 
0.7 
1.7 
0.0 
3.6 
0.0 
3.7 
11.5 


*  No  figuiM.     t  Hyde  Park  for  years  lQlO-101 1 


Digitized  by 


Google 


64 


QUAUTIE8  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


TABLE  2. 

—  Continued. 

SEDIMKXT. 

Odor. 

City  or  Town, 

;  Con- 

11 

De.  id- 

None. 

Ver>- 

Wight 

Slight.  ,  "idcr- 
1  able. 

Hi«h' 

1 

None. 

Faint. 

Fftini .  1  P«- 
1  liact. 

ed  an* I. 

Maiden 

7.4 

72.7 

1 

18.7  1  1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3  i20.o 

07 

Manchester     .... 

15.8 

69.1 

13.2  1  1.9 

0.0 

34.7 

8.0 

26.0 

20.0 

11.3 

Mansfield 

96.4 

3.6 

0.0  '  0.0 

0.0 

98.2 

0.0 

1.8 

0.0 

0.0 

Marblehead    .... 

56.3 

17.8 

5.2   20.0 

0.7 

88.2 

8.1 

3.7 

0.0 

0.0 

Marion 

94.7 

4.2 

1.1  '  0.0 

0.0 

98.9 

0.0 

1.1 

0.0 

0.0 

Marlborough  .... 

4.9 

53.1 

37.8  1  4.2 

0.0 

0.0 

7.7 

44.7 

42.7 

4.9 

Marshfield 

88.2 

11.8 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

88.2 

11.8 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Mattapoiaett  .... 

83.0 

7.7 

1.5 

7.8 

0.0 

97.0 

3.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Maynard 

17.6 

73.6 

5.9 

2.9 

0.0 

0.0 

17.6 

56.0 

26.4 

0.0 

Medfield      

17.3 

79.3 

3.4 

0.0 

0.0 

89.7 

6.9 

3.4 

0.0 

0.0 

Medford      

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3   20.5 

0.7 

Medway 

79.2 

12.5 

8.3 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0     0.0 

0.0 

Melrose 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

67.3   20.5 

0.7 

Merrimac 

86.2 

9.8 

4.0 

0.0 

0.0 

98.0 

0.0 

2.0     0.0 

0.0 

Methuen 

9.6 

68.4 

18.2 

3.8 

0.0 

81.8 

14.4 

2.9     0.9 

0.0 

Middleborough  .    .    . 

27.0 

9.9 

20.4 

38.8 

3.9 

82.3 

15.1 

1.9     0.7 

0.0 

Middleton 

10.0 

78.3 

11.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

15.0 

30.0  ,46.7 

8,3 

Milford 

63.6 

36.4 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

86.0 

9.0 

4.5      1.5 

0.0 

Millbury 

79.5 

16.4 

4.1 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0  1  0.0 

0.0 

Millis 

92.6 

7.4 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0  !  0.0 

0.0 

Milton 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

67.3  :20.5 

0.7 

Mon.son 

73.8 

26.2 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0  1  0.0 

0.0 

Montague 

34.6 

46.2 

17.3 

1.9 

0.0 

13.5 

28.8 

40.4  :17.3 

0.0 

Monterey* 

...   1  ... 

Nahant 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3  '20.5 

0.0 

Nantucket 

12.5 

39.8 

39.8 

7.9 

0.0 

26.2 

6.8 

36.3  128.4 

2.3 

Natick 

98.0 

2.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0  1  0.0 

0.0 

Needham 

88.5 

11.5 

0.0  1  0.0 

0.0 

99.3 

0.0 

0.7     0.0 

0.0 

New  Bedford      .    .    . 

9.3 

74.0 

15.5 

1.2 

0.0 

0.0 

2.5 

36.0  |47.8 

13.7 

Newburyport      .    .    . 

16.8 

49.5 

27.2 

6.5 

0.0 

64.0 

7.0 

10.9    13.0 

5.1 

Newton 

51.6 

37.5 

10.9 

0.0 

0.0 

95.3 

1.5 

1.6      1.6 

0.0 

North  Adams.    :    .    . 

9.8 

69.8 

15.5 

4.9 

0.0 

8.5 

38.8 

44.3      8.4 

0.0 

Northampton.    .    .    . 

5.0 

59.2 

33.3  i  2.5 

0.0 

0.0 

19.2 

41.7   35.8 

3.3 

North  Andover  .    .    . 

5.2 

74.6 

21.1      0.0 

0.0 

1.8 

8.9 

48.2   35.7 

5.4 

N.  Attleborough    .    . 

74.0 

16.7 

9.3     0.0 

0.0 

98.0 

2.0 

0.0  1  0.0 

0.0 

Northborough    .    .    . 

3.3 

37.3 

49.2    10.2 

0.0 

0.0 

1.6 

18.7   61.0 

18.7 

Northbridge    .... 

22.0 

49.2 

20.4 

8.4 

0.0 

10.2 

23.8 

44.0  |13.5 

8.5 

N.  Brookfield     .    .    . 

1.4 

25.4 

55.3 

17.9 

0.0 

0.0 

2.9 

31.4  IB2.7 

3.0 

Northfield 

78.3 

21.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

34.8 

56.5  '  8.7 

0.0 

Norton 

93.0 

4.7 

2.3     0.0 

0.0 

97.7 

0.0 

2.3  1  0.0 

0.0 

Norwood 

14.3 

44.0 

34.5      7.2 

0.0 

49.0 

6.6 

21.0  ,21.6 

1.8 

Oak  Bluffs 

66.0 

34.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

98.0 

2.0 

0.0     0.0 

0.0 

Orange 

30.3 

66.7 

3.0 

0.0 

0.0 

24.2 

15.3 

54.0     6.0 

0.0 

Oxford 

94.0 

6.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0     0.0 

0.0 

Palmer 

35.5 

36.4 

25.6 

2.5 

0.0 

58.6 

0.8 

23.2  ll4.1 

3.3 

Peabody      

3.9 

55.8 

39.0 

1.3 

0.0 

1.9 

9.1 

44.8  '39.0 

5.2 

Pepperell 

95.5 

3.0 

1.5 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0  1  0.0 

0.0 

Pittsfield 

10.6 

68.0 

18.7 

2.7 

0.0 

0.3 

20.2 

40.2  133.0 

6.3 

Plainville 

47.8 

13.3 

22.2 

16.7 

0.0 

96.7 

2.2 

0.0 

l.l 

0.0 

Plymouth 

4.1 

69.7 

26.2  .  0.0 

0.0 

10.7 

45.1 

33.6 

9.8 

0.8 

Provincetown .    .    .    . 

95.5 

4.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Quincy 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Randolph 

11.7 

80.0 

8.3     0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

6.7 

35.0 

53.3 

5.0 

Reading 

36.5 

11.3 

5.7  ,44.6 

1.9 

54.1 

23.2 

17.0 

5.7 

0.0 

Revere 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7  1  1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Rockland 

28.0 

54.0 

16.0  1  2.0 

0.0  1,     2.0 

24.0 

50.0 

22.0 

2.0 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 


65 


TABLE  2,  — Continued. 


1 
1 
1 

Sbdiment. 

i 

Odor. 

City  or  Town. 

Con- 

Derid- 

None. 

Very 
Slight. 

Slight. 

sider- 
able. 

High. 

None. 

Very 
Faint. 

Faint. 

Dis- 
tinct. 

ed  and 
Strong, 

Rookport 

0.0 

28.3 

50.0 

21.7 

0.0 

0.0 

1.7 

25.0 

53.3 

20.0 

Russell 

61.8 

31.0 

3.6 

3.6 

0.0 

5.5 

21.8 

56.3 

10.9 

5.5 

Rutland 

41.5 

54.7 

3.8 

0.0 

00 

1.9 

39.6 

45.5 

13.0 

0.0 

Salem 

15.1 

26.6 

40.4 

17.3 

0.6 

6.2 

15.5 

18.2 

40.9 

19.2 

Salisbury 

50.0 

46.2 

3.8 

0.0 

0.0 

61.5 

15.4 

23.1 

0.0 

0.0 

2^augu8 

1.0 

56.7 

37.8 

4.5 

0.0 

0.0 

1.7 

30.0 

56.8 

11.5 

Scituate 

69.3 

22.6 

8.1 

0.0 

0.0 

80.7 

8.1 

4.8 

48 

1.6 

Sharon 

91.0 

6.1 

3.9 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Sheffield      

60.0 

40.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Shelbume 

67.6 

32.4 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

38.3 

26.5 

26.4 

8.8 

0.0 

Shirley 

86.8 

11.3 

1.9 

0.0 

0.0 

98.1 

1.9 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Shrewsbury     .    .    .    . 

i  100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Somenrille 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3    20.5 

0.7 

South  Hadley     .    .    . 

25.4 

33.3 

333 

8.0 

0.0 

24.4 

10.4 

36.3   24.4 

4.5 

Southampton*    .    .    . 
Southbridge    .    .    .    . 

...    1  ... 

'     9.2 

51.7 

35.6 

4!i 

6.0 

0.6 

11.6 

48.4    38.6 

1.4 

>pencer 

58.3 

39.0 

2.7 

0.0 

0.0 

5.5 

19.5 

55.5  .19.5 

0.0 

Sprinsfield       .    .    .    . 
Siockbridge     .    .    .    . 

28.1 

44.7 

21.0 

6.2 

0.0 

23.6 

14.3 

32.6    25.8 

3.7 

'  20.9 

61.4 

17.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

19.3 

32.3    43.6 

4.8 

Stoneham        .    .    .    . 

'     7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3    20.5 

0.7 

Stoughton 

34.2 

63.2 

2.6 

0.0 

0.0 

18.6 

23.6 

36.8   21.0 

0.0 

Sunderland*    .    .    .    . 

1 

...    1  ... 

Swampecott    .    .    .    . 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

L2 

6:6 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3    20.5 

1 

6.7 

Taunton 

5.6 

77.5 

16.9 

0.0 

0.0 

0.8 

12.9 

46.8   37.1 

2.4 

TLsbury 

80.5 

13.0 

6.5 

0.0 

0.0 

lOO.O 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

I'xbridge 

88.2 

11.8 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Wakefield 

0.9 

55.4 

35.7 

8.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.9 

33.0 

54.5 

11.6 

Walpole 

75.0 

25.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Waltham 

56.9 

33.9 

7.9 

1.3 

0.0 

98.8 

0.8 

0.4 

0.0 

0.0 

Ware 

98.1 

1.9 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Wareham 

66.7 

31.8 

1.5 

0.0 

0.0 

64.4 

14.3 

18.2 

3.1 

0.0 

Watertown     .    .    .    . 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3    20.5 

0.7 

Wayland 

0.0 

69.2 

28.2 

2.6 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

15.4    64.1 

20.5 

Webster 

51.0 

34.1 

14.9 

0.0 

0.0 

97.9 

2.1 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

WeUcsley 

79.5 

20.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

99.3 

0.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Westborough  .    .    .    . 

13.2 

77.3 

9.5 

0.0 

0.0 

3.8 

22.6 

66.1 

7.5 

0.0 

W.  Bridgewater     .    . 
W.Brookfield     .    .    . 

3.7 

59.5 

32.5 

4.3 

0.0 

11.0 

46.0 

31.9 

11.1 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Westfield 

12.4 

50.4 

31.0 

6.2 

0.0 

1.7 

15.0 

39.9    38.1 

5.3 

Westford 

98.5 

1.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Wwthampton*  .    .    . 

W«»ton 

83.6 

16.4 

6.0 

6.0 

6.6 

96.4 

'6.6 

'3.6 

6!6 

0.6 

W.  SprinKfield    .    .    . 
W.  Stockbridge*    .    . 

56.1 

34.1 

9.8 

0.0 

0.0 

80.2 

14.5 

4.0 

1.3 

0.0 

We^twood*     .    .    .    . 

We>Tnouth      .    .    .    . 

11.5 

67.3 

21.2 

0.6 

6;o 

0.6 

7.7 

32.7    50.0 

9.6 

Whitman 

3.7 

59.5 

32.5 

4.3 

0.0 

11.1 

46.0 

31.9 

11.0 

0.0 

Williamsburg      .    .    . 

6.2 

73.0 

20.8 

0.0 

0.0 

2.1 

33.2 

48.0 

16.7 

0.0 

Williamstown .    .    .    . 

25.7 

65.7 

5.7 

2.9 

0.0 

20.0 

31.4 

37.2 

11.4 

0.0 

Winchendon   .    .    .    . 

i  38.0 

25.0 

22.0 

15.0 

0.0 

87.0 

10.0 

2.0 

1.0 

0.0 

Winchester     .    .    .    . 

'     2.0 

63.9 

31.1 

3.0 

0.0 

0.0 

8.2 

52.3 

36.5 

30 

Winthrop 

7.4 

72.7 

18.7 

1.2 

0.0 

1.3 

20.2 

57.3 

20.5 

0.7 

Wobum 

99.0 

1.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Worcester 

4.2 

61.2 

29.6 

5.0 

0.0 

0.2 

9.1 

56.4 

32.7 

1.6 

Worthington  .    .    .    . 

50.0 

42.5 

5.0 

2.5 

0.0 

75.0 

12,5 

10.0 

2.5 

0.0 

Wrentham      .    .    .    . 

92.3 

7.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

100.0 

0.0 

0.0     0.0 

0.0 

*  No  figures. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


66 


QUALITIES  OP  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


TABLE  3. 
PuBUc  Water  Supplies  of  Massachusetts. 

AVERAGE   COLOR. 

1910-1919. 


City  or  Town.  Color. 

Acton 0 

Avon 0 

Barnstable 0 

Brookfield  (East) 0 

Duxbury 0 

Dudley 0 

Easthampton 0 

Easton 0 

Edgartown 0 

Foxborough 0 

Franklin 0 

Groton 0 

Hopkinton 0 

Kingston 0 

Littleton 0 

Mansfield 0 

Marion 0 

Marshiield 0 

Mattapoisett 0 

Medfield 0 

Millis 0 

Natick 0 

Norton 0 

Oak  BluflFs 0 

Oxford 0 

Pepperell 0 

Scituate 0 

Sheffield 0 

Shirley 0 

Shrewsbury 0 

Uxbridge 0 

Walpole 0 

Ware 0 

Wellesley 0 

West  Brookfield 0 

Westford 0 

Wrentham 0 

Ashland 1 

Ayer 1 

Cheshire 1 

Douglas 1 

Falmouth 1 

Granville 1 

Medway 1 

Merrimac I 

Needham 1 

North  Attleborough ...  1 

Provincetown 1 

Sharon 1 

Tishury 1 

Wareham 1 

Egremont 2 

Millbury 2 

Newton 2 

Plymouth 2 

Webster 2 

Framingham 3 

Plainville 3 

Weatborough 3 


City  or  Town.  Color 

Attleborough 4 

Bedford 4 

Deerfieid 4 

Dracut 4 

Monson 4 

Williamstown 4 

Worthington 4 

Dedham 5 

Greenfield 6 

Shelbume 6 

Ashbumham 6 

Bridgewater 6 

Canton 6 

Cok-ain 6 

Concord 6 

Erving 6 

Grafton 6 

Holden 6 

Lincoln 6 

Manchester 6 

Montague 6 

Rutland 6 

Waltham 6 

Adams 7 

Blandford 7 

Lenox 7 

Spencer 7 

Wobum 7 

East  Bridgewater 8 

Great  Barrington 8 

Abington 9 

Gardner 9 

Hadley 9 

Hudson 9 

Huntington 9 

North  Adams 9 

Rockland 9 

Brockton 10 

Chester 10 

Leicester 10 

Nantucket 10 

Orange 10 

South  Hadley 10 

West  Bridgewater.  ...  10 

Whitman 10 

Winchendon 10 

Longmeadow 11 

West  Springfield 11 

Hatfield 12 

Newburyport 12 

Palmer 12 

Winchester 12 

I  Brookline 13 

I  Chelmsford  (North) . . .  13 

iMarblehead 13 

I  Stockbridge 13 

I  Weston 13 

j  Andover 14 

I  Salisbury 14 


City  or  Town.  Color 

Barre 15 

Billerica 15 

Clinton 15 

Lancaster 15 

Williamsburg 15 

Fall  River 16 

North  Andover 16 

Braintree 17 

Holbrook 17 

Northbridge 17 

Amesbury IS 

Hyde  Park* IS 

Northampton IS 

Norwood IS 

Taunton 19 

Worcester 19 

Leominster 20 

Maynard 20 

Russell 20 

Hinsdale 21 

Holyoke 21 

Hopedale 21 

Mifford 21 

Northfield 21 

Wakefield 21 

Middleborough 22 

Fitchburg 24 

Hingham 24 

Hull 24 

Peabody 24 

Stoughton 24 

Haverhill 26 

Metropolitan  District 

Arlington 26 

Behnont 26 

Boston 26 

Chelsea 26 

Everett 26 

Lexington 26 

Maiden 26 

Medford 26 

Melrose 26 

Milton 26 

Nahant 26 

Quincy 26 

Revere 26 

Somerville 26 

Stoneham 26 

Swampscott 26 

Watertown 25 

Winthrop 26 

Pittsfield 26 

Southbridge 26 

Chicopee 27 

Dalton 27 

Ipswich 28 

Agawam 29 

East  Longmeadow. ...  29 

Ix»e 29 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 


67 


TABLE  3.  —  Continued, 


City  or  Town.  Color. 

Lowell 29 

Ludlow 29 

Marlborough 29 

Methuen 29 

Springfield 29 

Westfield 29 

Ashfield ; 30 

Lawrence 31 

Amherat 32 

Rockport 32 

Acushnet 39 

Dartmouth 39 

Gloucester 39 

New  Bedford 39 

Randolph 41 

*  No  figures  available. 


City  or  Town.  Color. 

Fairhaven 42 

Cambridge 43 

Lynn 46 

Saugus 46 

North  Brookfield 47 

Reading 49 

HoUiston 50 

Danvers 52 

Middleton 62 

Athol 69 

Northborough 61 

Cohasset 63 

Weymouth 65 

Beveriy 72 

Salem 72 


City  or  Town. 

Wayland 

Blackstone 

Cumminffton 

Dunstable 

Gill 

Groveland 

Hardwick 

Monterey 

Southampton .... 

Sunderland 

West  Stockbridge . 

Westhampton 

Westwood 


Color. 

.     86 


TABLE  4. 
PuBuc  Water  Supplies  of  Massachusetts. 

AVERAGE  CHLORINE. 

Paris  per  MiUion. 
1910-1919. 


City  or  Town.                  Chlorioe. 
Sheffield 0.9 


Hinsdale. 

North  Adams 

Williamstown 

Dalton 

Lenox 

Shelbume 

Worthington 

Adams 

Cheshire 

Egremont 

Pittsfield...  ... 

Stockbridge 

Ashfield 

Great  Barrington .  .  . 

Chester • . 

Xorthfield 

Orange 

Colrain 

Deerfield 

Granville 

Xorthampton 

Williamsburg 

Winchendon 

£a.sthampton 

Huntington 

RuaseU 

Westfield 

Agawam 

East  Longmeadow . . 

Erving 

Greenfield 

Ludlow 


1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 
1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.6 
1.6 
1.6 
1.6 
1.7 
1.7 
1.7 
1.7 
1.7 


City  or  Town.  Chlorine. 

Montague 1.7 

Springfield 1.7 

Amherst 1.8 

Athol 1.8 

Holyoke 1.8 

Westford 1.8 

Chicopee 1.9 

Monson 1.9 

North  Brookfield 1.9 

Pahner 1.9 

Blandford 2.0 

Hadley 2.0 

Hatfield 2.0 

Pepprell 2.0 

Ashbumham 2.1 

Fitchburg... 2.1 

Leominster 2.1 

Southbridge 2.1 

Spencer 2.1 

Barre 2.2 

Groton 2.2 

Longmeadow 2.2 

Brookfield  (East) 2.3 

Clinton 2.3 

Lancaster 2.3 

Littleton 2.4 

Dudley 2.5 

Northbridge 2.5 

West  Springfield 2.5 

Worcester 2.6 

Hudson 2.7 

West  Brookfield 2.7 

Westborough 2.9 

Maynard 3.0 


City  or  Town.  Chlorine 

Gardner 3.1 

Holden 3.2 

Northborough 3.2 

Rutland 3.2 

South  Hadley 3.3 

Oxford 3.4 

Concord 3.5 

Leicester 3.5 

Webster 3.5 

Plainville 3.6 

Wrentham 3.6 

Bedford 3.7 

Hopedale 3.7 

Metropolitan  District 

Arlington 3.7 

Belmont 3.7 

Boston 3.7 

Chelsea 3.7 

Everett 3.7 

Lexington 3.7 

Maiden 3.7 

Medford 3.7 

Melrose 3.7 

Milton 3.7 

Nahant 3.7 

Quincy 3.7 

Revere 3.7 

Somerville 3.7 

Stoneham 3.7 

Swampscott 3.7 

Watertown 3.7 

Winthrop 3.7 

Milford 3.7 

Mmbury 3.7 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


68  QUALITIES  OF  THE   WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

TABLE  4  —  Continued. 


City  or  Town.  Chlorine. 

Douglas 3.8 

Lincoln 3.8 

Waylond 3.8 

Andover 3.9 

Ashland 3.9 

Norton 3.9 

Holliston    4.0 

Shirley 4.0 

Stoughton 4.0 

Danvers 4.1 

Middleton 4.1 

Ware 4.1 

Billerica 4.2 

Medfield 4.2 

Walpole 4.4 

Dracut 4.5 

Mansfield 4.5 

Winchester 4.5 

Foxborough 4.6 

Haverhill 4.6 

Methuen 4.6 

Chelmsford  (North)...  4.7 

Lawrence 4.7 

North  Andover 4.7 

Canton 4.9 

Lowell 4  9 

Franklin 5.1 

Marlborough 5.1 

Ayer 5.2 

Newton 5.2 

Shrew^sbury 5.2 

Attleborough 5.3 

Merrimac 5.3 

North  Attleborough ...  5.4 

Avon 5.5 

Cambridge 5.5 

Weymouth 5.5 

Taunton 5.6 

Uxbridge 5.7 

Acushnet 5.8 


City  or  Town.  Chlorine. 

Dartmouth 6.8 

Medway 5.8 

New  Bedford 5.8 

Plymouth 5.8  | 

Norwood 5.9  : 

Acton 6.0 

Easton 6.0 

Salisbury 6.0 

Bridgewater 6.3 

Brockton 6.4 

East  Bridgewater 6.4 

Wareham 6.4 

West  Bridgewater 6.4 

Weston 6.4 

Whitman 6.4 

Fall  River 6.5 

Middleborough 6.7 

Randolph 6.9 

Abington 7.2 

Marion 7.2 

Rockland 7.2 

Hingham 7.3 

Hull 7.3 

Needham 7.3 

Kingston 7.5 

Waltham 7.5 

Natick 7.6 

MillLs 7.7 

Ncwburyport 7.7 

Lynn 7.8 

Saugus 7.8 

Brookline 7.9 

Ipsw^ich 7.9 

Wakefield 8.2 

Duxbury 8.6 

Peabody 9.0 

Edgartown 9.3 

Mattapoisett 9.3 

Amesbury 9.4 

Gloucester 9.7 


City  or  Town.  Chlorine. 

Tisbury 9.7 

Oak  Bluffs 9.8 

Beverly 9.9 

Salem 9.9 

Fahnouth 10.1 

Dedham 10.5 

Sharon. . . . .' 10.5 

Fairhaven 10.6 

Barnstable 11.6 

Braintree 11.7 

Holbrook 11.7 

Hopkinton 11. S 

Wellesley U.S 

Grafton 14.1 

Manchester 14.2 

Cohasset 15.7 

Hyde  Park* 18.1 

Nantucket 21.8 

Framingham 21.8 

Reading 30.0 

Scituat€ 34.2 

Rockport 49.9 

Marblehead 50.5 

Provincetown 59.2 

Woburn 59.3 

Marshfield 88.0 


Blackstone 

Cummington 

Dunstable 

GUI 

Groveland 

Hardwick 

Monterey 

Southampton.  .  .  . 

Sunderland 

West  Stockbridge . 
Westhampton . . . . 
Westwood 


*  Hyde  Park  for  years  1910  and  1911.       t  No  Fijfures. 


TABLE  5. 

Public  Water  Supplies  of  Mass.^chusetts. 

average  hardnes8. 

Parts  per  Million. 

1910-1919. 


City  or  Town.  Hardness.  ' 

Fxlgartown 4  I 

Falmouth 4 

Gloucester 5  ' 

Leominster 5  I 

Wareham 5  1 

Duxbury 6  1 

Northbridge 61 

Tisbury 6 

W^stfield 6 

Abington 7  I 

Ashburnham 7  1 


City  or  Town.  Hardness.  1 

Barnstable 7  ' 

Brockton 7  ' 

Brookfield  (Ea.st) 7  1 

Fitchburg 7  | 

Hinsdale 7  1 

Mavnard 7 

Rockland 7  | 

West  Bridgewater 7  | 

Whitman 7 

Amherst 81 

Erving 8  , 


City  or  Town.  Hardnc8.«. 

Montague 8 

Oak  Bluffs 8 

Southbridge 8 

Taunton 8 

Weymouth 8 

Acushnet 9 

Dartmouth 9 

New  Bedford 9 

North  Brookfield 9 

Plymouth 9 

Fall  River 10 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 


TABLE  5  — Continued. 


Cny  or  Town.  Hardness. 

Holden 10 

Orange 10 

Rutland 10 

Spencer 10 

Stoughton 10 

Wmchendon 10 

Dudley 11 

Marion 11 

MoDson 11 

Xorthfield 11 

jy)uthHaciley 11 

AEawam 12 

Athol 12 

Clinton 12 

East  Longmeadow ....  12 

Kinfcston 12  ' 

Lancaster 12 

Ludlow 12 

Northborough 12  I 

Shiriev 12 

f^pringfield 12 

West  Brookfield 12 

Worihington 12 

Wrentham 12 

A>hland 13 

Barre 13 

Cbicopee 13 

Hinffham 13 

HuU 13 

Randolph 13 

Worrester 13 

Metropolitan  District 

Arlin^^on 14 

Belmont 14 

Boston 14 

Chebea 14 

Everett 14 

Lexington 14 

MaHen 14 

Medford 14 

Melrose 14 

Milton.  .N 14 

Xahant 14 

(^uincy 14 

Revere 14 

Somerville 14 

^^toneham 14 

>*-anipecott 14 

Watertown 14 

Winthrop 14 

Foxborougn 14 

Hudson 14 

Palmer 14 

P^ppercU 14 

Ri»«ll 14 

^'e«tborough 14 

Andover 16 

Cwton 15 

IHlion 16 

HoDiston 16 

Lawrence 16 

N'Mituckct 16 

^incbe^r 16 


City  or  Town. 

Bedford 

Blandford 

Franklin 

Mansfield 

Medfield 

Wayland 

Westford 

Chester 

Concord 

Douglas 

East  Bridgewater. . . 

Easton 

Lincoln 

Norton 

Sheffield 

Shrewsbury 

Webster 

Danvers ^ . 

Hopedale 

Littleton 

Marlborough 

Middleton 

Milford 

North  Andover 

Oxford 

Uxbridge 

WfiJpole 

Chelmsford  (North). 

Hadley 

Huntington 

Northampton 

Williamsburg 

Attleborough 20 

Gardner 20 

Granville 20 

Holyoke 20 

Ipswich 20 

Lee 20 

Hatfield 21 

Wakefield 21 

Avon 22 

Mattapoisett 22 

Millbury 22 

Peabody 22 

Plainville 22 

Rockport 22 

Lynn 23 

Saugus 23 

Ware 23 

Beverly 24 

Leicester 24 

Needham 24 

North  Attleborough ...     24 

Salem 24 

Manchester 26 

Middleborough 26 

Ayer 26 

Cambridge 26 

Egremont 26 

Fairhaven 26 

Longmeadow 26 

Merrimac 26 

Ashfield 27 


Hardness 
.  .  .  .  16 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
0 
9 
9 
9 
9 


City  or  Town.  Hardnes.s. 

Braintree 27 

Bridgewater 27 

Holbrook 27 

Lowell 27 

Newton 27 

Norwood. 27 

Billerica 28 

Newburyport 28 

Provincetown 28 

Groton 29 

Medway 29 

Deerfield 31 

Methuen 31 

Weston 31 

Greenfield 32 

Shelbume 32 

Acton 36 

Sharon 35 

West  Springfield 36 

Waltham 37 

Millis 38 

Brookline 39 

Dracut 39 

Easthampton 39 

Colrain 40 

Dedham 41 

Pittsfield 42 

Salisbury 42 

Wellesley 42 

North  Adams 43 

Grafton 45 

Natick 46 

Stockbridjre 49 

Wobum 49 

Cohasset 60 

Framingham 50 

Hyde  Park* 64 

Cheshire 55 

Hopkinton 50 

Adams 56 

Great  Barrin^ton 57 

Lenox 58 

Marshfield 58 

Williamstown 64 

HaverhiU 62 

Reading 65 

Scituate 77 

Marblehead 79 

Amesbury 100 


Blackstone 

Cummington 

Dimstable 

Gill 

Groveland 

Hardwick 

Monterey 

Southampton .... 

,  Sunderland 

!  WestStockbridge. 

Westhampton 

Westwood 


*  H3rd«  Park  for  years  1910  and  1Q12.     t  No  figures  available. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


70 


QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


TABLE  6. 

Public  Water  Suppueb  of  Massachusetts. 

average  iron. 

Parts  per  MiUion, 

1910-1919. 


CSty  or  Town.  Iron. 

Mansfield 0.02 

Oxford 0.04 

Dudley 0.05 

Edgartown 0.05 

Littleton 0.06 

Natick 0.05 

Pepperell 0.06 

Shirley 0.05 

Ware 0.05 

Acton 0.06 

Brookfield  (East) 0.06 

Chester 0.06 

Coh-ain 0.06 

Duxbury 0.06 

Hatfield 0.06 

Marion 0.06 

Mattapoisett 0.06 

MUlis 0.06 

Scituate 0.06 

Shrewsbury 0.06 

West  Brookfield 0.06 

Andover 0.07 

Dedham 0.07 

Easton 0.07 

Medway 0.07 

Monson 0.07 

Needham 0.07 

Norton 0.07 

Uxbridge 0.07 

Wareham 0.07 

Westford 0.07 

Weston 0.07 

Attleborough 0.08 

Avon 0.08 

Barnstable 0.08 

Easthampton 0.08 

Egremont 0.08 

Groton 0.08 

Medfield 0.08 

Newton 0.08 

OakBluflfs 0.08 

Sheffield 0.08 

Wobum 0.08 

Ashland 0.09 

Cheshire 0.09 

Falmouth 0.09 

Foxborough 0.09 

Franklin 0.09 

Holden 0.09 

Kingston 0.09 

Northfield 0.09 

Rutland 0.09 

Walpole 0.09 

Wrentham 0.09 

Blandford 0.10 

Brockton 0.10 

Deerfield 0.10 


City  or  Town. 


Iron. 
0 
0 


Granville 0 

Hadley 0. 

Sharon 0. 

WestBridgewater.  . . .  0. 

Whitman 0. 

Adams 0. 

Clinton 0. 

Fairhaven 0. 

Fall  River 0. 

Framingham 0. 

Great  Barrington ....  0. 

Lancaster 0. 

Lenox 0. 

Nort.h  Attleborough .  .  0. 

Tisbury 0. 

Ashburnham 0. 

Ayer 0. 

Greenfield 0. 

Hopkinton 0. 

Lincoln 0. 

Orange 0. 

Stoughton 0. 

Westborough 0. 

Dalton 0. 

Merrimac 0. 

Province  town 0. 

Taunton 0. 

Marshfield 0. 

Millbury 0. 

Northampton 0. 

Webster 0. 

Metropolitan  District 

Arlington 0. 

Belmont 0. 

Boston 0. 

Chelsea 0. 

Everett 0. 

licxington 0. 

Maiden 0. 

Medford 0. 

Melrose 0. 

Milton 0. 

Nahant 0. 

Quincy 0. 

Revere 0. 

Somerville 0. 

Stoneham 0. 

Swampscott 0. 

Watertown 0. 

Winthrop 0. 

Brookline 0. 

Grafton 0. 

Hingham 0. 

Hull 0. 

Lee 0. 

Leicester 0, 

Manchester 0 


City  or  Town.  Iron. 

Spencer 0.15 

Amherst 0.16 

Cambridge 0.16 

Canton 0.16 

Hudson 0.16 

Huntington 0.16 

Marblehead 0.16 

Pittsfield 0.16 

Russell 0-16 

Shelbume 0.16 

Stockbridge 0.16 

Wellesley 0.16 

Worcester 0.16 

Acushnet 0.17 

Braintree 0.17 

Danvers 0.17 

Dartmouth.... 0.17 

Haverhill 0.17 

Holbrook 0.17 

Longmeadow 0.17 

Middleton 0.17 

New  Bedford 0.17 

Dracut 0.18 

Gardner O.IS 

Ipswich 0.18 

Ashfield 0.19 

Hopedale 0.19 

Mifford 0.19 

Abington 0.20 

Bedford 0.20 

Rockland 0.20 

Concord 0.21 

Peabody 0.21 

North  Adams 0.22 

Randolph 0.22 

Williamsburg 0.22 

East  Bridgewater 0.23 

North  Andover 0.23 

Winchester 0.23 

Erving 0.24 

Montague 0.24 

Plymouth 0.24 

Westfield 0.24 

Barre 0.25 

Maynard 0.25 

West  Springfield 0.25 

Northbridge 0.26 

Wakefield 0.26 

Williamstown 0.26 

Leominster 0.27 

Salisbury 0.27 

South  Hadley 0.27 

Northborough 0.28 

Holyoke 0.29 

Worthington 0.29 

W6>Tnouth 0.30 

Southbridge 0.31 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 
TABLE  Q^  Continued. 


71 


City  or  Town.  Iron. 

Waltham 0.31 

Agawam 0.32 

Athol 0.32 

Chelmsford  (North)..  0.32 
East  Longmeadow.. . .  0.32 

Ludlow 0.32 

Lynn 0.32 

Saugus 0.32 

Sprmgfield 0.32 

Chicopee 0.33 

Marlborough 0.33 

Plainville 0.33 

Bridgewater 0  36 

Nantucket 0.36 

Norwood 0.36 

Fitchburg 0.38 

Pahner 0.38 


City  or  Town.  Iron. 

Wayland 0.38 

Hyde  Park* 0.43 

DouKlas 0.45 

Newburyport 0.48 

Gloucester 0.52 

Cohaaset 0.63 

Methuen 0.68 

Hinsdale 0.69 

Billerica 0.71 

North  Brookfield 0.76 

Lawrence 0.86 

Beverly. 0.86 

Salem 0.86 

Winchendon 0.88 

Rockport 0.90 

Holliston 0.92 

Lowell 0.96 


City  or  Town.  Iron. 

Amesbury 1.34 

Middleborough 1.45 

Reading 1.72 


Blackstone. 
Cummington   .... 

Dunstabte 

GiU 

Groveland 

Hard  wick 

Monterey 

Southampton 

Sunderland 

West  Stockbridge .  , 
Westhampton .... 
We.stwooa 


•Hydo  Park  for  years  1910  and  1911. 


t  No  figures  available. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


72 


QUALITIES   OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


TABLE  7. 
Corrosion  Factors. 
(Miscellaneous  Data.) 


Number  of 
CiTT  OR  Town.  ObBervations. 

Abington 6 

Andover 6 

Ashbumham 1 

Boston 1 

Braintree 3 

Brookline 4 

Brockton 5 

Chicopee 2 

Dracut 1 

Fairhaven 1 

Haverhill 12 

Hingbam 10 

Ipswich 1 

Kingston 1 

Lawrence 7 

Lincoln 1 

Lowell 8 

Marblehead 2 

Marlborough 5 

Methuen. , 1 

Middleborough 1 

Milford 1 

Millbury 1 

New  Bedford 1 

Newburyport 3 

Newton 4 

North  Andover 5 

North  Easton 1 

Norwood 14 

Palmer 1 

Provincetown 1 

Reading 1 

Revere 1 

Sharon 1 

South  Hadley 2 

Springfield 3 

Stou^ton 12 

Wakefield 5 

Waltham 3 

Wellesley 1 

West  Brookfield 1 

Weymouth 3 

Winchester 10 

Wobum 3 

Wachusett  Reservoir 13 

Sudbury  Reservoir 7 

Lake  Cochituat« 13 

Framingham  Reservoir,  No.  2 2 

Framingham  Reservoir,  No.  3 4 

Hopkinton  Reservoir 7 

Ashland  Reservoir 7 

Spot  Pond 2 

Jamaica  Pond 2 

Upper  Mystic  Lake .  .  .  .  * 5 

Lower  Mystic  Lake 5 


Parts  prr 

Million 

Free 

Alka- 

CO. 

linity. 

1.6 

5.2 

1.3 

11.4 

3.1 

13.0 

11.0 

13.0 

1.4 

9.6 

12.2 

48.2 

1.7 

8,1 

3.4 

9.2 

3.1 

42.0 

21.7 

12.0 

1.4 

16.8 

6.0 

8.2 

7.8 

15.5 

20.3 

11.5 

4.2 

12.3 

5.5 

3.0 

20.6 

31.0 

5.7 

34.0 

3.3 

7.6 

2.9 

28.0 

41.4 

17.5 

15.2 

10.5 

29.5 

15.5 

9.5 

9.0 

6.7 

24.8 

18.8 

29.2 

1.4 

14.0 

23.4 

10.0 

8.1 

8.3 

5.0 

10.5 

37.4 

3.9 

16.4 

63.0 

7.4 

59.0' 

15.1 

27.0 

6.0 

8.7 

1.1 

8.1 

11.2 

7.5 

1.8 

15.9 

29.3 

37.3 

19.8 

16.0 

15.2 

8.0 

4.2 

5.0 

1.3 

8.5 

13.1 

51.1 

1.3 

8.4 

2.3 

8.4 

1.8       . 

18.3 

1.1 

11.0 

1.3 

8.8 

3.9 

7.5 

3.2 

6.9 

0.6 

9.0 

0.0 

29.0 

3.1 

12.6 

0.4 

34.9 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WHIPPLE. 


73 


TABLE  8. 


AoQRESsivE  Carbonic  Acid. 

(Parts  per  Million.) 

Supply  Hardness 

Surface  1905 

or  to  Alka- 

CiTT  OB  Town.                          Ground.  1900.  Unity. 

Abington S  5  5.2 

Andover S  11  11.4 

Ashbumham S  10  13.0 

Boston S  13*  13.0 

Braintree SAG  10  &  19  9.6 

Brookline G  46  48.2 

Brockton S  5  8.1 

Chicopee S  9  9.2 

Dracut G  29  42.0 

Fairhaven G  21  12.0 

HaverhUl 8  17  16.8 

Hingham SAG  4  &  17  8.2 

Ipswich S  18  15.5 

Kingston G  11  11.5 

Lawrence S  14  12.3 

Lincoln S  8  3.0 

Lowell G  19  31.0 

Marblehead G  75  34.0 

Marlborough S  14  7.6 

Methuen G  30  28.0 

Middleborough G  23  17.5 

Milfoni SAG  11  10.5 

Mnibuiy G  19  15.5 

New  Bedford S  6  9.0 

Xewburyport SAG  32A44  24.8 

Newton G  28  29.2 

North  Andover S  14  14.0 

North  Easton G  16t  10.0 

Norwood S  10  8.3 

Palmer SAG  7A18  10.5 

Provincetown G  12  3.9 

Heading G  49  63.0 

Revere S  13*  59.0 

Sharon G  39  27.0 

South  Hadley S  7  8.7 

Springfield S  7  8.1 

Stoughton S  7  7.5 

Wakefield S  18  15.9 

Waltham G  36  37.3 

WeUesley G  39  16.0 

\Ve3t  Brookfield G  8.0 

Weymouth S  5  5.0 

Winchester S  13  8.5 

Wobum G  50  51.1 

Wachusett  Reservoir S  9  8.4 

Sudburv  Reservoir S  11  8.4 

Lake  Cochituate S  19  18.3 

Framingham  Reservoir,  No.  2 S  11  11.0 

Framingham  Reservoir",  No.  3 S  12  8.8 

Hopkinton  Reservoir S  9  7.5 

.Ashland  Reservoir S  9  6.9 

Spot  Pond S  12  9.0 

Jamaica  Pond S  . .  29.0 

llpper  Mystic  Lake S  12.6 

Lower  Mvstic  Lake S  ..  34.9 


Free 
Carbonic 

Corboi 

Acid. 

,Acid. 

1.6 

1.6 

1.3 

1.3 

3.1 

3.1 

11.0 

11.0 

1.4 

1.4 

12.2 

11.7 

1.7 

1.7 

3.4 

3.4 

3.1 

2.6 

21.7 

21.7 

1.4 

1.4 

6.0 

6.0 

7.8 

7.8 

20.3 

20.3 

4.2 

4.2 

5.5 

5.5 

20.6 

20.3 

5.7 

5.4 

3.3 

3.3 

2.9 

2.7 

41.4 

41.4 

15.2 

15.2 

29.5 

29.5 

9.5 

9.5 

6.7 

6.5 

18.8 

18.6 

1.4 

1.4 

3.4 

23.4 

8.1 

8.1 

5.0 

5.0 

37.4 

37.4 

16.4 

15.6 

7.4 

6.9 

15.1 

14.8 

6.0 

6.0 

1.1 

1.1 

11.2 

11.2 

1.8 

1.8 

29.3 

28.9 

19.8 

19.8 

15.2 

15.2 

4.2 

4.2 

1.3 

1.3 

13.1 

12.6 

1.3 

1.3 

2.3 

2.3 

1.8 

1.8 

1.1 

1.1 

1.3 

1.3 

3.9 

3.9 

3.2 

3.2 

0.6 

0.6 

0.0 

0.0 

3.1 

3.1 

0.4 

0.2 

*  Metcopolitan. 


t  Easton. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


74  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  Harrison  P.  Eddy.*  I  have  been  very  much  interested  in 
Professor  Whipple's  presentation  of  the  subject.  I  did  not  realize  what 
the  nature  of  his  address  was  to  be  from  the  title  of  the  paper,  but  I  have 
had  the  privilege  of  discussing  some  of  these  subjects  with  him  from  time 
to  time  in  the  past  few  years,  and  I  appreciate  that  he  has  done  a  great 
deal  of  very  valuable  work,  which  I  believe  will  prove  of  interest  and 
value  as  it  is  carried  forward. 

I  wonder  if  one  reason  why  water-works  superintendents  make  so 
little  use  of  the  results  of  analyses  is  not  because  they  are  not  in  terms 
which  are  readily  imderstood.  A  table  of  figures  giving  the  results  of 
chemical  analyses  is  pretty  dry  reading.  If  there  were  some  way  by 
which  the  data  could  be  put  into  popular  terms,  so  that  water-works 
superintendents  would  be  able  to  visualize  exactly  what  they  mean  more 
readily  than  they  can  at  present,  I  think  it  might  lead  to  very  much 
greater  use. 

It  seems  to  me  that  what  the  Professor  says  about  the  attractiveness 
of  the  water  offers  a  field  for  development  along  that  line.  As  that 
subject  is  given  more  attention,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  will  be  possible  to 
make  reports  in  terms  which  are  more  popular,  more  easily  understood, 
and  perhaps  more  readily  compared.  The  publication  of  results  such  as 
we  have  had  in  Massachusetts  from  year  to  year  has  been  to  a  large 
extent  useless  to  the  general  water-works  superintendent.  The  con- 
sulting engineers  have  used  them  because  they  had  to  study  details  and 
make  comparisons,  not  only  for  one  supply  at  different  times,  but  of 
general  supplies  and  sources  of  supply.  I  do  not  feel  therefore  that  the 
work  that  has  been  done  has  been  lost  or  wasted,  but  rather  that  it  might 
have  been  made  more  useful. 

The  diagrams  which  Professor  Whipple  has  presented,  if  I  under- 
stand him  correctly,  are  made  up  from  the  records  of  these  analyses,  and 
if  they  could  be  visualized  in  some  such  happy  manner  as  that,  I  am  sure 
every  wat^r-works  superintendent  would  be  interested  in  the  results.  I 
hope  that  something  of  that  kind  may  grow  out  of  Professor  Whipple's 
suggestions. 

Mr.  R.  J.  THOMAS.f  I  would  just  like  to  say  a  word  in  regard  to 
the  water-works  superintendents.  In  many  of  our  cities  they  have  no 
superintendent  of  water  works.  The  water  department  is  consolidated 
in  what  they  call  the  Public  Works  Department,  and  generally  the  man 
in  charge  of  the  Public  Works  Department  is  not  a  water-works  man, 
and  frequently  pays  little  attention  to  the  water  department.  In  these 
cities  you  will  find  that  the  water  department  is  only  a  sub-department 

*  Of  Metcalf  A  Eddy.  Boston.  Maas. 

t  Past  President  of  the  New  England  and  the  American  Water  Works  Associations. 


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DISCUSSION.  75 

handled  by  a  foreman,  or  perhaps  two  or  three  foremen,  —  according  to 
the  size,  —  one  for  pipe  laying  and  others  for  various  branches  of  the 
work.  That  tendency  is  growing  in  Massachusetts,  and  the  water-works 
superintendent  as  we  found  him  in  the  early  days  of  this  Association  is 
disappearing,  leaving  no  actual  head  (in  many  cases)  of  the  water  depart- 
ment, —  certainly  not  a  head  who  takes  the  interest  in  water-works 
problems  and  feels  the  responsibility  they  did  in  former  days. 

That  may  account  for  some  of  the  failures  to  answer  Professor 
Whipple's  inquiries,  and  will  no  doubt  in  time  make  for  ineflSciency  in 
the  management  and  operation  of  water-works  systems  so  controlled. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Baker.*  I  wonder  if  more  interest  might  not  be  had 
by  the  water-works  men,  and  perhaps  by  the  city  authorities  as  well,  if 
more  were  done  with  bacterial  results.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the 
ordinary  tabulation  of  sanitary  analyses  of  water  should  not  arouse 
interest  when  presented  to  the  water-works  superintendents  or  to  the 
citizens  of  a  town.  But  if  these  were  correlated  with  the  vital  statistics 
and  the  general  health  conditions  of  the  city,  and  if  they  were  brought  to 
the  attention,  as  they  doubtless  would  be,  of  the  local  boards  of  health, 
some  real  use  of  the  analyses  might  be  expected.  Certainly  if  the  local 
boards  of  health  are  alive  to  their  duty  they  will  be  deeply  concerned 
with  the  right  sort  of  analytical  data  on  the  character^of  the  water,  if 
accompanied  with  the  right  kind  of  interpretative  comment. 

That  brings  me  to  another  thought  that  has  been  very  much  in  my 
mind  within  the  last  few  months,  which  is,  whether,  in  view  of  the  wide- 
spread diminution  in  typhoid,  some  other  measure  of  the  character  of  our 
water  supplies  and  their  effect  upon  the  public  health  is  not  needed. 
This  need  has  come  very  definitely  to  my  mind  in  connection  with  the 
water  supplies  of  Montclair,  N.  J.,  and  Cambridge,  Mass.,  to  name  only 
two  places  where  there  has  within  the  past  few  years  been  considerable 
agitation  over  the  character  of  the  water  supply,  although  both  places 
are  almost  free  from  typhoid  fever. 

I  am  very  much  interested  in  this  water  from  both  the  board  of 
health  and  water-works  viewpoints.  I  think  that  the  board  of  health 
people  and  the  water-works  people,  both  in  our  cities  and  our  technical 
associations,  should  put  their  heads  together  on  this  matter  and  see  what 
the  real  significance  of  some  of  these  things  is,  and  whether  we  need  some 
new  measure  of  the  sanitary  quality  of  our  water  supphes. 

Professor  Whipple's  paper,  or  that  part  of  it  which  he  has  had  time 
to  read,  is  addressed  very  largely  to  the  attractiveness  of  water.  That  I 
understand.  But  looking  at  it  broadly,  we  can,  if  the  subject  is  rightly 
presented,  get  money  for  water-works  improvements  if  we  can  show,  as 
we  were  able  to  show  for  very  many  years,  that  by  a  moderate  expenditure 
the  death  rate  of  the  city  can  be  cut  down. 

*  AaBooUte  Editor  Bngineering  News  Record*  New  York. 

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76  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WATER   SUPPLIES  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Mr.  George  A.  King.*  I  would  like  to  inquire  if  I  rightly  under- 
stood one  sentence  in  Professor  WhippIe^s  paper.  Speaking  of  the 
hydrogen  ions  and  electrolysis,  I  understood  him  to  say  that  the  passage 
of  electric  current  through  the  water  pipe  increased  the  electronic 
action. 

Professor  Whipple.  I  think  that  is  probably  true.  During  the 
past  year  we  have  continued  our  experiments  on  the  corrosion  of  pipe 
in  the  Sanitary  Engineering  Laboratory  of  the  Harvard  Engineering 
School.  Among  other  things  we  placed  pieces  of  wrought-iron  pipe^ 
with  and  without  brass  couplings  attached,  in  tanks  of  flowing  water,  and 
noted  the  relative  corrosion.  Even  the  slight  galvanic  current  set  up  by 
the  two  metals  appeared  to  cause  a  more  general  corrosion  of  the  iron 
than  was  observed  in  the  iron  pipe  alone,  not  only  at  the  joint  but  all 
along  the  pipe.  It  is  my  impression  that  with  a  current  of  electricity 
flowing  through  the  pipe  this  action  would  be  somewhat  increased. 
These  experiments  are  not  completed.  We  wish  to  have  them  carried 
on  for  a  year  before  much  is  said  about  them,  but  they  are  extremely 
interesting. 

One  of  my  colleagues  in  the  University  told  me  some  time  ago  some 
interesting  facts  in  connection  with  his  studies  for  the  detection  of  sub- 
marines. When  a  current  of  electricity  was  sent  from  one  end  of  the 
steel  ship  to  the  other,  not  all  of  the  current  went  through  the  metal  of 
the  ship;  a  small  part  of  it  went  out  through  the  water  in  a  sort  of  arc  to 
a  distance  of  25  ft.,  and  a  still  smaller  part  went  out  into  the  water  to 
distances  of  100  ft.,  or  more.  That  is,  not  all  the  current  went  through 
the  ship,  as  one  might  think  it  would  do.  By  arranging  a  delicate 
apparatus  in  the  water  he  could  detect  these  stray  currents,  and  he  used 
that  principle  in  locating  submarines  during  the  war.  If  that  is  the  case, 
it  seems  possible  that  there  may  be  minute  currents  of  electricity  in  the 
water  between  the  brass  fitting  and  the  pipes  which  will  be  effective,  at 
some  more  distant  place  than  the  junction,  so  that  rusting  may  be  caused 
a  good  many  feet  away  from  the  joint  as  a  result  of  having  the  two  metals 
connected.     Electrolytes  in  the  water  would  hasten  this  action. 

Mr.  King.  The  passage  of  the  current  through  the  water  increases 
the  electrolytic  action? 

Professor  Whipple.  Yes,  and  probably  if  a  current  of  electricity 
is  passed  through  the  system  the  rusting  will  be  faster. 

Mr.  King.  Then  would  the  grounding  of  telephone  wires  and 
electric-light  wires  have  any  effect? 

Professor  Whipple.  That  is  one  of  the  very  things  we  are  trying 
to  find  out.  We  do  not  know  definitely  as  yet.  We  are  making  quite  a 
number  of  studies  of  this  sort  at  Harvard.  They  require  time,  but  I 
think  that  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two  we  shall  be  able  to  discuss  a  lot 

♦  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Taunton,  Mass. 


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DISCUSSION.  77 

of  those  questions  more  intelligently  than  now  and  bring  the  results  to 
the  attention  of  the  members  of  this  Association. 

Mr.  Stephen  DeM.  Gage.*  I  have  been  very  much  interested  in 
this  paper,  because  for  a  number  of  years  I  have  been  trying  to  work  out 
some  satisfactory  method  of  bringing  home  to  the  people  the  differences 
in  our  public  water  supplies. 

As  Mr.  Thomas  has  brought  out,  a  good  many  of  the  men  who  are 
nominally  in  charge  of  water  works  are  not  water-works  men,  and  are 
mainly  interested  in  seeing  that  the  works  are  kept  in  operation  at  rea- 
sonable expense  and  that  the  necessary  funds  are  obtained  for  this  purpose 
from  one  source  or  another.  So  long  as  the  state  department  of  health 
passes  their  water  as  of  safe  quality  they  are  very  Ukely  to  consider  that 
the  supply  is  plenty  good  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 

It  has  seemed  to  me  that  if  we  are  to  raise  the  standard  of  many  of 
our  supplies,  we  will  have  to  arouse  and  unite  the  sentiment  of  the  people 
in  the  individual  communities.  One  way  to  do  this  is  to  bring  home  to 
the  people  the  fact  that  they  are  not  getting  as  good  a  water  as  the  people 
of  some  other  community.  Oftentimes  the  thoughtless  water-works 
official  can  be  brought  to  see  the  light  in  the  same  way,  but  unless  he  has 
public  opinion  behind  him,  he  m9.y  not  be  able  to  get  very  far. 

In  the  supervision  of  our  various  water  filter  plants  in  Rhode  Island 
we  are  using  this  method  to  a  certain  extent.  When  we  make  our  regular 
visit  to  a  plant,  if  we  find  that  the  operating  results  are  not  as  good  as 
they  might  be,  we  tell  the  operator  that  John  Smith  at  B plant  is  mak- 
ing better  water,  or  is  operating  at  a  lower  cost.  He  has  visited  John 
Smith's  plant  and  knows  that  his  own  equipment  is  as  good  as  Smith's, 
and  his  pride  leads  him  to  try  to  beat  the  other  fellow. 

I  have  a  feeling  that  we  might  be  able  to  accomplish  something  by 
working  along  the  same  lines  with  our  unfiltered  water  supplies,  if  we 
had  some  simple  system  of  grading  such  as  Professor  Whipple  has  out- 
lined. If,  for  example,  it  were  generally  known  that  the  water  of  one 
community  was  very  much  better  than  that  of  another,  the  people  of  the 
first  place  would  be  very  likely  to  brag  about  it  and  thus  perhaps  arouse 
the  citizens  of  the  second  community  to  support  needed  improvements 
in  their  own  supply. 

Some  years  ago  I  had  large  bottles  of  water  from  our  different  water 
supplies  on  exhibition  at  the  various  county  fairs,  with  placards  com- 
menting on  the  varjdng  character  of  the  water,  the  effect  of  filtration, 
etc.  This  exhibit  aroused  considerable  interest  and  many  of  our  visitor^ 
stopped  to  ask  questions,  and  most  of  them  were  intelligent  questions. 
We  felt  that  the  educational  value  of  these  exhibits  was  sufficiently  great 
to  warrant  us  in  repeating  them  for  two  or  three  years. 

One  incident  occurred  at  one  of  the  fairs,  however,  which  illustrates 
the  fact  that  there  is  another  side  to  the  question.     Early  in  the  afternoon 

*  Chemist  and  Sanitary  Engineer.  Rhode  Island  State  Dcpt.  Health. 

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78  ECONOBiY  IN  SERVICE-PIPE  INSTALLATION. 

a  woman  came  up  and  said,  "What  is  the  matter  with  the  Westerly  water? 
I  have  just  moved  to  Westerly  from  Woonsocket,  and  we  can't  drink  the 
water,  it  has  such  a  funny  taste."  The  Woonsocket  water  is  a  surface 
water  that  ranges  in  color  from  40  to  90  or  more,  and  usually  has  a  distinct 
vegetable  odor,  while  the  Westerly  water  is  a  clear,  colorless,  ground 
water  with  no  taste  or  odor.  I  had  always  considered  the  Westerly 
water  one  of  the  best  and  most  attractive  waters  in  the  state,  while  the 
Woonsocket  supply  wouldn't  rank  very  high  according  to  Professor 
Whipple's  method  of  scoring.  But  this  party  had  learned  to  like  the 
dark-brown  water,  and  the  clean  ground  water  tasted  flat  to  her.  Per- 
haps this  serves  to  explain  why  it  is  sometimes  so  difficult  to  arouse 
popular  sentiment  in  favor  of  improvements  in  some  of  our  public  water 
supplies.  The  people  have  learned  to  like  them,  bad  as  we  sanitary 
engineers  may  think  they  are. 

I  should  Uke  to  ask  Professor  Whipple  one  question.  On  what  basis 
did  he  grade  the  odors  of  the  Massachusetts  supplies?  Was  it  on  the 
basis  of  the  observed  odors  of  laboratory  samples,  on  the  basis  of  counts 
of  micro-organisms,  or  on  the  basis  of  complaints  from  consumers? 

Professor  Whipple.  On  the  observed  odors.  We  found  it  was 
not  possible  to  do  it  on  the  basis  of  the  microscopic  organisms,  because 
the  State  Department  of  Public  Health  records  are  kept  in  absolute 
numbers  of  organisms,  taking  no  account  of  their  size. 


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NEW80M.  79 


THE  ECONOMY  OF  HIGH  INITIAL  COST  AND  EXTREME 
CARE  IN  SERVICE-PIPE  INSTALLATION. 

BY  REEVES  J.   NEWBOM.* 
[Read  September  I4,  1991.] 

In  cities  and  towns  where  the  pressures  vary  between  35  lb.  and  55  lb. 
in  the  major  portions  of  the  residential  districts,  the  cleaning  of  service 
pipes  to  insure  satisfactory  force  of  water  is  apt  to  be  a  serious  problem. 

For  the  past  ten  years  the  number  requiring  cleaning  Lq  Lynn  has  been 
upwards  of  2  000  per  year,  and  has  approximated  20  per  cent,  of  the 
domestic  services.  The  cost  of  this  work  varies  from  about  $1  to  $5  per 
job,  depending  on  the  accessibility  and  layout  of  the  service,  and  averages 
around  $2.  To  this  must  be  added  something  for  services  which  are  made 
to  leak  when  disturbed,  while  otherwise  they  might  .serve  f6r  several  ad- 
ditional years. 

This  means  on  the  average  an  expenditure  of  $10  and  upwards  in 
twenty-five  years  for  the  cleaniug  of  each  service  pipe,  and,  what  is  of  al- 
most equal  if  not  greater  importance,  there  are  five  periods  of  more  or  less 
duration  prior  to  each  cleaning  when  the  water  service  is  unsatisfactory  to 
the  consumer,  and  when  great  inroads  are  necessarily  made  on  the  good- 
will of  the  public  towards  the  Water  Department,  —  something  which 
should  at  all  times  be  cultivated  and  guarded  rather  than  injured  or  de- 
stroyed. The  annoyance  to  the  consumer  is  made  more  acute  by  the  fact 
that  inasmuch  as  the  majority  of  these  complaints  are  made  with  the  be- 
ginning of  the  hot  weather,  and  the  lawn-sprinkling  season,  they  come 
piUng  in  at  the  rate  of  25,  50,  75,  or  even  100  a  day,  and  soon  we  find  our- 
selves three  or  four  weeks  behind,  and  it  is  an  exceptional  consumer  who 
will  wait  that  long  without  feeUng  that  he  has  a  real  grievance  and  that  he 
is  being  discriminated  against. 

The  coming  use  of  the  flush  valve  instead  of  tanks  as  bathroom  equip- 
ment but  serves  to  make  more  frequent  and  serious  the  lack  of  suflScient 
pressure. 

In  view  of  these  things  we  have  come  to  beUeve  that  a  somewhat 
larger  original  investment  and  the  use  of  extreme  care  in  making  service 
installations  is  not  only  economical  in  the  end  but  good  policy  as  well. 
We  have,  therefore,  taken  two  definite  steps  to  relieve  the  situation, 
first  by  increasing  the  size  of  service  pipes  for  a  given  installation,'  and 
second  by  making  it  practically  impossible  for  the  water  to  come  in  contact 
with  iron  at  any  point  from  the  main  to  the  tee  inside  the  cellar  wall. 


*  CommisBioner  of  Water  Supply,  Lynn,  Mass. 


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80  ECONOMY   IN   SERVICE-PIPE  INSTALLATION. 

Years  ago  hundreds  of  J-in.  services  were  installed,  in  some  cases  for 
as  large  as  three-family  houses,  and  many  of  these  are  still  in  use.  In 
recent  years  a  1-in.  service  with  a  f-in.  corporation  cock  and  gooseneck 
has  been  the  ordinary  size  installed,  but  we  have  now  gone  a  step  farther 
and  use  this  size  only  for  cottage  houses  not  over  30  ft.  from  the  main,  and 
for  all  ordinary  installations  and  renewals  we  use  1  J-in.  pipe  with  a  1-in. 
corporation  and  gooseneck.  This  size  we  believe  will  give  ample  water 
for  all  reasonable  uses,  and  our  next  care  has  been  to  insure  the  maintenance 
of  this  full  size  for  a  long  term  of  years. 

We  use  wrought-iron  service  pipe,  and  line  it  with  cement.  The 
common  difficulty  of  a  non-concentric  lining  has  been  overcome  by  certain 
special  features  of  the  cones  used  for  shaping  the  cement.  We  now  use  a 
single  cone  of  more  than  the  ordinary  length,  the  last  six  or  eight  inches  of 
which  is  ^  in.  larger  than  the  front  section.  Two  sets  of  spring  steel  wings 
are  provided,  one  near  the  forward  end  and  one  slightly  back  of  the  middle, 
which  centers  the  cone  rigidly.  The  enlarged  part  of  the  cone  smooths  out 
and  fills  in  the  grooves  made  by  the  wings,  and  because  it  is  attached  to  the 
remainder  of  the  cone  it  cannot  drop,  due  to  its  weight,  as  does  the  ordinary 
follower. 

Cement-lined  service  pipes  were  used  by  the  department  from  1871 
to  1890,  and  many  of  these  pipes  are  still  in  service.  They  were  installed, 
however,  with  unlined  fittings,  and  it  has  been  necessary  to  take  them  up, 
due  to  plugging  of  the  latter.  In  all  cases  the  pipe  taken  out,  even  after 
forty  years'  use,  is  in  good  shape,  and  the  inside  is  as  clean  and  smooth  as 
the  day  it  was  installed.  We  have  learned,  therefore,  that  it  is  in  the 
connections  that  the  trouble  develops,  and  that  it  is  here  that  we  must 
exercise  our  greatest  care. 

Beginning  at  the  main,  the  first  precaution  is  to  prevent  the  stoppage 
of  the  corporation,  and  our  method  is  to  use  cocks  which  have  an  extension 
beyond  the  threaded  portion  entering  the  main,  about  f  in.  in  length, 
which  is  similar  to  the  old  eel  guard,  except  that  it  is  soUd  rather  than 
slotted,  and  is  open  full  size  at  the  end.  This  measure  is  especially  valuable 
for  tappings  in  12-in.  pipes  and  above,  where  the  thickness  of  iron  prevents 
any  appreciable  part  of  the  cock  from  protruding  through  the  main.  This 
tj'-pe  of  corporation  makes  it  necessar}'^  for  the  i-ust  action  taking  place 
where  the  drill  has  broken  through  the  cast  iron  and  destroyed  the  coating 
to  pile  up  nearly  an  inch  thick  before  it  begins  to  close  over  the  end  of  the 
cock,  and  usually,  due  to  the  slowness  of  the  action  when  the  iron  is  partially 
covered  with  rust,  this  will  require  a  very  long  time. 

Where  the  joints  are  made  in  the  service  line  there  are  two  oppor- 
tunities for  rust  fonnation,  the  cut  end  of  the  pipe  and  the  breaking  back 
of  the  cement  lining  if  the  pipe  is  cut  with  an  ordinary  pipe  cutter. 

If  the  cut  end  of  pipe  is  exposed  in  the  couplings,  only  ordinary  rust 
action  takes  place,  but  if  it  is  exposed  in  the  brass  fittings,  very  much  more 
rapid  galvanic  action  takes  place,  due  to  the  presence  of  brass,  iron,  and 


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NEWSOM.  81 

water,  the  latter  always  containing  enough  salts  to  make  it  an  electrolyte. 
We  line  our  couplings,  tees,  elbows,  and  forty-fives  with  lead,  and  also 
put  a  ring  of  the  same  material  in  the  female  solder  nipples  in  the  end  of 
the  goosenecks  and  in  the  curb  cocks. 

The  solder  nipples  are  tapered,  which  allows  entering  a  tool  part  way, 
until  it  strikes  the  side  of  the  fitting  and  prevents  the  lead  going  through 
when  it  is  poured.  .  The  making  of  the  lead  ring  in  the  curb  cocks  is  greatly 
simplified,  and  the  cost  of  this  work  is  more  than  paid  for  by  using  a  cock 
one  size  smaller  than  the  pipe,  with  enlarged  outlets.  For  example,  for  use 
with  IJ-in.  pipe  a  1-in.  curb  cock  with  IJ-in.  outlets  is  used,  which  gives  a 
shoulder  against  which  the  inside  lining  tool  is  held.  This  tool  has  a  flat 
tapered  end,  which  allows  a  tight  fit  against  the  shoulder  and  prevents  any 
lead  from  going  through  when  poured.  The  cocks  so  used  are  substantially 
the  same  size  as  the  larger-sized  pipe  when  lined  and  give  plenty  of  water- 
way, for,  when  the  formation  of  rust  is  precluded,  the  need  of  a  large, 
roomy  curb  cock  disappears. 

The  bushings  used  for  the  lining  of  all  fittings  are  carefully  regulated  so 
that  they  screw  in  only  five  or  six  threads,  which  assures  the  pipe  coming 
solidly  in  contact  with  the  lead,  so  that  the  raw  iron  will  be  completely 
covered.  To  insure  a  tight  fit  between  the  lead  and  cement,  the  inner  half 
of  the  inside  end  of  the  bushing  is  beveled  outward  on  a  30°  angle,  so  that 
the  cement  and  lead  come  in  contact  slightly  in  advance  of  the  iron  and 
lead. 

The  final  precaution  is  to  prevent  the  cement  from  breaking  when  the 
pipe  is  cut,  so  that  the  last  opportunity  for  the  contact  of  water  with  iron 
will  have  been  taken  care  of.  This  is  done  by  cutting  all  pipe  in  the  shop 
by  a  metal  cutting  machine  which,  to  all  appearances,  is  a  power  hack  saw, 
made  with  heavy  accurately  ground  bearings,  and  which  gives  an  absolutely 
square  end  to  the  cement  as  well  as  to  the  iron. 

This  is  accomplished  by  having  a  man  from  the  engineering  depart- 
ment follow  up  the  service  gangs  a  couple  of  hours  after  they  start  digging 
for  an  installation,  and  take  measurements  of  what  wiU  be  required  for 
each  job.  These  measurements  not  only  serve  the  engineering  department 
in  making  the  records,  but  are  inmiediately  turned  in  to  the  stock  depart- 
ment and  the  pipe  and  fittings  are  gotten  out  and  are  partially  made  up. 
A  little  later  the  trucks  taking  care  of  the  service  gangs  return  to  the  shop 
and  deliver  the  material  to  the  jobs,  where  it  is  sUpped  into  place. 

The  additional  cost  of  services  so  laid  is,  on  the  average,  approxi- 
mately S5.50,  made  up  as  follows: 

Larger  corporation $0.75 

Larger  gooseneck 1.25 

Larger  curb  cock 85 

Larger  pipe,  6c.  per  ft 2.40 

3  lead  ring?  in  brass  fittings 25 

$5.50 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


82  ECONOMY  IN  SBRVICE-PrPE  INSTALLATION. 

The  finished  product  compares  favorably  with  either  lead  or  brass  for 
longevity,  and  at  very  much  less  cost. 

It  is  our  firm  belief  that  all  these  things,  some  of  which  may  seem  more 
or  less  superfluous,  are  fully  justified,  especially  in  cities  where  pressures  are 
relatively  low.  It  is  only  to  be  regretted  that  those  to  benefit  most  will  be 
the  water-works  officials  twenty  to  thirty  years  hence,  while  at  present  we 
must  continue  to  take  the  criticism  of  the  dissatisfied  consumers  and  to  dig 
up  well-paved  streets  to  remove  pipes  which  were  installed  in  the  past  with 
less  care  than  we  now  exercise. 

Discussion. 

Mr,  J.  M.  DivBN.*  How  is  the  outside  of  the  wrought-iron  pipe  — 
or  wrought-steel,  I  suppose  probably  it  is  —  protected?  Is  it  also  covered 
with  cement? 

Mb.  Newsom.  We  use  wrought-iron  pipe,  not  steel,  and  do  not  put 
any  protection  on  the  outside  of  the  pipe,  but  use  ordinary  black  pipe, 
except  where  it  is  to  be  laid  in  a  part  of  the  city  where  we  encounter  salt 
water,  in  which  case  we  use  galvanized  pipe.  When  we  buy  galvanized 
pipe,  we  buy  it  galvanized  on  the  outside  only,  so  that  there  will  be  no  likeli- 
hood of  any  irregularities  inside  the  pij)e  to  interfere  with  the  proper  lining 
with  cement.  The  pipe  I  spoke  of  as  having  lasted  forty  years  or  more  in 
the  ground  was  only  ordinary  black  pipe. 

Mr.  Diven.    What  does  it  cost  per  foot  to  line  li-in.  pipe? 

Mr.  Newsom.    Between  2i  and  3c.  a  foot  for  li-in.  pipe. 

Mr.  Diven.  Would  you  recommend  using  cement-lined  where  the 
pressures  are  high  as  well  as  where  they  are  low? 

Mr.  Newsom.  I  think  the  advisabiUty  of  using  cement-Uned  pipe  is 
entirely  independent  of  the  pressure. 

Mr.  DAvm  A.  HEFFERNAN.f  Mr.  Newsom  and  I  have  corresponded 
relative  to  the  lining  of  pipe.  I  have  been  lining  wrought-iron  pipe  with 
cement  for  more  than  a  dozen  years.  This  was  a  good  plan  as  far  as  it 
went.  The  brass  fittings  used  in  connection  with  a  wrought-iron  service 
generated  a  galvanic  current,  so  that  it  became  necessary  early  this  year  to 
line  all  fittings  from  main  to  meter  where  they  are  made  on  to  the  iron  pipe, 
thus  preventing  the  brass  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  iron  at  any 
point  where  the  water  would  reach  them.  This  makes  more  work  and  a 
more  expensive  service,  but  I  can  see  no  other  way  of  overcoming  the 
troubles  we  are  meeting,  and  it  is  my  confident  belief  that  those  superin- 
tendents who  adopt  this  policy  will  not  regret  it. 

Mr.  J.  E.  GARRETT.t  I  should  like  to  ask  Mr.  Newsom  if  he  uses 
reamed  pipe,  or  ordinary  black  pipe  unreamed,  and  if  with  the  special 

♦  Secretary,  American  Water  Works  Aasociation. 
t  Superintendent,  Water  Works,  Milton,  Mass. 
X  Civil  Engineer.  Stamford,  Conn. 


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DISCUSSION.  83 

lining  cones  that  he  has  it  is  unnecessary  to  ream  the  pipes  before  Uning 
them? 

Mb.  Newsom.    No;  the  cones  will  not  take  care  of  irregularities  in 
unreamed  pipe.    We  use  short  lengths,  —  that  is  14- to  16-ft.  lengths  of 
black,  reamed  pipe.    It  has  been  our  experience  that  even  when  you  buy 
black,  reamed  pipe  there  are  certain  irregularities   in  that  pipe  which, 
cause  trouble  when  you  use  soUd  wings,  but  not  with  spring  steel  wings. 

Mb.  Carleton  E.  Davis.*  You  spoke  of  the  larger-sized  pipe.  Is 
the  service  charge  based  on  the  size  of  the  pipe? 

Mr.  Newsom.  I  regret  to  say  that  we  have  not  gotten  quite  into  that 
stage  of  charging  yet.    We  do  not  have  a  service  charge. 

Mb.  Davis.    But  this  service  pipe  does  not  affect  the  charge  for  water? 

Mr.  Newsom.  At  the  present  time  it  does  not.  It  probably  would 
if  we  were  figuring  it  just  that  way,  although  I  beUeve  that  the  amount 
saved  in  cleaning  the  pipes  will  be  more  than  the  cost  of  putting  those  pipes 
in  this  way,  so  that  we  will  not  require  any  more  revenue  than  we  have  now. 
It  is  simply  spending  it  in  a  different  way. 

Mr.  Diven.    What  is  the  method  of  cleaning  the  pipe? 

Mr.  Newsom.  We  use  the  ordinary  methods  in  cleaning.  We 
either  insert  rods  with  cutters  on  the  ends  of  them,  or  else  we  in  some 
cases  use  hollow  tin  tubing,  the  same  as  is  used  for  thawing  pipe.  That 
is  simply  run  in  and  out.  When  we  get  to  the  corporation  cock  and  find 
that  stopped  up  so  that  we  can't  push  in  a  reaming  tool  there,  we  use  an 
instrument  which  we  call  a  spudger,  which  is  a  section  of  brass  pipe  which 
we  secure  to  the  end  of  the  service  pipe  in  the  cellar.  Into  that  we  fit  a 
wooden  plug  which  will  just  sUp  into  the  brass  pipe.  We  then  turn  on 
the  pressure,  allowing  the  spudger  to  fill,  meantime  holding  the  water  back 
with  the  wooden  plug.  The  latter  is  then  hit  with  a  hammer,  which  causes 
water  hammer  and  drives  any  obstruction  out  of  Ihe  corporation  cock. 

Mb.  R.  H.  ELLis.t  I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Newsom  if  in  his  experi- 
ence with  c€ment-Uned  pipe  he  has  ever  found  any  trouble  with  the  cement 
cracking  or  pulling  inside  of  the  pipe,  provided  a  heavy  fill  has  been  put 
on  top  of  the  pipe,  causing  a  slight  sag,  or  something  of  that  nature.  My 
reason  for  asking  is  that  in  our  department  at  North  Andover  we  are  busily 
engaged  at  the  present  time  in  removing  practically  all  the  cement-lined 
pipe  that  we  have,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  cement  has  scaled  off,  al- 
lowing corrosion  to  set  in  in  the  interior  of  the  pipe. 

Mb.  Newsom.  I  have  never  had  any  experience  of  that  kind.  I 
am  inclined  to  believe  that  if  the  cement  peeled  off,  or  cracked  off,  due  to 
nothing  more  than  simply  a  sagging  in  the  pipe,  it  was  improper  construc- 
tion when  the  pipe  was  originally  lined,  because  our  experience  has  been 
that  pipe  properly  lined  can  even  be  bent  around  a  small  angle  without 


4>  Chief  Bureau  of  Water,  Philadelphia.  Pa. 

t  Supeciatandent,  Board  of  Public  Works,  North  Andover,  Ma?^. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


84  ECONOMY  IN  SERVICE-PIPE  INSTALLATION. 

injuring  the  cement.  While  we  do  not  do  that  as  a  matter  of  practice,  it 
certainly  is  more  severe  than  a  sag  in  the  pipe  would  be. 

Mr.  Bertram  Brewer.*  When  the  speaker  was  in  Waltham  and 
in  charge  of  the  water  department,  one  of  the  things  that  came  up  was 
the  question  of  the  use  of  cement-lined  pipe.  In  the  years  gone  by  it  had 
been  used  to  a  great  extent,  but  suddenly,  without  apparent  reason,  those 
in  charge  gave  it  up  and  began  using  plain  galvanized  pipe  instead.  An 
investigation  of  the  situation  with  some  of  the  foremen  who  were  directly 
concerned  with  the  work  disclosed  the  fact  that,  just  as  Mr.  Newsom's 
paper  suggests,  the  work  had  been  very  carelessly  done  and  some  of  the 
cement  lining  had  separated  from  the  iron  and  the  pipe  had  become  plugged. 
It  proved  to  be  very  unwise  to  give  up  the  use  of  cement-lined  pipe,  es- 
pecially in  Waltham,  so  we  began  using  it  again  with  more  skill  and  found 
no  difficulty  in  getting  a  permanent  lining. 

While  I  am  on  my  feet  I  just  want  to  say  that  I  do  not  know  of  any 
Uterature  that  contains  more  valuable  information  on  this  general  subject 
than  the  volumes  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  Journal. 
A  Committee  on  Service  Pipes  made  a  valuable  report,  a  few  years  ago, 
published  in  the  September  number  of  Vol.  XXXI. 

I  do  not  think  that  there  is  proper  realization  of  the  fact  that  carbonic 
acid  is  extremely  deleterious  to  metal,  on  account  of  its  corrosive  action. 
In  Massachusetts  many  of  the  ground-water  supplies  contain  carbonic 
acid,  particularly  such  water  as  that  of  the  Cook  wells  in  Lowell,  the 
Waltham  water,  the  Newton  water,  and  many  others.  No  one  should 
think  of  laying  connections  where  there  is  carbonic  acid  in  the  water  unless 
cement-lined  pipe  is  used  or  some  equally  good  protection  is  secured  as 
that  provided  by  the  cement. 

Mr.  George  A.  KiNG.f  I  should  like  to  ask  Mr.  Newsom  if  he  has 
ever  used  what  I  call  tfie  Boston  plan  of  cleaning,  —  using  a  force  pump 
to  drive  paper  through  the  pipes? 

Mr.  Newsom.  No,  I  have  never  used  that.  We  have  had  success 
with  the  method  we  have  used  and  have  found  it  very  effective. 

Mr.  Brewer.  I  have  tried  out  the  paper-plug  method  of  cleaning 
old  services  very  thoroughly  and  should  say  in  over  half  of  the  cases  where 
it  was  tried  success  followed  the  attempt. 

Mr.  Timothy  W.  Good.J  I  am  very  much  interested  in  Mr.  Newsom 's 
paper.  I  want  to  say,  for  the  benefit  of  the  members,  that  in  the  city  of 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  with  approximately  18  000  services,  we  believe  in  a 
proper  method  of  lining  on  original  installations.  We  have  used  nothing 
but  lead-lined  pipe  for  the  past  fourteen  years,  and  have  never  had  any 
trouble,  except  that  at  times  you  might  get  slight  corrosion  at  the  main 
where  the  corporation  cock  is  tapped  in;  this,  however,  is  easily  remedied 

*  Ajwistant  Engineer,  Massachusetts  State  Department  of  Publio  Health, 
t  Superintendent.  Water  Works.  Taunton,  Mass. 
X  Supejintendent.  Water  Works,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


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DISCUSSION.  85 

by  means  of  our  cleaning  rods.  We  are  firm  believers  in  rigid  connections 
at  the  main.  We  put  a  coupling  right  on  the  corporation  cock,  and  our 
experience  has  shown  that  you  get  sufficient  expansion  through  the  base- 
ment waD,  and  the  least  number  of  joints  you  have  out  under  the  pavement 
the  better  it  is  for  the  service.  We  consider  the  added  cost  of  lead-lined 
pipe  a  good  investment.  In  fourteen  years  we  have  never  had  to  renew, 
and  we  know  that  we  will  go  fourteen  years  more. 

Mr.  Gordon  Z.  Smith.*  I  should  like  to  state  that  I  had  lateh'  an 
experience  in  a  little  town  in  this  state  in  cleaning  out  various  kinds  of 
services,  except  lead  pipe.  There  are  no  lead  services  there.  Some  years 
ago  the  department  manufactured  cement-lined  pipe  of  their  own,  and  at 
the  joints  there  was  a  brass  thimble  inserted.  The  joint  itself  was  a 
regular  iron-pipe  joint.  After  some  years  those  cement-lined  services 
did  fill  up,  particularly  at  the  corporation  connection  and  at  the  curb  box 
and  at  each  joint.  The  water  department  installed  the  service  from  the 
water  main  to  the  curb  box,  so  that  we  were  responsible  for  it  and  its  re- 
newal. Some  time  in  1914  I  discovered  the  method  that  was  being  used  in 
Boston  in  cleaning  out  serinces  with  the  use  of  a  force  pump  and  a  wad  of 
tissue  paper.  It  worked  out  very  successfully  in  most  instances,  even  with 
cement-lined  pipe.  I  have  had  curb  cocks  so  filled  up  that  one  couldn't 
see  any  li^t  through  them,  they  were  absolutely  filled  full,  and  those  were 
cleaned  out  as  good  as  new.  But  where  the  pipe  lining  had  broken  and  the 
pipe  had  tuberculated  along  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  -we  couldn't  do 
anything  in  cleaning  that  out,  because  it  was  something  that  the  paper 
would  not  handle.  If  it  did,  there  would  so  much  get  ahead  of  the  paper 
wad  that  the  pipe  would  be  absolutely  plugged.  We  had  some  threp  years' 
experience  with  it  while  I  was  there,  and  it  saved  us  quite  a  little  money  in 
the  renewal  of  services. 

Mr.  W.  C.  HAWLEY.f  I  am  wondering  if  a  part  of  our  service-pipe 
trouble  is  not  due  to  the  use  of  zinc  in  the  mixture  of  which  our  corporation 
cocks  and  curb  cocks  are  made.  I  came  to  the  conclusion,  a  good  many 
years  ago,  that  it  would  be  better  to  have  a  mixture  88^10-2,  the  two  per 
cent,  being  of  lead.  It  makes  it  a  Uttle  harder  to  machine,  but  I  think  it  is 
better  than  a  mixture  containing  zinc. 

Mr.  DivEN.     You  better  bring  that  before  the  Committee  on  Fittings. 

Mr.  Lincoln  Van  Gilder.J  Our  own  experience  has  been  that 
standard  galvanized  pipe  for  services,  or  a  f -in.  pipe,  will  close  up  in  about 
ten  years,  and  that  the  same  pipe  with  lead  lining  lasts  indefinitely.  We 
have  never  used  the  cement,  and  that  is  -something  I  have  no  personal 
knowledge  of.  We  sometimes  have  difficulty  with  a  corporation  cock  or  a 
curb  c<3ck. 


•  Chief  Inspector.  Bridgeport  Hydraulic  Company  (Conn.). 
t  Chief  Engineer,  Pennsylvania  Water  Company. 
X  8uperint*»ndcrt,  Water  Worko,  Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 


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86  MONEL  METAL. 


MONEL  METAL  AND  ITS  SUITABILITY  FOR  WATER- 
WORKS USE. 

BY   H.   S.    ARNOLD.* 

[Read  September  14, 19$L] 

Monel  metal,  a  natural  alloy  of  nickel  and  copper  produced  by  the 
International  Nickel  Company,  is  attracting  considerable  attention  in 
engineering  circles  because  of  its  peculiar  properties  which  make  its  field  of 
usefulness  very  broad. 

Since  Monel  metal  has  been  termed  a  natural  alloy,  and  since  to  many 
its  history  is  obscure,  I  will  describe  briefly  the  source  of  supply  and  method 
of  manufacture. 

Monel  metal  comes  from  an  ore  of  nickel  and  copper  occuring  in  the 
Sudbury  district  of  Ontario,  Canada.  The  ore  deposits  of  this  district 
constitute  the  largest  known  commercial  nickel  deposits  in  the  world. 
The  Creighton  Mine,  one  of  the  International  Nickel  Company's  proper- 
ties, is  the  largest  producing  nickel  mine  in  the  world.  The  ore  as  mined 
contains  considerable  sulphur.  By  heap  roasting,  about  half  of  this 
sulphur  is  eliminated.  The  roasted  ore  is  smelted  in  blast  furnaces  to  a 
matte  containing  about  25  per  cent,  nickel  and  copper.  This  matte  is 
blown  in  Bessemer  converters  to  approximately  eighty  per  cent,  nickel  and 
copper.  The  converter  product,  called  "  Bessemer  matte,"  is  shipped  to 
the  Company's  New  Jersey  refinery,  where  it  is  pulverized,  dead  roasted 
to  remove  sulphur,  and  finally  reduced  with  charcoal  in  oil-fired  rever- 
boratory  furnaces  to  Monel  metal. 

The  furnaces  are  tapped  at  about  2850°  F.,  and  after  deoxidizing  in 
the  ladle  with  manganese  and  magnesium,  the  metal  is  chill  cast  into  ingots 
for  rolling  and  forging  or  into  blocks  for  remelting  purposes.  Monel  for 
sheet  rolling  and  for  remelting  carries  about  \  per  cent,  manganese,  while 
for  rods,  forgings,  wire,  etc.,  the  manganese  is  raised  to  2J  per  cent.  Metal 
for  sand  castings  usually  has  about  1  per  cent,  silicon  added.  The  alloy, 
Monel  metal,  thus  produced  contains  approximately  67  per  cent,  nickel, 
28  per  cent,  copper  and  5  per  cent,  other  metals,  chiefly  iron,  manganese, 
and  silicon. 

It  is  a  single  solid  solution  which  looks  and  in  general  acts  like'a  pure 
metal.  There  has  been  no  separation  nor  any  addition  of  nickel  or  copper 
during  the  refining  process.  The  nickel-copper  ratio  remains  the  same 
from  ore  to  finished  metal,  hence  the  name  "  natural  alloy." 

*  Of  the  International  Nickel  Company.  New  York. 

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ARNOLD.  87 

Monel  can  be  cast,  forged,  hot  rolled,  or  cold  drawn.    It  may  be 

autogenously  welded,  brazed,  soldered,  stamped,  machined,  and  polished. 

It  is  annealed  by  heating  to  900°  C.    It  is  hardened  only  by  cold  work. 

Physical  Properties. 

In  its  physical  properties  it  resembles  medimn  steel  to  a  certain  extent. 
Its  tensile  strength  forged  or  rolled  runs  from  75  000  to  over  100  000  lb. 
per  square  inch,  depending  on  the  amount  of  work  and  the  finishing  tem- 
perature. The  elastic  Umit  will  be  from  40  000  to  75  000  lb.  per  square 
inch,  elongation  30  to  50  per  cent,  in  two  inches,  reduction  of  area  50  to  70 
per  cent.  It  is  comparable  to  an  annealed  medium  steel  in  hardness,  its 
BrineU  numbers  running  from  145  to  170 .  The  Shore  scleroscope  hard- 
ness is  about  27.  The  yield  point  under  compression  runs  from  60  000  to 
70  000  lb.  per  square  inch. 

Values  for  the  torsional  strength  of  hot-rolled  Monel  metal  are  yield 
point  50  000  to  80  000  lb.  per  square  inch,  maximum  stress  75  000  to  90  000 
lb.  per  square  inch.  Shear  tests  give,  for  double  shear,  90  000  to  127  000 
lb.;  for  single  shear,  45  500  to  60  000  lb.  per  square  inch.  A  research 
laboratory  (G.  and  J.  Weir,  Limited,  Cathcart,  Scotland)  has  recently  made 
an  interesting  series  of  comparative  Izod  impact  tests  on  several  different 
metals,  and  the  position  of  Monel  metal  at  the  top  of  this  list  is  worthy  of 
comment.  The  metals  thus  compared  were:  Three-quarter  inch  rolled 
mild  steel  rod,  wrought  iron,  rolled  brass  rod,  forged  copper,  rolled  Monel 
metal  rod,  cast  admiralty  gunmetal,  iron  cast  in  green  sand,  and  high- 
tension  bronze  cast  in  chill.  The  results  are  expressed  in  foot-pounds  ab- 
sorbed in  breaking  or  bending,  and  follow  in  the  order  of  their  magnitude. 

Caat  iron 08 

Admiralty  metal 8.0 

Rolled  brass 23.0 

High-tension  bronze 25.5 

Forged  copper 46.0 

Wrought  iron 58.4 

Mild  steel 76.7 

Monel  metal 113.7 

All  pieces  were  broken  in  the  test  except  copper,  wrought  iron,  mild 
steel,  and  Monel  metal.  Tests  at  the  Bureau  of  Standards  in  Washington 
verify  these  figures  and  give  Monel  metal  a  higher  figure  than  heat-treated 
alloy  steels  of  twice  its  tensile  strength.  This  high  value  for  the  resistance 
to  impact  seems  a  matter  of  course  to  one  who  has  seen  Monel  metal  parts 
subjected  to  sudden  severe  shocks  which  would  be  destructive  to  other 
metals  of  the  same  strength,  for  in  these  cases  they  have  seen  Monel  metal 
only  bent  or  distorted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  require  straightening  to  be 
again  put  into  service,  while  the  other  metals  of  similar  or  greater  tensile 
strength  were  broken  and  ruined  for  further  use.     There  was  an  interesting 


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88  MONEL  METAL. 

illustration  of  this  some  time  ago,  on  a  destroyer  which  came  into  a  na\'3' 
yard  with  one  of  its  turbines  out  of  commission.  Examination  revealed 
the  fact  that  a  nickel  steel  bucket  had  snapped  when  revolving  at  high 
speed,  and  before  the  turbine  was  shut  down  all  the  other  steel  buckets 
were  broken  off  short.  None  of  the  Monel  metal  buckets  were  broken,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  steel  buckets  were  wedged  in  among  them  in  such  a 
way  as  to  bend  them  badly.  It  was  necessary  to  replace  the  steel  buckets 
with  new  ones,  while  those  of  Monel  metal  needed  only  to  be  straightened. 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  is  about  25  000  000,  about  the  same  as 
wrought  iron  and  twice  a«  great  as  brass.  This  comparatively  large  value 
has  bearing  in  the  construction  of  such  pieces  of  apparatus  as  propellers, 
where  distortion  may  cause  a  great  loss  in  efficiency. 

The  ultimate  strength  of  sand-cast  Monel  metal  is  about  75  000  lb. 
per  square  inch,  yield  point  40  000  lb.  per  square  inch,  elongation  30  per 
cent,  in  two  inches. 

The  hardness  is  about  20  Shore,  100  Brinell. 

The  tensile  properties  of  cold-drawn  or  rolled  wire,  rod,  or  strip,  varj' 
largely  according  to  the  cold  work,  degree  of  anneaUng  and  gage.  The 
ultimate  strength  may  be  produced  from  85  000  to  160  000  lb.  per  square 
inch,  yield  point  50  000  to  100  000,  elongation  30  per  cent,  to  1  per  cent., 
depending  on  the  hardness,  which  may  be  as  high  as  45  Shore  when  heavily 
worked  and  not  annealed.  When  annealed,  the  hardness  may  be  as  low  as 
that  of  hot-rolled  material. 

The  melting  point  of  Monel  metal  is  2480*^  F.,  its  specific  gravity  8.87 
cast  and  8.98  rolled,  —  14  per  cent,  greater  than  steel.  Its  coefficient  of 
expansion  between  70  and  212  F.  is  .00000765  p)er  degree,  15  per  cent, 
greater  than  steel  and  18  per  cent,  less  than  copf)er.  Its  electrical  resistance 
is  256  ohms  per  million  feet  and  temperature  coefficient  .0011  per  degree 
Fahrenheit.  Its  relative  heat  conductivity  is  one  fifteenth  that  of  copper. 
The  amount  of  shrinkage  in  cooling  from  the  molten  state  is  J  in.  per  foot. 

Monel  metal  is,  perhaps,  the  best  general  metal  for  resisting  acid, 
alkalies,  and  general  chemical  corrosion.  There  are  other  metals,  of  course, 
which  are  more  resistant  to  certain  corrosive  agents,  but  Monel  metal, 
whose  solution  potential  is  well  below  hydrogen  and  acid  resisting  metals, 
is  in  general  attacked  less  seriously  than  any  other  metal.  It  combines 
with  its  slow  rate  of  corrosion  the  property  of  corroding  evenly  with  little 
pitting  or  local  attack. 

It  withstands  successfully  such  corrosive  actions  as  that  of  atmos- 
pheric conditions,  fresh  or  salt  water,  wet  or  superheated  steam,  gases  of 
combustion,  metalUc  mercury,  and  the  oxidizing  influence  of  heat  up  to 
1  000°  Fahrenheit,  below  which  point  only  superficial  oxidation  takes 
place.  It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  benzoic,  citric,  hydro- 
fluoric, lactic,  dilute  phosphoric,  picric  (in  the  cold),  salycilic,  tannic, 
hydrocyanic  acids,  and  carboUc  acid  have  practically  no  effect  on  the  metal. 
The  evidence  seems  sufficient  that  it  is  resistant  to  all  fruit^s  and  fatty  acids 


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ARNOLD.  89 

and  phenols.  The  action  of  foods  is  not  severe  on  Monel  metal,  and  food 
may  stand  in  vessels  of  it  for  some  time  without  acquiring  a  foreign  flavor. 
Tomatoes  and  clams  are  exceptions  to  this.  They  have  been  found  at 
times  to  be  so  affected  by  long  standing  in  Monel  metal  as  to  make  them 
unfit  for  use. 

Pure  alkalies  will,  in  general,  attack  Monel  metal  only  very  slightly. 
Some  cases  have  been  known,  however,  where  alkalies  in  the  presence  of 
their  salts  have  affected  the  metal,  and  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule 
that  such  mixtures  will  produce  definite  corrosion. 

Principal  Types  of  Uses  and  Related  Properties, 

One  general  type  of  use  is  for  structural  purposes  where  it  is  subjected 
to  severe  weather  conditions.-  This  includes  its  use  for  roofing  sheets, 
skylight  frames,  window  screens,  etc.  The  properties  which  enter  here  are 
its  resistance  to  weather  corrosion  and  its  strength.  An  example  of  this 
use  is  the  roof  of  the  Pennsylvania  Terminal,  New  York  City,  which  is 
entirely  of  Monel  metal  and  which  has  needed  only  minor  repairs  since  it 
was  built.  Even  the  minor  repairs  have  been  caused  by  faulty  laying,  and 
not  by  any  failure  of  the  metal.  Another  is  that  of  Monel  metal  screening 
which  has  recently  been  removed  from  the  summer  home  of  an  oflScer  of  the 
Xickel  Company,  on  the  Jersey  coast,  after  nine  years  of  service  exposed  to 
weather  and  spray  carrying  sea  breezes,  winter  and  siunmer.  When,  after 
this  period,  it  was  removed  for  examination  and  exhibition  it  showed  Uttle 
signs  of  wear  or  corrosion.  This  service  has  been  estimated  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  twenty-five  years  of  such  service  as  ordinary  screening  receives  when 
only  in  use  during  the  summer. 

Another  general  type  of  use  is  for  household,  hotel,  and  hospital  hard- 
ware, including  trimming  and  fixtures  where  a  bright  permanent  white 
polish  is  desired,  other  hardware,  plumbing  parts,  cooking  and  serving 
utensils,  table  flat  ware,  washing  machines.  These  uses  require  that  the 
metal  be  resistant  to  the  action  of  foods,  hot  and  cold,  and  to  cleansing 
agents,  also  that  it  take  and  retain  a  good  polish. 

In  regard  to  its  use  in  superheated  and  wet  steam  and  hot  water,  some 
very  interesting  data  have  been  presented  to  the  Engineers  Society  of 
Western  Pennsylvania  by  J.  Roy  Tanner  and  George  J.  Stewart.  Monel 
metal  has  given  good  service  in  valve  seats,  rings,  bushings  and  stems, 
pump  rods  and  plungers,  meter  parts,  stop  cocks,  etc.  The  important 
properties  here  are  the  retention  of  tensile  strength  at  high  temperatures, 
similarity  in  tensile  and  expansion  qualities  to  steel,  and  tendency  to  wear 
or  corrode  evenly  if  at  all. 

Its  resistance  to  oxidation  and  to  gases  of  combustion  at  moderate 
temperatures  makes  it  serviceable  in  oil  combustion  parts,  spray  valves, 
ignition  points,  welding  torch  heads,  conveyors  and  stirrers  for  Jurnaces, 
internal  combustion  engine  valves,  glass  rollers,  and  blowpipes. 


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90  MONEL  METAL. 

Being  resistant  to  many  forms  of  chemical  corrosion  and  at  the  same 
time  of  high  tensile  strength,  impact-  and  wear-resisting  properties,  it  is 
used  in  chemical  work  such  as  pickling  crates,  pins,  tie-rods,  nuts  and 
washers,  evaporating  and  drying  pans,  fourdriniers,  filter  cloth,  textile 
machinery,  general  acid  and  chemical  handling  work. 

Some  Special  Uses  and  the  Related  Properties. 

Of  particular  interest  in  the  Pittsburgh  district  is  the  use  of  Monel 
metal  parts  in  the  process  of  pickling  steel  sheets  and  slabs  in  sulfuric  acid. 
The  metallic  equipment  of  this  work  consists  of  crates,  pins,  hooks  and 
bales,  tank  tie-rods,  nuts  and  washers,  and  tank  drains.  The  original  cost 
of  Monel  metal  for  this  work  is  greater  than  that  of  most  of  the  anti-acid 
bronzes  which  are  used  for  the  same  purpose.  However,  the  greater  re- 
sistance of  Monel  metal  to  the  acids  and  pickling  agents,  combined  with  its 
strength  and  resistance  to  impact  and  its  amenability  to  re-working,  make 
it  cheaper  in  the  final  analysis. 

If  Monel  metal  is  to  be  used  where  exposed  to  hydrochloric  acid  or 
its  fumes,  it  should  be  subjected  to  a  preliminary  trial,  as  it  has  been  found 
that  in  some  cases  it  will  not  stand  up,  while  in  others  it  withstands  the 
action  of  the  acid  with  entire  satisfaction.  The  laws  governing  this  action 
have  not  been  thoroughly  worked  out.  It  is  evident  that  local  conditions 
and  methods  of  handling  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  its  ability  to  resist 
this  acid.  It  is  probably  true  that  Monel  metal  will  resist  it,  however, 
better  than  any  other  common  alloy.  In  no  case  is  it  recommended  for 
nitric,  chromic,  perchloric,  hot  picric,  or  phosphric  acids,  or  such  oxidizing 
salts  as  ferric  sulfate,  copper  sulphate,  mercuric  chloride,  or  molten  zinc 
salts.    Neither  will  it  resist  molten  metals  or  molten  sulfur. 

It  resists  well  the  action  of  dry  chlorine  and  sulfur  gases. 

Another  important  special  use  of  Monel  metal  is  in  turbine  buckets, 
especially  for  marine  turbines  where,  the  pitching  and  tossing  and  twisting 
of  boats  in  a  heavy  seaway,  operating  contrary  to  the  gyroscope  action 
caused  by  the  high  speed  of  the  moving  parts,  sets  up  strains  and  stresses 
which  would  cause  other  metals  to  crystallize  and  snap  off,  Monel  metal 
remains  unaffected.  Another  factor  in  its  favor  for  this  work  is  its  ability 
to  retain  a  large  percentage  of  its  tensile  strength  and  other  properties  at 
the  temperature  of  the  steam  operating  the  turbines. 

In  power  plants  its  ability  to  retain  tensile  strength  at  steam  tempera- 
tures and  to  resist  the  erosion  of  Uve  steam  give  it  a  large  use.  Valve  trim 
and  turbine  shrouding  are  often  made  of  it.  Pump  rods  and  liners  in  pumps 
that  handle  water  containing  a  large  amount  of  acid  or  other  corrosive 
agents  are  generally  of  Monel  metal.  In  hydroelectric  power  plants  large 
impellers  cast  of  Monel  metal  are  often  specified.  Ih  the  latter  case 
bronze  h%s  been  discarded  because  the  erosion  of  the  water  eats  away  and 
roughens  the  vanes.  Monel  metal  is  admirably  suited  to  replace  it  because 
of  its  property  under  such  erosive  action,  instead  of  becoming  pitted  and 


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ARNOLD.  91 

roughened,  of  remaining  bright  and  smooth,  thereby  giving  maximum 
eflSciency. 

Several  years  ago,  Brezowsky  and  Spring  of  the  Crane  Company  con- 
ducted experiments  comparing  Monel  metal  to  other  alloys  for  use  in 
valves  made  by  the  Crane  Company  for  handling  steam.  All  of  these  tests 
showed  that  Monel  metal  was  better  suited  for  their  purpose  than  the  other 
metals  tested.  It  retained  its  physical  properties  better  than  practically 
any  other  alloy,  and  where  this  was  not  the  case  the  diflFerence  was  very 
slight.  Its  strength  was  either  greater  at  corresponding  temperatures  due  to 
its  greater  initial  strength  or  it  was  more  resistant  to  the  corrosive  and  ero- 
sive properties  of  the  superheated  steam.  These  properties  have  been  more 
recently  checked  in  the  laboratory  of  the  International  Nickel  Company 
and  in  laboratories  abroad.  Tanner  and  Stewart  in  their  paper  showed 
that  for  handling  superheated  steam  the  only  satisfactory  valve  was  one  of 
cast-steel  body  with  Monel  metalmountings.  It  has  been  repeatedly  compared 
with  other  allojrs  for  this  work  and  none  has  so  far  been  found  to  approach  it. 

Its  heat-resisting  qualities,  while  not  as  good  as  nichrome  or  chromel, 
or  pure  manganese  nickel,  are  such  as  to  make  it  well  suited  for  certain 
heat-resisting  uses.  It  has  -been  found,  for  instance,  that  Monel  metal 
exhaust  valves  in  internal  combustion  engines  give  excellent  results. 

In  the  mining  industry,  Monel  metal  is  found  well  distributed  in  the 
form  of  pump  rods  and  liners,  mine  screens,  and  coal  chutes.  In  the  latter 
case  its  ability  to  resist  abrasion  as  well  as  corrosion  have  been  the  factors 
governing  its  selection.  At  the  same  time  Monel  metal  should  not  be  used 
in  mines  which  have  an  appreciable  amount  of  ferric  sulfate  in  the  water, 
as  this  salt  has  a  decided  corrosive  action  on  it. 

The  ability  of  Monel  metal  to  withstand  the  action  of  weak  acids  and 
other  corrosive  agents  of  foods  gives  it  value  in  the  handling  and  preparation 
of  food  products.  Packing-house  equipment  which  comes  in  contact  with 
brine  and  salt  is  largely  made  of  it.  Meat  and  fruit  slicing  machines, 
canning  apparatus,  dairy  machinery  such  as  butter  handling  machines, 
milking  machines,  separators  and  pasteurizers,  have  parts  of  this  metal. 
In  the  kitchens  of  some  of  the  large,  new,  up-to-date  hotels,  Monel  metal 
is  prominent  in  the  form  of  steam  table-tops,  coffee  urns,  pots,  and  pans. 

A  growing  use  of  Monel  metal  for  direct  personal  interest  to  many  is  as 
a  metal  for  the  manufacture  of  golf  club  heads.  The  use  of  Monel  metal 
does  away  with  the  necessity  for  grinding  and  poUshing  to  keep  the  clubs 
bright,  and  the  clubs  will  therefore  not  become  Ughter  with  use.  Being  of 
as  great  resilience  as  steel  and  slightly  higher  in  specific  gravity,  Monel 
metal  heads  give  a  somewhat  greater  distance  to  the  ball. 

Experiments  are  being  conducted  in  New  York  City  to  determine  the 
suitability  of  Monel  metal  for  parts  in  telephone  and  telegraph  subways. 
Here  the  metal  parts  are  subjected  to  seepage  from  the  sewers  and  the 
filthy  salt  water  that  often  fills  the  subways  along  the  water  front.  These 
waters  are  exceedingly  corrosive.     Ladders  for  the  manholes,  locks  for  the 


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92  MONEL  METAL. 

covers,  and  similar  parts  have  been  made  of  Monel  metal  for  trial.  To 
date  these  parts  have  been  in  service  nearly  two  years  in  the  worst  manhole 
in  the  city  and  are  as  good  as  when  put  in,  while  parts  made  of  other  metais 
have  lasted,  at  best,  only  a  few  months. 

Some  of  the  other  interesting  places  where  Monel  metal  serves  a  special 
purpose,  which  are  too  nimfierous  to  discuss  in  any  detail,  may  be  mentioned 
as:  Parts  for  ordnance  and  for  submarine  construction,  incinerator  machin- 
ery, sewage  handling  machinery,  lavatories,  textile  machinery,  storage 
battery  casings,  burning  points  and  racks  for  enamel  ware,  plugs  and  other 
parts  in  the  manufacture  of  gasoline  in  Burton  stills,  oil-handling  machin- 
ery, parts  of  tempering  furnaces,  tank  linings  for  acid  and  alkali,  gas- 
engine  water  jackets,  chain  to  resist  weathering,  wire  rope,  sash  cord, 
resistance  wire,  rivets  and  nails,  dyeing  machinery,  refrigerating  machin- 
ery, and  sugar-refining  equipment. 

So  far  I  have  not  dealt  directly  with  the  suitability  of  Monel  metal  for 
water-works  uses. 

That  Monel  metal  is  worthy  of  consideration  by  water-works  engineers 
is  evidenced  by  its  present  use  in  this  field. 

Monel  metal  is  in  constant  demand  for  the  gear  parts  in  water  meters, 
especially  in  the  middle  west  and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Monel  metal  pump-liners,  pump  rods,  valves  and  valve  stems  have 
excellent  records  of  service  dating  back  to  1907.  The  Boston  Fire  Depart- 
ment installed  Monel  metal  valve  stems  in  the  high-pressure  fire  hydrants 
in  1909.    The  results  have  been  very  satisfactory. 

Monel  metal  has  been  used  to  replace  bronze  anchor  bolts  on  the 
Ashokan  Dam.  It  also  finds  use  in  filter  screens,  and  in  water  purification 
system.  Chlorination  parts,  namely,  valve  stems  and  seats,  have  been 
standard  for  the  past  eight  years. 

The  field  is  one  in  which  we  have  not  gone  deeply,  yet  it  would  appear 
from  a  general  survey  that  the  opportunities  for  Monel  metal  are  large. 
It  is  here,  perhaps,  that  the  non-corrosive  properties  of  Monel  metal  will  be 
of  primary  interest.  We  have  become  less  and  less  confident  of  our 
ability  to  theorize  about  the  behavior  of  metals  toward  corrosion  under 
actual  service  conditions,  and  realize  that  corrosion  tests  to  be  of  practical 
value  must  be  made  in  the  field  or  at  least  upon  a  comparable  scale.  Yet 
it  is  appreciated  that  the  use  of  any  particular  metal  is  rarely  based  upon 
the  sole  property  of  the  resistance  to  corrosion.  In  fact,  I  venture  the 
assertion  that  resistance  to  corrosion  alone,  although  a  necessary  factor,  is 
quite  frequently  not  the  determining  one  of  practical  serviceability  in  any 
particular  "  anti-corrosion  "  piece  of  construction,  but  some  other  property 
often  entirely  unrelated  to  it.  As  a  corollary  to  this,  I  can  state  from  my 
own  experience  that  materials  may  be  sufficiently  resistant  to  corrosion 
for  jobs  requiring  this  property,  but  their  actual  use  for  it  is  quite  out  of  the 
question  on  account  of  their  failure  in  other  and  quite  different  directions. 
The  engineer  is  greatly  in  need  of  a  material  of  corrosion-resisting  proper- 
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ARNOLD.  93 

ties  which,  in  addition,  is  otherwise,  well  balanced  in  its  physical  character- 
istics and  without  serious  deficiencies.  It  must  be  readily  subject  to  the 
usual  processes  of  fabrication;  welding,  soldering,  forging,  casting,  machin- 
ing, rolling,  drawing,  stamping,  etc.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  most  special- 
ised corrosion-resistant  metals  display  inability  to  meet  requirements 
without  expensive  and  troublesome  changes  of  design. 

Finally,  a  material  to  be  generally  useful  must  be  available  in  com- 
mercial forms.  The  importance  of  this  qualification  will  be  fuUy  appre- 
ciated by  all  those  familiar  with  commercial  development  of  any  sort. 

Discussion. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.*  Has  this  metal  been  used  by  the  valve  manu- 
facturers for  valve  stems?  If  so,  about  what  additional  cost  would  there 
be  over  bronze  metal? 

Mr.  Arnoij>.  Practically  all  of  the  large  valve  manufacturers  are 
well  acquainted  with  Monel,  but  they  have  given  their  fullest  attention  to 
steam  valves.  The  Crane  Company,  however,  has  made  some  large  valves 
for  water-works  uses. 

The  high-pressure  valves  previously  mentioned  were  made  for  the 
Boston  Fire  Department  by  another  manufacturer,  hence  we  have  no 
record  of  costs.  In  general,  Monel  castings  will  cost  about  twice  as  much 
as  bronze,  and  fabricated  Monel  about  two  thirds  more  than  bronze. 

Mr.  Cableton  E.  DAVis.f  Is  that  cost  on  a  pound  per  pound  basis, 
or  is  it  allowed  for  smaller  size  but  possessing  greater  strength? 

Mr.  Arnold.  Pound  per  pound.  There  is,  of  course,  quite  a 
chance  to  make  a  saving  in  size,  providing  you  want  to  do  it.  It  is  usually 
a  case  where  for  safety  we  take  advantage  of  a  stronger  material  rather 
than  cut  down,  although  I  know  the  latter  is  done  in  many  cases.  For 
instance,  in  meter  parts,  I  beUeve  they  are  cutting  down.  In  casings  and 
the  like,  they  cut  down  considerably,  from  a  cast  to  forged  material. 
Where  they  have  found  it  practicable  to  use  a  stamped  or  forged  material  to 
replace  a  casting,  they  have  been  very  successful  in  cutting  down  weight. 

Mr.  William  Ross.  I  would  like  to  ask  whether  your  company  wiU 
sell  pig  now.  I  asked  some  time  ago,  and  they  would  not  sell  pig  but 
would  sell  castings;  but  for  experimental  purposes  that  was  not  very 
practicable. 

Mr.  Arnold.  No,  there  is  no  objection  at  all  to  that.  They  will  be 
glad  to  sell  either  in  the  form  of  50-lb.  pigs  or  in  the  form  of  shot. 

If  you  have  any  difficulty  I  will  be  very  glad  to  have  you  write  to  me 
personally. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  do  not  think  the  water-works  operator  would  hesitate 
to  pay  twice,  or  several  times,  the  cost  of  a  valve  stem,  if  he  could  get  a 
valve  stem  that  would  not  give  out. 


♦  Secretary  American  Water  Works  Association, 
t  Chief,  Bureau  Water,  Philadelphia.  Pa. 


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94  MONEL  METAL. 

Mr.  Samuel  E.  Killam.*  I  might  say  that  last  year,  on  one  of  our 
hydraulic  valves,  we  were  unfortunate  enough  to  allow  it  to  freeze,  and  it 
cracked  the  cylinder.  It  was  a  case  of  replacing  that  cylinder.  I  was  very 
much  surprised,  when  the  foreman  took  the  cylinder  oflf ,  to  have  him  report 
that  the  valve  stem  came  out.  It  was  88-1Q-2.  And  later  in  the  evening 
he  called  me  again  and  said  it  was  entirely  out.  So  that  I  went  up  to  the 
works.  I  found  that  where  the  valve  stem  had  entered  the  nut  it  was 
broken  oflf  short.  Why  it  broke  oflf  I  have  not  been  able  to  reason  out. 
But  we  replaced  that  particular  one  with  Monel  metal.  That  is  a  regular 
36-in.  hydraulic  valve.  I  believe  it  is  something  that  will  be  worth  looking 
into  later  for  valve  .stems  in  large  valves. 

Mr.  Diven.    That  is  a  Uttle  heavy  to  have  breaking  out,  is  it  not? 

Mr.  KOiLAM.    Yes;  it  is  the  first  time  I  have  caught  it. 

Mr.  Lincoln  Van  Gnj)ER.t  A  couple  of  months  ago  I  was  informed 
by  a  gentleman  in  Philadelphia  who  represents  a  distributing  firm,  that 
there  seemed  to  be  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  metal,  and  that  where  you 
expected  to  get  a  non-corrosive  article  you  got  one  that  was  quite  readily 
attacked.  I  was  wondering  whether  that  had  been  permanently  cured  yet, 
and  whether  you  can  produce  Monel  metal  that  you  can  reasonably 
guarantee  as  anti-corrosive. 

Mr.  Arnold.  Yes,  we  do.  I  think  perhaps  the  statements  of 
failure  are  perhaps  a  trifle  overdrawn.  I  am  very  sure  from  our  own 
records  that  I  can  state  positively  that  the  percentage  is  a  very  small 
fraction  of  1  per  cent.  •  And  I  think  you  will  find  the  company  will  be  very 
glad  to  make  a  replacement  in  case  of  unsatisfactory  material  of  this  sort. 

Mr.  KHiLAM.  I  would  say  that  in  figuring  up  the  cost,  as  near  as  I 
could  estimate,  it  was  about  75  per  cent,  more  for  the  Monel  metal. 

Mr.  Arnold.  Did  you  have  your  own  material  machined  out  for 
you? 

Mr.  Killam.    Yes. 

Mr.  Arnold.  There  is  the  difficulty  that  is  being  rapidly  over- 
come, —  cost  of  machining.  A  great  many  machine  shops  have  complained 
of  the  diflSculty  of  machining  Monel  metal,  and  they  have  charged  ex- 
orbitant prices  for  machining.  There  is  really  no  reason  why  there  should 
be  an  extra  charge  at  all,  or,  if  any,  only  a  very  small  one.  It  is  merely  the 
case  of  a  little  precaution  in  dressing  your  tools  to  get  proper  cutting 
quaUty. 

Mr.  Killam.  Wasn't  that  due  particularly  to  the  poor  American 
tools  made  during  the  war? 

Mr.  Arnold.  A  great  deal  of  it.  Then  the  fact  that  a  great  many 
machine  shops  took  it  as  one  of  two  things,  —  either  as  being  Uke  bronze, 
and  giving  it  a  bronze  treatment,  or  being  Uke  steel,  and  giving  it  a  steel 
treatment;  and  neither  of  them  is  entirely  successful. 

*  Superintendent.  Distribution  Sections,  Water  Division,  Metropolitan  District  Commission,  Boston, 
t  Superintendent,  Water  Works,  Atlantic  City. 


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JOHNSON.  96 


PROPER  UNDERGROUND  RECORDS. 

BY  R.   F.   JOHNSON.* 

{September  16,  19S1,] 

Mr.  Chairman  and  GenUemen  of  the  Convention,  —  I  have  no  paper. 
I  submit,  however,  an  exhibit  which  I  am  going  to  leave  on  the  clerk's  desk 
for  any  of  you  to  look  at  who  may  wish  to  do  so,  so  that  you  may  see  how  we 
keep  our  underground  records. 

In  oiur  city  our  water  department  was  managed.  Up  to  about  seven 
years  ago,  by  a  board  of  water  commissioners,  and  seven  years  ago  the 
form  of  government  was  changed  so  that  the  city  is  now  managed  by  a  com- 
mission. Our  people  believe  in  associations,  and  when  they  employed  me 
as  superintendent,  quite  a  good  many  years  ago,  I  was  asked  to  take  the 
position  on  the  first  of  July,  and  the  first  thing  they  instructed  me  to  do 
was  to  attend  a  meeting  of  the  American  Water  Works  Association  in  June, 
before  I  ever  had  anything  to  do  with  the  water  works.  Since  then  I 
have  absorbed  a  great  deal  from  my  attendance  at  the  meetings  of  the 
American  Association,  and  from  the  literature  of  this  Association,  to 
which  I  have  been  a  subscriber  for  quite  a  good  many  years.  And  I  thought 
it  was  no  more  than  fair,  after  I  had  absorbed  so  much,  to  imdertake  to 
contribute  a  little,  so  that  I  asked  one  of  our  boys  in  the  drafting  room  to 
make  me  a  sample  page  of  our  imderground  records. 

Previous  to  my  being  appointed  superintendent,  I  was  comptroller  of 
the  city,  and  previous  to  that  time  I  had  been  in  the  accounting  business, 
and  I  always  beUeved  that  anything  in  that  line  should  be  left  by  the 
operator,  or  bookkeeper,  or  whoever  it  might  be,  at  night,  so  that  if  he 
should  never  again  appear  that  somebody  else  could  take  it  up  in  the 
morning,. 

When  I  got  into  the  water-works  business  I  conceived  the  same  idea. 
About  the  first  thing  I  ran  across  when  I  took  charge  of  these  water  works 
was  to  overhear  the  men  say,  "  Well,  John,  didn't  you,  some  years  ago, 
put  down  a  long  connection  along  Brockway  Street,  and  if  you  did,  when  we 
extended  the  main  itself  what  became  of  that  connection?"  Another 
question  would  be,  "  How  far  is  the  main  out  from  the  curb  on  a  certain 
istreet?"  Another  question  would  be  as  to  the  exact  location  of  a  valve. 
And  I  found  that  they  were  continually  hunting  up  references  at  the 
expense  of  a  great  deal  of  time. 

Then,  when  it  came  to  the  service  connections,  that  was  worse  yet. 
I  found  reference  books  in  the  oflSce  saying  that  certain  blocks  had  service 

*  Comminioner,  Department  of  Light.  Water,  and  Sewers.  Saginaw.  Mich. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


96  PROER  UNDERGROUND  RECORDS. 

connections  of  a  certain  size.  If  you  wanted  to  know  any  more  about  any 
particular  service  connection  you  had  to  go  back  to  the  original  permit. 

So  that  this  plan  was  gotten  up,  and  on  that  page,  which  is  a  fair 
sample,  it  shows  the  exact  location  of  the  mains,  the  exact  location  of  every 
hydrant,  the  exact  location  of  every  valve  in  feet  and  tenths  of  feet,  and  the 
exact  location  of  every  service  connection,  its  age  and  size;  and,  in  fact, 
everything  about  our  system  is  in  that  book. 

In  talking  with  my  fellow-superintendents  in  the  neighborhood,  a 
great  many  of  them  have  objected  to  my  system  of  records  for  the  reason 
that  perhaps  it  cost  too  much  money,  so  that  before  I  came  away  I  looked 
up  just  what  it  did  cost.  We  had  wall  maps  on  a  scale  of  440  ft.  to  the  inch. 
Those  waU  maps,  of  course,  woidd  show  which  side  of  the  street  the  main  was 
on,  and  show  which  side  of  the  street  intersection  the  valve  was  on,  but  it 
was  altogether  too  small  a  scale  to  show  the  details  that  we  wanted.  Mat- 
ters of  that  kind  we  had  to  start  with.  Our  city  has  65  000  population,  and 
that  record  is  in  14  books,  with  50  pages  each,  properly  indexed.  Each 
page  is  drawn  on  Paragon  mounted  drawing  paper  18  in.  by  24  in.  upon  a 
scale  of  40  ft.  to  the  inch,  which  gives  plenty  of  space  for  all  the  notations 
required. 

The  property  Unes  and  reams  of  streets  are  shown  in  black  and  the 
mains  and  connections  in  red,  and  then  the  valves  and  hydrants  in 
black.  We  cover  17  square  miles  of  territory,  we  have  155  miles  of  mains, 
1  342  hydrants,  1  362  valves  in  the  mains,  and  13  000  service  connections. 

Now,  the  entire  record  cost  us  to  build  $7  600,  and  it  costs  us  to  keep 
up,  including  the  auxiliary  valve  books  for  the  distribution  force,  and  so 
on,  about  $1  200  per  annum.  It  has  cost  $1  200  for  the  last  few  years  for 
the  reason  that  we  have  done  a  great  deal  more  work  than  we  ordinarily 
do.  It  would  not  cost  us  that  much  in  normal  years.  So  that  I  am  go- 
ing to  leave  these  two  papers  here,  and  I  should  be  pleased  to  have  anybody 
who  is  interested  in  that  line  look  them  over. 

I  think  that  is  all,  Mr.  President,  that  I  care  to  say,  except  that  there 
was  a  matter  came  up  at  the  first  meeting  here,  about  charging  for  public 
use  of  water,  and  most  of  us  —  or,  I  think,  all  of  us  —  were  very  much  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  Bridgeport  Hydraulic  Company  do  not  get  any 
revenue  from  the  city  of  Bridgeport.  We  believe  in  our  town  we  have  that 
question  solved,  and  solved  right.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  absolutely 
no  question  but  what  a  charge  for  pubUc  use  of  water  is  the  right  principle. 
Right  across  the  way  from  our  water  board  office  there  is  a  very  large 
foundry  that  pumps  every  drop  of  its  water,  —  it  does  not  pay  us  a  cent  for 
water,  —  and  it  is  hardly  fair  for  the  water  payers  to  pay  for  the  fire 
protection  on  that  plant. 

In  1908  we  had  a  citizens'  water  committee.  By  the  way,  Saginaw 
had  been  having  citizens'  water  committees  for  a  good  many  years,  trying 
to  get  an  improvement  of  the  system.  But  that  citizens'  committee  went 
into  ever3rthing  very  thoroughly,  —  amongst  other  things  the  charge  for  this 


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DISCUSSION.  97 

public  use  of  water,  —  and  by  agreement  with  the  then  board  of  water 
commissioners  and  the  common  council,  and  this  water  committee,  and  a 
citizens'  mass  meeting,  we  established  the  idea  that  the  plant,  although  it  is 
municipally  owned,  should  be  treated  exactly  as  though  it  were  a  private 
corporation.  In  other  words,  the  water  department  was  told  to  take  care  of 
itself.  We  established  a  hydrant  charge  of  $45  per  hydrant,  a  charge  of 
$250  per  water  trough,  of  which  we  had  40,  and  other  charges  for  public  use 
of  water  of  all  kinds,  —  the  police  department,  fire  department,  parks, 
cemeteries,  and  flushing  sewers,  and  so  on,  —  until  we  got  together  a  gross 
charge  of  about  $80  000,  or  a  little  over.  Then  we  credited  to  the  city  IJ 
per  cent,  of  the  book  value  of  plant  in  lieu  of  taxes,  and  we  credited  to  the 
city  a  4  per  cent,  interest  as  the  city's  equity  in  the  plant,  which  meant 
that  when  it  went  into  effect  the  plant  was  appraised  at  about  $900  000,  of 
which  there  was  $450  000  of  outstanding  bonds.  The  other  $450  000  we 
called  "  the  city's  equity,"  and  we  give  them  credit  for  4  per  cent,  of  that 
every  year. 

There  is  another  charge  that  we  make.  In  our  city  nobody  handles 
any  money  except  the  city  treasurer,  and  we  charge  him  with  the  interest  on 
the  daily  average  balances  that  he  gets  from  the  bank,  and  that  amounts  to 
some  $4  000  or  $5  000  a  year.  We  most  always  have  about  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  or  more  balance. 

So  that  we  get  net  between  $40  000  and  $50  000  a  year  for  public  use  of 
water,  and  our  people  have  been  so  educated  that  that  public  use  of  water 
goes  into  our  budget  just  as  much  of  a  standard  item  as  the  maintenance  of 
the  police  department.  We  think  we  have  solved  the  question  with  one 
exception,  and  that  is  that  the  prices  prevailing  now  are  the  same  as 
prevailed  in  1908,  and  we  ought  to  get  more. 


Discussion.  . 

Mb.  J.  M.  DiVEN.*  Do  you  allow  any  credit  for  the  city  treasurer's 
work  in  collecting  water  bills? 

Mr.  Johnson.  No,  sir. 

Mb.  Samuel  H.  MACKENziB.t  I  have  been  much  interested  in  Mr. 
Johnson's  talk,  both  in  regard  to  his  records  and  in  the  fact  that  the  water 
department  is  maintaining  itself,  which  I  believe  is  the  correct  principle. 
We  have  been  running  on  that  principle  at  Southington  since  the  plant  was 
taken  over  by  the  town,  about  ten  years  ago,  and  it  has  worked  satis-> 
factorily.  When  a  correct  form  of  accounting  such  as  that  adopted  by  this 
Association  has  been  adopted  by  a  water  department  it  will  help  to  bring 
that  practice  about. 


*  Secretary  American  Water  Works  Association, 
t  Engineer  Southington,  Conn..  Water  Oept. 


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98  PROPER  UNDDERGROUND   RECORDS. 

It  might  be  of  great  benefit,  especially  to  the  smaller  departments,  if 
an  exhibit  could  be  arranged  for  some  of  our  conventions,  in  which  the 
blanks  in  use  by  the  different  departments  for  their  meter  records,  service- 
box  records,  gate  records,  and  pipe  locations  could  be  brought  together  and 
arranged  so  that  we  could  look  them  over  and  perhaps  get  some  ideas  that 
would  help  us  in  our  work.  To  bring  the  matter  before  the  Association  I 
will  make  the  following  motion: 

The  President  is  hereby  empowered  to  appoint  a  committee  to  arrange  for  an  ex- 
hibit of  accounting  forms  and  record  blanks  in  use  by  the  water  departments  and  com- 
panies of  this  Association,  provided  the  same  receives  the  approval  of  the  Executive 
Committee. 

[Motion  carried.] 


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ORCHARD.  99 


THE  CHLORINATION  OF  NEW  ENGLAND 
WATER  SUPPLIES 

BY  WILLIAM  J.   ORCHARD.* 

[Read  September  14, 19gl.\ 

When  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  the  Water  Works  Manu- 
facturers Association  in  charge  of  this  evening's  meeting  asked  for  a  title  by 
which  to  designate  this  paper  we  are  afraid  that  our  sectionalism  cropped 
out. 

A  New  Englander  by  birth,  training  and  education,  whose  first  im- 
pressions while  working  with  sample  bottle  or  plumb-bob  under  the  superior 
tutelage  of  Sedgwick,  Goodnough  and  Foss  have  perhaps  been  colored 
by  experiences  following  his  emigration  to  other  districts,  may  perhaps 
be  pardoned  for  the  local  color  of  the  data  to  be  presented. 

There  isn't  very  much  to  say  about "  The  Chlorination  of  New  England 
Water  Supplies,"  because  relatively  few  New  England  water  suppUes  are 
chlorinated. 

Let  us  examine  a  few  figures. 

Nineteen  hundred  and  ninety-six  communities  in  the  United  States 
chlorinate  water  or  sewage  or  both,  with  Uquid  chlorine.  Only  128,  or  6 
per  cent.,  of  these  are  in  New  England.  Twelve  are  treating  sewage, 
leaving  but  one  hundred  and  sixteen  New  England  communities  chlori- 
nating drinking  water.  Nearly  half,  43  per  cent.,  of  these  are  in  Connec- 
ticut, where  51  communities  use  Uquid  chlorine  to  safeguard  their  water 
supplies;  twenty-four  are  in  Maine,  eighteen  are  in  New  Hampshire,  eleven 
in  Rhode  Island;  Massachusetts  has  nine,  while  Vermont  has  three  com- 
munities using  liquid  chlorine  for  their  water  supplies. 

Scoring  the  states  in  this  country  in  accordance  with  the  number  of 
communities  using  liquid  chlorine,  and  starting  with  New  York  in  first 
place  with  264  and  ending  with  Nevada  in  forty-eighth  place  with  but  one 
lone  chlorinating  community,  we  find  Connecticut  stands  eleventh,  Maine 
twenty-fifth,  New  Hampshire  thirtieth,  Rhode  Island  thirty-sixth,  Massa- 
chusetts forty-first,  and  Vermont  forty-seventh. 

A  manufacturer  of  chlorinating  equipment  naturally  asks.  Why  this 
relatively  small  number  of  communities  using  liquid  chlorine  in  certain 
sections  of  New  England? 

Now,  in  trying  to  answer  that  question,  the  speaker  appreciates  that 
he  is  skating  on  thin  ice  —  dangerously  near  a  deep  hole  labeled  "  The 
Johnsonian  Controversy,"  and  caution  dictates  that  he  skate  the  other  way. 


♦Of  Wallace  A,  Tiernan  Co..  Inc. 


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100  CHLORINATION  OF  WATBB  SUPPLIES. 

But  it  is  a  fact  that  there  is  more  resistance  to  the  chlorination  of 
drinking  water  in  New  England  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  country. 
Some  of  this  is  due  to  a  firm,  honest  conviction  in  the  purity  and  safety  of 
unsterilized  water  suppUes;  some  of  this  is  due  to  complete  deep-rooted 
faith  in  the  absolute  efficacy  of  storage  and  watershed  patrol.  But  in  the 
speaker's  opinion  the  principal  cause  for  this  resistance  to  chlorination  in 
New  England  is  the  marked  aversion  found  in  some  quarters  to  the  appU- 
cation  of  chemicals  in  anj''  form  to  drinking  water.  It  matters  not  if,  as  in 
the  case  of  steriUzation,  a  barrel  full  of  chlorine  will  suffice  for  a  Woolworth 
building  filled  with  water,  the  objection  is  to  the  application  of  chemicals 
in  any  form  —  no  matter  what  the  chemicals  may  be.  This  attitude  was 
clearly  expressed  by  one  of  New  England's  most  prominent  engineers,  who 
said  to  the  speaker,  "  Up  here,  we  don't  want  medicated  waters." 

We  do  not  agree  with  the  opponents  of  chemical  treatment,  but  we 
have  absolutely  no  doubt  of  their  sincerity.  We  can  only  hope  that  they 
will  believe  that  the  rest  of  us  are  equally  sincere  as  we  try  to  persuade 
them  to  change  their  minds. 

Boston,  for  instance, — or  rather  the  metropolitan  district, — is  the  only 
large  community  east  of  the  Rockies  that  does  not  chlorinate  its  water 
supply  as  an  added  precaution. 

But  Boston  points  to  its  low  typhoid  records  with  justifiable  pride  — 
and  takes  the  stand  that  perhaps  other  cities  have  to  chlorinate  their  water 
suppUes  to  obtain  low  typhoid  rates,  but  Boston  can  get  a  low  typhoid 
rate  without  chlorination,  so  "  why  put  chemicals  in  the  water?'' 

Of  course,  then  comes  the  question  of  the  potential  danger  of  an  un- 
treated supply,  especially  where  reservoirs  are  easy  of  access  —  but  here 
again  we  approach  the  controversial,  and  turn  the  page  —  for  such  is  not 
the  purpose  of  this  paper.  But  as  though  to  compensate  for  some  of  its 
seeming  neglect  of  the  manufacturers  of  chlorine  and  chlorine  control 
apparatus,  New  England  has  made  many  contributions  to  the  development 
of  the  process  of  chlorination  which  the  editors  of  the  News-Record  assure 
us  in  their  current  symposium  has  come  to  stay. 

As  time  brings  to  light  more  facts  concerning  its  nativity  it  seems  more 
and  more  likely  that  the  experimental  work  of  Sedgwick  and  Phelps  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  in  Boston,a  score  of  years  ago,  was 
the  comer-stone  of  our  present  practice  in  the  chlorination  of  water 
suppUes. 

It  was  at  Torrington,  Connecticut,  that  Tieman  —  then  struggling 
with  Wallace  in  the  development  of  a  practical  ozone  generator  for  the 
steriUzation  of  water  —  worked  with  Phelps  in  checking  a  water-borne 
epidemic,  made  use  of  bleaching  powder  to  sterilize  the  water  supply  and 
caused  them  to  transfer  their  energies  from  ozonation  to  chlorination.  It 
was  at  Stamford,  Connecticut,  that  the  first  automatic  chlorine  control 
apparatus  was  developed,  thanks  to  the  patience  and  cooperation  of  the 
late  and  highly-esteemed  manager  of  the  Stamford  Wat«r  Company,  Mr. 


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Orchard.  101 

E.  L.  Hatch,  one  of  the  earUest  and  always  one  of  the  stanchest  supporters 
of  chlorination. 

The  first  recorded  reduction  in  color  obtained  by  treating  water  with 
chlorine  was  secured  at  Branford,  Connecticut,  by  Minor,  of  the  New  Haven 
Water  Company,  where,  under  his  patronage  and  with  his  keen  interest, 
an  entirely  new  type  of  equipment  that  holds  great  promise  has  been  under 
test  for  nearly  a  year.  It  was  at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  that  Weston 
first  introduced  liquid  chlorine  to  water  before  the  coagulant  in  order  to 
reduce  alum  requirements,  a  procedure  that  has  now  been  adopted  with 
success  by  many  operators.  And  at  the  abattoir  at  Brighton,  Massachu- 
setts, liquid  chlorine  was  first  used  to  steriUze  wash  water  used  about  the 
packing  plant  —  a  procedure  that  is  now  universal  in  the  packing  in- 
dustry; while  the  Waterbury,  Connecticut,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  was  one  of  the 
ven-  first  to  use  liquid  chlorine  to  sterilize  swimming-pool  water. 

So  you  see  New  England  has  a  considerable  responsibiUty  for  the. 
poeition  in  which  the  process  of  chlorination  now  finds  itself,  and  has  con- 
tributed almost  as  much  to  this  as  it  has  to  other  developments  in  the  field 
of  sanitation. 

There  is  much  that  New  England  stiU  can  do.  We  seem  to  be  at  a 
turn  in  the  road  where  new  standards  of  water  are  to  be  developed,  or  else 
new  interpretations  placed  on  existing  standards.  The  symposium  on 
chlorination  in  the  current  issues  of  the  News-Record  and  Mr.  Brush's 
article  in  the  current  issue  of  Fire  and  Water  Engineering  clearly  points  to 
some  of  the  problems  still  to  be  solved.  With  the  increased  attention 
being  given  to  the  chemistry  of  colloids  and  to  the  electrolytic  dissociation 
theory  as  exemplified  by  the  interest  in  hydrogen-ion  .concentration, 
chlorination  presents  a  wide  field  for  study.  And  in  that  study  the  whole- 
hearted assistance  of  all  New  England  water-works  men  is  needed. 

In  New  England,  more  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  country,  are  located 
the  men  who  since  the  late  eighties  have  guided  the  development  of  water- 
treatment  to  its  present  stage.  Their  help  is  needed  in  the  developments 
that  are  to  come.  That  help  will  speed  the  day  of  arriving  at  a  proper 
appreciation  of  the  merits  of  various  modes  of  water  supply  protection. 


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102  CONCRETE  PIPE  AS  APPLIED  TO  WATER-SUPPLY  LINES. 


REINFORCED  CONCRETE  PIPE  AS  APPLIED  TO 
WATER-SUPPLY  LINES. 

BY  W.    G.   CHACE.* 
[Rsad  S4pUmb«r  1, 19tl.\ 

My  association  with  the  Lock  Joint  Pipe  Company  is  comparatively 
recent,  but  my  association  with  concrete  for  the  carrying  of  water  is  not 
quite  so  recent. 

People  generally  speak  of  concrete,  or  think  of  concrete,  as  the  proper 
material  for  foundations,  to  be  built  in  place  within  molds,  for  bridges 
or  for  dams,  or  for  any  structure  which  requires  mass  and  compressive 
strength.  They  probably  do  not  as  often  think  about  concrete  of  a  quality 
which  will  prevent  the  seepage  of  water,  especially  through  thin  walls. 

In  order  to  make  possible  the  carrjdng  of  water  long  distances  it 
became  necessary  to  get  a  moderately  inexpensive  material  and  a  permanent 
material,  and,  as  you  will  recall,  the  New  York  Board  of  Water  Supply 
chose  concrete  for  the  great  bulk  of  the  length  of  the  conduit.  They 
used  it  largely  limited  to  the  lower  heads,  —  practically  to  heads  where 
the  pressure  was  that  of  a  flow  line.  For  their  siphons  they  used  steel 
pipe,  cast-iron  pipe,  lined  or  unlined,  but  generally  lined  with  mortar. 

In  the  Winnipeg  water  supply  we  had  a  similar  proposition.  The 
distance  was  97  miles.  The  capacity  desired  was  100  million  gals,  per 
day.  The  location  was  through  a  virgin  territory,  and  over  a  country 
which  was  practically  prairie.  The  application  of  concrete  for  the  entire 
project  was,  it  seemed  to  me,  and  it  seemed  to  those  in  charge,  quite  reason- 
able. Thus  not  only  were  the  horseshoe  sections,  of  which  there  werei 
75  miles,  built  of  concrete,  plain  or  with  some  reinforcement,  but  the  pres-i 
sure  lines  up  to  90  ft.  head  were  also  built  of  concrete  pipe  reinforced,' 
10  miles  of  which  were  built  in  the  trench,  the  other  12  miles  being  pre- 
molded  pipe,  for  which  the  designs  of  the  Lock  Joint  Pipe  Company  word 
chosen.  j 

Now,  the  requirements  for  the  pipe  were  such  in  that  97-mile  stretd 
that  it  became  necessary  to  obtain  a  mixture  of  concrete  that  would 
water-tight.  I  won't  keep  you  any  longer  than  to  say  that  from  tests 
22  miles  of  the  pressure  pipes  in  the  Winnipeg  systems  —  which  ics\ 
were  made  by  displacement — along  with  tests  to  full  working  level  of  seven 
"  cut-and-cover  "  sections,  altogether  1  400  ft.  (200-ft.  sections  at  differeat 
places  in  the  aqueduct),  the  nearest  estimate  we  could  get  of  the  loss  of 
water  from  the  conduit  itself  throughout  the  whole  97  miles  was  one  half 


*  Of  the  Lock  Joint  Pipe  Company. 

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CHACE.  103 

of  one  per  cent.  I  think  no  similar  project  that  I  have  heard  of  can  show 
such  a  result,  and  we  were  fortunate  in  that  because  of  the  fact  that  we 
were  able  to  gpt  a  material  for  om*  concrete  which,  with  only  a  barrel  and 
a  quarter  of  cement  per  cu.  yd.,  was  tight  enough,  from  specimens  taken,, 
so  that  it  would  stand  90-lb.  pressure  per  sq.  in. 

It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  make  pipe  of  concrete  sufficiently  water- 
tight at  the  beginning;  and  one  of  the  characteristics  of  concrete,  as  most 
of  you  may  know,  is  that  water-tightness  increases  in  such  construction 
^^^th  age  and  use,  no  matter  whether  the  water  carries  the  material  in 
suspension  or  whether  it  be  absolutely  free  of  material  in  suspension. 
A  concrete  pipe  line,  therefore,  should  be  given  credit  for  its  condition 
at  the  end  of  the  first  year  rather  than  for  its  water-tightness  at  the  time 
of  laying. 

So  much  for  water-tightness. 

Generally  speaking,  compressive  strength  is  not  the  final  desideratum, 
or  the  outweighing  desideratum,  in  such  concrete,  but,  rather,  impermea- 
bility without  any  more  sacrifice  of  compressive  strength  than  necessary. 
We  ordinarily  make  a  practice  of  using  a  very  rich  mortar,  or  rich  concrete; 
mortar  for  some  classes  of  pipe  and  concrete  for  others.  If  our  sand  be 
harsh,  or  if  we  have  difficulty  otherwise  in  getting  a  water-tight  body,  we 
have  introduced  colloidal  material  into  the  mix  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
down  permeation,  and  with  great  success. 

Three  weeks  ago,  in  discussing  this  matter  with  Professor  Abrams  at 
Chicago,  he  told  me  of  experiments  they  had  made  with  colloidal  material, 
in  which  he  had  investigated  the  effect  of  the  addition  of  such  material 
to  concrete  mixtures,  observing  the  effect  upon  the  compressive  strength, 
and  he  foimd  that,  generally  speaking,  addition  of  colloidal  material  up 
:o  10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  cement  caused  a  loss  of  practically 
nothing.  In  other  words,  an  addition  of  colloidal  material  of  5  per  cent, 
niij^t  reduce  the  compressive  strength  by  5  per  cent. 

So  that  the  obtaining  of  an  impervious  concrete  in  such  a  manner  is 
<iuite  a  practical  and  is  quite  a  reasonable  and  well-worth  method  of  getting 
the  results  aimed  at.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  concrete  for  the  retaining  of 
water  under  pressure,  om*  practice  has  not  been  carried  beyond  a  100-ft. 
head  with  the  thin  wall  that  we  use.  Smaller  pipes  than  15  in.  have  not 
l-een  attempted  by  this  company,  although  in  some  other  areas  they  are 
being  made.  But  the  limitation  of  cost, —  because  such  pipe  must  be  made 
on  the  location  where  the  pipe  is  to  be  used, —  the  limitation  of  competition, 
the  matter  of  gross  earnings,  and  a  few  things  like  that,  caused  us  to 
choose  15  in.  as  the  minimum  dimension  for  which  the  reinforced  concrete 
pipe  is  offered.  We  still  continue  those  limitations,  the  considerations 
fjoverning  them  being  almost  continuously  uniform. 

Up  to  100-ft.  head  reinforced  concrete  as  such  —  that  is,  a  waU  of 
concrete  having  buried  within  it  a  mesh  or  cage  or  bar  reinforcement  — 
^  satisfactory,  and  we  have  been  successful  in  using  a  wall  thickness  as 


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104  CONCRETE   PIPE  AS  APPLIED  TO  WATER-SUPPLY  LINES. 

low  as  3  in.,  with  concrete  which  has  been  poured  into  the  molds  in  liquid 
form.  This  does  not  apply  to  articles  of  concrete  which  may  be  made 
with  a  dry  mixture,  but  it  must  be  a  wet  mixture  of  reinforced  concrete. 
When  it  comes  to  higher  heads  than  that,  we  have  adopted  the  principle 
of  establishing  in  the  wall  a  cylindrical  water  stop,  that  water  stop  being 
a  thin  sheet  of  steel,  as  has  been  used  with  success  by  some  other  companies 
both  on  this  continent  and  in  Europe.  On  this  continent  the  American 
Pipe  and  Construction  Company  some  years  ago,  under  Mr.  Ledoux,  who 
is  here,  and  some  other  gentlemen  who  have  done  a  great  deal  of  work  in 
that  connection,  completed  a  goodly  number  of  lines  which  are  of  the  same 
nature  in  a  sense,  although  not  made  in  quite  the  same  method. 

In  Europe,  pipe  of  that  nature  has  been  subjected  to  heads  as  high 
as  500  ft.,  and  in  diameters  up  to  48  in.  and  sUghtly  larger.  The  500-ft. 
head  is  not  taken  care  of  as  to  its  bursting  stress  by  the  steel  sheet  itself, 
but  the  reinforcement  to  enable  it  to  stand  the  bursting  stress  of  that 
pressure  is  placed  in  the  walls  of  the  concrete,  in  the  European  practice, 
both  within  and  without  the  steel  sheet;  but,  in  our  practice,  on  the  exterior 
shell  of  the  pipe,  i.e.,  in  the  exterior  shell  of  concrete  enclosing  the  steel 
cylinder. 

Now  as  to  the  characteristics  of  concrete  pipe  for  water  supplies: 

The  minor  characteristics,  such  as  sufficient  strength  and  rigidity, 
are  available  in  walls  3  in.  and  upwards  in  thickness. 

Water-tightness  increases  with  age. 

If  the  pipe  be  manufactured,  as  is  ours,  within  steel  forms  which  are 
kept  sleek  and  clean,  and  true  to  dimensions,  the  interior  and  exterior  of 
the  pipe  walls  are  smooth,  and  by  virtue  of  the  smoothness  of  the  lining, 
pipe  made  of  reinforced  concrete  has  a  very  high  carrying  capacity,  than 
which,  I  think  you  will  find  from  the  tests,  there  is  no  superior.  The 
Department  of  the  Interior  at  Washington,  for  instance,  through  their 
Mr.  Scobey,  issued  not  long  ago  a  bulletin  on  the  question  of  the  carrying 
capacity  of  concrete  pipe,  to  which  reference  may  well  be  made.  The 
results  of  the  tests  of  one  of  the  Lock  Joint  Pipe  Company's  Unes  is  shown 
in  that  bulletin,  and  the  coefficient  of  friction  obtained.  Our  test  on  the 
Victoria  Une  showed  less  than  .011  as  the  value  of  n,  which  result  could 
only  be  obtained  by  virtue  of  highly-p)olished,  smooth  interior  forms. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  concrete  pipe  obtains  throughout  its  life. 
That  is  a  very  important  feature  in  the  carrying  of  pure  soft  water,  particu- 
larly with  soft  water  which  contains  no  salts  in  solution.  No  tubercula- 
tion  occurs.  There  is  only  one  exception,  and  that  is,  if  the  water  be  from 
a  lake  there  may  be  some  algje  growth  such  as  would  be  common  to  any 
pipe.  But  a  party  was  telling  me  last  week  that  the  result  of  a  test  on 
concrete  pipe  in  which  there  was  an  algae  growth  seemed  to  show  an  in- 
crease in  the  carrying  capacity,  I  could  hardly  understand  that  argument. 
My  opinion  would  be  to  the  contrary,  —  that  the  introduction  of  alg* 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHACE. 


105 


would  slightly  decrease  the  canying  capacity,  but  only  to  a  small  extent. 
It  is  easily  cleaned. ' 

The  reinforcement  within  .the  wall  of  a  pipe  is  adjusted  in  a  proper 
relation  to  the  bursting  pressure  and  to  the  earth  load  pressures,  which 


■ssfsnssssvSs^^^ 


KSJa^^;sr^ss:i2t'3fifefe^i2 


I  yff^yy°w"4P^^*?gy^*y<^-»w='^ 


\ 


omcoNomRY  JOINT' r/A/cd-K  9m?*/A/fi  c^^4rAf7-rm9n'^jJj:if  /"-^wvc 


Ay/V/JWg^    %^0/A/T 


Pressure  Pjpe  With  Copper  ExpRNStoN  Joint 

may  apply  to  the  location  in  which  the  pipe  lies.  We  have  made  it  a 
practice  to  modify  that  reinforcement  by  steps  of,  roughly,  20-ft.  head, 
thereby  gaining  an  excellent  economy  in  the  use  of  the  steel.  The  rein- 
forcement has  in  our  practical  work  a  low  stress,  —  not  over  12  000  lb. 
per  sq.  in. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


106. 


CONCRETE   PIPE  AS  APPLIED  TO  WATER-SUPPLY  LINES. 


That  brings  out  immediately  a  very  important  fact  in  connection 
with  reinforced  concrete  pipe  for  water  supply,  which  is  this:  It  is  almost 
impossible  in  a  well-built  line  to  lose  the  abiUty  to  deUver  the  water  to  the 
terminus  aimed  at.    A  rise  of  pressure  may  split  the  concrete  in  such  a 


Lw^Oiruvtr^mc  ^cr/o/v 


c/rsr  ffroN  ffiNa 


w 


AQ^^frysfr/^4,  Tg/Aynvngy>yr/yy 


manner  that  water  will  seep  through  the  wall  along  the  crack  caused  by 
the  rise  in  pressure,  but  parts  of  the  concrete  pipe  wall  will  not  be  blown 
out.  The  pipe  will  remain  a  cylinder.  Water  may  pass  through  the  wall 
at  the  cracked  section,  where  the  heavy  pressure  may  have  hit  the  pipe, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHACB.  107 

but  when  that  surge  has  passed,  the  reinforcement,  by  its  elasticity,  immedi- 
ately closes  the  gap,  and  through  the  whole  phenomena  the  water  is  de- 
livered to  the  terminus  aimed  at.  I  have  burst  66-in.  pipe  carrying  two 
cylinders  of  bar  reinforcement.  It  was  designed  for  about  33-lb.  pressure, 
and  we  had  a  pressure  above  90  lb.  when  the  concrete  opened,  and  the 
water  exuded  the  full  length  of  the  pipe  section  under  test,  but  as  soon 
OS  the  pressure  was  released  and  the  working  pressure  again  admitted,  there 
was  no  evidence  along  that  fractured  axis  of  losing  water  at  the  normal 
working  pressure. 

Now,  your  attention  has  been  drawn  chiefly  to  the  question  of  the 
concrete  in  the  pipe  wall.  The  joint  is  a  very  important  thing,  and  in 
most  efforts  to  make  concrete  pipe  for  water  supply  lack  of  a  proper  joint 
design  has  been  the  limiting  feature  which  has  prevented  some  people 
from  succeeding  in  that  effort.  Two  types  of  joints  have  so  far  been 
utilized  by  this  company.  The  first  type,  and  the  one  which  is  still 
applied  to  pipes  of  diameters  greater  than  48  in.,  is  the  use  of  a  copper 
ribbon  buried  half  in  the  spigot  of  the  pipe  and  half  in  the  mortar  of  the 
joint  between  the  spigot  and  the  bell  after  the  pipes  have  been  laid  in  the 
trench. 

For  smaller  pipes,  in  which  the  making  of  such  a  joint  is  impleasant 
and  difficult  for  the  workmen,  a  slip  joint  has  been  devised  consisting  of 
a  cast-iron  spigot  ring  and  a  cast-iron  bell  ring,  cast  and  molded  right  into 
each  pipe  section.  Such  pipe  sections  are  ordinarily  12  ft.  in  length. 
These  two  cast-iron  rings  are  secured  together  by  longitudinal  rods,  which 
rods  support  the  circumferential  reinforcement  in  the  shape  of  a  cage. 
The  spigot  surface  is  finished  in  boring  mills;  the  bell  has  cut  within  it  a 
wedge-shaped  groove  in  which  is  laid  up  an  elastic  lead-pipe  gasket.  The 
elasticity  is  provided  by  wicking  made  within  the  gasket.  After  filling 
with  wicking,  the  lead  pipe  is  rolled  into  an  elliptical  cross-section,  and 
a  hoop  is  laid  up  in  the  bell,  after  which  the  joint  is  made  by  forcing  the 
spigot  of  the  next  pipe  into  that  bell.  The  work  is  then  complete,  so  far 
as  the  pipe  laying  is  concerned,  by  that  very  process  of  forcing  the  spigot 
into  the  bell.  That  class  of  joint  has  proven  under  test  to  be  a  very 
efficient,  water-tight  joint,  and  one  which  is  capable  of  taking  care  easily 
of  all  the  changes  in  length  due  to  the  temperature  variations  in  the  water, 
and  also  of  settlement,  such. as  ordinarily  takes  place  in  the  ground  imder 
backfill,  or  under  certain  foimdations, — that  is,  not  too  perfect  foundations, 
as  one  sometimes  finds  in  trench  work. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


108  concrete  pipe  as  applied  to  water-supply  lines. 

Discussion. 

Mr.  Allen  Hazen.*  We  first  used  reinforced  concrete  pipes  at 
Toronto,  Canada,  in  1909.  The  business  was  comparatively  new  then. 
On  this  work  we  had  the  materials  of  concrete  on  the  ground,  while  iron 
pipe  was  somewhat  more  expensive  than  in  the  United  States  and  the  finan- 
cial advantages  of  using  concrete  pipe  were  considerable.  The  pipe  itself 
was  very  satisfactory.  There  was  difficulty  in  getting  the  joints  completely 
tight,  and  in  fact  they  were  never  made  entirely  tight,  but  they  were  suffi- 
ciently tight  to  be  reasonably  satisfactory  in  the  service  where  they  were 
used.  The  heads  were  very  small,  —  I  think  not  more  than  6  or  8  ft. 
in  any  case. 

The  pipe  at  Victoria,  British  Columbia,  interested  me  very  much.  I 
had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  it  about  the  time  it  was  finished.  The  joints 
at  Victoria  were  similar,  I  believe,  to  the  Toronto  joints.  It  did  not 
represent  up-to-date  practice.  The  interesting  methods  that  Mr.  Chace 
has  described  to  us  were  not  available  at  that  time.  The  Victoria  line 
was  very  far  from  being  tight. 

There  was  another  interesting  thing  about  this  Victoria  pipe.  When 
it  was  laid,  the  interior  was  as  smooth  as  glass,  as  Mr.  Chace  has  told  you. 
It  was  the  smoothest  pipe  of  any  kind  that  I  ever  saw,  and  the  quantity 
of  water  that  passed  through  it  was  so  high  as  to  almost  break  the  records 
for  coelEcients.  Mr.  Rust  measured  the  water,  and  I  cross-examined  him 
very  carefully  as  to  his  methods,  to  make  sure  that  no  error  had  been 
made,  and  I  have  no  doubt  of  the  substantial  accuracy  of  the  reported 
results.  But  the  smooth  surface  did  not  last.  After  the  pipe  had  been 
in  use  for  a  short  time  there  was  a  great  reduction  in  carrying  capacity, 
and  the  coefficient  came  down  to  a  very  ordinary  rating. 

Mr.  Rust  wrote  me  that  the  smooth  interior  surface  of  the  pipe  had 
become  quite  rough.  He  thought  this  was  caused  by  the  free  clay  used 
in  the  cement,  that  was  probably  rather  easily  eroded  by  action  of  fresh 
water,  even  with  slight  velocity,  and  he  thought  that  the  removal  of  the 
clay  probably  loosened  the  particles  of  cement  and  hence  honeycombed 
the  pipe  lining.  In  view  of  subsequent  experience,  the  Victoria  coeflBcient 
of  discharge,  obtained  when  the  pipe  was  new  and  published  as  Mr.  Chace 
has  stated,  is  not  a  safe  one  to  follow. 

Mr.  Theodore  R.  Kendall.!  I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Chace  how 
they  make  the  curves  in  this  line,  other  than  the  ordinary  curves.  Did 
you  make  them  in  the  joints? 

Mr.  Chace.  Generally  speaking,  the  curves  are  made  of  small 
degree,  or  of  large  radius,  by  simply  springing  each  pipe  joint  slightly. 
If  they  are  of  smaller  radius  they  can  be  made  with  the  copper  joint  by 
shortening  the  pipe  on  one  side.     This  will  alter  the  diagonal  diameter 

♦  Consulting  Engineer,  New  York. 

t  Engineenng  Editor,  The  American  City. 


Digitized  by  LjOO^IC 


DISCUSSION.  109 

of  the  pipe.  That  brings  together  faces  which  are  not  absolutely  aUke, 
but  the  cross-sections  are  so  nearly  the  same  that  they  matched  very  well. 
On  sharp  angles  we  made  the  practice  of  building  into  monolithic  joints. 
That  takes  care  of  the  three  conditions  met  with. 

As  regards  the  Victoria  line,  that  Une  is  probably  exposed  to  the  most 
severe  conditions  that  any  concrete  line  was  ever  asked  to  handle.  It 
lies  in  an  open  trench  in  the  side  of  the  mountain.  There  Is  no  backfill 
over  any  material  portion  of  it,  and  it  is  subject  to  very  great  ranges  of 
temperature  every  day.  When  it  was  built,  it  was  built  without  any 
expansion  joints  or  water  stops  at  the  joints. 

The  style  of  construction  to  which  Mr.  Hazen  refers  is  the  lock  joint, 
such  as  we  use  in  our  sewer  construction,  where  the  bell  reinforcement 
overlaps  that  projecting  from  the  spigot  end  and  the  mortar  joint  seals 
both  together.  That  class  of  construction  had  been  utilized  in  water- 
supply  lines  only  in  the  very  earliest  of  our  practice  and  for  low  heads. 
We  offered  to  the  city  of  Victoria  at  the  time  the  use  of  a  copper  expansion 
joint,  and  recommended  it,  but  it  was  a  question  of  cost  to  them  and  was 
not  accepted.  Now,  the  line  is  not  always  running  full  of  water.  It  is 
a  flow-line  conduit  except  where  it  crosses  valleys,  and  only  occasionally 
is  it  running  full.  A  recent  inspection  by  our  president,  and  by  engineers 
who  have  seen  it,  indicates  that  about  200  odd  joints  in  that  line  are  the 
ones  through  which  nearly  all  of  the  loss  of  water  is  occurring  in  low 
temperatures.  The  quantity  of  water  available  is  ample,  the  quantity 
delivered  is  ample,  and  the  engineers  in  charge  of  it  have  expressed  no 
concern,  and  have  told  us  not  to  bother  about  it  at  all,  as  they  would  take 
care  of  these  joints  when  necessary.  It  is  a  small  matter  to  correct  the 
situation  by  means  of  plastic  material. 

As  to  the  roughness  to  which  Mr.  Hazen  refers,  I  think  that  is  a  ques- 
tion of  local  experience  solely.  We  have  not  run  across  it,  to  my  knowledge, 
in  any  other  water  supply. 

The  information  as  to  the  coefficient  of  friction  is  from  the  report 
by  Mr.  Scobey,  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  I  do  not  think  the 
test  was  made  as  soon  as  the  line  was  completed. 

Mr.  G.  a.  Sampson.*  I  would  like  to  ask  about  the  steel  cylinder  in 
the  high-pressure  pipe,  —  as  to  the  thickness  of  it,  how  far  it  is  imbedded 
in  the  second  sheet  of  concrete,  and  as  to  whether  it  is  combined  with 
the  reinforcement  or  not. 

Mr.  Chace.  The  steel  cylinder  is  a  new  development.  We  believe 
thoroughly  in  the  principle  that  no  corporation  or  no  idea  can  live  unless 
it  is  growing,  and  we  have  been  trying  to  enlarge  our  scope  and  improve  our 
methods,  and  this  is  the  latest  step  that  has  been  taken  in  the  expansion 
of  the  field  of  the  appUcation  of  reinforced  concrete  to  water-supply  lines. 

The  steel  cylinder  is  designed  as  a  water-stop  primarily.  The  question 
came  to  us  when  we  put  it  in,  whether  we  should  put  all  our  reinforcement 


*  Of  Weston  &  Sampeon,  Bonton,  Mase. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


110  CONCRETE   PIPE  AS  APPLIED  TO  WATER-SUPPLY  LINES. 

in  that  cylinder  or  only  such  of  it  as  would  make  a  cylinder  practical  to 
work  with.  A  gage  of  24  or  26  would  be  too  light  to  handle  and  make  a 
practical  working  unit  of  it.  On  the  first  job  we  used  gages  of  14  and  12. 
That  was  on  a  36-in.  line.  I  think  our  practice  would  be  to  not  go  to  heavier 
gages  than  No.  14. 

The  cylinders  are  electrically  welded  together.  A  sheet  is  rolled  into 
a  cylinder,  and  then  a  longitudinal  seam  is  run  by  an  automatic  electric 
welder.  We  are  able  to  develop  a  very  large  proportion  —  it  has  tested 
as  high  as  100  per  cent.  —  of  the  strength  of  the  sheet. 

The  additional  reinforcement  over  and  above  that  is  placed  in  the 
exterior  shell.  That  reinforcement  is  not  secured  to  the  cylinder,  but  is 
secured  within  the  outer  wall  upon  longitudinal  ties  from  bell  to  spigot 
end.  We  desire  to  keep  this  reinforcement  distant  from  that  cylinder  so 
as  to  embed  it  thoroughly  in  the  mortar  of  the  exterior  shell.  The  cylinder 
itself  is  secured  to  the  cast-iron  rings. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Ledoxtx.*  The  inside  shell  is  probably  quite  as  satis- 
factory to  use  as  a  reinforcement  as  to  depend  on  the  ordinary  reinforce- 
ment, because  the  price  of  an  iron  in  that  shape  (sheet)  is  usually  about 
double  what  the  price  of  reinforcement  iron  is.  I  think  that  must  be  the 
only  reason  why  that  can't  be  use^  as  the  complete  reinforcement  for  the 
pipe. 

Mr.  Chace.  No  ;  there  is  another  very  practical  reason  in  production, 
Mr.  Ledoux,  and  that  is  this:  Automatic  electric  welding  can  be  done  on 
a  thin  sheet  at  a  higher  speed  than  on  a  thick  sheet;  also,  the  additional 
steel  placed  in  the  exterior  shell  is  by  far  the  most  economical  and  therefore 
that  combination  is  the  proper  construction. 


*  Consulting  Engineer,  PhiladdphU^  Pa. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  Ill 


PIPE  JOINT  COMPOUNDS. 
Discussion. 

[September  14,  19ei.] 

Mr.  Michael  F.  Collins.*  There  are  compounds  before  the  water- 
works superintendents  to-day  called  leadite,  hydro-tite,  and  metallium. 
I  would  ask  the  superintendents  who  have  used  either  for  any  number  of 
years  what  their  opinions  are  about  it,  and  what  results  they  have  obtained. 
It  is  something,  I  think,  that  is  worthy  of  consideration  of  everybody  here 
to-day. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.f  With  the  long  record  and  a  long  experience  with 
lead  joints,  which  have  proved  very  satisfactory,  the  speaker  was  slow 
to  try  any  substitutes,  nevertheless  watched  the  development  of  leadite, 
the  first  one  brought  to  his  attention,  and  its  use  by  others;  with  so  many 
successes  and  the  time  test  demonstrated,  did  finally  try  it.  The  first  use 
was  on  a  rather  unimportant  Une,  and  where  the  pressure  was  low.  The 
success  with  this  induced  further  trials,  and  all  were  equally  successful. 
The  final  test  was  the  pouring  of  a  joint  for  a  30-in.  double  tapping  sleeve, 
two  8-in.  outlets.  This  work  was  done  in  the  spring,  when  the  temperature 
of  the  water  was  rather  low,  and  was  made  with  the  pipe  line  in  use.  The 
consumption,  all  passing  through  this  line,  was  from  15  000  000  to  18  000- 
000  gal.  per  day,  indicating  a  velocity  of  nearly  5  ft.  per  second,  which  would 
keep  the  pipe  cool.  The  joint  was  successfully  poured,  the  two  taps  made 
without  starting  any  leak.  The  pipe  line  was  under  about  110  lb.  pressure 
at  the  time. 

A  little  more  care  is  required  in  melting  leadite  than  is  the  case  with 
lead;  however,  little  trouble  was  foimd  in  training  men  to  its  use. 

Mr.  Collins.  I  should  like  to  learn  the  life  of  these  substitutes  for 
lead,  I  know  cases  where  a  compound  has  worked  very  well;  in  my  own 
case  I  have  used  some  where  I  have  had  good  results.  But  lead  has  been 
in  use  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  whether  substitutes  are  going  to  stand  the 
test  of  time,  or  whether  they  will  injure  the  spigot  or  bell  end  of  the  pipe, 
is  something  I  should  like  to  know. 

Mr.  Lincoln  Van  Gildbr.J  I  can't  tell  anything  about  how  long 
it  will  go,  but  1  know  that  it  has  gone  nineteen  years.  Mr.  Hawley  left 
the  company  with  which  I  am  now  connected  in  June  of  1902,  and  he 

*  Supermtendent.  Water  Works,  Lawntnce.  Mass. 
t  Seoietaiy,  American  Water  Works  Aseodation. 
X  Supeiintendent.  Water  Works,  Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 


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112  PIPE  JOINT   COMPOUND 

poured  the  leadite  joints  previous  to  leaving  Atlantic  City.  Those  joints 
are  in  perfect  condition  to-day.  We  have  used  leadite  almost  exclusively 
for  fifteen  years,  and  it  has  always  proven  satisfactory. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  think  Mr.  Hawley  was  about  the  first  user  in  the 
country. 

The  President.  He  was  the  first  I  knew  of.  The  fact  that  men  like 
Mr.  Hawley  and  Mr.  Van  Gilder  are  keeping  on  with  it  speaks  well  for  it 

Mr.  George  F.  Merrill.*  Have  you  had  any  experience  with  leadite 
on  steel  pipe,  or  pipe  of  that  kind? 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  We  have  had  a  Uttle  experience  with  that. 
In  connecting  up  large  meters  and  putting  in  cast-iron  pipe,  it  is  our  regular 
practice  to  take  a  wrought-iron  pipe  with  one  end  threaded  and  insert  a 
blank  end  in  the  bell  of  the  pipe  for  the  leadite,  and  that  holds  perfectly, 
just  as  in  the  cast-iron  pipe. 

Mr.  Diven.  While  on  that  subject,  I  might  tell  Mr.  Van  Gilder  a 
better  trick.  Take  a  threaded  end  and  put  a  coupling  on  and  insert  the 
coupling  in  the  bell  end.    You  have  more  strength  and  less  lead. 

Major  Leonard  S.  DoTEN.f  About  two  weeks  ago,  in  making  con- 
nection between  6-in.  iron  and  cement  pipes  I  took  a  chance.  Ordinarily, 
we  have  a  lot  of  trouble  in  pouring  the  lead  in  there  in  making  the  cement 
keep  the  lead  in  place,  but  in  this  case  it  worked  fine.  We  completed  that 
particular  piece  of  work  and  had* the  hole  filled  up  inside  of  two  hours. 

Mr.  Carleton  E.  Davis.J  Has  Mr.  Van  Gilder  used  the  leadite  up 
to  48  in.? 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  No;  we  have  not  used  leadite  on  larger  than  24-in. 
I  might  say  to  the  members  that  on -our  large  lines  we  prefer  lead. 

Mr.  Davis.  I  have  poured  up  to  60,  but  I  don't  know  whether  they 
are  going  to  work  or  not.  It  is  said  frequently  that  leadite  is  more  difficult 
to  handle  than  lead  in  case  of  heavy  vibration,  like  that  near  a  railroad 
track. 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  We  have  had  no  more  trouble  than  with  lead  in 
those  cases.    The  leadite  is  as  easy  to  repair  as  the  lead. 

Sect.  Gipford.  Mr.  Van  Gilder,  suppose  you  have  a  leak  where  the 
joint  is  improperly  poured,  or  seepage  around  the  entire  joint,  and  it  is 
a  place  where  you  can't  draw  off  the  water  to  clean  the  pipe;  how  is  the 
repair  made? 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  I  can  explain  that  by  taking  a  case  of  this  kind, 
which  we  sometimes  meet  and  accomplish  in  this  way:  You  all  know  how 
difficult  it  is  to  cut  off  a  section  of  old  pipe  and  get  it  absolutely  tight,  and 
also  the  danger  in  pouring  the  joint  with  lead  if  there  is  any  seepage.  In 
this  case  we  do  not  take  the  time  to  go  and  open  our  valves,  but  in  making 
up  the  last  joint  we  put  the  joint  ring  up,  so  that  the  leakage  from  any  part 

*  Saperintendent  Water  Works.  Greenfield,  Mass. 

t  Advisory  EngUieer  on  Sanitation.  War  Department,  Washington.  D.  C. 

X  Chief  Bureau  of  Water.  Philadelphia.  Pa. 


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DISCUSSION.  113 

of  the  pipe  will  pour  from  right  under  the  plate  ring,  then  we  pour  the 
leadite  in  from  the  top.  Frequently  it  will  pour  solid,  but  if  it  becomes 
spongy  at  all  there  is  too  much  water,  and  we  take  it  out  and  pack  it  in 
either  with  lead  wool  or  leadite  to  make  the  joint  perfectly  dry,  but  still 
the  water  is  running. 

Mb.  R.  H.  Ellis.*  Under  what  pressure  would  you  be  able  to  use 
kadite? 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  Forty  pounds  normally.  That  is  the  highest  I 
have  tried. 

Mr.  Ellis.  I  have  mjrself  tried  the  experiment  of  calking  up  some 
small  holes  with  lead  wool.  In  my  own  case  it  did  not  work  very  satis- 
factorily, but  it  was  under  140  lb.  pressure. 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  It  is  entirely  safe  for  the  workman  to  pour  leadite 
molten  right  into  water.  It  does  not  make  steam  of  an  explosive  force. 
It  pours  at  about  350®.    You  can  pour  it  in  the  wettest  joint  you  have  got. 

Sect.  Gifford.  There  is  one  other  question  that  I  am  interested  in, 
and  that  is  the  experience  of  the  members  who  use  substitutes  for  lead  in 
electrical  thawing.  I  think  I  was  told  at  one  of  our  winter  meetings  that 
substitutes  for  lead  were  non-conductors  of  electricity.  I  was  also  told 
that  there  was  23  per  cent,  of  iron  filings  in  one  of  the  compounds,  and  it 
ought  to  be  a  conductor.  I  have  just  finished  laying  about  8  000  ft.  of 
pipe,  mostly  12-in.,  and  used  leadite  on  most  of  it,  but  inserted  a  lead 
wedge  in  every  joint.  I  am  not  ^,fraid  of  electrolysis  —  I  don't  have  any  — 
but  do  want  to  thaw  by  electricity  if  it  becomes  necessary.  I  should 
like  to  know  if  it  is  possible  to  thaw  without  the  lead  wedge,  or  some  similar 
substance  to  carry  the  electricity. 

Mr.  Samuel  E.  Killam-I  In  addition  to  wooden  joints,  there  are 
two  joints  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  system  where  we  use  a  substitute  for 
lead.  These  wooden  joints  leaked  in  winter  on  accoimt  of  the  contraction 
of  the  pipe  line,  and  we  tried  hydro-tite.  The  first  few  days  they  leaked 
considerably,  and  I  had  my  doubts  whether  it  would  ever  take  up,  but  in 
two  months  they  were  entirely  tight.  The  wooden  rings  were  left  in  be- 
tween the  bell  and  spigot.  In  testing  these  joints  for  resistance  to  electric 
rurrent  after  the  hydro-tite  was  poured,  it  was  observed  that  there  was 
considerable  resistance  in  the  material. 

PREsmENT  Sherman.  In  your  case,  as  I  understand  it,  you  had  a 
wooden  ring  between  the  bell  and  spigot,  so  that  there  was  no  contact 
between  the  bell  and  spigot? 

Mr.  Killam.  Yes,  the  wood  ring  was  left  in  place  and  hydro-tite 
substituted  for  wood  staves  for  remainder  of  joints. 

Mr.  Merrill.  I  wonder  if  any  one  has  any  information  on  leadite 
joints  that  have  been  laid  for  several  years.  I  have  been  informed  that 
after  a  year  or  two  the  conductivity  increases  quite  considerably,  —  that 

*  Superintendent,  Board  of  Public  Works,  North  Andover,  Mass. 
t  Superintendent  Metropolitan  Water  Works. 


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114  PIPE  JOINT   COMPOUND 

as  the  rusting  takes  place  it  makes  a  good  deal  better  conductor.  I  think 
that  age  has  something  to  do  with  those  joints. 

The  President.  Mr.  Killam,  were  your  joints  very  nearly  new 
when  you  tested  them  for  your  electrical  resistance? 

Mr.  Killam.    Yes. 

Mr.  Van  Gilder.  Leadite  was  poured  in  1914  on  a  20-in.  line,  about 
10  000  ft.  long.  That  would  give  age  enough,  I  presume,  to  properly 
answer  the  question.    We  could  test  that  quite  easily. 

Mr.  Patrick  Gear.*  The  only  experience  I  have  had  with  leadite  is 
this:  My  predecessor  bought  100  lb.  of  it  in  1910  and  we  experimented  a 
little  with  it,  but  couldn't  pour  it  just  right.  The  man  selling  told  us  the 
great  advantages  of  the  stuff,  and  I  asked  him  if  he  could  pour  a  joint  that 
would  be  watertight  in  twenty-four  hours.  "  Sure!"  he  said.  We  had  him 
pour  two  or  three  joints,  and  I  let  the  water  on  when  he  told  me  to  do  so. 
It  sprayed  all  around.  I  left  it  there  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  it  was  still 
spraying.  It  stayed  there  for  a  week  and  it  was  still  spraying.  I  said  I 
couldn't  afford  to  use  that  stuff  and  then  wait  for  a  week  to  see  whether 
it  is  good  or  not,  because  when  I  use  lead  I  cover  it  up  before  testing  it  at  all. 

Another  young  man  came  along,  selling  leadite,  and  telling  me  the 
great  merits  of  it.  I  asked  him  if  he  could  pour  a  joint  and  make  it  come 
out  successfully,  and  he  said  that  he  surely  could.  I  let  him  pour  three  or 
four  joints.  We  let  the  water  on  after  a  short  time  and  it  burst  out  all 
around  the  room.  He  left  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  days,  and  I  haven't 
seen  him  since. 

They  have  not  poured  a  joint  successfully  yet,  so  that  I  have  not 
bought  any  more. 

Sect.  Gifford.    I  will  send  you  up  one  of  our  laborers. 

Mr.  Gear.    He  will  be  a  failure  like  the  rest  of  them,  I  am  afraid. 

Another  gentleman  came  along  a  year  ago  who  had  a  substitute  for 
lead  which  he  called  by  another  name.  He  poured  four  or  five  joints  and 
they  were  fairly  good,  but  there  was  nothing  that  would  give  me  faith 
enough  in  it  to  make  me  pour  a  joint  under  a  railroad  track  and  cover  it  up. 

Mr.  DiveN.    What  pressure  did  you  put  on  in  your  test? 

Mr.  Gear.    City  pressure;  85  to  100  lb. 


*  Superintendent,  Water  Works,  Holyoke,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DlfiAM.  115 


STEAM  BOILERS. 
by  f.  w.  dean.* 

Introduction. 

At  the  present  time,  more  than  ever  before,  it  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  carefully  consider  the  most  economical  type  of  boiler  and 
engine.  In  all  parts  of  the  world,  even  in  coal-producing  countries,  the 
price  of  fuel  as  well  as  of  all  other  requirements  is  abnormally  high,  and 
the  types  of  boiler  and  engine  that  will  give  the  most  efficient  performanceb 
without  objectionable  features  should  be  sought  and  used.  Greater 
care  should  be  taken  in  firing  boilers,  as  by  care  much  coal  can  be  saved, 
but  I  find  increasing  indifference  to  this  by  firemen. 

It  seems  to  me  that  there  are  more  notions  and  superstitions  abroad 
concerning  boilers  than  about  any  other  coromon  thing. 

The  general  design  of  a  boiler  is  pf  less  importance  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  If  a  boiler  has  sufficient  heating  surfaces  so  arranged  that  the 
hot  gases  circulate  through  or  about  them,  if  they  divide  the  gases  into 
thin  streams,  if  the  admission  of  air  for  combustion  is  at  the  right  place, 
if  the  leakage  of  air  into  the  gases  where  it  does  no  good  and  cools  the 
boiler  is  substantially  prevented,  if  the  surfaces  can  be  cleaned  and  the 
fire  box  and  grate  are  such  that  the  combustion  is  good,  the  boiler  will  do 
well.  Evidently  these  requirements  admit  of  an  infinite  number  of  ar- 
rangements of  parts.  A  "  good  steaming  '*  boiler  is  almost  any  kind  of 
boiler  that  is  amply  large  for  the  work  to  be  done.  As  generally  used,  the 
expression  "  good  steaming  "  is  meaningless. 

The  idea  is  commonly  held  that  there  is  special  virtue  in  radiant  heat. 
The  absorption  of  such  heat  merely  extracts  it  from  the  hot  medium,  and 
if  it  were  not  at  that  time  removed  it  would  be  available  for  absorption 
elsewhere  by  direct  contact  with  the  boiler-heating  surface,  and  with  equal 
value.  If  a  fire  box  had  no  surface  which  could  absorb  radiant  heat  and  a 
proper  amount  of  surface  which  could  absorb  it  by  contact,  the  eflfect 
would  be  the  same.  The  surface  which  has  the  opportunity  to  absorb 
radiant  heat  is  usuaDy  that  which  deals  with  the  hottest  gases  and  for 
this  reason  is  more  active  in  absorption  than  any  other  surface.  For 
these  reasons  it  should  not  be  supposed,  as  it  commonly  seems  to  be,  that 
radiant  heat  is  something  that  would  be  lost  if  there  were  not  surfaces 
present  to  absorb  it. 


^  Of  Wheelook,  Dean  &  Bogue.  Boston,  Maos. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


116  STEAM   BOILERS. 


Definition. 


A  boiler  consists  of  two  fundamental  parks,  a  furnace  for  burning 
fuel  and  producing  heat  and  a  part  containing  water  and  absorbing  heat. 
The  furnace  can  be  arranged  for  burning  coal  by  hand  firing,  or  by  me- 
chanical stokers.  In  either  case,  the  coal  should  be  burnt  as  perfectly  as 
possible  in  order  to  economize,  and  it  is  possible  with  either  to  admit  too 
little  or  too  much  air.  Combustion  is  a  chemical  process,  and  should  so 
occur  that  the  product  of  combustion  will  be  carbonic  acid,  and  the 
quantity  of  this  gas  can  be  ascertained  by  an  inexpensive  and  easily  used 
piece  of  apparatus.  The  presence  of  a  boiler  with  a  furnace  is  not  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  combustion  of  coal.  The  function  of  the  boiler  is  to 
absorb  the  heat  after  it  is  generated,  and  it  should  not  be  so  formed  or 
placed  that  it  will,  to  any  material  extent,  or  at  all,  interfere  with  the 
chemical  process  of  combustion.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  there  may 
be  many  different  ways  in  which  the  surfaces  of  a  boiler  may  be  ar- 
ranged. It  depends  somewhat  upon  the  coal  whether  a  large  space  is 
needed  for  good  combustion,  but  it  can  be  said  that  for  coal  with  a  small 
quantity  of  volatile  matter,  not  much  space  is  required.  For  example,  a 
locomotive  or  a  Scotch  marine  boiler  will  give  most  excellent  results,  al- 
though there  is  not  much  space  for  combustion,  and  the  water-containing 
parts  of  the  boiler  are  near  the  fire.  These  results  plainly  show  that  the 
idea  that  large  space  is  needed  for  combustion,  except  with  pulverized 
coal,  and  oil,  which  are  moving  fuels,  is  a  mistake.  If  the  air  is  admitted 
in  the  right  quantity  at  the  right  place,  good  combustion  will  result,  even 
if  a  relatively  cold  boiler  shell  is  in  close  proximity. 

In  .the  case  of  bricked-up  boilers,  large  fire  chambers  result  in  oppor- 
tunities for  air  leakage,  and  such  air  seldom,  if  ever,  enters  where  it  aids 
combustion.  What  it  in  fact  does,  is  to  cool  off  the  boiler  and  make  a 
demand  on  the  chimney  which  results  in  a  waste  of  its  capacity,  and,  if 
economizers  are  used,  to  diminish  their  effect. 

Internally  and  Externally  Fired  Boilers. 

In  one  respect  boilers  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  known  as 
internally  and  externally  fired.  The  locomotive  type,  vertical  fii*e  tube, 
and  Scotch  boilers  are  called  internally  fired  because  the  fire  box  and  grate 
are  within  the  boiler.  The  common  American  horizontal  return  tubular 
boiler  and  many  others  having  the  fire  box  below  the  boiler,  or  in  front  of  it 
and  not  structurally  a  part  of  it,  are  called  externally  fired.  Internally 
fired  boilers  have  the  advantage  of  having  little  or  no  brickwork,  the 
latter  being  always  a  source  of  trouble.  They  do  not  permit  air  to  leak  in 
and  cool  the  gases  of  combustion,  and  thus  reduce  economy  and  make 
great  demands  upon  chimney  capacity.  A  considerably  larger  quantity 
of  air  than  is  usually  permitted  to  enter  a  boiler  fire  box  is  often  desirable, 
but  it  should  enter  only  where  it  aids  combustion. 


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DEAN.  117 

Fire-tube  and  Water-tube  Boilers. 

Besides  internally  and  externally  fired  boilers,  there  is  another  di- 
vision of  types,  known  as  fire-tube  and  water-tube  boilers.  In  fire-tube 
boilers  the  fire  passes  through  the  tubes  and  the  water  surrounds  them, 
but  in  water-tube  boilers  the  fire  passes  around  and  between  the  tubes, 
and  the  water  is  inside  of  them. 

The  water-tube  boiler  was  devised  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  ex- 
plosions at  a  time  when  the  shells  of  fire-tube  boilers  frequently  exploded. 
It  was  an  attractive  idea  to  have  the  water  confined  in  small  tubes  which 
probably  would  not  explode,  and  which,  if  they  did,  would  do  relatively 
small  damage.  Unfortunately,  water-tubes  boilers  consist  of  headers  and 
drums  as  well  as  tubes,  and  of  them  there  have  been  some  very  serious 
explosions,  and  tube  explosions  are  common  occurrences.  Explosions  of 
fire-tube  boilers  are  now  virtually  things  of  the  past,  and  were  almost  en- 
tirely caused  by  the  use  of  lap  longitudinal  joints.  The  tubes  of  such 
boilers  never  do  anything  worse  than  leak.  In  most  of  the  states  of  the 
United  States  lap  joints  are  prohibited  by  law. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  water-tube  boilers.  Some  consist  of  headers 
made  in  various  ways,  one  at  each  end,  connected  by  tubes.  The  headers 
are  connected  to  one  or  more  drums  above.  The  tubes  are  always  inclined, 
sometimes  highest  at  the  front  end  and  sometimes  at  the  other.  The 
headers  are  frequently  inclined  so  that  the  tubes  are  at  right  angles  to 
them.  Occasionally  the  headers  are  vertical  and  the  inclined  tubes  enter 
small  inclined  surfaces  pressed  in  the  headers. 

Sometimes  the  drum  runs  from  the  front  to  the  back  header,  and 
sometimes  it  is  placed  above  the  lower  header  and  parallel  to  it.  The 
latter  are  known  as  "  cross-drum  boilers,"  and  in  my  opinion  are  superior 
to  the  other,  because  the  drums  receive  the  steam  uniformly  from  one  end 
to  the  other,  in  small  amounts  per  unit  of  length,  and  the  feed  water  is 
supplied  more  evenly  to  the  lower  header.  They  carry  the  water  better 
than  the  longitudinal  drum  boiler,  show  a  truer  water  level,  and  are  more 
likely  to  produce  dry  steam. 

The  headers  of  the  water-tube  boilers  described  are  sometimes  made 
of  steel  plates,  two  for  each  header,  connected  together  in  some  manner  at 
the  edges.  One  of  the  plates  is  called  the  "  tube  plate"  and  the  other  the 
"  hand-hole  plate.''  The  tubes  are  expanded  into  the  holes  of  the  tube 
plates  and  project  through  the  plate  about  half  an  inch,  this  projection 
being  bell-shaped. 

The  plates  of  the  plate  headers  are  usually  stayed  together  by  screwed 
staybolts  headed  over.  The  stays  should  have  small  holes  drilled  from  each 
end  to  a  depth  of  at  least  one-half  inch  beyond  the  inner  edge  of  the  plate, 
so  that,  if  they  break,  steam  and  water  will  escape  and  cause  the  rupture  to 
be  known.  These  holes  are  often  f  in.  in  diameter  entirely  through  the 
staybolt,  and  those  that  are  not  utilized  for  tube  blowing  are  plugged  with 
metal  plugs,  of  which  there  are  a  number  of  kinds. 


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118  STEAM   BOILERS. 

It  is  necessary  to  close  the  holes  in  the  hand-hole  plate,  and  this  is  done 
in  various  ways.  Each  hand  hole  is  usually  just  large  enough  to  allow  one 
tube  to  pass  through,  but  sometimes,  if  the  tubes  are  small,  it  is  large 
enough  for  four. 

Other  boilers  have  the  headers  formed  of  vertical  rectangular  boxes, 
each  wide  enough  for  one  vertical  row  of  tubes,  closed  at  the  lower  ends 
and  placed  side  by  side,  touching  each  other.  The  tops  of  this  kind  of 
header  are  connected  to  the  drums  by  means  of  short  pieces  of  pipe  called 
"  nipples'*,  which  are  expanded  in  holes  in  the  top  of  the  header  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  drum.  Plate  headers  are  usually  flanged  and  riveted  to  longitu- 
dinal drums,  but  to  cross-drums  they  should  be  connected  by  means  of 
expanded  nipples.  Boilers  with  narrow  header  boxes  are  likely  to  allow  air 
to  leak  in  between  them,  and  the  spaces  between  them  must  be  calked 
with  a  suitable  material;  but,  nevertheless,  they  are  likely  to  leak. 

Workmanship. 

Good  workmanship  on  boilers  is  frequently  mentioned  but  it  is  not  so 
well  understood.  It  consists  in  having  the  rivet  holes  drilled  and  exactly 
matched  in  the  adjoining  plates,  rivets  filling  the  holes,  and  plates  in  contact, 
or  so  near  it  that  a  steel  feeler  0.003  in.  thick  cannot  touch  the  rivet  when 
slid  in  between  the  plates  before  they  are  calked.  If  staybolts  are  used,  the 
threads  should  fit  tightly  and  the  heads  be  well  formed.  Tube  holes  should 
not  be  too  large,  so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  expand  the  tubes  too 
much.  The  difference  in  diameter  of  holes  and  tubes  should  not  exceed 
Vm  in.  Tubes  should  be  neatly  beaded  and  should  not  crack  by  beading. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  curve  the  plates  and  butt  straps  accurately  to  the 
edges.  The  heads  of  rivets  should  be  central  with  the  rivet  shank,  with  a 
maximum  error  of  i  in.  There  are  many  things  to  be  considered  in  addition, 
but  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  mention  them  here. 

Baffles. 

The  bafiles  of  water-tube  boilers  are  means  of  dividing  the  spaces 
among  the  tubes  into  passages  for  the  circulation  of  the  hot  gases,  in  order 
that  the  tubes  may  be  well  swept  by  the  gases  and  have  an  opportunity  to 
absorb  the  heat  which  they  contain.  The  bafiles  are  sometimes  at  right 
angles,  or  nearly  so,  to  the  tubes,  and  sometimes  parallel  to  them.  I  pre- 
fer the  latter  method  because  the  bafiles  are  then  simpler  and  more  durable 
than  the  others,  are  more  likely  to  be  gas  tight,  and  can  be  more  easily 
applied  and  renewed.  Besides  this,  the  gases  more  completely  sweep  the 
tube  surfaces,  and  by  the  use  of  hollow  staybolts  in  connection  with  them, 
soot  blowers  are  more  easily  applied  and  permit  blowing  parallel  to  the 
tubes,  which  is  more  effective  than  blowing  at  ri^t  angles  to  them,  this 
being  necessary  when  vertical  baffles  are  used.    Boilers  with  transverse 


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DEAN.  119 

baffles  cause  the  gas  from  the  fuel  to  move  in  parallel  vertical  streams,  and 
those  streams  having  an  excess  of  air  have  little  chance  of  meeting  those 
with  combustible  gases,  and  burning  them,  as  is  the  case  with  boilers 
having  horizontal  baffles. 

Experiment  shows  that  horizontal  baffles  can  be  made  of  steel  plates, 
except  on  the  lower  row  of  tubes.  The  plates  will  usually  touch  the  tubes 
on  top  and  bottom,  the  tubes  thus  conducting  heat  from  the  baffles  and 
promoting  their  durability.  The  advantages  of  steel  plate  baffles  are  that 
they  have  fewer  openings  between  them  than  tiles  to  leak  gas,  do  not 
crack  and  get  out  of  place,  are  thinner,  and  thus  enable  a  boiler  of  given 
dimensions  to  have  more  tubes  than  when  tile  baffles  are  used. 

In  designing  horizontal  baffles  the  tendency  is  to  make  them  too  short 
in  order  to  provide  sufficient  area  of  gas  passage  between  their  ends  and  the 
headers.  Measurements  of  the  drafts  and  velocities  in  the  passes  and  be- 
tween the  baffles  show  that  the  gases  pass  very  close  to  the  ends  of  the 
baffles,  so  that  most  of  the  space  between  the  ends  and  the  headers  is  useless. 
The  same  thing  is  shown  by  baffles  placed  in  a  wide,  shallow  stream  of 
water.  By  placing  oil  upon  the  water  it  wiU  be  plainly  seen  that  the  water 
passes  close  to  the  ends  of  the  baffles  and  the  water  in  the  remaining  space 
is  stagnant. 

In  horizontal  baffling  the  lowest  baffle  should  always  be  on  the  bottom 
row  of  tubes,  for  otherwise  there  will  be  tube  surface  under  the  baffle  which 
is  inactive  and  useless.  Similarly,  the  highest  baffle  should  be  on  top  of 
the  highest  row  of  tubes  instead  of  under  them,  in  order  to  render  these 
tubes  efficient.  The  lowest  baffle  should  always  be  in  contact  with  the 
front  header,  for,  if  not,  any  air  that  enters  the  fire  door  of  hand-fired 
boilers  passes  up  in  contact  with  that  header,  cools  the  boiler,  and  does  not 
support  combustion.  This  is  true  to  some  extent  when  stokers  are  used, 
for  the  hopper  may  not  be  full  of  coal,  thus  giving  air  passage,  and  when  it 
is,  the  air  passes  through  the  interstices  of  the  coal  above  the  combustion 
level.  Boilers  with  vertical  baffles  always  have  this  defect,  and  this  is 
another  reason  for  preferring  horizontal  baffles. 

By  making  the  baffles  longer,  the  gases  are  compelled  to  sweep  over 
more  of  the  tube  surface,  and  this  increases  the  economy  and  adds  some- 
what to  the  forcing  capacity  of  the  boiler.  By  the  latter  it  is  meant  that 
the  economy  is  well  maintained  when  the  fuel  consumption  is  increased 
wen  beyond  the  intended  rate,  or,  in  other  words,  the  efficiency  curve  is 
straighter  than  in  the  case  of  a  boiler  with  short  baffles. 

Still  further,  the  economy  and  forcing  capacity  are  improved  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  baffles,  and  thus  the  number  of  passes,  and  the 
number  should  be  made  as  great  as  is  consistent  with  a  practicable  loss  in 
draft,  for  the  greater  the  number  of  passes  the  greater  is  this  loss.  Many 
boilers  with  horizontal  baffles  have  only  one  at  the  bottom  and  one  at  the 
top,  but  such  boilers  would  be  more  efficient  if  more  baffies  were  used.    If 


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120  STEAM    BOILERS 

it  were  possible  it  would  be  best  to  have  a  baffle  on  every  layer  of  tubes,  but 
the  draft  absorption  would  be  too  great  and  cleaning  impossible. 

In  the  case  of  a  water-tube  boiler  with  headers  and  straight  tubes,  as 
before  stated,  baffles  at  right  angles  to  the  tubes  are  frequently  used,  and 
of  course  the  gases  move  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  tubes.  The  greater 
the  number  of  passes,  the  greater  is  the  ecomomy  and  the  greater  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  boiler  to  stand  forcing  beyond  its  rated  power  without  greatly 
diminished  economy,  as  in  the  case  of  boilers  having  baffles  parallel  to  the 
tubes.  Many  boilers  with  transverse  baffles  have  large  spaces  between  the 
tubes  and  baffles  and  thus  allow  gas  leakage  and  loss  of  economy. 

In  both  kinds  of  water-tube  boiler  the  gases  make  every  effort  to 
short  circuit,  or,  in  other  words,  to  avoid  passing  into  comers  or  parts  of  the 
boiler  where  there  is  the  least  obstacle.  This  is  not  only  proved  by  draft 
and  temperature  measurements,  but  can  plainly  be  seen  by  providing  in- 
spection holes  in  the  sides  of  the  boilers.  Where  there  is  no  flame,  sparks 
show  the  paths  of  the  gases. 

Water-tube  Boilers  with  Bent  Tubes. 

Besides  the  water-tube  boilers  already  noticed,  which  have  straight 
tubes,  there  are  those  with  drums  and  bent  tubes,  and  no  headers.  These 
boilers  are  made  in  various  ways,  the  simplest  having  two  drums,  one  above 
the  other,  and  parallel  to  the  front,  connected  together  by  the  tubes. 

Another  form  has  one  drum  at  the  bottom  and  three  at  the  top,  paral- 
lel to  the  front,  the  latter  being  connected  with  the  bottom  drum  by  bent 
tubes,  and  the  upper  drums  connected  together  by  such  tubes.  Another 
has  one  drum  at  the  bottom  and  two  at  the  top.  Still  another  has  two 
drums  at  the  bottom  and  five  at  the  top.     In  fact  all  tastes  can  be  satisfied. 

Still  another  well-known  form  is  that  having  two  drums  at  the  bottom 
and  one  at  the  top,  aU  at  right  angles  to  the  front.  The  tubes  run  from 
both  bottom  drums  to  the  top  drum  and  the  grate  is  between  the  two  lower 
drums.    This  boiler  is  used  chiefly  in  marine  service. 

Boilers  of  the  above  types  have  no  hand-hole  plates. 

Methods  of  Closing  Holes  in  Hand-hole  Plates 
OF  Water-tube  Boilers. 

In  the  header  type  of  water-tube  boiler  the  hand  holes  can  be  closed  by 
means  of  plates  and  gaskets  secured  by  means  of  yokes  and  bolts.  Each 
plate  may  cover  one  tube,  or  as  many  as  four  tubes  if  the  latter  are  suffi- 
ciently small.  It  is  customary  for  one  plate  to  cover  one  3-in.,  4-iiL,  or 
5-in.  tube,  or  four  2-in.  tubes.  A  more  modem,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
writer,  a  better  method,  is  to  close  each  hole  with  a  pressed  steel  tapered 
plug  or  cap,  inserted  from  the  inside.  This  requires  no  gasket,  and  is 
easily  inserted,  removed  and  re-inserted.  It  seldom  leaks,  and  if  it  does  it 
can  be  pulled  in  a  little  more  and  made  tight. 


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DEAN.  121 

Circulation  in  Water-tube  Boilers. 

Much  has  been  written  about  circulation  in  water-tube  boilers,  but 
it  is  sufficient  with  few  exceptions.  It  is  important  in  such  cases  that  the 
water  should  be  freely  suppUed  to  the  tubes  and  that  sharp  angles  should 
be  avoided  unless  the  water  is  supplied  from  a  large  volume  in  which  the 
velocity  is  low.  It  is,  in  fact,  an  important  principle,  that,  of  all  parts  of  a 
water-tube  boiler,  the  tubes  themselves  should  have  the  least  area  for 
water  passage,  so  that  the  entrance  to  the  tubes  and  their  exit  should  be 
unimpeded. 

In  the  header  type  of  straight-tube  water-tube  boiler,  the  most  active 
circulation  is  through  the  lowest  row  of  tubes  and  moves  from  the  lower  to 
the  higher  header.  The  circulation  diminishes  in  this  direction  in  the  tubes 
above  until  near  the  middle  row  it  is  slight  and  may  be  in  either  direction. 
Above  these  the  circulation  is  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  the  lower 
tubes.  This,  has  been  clearly  shown  by  propellers  in  the  tubes,  the  shafts 
of  which  pass  out  through  stuffing  boxes  in  the  hand-hole  caps  opposite 
the  tubes,  the  rotations  being  registered  by  an  electrical  device.  The 
above  refers  particularly  to  cross-drum  boilers,  but  in  boilers  with  longi- 
tudinal drums  the  water  in  all  of  the  tubes  may  sometimes  move  in  one 
direction,  and  the  return  may  be  through  the  drum. 

The  boiler  in  which  these  circulation  measurements  were  made  was 
one  having  inclined  headers,  and  the  front  header  lower  than  the  rear.  The 
drum  was  parallel  to  and  above  the  front  header,  to  which  it  was  connected 
by  means  of  a  pressed  steel  collar,  in  the  limits  of  which  were  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  drum  for  connecting  the  water  space  of  the  header  with  that 
of  the  drum.  The  feed  water  was  distributed  longitudinally  in  the  drum 
and  descended  into  the  header.  The  top  of  the  rear  header  was  connected 
with  the  drum  by  means  of  tubes,  and  these  served  to  carry  the  steam 
made  into  the  drum. 

Circulation  nearly  always  takes  care  of  itself,  and  while  some  boilers 
appear  to  be  designed  to  prevent  circulation,  it  takes  place,  nevertheless. 

Steel  Casings. 

Water-tube  boilers  are  frequently  enclosed  in  steel  casings,  and  always 
in  marine  work.  This  is  a  good  thing  and  keeps  the  brickwork  in  good 
condition  on  the  outside,  and  was  originally  done  in  land  practice  to  prevent 
air  leaks  through  the  brickwork.  It  does  not  succeed  in  accomplishing  this 
as  it  is  found  by  piercing  the  casing  and  brickwork  with  observation  holes, 
that  jets  of  air  can  be  seen  burning  in  the  boiler  gases  as  they  enter  from 
the  brickwork  in  various  places.  The  air  finds  its  way  under  and  behind 
the  brickwork  from  the  ash  pit,  and  enters  the  fire  at  numerous  points. 


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122  steam  boilers. 

Drum  Heads. 

A  great  number  of  heads  of  the  drums  of  water-tube  boilers  have 
blown  out  and  caused  disastrous  explosions.  This  is  usually,  and  perhaps 
always,  caused  by  cracking  and  erosion  at  the  flange  angle  of  the  heads, 
which  is  probably  reduced  by  the  breathing  of  the  heads  with  variations  of 
pressure.  If  the  material  is  somewhat  cracked  by  the  breathing  action, 
the  corrosion  will  be  accelerated.  Otherwise  there  is  no  more  reason  for 
corrosion  at  this  point  than  elsewhere.  In  consideration  of  this  defect  of 
drum  heads  I  have  for  some  years  advocated  staying-drum  heads,  made  in 
the  customary  manner,  by  means  of  gusset  stays,  as  if  they  were  flat  plates. 
I  consider  drum  heads  with  the  convex  surfaces  inward  safer  than  when 
outward.  According  to  the  Code  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers,  such  heads  can  be  used  if  they  are  made  of  suflicient  thickness. 

Steam  Pressure. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  making  water-tube  boilers  to  carry  any  ordi- 
nary pressure  up  to  say  300  lb.  or  400  lb.  per  square  inch  or  even  more. 
Tubes  with  pressure  inside  of  them  will,  of  course,  stand  any  pressure  de- 
sired without  being  thick,  and,  in  fact,  they  will  not  be  of  much  thickness 
even  if  used  to  carry  higher  pressures  than  have  been  used.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  if  the  tubes  are  small,  —  say,  3  in.  or  less  in  diameter.  A 
trouble,  however,  comes  from  the  failure  of  tubes,  from  dirt,  and  this  occurs 
in  all  water-tube  boilers. 

There  is  no  ordinary  limit  to  the  holding  power  of  tubes  when  expanded 
into  headers  or  drums,  especially  as  they  always  project  through  headers 
or  dnuns  about  i  in.  and  are  made  bell-shaped. 

In  regard  to  drums,  if  they  are  pierced  by  as  few  tubes  as  possible  and 
the  longitudinal  joints  kept  away  from  the  tube  holes,  the  drum  can  be 
made  sufficiently  strong  to  stand  any  probable  pressure.  As  for  the  drum 
heads,  there  is  no  ordinary  limit  in  pressure.  While  for  large  boilers,  drums 
are  frequently  made  60  in.  in  diameter,  it  is  my  opinion  that  no  boiler, 
however  large,  requires  a  drum  of  more  than  48  in.  in  diameter,  and  seldom 
as  large,  esp)ecially  if  the  boiler  is  of  the  cross-dnmi  type,  unless  a  large 
drum  is  necessary  to  accommodate  tubes. 

Sizes  op  Tubes  op  Water-tube  Boilers. 

In  water-tube  boilers  for  land  service,  the  diameter  of  tubes  range 
from  2  in.  to  4  in.  In  my  opinion,  they  should  not  in  general  be  larger 
than  3  in.,  for  I  fail  to  see  anything  gained.  By  the  use  of  4-in.  tubes  the 
boiler  is  larger  for  a  given  capacity  than  with  smaller  tubes,  and  the  gases 
are  not  so  effectively  subdivided.  The  length  of  tubes  has  a  bearing  on  the 
diameter,  and  the  limit  of  length  for  a  3-in.  straight  tube  may  be  said  to  be 
about  20  ft.    I  think  that  the  experience  of  many  engineers  during  the  late 


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DEAN.  123 

war  with  marine  water-tube  boilers  will  affect  their  opinion,  and  that 
boilers  of  the  marine  type  with  comparatively  short  tubes  of  2  in.  to  3  in. 
in  diameter  will  be  more  commonly  used  for  land  purposes  than  heretofore. 
I  fail  to  see  any  reason  for  having  the  tubes  more  than  one  inch  apart, 
for  this  distance  gives  excellent  service  with  all  kinds  of  coal,  or  with  oil 
fuel. 

Method  of  Taking  Steam  fbom  Boilebs. 

Experiment  shows  that  the  best  method  of  taking  steam  from  boilers 
is  through  the  perforations  of  a  pipe  with  closed  ends,  along  the  top  of  the 
drum  and  shell.  The  pipe  should  be  as  close  to  the  top  as  possible  and 
perforated  along  the  top  with  holes  not  exceeding  f  in.  in  diameter,  uni- 
fomily  distributed  from  end  to  end.  The  aggregate  area  of  these  holes 
should  be  such  that  the  velocity  of  the  steam  shall  be  fully  8  000  to  10  000 
ft.  per  minute.  When  this  arrangement  is  carried  out  the  pipe  acts  as  a 
st«im  separator,  as  has  been  amply  proved  by  tests.  The  steam  nozzle 
should  be  in  the  center  of  the  drum,  so  that  the  steam  shall  be  drawn 
equally  from  all  parts.  The  safety  valve  should  never  receive  steam 
through  the  perforated  pipe. 

Boring  the  iNsmEs  of  Tubes  of  Water-tube  Boilebs. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  tube  borers  that  are  specially  made  for 
boring  out  the  insides  of  tubes  and  clearing  them  of  scale,  and  such  ap- 
paratus should  be  furnished  with  the  boilers.  For  boilers  having  bent 
tubes  expanded  inte  drums,  borers  are  so  made  that  the  operators  are  not 
required  to  enter  the  drums. 

Fire-tube  Boilebs. 

Although  much  of  this  paper  has  been  devoted  to  water-tube  boilers, 
it  should  not  be  inferred  that  fire-tube  boilers  are  not  meritorious.  On  the 
contrary,  they  are  in  most  respects  equal  or  superior  to  water-tube  boilers. 
As  high  pressure  as  is  usually  desired  can  be  carried  on  them,  and  when 
built  according  to  modem  requirements  are  safer  than  water-tube  boilers, 
as  can  be  readily  shown  by  the  records  of  explosions.  The  chief  factor 
in  making  them  safe,  as  before  implied,  is  the  use  of  butt  longitudinal 
jomts. 

The  Amebican  Undeb-fibed  Hobizontal  Retubn 
Tubulab  Boileb. 

In  the  United  States  the  most  commonly  used  boiler  is  the  horizontal 
return  tubular  boiler  set  in  brickwork.  The  fire  is  under  the  boiler,  the 
products  of  combustion  pass  to  the  back  end  and  then  come  forward 
through  the  tubes.  Common  sizes  are  from  24  in.  to  90  in.  in  diameter, 
and  in  some  of  the  lattor  the  heating  siuface  amounts  to  more  than  4  000 


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124  STEAM   BOILERS. 

sq.  ft.    Boilers  of  this  size  are  rated  at  400  h.p.  and  some  are  worked  up  to 
1  200  or  1  300  h.p.,  and  have  been  for  eighteen  years  or  more. 

Boilers  of  this  type  have  been  built  up  to  120  in.  in  diameter,  and  in  my 
opinion  are  practicable  and  safe  even  for  200-lb.  pressure  or  more.  The 
plates  would  be  thick,  but  the  heat-conducting  power  of  thick  plates  is 
ahnost  as  good  as  that  of  plates  of  the  thickness  commonly  used,  and  the 
water  has  unlimited  capacity  to  absorb  the  heat. 

Dirt  on  the  fire  side  of  plates  prevents  heat  from  entering  them,  the 
plates  themselves  present  almost  no  resistance  to  the  flow  of  heat,  and  dirt 
on  the  water  side  of  the  plates  prevents  the  heat  from  leaving  them,  and  is 
the  sole  cause  of  overheating.  Such  dirt  has  the  same  effect  on  thin  plates 
as  on  thick,  and  sometimes  causes  bulges.  Bulging,  however,  does  not 
cause  explosions,  and  it  can  be  prevented  from  increasing  by  keeping  the 
boilers  clean.  It  is  best  to  allow  dirt  to  accumulate  on  the  outside  of  the 
bottom  plates,  as  it  is  a  slight  protection,  and  its  loss  as  efficient  heating 
surface  is  slight. 

Referring  still  further  to  thick  plates,  in  1890  an  important  paper  was 
read  before  the  North  East  Coast  Institution  of  Engineers  and  Shipbuilders 
in  England,  by  W.  Kilvington  and  Alexander  Taylor,  on  the  use  of  thick 
plates  for  the  furnaces  of  marine  boilers.  It  had  been  for  many  years  con- 
sidered that  I  in.  was  the  greatest  advisable  thickness  for  such  furnaces. 
This  after  a  few  years  was  increased  to  i  in.,  and  in  1890  few  engineers 
objected  to  furnaces  f  in.  thick.  In  1890  there  had  been  furnaces  at  sea 
for  three  or  four  years  f  in.  thick  and  subjected  to  160-lb.  pressure  without 
failure.  About  the  same  change  of  opinion  on  this  subject  has  taken  place 
in  regard  to  the  thickness  of  plates  of  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers. 

The  writers  of  the  pap)er  referred  to  stated  that  they  knew  of  no  fur- 
nace that  had  collapsed  from  being  too  thick.  Cases  of  collapse  have 
always  been  due  to  oil  and  dirt  which  accumulated  on  the  furnaces,  and 
this  is  the  only  cause  of  the  bagging  of  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers. 
It  is  also  the  usual  cause  of  the  bagging  and  explosions  of  the  tubes  of  water- 
tube  boilers. 

The  authors  investigated  the  relative  heat  resistances  of  f  in.  and  |  in. 
plates  and  found  that  of  the  former  only  1  per  cent,  greater  than  the  latter. 
They  show  that  this  was  long  ago  known  by  Rankine,  who  wrote,:  "  The 
external  thermal  resistance  of  the  metal  plates  of  boiler  flues  and  tubes, 
and  other  apparatus  used  for  heating  and  cooUng  fluids,  is  so  much  greater 
than  the  internal  thermal  resistance,  that  the  latter  is  inappreciable  in 
comparison;  and  consequently  the  nature  and  thickness  of  those  plates  has 
no  appreciable  effect  on  the  rate  of  conduction  through  them."  Rankine 
also  states  that  the  results  of  evaporative  tests  of  boilers  justify  the  dis- 
regard of  the  effect  of  thickness  on  the  rate  of  transfer  of  heat. 

Kilvington  and  Taylor  concluded  that  they  would  not  hesitate  to 
make  furnace  plates  1  in.  thick,  and  that  the  same  amount  of  scale  would 
cause  a  thin  plate  to  collapse  as  soon  as  a  thick  plate. 


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DEAN.  125 

In  1867  Chief  Engineer  Isherwood,  U.S.N.,  made  some  experiments 
on  the  transmission  of  heat  through  plates  varying  from  J  in.  to  f  in.  in 
thickness,  a  variation  of  300  per  cent.,  one  side  being  exposed  to  steam  and 
the  other  side  to  water,  and  the  difference  in  the  rate  of  heat  transfer  was 
not  measurable. 

All  of  the  above  reasoning  applies  to  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers, 
and  the  only  inference  to  be  drawn  from  it  is  that  safety  and  efficiency  are 
not  affected  by  the  thickness  of  the  plates.  Since  1880  thicknesses  have 
increased  from  f  in.  to  f  in.,  and  the  writer  has  put  in  90-in.  boilers  with 
plates  having  a  thickness  of  V»  ii^-  niore  than  f  in.,  and  several  84-in. 
boilers  with  J-in.  plates,  which  act  in  no  respect  different  from  boilers  with 
thin  plates.  Some  of  these  boilers  have  been  in  use  nearly  twenty  years. 
All  of  these  considerations  show  that  there  is  no  reason  for  anxiety  in  the 
presence  of  a  well-designed  boiler  of  the  type  under  consideration  if  it  has 
\)een  built  of  good  material. 

The  plates  at  the  circular  joints  should  be  planed  so  that  the  double 
thickness  at  this  [)oint  will  not  be  excessive.  This  does  not  reduce  the 
strength  of  the  boiler,  as  the  stress  in  a  circular  section  of  cyUndrical  boiler 
is  very  small  and  the  two  thicknesses  at  this  point  are  greater  than  the 
thickness  of  the  unreduced  plate,  so  that  longitudinal  rupture  at  this  point 
cannot  occur. 

Nor  need  there  be  any  fear  that  the  plate  above  the  fire  suffers  in 
quality,  for  many  boilers  have  been  subjected  to  severe  use  for  many  years 
without  apparent  effect  on  the  plates  above  the  fires,  and  in  one  case,  from 
a  condemned  boiler  of  the  H.  R.  T.  type,  which  had  been  in  use  many 
years,  test  pieces  were  cut  from  the  plate  which  was  above  the  fire,  and  the 
tests  gave  the  same  results  as  when  the  plates  were  new. 

Riveted  Joints. 

It  has  been  established,  as  I  have  before  stated,  that  the  cause  of  ex- 
plosions of  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers  has  been  the  existence  of  lap 
longitudinal  joints.  This  was  due  to  the  departure  of  the  shell  at  the  joint 
from  the  circular  form  and  the  consequent  many  bendings  of  the  plate  in  the 
effort  to  become  circular  when  pressure  was  applied.  With  the  appUcation 
and  removal  of  pressure  and  the  consequent  bending  back  and  forth  of  the 
plates,  they  finally  cracked.  If  they  are  maltreated  in  bending,  as  plates 
in  the  past  have  been,  they  will  crack  all  the  sooner. 

This  was  overcome  by  butting  the  plates  and  placing  a  covering  plate 
on  each  side.  Since  this  was  done  only  one  explosion  of  a  horizontal 
return  tubular  boiler  with  such  joints  has  occurred,  I  believe,  and  that  was 
not  in  the  joint.  It  was  at  a  badly  corroded  place  which  was  thereby 
weakened. 

The  prevailing  butt  joint  used  in  this  country  for  shells  and  drums 
of  boilers  is  defective  and  likely  some  time  to  cause  explosions.    The 


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126  STEAM  BOILERS. 

reason  for  this  is  that  the  inside  butt  strap  is  wider  than  the  outside,  and 
the  joint  is  a  combination  of  the  lap  and  butt,  and  is,  therefore,  defective. 
It  is  defective  because  it  is  a  non-central  resisting  device  and  still  bends  the 
plate  and  may  therefore  cause  cracking.  It  is  not,  for  this  reason,  the  best 
joint,  and,  considering  the  prime  importance  of  safety,  should  be  abandoned. 
The  covering  plates,  or  butt  straps,  should  be  of  equal  widths,  with  all 
rivets  in  double  shear,  and  until  they  are  so  made,  as  they  are  in  most 
marine  boilers,  some  danger  will  exist.  Several  of  these  one-sided  joints 
have  cracked,  but  fortunately  leakage  showed  the  danger  before  an  ex- 
plosion occurred. 

The  circumferential  joints  of  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers  are 
troublesome,  and  there  is  no  need  of  their  existence  since  there  are  rolls  of 
sufficient  length  to  roll  up  plates  long  enough  for  boilers  having  tubes  20  ft. 
in  length.  The  Massachusetts  rule  limiting  the  length  of  longitudinal 
joints  should  be  repealed,  and  permission  should  be  given  to  use  plates  of 
any  length  to  persons  desiring  to  avoid  circular  joints. 

Making  the  Most  of  Horizontal  Return  Tubular  Boilers. 

With  the  exception  of  several  designs  made  by  the  writer,  boilers  of 
this  type  are  not  provided  with  as  many  tubes  as  possible  and  desirable. 
The  boiler  users'  interests  are  thereby  not  sufficiently  considered  and  un- 
necessary room  is  taken  up  by  the  boiler  plant.  The  boiler  makers  seem  to 
have  some  fear  of  providing  the  boilers  with  as  many  tubes  as  they  can 
stand  without  disadvantage  in  any  respect.  Whether  they  think  they  will 
prime  or  in  some  way  misbehave  I  do  not  know,  but  if  perforated  steam 
pipes  (or  dry  pipes,  as  they  are  often  called)  are  used  and  the  steam  nozzles 
are  placed  about  midway  between  the  ends,  the  boilers  cannot  be  made  to 
prime  no  matter  how  hard  they  are  worked.  I  favor  placing  the  tubes 
nearer  together  and  higher  in  the  shell  than  usual.  I  have  designed  many 
such  boilers  with  no  regrets.  The  effect  of  this  in  90-in.  boilers  with  3-in. 
tubes  20  ft.  long  is  to  increase  the  heating  surface  and  horse  power  33  per 
cent.,  which  is  something  that  should  not  be  ignored.  The  makers  of  this 
type  of  boiler  are  not  sufficiently  aggressive. 

Method  op  Supporting  Horizontal  Return  Tubular  Boilers. 

It  is  common  to  support  this  type  of  boiler  by  means  of  four  or  more 
brackets  resting  upon  brickwork,  or  by  suspending  it  at  four  points  from 
two  overhead  steel  beams  resting  upon  columns.  When  this  is  done  it  is 
impossible  to  adjust  the  loads  so  that  they  wiU  be  equal  at  each  point,  and 
in  fact  three  of  them,  sooner  or  later,  will  support  the  whole  load,  especially 
if  the  foundation  settles.  This  shows  the  folly  and  danger  of  using  any- 
thing but  the  three-point  suspension,  provision  for  which  should  be  made 
in  the  first  place.    When  the  boiler  itself  determines  the  three  points,  one 

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DEAN.  127 

support  will  be  overstrained.  A  three-legged  stool  rests  firmly  upon  any 
irregular  surface,  and  is  just  as  stable  if  one  or  more  points  settle. 

The  three-point  suspension  was  originated  by  the  late  Orosco  C. 
Woolson,  of  New  York,  and  for  this  he  has  not  been  sufficiently  honored. 
When  the  three-point  suspension  has  been  carried  out,  connection  has 
been  made  to  four  points  on  the  shell,  but  the  two  rear  points  have  been 
connected  to  an  equalizing  beam  above,  which  has  been  hinged  to  the  beam 
resting  upon  the  supporting  columns.  A  simpler,  better  and  cheaper 
method  is  to  have  the  rear  end  supported  by  a  bracket  riveted  to  the  rear 
head  of  the  boiler,  as  thereby  harmful  stresses  will  be  removed  from  the 
shell  and  none  added  to  the  head.  From  this  bracket  a  rod  would  pass  to 
the  supporting  beam  above. 

I  recommend  that  all  boiler  users  insist  upon  the  three-point  sus- 
pension, as  it  is  the  only  scientific  and  safe  method. 

Size  op  Tubes  in  Horizontal  Return  Tubular  Boilers. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  make  the  tubes  of  horizontal  return  tubular 
boilers  over  3  in.  in  diameter.  By  using  larger  tubes,  less  surface  is  pro- 
vided in  a  given  boiler,  the  gases  are  not  split  up  in  small  streams  and  do  not 
so  well  impart  their  heat  to  the  boiler,  and  the  gases  have  a  better  oppor- 
tunity to  utilize  a  part  of  the  tubes.  All  of  these  things  reduce  efficiency. 
If  the  coal  has  a  good  deal  of  volatile  matter  the  case  is  not  altered,  and  the 
use  of  4-in.  tubes,  which  are  employed  west  of  the  Hudson  River,  is  a  mis- 
take. If  small  tubes  are  likely  to  become  stopped  by  soot  with  western  coal 
it  is  ad\antageous  because  it  compels  the  tubes  to  be  kept  clean. 

Height  of  Boilers  above  Floor. 

There  is  a  mistaken  poUcy  at  present,  of  mysterious  origin,  of,  in 
general,  placing  boilers  very  high.  This  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing room  for  combustion  on  the  assumption  that  great  room  is  necessary. 
It  is  overlooked  that  horizontal  space,  when  such  is  available  for  gas  travel, 
is  as  good  as  vertical,  and  the  only  boilers  that  lack  in  the  former  are  water- 
tube  boilers  with  transverse  baffles.  The  only  way  to  obtain  combustion 
space  in  these  boilers  is  to  place  them  high,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
they  are  re8i)onsible  for  the  mania.  I  have  earlier  in  this  paper  made  some 
comments  upon  this. 

With  other  types  of  boiler,  such  as  the  horizontal  return  tubular  and 
horizontal  water-tube  boilers,  the  space  is  abundant  for  the  best  results, 
even  with  low  setting^.  This  is  apparent  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
best  combustion  can  be  obtained  in  the  furnaces  of  Scotch  marine  boilers, 
in  which  there  is  almost  no  vertical  space  and  no  great  horizontal  space, 
with  the  added  assumed  disadvantage  that  the  fire  and  evolved  gases  are 
surrounded  at  close  quarters  with  steel  plates  in  contact  with  water. 


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128  STEAM  BOILEBS. 

If  air  can  be  admitted  wl^re  it  will  penetrate  the  combustible  gas  the 
combustion  will  occur  instantly.  The  narrower  this  space  the  more  per- 
fectly the  necessary  mixing  will  occur.  For  this  reason  it  is  apparent  that 
the  greater  the  elevation  of  boilers  with  horizontal  gas  travels  the  more 
uncertain  the  gas  and  air  mixture  becomas,  and  the  more  the  boilers  are 
elevated  the  less  efficient  the  boilers  are.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
horizontal  return  tubular  boilers  when  set  low  have  low  combustion  space 
only  at  the  center. 

The  elevation  of  the  boilers  with  transverse  baffles  only  to  a  slight 
extent  improves  the  mixture,  as  currents  are  almost  vertical  and  parallel 
and  have  but  little  opportunity  to  mix  and  bum.  Elevating  such  boDers 
is  only  groping  in  the  dark,  and  with  most  other  types  elevation  is  harmful. 
When,  in  connection  with  this,  the  extra  cost  of  the  brickwork  and  the 
greater  opportunity  for  cracks,  which  admit  air  that  does  not  support  com- 
bustion and  cools  off  the  boiler,  are  considered,  the  harm  of  high  settings 
is  evident. 

The  best  place  to  admit  air  to  hand-fired  boilers,  especially  with  hori- 
zontal gas  travel,  is  at  the  bridge  wall,  for  the  air  then  has  the  best  oppor- 
tunity to  penetrate  the  combustible  gases.  There  are  devices  on  the  market 
for  doing  this. 

In  the  case  of  mechanical  stokers,  the  above  remarks  concerning  space 
apply,  but  with  pulverized  coal  more  space  is  required  because  the  fuel 
moves;  but  here  again  horizontal  space  is  as  effective  as  vertical. 

Height  of  Bridge  Walls. 

The  height  of  bridge  walls  appears  to  be  a  matter  of  great  uncertainty, 
as  they  are  sometimes  made  low  and  sometimes  high. 

The  main  purpose  of  a  bridge  wall  is  to  limit  the  fuel  bed  and  to  pre- 
vent the  coal  from  being  thrown  over  it.  Many  bridge  walls  in  marine 
boilers  are  only  9  in.  high,  because  the  furnaces  are  small.  They  answer 
the  purpose,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  bridge  wall  need  be  over  12  in. 
high,  or  15  in.  at  most.  The  bridge  wall,so  far  as  its  height  is  concerned, 
does  not  assist  in  burning  carbon  to  CO2,  which  is  the  great  object  in  view, 
and  other  considerations  must  therefore  determine  its  height.  A  high 
bridge  wall  might  project  a  great  quantity  of  hot  gas  on  a  part  of  the  boiler 
within  which  dirt  has  lodged,  and  thus  cause  overheating  and  injury. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  combustion  is  complete  the  heat  will  be  ab- 
sorbed without  being  directed  against  a  small  part  of  the  shell.  If  boilers 
are  set  very  high,  a  high  bridge  wall  may  cause  air  to  reach  combustible 
gases  that  it  would  otherwise  be  miable  to  encounter,  but  I  can  see  no 
other  advantage. 


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DEAN.  129 

The  Vertical  Fire-tube  Boiler. 

This  type  of  boiler  is  used  extensively  in  the  New  England  States, 
and  is  an  excellent  form.  It  is  not  only  an  efficient  evaporator  but  it 
superheats  the  steam  from  15°  to  40°  F.,  depending  upon  the  length  of 
tubes  exposed  to  the  steam,  and  being  an  internally  fired  boiler  is  free  from 
air  leaks  and  is  therefore  not  subject  to  this  source  of  inefficiency.  The 
steam  can  still  further  be  superheated  by  means  of  the  locomotive  type  of 
superheater. 

The  boiler  suffers  from  having  parallel  vertical  gas  currents,  and  there- 
fore needs  careful  firing.    With  such  firing  it  gives  excellent  results. 

A  vertical  tube  absorbs  heat  throughout  its  circumference  and  is 
perhaps  a  better  heat  absorber  than  a  horizontal  tube.  The  tubes  some- 
times leak  at  the  lower  ends,  but  this  can  be  prevented  by  welding  them  in, 
as  is  commonly  done  on  locomotives. 

Many  persons  think  that  there  is  an  inherent  lack  of  economy  in 
such  boilers,  the  argument  being  that  as  the  tubes  are  vertical  the  gases 
rapidly  pass  out  and  do  not  leave  their  heat  behind.  This  is  a  superficial 
view  and  has  no  scientific  foundation.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  the 
damper  is  opened  sufficiently  to  bum  the  amount  of  coal  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  amount  of  steam  in  a  unit  of  time,  and  as  a  result  a  certain 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  pass  through  the  tubes  in  that  time.  This 
fixes  their  velocity  and  they  can  move  no  faster  than  if  they  passed  through 
horizontal  tubes. 

An  important  thing  in  connection  with  this  type  of  boiler  is  usually 
neglected,  viz.,  air-tight  smoke-box  construction.  The  smoke  box  should 
be  the  extended  shell,  or  a  shell  tightly  riveted  or  bolted  to  the  boiler.  If 
this  is  attended  to,  the  escaping  gases  will  be  hotter  than  in  boilers  set  in 
brickwork.  This  is  trjie  of  other  internally  fired  boilers,  such  as  the  loco- 
motive and  Scotch.  This  is  important  where  economizers  are  used,  to 
say  nothing  of  conservation  of  chimney  draft. 

Another  advantage  of  this  boiler  is  that  less  draft  is  required  than 
with  other  types,  which  is  probably  due  to  its  acting  at  right  angles  to  the 
fuel  bed,  the  air  thus  encountering  less  resistance. 

I  have  made  two  designs  of  vertical  boilers  with  corrugated  fire  boxes 
such  as  are  used  for  the  furnaces  of  Scotch  marine  boilers.  By  this  means 
the  use  of  staybolts  is  avoided.  This  I  consider  the  best  way  to  design 
vertical  boilers.  The  inside  minimum  diameter  of  such  furnaces  is  Umited 
to  6  ft.,  but  the  diameter  of  the  grate  can  be  3  in.  larger. 

Locomotive  Type  Boilers. 

This  type  of  boiler  is  one  of  the  best,  and  always  gives  economical 
results.  It  can  be  made  from  very  small  to  very  large  sizes,  and  to  carry 
any  pressure.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  a  locomotive  with  a  boiler 
having  a  maximum  diameter  of  110  in.,  a  total  length  of  53  ft.  9^  in.,  a 


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130  STEAM  BOILEBS. 

maximum  thickness  of  plate  of  1^  in.,  a  water-heating  surface  of  6  656 
sq.  ft.,  superheating  surface  of  3  136  sq.  ft.,  and  carries  a  pressure  of  225  lb. 
They  also  have  boilers  carrying  250  lb.  The  only  limit  in  size  to  this  type 
is  the  ability  to  transport  it. 

The  locomotive  type  of  boiler  presents  an  opportunity  to  use  a  brick 
arch  which  is  used  in  most  locomotives.  This  lengthens  the  path  of  the 
gases,  which  otherwise  would  be  very  short,  and  presents  an  opportunity 
for  the  air  which  passes  through  the  fire  door  to  mingle  with  the  gases  and 
bum  any  CO  which  may  be  escaping,  to  CO2.  I  think  that  it  is  hardly  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  the  locomotive  type  of  boiler  provided  with  a  brick 
arch  is  the  most  economical  of  all  boilers. 

The  objections  to  the  boiler  are  its  cost  and  the  depth  of  the  boiler 
house  required  to  provide  room  to  clean  or  remove  the  tubes,  as  it  is  best 
to  do  this  under  cover. 

Forcing  Capacities  op  Boilers. 

Boilers  do  not  differ  much  in  this  respect.  Any  boiler  can  be  forced 
to  an  unlimited  extent  if  the  necessary  fuel  can  be  burnt.  Underfeed 
stokers  usually  have  fan  capacity  enough  to  force  boilers  beyond  usual 
rates,  but  all  kinds  of  boilers,  whether  fire  or  water-tube,  are  capable  of  this 
forcing.  Rapid  steaming  of  boilers  does  not  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
water  which  they  contain,  after  the  water  is  once  heated  to  the  temperature 
of  the  steam,  as  further  heat  can  only  make  steam.  It  depends  upon  the 
quantity  of  fuel  burned  in  a  unit  of  time,  and  the  perfection  with  which  the 
hot  gases  circulate  among  the  heating  surfaces.  Fire-tube  boilers  excel  in  the 
latter  respect.  Of  all  boilers,  the  locomotive  type  of  boiler  on  locomotive 
is  forced  most.  The  tubes  of  water-tube  boilers  are  no  better  heat  ab- 
sorbers than  those  of  fire-tube  boilers,  and  probably  not  as  good  if  the  path 
of  the  gases  is  transverse  to  the  tubes. 

High  Boiler  Pressures. 

Both  fire-  and  water-tube  boilers  can  be  made  for  very  high  pressures, 
the  former,  say,  up  to  350  lb.,  and  the  latter  somewhat  beyond  if  the  risk 
of  tube  explosions  is  ignored. 

Reduction  of  Pressure  from  Age. 

It  is  customary  to  reduce  the  pressure  of  fire-tube  boilers  after  a 
time,  on  general  principles.  There  is  as  much  reason  for  reducing  it  od 
water-tube  boilers,  and  if  there  are  no  apparent  defects  there  is  no  reason 
for  reducing  it  on  either,  except  for  the  possibility  of  hidden  defects.  When 
a  serious  reduction  of  pressure  is  contemplated,  or  when  a  boiler  is  to  be 
condemned,  it  would  be  best  to  remove  a  sufficient  number  of  tubes,  and 


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DEAN.  131 

even  to  remove  the  butt  straps,  to  enable  a  complete  examination  to  be 
made.  If  no  serious  defects  can  be  found,  these  parts  should  be  replaced 
and  the  boiler  continued  in  service  and  considered  as  good  as  new. 

The  Safety  of  Boilers. 

Boilers,  if  designed  with  butt  longitudinal  joints  having  all  rivets  in 
double  shear,  and  with  no  parts  so  made  that  they  will  bend  when  sub- 
jected to  strain,  are  as  safe  as  any  structure  if  they  are  kept  clean  and  free 
from  corrosion.  The  causes  of  explosions  of  water  tabes  are  being  inves- 
tigated, and  there  is  evidence  that  a  harder  and  stiffer  steel  than  has 
heretofore  been  used  is  advantageous. 

Rivet  Heads. 

It  is  customary  for  boiler  makers  to  use  conical  rivet  heads,  known  as 
"  steeple  heads."  This  is  a  relic  of  the  past  which  seems  to  have  escaped 
the  notice  of  most  boiler  makers.  Nobody  would  think  of  making  any 
other  part  of  a  mechanical  structure  like  this,  that  is  to  say,  one  with  slant- 
ing sides  coming  down  to  a  knife  edge.  It  would  be  bad  construction,  and 
it  is  no  better  when  it  is  a  part  of  a  boiler.  It  is  bad  because  the  holding 
power  of  the  rivet  diminishes  to  nothing  toward  the  edge,  it  has  no  edge  to 
calk  when  this  is  necessary,  and  needs  calking  oftener  than  other  forms. 

The  so-called  "  button  head  "  is  free  from  the  above  defects.  It  is 
used  exclusively  by  the  American  Locomotive  Company,  the  Baldwin 
Locomotive  Works,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  and  all  leading  makers  of 
marine  boilers. 

The  button  head  should  be  required  by  all  specifications. 

Water  Glasses  and  Gage  Cocks. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  customary  to  equip  each  boiler  with  one  set 
of  gage  cocks  and  one  water  glass  for  showing  the  height  of  the  water.  I 
prder  to  have  two  water  glasses  and  no  gage  cocks,  as  the  latter  are  seldom 
used  and  the  former  provide  two  means  of  observation  of  the  height  of  the 
water. 

Feed-water   Regulators. 

It  is  beooming  a  growing  custom  in  this  country  to  use  feed-water 
regulators  on  boilers.  There  are  several  makes  and  they  simultaneously 
control  the  admission  of  water  and  the  speed  of  the  pumps.  They  have 
proved  to  be  reliable  and  maintain  a  steadier  water  level  than  is  otherwise 
possible,  especially  in  a  large  plant. 


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132  STEAM  BOILERS. 


Superheaters. 


Superheated  steam  is  commonly  used  in  many  steam  plants.  It 
economizes  steam  in  an  engine  by  reducing  cylinder  condensation.  Al- 
though it  requires  beat  to  superheat  the  steam,  which  might  be  used  for 
evaporating  water  in  the  boiler,  there  is  an  important  net  gain  by  the  use 
of  such  steam.  The  saving  in  steam  used  by  an  engine  amounts  to  about 
one  per  cent,  for  every  10"^  F.  of  superheat.  Superheaters  can  be  applied 
to  most  boilers. 

Very  high  superheat  is  troublesome  on  account  of  distortion  of  valves 
and  some  other  parts,  but  150°  F.  is  safe,  with  ordinary  pressures. 

SooT  Blowers. 

An  objection  to  water-tube  boilers  has  been  that  the  tubes  could  not 
well  be  effectively  cleared  of  soot.  Within  a  few  years,  however,  blowers 
have  been  devised,  and  are  now  commonly  used,  by  which  the  soot  can 
be  blown  oflf  more  effectively  than  heretofore.  As  before  stated,  the  use 
of  horizontal  baffles  and  hollow  staybolts  in  boilers  with  headers  promote 
this.  All  boilers,  whether  water-tube  or  fire-tube,  should  be  equipped  with 
soot  blowers,  and  required  by  the  specifications.  Their  use  is  advisable  as 
they  produce  a  real  economy  in  coal,  are  easily  and  quickly  used,  and  are 
more  likely  to  be  used  in  consequence. 

In  one  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  boilers,  which  was  provided  with 
electrical  temperature-recording  apparatus,  the  tubes  were  blown  every 
two  hours  during  some  tests,  and  the  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases 
fell  35°  F.  each  time,  when  hand-fired.  With  the  same  boiler,  when  stokers 
or  oil  were  used,  there  was  no  drop  in  the  temperature  at  the  two-hour 
intervals,  and  the  blowing  was  afterwards  done  less  frequently. 

Temperature  of  Escaping  Gases. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases  from 
a  boiler,  because  it  differs  in  different  parts  of  an  uptake,  and  to  find  the 
position  of  average  temperature  is  a  matter  of  guesswork.  Moreover, 
samples  of  gases  differ  in  composition  from  different  parts  of  an  uptake. 

Mechanical  Stokers. 

In  many  situations  the  efficiency  of  a  hand-fired  boiler  when  skillfully 
fired  equals  that  with  a  mechanical  stoker,  and  when  allowance  is  made  for 
the  steam  used  by  the  stoker  will  surpass  it.  There  is  no  opportunity  in 
most  pumping  stations  for  mechanical  stokers.  Their  fields  lies  where 
they  can  reduce  the  cost  of  labor. 

The  prevailing  type  of  mechanical  stoker  is  the  underfeed,  which  is 
made  in  several  ways.  They  require  to  be  driven  by  power,  and  con- 
siderable power  is  required  to  blow  the  air. 

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DEAN.  •  133 

Pulverized  Coal. 

Pulverized  coal  has  been  known  for  several  years  as  a  desirable  form 
of  fuel,  but  the  difficulty,  now  overcome,  has  been  to  pulverize  the  coal  to 
sufficient  fineness.  It  is  desirable  that  this  should  be  such  that  at  least 
85  per  cent,  of  it  shall  pass  through  a  mesh  of  200  per  inch.  Some  pulver- 
izers even  surpass  this  with  most  kinds  of  bituminous  coal. 

When  this  kind  of  fuel  is  used  it  is  blown  into  an  empty  furnace  with 
the  proper  quantity  of  air,  and  flashes  into  flame  when  the  furnace  is  in- 
candescent. As  it  is  a  moving  fuel  it  requires  considerable  volume  for 
combustion.  Every  little  particle  of  coal  is  accompanied  with  air  in  but 
slight  excess,  and  as  a  consequence  more  perfect  combustion,  which  is 
smokeless,  results  than  by  any  other  means.  Any  kind  of  coal  can  be  used, 
and  coal  that  cannot  be  used  either  by  hand  or  stoker  firing  can  be  used  as 
well  as  the  best. 

As  no  part  of  the  mechanism  is  exposed  to  heat,  it  is  evident  that  the 
maintenance  cost  is  very  low  compared  with  that  of  stokers.  Moreover, 
the  complication  of  a  stoker  is  done  away  with. 

There  are  two  general  systems  of  producing  and  burning  pulverized 
coal,  one  in  which  the  coal  is  first  dried,  then  pulverized,  then  blown  into 
a  storage  bin,  then  conveyed  to  the  vicinity  of  each  boiler,  where  it  is 
taken  by  a  so-called  burner,  and  blown  into  the  furnace,  and  another  in 
which  the  coal  is  neither  dried  nor  pulverized  in  advance,  .and  which  has 
no  burner.  The  pulverizer  in  the  latter  case  delivers  the  coal  into  the 
furnace  and  is  operated  only  when  the  boiler  is  in  service. 

By  means  of  pulverized  coal  the  boiler  performance  is  continuous, 
and  the  fire  does  not  require  cleaning. 


Hand  Stokers. 

There  are  now  on  the  market  so-called  hand  stokers  which  only  require 
the  coal  to  be  placed  on  the  end  just  inside  of  the  fire  doors.  By  means  of 
a  lever  the  bars  of  the  stoker,  which  are  transverse  to  the  depth  of  the 
furnace,  are  rotated  and  advance  the  coal  toward  the  bridge  wall,  the  last 
bar  dumping  the  ash  and  clinker  into  the  ash  pit.  No  cleaning  of  the  fire 
is  necessary,  and  the  steaming  of  the  boiler  is  nearly  continuous.  As  the 
coal  is  placed  only  on  the  front  of  the  grate  the  smoke  is  diminished  in 
consequence  of  the  gases  which  are  first  liberated  passing  over  incan- 
descent coal.  This  maintains  their  temperature,  and  if  sufficient  air  is 
admitted  the  smoke  is  reduced.  It  is  obvioiLS,  however,  that  it  is  still 
possible  with  it  to  admit  too  little  or  too  much  air,  and  easy  to  dump  too 
much  combustible  matter  at  the  end. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


134  •  STEAM  BOILERS. 


Oil  Fuel. 


Oil  is  an  ideal  fuel  for  boilers  because  it  is  easily  handled,  requires 
minimum  attendance,  and  produces  no  ashes.  It  should  not,  however, 
usually  be  employed  for  land  boilers,  because  its  best  field  is  for  ocean 
service,  is  so  necessary  for  lubricants  and  other  purposes,  and  because  its 
occurrence  in  nature  is  so  uncertain,  if  not  insufficient. 

It  can  be  burnt  without  smoke,  but  if  I  am  to  judge  from  appearances 
the  smokiest  chimneys  in  Boston  are  those  from  oil-burning  boilers. 

Mechanical  atomization  is  preferable  to  steam,  because  in  the  latter 
case  it  is  very  easy  to  waste  steam,  and  there  are  no  easy  means  of  deter- 
mining when  the  waste  occurs. 


Fig.  1. 

Grate  Bars. 

Grate  bars  are  made  both  fixed  and  shaking.  The  latter  are  not  neces- 
sary for  the  best  results  and  can  easily  be  a  means  of  wasting  coal  by  too 
much  agitation.  The  labor  of  cleaning  fires  is  reduced  by  the  use  of 
shaking  bars,  and  in  the  effort  to  avoid  this  labor  they  may  be  shaken  so 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DEAN. 


135 


much  as  to  be  wasteful.     In  most  cases  fixed  grates  are  advisable.    In 
cases  where  it  is  the  policy  to  force  boilers,  shaking  bars  are  best. 

Bars  for  bituminous  coal  should  in  general  have  50  per  cent,  of  air 
space,  and  the  iron  and  air  spaces  should  each  be  i  in.  wide.  The  parts 
m  contact  with  the  coal  should  be  rounded  on  top  and  so  formed  that  the 
air  can  have  access  as  much  as  possible  to  the  whole  under  side  of  the  coal, 


Pounds  ofQxil  Fired 


Fig.  2. 

except  where  the  coal  actually  touches  the  grates.  There  are  such  bars 
on  the  market,  and  the  air  spaces  amount  to  virtually  ahnost  100  per  cent. 
It  is  not  possible  to  have  too  much  air  space,  and  even  with  the  maximum, 
the  formation  of  CO  cannot  be  prevented  except  by  air  admission  elsewhere. 
Shaking  grate  bars  are  of  little  use  with  coal  that  forms  a  continuous 
tenacious  slab  of  clinker  over  the  grates,  as  they  only  scrape  the  bottom*of 
such  clinker,  and  the  slice  bar  is  still  an  important  tool. 

Feeding  Boilers. 

Boilers  are  fed  by  pumps  or  injectors.  If  there  is  exhaust  steam 
available  for  heating  the  feed  water,  pumps  and  a  heater  should  be  used. 
If  there  is  no  exhaust  available,  injectors  should  be  used.    The  reason  for 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


136 


STEAM  BOILERS. 


this  is  that  any  kind  of  piston  engine,  such  as  a  steam  pump,  condenses  a 
large  part  of  the  steam  in  its  cylinder,  and  therefore  only  a  part  of  the  steam 
used  is  available  for  heating,  while  with  the  injector  all  of  the  heat  in  the 

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Analusis  of  Furnace  Gases. 
Tests  No.6  avd  Nd.7. 
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Air  SuppUed  bij  Draff  through  Bridge  Wall. 

Fig.  3. 

steam  is  returned  to  the  boiler,  except  a  very  little  which  is  used  in  starting 
the  injector  and  in  pipe  condensation.  Exhaust  steam  should  not  be  made 
for  the  sake  of  using  it. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DEAN.  137 

Notes   Concemng    Some   of   the    Results   of  the   Tests  of    the 
Emergency  Fleet  Boiler  for   Wood   Ships. 

Two  of  these  boilers,  one  3-pass  and  one  4-pass,  were  subjected  to 
exhaustive  tests  on  land,  and  the  following  notes  refer  to  the  4-pass  boiler. 


T£Sr£'/7^S   MARCH  7, 1919 
COAL  ByRNED  PERHR.,  I^OLBS. 

Fig.  4. 


Fig.  1  shows  the  boiler  in  outline  with  air  being  introduced  at  the  back 
of  the  grate,  through  and  around  the  fire  doors,  and  through  perforations 
^  a  pipe  above  the  lowest  row  of  tubes.     The  latter  arrangement  was 


Digitized  by 


Qoo^(z 


138  STEAM  BOILERS. 

not  used  during  the  tests  to  which  the  notes  refer,  but  the  other  arrange- 
ments were. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  paths  of  the  gases  among  and  around  the  baffles,  as 
plotted  from  temperatures,  taken  by  means  of  thermocouples,  and  drafts. 
The  thermocouples  and  draft  gage  pipes  were  inserted  through  hollow 
staybolts.  Some  of  the  comers  were  dead  and  much  of  the  heating  surface 
was  inefifective,  as  it  is  in  all  boilers.  The  figures  show  the  gas  temperatures 
in  degrees  F. 


LfMfTH  CFPATH  OF  OAS£S^  rCCT 
Fig.  5. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  gases  of  combustion  at  three  different  heights  above 
the  grate,  and  'at  several  distances  from  the  rear  furnace  wall.  They 
show  how  rapidly  combustible  gases  are  consumed  and  CO2  formed  when 
air  is  admitted  at  the  proper  place.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  large 
furnaces  about  which  we  hear  so  much  are  unnecessary,  at  least  with  good 
semi-bituminous  coal  such  as  was  here  used.  The  rate  of  combustion 
was  about  20  lb.  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  139 

Fig.  4  shows  furnace  and  gas  temperatures  throughout  the  tubes  and 
baflSes  as  given  by  thermocouples.  The  lowest  baffle  is  at  the  top  of  the 
diagram  in  order  to  be  properly  related  to  the  high  temperatures  in  its 
vicinity.  The  dotted  line  gives  temperatures  of  a  fixed  thermocouple  in 
the  positions  indicated  by  circles.  These  were  read  simultaneously  with 
the  movable  thermocouples,  in  order  to  have  means  of  determining  as 
well  as  possible  the  effect  due  to  the  heat  developed  as  well  as  to  position. 
These  diagrams  show  that  the  greatest  temperatures  are  near  the  ends  of 
the  baffles,  and  from  this  it  is  evident  that  most  of  the  gases  take  the  short- 
est paths  and  pass,  close  to  these  ends.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred 
that  horizontal  baffles  may  be  longer  than  they  are  customarily  made. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  gas  temperatures  fall  in  their 
path  throughout  the  boiler  from  the  firebox  to  the  uptake. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  Richakd  A.  Hale.*  I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Dean  if  in  this 
oil  combustion,  where  you  get  such  intense  heat,  there  is  an  injurious  effect 
on  the  boiler  plates  by  burning?  Does  any  part  of  the  rivet  sheet  receive 
any  intense  heat?  I  was  wondering  whether  it  burned  the  plate  or  injured 
the  boiler. 

Mr.  Dean.  I  do  not  think  that  there  would  be  trouble  from  this 
source  unless  dirt  is  present  on  the  water  sides  of  the  plates.  Riveted 
joints  are  frequently  subjected  to  the  heat  of  combustion. 

Mr,  Henry  J.  WiLLiAMS.t  Has  the  fluxing  of  pulverized  coal  when 
blown  into  the  furnace  been  overcome? 

Mr.  Dean.  Yes,  it  has  been  overcome.  There  is  a  furnace  which 
has  a  so-called  water  jacket  and  has  tubes  in  the  sides,  and  they  are  covered 
with  box  tiles.  The  temperature  of  the  sides  is  reduced  so  that  the  slag 
usually  drops  down  before  it  gets  there.  That  is,  it  drops  down  as  a  powder. 
It  is  also  overcome  by  introducing  air  into  the  sides  of  the  furnace  to  reduce 
the  temperature.  In  such  furnaces  without  the  water-jacket  arrange- 
ment, which  is  quite  expensive,  if  you  keep  the  CO2  to  14  per  cent,  and  less 
and  introduce  air  slightly  at  the  sides,  you  will  have  no  trouble.  All  you 
will  get  in  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  is  a  Ught  powder,  which  looks  like 
tooth  powder,  so  that  I  think  the  trouble  has  passed  now  with  pulverized 
coal.  You  can  easily  run  a  furnace  so  as  to  get  16  or  17  per  cent  CO2, 
and  then  the  temperature  is  so  high  that  the  ash  melts,  and  can  be  caught 
in  slag  cars. 

Mr.  a.  O.  Doane.J  Would  it  be  advisable  to  put  pulverized  coal  or 
oil  fuel  into  a  vertical  boiler? 

*  Principal  Aamstant  Engineer,  Essex  Co.,  Lawrence.  Mass. 

t  Fuel  Engineer.  Boston. 

t  Divimon  Engineer,  Metropolitan  Water  Works,  Boston. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


140  STEAM   BOILERS. 

Mr.  Dean.  You  cannot  use  pulverized  coal  in  a  vertical  boiler  un- 
less you  have  an  enlarged  furnace,  because  you  have  not  the  len^h  of 
travel  sufficient  to  give  it  a  proper  length  of  time  to  be  consumed.  Oil, 
however,  does  not  require  so  much  volume,  and  is  used  in  vertical  boilers 
considerably. 

Mr.  Edward  D.  Eldredge.*  What  is  the  cause  of  the  situation 
that  we  sometimes  see  when  the  CO  escapes  from  the  top  of  the  uptaJce 
and  is  not  burned  until  it  reaches  the  atmosphere? 

Mr.  Dean.  CO  is  always  formed  in  a  furnace  to  some  extent,  and  if 
the  firing  is  very  poor  you  cannot  get  sufficient  oxygen  into  the  gases  to 
complete  combustion.  If  one  part  of  oxygen  joins  with  the  carbon  you 
have  a  partially  burned  gas,  which  is  still  capable  of  being  burned  if  an  ad- 
ditional part  of  oxygen  comes  in  contact  with  it.  Now,  that  gas  can  go 
up  through  the  boiler,  and  sometimes  its  temperature  is  high  enough  to 
bum  if  oxygen  gets  to  it,  and  it  often  does,  through  leaks  in  the  uptake. 

I  remember  seeing  on  Moosehead  Lake  a  steamer,  some  years  ago* 
that  had  a  stream  of  flame  from  the  stack,  caused  in  this  way.  I  also 
once  saw  a  locomotive  on  the  Erie  Railroad  with  flame  issuing  from  the 
stack.  That  used  to  be  the  regular  thing,  quite  a  good  many  years  ago, 
on  steamers  going  from  Liverpool  and  Holyhead  over  to  Ireland.  It  was 
a  mystery  for  a  long  time,  but  they  finally  found  out  that  it  was  due  to 
insufficient  air. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  when  the  first  wood  ship  was  started  with  the 
Emergency  Fleet  boilers,  they  had  that  trouble.  They  could  not  make  any 
speed  on  the  trial  trip,  but  they  secured  an  expert  in  San  Francisco,  who 
understood  the  situation  at  once.  He  told  them  to  leave  the  fire  doors 
wide  open,  and  when  they  did  that  the  boiler  immediately  improved  in 
performance.  Of  course  that  was  overdoing  the  matter,  but  it  stopped  the 
trouble.  Later  he  made  an  arrangement  for  admitting  air  above  the  fia-e. 
and  the  boilers  then  worked  perfectly  well. 


*  Superintendent.  Water  Works,  Onset,  Maas. 

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ANNUAL   MEETING  141 


PROCEEDINGS. 


Annual  Meeting. 

Boston  City  Club, 
Thursday,  January  12,  1922. 

The  President,  Mr.  Charles  W.  Sherman,  in  the  chair. 

The  President.  In  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
Constitution,  the  time  for  filing  ballots  for  officers  for  the  ensuing  year 
ends  now.  If  anyone  has  a  ballot  that  has  not  yet  been  cast  and  cares 
to  cast  it  now,  he  may  pass  it  in  to  the  Secretary;  if  not,  I  shall  declare 
the  ballot  closed.  Are  there  any  others?  (No  response.)  The  ballot  is 
closed. 

Since  our  last  meeting  the  Association  has  suffered  severely  by 
death.  We  have  lost  a  man  who  was  practically  always  present  at  the 
meetings,  whom  all  of  us  knew  and  liked,  and  who  has  done  an  immense 
amount  of  work  for  the  Association,  although  he  did  not  hold  personally 
a  membership,  being  a  representative  of  an  associate  member.  I  refer, 
as  most  of  you  gentlemen  probably  realize,  to  our  late  friend,  Thomas  E. 
Dwyer,  whose  death  occurred  a  short  time  ago. 

We  have  also  lost  one  of  our  past  presidents  and  an  honorary  member 
of  the  Association,  —  George  A.  Stacy  of  Marlborough. 

I  will  ask  the  members  to  stand  in  silence  for  a  moment  in  memory 
of  these  friends. 

(Everybody  stands.) 

The  following  were  duly  elected  members  of  the  Association: 

Active:  Allen  F.  McAlary,  Superintendent  Camden  &  Rockland 
Water  Co.,  Rockland,  Maine;  Arthur  Daniels  Weston,  Principal  Assistant 
Engineer,  Engineering  Division,  Massachusetts  Department  of  Health. 

Associate:    Metalium  Sales  Co.,  50  Broadway,  Providence,  R.  I. 

The  President.  The  next  business  before  us  is  action  upon  the 
proposed  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  which  was  reported  to  the  last 
meeting  and  recommended  by  the  Executive  Committee,  as  follows: 

'* Amend  Section  2,  Article  8,  by  striking  out  the  word  'Wednesday' 
and  inserting  the  word  'Tuesday'  in  place  thereof,  so  as  to  read: 

"Section  2,  Article  8.  There  shall  be  two  general  business  meetings 
of  the  Association  each  year:  first,  the  annual  meeting,  which  shall  be 
held  in  Boston  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  January,  and  at  which  the 
annual  reports  for  the  year  ending  December  31  shall  be  presented  and 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


142  ANNUAL   MEETING 

the  ballot  for  officers  canvassed;  and  second,  a  business  meeting  during 
the  annual  convention. 

"Amend  Section  3,  Article  8,  by  striking  out  the  word  'Wednesday' 
and  inserting  the  word  'Tuesday'  in  place  thereof,  so  as  to  read: 

''Section  3,  Article  8.  In  addition  to  the  above,  business  meetings 
shall  be  held  on  the  second  Tuesday  of  the  months  of  November,  De- 
cember, February  and  March,  and,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Executive 
Committee  in  June." 

This  proposed  change  in  our  meeting  day  from  Wednesday  to  Tues- 
day is  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  us  to  continue  to  come  here  to  the 
City  Club  if  it  shall  prove  acceptable  to  the  membership  as  a  whole,  as  I 
judge  from  appearances  it  has  so  proved  today.  We  cannot  come  here 
on  the  second  Wednesday,  our  old  date,  under  any  circumstances,  as  the 
Rotary  Club  has  the  Club  facilities  engaged  for  an  indefinite  time  in  the 
future  on  the  second  Wednesday  of  each  month,  consequently  it 
requires  some  change,  and  it  seemed  to  the  Executive  Committee  in 
suggesting  this  amendment  that  Tuesday  would  be  equally  acceptable 
to  the  Association  and  it  would  make  it  possible  for  us  to  come  here,  or, 
of  course,  if  that  is  not  satisfactory,  to  go  anywhere  else  just  as  much  as 
on  Wednesday.     Is  there  any  discussion  on  the  proposed  amendment? 

Mr.  George  A.  King.  I  do  not  know  whether  this  need  affect  the 
present  amendment,  but  it  has  been  my  opinion,  and  from  my  experience 
as  President  I  believe  that  the  annual  meeting  should  be  held  at  the  con- 
vention, and  that  the  year  should  begin  at  the  close  of  the  convention  in 
September.  As  it  is  today,  the  President  cannot  form  any  poUcy  for  the 
organization,  coming  in  as  he  does  in  the  middle  of  the  term  of  our  activi- 
ties, but  a  man  coming  into  office  say  the  first  of  October  would  have  a 
chance  to  formulate  a  policy  for  the  winter  and  have  an  opportunity  to 
carry  it  out.  As  it  is  today,  we  have  our  election  in  January  and  probably 
the .  Executive  Committee  will  not  meet  until  February.  Then  there 
is  only  one  meeting  more  before  the  close  of  our  winter  meetings,  then 
there  is  a  long  vacation  and  we  meet  again  in  September,  and  there  are 
only  the  meetings  in  November  and  December  after  the  convention,  and 
the  President  lets  things  slide  as  a  general  rule.  I  think  it  would  be  much 
better  for  the  Association  and  much  better  for  the  President  who  has 
something  in  his  mind  he  would  like  to  carry  through,  to  have  the  election 
say  the  first  day  of  the  convention  and  have  the  new  officers  take  office 
in  October.  I  doubt  if  we  ^ould  pass  on  that  at  this  meeting  with  this 
short  notice,  but  that  is  something  I  have  advocated,  and  when  the 
Committee  on  Revision  of  Constitution  a  year  or  two  ago  asked  for  sug- 
gestions that  was  one  of  those  which  I  made. 

The  President.  I  think  the  point  is  very  well  taken,  Mr.  King. 
I  also  think  that  your  point  of  order  that  we  cannot  act  on  this  today  is 
also  correct.  For  your  information  and  that  of  the  membership,  I  want 
to  say  that  the  Committee  on  Revision  of  Constitution  to  which  you  refer 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


REPORT   OF   SECRETARY 


143 


is  still  in  existence  and  has  practically  completed  its  labors.  I  am  in- 
formed that  it  has  a  proposed  revised  form  of  constitution  now  drafted 
which  will  be  submitted  to  the  Association  at  a  very  early  meeting,  and 
if  I  understand  correctly  it  would  mean  a  pretty  radical  revision  of  the 
whole  constitution,  and  I  may  perhaps  be  permitted  to  say  that  I  ^hink 
it  is  about  time. 

Is  there  any  other  discussion?     (No  response.) 

(The  question  was  put  and  the  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
unanimously  adopted.) 

The  following  reports  of  the  officers  of  the  Association  were  received: 

Report  of  the  Secretary. 

January  3,  1922. 

Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Asaociationj  — 
The  Secretary  submits  herewith  the  following  report  of  the  changes  in  membership 
during  the  past  year,  and  the  general  condition  of  the  Association. 

The  present  membership  is  828,  constituted  as  follows:  10  Honorary,  742  Active, 
and  76  Associate  Members,  there  being  a  net  loss  for  the  year  of  44.  The  detailed 
changes  are  as  follows: 

MEMBERSHIP. 

January  1,  1921.    Honorary  Members 14 

Died 4  10 

January  1, 1921.    Total  Members 788 

Withdrawals: 

Resigned 39 

Dropped 31 

Died 10  80 

708 

Initiations: 

January 4 

February 2 

March 4 

June 4 

September 12 

November 2 

—  28 

Reinstated: 

Members  resigned  in  1917 1 

Members  dropped  in  1919 3 

Members  resigned  in  1920 1 

Members  dropped  in  1920 1  6    742 

January  1,  1921.    Total  Associates 70 

Withdrawals: 
Resigned 1  1 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


144  ANNUAL    MEETING 

Initiations: 

February 1 

September 4  5 

Reinstated: 

Associate  resigned  in  1918 1 

Elected  in  1920,  qiialified  in  1921 1  2       76 

January  1,  1922.    Total  membership 828 

January  1,  1921.    Total  membership 872 

Net  loss 44 


Members  Elected  in  1921. 

January.    Bernard  S.  Coleman,   Roger  W.  Elsty,   Charles  A.  Hatch,   Alexander  H 

O'Brien.     (4) 
February.    Harry  W.  Dotten,  Spencer  W.  Stewart.     (2) 

March.    Walter  F.  Abbott,  Clarence  E.  Carter,  Harry  C.  Kerr,  August  G.  Nolte.     (4) 
June.     D.  H.  Hall,  Albert  E.  Lavery,  F.  E.  Hammond,  E.  R.  Conant.     (4) 
September.    Harry  E.  Collins,  Donald  M.  Hatch,  Benjamin  H.  Keeler,  Jr.,  William  A. 
Megraw,  S.  John  Scacciaferro,  Henry  L.  Shuldner,  John  O.  Taber,  Jr., 
R.  H.  Blanchard,  Ivan  Escott,  R.  F.  Johnson,  Frank  N.  Strickland,  George 
C.Ham.     (12) 
November.    John  C.  Adams;  Fred  W.  Young.     (2) 
December.    Alfred  B^tant.     (1)  Did  not  qualify  wp  ^  December  31, 192 L 
Reinstated : 

Resigned  m  1917  (L.  E.  Thayer) 1 

Dropped  in  1919  (F.  H.  Gunther,  John  J.  Philbin,  G.  Z.  Smith).       3 

Resigned  in  1920  (F.  W.  Dean) 1 

Dropped  in  1920  (Allston  F.  Hart) 1 

6 

Aeeocialee. 

February.    Ambursen  Construction  Company,  Inc.     (1) 

September.    Continental  Pipe  Mfg.  Company,  Linus  G.  Read,  Payne-Dean  Ltd.     (3) 
Reinstated: 

Elected  1920,  qualified  1921,  (Lawrence  Machine  Company) 1 

Resigned  in  1918  (Am.  Manganese  Bronze  Company) 1 

2 
Resigned: 
PubUc  Works.     (1) 

Honorary  Members. 
Died:  Hiram  F.  Mills,  William  T.  Sedgwick,  Fred  W.  Shepperd,  George  A.  Stacy.     (4) 

Members. 

Died:  Samuel  M.  Gray,  Charles  E.  Haberstroh,  E.  L.  Hatch,  S.  S.  Hatch,  R.  A.  McKim, 
William  M.  Stone,  Richard  L.  Tarr,  Samuel  E.  Tinkham,  Albert  H.  Wehr,  Charles 
W.  Young.     (10) 


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KBPORT   OF   TREASURER  145 

Receipt*  for  1921, 

Initiation  fees $178.00 

Annual  dues: 

Members $4  444.02 

Associates 1  440.00    $5  884.02 

Fractional  dues:  

Members $45.00 

Associates 25.00  70.00 

Past  dues 21.08 

Total  dues $5  976.10 

Advertising 3  120.77 

Subscriptions 390.00 

JoiTBKALB  sold 140.73 

Sundries 191.94 

Total  receipts $9  996.64 

There  is  due  the  Association: 

Advertisements $551.00 

Reprints 24.00 

JoURNALfi 7.50 


Total $582.50 

Respectfully  submitted, 

FRANK  J.  GIFFORD,  Secreiary, 


Report  op  Treasurer. 

CLASSmCATIGN  OF   RECEIPTS  AM)  EXPENDITURES. 

Receif^, 

Dividends  and  interest $190.04 

Initiation  fees $178.00 

Dues 5  975.10 

Total  received  from  members $6  153.10 

Journal: 

Advertisements $3  120.77 

Subscriptions 390.00 

JouBNAi^  sold. . .' 140.73 

Sale  of  reprints 101.69 

Cuts  sold 10.83 

Total  received  from  Journal $3  764.02 

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146  ANNUAL   MEETING 

Miscellaneous: 

Sale  of  "  Pipe  Specifications  " $40.25 

Membership  lists 5.00 

Buttons 2.25 

Certificates  of  membership 7.50 

Meter  rate  sheets 4.25 

Exchange 1.00 

American  Water  Works  Association 10.23 

Total  miscellaneous  receipts $70.48 


Total  receipts $10  177.64 

Expenditures, 
Joubnal: 

Advertising  agent's  commission $226.10 

Plates 4.33 

Printing 4  493.08 

Editor's  salary 300.00 

Editor's  expense 7.56 

Reporting 326.30 

Reprints 453.66 

Envelopes  and  postage 74.78 

$5  885.81 

Office: 

Secretary's  salary $200.00 

Assistant  Secretary's  salary 1  080.00 

Assistant  Secretarjr's  expense 54.94 

Rent 750.00 

Printing,  stationery,  and  postage 354.72 

Membership  lists 304.30 

Telephone 14.21 

$2  758.17 

Meetings  and  Committees: 

Stereopticon $50.10 

Dinners  for  guests 24.70 

Music 1.50 

Printing,  stationery,  and  postage 166.62 

Badges 62.50 

Miscellaneous 52.23 

$357.65 

Treasurer's  salary  and  bond 67.50 

Certificates  of  membership 2.50 

Miscellaneous 86.21 


$9  157.84 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BEPOBT  OF  TKEA8UBER. 


147 


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148  annual  meeting 

Report  of  Auditing  Committee. 

January  6,  1922. 

We  have  examined  the  accounts  of  the  Secretary  and  Treasurer  of  the  New  England 
Water  Works  Association,  and  find  the  books  correctly  kept  and  the  varioiis  expendi- 
tures of  the  past  year  supported  by  duly  approved  vouchers.  The  Treasurer  has  also 
accounted  to  us  for  the  investments  and  cash  on  hand,  as  submitted  in  the  above  report. 

GEORGE  H.  FINNERAN, 
FRANK  A.  MARSTON, 

Finance  Committee, 


Report  of  the  Editor. 

Januabt  12,  1922. 

To  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association:  I  present  the  following  report  for  the 
Journal  of  the  Association  for  the  year  1921. 

As  has  been  the  custom,  the  figures  presented  are  for  Volume  XXXV  rather  than 
the  calendar  year  of  1921,  and  represent  total  charges  and  accounts  paid  and  payable 
rather  than  actual  cash  received  or  disbursed. 

The  accompanying  tabulated  statements  show  ih  detail  the  amount  of  material  in 
the  Journal. 

Size  of  Volume,  —  The  volume  contains  560  pages,  an  increase  of  40  pages  from 
that  of  1920. 

Reprints.  —  Twenty-five  reprints  of  each  paper  have  been  furnished  to  the  author 
without  charge. 

Circulation.  —  The  present  circulation  of  the  Journal  is: 

Members,  all  grades 828 

Subscribers 86 

Exchange 15 

Total 929 

a  decrease  of  41  from  the  preceding  year. 

Journals  have  been  sent  to  all  advertisers. 

Advertisements.  — There  has  been  an  average  of  31 J  pages  of  paid  advertisements, 
with  an  income  of  $2  921.68,  an  increase  of  $162.33  over  last  year. 

Pipe  Specifications.  —  During  the  year  the  specifications  for  cast-iron  pipe  to  the 
value  of  $15.25  have  been  sold.  The  net  gain  up  to  a  year  ago  had  been  $322.10  so  that 
total  net  gain  from  this  source  to  date  is  $337.35  and  84  copies  of  specifications  on 
hand,  —  $21.00  worth  if  sold  at  retail. 

PostrOffice  Accounts.  —  The  Association  has  a  credit  of  $2.15  at  the  Boston  Post 
Office,  being  the  balance  of  money  deposited  for  payments  of  postage. 

Meter  Rate  Sheets  to  the  value  of  $4.25  have  been  sold  during  1921. 


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REPORT   OF   EDITOR 


149 


TABLE  I. 

Statement  of  Material  in  Volume  XXXV  Journal  of  the  New  England  Water 

Works  Association,  1921. 


PAOBit  OF 

Date. 

1 

a 

^ 

1 

< 

i 

{ 

1 

i 

s 

(2 

March 

57 
60 
91 
86 

33 
54 

1 
17 

90 
114 

92 
103 

0 
0 
0 
3 

35 
37 
35 
35 

4 
4 
4 

4 

0 
0 
0 
0 

129 
155 
131 
145 

9 

June 

5 

Sc^ptembcT- 

6 

December 

9 

Total 

294 

114 

399 

3 

142 

16 

0 

560 

29 

TABLE  2. 

Receipts  and  Expenditures  on  Account  of  Volume  XXXV,  Journal  of  the 
New  Englaio)  Water  Works  Association,  1921. 


Receipts. 

Advertisements $2  921.68 

Sale  of  Journals 140.73 

Sale  of  reprints 48.75 

Subscriptions 390.00 

Sale  of  cuts 10.83 


Net  cost  of  Journal. 


$3  511.99 
1  869.86 

$5  381.84 


Expenditures. 
Advertising    agent's    salary 

and  commission $254.30 

Plates 4.33 

Printing 3  997.01 


Mailing  postage. . . 

Editor's  salary 

Editor's  incidentals. 

Reporting 

Reprinting 


77.58 

300.00 

7.82 

326.30 

414.50 


$5  381.84 


Respectfully  submitted, 

HENRY  A.   SYMONDS,   Editor. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


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DISCUSSION.  151 

Mb.  Symonds.  Now,  if  I  may  be  permitted,  I  would  like  to  say  a 
word  informally.  The  advertising  agent  has  an  obligation  to  the  Asso- 
ciation to  enlarge  the  business  of  the  Advertising  Department,  to  make 
the  Journal  advertising  pay  as  large  a  return  to  the  Association  as  possible. 
The  advertising  agent  also  has  another  obligation  which  is  as  great  as  the 
first,  which  is  to  see  that  the  advertisers  in  the  Journal  are  getting  what 
they  are  paying  for,  that  the  value  of  the  advertising  is  made  good.  Now, 
gentlemen,  that  is  something  which  is  to  a  very  great  extent  up  to  you. 
^Vhen  it  is  claimed,  as  it  has  been  in  times  past  in  this  Association,  that 
the  advertising  was  sort  of  a  bonus  paid  the  Association  by  the  advertisers, 
if  when  you  get  your  Journals  you  pay  no  attention  to  the  advertising 
section,  if  when  you  get  ready  to  purchf^pe  you  forget  that  the  advertisers 
in  the  Journal  represent  nearly  every  line  of  water  works  supplies, 
equipment  and  experts  through  a  great  number  of  leading  firms,  then 
you  are  making  that  statement  absolutely  good  and  we  have  no  argu- 
ment with  it,  for  in  that  case,  as  a  commercial  prop#ition,  the  ads.  are  of 
no  value. 

Now,  gentlemen,  that  is  not  a  satisfactory  condition  for  the  adver- 
tisers nor  for  the  Association,  nor  do  I  believe  it  is  true  at  this  time,  but  as 
the  Journal  should  be,  and  has  the  advantages  to  make  it,  the  best 
advertising  medium  for  all  water-works  supplies  of  any  of  that  kind  that 
I  know  of,  it  rests  with  you,  gentlemen,  to  say  whether  by  your  interest 
m  this  department  of  the  work  it  shall  be  made  so.  If  it  can  be  made  so 
and  the  advertising  agent  can  go  with  a  full  belief,  conscientiously,  to 
prospective  advertisers  with  this  claim  and  something  behind  it,  there  is 
a  prospect  that  we  can  greatly  advance  the  income  from  this  source,  the 
value  to  the  Association,  and  the  general  interest  in  the  work  of  the 
Association.  There  are  many  sides  to  this  particular  question  which  I 
believe  it  is  for  your  interest  to  consider. 

Now,  I  may  weary  you  at  times  by  harping  on  this  particular  matter, 
but  I  believe  it  is  my  duty,  and  yours,  to  take  a  new  interest  in  this 
department  of  the  work  and  see  if  we' can't  build  up  a  better  and  larger 
Journal,  a  better  Association  through  larger  income,  and  greater  interest 
in  the  general  work  of  the  Association. 

I  thank  you.     (Applause.) 

(On  motion,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted  that  the  report  of  the 
Editor  be  received  and  placed  on  file.) 

The  President.  I  hope  that  the  informal  remarks  by  Mr.  Symonds 
will  sink  in  and  be  borne  in  mind  by  everybody  in  a  position  to  do  so. 

The  next  business  is  the  report  of  the  Tellers  on  the  election. 


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152  annual  meeting 

Report  of  Tellers,  January  12,  1922. 

Whole  number  of  ballots 300 

Blanks 0 

President, 

Frank  A.  Barbour 293 

Scattering 1 

Vtce-PrenderU, 

Patrick  Gear 295 

George  A.  Carpenter 295 

Reeve   J.  Newbom 293 

David  A.  Heffermak 292 

Frank  E.  Winsor ^ 294 

Theodore  L.  Bristol 292 

Scattering 1 

Secretary, 

Frank  J.  Gifpord '^ 288 

Treasurer, 

Frederic  I.  Winslow 296 

Editor, 

Henrt  a.  Stmonds 297 

Advertising  Agent. 

Henrt  A.  Stmonds 299 

Additional  Members  of  Executive  Committee. 

George  H.  Finneran , 298 

Frank  A.  Marston 298 

Melville  C.  Whipple 299 

Scattering 1 

Finance  Committee. 

A.  R.  Hathawat 295 

Edward  D.  Eldredge 295 

Stephen  H.  Tatlor 294 

Scattering 1 

GUY  C.  EMERSON, 
JAMES  W.  KILLAM, 
JAMES  A.  McMURRAY, 

Tellers 

On  motion  of  Mr.  H.  V.  Macksey,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted  that 
the  above  reports  be  accepted  and  placed  on  file. 

The  President.    You  have  all  heard    the  report,  gentlemen,  by 
which  it  appears  that  the  persons  named  by  the  Nominating  Committee 

have  been  elected.     While  it  is  not,  of  course,  necessary  to  turn  the 
meeting  over  to  the  new  officers,  they  not  taking  control  until  the  next 

meeting,  I  think  the  members  will  want  to  hear  a  few  words  from  the 
President  elect.     I  will  call  on  Mr.  Barbour.     (Applause.) 


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REPORT   BY   PRESIDENT   ELECT.  153 

Remarks  by  President  elect  F.  A.  Barbour 

Mr.  Barbour.  Mr.  President  and  fellow  members,  I  sincerely 
thank  you  for  my  election.  It  is  an  honor  of  which  any  man  may  well 
be  proud;  it  is  also  a  responsibility  and,  at  the  present  moment,  I  am  more 
impressed  by  this  phase  of  the  situation. 

In  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  there  is  a  requirement  that 
the  President  shall  deliver  an  address  at  the  close  of  his  administration 
and,  personally,  I  think  this  a  very  good  rule.  It  is  a  much  safer  course 
to  follow  —  at  least  from  the  standpoint  of  the  President.  At  the  end 
of  his  term  he  is  probably  a  much  wiser  man  than  when  he  comes  into 
office  and  he  can  then  state  what  should  be  done  and  leave  it  to  his  suc- 
cfKsor  to  do. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  there  is  much  work  to  be  done  in  this 
Asvsociation,  if  we  are  to  hold  our  place  in  the  water  works  field.  We 
reached  the  high  point  in  membership  in  1917  with  950.  That  was  a 
climb  of  some  250  members  in  the  preceding  three  years.  We  are  now 
down  to  750,  or  in  other  words,  we  have  lost  200  members  in  the  last  five 
years.  From  the  1921  list  it  appears  that  only  110  cities  and  towns  in 
Massachusetts  are  represented  in  this  Association,  while  there  are  in  the 
State  somewhat  more  than  200  water  works.  Only  200  men  are  listed  in 
our  total  membership  as  superintendents  or  foremen  and  this  number 
includes,  in  many  instances,  more  than  one  member  from  the  same  city 
or  town.  Probably  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  superintendents  of 
water  systems  in  Massachusetts  are  members  of  this  Association,  and 
right  here  is  the  weak  point  in  our  appeal  to  the  public  officials  and  to  the 
public. 

Roughly  classifying  the  membership  —  sixty  per  cent  are  listed  as 
engineers;  twenty  five  per  cent  as  superintendents  and  foremen,  and  the 
remainder  as  commissioners  and  miscellaneous.  Including  the  engineers 
who  are  in  charge  of  particular  works,  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the  members 
are  engaged  in  the  actual  operation  of  watei*  systems. 

The  point  to  be  noted  is  the  small  percentage  of  superintendents 
and,  in  my  judgment,  this  condition  demands  serious  consideration.  If 
we  had  completely  sold  the  value  of  this  Association  to  the  public,  it 
would  not  be  possible  for  a  man  to  become  a  superintendent  in  New 
England  without  first  qualifying  as  a  member  of  this  Association.  This 
brings  up  the  questions  of  Corporate  membership  —  such  as  is  found  in 
the  American  Water  Works  Association  —  and  the  possibility  of  con- 
vincing more  public  authorities  that  the  expenses  of  the  superintendent, 
in  attending  our  meetings,  should  be  paid. 

There  can  be  no  question  but  that  we  should  be  able  to  maintain 
1200 —  1500  members,  without  including  any  floaters  who  are  drawn  in 
as  the  result  of  some  special  drive  and  then  later  drift  away.  With  a 
larger  membership  a  much  better  Journal  can  be  furnished  and  with  a 


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154  ANNUAL    MEETING 

better  Journal  we  will  more  surely  hold  our  membership,  because  the 
Journal  is  the  greatest  single  factor  in  determining  the  future  growth 
and  welfare  of  this  Association.  Tw^enty  per  cent  of  our  membership 
live  beyond  500  miles;  fifty  per  cent  live  beyond  100  miles  and  less  than 
one-third  live  within  50  miles  of  Boston.  To  probably  three-quarters  of 
our  memlx  rs  the  Journal  is  the  only  return  for  their  investment.  Further, 
the  preceding  figures  illustrate  the  fact  that  we  are  not  a  local  organiza- 
tion; our  membership  is  national  and  international,  and  our  program 
should  ])e-  planned  accordingly.  We  should  keep  step  with  all  processes 
and  improvements  in  water  treatment,  without  regard  to  their  particular 
value  under  New  England  conditions,  and  we  should  cooperate  with  the 
American  Water  Works  Association  in  their  work  of  standarization. 

Just  a  word  to  reinforce  what  the  editor  has  said  in  reference  to  use 
of  the  advertisements  in  the  Journal  by  the  members.  In  my  judgment, 
ever>'  man  here,  when  ordering  any  materials,  should  refer  to  our  Journal, 
and  in  his  correspondence  with  advertisers  he  should  make  knowTi  this 
reference  to  the  Journal.  If  the  manufacturers  can  be  showni  that  there 
is  a  direct  response  to  their  investment  in  our  publication,  a  greater 
income  from  advertising  will  be  obtained,  and  with  increased  income  a 
better  Journal  can  be  provided. 

I  think  I  have  said  enough;  I  thank  you.     (Applause,) 


Address  by  the  President. 

Mr.  Sherman.  For  the  address  expected  of  the  retiring  President 
I  have  prepared  to  give  you  something  a  Httle  in  the  nature  of  a  technical 
paper  rather  than  much  comment  upon  the  Association,  although  I  would 
like  to  preface  my  paper  by  some  few  remarks,  as  prol)ably  should  always 
be  the  case  with  a  retiring  President. 

It  is  very  easy  for  a  man  in  laying  down  his  position  to  look  back  and 
think  over  the  things  he  ought  to  have  done,  and  has  not.  There  i«  an 
immense  amount  of  work  that  a  President  of  this  Association  can  do,  antl 
perhaps  I  should  say  ought  to  do,  and  I  am  probably  safe  in  saying  that 
most,  if  not  all,  of  my  predecessors  at  the  end  of  their  terms  have  had 
much  the  same  feeling  that  I  have,  which  is  that  we  have  not  l)egun  to 
accomplish  a  tithe  of  what  we  ought  to  have  done. 

During  the  year  the  first  consideration,  the  one  that  comes  quicko.<<t 
to  mind,  is  of  course  the  change  in  meni])ership,  and  it  is  somewhat 
disappointing,  although  not  altogether  surprising,  if  we  realize,  as  we  do 
from  the  Secretary's  report,  a  net  loss  of  44  members  in  the  year,  in  view 
of  the  increase  in  membership  dues  })y  fifty  per  cent  which  took  effect  in 
the  year  1921,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  on  the  whole  that  is  rather  a 
less  loss  than  we  might  naturally  have  expected,  and  that  while  it  is 
disappointing  it  is  not  nearly  as  bad  as  it  might  have  been. 


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ADDRESS   BY  THE    PRESIDENT.  155 

Nineteen  hundred  and  twenty-one  marks  the  first  year  of  the  Associa- 
tion when  we  have  attempted  to  govern  its  finances  by  a  budget  adopted 
in  advance.  The  budget,  including  a  recommendation  for  increased  dues, 
was  adopted  late  in  1920,  and  became  applicable  for  the  year  1921. 
For  the  first  year  I  think  the  Association  has  been  remarkably  successful 
in  that  its  total  expenditures  have  verj*-  closely  coincided  with  and 
been  slightly  under  the  amount  allowed  by  the  budget.  Only  two  slight 
modifications  of  the  amounts  were  found  necessary.  In  two  items  the 
expenditures  slightly  exceeded  the  amounts  estimated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year 

The  budget  laid  out  for  the  new  year,  as  Mr.  Barbour  has  told  you, 
inc^ludes  a  proposition  to  spend  more  money  on  the  Journal  than  has 
l)een  thought  possible  during  the  year  past.  The  Journal,  of  course,  is 
the  most  important  single  thing  that  the  Association  has.  It  is  always 
a  source  of  regret  to  do  anything  which  cuts  dowTi  the  value  of  the  Journal, 
and  yet  with  the  financial  condition  with  which  we  were  faced,  e«^pecially 
with  the  extremely  high  cost  of  printing  work  of  all  kind*^,  it  was  abso- 
lutely necessary  during  the  past  year  to  economize  radically  in  that 
direction.  It  has  been  done,  and  successfully  done,  but  with  the  disap- 
pointment that  we  have  not  given  you  in  print  all  we  would  have  liked 
to  do.  Another  year  Mr.  Barbour's  administration  will  be  able  to  do 
Ix^tter,  and  we  hope  that  each  succeeding  year  will  show  greater  improve- 
juvnt  in  the  Journal. 

Our  losses  in  membership  have  been  particularly  marked.  Among 
our  honorary  members  we  have  lost  by  death  four  out  of  fourteen.  The 
dc^aths  of  the  honorary  members  were:  Hiram  F.  Mills,  William  T. 
Sedgwick,  George  A.  Stacy  and  Fred  W.  Sheppc  rd,  —  two  of  them  past 
presidents  of  the  Association. 

We  have  had  during  the  year  the  most  unusual  experience  of  a 
bequest,  one  of  our  honorary  members  —  Hiram  F.  Mills  —  having 
left  in  his  will  the  sum  of  -SIOOO  to  the  Association.  The  bequest  has  not 
a*i  yet  become  available,  but  presumably  will  sometime  during  the  coming 
vear. 

(Mr.  Sherman  then  read  a  paper  entitled  '^Some  Observations  of 
Water  Consumption. '0 

Mr.  George  A.  Carpenter.*  Mr.  President,  there  is  one  matter 
tliiit  I  would  Hke  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  the  Association  before  we 
\djouni.  As  I  have  hstened  to  the  report  of  the  Tellers  of  the  election  I 
\vr>n<lered  if  we  were  not  allowing  to  pass  by  us  without  due  recognition 
M  fact  of  which  we  ought  to  take  notice.  When  a  member  of  this  Asso 
<iation  completes  a  long  period  of  faithful  service  I  think  some  notice 
-hould  1)0  taken  of  it.  Today  marks  the  close,  if  I  am  correctly  informed, 
of  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  active,  faithful  service  l)y  one  of  our 
<»ld«T  niember^^^.     I  allude  to  Treasurer  Bancroft,  --one  of  the  men  wlio 


*City   Kujjiiicer.   Pa\vtii(k«'t.   H.  I 


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156  ANNUAL    MEETING 

has  always  been  present  at  the  meetings,  who  has  been  faithful  and  con- 
scientious in  the  performance  of  his  duties  to  this  Association  over  a  longc 
period  of  years. 

Mr.  President,  I  would  like  to  move  a  rising  vote  of  thanks  in  recog- 
nition and  appreciation  of  that  term  of  faithful  service  by  our  Treasurer. 

(The  motion  was  immediately  seconded  by  a  number  of  the  members, 
and  the  entire  company  stood  amid  applause  and  cries  of  ''Speech.'') 

The  President.     Mr.  Bancroft,  you  are  officially  thanked.. 

Remarks  by   Mr.   Lewis   M.   Bancroft. 

Mr.  Bancroft.  Mr.  President,  and  members  of  the  New  England 
Water  Works  Association:  It  is  true  I  have  served  you  to  the  best  of 
my  ability  for  twenty-three  years  as  Treasurer,  but  it  has  been  >\dth  great 
pleasure  that  I  have  filled  that  office.  I  somewhat  regret  that  it  is 
necessary  for  me  to  retire  at  the  present  time;  it  is  of  my  own  election. 
I  feel  it  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  Association  that  I  should  retire  at  this 
time,  because  I  expect  to  be  away  considerable  of  the  time,  and  the 
Treasurer  or  any  other  officer  of  the  Association  should  be  where  he  can 
attend  to  his  duties.  I  sincerely  thank  you  for  your  appreciation  of  my 
services.     [Apvlause.] 

The  President.  If  there  is  no  further  business  the  meeting  now 
stands  adjourned. 

(Adjourned.) 


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OFFICERS 

OP  THE 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 

1922. 


PRESIDENT. 

Frank  A.  Barbour,  ConsuUing  Hydraulic  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

Patrick  Gear;  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Holyoke,  Mass. 
George  A.  Carpenter,  City  Engineer,  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 
Reeves  J.  Newsom,  Commissioner  of  Water  Supply,  Lynn,  Mass. 
Davis  A.  Heffernan,  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Milton,  Mass. 
Frank  E.  Winsor,  Chief  Engineer,  Water  Supply  Board,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Theodore  L.  Bristol,  President  Ansonia^Vater  Company,  Ansonia,  Conn. 

secretary. 
Frank  J.  Gifford,  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Dedham,  Mass. 

,  "*  treasurer. 

Frederick  I.  Winslow,  Division  Engineer,  Metropolitan  District  Commisson,  Consult- 
ing Engineer,  Frarningham,  Mass. 

editor. 
Henry  A.  Symonds,  Consulting  Engineer  and  Manager  of  Water  Companies,  70  Kilby 
Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

advertising  agent. 
Henry  A.  Symonds,  70  Kilby  Street,  Boston,  Mass.  » 

additional  members  of  executive  committee. 
George  H.  Finneran,  Suporintendont  Water  Service,  Boston,  Mass. 
P^RANK  A.  Marston,  of  Mctcalf  &  Eddy,  C^onsulting  Engineers,  Boston,  Mass. 
Mklville  C.  Whipple,  Instructor  of  Sanitary  Cheniistry,  Harvard  University. 

finance  committee. 
A.  R.  Hathaway,  Water  Registrar,  Springfield,  Ma^ss. 

Edward  D.  Kldredge,  8u])erintendent  Onset  Water  Company,  Onset,  Mass. 
Stephhn  H.  Taylor,  Assistant  Superintendent  Water  Works,  \ew  Bedford,  Mass. 


HTHE  Association  was  organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  on  June  21,  18S2,  with  the  object 
*"  of  providing  its  mem].)ers  with  means  of  social  intercourse  and  for  the  exchange  of 
knowledge  pertaining  to  the  constniction  and  management  of  water  works.  From  an 
original  membership  of  only  twenty-seven,  it^  growth  has  prospered  until  now  it 
includes  the  names  of  800  men.  Its  membership  is  divided  into  two  principal  classes, 
viz.:  Members  and  Associates.  Members  are  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.:  Resi- 
dent and  Non-Kesident,  — the  former  comprising  those  residing  within  the  limits  of 
New  England,  while  the  latter  class  includes  those  residing  elsewhere.  The  Initiation 
fee  for  the  former  class  is  five  dollars;  for  the  latter,  three  dollars.  The  annual  dues 
for  both  classes  of  Active  membership  are  six  dollars.  Associate  membership  is 
open  to  firms  or  agents  of  firms  engaged  in  dealing  in  water-works  supplies.  The 
initiation  fee  for  Associate  membership  is  ten  dollars,  and  the  annual  dues  twenty 
dollars.  This  Association  has  six  regular  meetings  each  year,  all  of  which,  except  the 
annual  convention  in  Sei)tember,  are  held  at  Boston. 


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Table  of  Contents. 


PAGE 

Portrfiit  of  President  Frank  A.  Barbour Frontispiece 

A  History  of  the  Corrosion  of  the  36-Inch  Steel  Force  Main  at  Akron, 

Ohio.    By  G.  Gale  Dixon 157 

Investigation  of  Electrolysis  on  Steel  Force  Main  at  Akron,  Ohio.   By 

Victor  B.  Phillips 170 

Proposed  Extension  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  Works.    By  X.  H. 

Goodnough 189 

Additional  Discussion  of  Water  Supply  Conditions  at  Salem,  Ohio. 

By  H.  F.  Dunham 262 

Electrification  of  Gate  Valves.    By  Payne  Dean 264 

Some  Observations  on  Water  Consumption.     By  Charles  W.  Sherman  273 

Can  High- Value  Watershed  Lands  be  put  to  Profitable  Use? 279 

The  Des^  and  Construction  of  the  Gloversville  Standpipe.    By 

Frank  A.  Marston 288 

Relative  to  the  Report  of  the  American  Committee  on  Electrolysis. .  307 

Cement  Joints  for  Cast-iron  Water  Mains.    By  D.  D.  Clarke 309 

Proceedings: 

Feb.  1922  Meeting 311 

Proposed  Affiliation  of  Technical  Societies 311 

Memoirs: 

Samuel  Everett  Tinkham 318 

Herbert  L.  Hapgood 320 

Alfred  Earl  Martin 321 


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FRANK   A.    BARBOUR, 

President  of  the   New   England  Water  Works  Associatiori, 

19  2  2. 


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New  England  Water  Works  Association 


ORGANIZED    1882. 

Vol. 

XXX  VL 

June,  1922. 

No.  2. 

This  JttoeUUion,  as  a 

( body,  is  not  respotwlMe  for  the  gtatementa  or  opinions  of 

any 

of  its  members. 

A  HISTORY  OF 

THE  CORROSION  OF  THE  36-INCH  STEEL  FORCE  MAIN 

AT  AKRON,   OHIO. 

by  q.  gale  dixon.* 

General  Remarks. 

In  the  choice  between  the  use  of  cast-iron  and  of  steel-plate  pipe  for 
large  water-supply  mains,  the  element  of  least  certainty  is  the  depreciation 
to  be  expected  in  the  steel  pipe  due  to  corrosion. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  certain  classic  cases  of  corrosion,  the  most 
thoroughly  described  of  which  was  that  at  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  but  a  great 
many  cases  must  exist  of  which  httle  or  nothing  is  generally  known  — 
unfortunately,  for  the  light  which  they  might  throw  on  a  most  perplexing 
subject. 

We  are  told  that  the  only  salvation  is  absolutely  to  prevent  the  steel- 
plate  from  coming  in  contact  with  ground-water,  yet  we  all  know  of  steel 
pipe  imperfectly  coated  which  has  lain  in  wet  clay  ground  for  years  without 
trouble  of  any  sort. 

To  date  we  have  a  background  of  corrosion  of  steel  pipe  under  various 
sets  of  conditions  approximately  as  follows: — 

(1)  Ground-Water  Corrosion.  I  have  heard  of  severe  corrosion  occur- 
ring on  steel  pipe  at  stream  crossings  in  the  Alleghenies  due  to  mine  drainage 
carried  by  the  stream. 

(2)  Corrosive  Soil.  Notes  have  recently  appeared  in  the  technical 
journals  commenting  on  the  corrosion  of  cast-iron  pipe  in  alkali  soils  of 
Western  Canada. 

(3)  Rapid  Localized  Corrosion  with  the  Passage  of  Relatively  High 
Electric  Current,  The  most  striking  case  of  this  effect  occurred  at  Pitts- 
burgh, Penn.,  where  Mr.  E.  E.  Lanpher  reports  that  stray  electric  current 
amounting  to  about  2  000  amperes  following  a  new  36-in.  steel  pipe  to  the 
vicinity  of  a  power  house,  cut  through  the  |-in.  plate  within  90  days  after 
putting  the  pipe  in  service.     This  condition  was  corrected  by  connecting 

*  Chief  Elogineer.  Bureau  of  Water  Works  Improvement.  Akron,  Ohio. 
157 


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158  CORROSION   OF   STEEL   FORCE   BfAIN. 

the  pipe  with  the  negative  bus  of  the  adjacent  power  house,  with  slight 
total  damage. 

(4)  Corrosion  in  Salt  Marsh.  At  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  cast-iron, 
steel-plate  and  wood-stave  pipe  were  successively  destroyed  where  the  lines 
ran  for  three  miles  across  salt  marsh,  the  corrosion  of  the  metal  pipes  and  of 
the  steel  banding  of  the  wood-stave  pipe  occurring  about  the  upper  portion 
of  the  circumference  where  air,  water  and  vegetable  matter  met.  Stray 
current  was  credited  with  no  hand  in  the  work,  and  the  final  measure  in 
meeting  the  condition  was  the  construction  of  a  cast-iron  line  supported 
above  groimd  by  concrete  piers.     (70  Engineering  News,  1046.) 

(5)  ^^Auto-Electrolysis'^  or  *^ Self-Corrosion'*  in  Ordinary  Grounds.  At 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  severe  corrosion  attributed  to  the  combination  of  soil 
conditions  and  imperfections  in  coating  and  steel,  occurred  over  several 
stretches  aggregating  about  six  miles  in  length  in  the  26-mi.  pipe  lines  con- 
veying water  to  the  city  from  Hemlock  Lake.  Corrosion  was  apparently 
confined  to  wet  clayey  soil.  The  corroded  portions  were  scraped  and  re- 
painted, and  the  deeply  •  pitted  sections  were  patched  by  strapping  new 
plates  on  the  outside. 

Stray  current  was  credited  with  no  hand  in  this.  (John  F.  Skinner, 
"  Steel  Plate  Pipe  Conduit  II,''  published  by  City  of  Rochester,  1913.) 

•The  case  at  Portland,  Oregon,  was  quite  similar  to  that  at  Rochester, 
Serious  corrosion  was  discovered  over  a  two  mile  stretch  of  the  24-mi.  Bull 
Run  pipe  line  before  the  electrification  of  railways  crossing  and  paralleling 
it.  The  line  varies  from  33  in.  to  42  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  plate  from  I  to 
I  in.  in  thickness.  The  worst  corrosion  was  observed  in  very  wet  clay 
ground,  relatively  drier  clay  showing  less  active  corrosion,  and  none  occur- 
ring in  sandy  ground.  Pitting  was  most  concentrated  on  the  sides  and  top 
of  the  pipe. 

The  line  was  laid  in  1893-4,  serious  corrosion  was  observed  by  1905, 
electrification  of  one  adjacent  railway  was  achieved  in  1905-6  and  of  the 
other  in  1913. 

In  1914  little  weight  was  given  the  electric  railways  in  corrosion  effect, 
though  steps  were  taken  to  prevent  damage  by  them.  (Report  of  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Standards,  *' Electrolysis  conditions  on  Bull  Run  Pipe  Line, 
Portland,  Ore.,  1914.") 

At  both  Rochester  and  Portland  the  soils  and  ground-waters  were 
regarded  as  of  not  peculiarly  corrosive  character. 

The  Akron  Case. 

The  case  which  is  our  present  subject  falls  in  none  of  these  specific 
classes : — 

It  is  that  of  a  36-in.  lock-bar  steel  force  main  11  miles  long  at  Akron, 
Ohio,  which  after  five  years  service  evidenced  very  severe  corrosion  in  wet 
clay  ground  over  a  stretch  less  than  a  mile  in  length;  mild  stray  current  was 


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DIXON. 


159 


found  flowing  on  the  pipe  and  leaving  it  in  the  corroding  area  at  a  point 
three  miles  from  the  nearest  trolley  tracks,  to  follow  a  route  of  low  resistance 
in  the  natural  ground  back  to  the  equally  distant  power-house. 

A  cdse  possibly  dosdy  paralid  is  commented  on  by  Herman  Rosen- 
treter  in  the  American  Water  Works  Journal  of  1917,  in  discussing  a  paper 
on  Electrolysis  by  Prof.  Ganz:  — 

"An  electric  railway  running  southwest  from  Paterson,  N.  J.,  is 
paralleled  by  a  42-in.  main  supplying  Jersey  City.  A  42-in.  and  48-in. 
main  supplying  Newark,  N.  J.,  intersects  the  railway  and  runs  directly 


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ANALYSIS    OP   80(1.   SAMPLES   PHOM    DlPPCRCNT   PARTS   OP    THE    LINE 

PROFILE  OF  36-  STEEL  FORCE  MAIN  AT  AKRON.  OHIO 
WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  CONDITIONS  BEARING  ON  CORROSION 

0.6«l*  Dixon 
Klorch.1922 


Plate  II. 

away  from  the  station  supplying  current  for  the  cars.  A  leak  was  reported 
in  the  Newark  main  in  a  swamp  about  Z\  miles  from  the  railway  crossing. 
Investigation  showed  that  the  main  was  carrying  20  amperes  at  the  break 
and  only  2  amperes  several  miles  beyond,  and  tests  made  on  the  main 
when  the  cars  were  not  running  showed  that  there  was  a  slight  current  in  the 
reverse  direction,  thus  showing  that  stray  electric  currents  are  found  about 
eleven  miles  from  the  power  station." 

fieneral  Description  of  the  Pipe  Line. 

This  pipe  line  was  constructed  in  1913-1914  under  the  direction  of 
F.  A.  Barbour  and  E.  G.  Bradbury,  Consulting  Engineers  for  the  City  of 
Akron;  a  most  thorough-going  supervision  was  maintained  on  all  processes, 
from  the  records  of  which  much  of  the  following  matter  is  drawn. 


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160  CORROSION   OF   STEEL   FORCE   MAIN. 

As  indicated  in  plan  on  Plate  I  (following  this  paper)  the  line  lies  almost 
straight  to  the  northeast  from  the  city  limits  to  the  pumping  station,  cross- 
ing the  Cuyahoga  River  at  a  point  somewhat  more  than  midway  of  its 
length. 

It  runs  through  open  farming  country  for  the  most  part,  the  portion 
south  of  the  river-crossing  following  a  country  road  except  for  a  detour  to 
avoid  a  high  knoll,  while  the  northerly  portion  is  laid  in  private  right-of- 
way  through  the  fields. 

It  will  be  observed  on  the  profile  of  Plate  II  that  the  terrain  traversed 
by  the  line  differs  markedly  both  in  topography  and  in  geological  character- 
istics on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  river:  To  the  north  of  the  river  the  line 
follows  quite  closely  the  water-shed  hne  of  a  gently  sloping  surface,  and  is 
laid  practically  in  its  entirety  in  sand  and  gravel,  with  occasional  ad- 
mixture of  small  proportions  of  clay;  while  to  the  south  of  the  river  it 
climbs  through  the  more  steeply  rolling  clay  ground  classed  on  the  geological 
maps  as  the  northerly  edge  of  the  "  coal  measures,"  encountering  a  little 
shale  rock  and  crossing  numerous  small  drainage  channels,  the  largest  of 
which  is  in  the  corroding  area  just  to  the  southwest  of  Tallmadge  Center, 
and  drains  country  extending  a  mile  back  of  the  pipe-line. 

The  pipe  was  manufactured  by  the  East  Jersey  Pipe  Co.  at  Pat^rson, 
N.  J.,  of  plates  ranging  generally  in  thickness  from  i  inch  at  the  southerly 
end  of  the  line  to  f  inch  at  the  northerly  end.  In  cases  of  heav>'  cover  over 
the  pipe,  thicker  plates  were  used. 

The  plates  are  of  open-hearth  steel,  approximately  the  grade  of  "Flange 
Steel,"  rolled  by  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.;  mill  tests  compared  with  specifi- 
cation requirements  as  follows:  — 

Carbon 

Phosphorus 

Sulphur 

Silicon 

Manganese 

Ingot  tops  were  cropped  to  sound  metal,  the  discard  reported  by  the 
mill  inspector  on  17  per  cent,  of  the  ingots  averaging  27.3  per  cent,  by 
weight,  and  ranging  from  20  per  cent,  to  80  per  cent. 

Mill  and  shop  inspection  was  performed  by  the  Pittsburgh  Testing 
Laboratory,  in  continuous  consultation  with  Mr.  Barbour. 

The  plates  were  **pickled"  to  remove  mill-scale  by  soaking  for  one 
hour  in  10  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  solution,  followed  by  dipping  three  times 
in  soda  ash  solution  and  an  equal  number  of  times  in  constantly  changing 
water. 

The  finished  pipes  were  thoroughly  cleaned  before  dipping. 

The  specifications  provided  for  coating  the  pipes  by  dipping  in  hot 
**coal  tar  pitch  varnish,"  but  this  material  was  used  on  only  about  a  half- 


Specified 

Ra&seof 

Limit 

Test  Results 

0.12    to0.20<^c 

0.05% 

0.01    to  0.038 

0.05 

0.025  to  0.04 

0.05 

0.50 

0.30    to  0.50 

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DIXON.  161 


o 

O 


O 


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O 

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s 


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162  CORROSION   OF  STEEL   FORCE   MAIN. 

mile  of  the  line  owing  to  the  difficulties  encountered  in  so  controlling  the 
mixture  and  the  temperature  of  bath  and  pipe  that  the  resulting  coating 
would  neither  flake  at  low  temperature  nor  run  at  high.  The  remainder 
of  the  line  was  coated  with  "Pioneer  Mineral  Rubber,"  manufactured  by 
the  American  Asphaltum  and  Rubber  Co. 

Delivery  of  the  pipe  on  the  ground  was  effected  between  November 
21,  1912  and  April  23,  1913.  Pipe  laying  was  started  in  May  1913  and 
completed  in  July  1914,  so  all  of  the  pipes  were  exposed  to  the  weather  of 
practically  a  full  winter  season,  while  the  tar-coated  material  between 
Stations  27  and  55  lay  out  through  two  winters. 

A  pecuHarity  noted  in  regard  to  the  mineral  rubber  coating  was  the 
breaking  dowii  of  the  material  on  the  exterior  of  the  pipe  where  it  had  lain 
for  long  in  contact  with  the  sod,  entailing  considerable  repair  work. 

In  the  spring  and  summer  of  1914,  inspection  of  the  completed  pipe 
showed  considerable  failure  of  the  interior  coating  by  coming  loose,  espe- 
cially near  the  field  joints;  the  line  was  thoroughly  gone  over,  all  loose 
coating  removed,  the  steel  cleaned,  and  two  coats  of  commercial  metal  paint 
applied. 

The  line  w^as  put  in  service  in  August,  1915,  since  which  date  it  has 
been  in  continuous  service  supplying  filtered  water  to  the  city. 

Corrosion  Discovered. 

In  May,  1919,  the  pipe  was  uncovered  at  eight  different  points  in  wet 
clay  ground  south  of  the  river-crossing,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the 
condition  of  the  exterior  surface  in  connection  with  the  preparation  of 
specifications  for  a  proposed  paralleling  line.  In  all  cases  the  condition 
was  found  to  be  good;  coating  in  some  spots  was  brittle  and  in  others  thin 
or  easily  removed,  but  no  pitting  was  observed  nor  rust  under  loose  coating. 

Several  other  inspection  pits  were  dug  later  north  of  the  river,  exposing 
equally  good  conditions.  The  location  of  all  these  excavations  are  indi- 
cated on  the  profile  of  Plate  II. 

In  November  1919,  interior  inspection  of  the  pipe  at  a  p)oint  about  1  000 
ft.  southwest  of  Tallmadge  Square  (Sta.  440)  disclosed  two  holes  eaten 
through  the  plate  as  the  source  of  leakage  which  had  been  observed  for 
some  time  on  the  surface,  but  which  had  been  attributed  to  ground  water. 
These  holes  were  plugged  from  the  inside  and  a  sixty  foot  stretch  of  the 
hne  was  then  uncovered,  showing  a  very  severe  condition  of  corrosion 
which  is  illustrated  in  the  photograph  in  Plate  III. 

The  chalk  figures  appearing  on  the  pipe  in  Plate  III  register  the 
measured  depths  of  the  larger  pits  in  hundredths  of  an  inch. 

Three  or  four  times  as  many  pits  were  observed  above  the  horizontal 
center  line  than  below. 

The  corrosion  phenomena  inside  and  out  conformed  with  what  has  been 
most  excellently  described  at  Rochester  and  Portland.     Inside,  the  original 


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DIXON.  163 

coating  showed  numerous  blisters  from  i  to  IJ  inch  in  diameter,  which 
when  punctured  and  removed  disclosed  bright  steel  with  a  slight  roughness 
in  the  center;  in  other  places  tubercles  were  found  covering  shallow  "saucer 
shaped"  pits.  On  the  exterior,  the  "cup  shaped"  pits  usually  contained 
at  the  bottom  a  small  quantity  of  material  resembling  white  lead  paste, 
though  in  some  cases  a  pale  brownish  color  was  observed. 

In  several  places  long  shallow  pittings  apparently  followed  where  the 
coating  had  been  scratched  by  a  pick  or  shovel  in  back-filling,  and  in  another 
case  near  the  end  of  a  pipe  a  similar  condition  had  followed  abrasion  due 
to  the  cable  sling  with  which  the  pipe  was  handled. 

The  excavation  was  held  open  for  some  time,  and  the  conditions  were 
observed  by  Mr.  Frank  Wilcox,  Engineer  for  the  T.  A.  Gillespie  Co.,  Mr. 
W.  R.  Veazey,  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Case  School  of  AppUed  Science, 
Cleveland,  Mr.  E.  E.  Lanpher,  Engineer  of  Distribution  of  the  Pittsburgh 
Water  Department,  and  Mr.  L.  G.  Tighe,  Superintendent  of  Power  for  the 
local  traction  company. 

A  volt-meter  test  over  the  exposed  pipe  showed  a  considerable  flow 
of  current  to  be  occurring  on  it. 

To  date  a  total  of  nearly  20  holes  in  the  plate  have  manifested  them- 
selves by  leakage  appearing  on  the  surface,  all  in  the  vicinity  of  Tallmadge 
Center  (between  the  Erie  Railroad  at  Station  400  and  the  brook  at  Station 
445) ;  these  have  all  been  plugged  from  the  inside. 

Comments  by  Profes&or  Veazey, 

The  following  extracts  from  a  report  on  the  matter  by  Prof.  W.  R. 
Veazey  siunmarize  his  views: — 

"The  soil  in  wliich  the  Akron  water  main  is  laid,  insofar  as  I  have  seen 
it,  seems  to  consist  of  sand,  clay,  shale,  ashes  and  various  combinations  of 
these.  In  general  the  soils  are  wet  and  have  a  tendency  to  hold  water. 
Such  soil  conditions  are  very  favorable  to  pipe  corrosion  either  by  galvanic 
action  or  by  stray  electric  currents.  Without  going  into  detail,  it  is  my 
opinion  that  a  soil  survey  will  be  of  little  value  except  to  confirm  the  state- 
ment I  have  just  made  that  the  general  soil  conditions  are  favorable  to 

rapid  corrosion  of  steel  pipe." 

*  *  ♦ 

"According  to  the  geological  map,  you  may  expect  to  find  glacial  drift 
anjrwhere  along  the  present  pipe  line  except  at  Tallmadge,  and  for  a  distance 
of  from  one-half  to  one  mile  on  either  side  of  Tallmadge  in  the  direction  of 
the  pipe  line.  At  Tallmadge  and  vicinity  you  will  likely  find  pyrite  bearing 
shales  and  clays  which  are  extremely  favorable  to  corrosion  of  steel  for  the 
following  reason:  Pyrite  is  a  sulphide  of  iron  which  is  readily  acted  on  by 
water  and  air  to  form  the  soluble  salt  ferrous  sulphate  (green  vitriol)  and 
also  free  sulphuric  acid.  The  ground  waters  in  the  vicinity  are  nearly 
always  impregnated  heavily  with  the  above  salts  and  sulphuric  acid.  Since 
such  ground  waters  are  extremely  favorable  to  the  process  of  corrosion,  any 
contact  of  the  steel  with  such  shales  or  clays  or  ground  water  coming  from 
such  shale  or  clay  must  be  absolutely  avoided." 


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164  CORROSION   OF  STEEL  FORCE   MAIN. 

"Steel,  if  kept  dry,  will  not  corrode.  Although  this  condition  probably 
cannot  be  absolutely  maintained  in  a  practical  way,  yet  the  more  nearly  it 
is  approached,  the  longer  will  be  the  life  of  the  pipe  line.  There  are  two 
ways  of  obtaining  results  in  this  direction,  both  of  which  should  be  applied: 
Efficient  mider  drainage  of  the  ditch  in  which  the  pipe  is  laid  and  a  proper 
paint  or  protective  coating  for  the  st^^el.'' 

*  *  * 

**With  reference  to  the  kind  of  protective  coating  to  be  used  on  steel 
pipe :  Insofar  as  my  present  information  goes,  the  best  protection  is  to  paint 
the  steel  after  it  has  been  completely  freed  from  mill  scale,  with  red  lead 
and  oil,  giving  it  two  coats,  and  then  after  the  pipe  has  been  laid,  an 
additional  two  coats  of  the  same  paint  should  be  applied.  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  the  Bitumen  coating  which  has  been  applied  to  your  present 
36-in.  line  is  not  beneficial  in  the  long  run  because,  although  when  new  it 
may  protect  the  steel  from  moisture,  it  has  a  tendency  to  become  porous  and 
spongy  with  age  and  then  actfi  in  the  opposite  way  and  retains  moisture  and 
thus  actually  stimulates  corrosion.  You  will  find  evidence  of  this  in  spots 
where  the  Bitumen  coating  is  blistered  or  raised  up  by  the  corrosion  deposit 

underneath  it.'' 

♦  *  * 

*'With  reference  to  stray  electric  currents  from  power  houses  and  power 
lines:  Such  currents  should  of  course  be  eliminated  by  discovering  their 
source  and  breaking  the  electrical  connection,  but  this  certainly  is  not 
the  chief  cause  of  corrosion  on  your  steel  line,  even  though  it  may  be  a 
contributing  factor.  Eliminate  wet  conditions  along  the  line  and  this 
factor  will  drop  out." 

Electrical  Conditions, 

Mr.  E.  E.  Lanpher,  who  has  had  a  long  experience  in  electrolysis  and 
corrosion  at  Pittsburgh  where  much  steel  pipe  is  in  use,  was  retained  in 
an  advisory  capacity:  owing  to  his  many  duties  he  was  unable  to  follow 
the  work  actively  in  the  field. 

Referring  again  to  the  map  of  Plate  I,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  city 
and  interurban  lines  of  the  Northern  Ohio  Traction  and  Light  Co.,  swing  a 
rough  arc  to  the  northwest  of  the  force  main,  the  Akron-Kent-Ravenna 
line  crossing  it  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  beyond  the  river-crossing. 
The  various  substations  are  also  shown,  as  well  as  gas  mains. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  location  of  observed  corrosion  is  at  a  sort  of 
focal  point  of  all  the  obvious  natural  and  artificial  features  of  the  locality  — 
a  high  tension  line  passing  right  through  the  center  of  the  affected  area  is 
not  shown,  as  all  thought  of  its  influence  was  early  discarded. 

In  December  1919  a  milli-voltmeter  survey  of  the  pipe-line  made  w4th 
wires  about  1  000  ft.  long  stretched  between  access-manholes  indicated 
a  current  flow  of  about  20  amperes  from  Akron  toward  the  corroding  area 
at  Tallmadge,  and  continuing  on  toward  the  point  of  crossing  of  the  trolley 
line  near  Kent  in  about  half  that  quantity;  from  the  trolley  crossing  to  the 
pumping  station  the  current  was  much  smaller  in  quantity  and  with  quite 
rapid  and  uniform  reversal  of  direction.  The  flow  between  Akron  and  the 
trolley  crossing  of  course  reversed  at  intervals,  but  there  was  evident  a 


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DIXON.  165 

definite  flow  toward  the  Kent  substation.  Following  this  survey,  the 
traction  company  went  over  the  rail-bonding  of  its  interurban  lines,  which 
was  in  bad  shape,  and  an  appreciable  improvement  in  conditions  was  noted. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Lanpher,  a  bond  between  the  pipe  and  the 
rails  near  the  Kent  substation  was  inserted  for  test  purposes,  but  was  not 
put  in  regular  use  as  it  made  the  condition  at  Tallmadge  worse. 

Soil  and,  Ground-Water  Analyses. 

Soil  samples  taken  at  the  level  of  the  pipe  line  were  gathered  from  23 
test  pits  scattered  over  the  length  of  the  line,  and  the  results  of  tests  for 
''Free  CO2"  and  "Bi-carbonate  Alkalinity  expressed  as  CaCOa"  are  shown 
graphically  in  the  lower  part  of  the  profile,  Plate  II.  Marked  difference  be- 
tween the  conditions  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river  is  here  again  apparent. 

Groimd  water  samples  were  also  analyzed  with  the  following  results: 

Sample  No.  (See  Plate  II)  1                        2                    3                  4 

Location Sta.  239  Sta.  295  Sta.  370  Sta.  440 

Character  of  Soil Yellow  Clay    Yellow  Qay  Clay  Fill 

Character  of  Vegetation Road  Graas  Wheat  Road 

Chlorine 10.0  ppm  5.0   ppm  6.0  ppm  10.0  ppm 

Bicarbonate  Alkalinity 276.0  ppm  3.5   ppm  5.0  ppm  128.0  ppm 

Free  CO2 34.0  ppm  7.0   ppm  20.0  ppm  28.3  ppm 

Nitrates 0.2  ppm  0.24  ppm  6.0  ppm 

Sample  No.  4  was  from  the  excavation  for  inspection  of  the  corroded 
pipe  near  Tallmadge. 

Repair  of  Exposed  Pipes. 

The  two  corroded  pipes  which  had  been  uncovered  for  examination 
were  finally  carefully  cleaned,  the  deeper  pits  flushed  up  with  metal  by  the 
oxy-acetylene  flame,  and  the  pipes  were  painted  with  "Hermastic  Primer" 
followed  by  "Hermastic  Enamel"  applied  hot.  The  trench  was  under- 
drained  and  backfilled  with  clean  sand  and  gravel. 

Mr.  E.  E.  BrowndCs  Report 

In  August,  1920,  Mr.  E.  E.  Brownell,  a  consulting  engineer  employed 
by  the  Akron  City  Council  to  advise  in  the  framing  of  a  new  traction  fran- 
chise, was  requested  by  the  Council  to  review  the  situation  in  regard  to 
electrolysis;  he  made  a  volt-meter  survey  of  the  city  lines  and  the  force- 
main,  and  the  following  excerpts  regarding  the  force  main  are  taken  from 
his  report  of  December  24,  1920: — 

*'  The  electrolytic  condition  of  the  36-in.  steel  force  main  is  one  of  the 
most  intricate  that  the  writer  has  experienced  in  many  recent  years  of 
experience.  It  is  almost  unbelievable  how  far  distant  the  oi>eration  of  the 
various  substations  influences  the  electrolytic  condition  of  this  valuable 
water  arterv." 


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166  CORROSION   OF  STEEL   FORCE  MAIN. 

**  Everything  is  in  favor  of  steel  or  wrought-iron  force  main  construc- 
tion, if  the  coating  features  are  respected  and  due  care  and  consideration 
be  employed  during  such  construction,  so  as  not  to  permit  the  coating  to 
become  broken  or  abrased.  This  is  the  whole  secret  of  steel  force  main 
protection.  The  electrolytic  conditions  should  be  corrected  immediately 
upon  the  completion  of  the  installation  and  all  valves  bonded  over  with 
heavy  copper  cables,  so  as  to  render  impossible  electrolytic  action  at  an 
unintentional  insulated  pipe  joint." 

Report  of  Mr.  E.  E.  Lanpher. 

With  all  of  the  data  as  previously  outlined  at  hand,  and  after  several 
brief  inspection  trips  on  the  ground,  Mr.  E.  E.  Lanpher,  Superintendent  of 
Distribution  of  the  Pittsburgh  Water  Department,  gave  final  advice  under 
date  of  March  29,  1921,  as  follows:— 

^'No  one  of  the  soil  analyses  shows  a  dangerous  content  from  a  galvanic 
action  standpoint.  Practically  the  same  statement  is  made  in  regard  to 
the  water  analyses;  for  while  it  is  true  that  the  chlorine,  nitrate  and  car- 
bonic acid  content  would  indicate  a  slight  galvanic  action,  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  this  action  would  not  be  serious  where  positive  electric  currents 
were  absent.  With  such  currents  absent  I  would  not  hesitate  to  lay  steel 
pipe  under  the  conditions  as  shown  by  these  analyses  and  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  a  coating  of  concrete  or  extensive  drainage  operations  would  be  a 
poor  investment. 

"There  is  no  doubt  in  my  mind  that  the  soluble  salts  and  the  carbonic 
acid  present  in  all  the  clay  and  in  the  coarser  gravel  soil  will  account  for 
considerable  electrolytic  and  accelerated  galvanic  deterioration  where  the 
soils  are  wet  and  in  presence  of  positive  electric  current.  Where  the  soil 
is  dry  these  salts  and  acid  do  not  appear  to  be  present  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  account  for  great  electrolytic  damage  under  present  positive  current 
flows.  I  believe,  however,  that  some  deterioration  will  be  found  in  the 
so-called  dry  soils,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  positive  current  flows  will 
increase  as  the  power  station  loads  are  increased.  In  fact,  it  appears  that 
in  dry  soils  very  little  galvanic  or  electrolytic  damage  is  in  evidence  at  the 
present  time: —  not  enough  to  warrant  large  expenditures  for  pipe  coating. 

"There  is  nothing  in  the  soil  and  wat^r  analyses  submitted  to  change 
my  opinions  under  date  of  January  27th,  1921.  I  am  still  of  the  opinion 
that  prompt  action  must  be  taken  to  eliminate  all  zones  of  positive  electrical 
potential  and  that  this  action  will  render  the  steel  pipe  practically  safe 
except  possibly  in  the  low  ground  near  Tallmadge;  and  even  at  this  point 
it  would  be  advisable  to  defer  coating  operations  providing  electrolysis 
mitigation  work  could  be  started  at  once." 

Investigations  Directed  by  Crecdius  and  Phillips. 

Owing  to  Mr.  Lanpher's  inability  to  spare  the  time  to  trace  down  and 
correct  the  complicated  electrical  conditions  the  services  of  Crecelius  and 
Phillips,  Consulting  Electrical  Engineers  of  Cleveland,  were  secured  for 
this  purpose  early  in  March,  1921. 

Mr.  L.  P.  Crecelius  is  a  member  of  the  "American  Committee  on 
Electrolysis,"  representing  the  American  Electric  Railway  Association, 


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DIXON.  167 

and  Mr.  Victor  B.  Phillips  served  as  his  alternate  on  one  of  the  sub-com- 
mittees. 

Mr.  Phillips  is  covering  the  later  features  of  the  investigation  in 
thorough  manner  in  a  paper  which  follows  this,  entitled  "Mitigation  of 
Electrolysis  on  Steel  Force  Main  at  Akron,  Ohio,"  but  to  make  the  record 
here  complete  a  very  brief  statement  of  results  will  be  made. 

Three  series  of  tests  were  made  on  March  9,  10,  11;  April  18,  19;  and 
June  11,  1921.  In  all  of  these  the  engineering  force  of  the  Northern  Ohio 
Traction  and  Light  Co.,  under  Mr.  L.  G.  Tighe,  Superintendent  of  Power, 
cooperated  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  at  the  second  test  Mr.  E.  R.  Shepard 
of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards  also  assisted  with  special  instruments 
developed  for  the  purpose  by  that  organization. 

Additional  soil  samples  were  also  taken  and  submitted  to  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  to  the  Bureau  of  Standards  for  analysis. 

The  first  two  tests  indicated  mild  stray  current  flowing  on  the  pipe 
line  toward  Tallmadge  from  both  ends,  leaving  the  pipe  in  the  corroding 
area,  to  follow  some  line  of  low  resistance  in  the  ground.  The  Northern 
Ohio  Traction  &  Light  Co.  during  the  months  of  April  and  May,  succeeded 
in  putting  its  system  in  electrical  balance  with  the  force  main  by  re-bonding 
its  tracks  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gorge,  High  Street  and  Brittain  sub- 
stations, and  installing  an  insulated  negative  feeder  on  North  Hill.  This 
balanced  condition  was  demonstrated  by  the  tests  of  June  11,  and  the 
following  quotation  from  Crecelius  and  Phillips'  final  report  of  June  23, 
1921,  gives  a  full  summary  of  their  conclusions: 

(1)  "That  electrical  conditions  on  the  system  of  the  Northern 
Ohio  Traction  &  Light  Co.  are  at  this  time  so  balanced  as  to  elimi- 
nate the  presence  of  current  in  serious  quantities  on  the  steel  force 
main. 

(2)  **  That  there  exist  no  geological  formations  that  may  serve  as  a 
natural  battery  with  resultant  galvanic  currents. 

(3)  '  *  That  there  is  no  danger  from  soil  corrosion. 

(4)  '*  That  there  exist  local  galvanic  currents  due  to  presence  of 
scale  and  also  possibly  to  differences  in  the  competition  of  the  metal ; 
and  that  the  mains  should  be  inspected  from  time  to  time  to  de- 
termine the  seriousness  of  such  local  galvanic  currents. 

(5)  "  That  periodic  tests  to  determine  current  flow  on  force  mains 
should  be  made  in  the  future  and  that  permanent  test  stations  for 
such  measurement  may  be  installed  to  advantage. 

(6)  "  That  conditions  are  such  as  to  permit  the  use  of  steel  pipe 
without  unusual  danger  (especially  inasmuch  as  cast-iron  pipe  has 
already  been  laid  in  the  dangerous  area  near  Tallmadge)." 

Construction  of  Paralleling  Line, 

The  investigations  as  outlined  were  of  especial  urgency  and  importance 
in  connection  with  the  determination  of  policy  to  be  pursued  in  connection 
with  the  construction  of  a  paralleling  48-in.  line  demanded  by  Akron's 
rapid  growth. 


— ^'"' 


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168  CORROSION  OF  STEEL  FORCE  MAIN.. 

Before  the  corrosion  at  Tallmadge  had  been  discovered,  the  second 
line  had  been  constructed  of  lock-bar  steel  pipe  from  the  city  to  the  southerly 
end  of  the  corroded  portion. 

In  1920  the  northerly  four  and  a  quarter  miles  from  the  river-crossing 
to  the  pumping  station  was  also  built  of  steel,  as  by  that  time  a  firm  belief 
had  been  established  that  there  was  nothing  to  fear  in  that  part  of  the  line. 
During  the  same  season  start  was  made  in  laying  about  0.9  mile  of 
paralleling  cast-iron  pipe  through  the  corrosion  area. 

Before  the  contract  was  advertised,  in  the  spring  of  1921,  for  the  remain- 
ing 3.2  miles  from  Tallmadge  Station  to  the  river-crossing,  practically  final 
conclusions  of  the  investigations  herein  outlined  had  been  reached,  and  this 
portion  was  constructed  of  steel. 

All  of  the  steel  pipe  in  the  second  line  was  coated  with  "Hermastic 
Pipe  Dip.''  • 

Some  Questions. 

Would  not  a  thorough-going  compendium  of  steel  pipe  experience, 
gathered  through  the  agency  of  one  of  the  Water  Works  Associations,  be 
well  worth  its  trouble? 

In  the  recent  past,  the  excess  cost,  in  the  ground,  of  large  cast-iron  pii>e 
over  that  of  steel-plate  pipe  has  ranged  around  50  per  cent.,  even  in  the 
East;  but  this  handicap  will  probably  be  materially  overcome  in  the  near 
future  and  the  expectancy  of  Ufe  of  steel  will  have  to  be  more  closely 
estimated. 

If  such  a  digest  were  undertaken,  8p)ecial  consideration  should  be  given 
to  uniform  graphical  representation  of  the  surrounding  conditions  bearing 
on  corrosion. 

Another  item  worthy  of  a  digest  is  the  sudden  rupture  of  large  pipes, 
both  cast-iron  and  steel;  breakage  of  cast-iron  pipes  has  been  quite  fully 
covered  at  Detroit,  Cincinnati  and  New  York,  and  occasionally  we  hear  of 
similar  occurrences  in  steel  pipes.  Freedom  from  such  rupture  is  com- 
monly credited  as  one  of  the  strongest  points  in  favor  of  steel,  but  we  should 
have  a  history  of  the  subject  on  record. 

There  are  various  questions  in  the  design  of  steel  pipe  lines  which  are 
still  somewhat  open: — 

(1)  Location  of  justifiable  use  —  in  the  country  only,  or  also  for 
primary  feeders  in  the  distribution  system  of  the  city? 

(2)  And  in  the  country,  does  the  saving  in  cost  of  acquiring  private 
right-of-way  justify  the  laying  of  pipe  in  a  convenient  highway,  with  its 
attendant  later  troubles  in  repair? 

(3)  What  of  water  hammer?  Very  definite  policies  are  laid  down  for 
cast-iron  pipe  on  this  point. 

(4)  For  what  condition  should  air  valves  be  proportioned? 

(5)  The  theoretical  analysis  of  a  pipe  to  withstand  internal  water 
pressure  is  simple,  and  safe  depths  of  cover  for  given  diameters  of  pipe  and 


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DIXON. 


169 


thickness  of  plate  have  been  worked  out.  But  in  various  places  we  see 
steel  pipe  used  at  a  minimum  plate  thickness  of  i  inch,  selected  purely  on 
the  basis  of  general  judgment.  Do  the  uncertainties  justify  the  narrowing 
of  limits  of  plate  thickness  down  to  conform  somewhat  with  the  various 
classes  of  cast-iron  pipe? 

(6)     Should  a  steel  pipe  line  be  rigidly  anchored,  or  should  it  be  left 
free  to  "breathe"? 


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170  INVESTIGATION  OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  ELECTROLYSIS  ON  STEEL  FORCE  MAIN 

AT  AKRON,  OHIO. 


[Read  March  H,  1922\ 

Introduction. 

In  his  paper  before  this  meeting,  Mr.  G.  Gale  Dixon  has  outlined  in  a 
general  way  the  history  of  the  Akron  Steel  Force  Main  and  the  conditions 
which  finally  led  to  the  retention  of  the  firm  of  Crecelius  &  PhiUips  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  electrolytic  conditions.  The  map  on  page  169 
shows  the  36-inch  steel  force  main  leading  from  the  EarlviUe  Pumping 
Station  to  the  reservoir  in  the  city  of  Akron,  a  distance  of  about  eleven  miles, 
and  the  location  of  the  electric  railway  tracks,  substations,  gas  mains,  steam 
railroad  tracks,  and  the  principal  city  water  main  connections  to  the  force 
main.  Rather  serious  corrosion  of  the  main  had  been  discovered  imme- 
diately west  of  the  town  of  Tallmadge  and  at  no  other  place.  It  will  be 
noted  that  this  point  is  more  than  three  miles  from  the  nearest  electric 
railway  tracks.  It  is  also  at  considerable  distance  from  either  of  the 
large  gas  mains  that  might  possibly  have  been  contributing  factors.  The 
town  of  Tallmadge  comprises  only  a  few  houses  and  there  is  nothing  in 
the  town  in  the  way  of  underground  structures  or  electrical  circuits  that 
might  have  had  some  effect  upon  the  force  main.  In  a  word,  the  cor- 
rosion was  found  at  perhaps  the  one  point  on  the  main  where  it  might 
least  have  been  expected.  For  these  reasons  it  was  not  at  all  apparent 
at  the  outset  that  the  corrosion  was  due  to  electric  railway  current,  and 
it  was  necessary  to  carefully  consider  all  of  the  possible  causes  other  than 
railway  stray  current.  The  case  is  distinctly  unique,  and  the  questions 
considered  and  the  procedure  followed  in  diagnosing  the  cause  of  corrosion 
and  providing  for  its  correction  are,  therefore,  of  more  than  ordinary 
interest. 

In  studying  the  caee,  the  following  causes  of  corrosion  were  investi- 
gated: 

(a)  Railway  Current 

(b)  Soil  Corrosion 

(c)  Small  Local  Galvanic  Currents. 


♦Of  Crecelius  dc  Phillips,  Consulting  Engineers.  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


phillips. 
Railway  Current. 


171 


Preliminary  tests  lipon  the  force  main  showed  that  current  was  flowing 
away  from  Akron  in  the  direction  of  Talhnadge  to  the  extent  of  about  20 


amperes  at  the  time  of  the  railway  peak  load.  It  was  also  found  that  there 
was  some  slight  flow  of  current  from  Kent  toward  Tallmadge,  although  this 
current  frequently  reversed  direction.     Potential  readings  were  taken  be- 


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172  INVESTIGATION   OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 

tween  the  force  main  and  all  metallic  structures  crossing  it,  viz:  two  gas 
mains  and  several  railroad  crossings.  These  voltagp  drops  were  found  to 
be  small,  of  the  order  of  one  volt  or  less,  and  apparently  independent  of  the 
railway  load  and  the  magnitude  of  current  on  the  main.  It  was,  therefore, 
concluded  that  these  structures  had  no  bearing  on  the  case. 

In  order  to  determine  the  potentials  causing  the  flow  of  current  on  the 
force  main,  voltage  measurements  were  taken  for  24  hours  between  the 
several  railway  substation  negative  busses  and  the  force  main  at  Tallmadge 
and  at  the  Akron  end.  By  means  of  these  voltage  readings  it  became  pos- 
sible to  locate  the  point  of  minimum  negative  potential  and  thus  to  estab- 
lish the  path  of  the  current.  These  readings  are  presented  graphically  on 
the  accompanying  curve  sheet.  They  show  that  the  negative  bus  at  the 
Gorge  Substation  was  the  most  negative  point  in  the  area  under  considera- 
tion. This  fact  served  to  indicate  that  the  current  which  was  apparentlj^ 
leaving  the  force  main  near  Tallmadge  was  returning  to  the  Gorge  Substa- 
tion. This  fact,  however,  in  itself  could  not  be  considered  as  conclusive 
evidence,  inasmuch  as  it  appeared  unlikely  that  there  was  sufficient  voltage 
difference  to  cause  this  current  to  flow  directly  across  country  for  a  distance 
of  more  than  three  miles. 

In  order  to  get  a  direct  indication  of  the  flow  of  current  from  the  main 
into  the  earth  in  the  locality  of  the.  corrosion,  a  24-hour  record  was  taken 
of  the  millivolt  drop  between  two  non-polarizable  electrodes  buried  in  the 
ground  about  eighteen  inches  apart  and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
main,  with  one  of  the  electrodes  very  close  to  but  not  touching  the  main. 
This  potential  gradient  record  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  curve  sheet 
referred  to  above.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  characteristic  peaks  and 
valleys  of  the  curve,  showing  the  voltage  drop  between  the  water  main  at 
Tallmadge  and  the  Gorge  Substation  negative  bus,  are  quite  regularly 
co-incident,  the  only  exception  being  between  1.00  a.  m.  and  2.00  a.  m., 
when  the  High  Street  Substation  negative  bus  became  temporarily  the 
most  negative  point  on  the  system.  At  this  time  the  flow  of  current  in 
the  earth  near  the  force  main  reversed,  as  might  reasonably  have  been 
expected.  This  information  showed  quite  conclusively  that  there  was  a 
flow  of  current  off  of  the  force  main  in  the  Tallmadge  area  and  that  this 
flow  was  a  function  of  the  potential  drop  from  the  force  main  to  the  Gorge 
Substation  negative  bus. 

A  study  of  the  geology  and  topography  of  the  country  between 
Tallmadge  and  the  Gorge  Substation  disclosed  the  fact  that  there  was  an 
almost  continuous  low  resistance  path,  due  to  creek  beds  and  wet  ground. 
The  current  was  simply  following  this  path. 

Having  established  the  fact  that  there  was  a  measurable  flow  of 
current  off  the  force  main  near  Tallmadge  directly  across  country  to  the 
Gorge  Substation,  it  was  then  necessary  to  determine  the  reason  for  the 
current  taking  this  long,  roundabout  and  comparatively  high-resistance 
path.    At  least  one  contributing  cause  was  found  to  have  been  in  the 


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PHILLIPS. 


173 


rather  long  stretch  of  poorly  bonded  track  between  the  High  Street  Sub- 
station and  the  Gorge  Substation.  Thus,  a  certain  part  of  the  power 
originating  in  the  Gorge  Substation  positive  feeders  had  to  find  its  way  back 


to  the  Gorge  Substation  negative  bus  by  another  path  than  the  high- 
resistance  rail  circuit.  This  increment  of  current  then  followed  the  tracks 
of  the  railway  system  into  the  High  Street  Substation  and  thence  through 
a  bonded  connection  into  the  city  w^ater  system  and  into  the  steel  force 


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174  INVESTIGATION   OF   ELECTROLYSIS. 

main.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  route  followed  by  the  railway,  as 
well  as  the  City  of  Akron,  is  all  on  high  well-drained  and  consequently 
dry  ground,  so  that  there  were  no  low-resistance  ground  paths  by  which  this 
current  might  have  taken  a  shorter,  route  to  the  Gorge  Substation. 

With  the  above  information,  it  became  a  simple  matter  to  eliminate 
the  flow  of  current  on  the  force  main.  This  was  done  by  thoroughly  bonding 
the  tracks,  especially  in  the  locality  mentioned  above,  and  by  running  out  a 
negative  feeder  from  the  Gorge  Substation,  in  the  direction  of  High  Street. 
This  feeder  was  not  tied  to  the  tracks  for  a  distance  of  three  thousand  feet, 
although  the  connection  between  the  Gorge  negative  bus  and  the  track 
at  the  substation  was  retained.  In  this  way  a  part  of  the  return  circuit 
drop  was  transferred  to  the  negative  feeders  with  the  result  that  the 
potential  of  the  tracks  was  raised  considerably.  These  mitigative  measures 
served  two  purposes,  viz:  to  provide  a  metallic  return  circuit  of  higher 
conductivity,  and  to  reduce  the  potential  drop  between  the  force  main 
at  Tallmadge  and  the  Gorge  Substation.  In  this  way  an  electrically  bal- 
anced condition  was  obtained,  and  although  the  flow  of  railway  current  has 
not  been  entirely  eliminated,  it  has  been  cut  down  to  a  negligible  value, 
with  continually  reversing  polarity. 

Testing  Equipment  and  Procedure. 

Due  to  the  unusual  conditions  that  prevailed,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  exercise  extreme  care  in  the  testing  methods  employed.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  milUvolt  drops  along  the  force  main,  special  contactor  rods 
were  made  up.  These  rods  were  of  steel  and  had  a  twist  drill  welded  to  one 
end.  The  rods  were  heavily  insulated  with  shellaced  tape  the  entire  length 
up  to  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  drill  point.  The  purpose  of  this 
insulation  was  to  prevent  contact  with  the  earth  and  thus  to  eliminate  any 
galvanic  potentials  that  might  be  set  up  as  a  result.  The  force  main  was 
reached  by  first  driving  down  heavy  bars  and  then  inserting  the  contact 
rods  in  the  holes  made  in  this  way.  It  was  found  necessar^*^  to  use  a  milli- 
volt meter  of  extremely  high  resistance  in  order  to  get  accurate  current 
determinations.  Inasmuch  as  the  potential  readings  along  15  feet  of  the 
main  were  but  a  fraction  of  a  miUivolt,  due  to  the  size  of  the  main  and  the 
small  magnitude  of  the  current,  it  is  apparent  that  these  readings  had  to 
be  taken  with  great  care,  since  the  sUghtest  galvanic  potentials  would  have 
completely  vitiated  the  results. 

The  non-polarizable  electrodes  used  in  this  work  are  of  some  interest. 
It  was  necessary  that  these  electrodes  be  of  low  resistance.  This  was 
obtained  by  the  construction  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  It  w^ill  be 
noted  that  this  type  of  non-polarizable  electrode  is  very  simple  to  make  up. 
The  copper  terminal  is  formed  from  the  lead  wire  by  removing  the  insula- 
tion and  doubling  the  wire  back  a  number  of  times  in  order  to  get  a  large 
contact  surface.     In  this  way  a  welded  or  soldered  joint  is  eliminated,  the 


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PHILLIPS.  175 

latter  type  of  joint  being  particularly  undesirable  because  of  the  galvanic 
or  thermocouple  effects.  The  lead  wire  is  brought  out  through  a  cork  stop- 
per, the  junction  being  made  watertight.  The  container,  in  which  is  placed 
a  saturate  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  is  nothing  more  than  an  ordinary 
porous  cup  such  as  that  frequently  used  in  the  laboratory. 


Lead 

RtD  CoFpEmWiRC). 


xTiOM  Or  Lead. 


Cvr. 


XON-POLARIZABLE   ELECTRODE. 

Mr.  Burton  McCuUom  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards  has 
recently  developed  a  new  instrument  for  measuring  directly  the  flow  of 
current  in  earth  and  also  the  resistivity  of  earth.  After  preliminary  tests 
had  been  conducted  on  the  Akron  force  main,  as  previously  indicated,  we 
requested  the  use  of  this  instrument  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  and  Mr. 
E.  R.  Shepard  of  the  Bureau  went  to  Akron  and  checked  our  observations 
by  means  of  the  new  current  measuring  instrument.  In  connection  with 
this  instrument  a  very  high-resistance  millivolt  meter  (2  500  ohms)  is  used. 
This  millivolt  meter  was  used  to  check  the  current  observations  on  the  force 
main. 

The  recording  milUvolt  meter  used  with  the  non-polarizable  electrodes 
was  of  comparatively  low  resistance,  so  that  the  millivolt  readings  are  not 
accurate,  at  least  for  the  determination  of  actual  current.  They  do,  how- 
ever, serve  the  purpose  of  showing  the  variations,  which  was  all  that  was 
desired. 


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176  investigation  of  electrolysis. 

Soil  Corrosion. 

With  a  view  to  determining  the  possible  existence  of  soil  conditions 
that  would  corrode  the  steel  pipe,  a  number  of  soil  samples  w^ere  taken  in 
the  affected  area  and  sent  to  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  quote  from  a  letter  re- 
ceived from  Mr.  Milton  Whitney,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  in  which  are 
reported  the  results  of  soil  analyses. 

The  analj^'sis  of  the  water  soluble  constituents  follow: 

Total  Solids  at  110° 670     parts  per  million 

Total  SoUds  ignited 560     parts  per  million 

Total  Solids  by  electric  bridge 570     parts  per  million 

CO2      None 

HCO3 175     parts  per  million 

CI      3.5  parts  per  million 

SOa     208     parts  per  million 

CaO   200     parts  per  million 

MgO 39.5  parts  per  million 

"The  amount  of  iron  in  solution  was  too  small  to  be  accurately  deter- 
mined, but  the  drying  of  the  soil  would  probably  oxidize  and  precipitate 
any  iron  that  might  have  been  in  the  solution  when  the  sample  was  taken. 

"There  were  no  sulphides  in  the  soil  that  we  could  detect,  nor  any 
indication  of  an  acid  condition  in  the  soil  solution  other  than  that  caused  by 
carbon  dioxide. 

"There  is  an  imusually  large  amount  of  calcium  sulphate  in  this 
sample  of  soil  and  more  magnesium  sulphate  than  normal.  The  presence 
of  this  abnormal  amount  of  soluble  salts  would  accelerate  soil  corrosion  and 
also  electrolysis  by  giving  a  higher  conductivity  to  the  soil  solution." 

With  a  view  to  getting  still  further  information  on  the  subject  of  soil 
corrosion,  Mr.  Whitney's  letter  was  quoted  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the 
Bureau  of  Standards,  in  reply  to  which  the  following  was  received: 

"I  do  not  know  that  we  can  add  an>'thing  to  Mr.  Whitney's  comments 
relative  to  the  corrosive  action  of  this  soil.  Until  a  large  numl)er  of  cor- 
rosion tests  have  been  made  on  soils  of  different  compositions  we  could  only 
guess  as  to  the  effects  of  the  chemicals  contahied  in  the  Akron  soil.  So  far 
as  our  knowledge  goes,  they  do  not  appear  to  be  of  a  particularlj'  corrosive 
nature.  More  than  a  year  ago  we  proposed  to  the  Research  Sub-Committee 
a  program  along  this  line,  but  nothing  has  been  done  up  to  date  as  you  know. 
It  would  require  tests,  in  some  cases,  extending  over  a  period  of  years  and 
the  Bureau  will  not  be  able  to  undertake  them  until  more  funds  are  avail- 
able. 

"We  believe  that  a  resistivity  measurement  would  throw  more  light 
on  the  questions  of  soil  corrosion  and  electrolysis  than  will  the  chemical 
analysis.  Not  only  is  a  high  conductivity  conducive  to  electrolysis,  but  it 
undoubtedly  has  an  important  influence  on  galvanic  corrosion  as  well. 

"We  have  found  earths  to  vary  widely  in  resistivity.  Humus  from  New 
Orleans  has  a  very  low  resistivity  in  the  order  of  800  ohms  for  one  centi- 
meter cube,  while  earth  in  tliis  vicinity  will  vary  from  5  000  to  15  000  ohm? 
per  centimeter  cube.     Ordinary  clay  soil  will  run  from  1  000  to  4  000.'' 


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PHILLIPS.  177 

Soil  samples  were  also  sent  to  the  Bureau  of  Standards  for  determina- 
tion of  resistivity.  Mr.  E.  R.  Shepard  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards  re- 
ported on  these  samples  as  follows: 

*'We  have  made  electrical  conductivity  measurements  on  it  with  the 
following  results:  After  removing  stones  and  coarse  matter  the  sample  was 
saturated  with  distilled  water.  In  this  condition  it  had  a  resistivity  of 
3  890  ohms  for  1  cm'.  This  soil  appears  to  be,  so  far  as  resistivity  is  con- 
cerned, a  normal  clay  soil  with  a  resistance  somewhat  above  the  average 
for  that  character  of  soil. 

Black  loam  from  New  Orleans  had  a  resistance  of  about  600  ohms, 
and  that  from  the  downtown  section  of  St.  Louis  about  900  ohms.  Several 
samples  of  soil  collected  from  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  had  an  average  resistance 
of  about  1  800  ohms.  Clay  soil  from  Pittsburgh  had  a  resistance  of  about 
2  500  to  3  000  ohms.  Philadelphia  clay  soil  will  run  somewhat  higher  than 
these  values,  and  the  red  earth  around  the  Bureau  of  Standards  has  a  resist- 
ance of  15  000  ohms  and  upward. 

"As  compared  to  other  soils,  therefore,  the  Akron  soil  does  not  appear 
to  be  in  any  way  unusual." 

The  above  reports,  both  by  the  Burieau  of  Soils  and  the  Bureau  of 
Standards,  showed,  insofar  as  the  matter  was  subject  to  determination, 
that  there  was  comparatively  little  likelihood  of  soil  corrosion.  It  should 
be  pointed  out,  however,  as  stated  in  Mr.  Shepard's  letter,  that  the  entire 
subject  of  soil  corrosion  is  but  imperfectly  understood.  It  is  not  possible 
at  the  present  time  to  adequately  interpret  soil  analyses.  There  is  also 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  methods  of  taking  samples  and  making 
resistivity  determinations,  and  even  were  accurate  determinations  possible, 
there  is  still  a  lack  of  understanding  of  the  relation  between  resistivity  and 
local  galvanic  corrosion.  In  a  word,  at  the  present  time  the  most  that  can 
be  done  is  to  draw  a  very  rough  comparison  between  the  conditions  as  they 
exist  in  a  particular  locality  with  the  average  of  conditions  determined 
elsewhere.  Any  conclusions  so  drawn  here  are  at  the  present  time  very 
much  open  to  question.  There  is  at  present  no  way  of  determining  by  an 
examination  of  the  corroded  metal  whether  or  not  the  corrosion  has  been 
caused  by  stray  currents,  by  soil  ingredients,  or  by  local  galvanic  currents. 
None  of  these  statements,  however,  should  be  taken  to  mean  that  soil 
analyses  and  resistivity  determinations  are  of  no  value.  On  the  contrary, 
they  are  perhaps  particularly  necessary  where  the  use  of  steel  pipe  is  con- 
templated, for  they  will  at  least  serve  to  show  whether  or  not  conditions 
are  distinctly  unusual  and  dangerous. 

Local  Galvanic  Currents. 

Local  galvanic  potentials  are  extremely  diflScult  of  determination. 
They  may  be  due  to  one  or  more  of  a  variety  of  conditions,  such  as:  lack  of 
homogeneity  in  the  pipe  metal(  e.g.,  there  may  be  spots  in  which  the  carbon 
content  of  the  steel  is  considerably  higher  than  it  is  in  the  surrounding  steel) 
scale;  the  presence  of  particles  of  coke  such  as  occur  in  cinders;  structures 


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178  INVESTIGATION  OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 

of  cast-iron  or  other  metal  in  the  vicinity  of  the  affected  structure;  close 
proximity  to  a  coal  measure.  These  galvanic  potentials  will,  of  course,  vary 
through  wide  limits,  and  there  is  no  apparatus  by  means  of  which  they  may 
be  properly  measured. 

In  the  Akron  case  it  was  found  that  there  was  an  appreciable  galvanic 
potential  between  the  pipe  and  oxide  scale,  the  steel  being  positive  to  the 
scale.  Millivolt  readings  taken  between  diflferent  parts  of  the  pipe  or  between 
clean  pipe  and  scale,  or  between  ground  and  pipe,  were  found  to  be  in  some 
cases  even  greater  than  the  readings  across  the  two  non-polarizable  elec- 
trodes used  in  the  earth  current  observations  and  those  obtained  along  the 
main  by  which  the  current  flow  in  the  main  was  determined.  From  this 
it  becomes  evident  that  in  all  the  tests  involving  small  potential  readings, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  guard  against  the  effect  of  these  local  galvanic 
potentials  upon  the  readings  desired. 

It  will  frequently  happen  that  when  back-filling  after  a  pipe  has  bsen 
laid,  cinders  or  other  foreign  matter  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  will  be 
thrown  into  the  trench  in  contact  with  the  pipe.  The  effect  of  this  may 
easily  be  more  serious  than  a  heavy  stray  current.  Many  cases  are  known 
where  a  heavy  cast-iron  pipe  has  been  completely  destroyed  in  a  few  months 
by  the  action  of  cinders. 

As  in  the  case  of  soil  corrosion,  it  is  difficult  to  generalize  on  the  sub- 
ject of  local  galvanic  action.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  a  care- 
ful search  for  the  presence  of  foreign  materials  or  earth  ingredients  or 
adjacent  structures  that  may  produce  galvanic  currents. 

It  may  be  noted  at  this  point  that  the  heaviest  and  most  carefully 
applied  coating  is,  under  some  circumstances,  even  worse  than  nothing  so 
far  as  electrolytic  corrosion  is  concerned.  If  there  be  a  potential  difference 
due  either  to  railway  stray  current  or  local  galvanic  current  there  is  a 
tendency  for  this  current  to  seek  the  weak  points  in  the  coating  and  to 
concentrate.  The  result,  therefore,  may  be  a  much  more  rapid  corrosion 
than  would  take  place  if  the  current  were  more  uniformly  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  structure. 

Where  there  exists  any  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  either  of  soil  corro- 
sion or  of  local  galvanic  action  and  the  value  of  the  pipe  or  other  structure 
warrants  the  expense  of  excavation,  regular  inspection  will  prove  the  only 
satisfactory  safeguard.  This  is  particularly  true  of  steel  mains,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  much  more  subject  to  corrosion  than  cast-iron  mains. 

In  the  Akron  case  is  it  believed  that  the  force  main  is  reasonably 
free  from  both  soil  corrosion  and  local  galvanic  corrosion.  Yet,  here  is  a 
case  where  a  very  large  investment,  as  well  as  the  continuity  of  the  water 
supply  of  the  city  of  Akron,  is  involved.  It  would,  therefore,  be  highly 
improper  to  assume  that  the  question  of  soil  and  local  galvanic  corrosion 
has  been  settled  once  and  for  all.  On  the  contrary,  it  should  prove  cheap 
insurance  to  make  excavations  from  time  to  time  at  different  points  along 
the  force  main  and  observe  carefuUv  its  condition. 


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phillips.  179 

Present  Status  of  Electrolysis  Question. 

It  is  perhaps  not  amiss  in  a  paper  of  this  kind  to  say  something  of 
recent  developments  bearing  upon  the  subject  of  electrolysis,  caused  by 
electric  railway  stray  currents.     This  question  has  been  very  actively 


-  -  DlSTIVIBUTINQ  DiSTANCC  (FttTj 

studied  for  a  number  of  years  by  all  of  the  national  pubUc  utility  associa- 
tions whose  interests  are  affected.  The  American  Water  Works  Association 
is  one  of  these.  The  studies  have  been  carried  on  by  the  American  Com- 
mittee on  Electrolysis,  in  which  these  several  interests  are  represented. 
The  members  of  this  Association  are  probably  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
recent  Report  of  the  American  Committee  on  Electrolysis.     This  report 


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180  INVESTIGATION   OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 

represents  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  representatives  of  all  the  different 
interests  involved.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  'best  text  that  can  be  found  on 
this  very  live  subject. 

A  matter  of  concern  to  the  water  companies  and  other  pipe  owning  and 
cable  owning  interests  is  the  study  and  development  of  railway  distribution, 
and  more  particularly  the  automatic  substation.  Were  it  economical!}' 
possible  to  install  on  a  railway  system  a  very  large  number  of  substations  so 
that  distributing  distances  would  be  cut  down  to,  let  us  say  for  example, 
one  mile  or  less,  the  track  voltage  drops  that  result  in  stray  currents  would 
be  practically  eliminated.  The  last  two  or  three  years  have  witnessed  the 
advent  of  the  automatic  substation  on  a  large  scale.  The  principal  justifica- 
tion of  the  automatic  substation,  or  automatic  substation  combined  with 
remote  control,  is  to  be  found  in  decreased  distributing  distances,  with  the 
consequent  saving  in  the  cost  of  distribution  and,  what  is  also  im'portant, 
the  reduction  of  stray  currents. 

*At  the  present  time  it  is  impossible  to  generalize  as  to  how  far  the 
matter  of  decreased  distributing  distances  may  be  carried.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  automatic  control  has  not  yet  been  standardized  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  automatic  substation  varies  through  wide  limits  for  dif- 
ferent methods  of  operation.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  determine  just 
how  some  of  these  problems  may  best  be  worked  out.  Consequently,  with- 
out more  precise  data  on  these  points,  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  satisfactory 
analysis  showing  how  far  this  development  may  be  carried. 

The  main  question  involved  may  be  illustrated  by  means  of  the  accom- 
panying chart.  This  chart  shows  the  component  parts  of  the  total  cost 
of  supplying  a  given  amount  of  power  to  electric  cars  for  a  range  of  distribut- 
ing distances.  It  will  be  noted  that  as  distributing  distances  increase,  the 
cost  of  distribution  becomes  a  larger  and  larger  part  of  the  total  cost 
of  power.  Consequently  it  follows  that  on  interurban  lines  where  distances 
are  great,  the  reduction  of  distributing  distance  is  a  matter  of  more  import- 
ance than  in  the  case  of  city  systems  where  distances  are  smaller.  The 
automatic  substation,  therefore,  finds  it&  particular  field  at  the  present  time 
on  interurban  railway  systems  or  on  long  electrified  steam  roads. 

It  is  perfectly  safe  to  predict  that  the  future  will  see  a  marked  reduc- 
tion in  distributing  distances  on  interurban  lines  as  well  as  some  reduction 
on  city  lines,  although  in  the  latter  case  it  will  of  course  be  smaller.  The 
electrolysis  problem  is  therefore  being  solved  to  some  extent  by  those 
developments  in  engineering  leading  to  the  more  economic  distribution  of 
power.  As  these  developments  continue  and  the  electric  railways  of  the 
country  profit  by  them,  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  whole  difficulty  of  electro- 
lytic corrosion  from  stray  currents  will  cease  to  exist. 


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discussion.  181 

Discussion.     (Joint.) 
Dixon  and  Phillips  Papers. 

The  President.  We  have  listened  to  two  very  interesting  and 
valuable  papers  and  I  hope  that  the  tiiseussion  will  be  up  to  the  same 
standard  and  that  we  shall  justify  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Dixon  and  Mr. 
Phillips  in  coming  from  Ohio  and  talking  to  us  this  afternoon. 

On  my  right  I  see  Major  Leisen,  ex-President  of  the  American  Water 
Works  Association,  and  I  think  he  might  open  the  discussion.  We  are  glad 
to  have  him  here. 

Major  Theodore  A.  Leisen.*  Mr.  President,  I  came  here  for  the 
purpose  of  listening  to  these  papers,  particularly  the  first  one,  —  on 
corrosion, —  and  was  very  much  interested  in  it. 

I  am  hardly  prepared  to  say  anything  that  would  add  materially  to 
what  has  been  given  here  already.  I  laid  some  large  steel  pipe  a  number  of 
years  ago  in  Wilmington,  Delaware,  the  firist  line  of  lock-bar  pipe  laid  in 
this  country, —  and  that  pipe  has  suffered  to  quite  an  extent,  principally 
from  electrolysis.  From  the  best  knowledge  that  I  have,  based  on  a 
report  received  over  a  year  ago,  the  general  condition  of  that  pipe  was  just 
as  good  as  the  day  it  was  laid  with  the  exception  of  those  particular  points 
where  electrolysis  had  aflfected  it.  But  this  was  not  a  condition  that  was 
peculiar  to  the  steel  pipe  alone,  as  the  cast-iron  pipe  in  the  same  localities 
suffered  practically  to  the  same  extent. 

We  are  now  laying  steel  pipe  in  Detroit,  (a  condition  which  we  have 
been  forced  to  by  the  excessively  high  cost  of  cast-iron)  principally  42  and 
48-inch  sizes,  but  it  is  too  early  to  say  anything  about  results.  The  first 
pipe  has  only  been  in  a  little  over  a  year,  and  of  course  it  is  too  early  to 
look  for  any  change  in  condition. 

The  question  of  steel  pipe  seems  really  to  narrow  down  to  two  factors, 
the  coating,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  things,  and  the  character 
of  the  soil.  First  of  all,  the  quality  of  the  coating  and  the  ability  to  get 
absolute  adherence  to  the  steel  pipe,  and  proper  protection  of  that  coating 
in  the  field  work.  With  all  the  safeguards  that  you  can  throw  around  the 
men  who  are  handling  the  pipe,  and  all  the  instructions  and  orders  that  you 
can  issue,  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  get  the  pipe  from  the  cars  to  the 
ground,  and  then  into  the  ditch,  without  materially  damaging  the  original 
coating.  The  first  trouble  frequently  is  from  slippage  of  the  pipe  on  the 
skids  of  the  cars.  If  the  train  in  which  it  is  hauled  bumps  around  a  good 
deal  you  will  find  that  considerable  of  the  bottom  part  of  the  coating  is 
rubbed  off  at  those  points  where  it  rests  on  the  skids.  Then  too  the 
chains  and  ropes  used  in  lowering  it  are  another  important  feature  in  caus- 
ing abrasion.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  those 
abrased  sections  of  the  coating  should  be  supplemented  by  extremely 
careful  field  painting.  There  is  no  question  but  what  steel  pipe  is  getting 
to  be,  and  will  become  more  and  more,  a  factor  in  wat^r  works  mains, 

*  Engineer.  Board  of  Water  Commissionen.  Detroit.  Michigan. 

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182  INVESTIGATION   OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 

particularly  on  large  lines  and  long  lines,  and  it  will  be  up  to  this  and  similar 
Associations  and  the  members  of  the  Associations,  to  study  that  question 
with  a  view  to  getting  the  very  best  results  both  in  the  coating  and  the 
Jiandling  for  the  protection  of  such  lines  as  are  laid  from  this  time  on. 
The  second  factor  —  character  of  soil  —  is  of  necessity  a  local  one.  If 
the  soil  is  neutral  no  trouble  should  result,  but  acid  soils  should  be  thor- 
oughly investigated  before  laying  steel  pipe. 

I  have  been  asked  to  present  a  paper  on  Steel  Pipe  before  the  coming 
convention  of  the  American  Water  Works  Association,  and  am  rather  in  a 
quandary,  with  the  short  time  between  now  and  the  date  of  the  convention 
—  May  15  —  whether  I  am  going  to  be  able  to  get  sufficient  data  together 
to  present  a  paper  that  will  really  be  of  any  value.  If  this  paper  could  be 
postponed  for  another  year  it  might  be  very  interesting  to  try  and  obtain 
as  complete  records  as  possible  of  all  steel  pipe  laid  in  the  country,  with 
reports  on  the  condition  of  that  pipe  aft«r  years  of  service,  and  combine 
that  into  a  fairly  comprehensive  report. 

President  Barbour.  Many  interesting  questions  concerning  steel 
pipes  are  suggested  by  the  papers  of  this  afternoon. 

In  the  first  place,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Dixon,  it  was  originally  planned  to 
coat  the  Akron  line  with  tar  —  the  specifications  requiring  a  straight  run 
coal  tar  pitch  and  heavy  coal  tar  oil  to  be  used — the  final  results  to  be  a  coat- 
ing tough  and  tenacious  when  cold  and  not  soft  enough  to  flow  under  sum- 
mer heat.  On  about  one-half  mile  of  pipe,  tar  as  specified  was  used,  but, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  encountered  in  obtaining  a  coating  that  was  not 
either  too  soft  or  too  brittle  and  because  of  the  inability  of  the  manu- 
facturer to  get  acceptable  results  and  meet  the  required  deliveries,  the  use 
of  tar  was  given  up  and  on  the  remainder  of  the  Une  asphalt  was  used. 
As  just  stated,  this  change  was  made  to  facilitate  delivery  and  should  not 
be  interpreted  as  indicating  that  the  engineer  of  the  work  considered  as- 
phalt superior  to  tar. 

The  difficulty  in  the  use  of  tar  was  in  great  part  due  to  a  wide  range  in 
the  temperature  to  which  the  pipes  were  heated  before  dipping  and  to 
variation  of  temperatures  in  different  parts  of  the  same  pipe.  Asphalt 
will  stand  a  wider  range  of  temperature  without  apparent  ill-effect  than 
tar,  and  is  thus  favored  by  the  steel  pipe  manufacturers  who  have  no 
accurate  control  of  the  pre-heating. 

Mr.  Dixon  has  referred  to  the  rapid  deterioration  of  the  asphalt 
coating  and  the  necessity  of  extensive  repair  work  before  the  line  was  put 
into  service.  This  condition  is  chargeable  in  great  part  to  the  delay  in 
laying  the  pipe  owing  to  trouble  between  the  primary  contractor  and  the 
sub-contractor  who  did  the  excavation.  The  result  of  this  disagreement 
was  that  the  greater  part  of  the  pipes  were  exposed  for  many  months  to  the 
weather  —  a  most  serious  test  for  any  coating  —  and,  in  my  judgment,  it 
does  not  follow  that  because  the  asphalt  on  the  Akron  line  peeled  off  in 
sheets  that  this  material  should  be  generally  condemned.     On  the  other 


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DISCUSSION.  183 

hand,  it  is  true  that  similar  peeling  of  asphalt  coatings  have  occurred  in 
other  new  pipe  lines,  and  it  would  be  to  the  interest  of  the  profession  if 
more  information  as  to  these  happenings  were  made  public. 

Mr.  Dixon  has  also  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  plates  for  the  Akron 
line  were  pickled  to  remove  mill  scale.  This  was  done  by  immersion  in 
10  per  cent,  acid  at  100**  F.  for  an  hour,  neutralizing  in  a  soda  bath  and 
finally  washing.  The  plates  thus  treated  were  silver  bright  when  emerging 
from  the  final  washing;  and  if  there  is  any  value  in  the  removal  of  mill 
scale  as  a  preventive  of  "  self  corrosion,"  the  treatment  of  the  Akron  line 
went  as  far  as  is  practicably  possible  in  this  direction. 

Whether  pickling  had  anything  to  do  with  the  subsequent  peeling  of 
the  coating  may  be  debatable.  After  pickling  a  plate  develops  a  smear  of 
rust  within  a  few  minutes  and,  as  fabrication  and  dipping  of  the  pipes  does 
not  always  keep  step  with  the  pickling,  it  may  be  that  this  accelerated 
rusting  has  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  adhesion  of  the  coating.  Whether 
pickling  to  remove  mill  scale  is  worth  while  may  be  open  to  question. 

It  is  to  be  clearly  noted,  however,  that  the  corrosion  of  the  Akron  line — 
described  in  papers  of  Messrs.  Dixon  and  Phillips  —  is  not  attributed  to 
failure  of  the  coating,  or  to  soQ  conditions,  or  to  local  galvanic  cmrents 
resulting  from  mill  scale,  or  other  causes  of  potential  differences  in  the  pipe. 
The  rapid  corrosion  in  less  than  one  mile  of  the  eleven  miles  of  pipe  line  is 
charged  to  the  effect  of  stray  electric  railway  currents  —  the  unusual 
condition  being  the  great  distance  between  the  pipe  line  and  the  nearest 
electric  railway  tracks.  The  mitigative  measures  adopted  involved  the 
establishing  of  a  more  nearly  balanced  electric  condition  in  the  railway 
system  so  as  to  reduce  the  potential  drop  between  the  pipe  line  and  the 
point  in  the  railway  system  to  which  the  current  had  been  returning. 
It  of  course  remains  to  be  seen  to  just  what  degree  these  measures  will 
eliminate  further  corrosion.  The  experience  described  should  not  be 
interpreted  as  an  argument  against  the  use  of  steel  pipe. 

Mr.  Allen  Hazen.*  There  is  no  doubt  about  the  utility  of  steel 
pipes  in  large  sizes  in  water  works  service.  One  of  the  most  fundamental 
points  of  difference  between  steel  and  cast-iron  is  that  steel  is  ductile  while 
cast-iron  is  brittle.  Because  of  its  ductibility,  the  steel  pipe  will  stand, 
without  appreciable  damage,  pressure  from  soil  and  unequal  loading  that 
would  destroy  cast-iron  pipe.  In  many  places  the  added  safety  against 
rupture  secured  by  the  use  of  steel  is  a  controlling  reason  for  selecting  it. 
The  danger  of  breakage  with  cast-iron  increases  rapidly  with  the  diameter. 
Steel  pipe  in  large  sizes  is  much  safer. 

Both  cast-iron  and  steel  corrode.  Papers  like  the  one  that  we  have 
just  listened  to  will  help  us  in  understanding  this  corrosion.  We  need  to 
learn  more  about  these  matters,  and  we  must  find  means  to  reduce  corrosion 
and  to  prevent  the  excessive  corrosion  that  sometimes  occurs.  In  actual 
experience  the  excessive  corrosions  in  actual  lines  of  pipe  through  years 

*Conffulting  Engineer,  New  York. 

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184  INVESTIGATION   OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 

of  service  have  amounted  to  only  a  small  annual  percentage  of  depreciation 
on  the  whole  amount  of  such  pipe  in  service. 

I  am  sure  that  a  careful  examination  of  the  oldest  steel  pipe  lines  in 
water  works  service  would  indicate  a  percentage  of  depreciation  much  lower 
than  anyone  would  have  thought  probable  when  those  Unes  were  laid. 

One  of  the  causes  of  corrosion  of  steel  pipe  is  the  soil.  That  is,  the 
soil  in  places  contains  some  substance  that  accelerates  corrosion  of  the 
outside  of  the  pipe.  A  wet  soil,  and  especially  a  soil  that  contains  ground 
water  with  high  mineral  contents,  makes  corrosion  more  easy  and  rapid. 
In  general  a  porous  soil  is  believed  to  be  a  contributing  factor,  but  some 
impervious  soils  are  corrosive.  Some  times  the  pipe  is  laid  and  the  first 
knowledge  of  the  corrosive  properties  of  the  soil  is  obtained  when  corrosion 
of  the  pipe  becomes  apparent,  but  some  conditions  may  be  recognized  in 
advance  and  guarded  against.  For  instance,  pipes  commonly  corrode  on 
the  outside  where  they  cross  salt  marshes  near  tide  water. 

Corrosion  of  pipe  by  the  soil  may  be  prevented  by  surrounding  the 
pipe  with  concrete.  That  adds  to  the  cost,  but  so  far  as  we  know,  it  is  a 
sure  cure  for  soil  corrosion,  and  if  the  trench  is  dug  carefully  for  back  fill 
with  concrete  it  is  possible  to  surround  it  with  concrete  at  an  expense  that 
is  not  excessive. 

Some  steel  pipe  was  so  laid  during  the  past  year  in  the  streets  of  a  city 
in  the  middle  west.  It  was  surrounded  by  concrete  at  all  places  except 
where  the  natural  soil  was  impervious  clay,  which  was  believed  to  be  almost 
equal  to  concrete  for  protebtion.  Steel  pipe  protected  in  that  way  may 
have  a  long  useful  Ufe.  It  is  certainly  free  from  the  danger  of  interruption 
of  service  by  rupture  —  a  danger  which  is  always  present  with  the  largest 
sizes  of  cast-iron  pipe. 

When  stray  electric  currents  flow  through  steel  pipes  it  is  more  often 
the  cast-iron  pipe  and  the  services  connected  with  it  that  suffer  than  the 
steel  pipe  itself.  This  is  because  the  current  most  frequently  leaves  the 
steel  through  these  attached  lines.  The  author  has  described  an  imusual 
condition  where  the  stray  current  left  the  steel  pipe  to  go  directly  to  the  soil 
with  attendant  damage  to  the  pipe. 

Mr.  Stephen  H.  Taylor.*  Mr.  President,  a  48-inch  steel  pipe,  8 
miles  long,  was  laid  in  1897  and  1898,  in  connection  with  the  New  Bedford 
Water  Works,being  put  in  service  in  1899.  The  pipe  was  Vie  inch  thick  and 
coated  with  asphalt  inside  and  out.  It  was  lap-joint  riveted  pipe.  It 
has  been  inspected  internally  several  times  since  it  was  put  in  and  found 
in  as  good  condition  as  might  be  expected.  There  have  been  some  tubercles 
and  some  blisters.  If  the  blisters  are  broken  a  little  corrosion  is  found 
under  them. 

In  laying  the  pipe  it  was  very  carefully  inspected,  and  wherever  the 
coating  was  knocked  off  in  transit  or  in  handling  it  was  very  carefully  put 
back.    We  had  occasion  last  year  to  make  an  opening  in  that  pipe  for 

*  Superintendent  of  Water  Works.  New  Bedford,  Mem. 

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DISCUSSION.  185 

connecting  with  a  36-inch  line.  This  is  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  best  test 
we  have  had  of  its  actual  condition. 

The  outiSide  of  the  pipe  was  in  almost  perfect  condition  when  we 
uncovered  it.  It  was  in  a  gravelly  soil  —  very  wet  but  gravelly,  and  by 
just  brushing  it  ofiF  and  putting  on  a  coat  of  black  paint  it  looked  almost 
like  new  pipe.  The  deepest  pittings  shown  on  the  photograph  I  believe 
were  about  J  inch,  or  about  J  of  the  thickness  of  the  pipe.  These  are 
the  small  ones.    The  larger  pittings  are  very  shallow. 

Wefeelthatwe  have  perhaps  got  about  half,  orperhaps  a  little  more  than 
half  the  life  of  the  pipe  at  the  present  time.  That  is,  we  have  had  twenty- 
two  years  use  of  it  so  far,  and  we  ought  to  get  perhaps  15  or  20  years  more. 

President  Barbour.  Do  you  know  what  particular  brand  of  asphalt 
was  used? 

Mr.  Taylor,    No,  but  the  specifications  are: 

"The  coating  consists  of  best  quality  of  California  or  Trinidad  refined 
asphalt,  must  be  durable,  smooth,  glossy,  hard,  tough,  perfectly  water 
proof  and  not  affected  by  any  salts  or  acids  found  in  the  soil,  strongly 
adhesive  to  the  metal,  no  tendency  to  become  soft  enough  to  flow  when 
exposed  to  the  sun  in  summer  or  becoxne  so  brittle  as  to  scale  off  in  winter. 
Pipes  thoroughly  cleaned  inside  and  outside  £Uid  rust  removed  by  brushing 
and  scrubbing  with  a  wire  brush  and  diluted  acid,  followed  by  mopping  or 
brushing  with  milk  of  lime  or  saturated  solution  of  soda.  The  alkali  used 
to  be  washed  off  and  surface  dried.  Coating  heated  to  temperature  of 
about  300  degrees  and  pipes  dipped,  allowed  to  drj^  then  dipped  again." 

Mr.  Henry  A.  Symonds.*  Mr.  President. — There  are  a  few  construc- 
tion difficulties  that  I  remember  in  connection  with  the  42-in.  lock-bar  steel 
pipe  line  built  for  the  City  of  Springfield,  about  twelve  years  ago,  on  which 
Mr.  Hazen  was  Consulting  Engineer. 

These  matters  perhaps  did  not  come  so  much  to  the  attention  of  the 
Engineering  Department  as  they  did  to  those  of  us  in  the  Construction 
Department. 

Regarding  coating,  the  pipe  had  been  dipped  into  a  hot  bath  of  melted 
pitch.  When  this  was  raised  out  of  the  pitch,  it  being  immersed  vertically, 
subsequent  developments  indicated  that,  on  an  occasional  pipe,  the  hot 
pitch  flowed  to  the  lower  section,  leaving  the  upper  as  thin  as  tissue 
paper  in  some  cases,  while  it  was  heavy  and  adhered  tenaciously  to  the 
metal  at  the  bottom. 

The  pipe  was  retouched  by  melting  pitch  and  burning  it  in  with  a  blow 
torch  where  the  skid  marks  referred  to  by  Mr.  Liesen,  occurred,  but  the 
difficulty  relative  to  interior  coating  was  not  apparent  until  the  pipe  was 
laid  in  the  trench. 

It  required  going  over  the  line  several  times,  painting  sections  here 
and  there,  with  hot  pitch  burned  in  by  blow  torch,  before  the  trouble  was 
entirely  taken  care  of. 

*  Consulting  Engineer,  Boeton,  Maas. 

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186     ■  INVESTIGATION   OF   ELECTROLYSIS. 

Another  difficulty  which  we  had  frequently  in  the  actual  construction, 
occurred  in  the  sandy  plains  near  West  Springfield.  Frequent  spurts  oc- 
curred from  the  riveted  joints,  and  some  of  them  remained  even  after 
calking.  These  spurts  with  the  fine  sand  driven  against  the  side  of  the 
pipe,  in  several  cases  cut  grooves  entirely  through  the  metal.  In  some 
cases,  I  think,  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  from  the  time  water  was 
turned  on.  In  two'cases  long  sections  of  pipe,  laid  through  hollows,  floated 
by  the  trench  being  flooded  in  a  heavy  storm,  and  the  trench  was  washed 
partly  full  of  gravel.  As  these  sections  had  been  riveted  and  calked  it 
was  a  very  different  matter  to  get  them  back  to  grade. 

Another  difficulty  which  I  think  we  barely  escaped  through  good  fortune, 
which  has  occurred  in  some  other  lines,  was  the  collapsing  of  the  pipe  before 
the  air  valves  were  properly  in  place.  There  were  6-inch  gates,  which  were 
to  later  receive  regular  air  valves,  for  taking  air  into  or  allowing  it  to 
escape  from  the  pipes,  but  during  the  testing  period  the  plates  pulled  out 
of  the  lock-bar  at  one  point  for  about  6  feet.  That,  by  the  way,  was  the 
only  break  that  occurred  in  the  twelve  miles.  I  think  this  was  under  a 
pressure  of  something  like  190  pounds.  It  occurred  at  a  ver>^  low  level 
as  compared  with  much  of  the  line,  and  the  speaker  happened  to  be  near 
and  opened  one  of  these  6-inch  valves.  The  whistling  which  occurred 
was  equal  to  that  of  a  locomotive,  and  continued  probably  for  fifteen 
minutes,  in  which  time  the  pipe  was  rapidly  emptied.  There  was  probably 
a  mile  and  a  half  which  was  emptied  by  this  break. 

Those  are  perhaps  the  principal  difficulties  which  we  encountered 
in  that  construction.  But  I  want  to  say  that  any  one  who  starts  to  lay 
steel  pipe  and  tries  to  use  the  methods  employed  in  laying  cast-iron  piix* 
will  find  himself  up  against  a  great  many  troublesome  problems. 

Mr.  Taylor.  I  might  add  to  the  New  Bedford  situation  that  we 
frequently  test  that  pipe  for  leaks  and  have  so  far  found  it  absolutely  tight. 
Also  at  one  time  we  were  threatened  with  trouble  from  electrolysis  and 
cured  that  by  putting  in  a  copper  bolt  and  leading  a  wire  back  to  the 
negative  bus. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Garrett.*  To  get  back  to  the  question  of  electrolysis,  did 
I  understand  Mr.  Phillips  to  say  that  in  Akron  the  water  pipes  system  was 
bonded  to  one  of  these  substations,  to  the  substation  that  was  located 
centrally  in  Akron? 

Mr.  Phillips.     Yes. 

Mr.  Garrett.     And  has  that  bond  been  continued? 

Mr.  Phillips.     So  far  as  I  know  it  is  still  there. 

Mr.  Garrett.     The  pipe  being  lead  or  cast-iron  pipe? 

Mr.  Phillips.    Yes. 

President  Barbour.  I  would  suggest  to  Mr.  Liesen,  if  he  is  going  to 
write  a  paper  on  steel  pipe,  that  one  of  the  great  necessities  of  the  present 
time  is  to  so  control  the  heating  preliminary'  to  dipping  as  to  obtain  a 


♦  Civil  Engineer,  Hartford,  Conn. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  187 

uniform  temperature.  As  I  have  already  stated,  the  reason  that  tar  was 
given  up  on  the  Akron  line  was  due  to  failure  to  obtain  such  uniform  heat- 
ing. Through  the  cooperation  of  Mr.  Church  of  the  Barrett  Company, 
one  of  the  best  tar  chemists  in  this  country,  it  was  proved  that  the  tem- 
perature in  the  pipes,  as  made  for  Akron,  varied  from,  say,  250°  F.  on  one 
side  to  perhaps  500*^  F.  on  the  other  side  of  the  same  pipe,  and  a  coating 
under  these  conditions  might  be  soft  on  one  side  of  the  pipe  and  brittle  on 
the  other. 

Recently,  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  Committee  on  Standard 
Specifications  for  Cast-Iron  Pipe,  I  have  had  some  correspondence  with 
Mr.  Church  in  regard  to  a  specification  which  would  guarantee  the  use  of  a 
straight  run  coal  tar,  and  his  position  is  practically  this,  that  until  we  are 
able  to  better  control  the  temperature  of  the  cast-iron  pipe  at  the  time  of 
dipping  it  is  useless  to  spend  much  time  in  the  refinement  of  the  specifi- 
cations for  tar. 

Mr.  G.  F.  Sever.  Mr.  President,  I  do  not  have  the  honor  of  belong- 
ing to  your  Association,  but  I  have  been  requested  by  Professor 
O.  C.  Jackson,  who  was  invited  to  discuss  this  paper,  to  attend  this  meeting. 
I  am  an  electrical  engineer,  and  it  is  very  interesting  to  me  to  see  that 
electricity  does  not  appear  to  be  the  scapegoat  that  it  sometimes  has  been 
made  in  water  works  investigations. 

Water  Works  Engineers  have  recommended  that  the  electric  railroads, 
on  account  of  the  alleged  electrolytic  damage  caused  by  the  current,  be 
compelled  to  put  up  double  overhead  trolley  lines  and  remove  their  cur- 
rents entirely  from  the  rails.  I  am  very  glad  to  see  now  that  there  are 
recognized  other  means  causing  the  destruction  of  steel  and  cast  iron  pipes 
than  our  electric  railway  currents. 

I  have  investigated  the  corrosion  of  pipes  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Dayton, 
O.,  Peoria,  111.,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  in  Trenton  and  other 
places.  I  have  found  water  and  gas  pipes  and  also  Edison  tubes  which  have 
been  treated,  lying  in  certain  kinds  of  soil,  particularly  with  a  cinder  con- 
tent, which  have  been  entirely  corroded  through  and  destroyed  purely 
from  the  chemical  actions  that  occurred.  And  I  have  had  occasion  to  in- 
vestigate in  the  outskirts  of  Philadelphia  an  iron  gas  pipe  which  was  treated 
at  the  gas  works  by  a  covering  of  tar  and  paper, — three  layers  of  paper,  each 
one  dipped  in  a  tar  compound  —  and  laid  in  a  marshy  soil,  far  removed 
from  the  electric  railroad.  The  gas  company  claimed  that  the  electric 
railway  current  was  the  cause  of  the  continuous  destruction  of  this  iron 
gas  pipe.  Tests  on  the  electric  railroad  in  that  vicinity  showed  no  possi- 
bility of  any  current  flow  on  this  gas  main,  and  by  applying  electrical  instru- 
ments to  the  gas  main  there  was  found  no  electric  railway  current,  but  the 
gas  main  would  last  possibly  two  or  three  months  and  have  to  be  contin- 
ually replaced  by  other  and  new  pipe.  Moisture  seemed  to  permeate  the 
covering  and  localize  chemical  action  on  the  pipe. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


188  INVESTIGATION  OF  ELECTROLYSIS. 

Recently  I  have  had  occasion  to  investigate  a  large  water  conduit  in 
the  State  of  Maine.  It  was  of  cast-iron  and  fed  a  large  city.  We  were 
called  in  to  make  tests  on  it,  to  see  if  there  was  any  possibility  of  electro- 
lysis caused  by  the  current  from  a  suburban  electric  railroad.  The  pipe 
in  this  case  I  believe  has  been  laid  16  or  18  years,  and  in  imcovering  it 
near  the  railroad  we  found  the  asphalt  covering  absolutely  intact.  The 
pipe  was  lying  in  a  moist  soil  and  we  had  to  scrape  the  covering  from  the 
pipe  in  order  to  attach  to  it  by  solder  a  couple  of  leads  for  an  electrical 
recording  instrument.  We  observed  the  pipe  at  this  location  through  its 
full  length,  and  all  about  it,  and  could  not  see  any  deterioration  of  the 
protective  covering. 

In  regard  to  the  remarks  of  the  author  of  the  second  paper  about  the 
action  of  the  electric  railroad  in  analyzing  and  making  an  economic  study 
of  their  electric  supply  system,  I  would  say  that  I  have  had  occasion  to 
lay  out  a  number  of  return  feeder  systems  for  electric  railroads,  and  have 
recommended  the  absolute  taking  away  of  any  connection  between  water 
supply  systems  and  the  negative  bus  of  the  railroad,  have  introduced 
many  negative  feeders  in  order  to  reUeve  the  rails  and  pipes  of  their  high 
electric  potentials  and  have  recommended  over  and  over  again  automatic 
substations  at  short  intervals  in  order  to  reduce  the  potentials  that  nor- 
mally obtain  on  suburban  and  interurban  railroad  systems  where  the 
substations  are  now  possibly  three  to  six  miles  apart,  with  the  ordinary 
600  volt  direct  current  system. 

So  that  in  almost  all  cases  where  there  has  been  any  trouble  —  at 
least,  in  recent  years — the  railroads  are  endeavoring  to  remedy  the  troubles, 
to  mitigate  them,  and,  if  possible  keep  the  water  supply  systems  as  far 
away  from  the  railway  system  and  the  return  feeders  as  is  possible. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


PROPOSED  EXTENSION  OF  THE  METROPOLITAN  WATER 

DISTRICT. 

BY  X.   H.   GOODNOUGH.* 

Under  the  provisions  of  Chapter  49  of  the  Resolves  of  the  year  1919, 
the  State  Department  of  Health  and  the  Metropolitan  Water  and  Sewerage 
Board,  which  is  now  the  Metropolitan  District  Commission,  were  directed 
to  consider  the  water  supply  needs  and  resources  of  the  State  with  special 
reference  to  the  requirements  of  certain  districts,  most  important  among 
which  is  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  created  by  Chapter  488  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Year  1895. 

The  first  questions  to  be  determined  were  the  present  needs  of  the 
district  and  its  probable  future  requirements,  and  these  questions  have  in- 
volved a  study  of  past  growth  in  population  and  in  the  use  of  water.  The 
problem  of  the  population  of  this  district  25  or  60  years  hence  is  of  course 
an  insolvable  one,  and  the  only  safe  ground  of  estimate  is  to  assume  that 
its  future  growth  will  continue  about  as  past  experience  indicates.  The 
original  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1895  recommended  a  dis- 
trict of  28  cities  and  towns  which  contained,  in  1890,  a  population  of 
848  012  inhabitants.  The  State  Board  of  Health  stated  in  that  report 
however,  that  "  inasmuch  as  the  cities  of  Cambridge,  Lynn,  Newton, 
Waltham  and  Wobum  and  the  towns  of  Brookline,  Lexington,  Nahant, 
Saugus,  Swampscott  and  Winchester,  together  containing,  in  1890,  210  252 
inhabitants,  beUeve  that  they  have  a  sufl5cient  supply  for  some  years  to 
come,  we  do  not  recommend  that  they  be  provided  with  water  from  the 
Metropolitan  supply  until  they  formally  express  their  wish  for  it."  The 
exclusion  of  these  places  left  17  municipaUties  which,  it  was  reconmiended 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  should 'constitute  the  original  district, 
but  when  the  legislation  was  finally  enacted  only  13  municipalities  were 
included  and  that  number  has  since  been  reduced  by  the  annexation  of  the 
town  of  Hyde  Park  to  the  city  of  Boston.  But  since  the  district  was  formed 
in  1895  it  has  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  city  of  Quincy  and  the 
towns  of  Arlington,  Lexington,  Milton,  Nahant,  Stoneham  and  Swampscott, 
so  that  it  contains  at  the  present  time  19  cities  and  towns  which  had  in 
1895  a  population  of  763  417.  At  the  end  of  1920  the  population  of  this 
group  of  municipalities  was  1  252  903.  The  total  quantity  of  water 
consumed  in  this  district  in  1895  was  about  69  000  000  gal.  per  day,  and  the 
quantity  used  in  1920  was  131  000  000  gal.  per  day,  or  nearly  double  the 
amount  used  25  years  earlier. 

*  Director  and  Chief  Engineer.  Mass.  State  Dept.  Public  Health. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


190 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


Estimated  Population  to  be  Supplied. 

A  study  of  the  census  records  shows  that  the  population  of  the  Metro- 
politan Water  District  has  doubled  in  the  past  32  years.  The  percentage  of 
growth  of  the  district  has  been  a  very  steady  one.  Taking  the  progressive 
30-year  increases,  it  is  found  that  in  30-year  periods  beginning  with  the 
period  1850-1880  and  including  the  period  1885-1915,  the  increase  has 
ranged  from  103.5  to  123.3  per  cent;  that  is,  in  each  of  these  periods  the 
population  has  more  than  doubled  in  30  years.  In  the  period  which 
included  the  recent  war,  however,  there  was  a  decided  reduction  in  the  rate 
of  growth,  the  increase  falling  from  115.9  per  cent  in  the  period  1885-1915 
to  89.1  per  cent  in  the  period  1890-1920.  Of  course  this  falling  off  was 
largely  if  not  wholly  due  to  the  war,  but  in  estimating  the  future  per- 
centage of  growth  it  has  been  assumed  that  this  percentage  will  continue 
to  be  a  declining  one,  approximately  as  shown  in  the  following  table. 

Table  showing  Percentage  of  Population  Increase  bt  TmRTT-YEAR  Periods, 
WITH  Estimates  for  1920  to  1970. 

metropolitan  DISTRICT.   INCLUDING   NEWTON. 


Period. 

Per  Cent  Increaae. 

Period. 

Per  Cent  Increwe. 

1850-1880 

123.6 

1895-1925 

81.2 

1855-1885 

103.6 

1900-1930 

73.0 

1860-1890 

109.6 

1905-1935 

73.6 

1865-1895 

123.3 

1910-1940 

66.8 

1870-1900 

124.2 

1915-1945 

59.8 

1875-1905 

103.5 

1920-1950 

63.8 

1880-1910 

113.7 

1925-1955 

58.0 

1885-1915 

115.9 

1930-1960 

52.9 

1890-1920 

89.1 

1935-1965 

48.8 

1940-1970 

45.1 

Using  this  lesser  rate  of  increase,  the  future  population  of  the  district 
would  be  about  as  shown  on  the  accompanying  diagram.  On  this  diagram 
(No.  1)  are  shown  the  actual  growth  in  population  from  1870  to  1920  and 
the  estimated  growth  to  1970.  The  diagram  also  shows  the  future  popu- 
lation of  the  cities  and  towns  now  comprising  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District  as  estimated  in  the  report  of  1895,  those  estimates  having  been 
based  on  the  growth  of  population  up  to  1890.  The  diagram  shows  that 
the  actual  increase  in  population  varied  but  little  from  the  estimates 
during  the  first  years  — 1890  to  1900  —  but  from  1900  to  1905  there  was  a 
falling  off,  and  then  from  1905  to  1915  the  lines  are  nearly  parallel.  Up 
to  1915  the  estimate  of  population  made  by  the  State  Board  of  Health 
based  on  the  censuses  previous  to  1890  exceeded  the  actual  by  about 
10.9  per  cent.  Of  course  in  the  war  period  from  1915  to  1920  there  was  a 
decided  decrease  in  the  growth  of  the  district  as  in  New  York  and  other 
places,  but  even  in  1920  the  difference  between  the  attual  and  estimated 
growth  based  on  censuses  of  30  years  earlier  was  less  than  20  per  cent. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


191 


D/AORAM  5H0W/A/G  PQPULAT/ON   Of 
THE    M£TPOPOL/TAN    WATEP    P/STRICT 

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Diagram  No.  1. 

The  growth  of  the  different  parts  of  the  district  also  shows  considerable 
variation  as  indicated  on  diagram  No.  2.  The  area  of  the  city  of  Boston  is 
only  some  40  odd  square  miles,  and  the  rate  of  growth  is  lessening  as  the 
density  of  population  becomes  greater.  The  portion  of  the  district  ex- 
clusive of  the  city  of  Boston  is  growing  more  rapidly  than  the  city  itself  and 
there  is  still  a  large  population  outside  the  district  which  is  showing  a  steady 
and  rapid  growth. 

On  diagram  No.  3  is  shown  a  comparison  between  the  growth  of  the 
Metropolitan  Water  District  and  of  the  city  of  Boston,  as  compiled  by  the 
U.  S.  Census  Bureau,  and  that  of  the  other  great  metropoUtan  centers,  of 
which  there  are  now  five  in  the  United  States  that  have  a  population  in  ex- 
cess of  one  milUon  inhabitants.  A  study  of  this  diagram  shows  in  the  first 
place  that  the  growth  of  the  city  of  Chicage  was  much  the  most  rapid  of  all 
for  many  ^''ears  but  that  this  rate  has  in  later  years  diminished  and  in  recent 
years  has  been  but  a  Uttle,  if  any,  greater  than  that  of  the  two  cities  next  in 
size  —  Philadelphia  and  Boston.  Compared  with  Philadelphia,  the  Boston 
district  grew  more  rapidly  on  the  whole  up  to  1915,  but  its  rate  of  growth 
was  curtailed  during  the  period  of  the  war.  The  city  of  Pittsburgh,  next 
to  Chicago,  has  grown  at  a  very  rapid  rate,  but  since  1910  its  rate  of  growth 
haa  been  somewhat  less  than  that  of  Boston  or.Philadelphia.  The  city  of 
New  York  has  grown  in  recent  years  more  rapidly  than  the  others,  though, 
like  Boston,  the  rate  was  seriously  diminished  in  the  last  census  period  on 
account  of  the  war.     Leaving  out  the  war  period,  which  affected  the  dif- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


192 


PROPOSED  EXTENSION  OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


o 

;?; 

s 

OS 

3 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


193 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


194  PROPOSED   EXTENSION  OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISIRICT. 

ferent  cities  in  diflferent  ways,  there  is  nothing  in  this  record  to  indicate  that 
the  growth  of  the  metropoUtan  district  of  Boston  is  not  keeping  pace  with 
that  of  the  other  great  metropolitan  centers.  Obviously  prudence  requires 
that  allowance  must  be  made  for  a  rate  of  growth  in  the  future  which  shall 
follow  the  general  curve  indicated  by  the  exp)erience  of  previous  years. 

Water  Consumption  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  ex- 
elusive  of  the  city  of  Newton,  in  1920  was  127  265  000  gal.  per  day,  or  105.5 
gal.  to  each  inhabitant.  Including  the  city  of  Newton,  the  total  con- 
sumption was  130  952  000  gal.  per  day,  or  104.5  gal.  per  person  per  day,  but 
the  City  of  Newton  provided  its  entire  water  supply  during  the  year  from 
its  own  sources.  The  aggregate  amount  of  water  used  in  the  municipalities 
which  now  compose  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  excluding  the  city  of 
Newton,  in  1894,  the  year  before  the  district  was  established,  was  63  759  000 
gal.  per  day,  or  89  gal.  per  inhabitant;  that  is,  the  consumption  of  water  in 
the  district,  exclusive  of  Newton,  doubled  in  the  26  years  from  1894  to  1920. 
The  consumption  of  water  in  the  District  and  in  the  City  of  Newton  in  each 
year  from  1893  to  1920  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Average  Daily  Water  Consumption,  Metropoutan  Water  District. 

Metropolitan 
Year.  Water  District.  Newton.  Total. 

1893 64  795  000 1  370  000 66  166  000 

1894 63  759  000 1  623  000 65  382  000 

1895 67  698  000 1  801  000 69  499  000 

1896 76  548  000 1  812  000 78  360  000 

1897 78  989  000 1  804  000 80  793  000 

1898 81  893  000 1  758  000 83  651  000 

1899 90  075  000 2  036  000 92  111  000 

1900 95  973  000 2  086  000 98  069  000 

1901 102  802  000 1  843  000 104  645  000 

1902 108  418  000 1  927  000 110  346  000 

1903 108  168  000 2  109  000 110  277  000 

1904 114  937  000 2  188  000... 117  125  000 

1905 117  757  000 2  151  000 119  908  000 

1906 118  567  000 2  223  000 120  790  000 

1907 125  307  000 2  318  000 127  625  000 

1908 126  479  000 2  444  000 128  923  000 

1909 120  240  000 2  344  000 122  584  000 

1910 113  239  000 2  505  000 115  744  000 

1911 110  907  000 2  583  000 113  490  000 

1912 116  231  000 2  732  000 118  963  000 

1913 103  848  OQD 2  889  000 106  737  000 

1914 107  036  000 2  960  000 109  996  000 

1915 101  942  000 2  830  000 104  772  000 

1916 106  338  000 3  099  000 109  437  000 

1917 110  032  000 3  121  000 113  153  000 

1918 129  764  000 3  426  000 133  190  000 

1919 120  594  000 3  488  000 124  082  000 

1920 127  265  000 3  687  000 130  952  000 

Records  from  1893-1903.  inpKi<iive,  b<ised  on  pumpage  records. 
Records  from  1904  to  date,  inclusive,  baaed  on  meter  reoortlf*. 

Record"  from  1893-1908.  inrluwve.  inr-lude  small  amount  of  water  supplied  by  Revere  to  Saugus  (this 
amount  not  included  after  1908). 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  195 

After  the  establishment  of  the  district  the  consumption  of  water  per 
inhabitant  rose  very  rapidly  until  1904,  when  it  reached  128  gal.  per  capita 
at  a  time  when  the  number  of  metered  services  in  the  district  was  about 
11  per  cent  of  the  total.  Following  1904  the  more  liberal  use  of  meters  was 
begun  in  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  district  outside  the  city  of  Boston, 
and  whereas  in  1904  only  19  per  cent  of  the  services  were  metered  in  these 
municipalities,  by  1908  the  per  cent  of  metered  services  had  risen  to  47.6 
and  the  number  continued  to  rise  to  85.7  per  cent  in  1915  and  91.1  per 
cent  in  1920.  In  the  city  of  Boston  6.5  per  cent  of  the  services  were 
metered  in  1908,  53.1  per  cent  in  1915  and  62.5  per  cent  in  1920.  In  the 
district  as  a  whole,  excluding  iJewton,  the  percentage  of  metered  services 
rose  from  10.8  per  cent  in  1904  to  21.8  per  cent  in  1908,  to  66.6  per  cent  in 
1915  and  74.6  per  cent  in  1920.  It  will  be  seen  that,  following  the  legisla- 
tion in  1907  requiring  the  general  application  of  meters  on  all  services, 
the  introduction  of  meters  rapidly  followed  and  the  consumption  per  capita 
in  the  district  as  a  whole  fell  from  130.4  gal.  in  1907  to  88  gal.  in  1915,  the 
latter*  amount  being  slightly  less  than  the  quantity  used  in  the  same  munici- 
palities in  1894.  This  great  and  rapid  reduction  in  the  use  of  water  per 
capita  by  means  of  the  general  application  of  meters  appeared  to  solve  the 
problem  of  waste  prevention,  a  subject  which  has  engaged  the  serious 
attention  of  water  works  authorities  since  water  works  were  first  intro- 
duced; but  following  the  small  quantity  of  water  used  in  1915  —  88  gal.  per 
capita  —  which  was  unquestionably  due  to  a  combination  of  causes  all 
operating  to  produce  a  minimum  use  of  water,  the  consumption  of  water 
per  capita  again  began  to  rise  and  amounted  in  1920  to  105.5  gal.  per  day. 
In  one  of  these  years,  1918,  the  amount  of  water  used  per  capita  rose  to 
109.3  gal.  per  day  in  consequence  of  an  unusually  cold  winter.  These 
changes  are  shown  in  the  following  table  and  on  diagram  No.  4. 

In  the  city  of  Boston  the  percentage  of  metered  services  is  less  than 
in  the  district  as  a  whole,  amounting  in  1920  to  62.5  per  cent  while  in  the 
district  outside  of  Boston  the  percentage  of  metered  services  in  1920  was 
91.1  per  cent,  but  the  experience  has  been  practically  the  same  in  all  of  the 
municipalities  composing  the  district,  viz.,  a  great  rise  in  the  consumption 
of  water  per  capita  following  the  creation  of  the  district  and  a  great  reduc- 
tion during  the  period  of  the  introduction  of  meters,  which  continued  until 
1915  when  66.6  per  cent  of  the  services  had  been  metered.  After  that  year 
the  consumption  of  water  again  began  to  rise  and  has  continued  to  rise 
though  the  percentage  of  metered  services  has  increased  from  66.6  to  74.6 
per  cent. 

In  view  of  this  marked  increase  in  the  consumption  of  water  in  the 
last  few  years,  notwithstanding  the  general  use  of  meters  in  the  district, 
it  has  been  deemed  important  to  collect  information  as  to  the  conditions 
existing  in  other  cities  where  the  meter  sj^'stem  has  been  in  use  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time.  In  connection  with  this  question,  information 
has  been  obtained  from  all  of  the  large  northern  cities  of  the  United  States 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


196 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


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197 


Per 


Ctpijs 


METROPOLITAN    WATER  DISTRICT 
Pitpvhtton  Euhdirtf  fikwi»9,inO'IJlH.949 

^    ,,         BOSTO// 

Fopvhtnn  l$ZO ^ 7($.0eO 

METROPOLITAN    WATER  PI5TRICT  MINUS 
NEWTON  AND  BOSTON 
Populaiioff  I9i0 4S9,789 


\90*    95     M     ^     0§     09    1910    II      IZ     13     14    l9tS    K      17     IB     19    0» 

Diagram  No.  4. 


east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  where  climatic  conditions  are  similar  to  those 
at  Boston.  In  this  territory  there  are  13  cities,  exclusive  of  the  Boston 
Metropolitan  District,  having  by  the  census  of  1920  a  population  in  excess 
of  400  000.  The  records  of  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  in  each 
of  these  cities,  together  with  the  percentage  of  services  metered,  has  been 
furnished  by  city  officials,  the  information  covering  in  most  cases  periods 
as  long  as  30  years.  From  these  records  it  appears  that  in  5  of  these 
cities  over  90  per  cent  of  the  services  are  metered,  while  in  all  of  the  other 
cities,  the  percentage  of  metered  services  is  less  than  in  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District;  these  5  cities  and  the  percentage  of  services  metered  in  each 
in  1920  are  shown  in  the  following  table; 

Detroit 97  per  cent. 

Cleveland 100  per  cent. 

Milwaukee 99  per  cent. 

Cincinnati   99  per  cent. 

Newark 92  per  cent. 

In  this  list  of  cities  the  application  of  meters  to  services  generally  has 
been  so  recent  in  two  of  the  cities  —  Detroit  and  Cincinnati  —  that  little 
information  is  furnished  by  their  experience  as  to  the  changes  in  the  con- 
sumption of  water  after  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  services  have 
been  metered. 

The  accompanying  diagrams  Nos.  5  and  6  show  the  per  capita  con- 
sumption and  the  per  cent  of  metered  services  in  these  5  cities,  so  far  as  the 
records  of  consumption  are  available. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


198 


PROPOSED  EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


CLEVELAND,  0 

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Diagram  No.  5. 


DETROIT.  MICH. 
Populmtion  I9i0  '  995,676 


CINCINNATI,    O. 
Population  f9e0*4Ot,df7 


NEWARK.  V  J 
POpuhtton  /9^0*4I4.S^4 

JlEIBIt 


In  Cleveland  the  general  introduction  of  meters  was  begun  about  1900 
when  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  services  had  been  metered  and  the  con- 
sumption per  capita  was  176  gal.  The  amount  of  water  used  per  capita  de- 
creased rapidly  as  the  number  of  meters  increased  until  in  1905,  when  68. 
per  cent  of  the  services  had  been  metered,  the  consumption  per  capita  had 
fallen  to  128  gal.  It  continued  to  fall  for  4  years  more  until  in  1909  when  it 
amounted  to  94  gal.  with  97  per  cent  of  the  services  metered.  Since  1909 
with  over  97  per  cent  of  the  services  metered  the  consumption  of  water  per 
capita  has  again  risen  and  amounted  to  152  gal.  in  1920. 

In  Milwaukee  the  experience  has  been  similar  to  that  of  Cleveland.  A 
high  per  capita  consumption  of  water  was  reduced  by  the  general  intro- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  199 

duction  of  meters,  and  when  72  per  cent  of  the  services  had  been  metered 
in  the  year  1901  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  had  fallen  in  the  pre- 
vious. 10  years  from  a  maximum  of  113  gal.  to  a  minimum  of  82  gal.  Be- 
tween 1901  and  1909  practically  all  of  the  remaining  services  were  metered 
and  all  services  have  been  metered  during  the  last  11  years.  Since  1901, 
however,  the  consumption  per  capita  in  this  completely  metered  city  has 
risen  from  82  to  134  gal.  Variations  in  the  consumption  of  water  per 
capita  and  the  percentage  of  metered  services  in  Cleveland  and  Milwaukee 
are  shown  on  diagram  No.  5. 

In  Newark,  in  the  years  1912, 1913  and  1914,  when  at  least  56  per  cent 
of  the  services  were  metered,  the  average  consumption  was  104  gal.  per 
day.  In  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  when  the  percentage  of  metered  services 
had  increased  to  from  90  to  92  per  cent,  the  per  capita  consumption  aver- 
aged about  107  gal.  per  day.  While  the  period  has  been  too  short  a  one  to 
form  satisfactory  conclusions,  so  far  as  the  records  show  up  to  the  pre- 
sent time  the  increase  in  the  percentage  of  metered  services  from  less 
than  60  to  over  90  has  been  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  consumption 
of  water  per  capita. 

Information  has  also  been  collected  from  cities  having  less  than  400  000 
inhabitants  in  1920,  in  which  a  large  percentage  of  the  services  are  metered. 
The  number  of  such  cities  from  which  records  have  been  obtained  which 
have  a  population  in  excess  of  25  000,  including  9  in  Massachusetts,  is  19; 
and  in  addition  there  are  3  other  cities  in  which  from  75  to  85  per  cent  of  the 
services  were  metered  in  1919  or  1920.  The  per  capita  consumption  and 
the  percentage  of  services  metered  in  practicaUy  all  of  these  cities  are  shown 
in  diagrams  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12. 

Diagram  No.  13  shows  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  and  the 
per  cent  of  metered  services  in  a  residential  district  comprising  Brookline, 
Newton,  Needham  and  Wellesley,  containing  in  1920  a  population  of 
97  038,  —  these  municipalities  being  adjacent  to  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District  and  one  of  them,  the  city  of  Newton,  a  member  of  the  district, 
though  that  city  does  not  take  water  from  the  district  sources  at  the  present 
time. 

The  experience  in  the  various  cities  following  the  general  metering  of 
the  services  as  presented  in  the  diagrams  shows  that  in  a  great  majority  of 
cases  the  general  introduction  of  meters  in  a  city  in  which  few  meters  have 
previously  been  in  use  has  been  followed  by  a  large  reduction  in  the  use  of 
water  per  capita.  The  experience  in  the  MetropoUtan  Water  District 
in  this  respect  is  duplicated  in  practically  all  of  the  cities  for  which  records 
have  been  obtained.  But  the  diagrams  also  indicate  clearly  that  in  the 
great  majority  of  these  cases  after  two-thirds  or  more  of  the  services  had 
been  metered  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  sooner  or  later  began 
again  to  increase  and  has  continued  to  increase  up  to  the  present  time,  not- 
withstanding the  continued  application  of  meters  until  most  or  all  of  the 
services  have  been  metered. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


200  PROPOSED   EXTENSION  OF   METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


201 


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Diagram  No.  10. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


202 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION  OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


203 


NEWTON  -  BROOKLINE 

NEEDHAM-  WELLES  LEY 

COMBINED   POPULATION   1920^97.038 


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Diagram  No.  13. 


(iEXERAL  InCKEASE  IN  THE  CONSUMPTION  OF  WaTER  PER  CAPITA  AfTER 

Two-Thirds  to  Three-Fourths  of  the  Services 
Have  Been  Metered. 

In  this  study  the  object  has  been  to  leam  what  changes  have  taken 
place  in  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  after  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  services  have  been  metered,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District.  The  table  on  page  204  shows  the  changes  in  the  use  of 
water  per  capita  in  the  cities  for  which  records  have  been  obtained  in  which 
the  percentage  of  metered  services  in  1920  is  substantially  greater  than  75 
per  cent  and  in  which  a  sufficient  number  of  years  has  elapsed  after  a  substan- 
tial per  cent  of  the  services  were  metered  to  furnish  information  as  to  the 
changes  in  the  per  capita  consumption  with  the  increased  use  of  meters.  In 
this  table  an  average  of  3  years,  when  about  74  per  cent  of  the  services 
had  been  metered  in  each  city,  is  compared  with  an  average  of  the  last  3 
years  available,  usually  the  years  1918,  1919  and  1920. 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  in  all  but  2  cases  —  those  of  Hartford 
and  Lawrence — there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  consumption  of  water  per 
capita  since  75  per  cent  of  the  services  were  metered;  the  average  increase 
when  comparison  is  made  of  the  years  1918,  1919  and  1920  being  1.42  gal.; 
or,  using  the  years  1917,  1918  and  1919,  1.31  gal.  In  Hartford  the  full 
effect  of  metering  does  not  appear  to  have  been  secured  when  the  number 
of  meters  was  increased  from  6  to  71  per  cent  in  3  years.  For  some  time 
after  this  sudden  increase  in  the  use  of  meters  the  use  of  water  per  capita 
decreased,  but  in  the  last  13  years  there  has  been  an  increase  of  0.38  of  a 
^Uon  per  capita  per  year.  In  Lawrence  the  consumption  of  water  per 
i-apita  since  1900,  when  more  than  75  per  cent  of  the  services  were  metered, 
has  decreased  0.2  of  a  gallon  per  person  per  year;  but  since  becoming  more 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


204 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF   METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


City. 

Cleveland  . . . 
Milwaukee  . .  . 
Minneapolis  . 
Rochester  . . . 
Providence    . . 

Toledo 

St.  Paul 

Hartford   

Yonkers 

Pawtucket  . . . 
Manchester  . . 
Atlantic  City 

Madison 

Burlington  .  . . 
Woonsocket  . . 
Worcester  . .  . 
Fall  River.  ... 
Lawrence  . .  . . 

Lowell  

New  Bedford 
Brockton  . . . . 
Fitchburg    . . 


k'ears  rinre  about  75% 

Services  became 

Metered. 

13 

Increase  or  Decrease  in 
Consumption  of  Wat^r 
per    Capita   in     tho«e 
Years  (Gals,  per  Year>. 

IJiO 

17 

2.70 

11 

2.61 

11 

1.48 

24 

1.33 

11 

2.52 

6 

2.61 

18 

-0.50 

29 

1.15 

22 

0.79 

11 

0.73 

20 

3.73 

23 

2.12 

17 

1.10 

28 

1.42 

23 

1.26 

29 

0.80 

20 

-0.32 

12 

0.86 

7 

0.57 

23 

0.57 

5 

2.07 

1.42* 

1890  with  82% 

metered 

services. 

Average 

Yonkers,  N.  Y.  —  Records 
Woonsocket,  R.  L —  Records  begin  1890  with  83%  metered  services. 
Fitchburg,  Mass.  —  Records  begin  1914  with  87%  metered  services. 
Worcester,  Mass.  —  Records  begin  1896  w^ith  93%  metered  services. 

than  90  per  cent  metered  in  1910  the  consumption  of  water  has  increased 
at  the  rate  of  0.4  of  a  gallon  per  person  per  year.  In  Fall  River  after  the 
percentage  of  metered  services  reached  about  75  the  increase  in  the  con- 
sumption of  water  p)er  capita  in  30  years  was  0.8  of  a  gallon  per  person  per 
year.  After  meters  had  been  applied  to  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the 
services  the  increase  has  been  0.61  of  a  gallon  per  year.  Of  all  this  group 
of  cities  the  important  ones  which  show  a  decrease  in  the  consumption  of 
water  per  capita  are  Newark,  Lawrence  and  Hartford  and,  as  already  seen, 
even  in  these  cases  apparently  after  the  full  effect  of  metering  had  been 
experienced  the  consumption  of  water  again  increased. 

In  the  more  fully  metered  communities  in  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District  outside  of  Boston  there  has  also  been  an  increase  in  the  consumption 
of  water  per  capita  in  the  last  6  years.  In  the  suburban  municipalities  of 
Brookline,  Newton,  Needham  and  Wellesley  the  increase  since  70  per  cent 
of  the  services  became  metered  in  1896  has  been  about  0.8  of  a  gallon  per 
person  per  year.  But  while  as  a  general  rule  no  further  material  reduction 
in  the  use  of  water  per  capita  is  effected  by  the  complete  metering  of  all  the 

*This  average  would  be  1.31  if  average  of  returns  for  1917.  1918  and  1919  is  uaed. 


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GOODNOUGH.  205 

services  after  about  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  services  have  been 
metered,  nevertheless  there  has  been  in  many  cases  some  further  reduction 
in  the  use  of  water  per  capita  afterwards;  or  at  least  a  temporary  reduction 
has  been  effected  which  has  retarded  for  a  few  years  the  increase  in  the 
consumption  of  water  per  capita  in  fully  metered  citjies.  In  some  of  these 
cases  where  the  meter  system  was  adopted  many  years  ago  information  is 
lacking  as  to  the  effect  of  metering  the  remaining  services  after  a  total  of 
75  per  cent  had  been  reached;  and  in  others  the  complete  metering  of  the 
services  was  carried  out  too  recently  to  furnish  definite  information  with 
respect  to  this  question;  while  in  still  others  the  application  of  additional 
meters  after  a  total  of  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  services  had  been 
metered  was  accompanied  by  a  steady  increase  in  the  consumption  of  water 
per  capita.  However,  in  the  11  cities  for  which  records  are  available,  the 
appUcation  of  meters  to  the  remaining  services,  after  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  services  had  been  metered,  caused  for  a  time  a  reduction  in 
the  consimiption  of  water  per  capita.  In  these  cities  the  amount  of  the 
reduction  ranged  from  1  to  18  gallons  per  capita  and  averaged  9  gallons,  in 
periods  ranging  from  1  to  14  years  and  averaging  4^  years.  After  this 
j)eriod  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  again  began  to  increase  and 
returned  to  its  earher  figure  in  from  2  to  12  years,  except  in  the  case  of  one 
small  manufacturing  city  where  the  period  amounted  to  21  years.  The 
length  of  this  period  of  return  averaged  8.6  years;  or,  if  the  city  referred  to 
were  excluded,  7.4  years.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  reduction  in  the  con- 
sumption of  water  per  capita  as  shown  in  these  cases  usually  follo;wed  a 
much  greater  previous  reduction  due  to  the  application  of  meters  up  to 
two-thirds  or  three-foiulihs  of  the  total  number  of  services  and  was  a  con- 
tinuation of  that  reduction.  There  is  no  case  in  which  the  consumption 
of  water  has  later  been  reduced,  after  it  had  begun  to  increase,  when  two 
thirds  to  three-fourths  of  all  the  services  were  metered,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Metropolitan  Water  District. 

In  general  then,  so  far  as  these  records  show,  the  full  effect  of  metering 
is  reached  after  a  total  of  about  75  per  cent  of  the  services  have  been  meter- 
ed, but  the  effect  of  applying  meters  to  the  remaining  services  in  many  cases 
is  to  effect  a  fm^her  reduction  for  a  time  and  to  delay  for  a  few  years  the 
beginning  of  the  increase  in  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  after  the 
application  of  meters  has  become  nearly  or  quite  complete.  The  practi- 
cally invariable  rule,  however,  is  that  after  75  per  cent  of  the  services  have 
been  metered  the  consumption  of  water  again  increases,  and  even  in  fully 
metered  cities  continues  to  increase  in  spite  of  the  complete  adoption  of  the 
meter  system.  This  is  no  argument,  of  course,  for  not  completing  the 
metering  of  all  services.  Aside  from  the  saving  in  water  consumption, 
metering  is  the  only  equitable  way  in  which  to  assess  the  charges  for  water; 
and  without  complete  metering  there  will  continue  to  be  waste  which  might 
be  prevented  by  the  use  of  meters. 

The  results  of  this  study  as  a  whole  show  clearly  that  there  has  not 


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206  PROPOSED  EXTENSION  OP  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

only  been  a  decided  increase  in  the  use  of  water  per  capita  after  complete 
metering  in  great  cities  like  Cleveland,  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Providence, 
but  also  in  small  cities  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  where  climatic  con- 
ditions are  similar  to  those  existing  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District. 

Inquiry  has  also  been  made  concerning  the  experience  in  English  cities 
as  to  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  and 
the  allowances  which  are  being  made  therefor,  the  results  of  which  are 
shown  in  the  following  table. 

City. 

Bradford   

Glasgow 

Leicester   

Manchester 

Nottingham    

London    

Liverpool 


Average  IncreaJ>e  in 
Consumption  per  Capita 
(U.  S.  CJ aliens  per  Year). 

0.8                 

Number  of  Years 
included. 

1909-1918 

0.4 

1909-1920 

0.6 

1908-1920 

0.5 

1907-1920 

0.4 

1907-1920 

0.8 

1907-1920 

0.6 

1905-1919 

It  thus  appears  that  what  is  true  in  American  cities  is  also  true  in 
English  cities,  namely,  that  there  is  a  continued  increase  in  the  consump- 
tion of  water  per  capita,  and  in  estimating  for  future  requirements  English 
engineers  are  providing  for  such  an  increase.  I 

Causes  of  the  Increase  in  Water  Consumption. 

The  causes  of  this  general  increase  in  the  per  capita  consumption  of 
water  are  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  a  gradually  improving  standard  of  livbig 
and  to  growth  in  business  and  industry.  The  number  of  water  fixtures 
in  dwelling  houses  has  increased  enormously  in  proportion  to  the  population 
in  the  last  40  years.  Every  dwelling  place  is  supposed  to  have  at  least  one 
bath  tub  and  many  dwelling  houses  now  have  two  or  more. 

Even  with  this  increase  in  use,  the  domestic  consumption  in  many 
cities  is  less  than  the  amount  used  for  manufacturing  purposes.  In  some 
cases  the  amounts  used  for  manufacturing  are  very  large.  In  the  city  of 
Peabody,  for  example,  where  a  special  kind  of  manufacturing  using  large 
quantities  of  water  has  become  established,  the  consumption  of  water, 
notwitstanding  the  fact  that  90  per  cent  of  the  services  are  metered,  has 
constantly  risen  until  in  1920  it  exceeded  200  gal.  per  capita.  It  has  been 
impracticable  to  determine  the  relative  quantities  of  water  used  for  various 
purposes  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  but  the  relative  amounts 
drawn  for  various  purposes  in  an  industrial  city  are  indicated  by  the 
following  records  of  consumption  in  the  city  of  New  Bedford  in  1920, 
kindly  furnished  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Taylor,  Acting  Superintendent  of  the 
Water  Works.  Cons. 

Per  Capita  Per  Cent 

(Gallons).  of  Total. 

Domestic  consumption  28  36 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical  uses 41  52 

Testing,  flushing,  fountains  and  all  other  purposes,  including  fires,        9  12 

Total 78  100 

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GOODNOUGH.  207 

In  residential  sections  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  the  con- 
sumption of  water  per  capita  is  probably  larger  than  in  New  Bedford,  but 
even  then  it  is  probably  less  than  double  the  quantity  used  for  domestic 
purposes  in.  that  city.  In  the  outlying  districts  with  large  lawns  and 
gardens  the  consumption  of  water  is  higher,  as  shown  by  the  amoimt  used 
in  Brookline,  Newton,  Needham  and  Wellesley  in  the  diagram  already 
exhibited.  While  the  amount  of  manufacturing  in  these  towns  is  com- 
paratively small,  yet  with  nearly  100  per  cent  of  the  services  metered  they 
are  using  over  80  gal.  per  capita.  The  use  for  manufacturing  in  the  Metro- 
politan Water  District  is  probably  less  per  inhabitant  than  in  the  case  of 
New  Bedford. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  in  the  city  of 
B(;ston  is  much  higher  then  in  any  other  cities  and  towns  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan District  and  that  the  percentage  of  metered  services  is  less  than  in  the 
district  outside  the  city.  The  per  capita  consumption  in  Boston  rose  to 
lo2.4  gal.  in  1907  before  the  general  use  of  meters,  and  dropped  to  104.2  gal. 
in  1915  aft^r  about  53  per  cent  of  the  services  had  been  metered.  Since  that 
time  the  amount  used  has  increased,  amounting  to  126  gal.  in  1920.  It  is 
prissible  that  a  considerable  reduction  may  be  effected  in  the  consumption  of 
water  in  the  city  of  Boston  by  the  application  of  meters  to  the  remaining 
unices,  though  this  seems  hardly  probable.  It  is  natural  that  the  con- 
Munption  of  w^ater  per  capita  in  the  city  of  Boston  should  be  considerably 
hirfier  than  in  the  Metropolitan  District  as  a  whole,  because  the  city  con- 
tains the  principal  business  center  of  the  entire  district  and  is  peopled 
•luring  the  day  by  many  thousands  who  live  in  other  parts  of  the  district 
fr  outside  its  borders.  No  doubt  a  very  large  quantity  of  water  is  con- 
sumed in  the  down-town  section  of  the  city  by  those  who  live  in 
oTher  places,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita 
'•harged  to  Boston.  Some  indication  of  the  increase  in  population  of  the 
<  ity  of  Boston  in  the  day  time  is  furnished  by  records  of  passengers  carried 
i>y  the  railroads,  the  subways,  elevated  and  trolley  lines,  and  from  these 
FHords  it  is  possible  to  estimate  probably  quite  closely  the  population  which 
U  to  be  provided  for  in  addition  to  that  of  the  city  itself.  From  a  study  of 
tht^ae  records  it  appears  probable  that  the  population  of  the  city  of  Boston  is 
increased  during  the  day  time  by  some  250  000  people  or  more,  who  live 
<«itside  its  limits.  When  the  fact  is  taken  into  account  that  the  population 
i-*  increased  one-third  during  the  day  time,  it  is  important  that  allowance  for 
:his  increase  be  made  in  estimating  the  degree  to  which  the  consumption  of 
Water  in  the  city  can  be  reduced.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  consumption 
ha^  begun  to  increase  since  62  per  cent  of  the  services  were  metered,  there 
i"  no  great  encouragement  to  expect  that  a  further  material  reduction  in 
the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  will  be  effected  by  metering  the  re- 
maining services. 


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208       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Possibility  of  Reducing  the  Consumption  op  Water  by  the  Use  of! 
Auxiliary  Supplies  for  Manufacturing. 

This  question  has  always  arisen  in  connection  with  investigations  for 
an  additional  water  supply.  The  only  large  sources  of  supply  of  fresh  wateii 
are  the  rivers  which  flow  through  the  district,  especially  the  Charles,  the 
Mystic  and  the  Neponset  rivers,  which  carry  considerable  volumes  of  water,| 
especially  in  the  winter  and  spring.  A  large  part  of  the  flow  of  the  Charles 
River  is  withdrawn  before  it  reaches  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  in  the 
drier  part  of  the  year,  and  very  little  water  is  available  except  in  the  Charled 
River  Basin.  The  water  of  the  basin  naight  possibly  be  used  for  some 
manufacturing  purposes  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year,  especiall\i 
towards  its  upper  end,  but  during  much  of  the  time  the  water  of  the  basin  i^ 
largely  salt,  and  this  is  especially  true  in  dry  years.  It  is  not  probable  that 
any  considerable  permanent  supply  of  water  for  manufacturing  can  be  ob- 
tained from  that  source.  The  water  of  the  Neponset  River  and  of  th^ 
Mystic  River  within  the  limits  of  the  Metropolitan  District  are  far  too  badh] 
polluted  for  most  manufacturing  purposes.  There  are  large  numbers  ol 
wells  within  the  limits  of  the  Metropolitan  District  and  in  some  sections 
where  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  purpose  considerable  quantities 
of  ground  water  are  obtained,  but  the  areas  in  which  water  can  be  ob-J 
tained  from  the  ground  in  considerable  quantities  are  quite  limited  and 
the  aggregate  amount  of  water  obtainable  in  this  way  for  manufacturing  ig 
probably  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  amount  used  from  the  public 
works.  There  is  little  to  expect  in  the  way  of  increased  water  supply  from 
the  further  development  of  local  sources  for  industrial  uses. 

Prevention  of  Losses  by  Leakage. 

The  prevention  of  loss  of  water  by  leakage  from  distribution  pipes  i^ 
receiving  much  attention  especially  by  the  Boston  Water  Department,  and 
excellent  results  have  been  obtained  during  the  comparatively  short  tiinf^ 
this  work  has  been  in  progress,  a  considerable  saving  in  the  loss  of  watei 
having  already  been  effected.  The  results  of  this  work  so  far  as  it  has  l>eei3 
carried  indicate,  however,  that  the  preventable  loss  of  water  is  not  grea< 
in  comparison  with  the  whole  amount  of  water  used  and  such  loss  is  likehi 
to  persist  and  to  be  more  or  less  constant  even  with  the  most  efficient 
inspection  practicable.  This  is  true  especially  in  some  of  the  older  parts  ol 
the  city  where  the  water  pipes  have  been  laid  for  many  years  in  streets  in 
which  numerous  other  structures  have  been  placed,  increasing  the  dang:ei 
of  breaks  and  leaks.  It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  loss  of  water  by  leak- 
age from  water  pipes  is  due  to  numerous  comparatively  small  leaks  which 
are  distributed  over  so  great  a  length  of  pipe  line  that  the  cost  of  whollv 
eliminating  them  would  obviously  be  prohibitive,  but  the  work  of  eliminat- 
ing losses  of  water  by  leakage,  so  far  as  it  is  practicable  to  eliminate  them, 
is  of  the  highest  importance  in  preventing  a  greater  increase  in  the  consunip- 


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Google . 


GOODNOUGH. 


209 


tion  of  water  per  capita  and  losses  and  damage  in  other  ways.  While  in 
earlier  j'ears,  when  water  mains  were  sometimes  constructed  of  inferior 
material  or  laid  without  sufficient  care,  the  losses  of  water  by  leakage  from 
pipes  were  in  some  cases  large,  it  is  probable  that  such  installations  have 
been  for  the  most  part  eliminated  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  a 
material  preventable  loss  of  water  by  leakage  from  water  mains  in  the 
Metropolitan  Water  District  as  a  whole  at  the  present  time. 


Consumption  op  Water  in  the  Great  Cities  op  the  United  States. 

It  is  of  interest  in  considering  the  probable  future  use  of  water  in  the 
Metropolitan  Water  District  to  compare  the  consumption  per  capita  with 
that  of  other  great  cities  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.  This 
mmparison  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  includes  all  of  the  northern 
cities  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  which  had  a  population  in  1920  in 
excess  of  400  000.  From  this  table  it  appears  that  the  consumption  of 
water  in  the  Boston  Metropolitan  District  is  less  than  in  any  city  of  over 
400000  inhabitants  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  where  the 
climatic  conditions  are  similar  to  those  at  Boston. 

CoupABisoN  or  Consumption  OP  Water  per  Capita  in  Metropolitan  Water 
District  with  Consumption  in  Northern  Cities  op  the  United  States 
WHERE  Population  is  in  Excess  op  400  000. 


Population. 

N>wYork 5  620  048. 

^larm 2  701  706. 

K-iJddelphia • 1  823  .779. 

B.>^ton  Met.  Dist.* 1  252  903. 


Detroit 

St.  Lwiis  (Mo.) 

Baltimore 

P.nsburgh    

bMo 

Milwaukee 

^i^hington   . .  . 

Xtwark 

Ciarinnati 


993  678. 
796  841. 
772  897. 
733  826. 
588  343. 
506  775. 
457  147. 
437  571 . 
414  524. 
401  247. 


1920 

Per  Cap.  Coda. 
(Gallons). 

%  Metered 
Services. 

131 

253 

170 

23 

104.5 

75.6 

144 

97 

152 

. ..       100 

135 

8 

154 

3 

236 

38 

274 

8 

134 

99 

144 

85 

108 

92 

123 

99 

*  Including  Newton. 


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210       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Variation  in  the  Consumption  of  Water  from  Year  to  Year.  ' 

I 

In  studying  the  records  of  wat^r  consumption  of  the  past  with  a  vie?| 
to  applying  them  in  estimating  for  the  future,  it  is  necessary  to  make  allow] 
ance  for  variations  due  to  a  variety  of  causes,  among  which  are  the  activit]^ 
of  business  and  industry,  meteorological  conditions,  the  efficiency  o\ 
methods  of  preventing  unnecessary  use  and  waste,  besides  other  circumj 
stances.  I 

Business  and  industrial  conditions  have  a  material  effect  upon  th^ 
consumption  of  water  because  of  its  extensive  use  for  mechanical,  manuj 
facturing  and  general  industrial  purposes.  The  very  low  consumption  oj 
water  between  1893  and  1896  was  doubtless  largely  due  to  the  great  busines^ 
depression  in  those  years.  The  same  is  true  in  1915  and,  while  complet^ 
returns  are  not  available  for  1921,  a  similar  reduction  is  to  be  expected  ir 
that  year.  Meteorological  conditions  —  heat,  drought,  excessive  cold  o( 
unusual  rainfall  —  also  produce  very  marked  variations  in  the  consumptioij 
of  water  from  year  to  year.  In  very  dry  periods  much  more  water  is  use<j 
than  in  years  of  average  rainfall  and  in  periods  of  great  heat  the  draf^ 
upon  the  water  supply  system  is  much  larger  than  usual.  Excessiv^ 
rainfall,  on  the  other  hand,  if  occurring  in  the  warmer  part  of  the  year] 
reduces  the  draft  of  water  from  the  public  works.  j 

More  marked  even  than  great  heat  or  drought  is  the  effect  of  wintei 
temperatures  upon  the  use  of  water.  In  very  cold  winters  the  use  of  wate^ 
is  greatly  increased  because  of  the  necessary  waste  to  prevent  the  freezing 
of  pipes.  This  amounted  in  a  recent  cold  winter  to  an  average  of  ove| 
18  miUion  gallons  per  day  during  the  four  winter  months.  j 

No  doubt  a  part  of  the  low  consumption  in  1915,  as  already  stated,  wa^ 
attributable  to  the  poor  business  conditions  in  that  year,  but  a  large  part 
must  also  be  attributed  to  the  mildness  of  the  winter  and  to  the  unusuaj 
summer  rainfall.  In  1921  there  was  also  an  extremely  mild  winter,  one  o^ 
the  mildest  ever  recorded  in  New  England,  and  a  very  wet  summer.  There 
was  also  a  serious  business  depression,  more  severe  probably  than  in  1915j 
and  these  conditions  should  cause  a  very  low  consumption  of  water  in  1921^ 

Another  cause  of  variation  in  the  consumption  of  water  from  public 
works  in  the  past  has  been  that  resulting  from  the  varying  efficiencj'  ol 
methods  adopted  for  the  prevention  of  waste.  In  earlier  years  inspectioi^ 
was  relied  upon  to  prevent  loss  of  water  in  this  way,  but  not  until  the  appli^ 
cation  of  meters  to  water  services  generally,  furnished  a  means  of  pre- 
venting unnecessary  waste  by  charging  for  it  at  the  usual  rates,  was  an 
adequate  method  of  waste  prevention  put  into  effect.  That  this  method 
has  been  most  effective  in  preventing  excessive  use  and  waste  of  water  is 
well  shown  by  the  decrease  in  the  consumption  of  water  in  nearly  all  cities, 
including  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  following  the  general  intro- 
duction of  meters.  This  decrease  was  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  the  fear  of 
large  water  bills  under  the  meter  system,  but  since  experience  did  not  show 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  211 

iat  the  use  of  meters  caused  a  materially  higher  charge  to  the  householder 
lan  the  former  system,  provided  the  plumbing  was  kept  in  reasonably 
itisfactory  condition,  and  since  in  many  cases  the  charge  was  less  than 
efore  the  meter  was  applied,  it  is  probable  that  after  a  time  less  care  is 
lerrised  in  restricting  the  amount  of  water  used  than  was  the  case  when  the 
leter  was  first  installed.  There  are  cases  also  in  which  after  the  meter 
yistem  has  been  put  in  operation  it  has  not  been  maintained  with  the  care 
nd  eflBciency  necessary  to  the  best  results  and  its  eflfectiveness  has  become 
laterially  reduced.  These  conditions  have  appeared  thus  far  only  in  a 
m*  few  cases,  but  the  fact  that  they  have  occurred  is-an  indication  that 
here  are  likely  to  be  variations  in  the  consumption  of  water  in  the  future 
lue  to  the  varying  efficiency  in  the  maintenance  of  the  meter  system  and  in 
he  efforts  made  to  prevent  waste. 

The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  the  experience  of  the  cities  in  which 
ier\'ice  pipes  are  largely  or  wholly  metered  shows  clearly  that,  notwith- 
standing the  general  use  of  the  meters,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  use  of 
rater  per  capita  at  the  present  time  in  practically  every  city  without 
exception.  The  continued  use  of  meters  can  probably  be  depended  upon 
io  prevent  such  great  increases  as  were  experienced  before  their  use  was 
begun  and  to  keep  the  waste  of  water  within  reasonable  limits.  This  in- 
rreaae  will  vary  from  causes  such  as  those  already  indicated,  but  that  it 
can  be. wholly  prevented  in  the  future  by  any  means  which  are  now  avail- 
ible  seems  improbable. 

Sunmiarizing  the  results  of  this  study,  it  is  found  that  there  has  been 
00  the  whole  a  steady  increase  in  the  per  capita  consumption  of  water  ever 
pince  a  water  supply  was  first  introduced  into  the  principal  city  of  the  dis- 
trict many  years  ago.     Its  causes  are: 

(1)  The  introduction  of  ample  suppUes  of  pure,  soft  water,  suppUed 
under  ample  pressure  in  any  desired  part  of  a  dwelling  house,  store  or 
factory  and  capable  of  advantageous  use  for  a  great  number  of  purposes. 

(2)  A  gradually  improving  standard  of  living  accelerated  no  doubt  by 
the  experiences  of  the  war  which  have  led  to  a  demand  for  better  housing, 
more  plumbing  fixtures  and  other  aids  to  comfort  and  health  obtainable 
through  a  freer  use  of  water  from  the  public  works. 

f3)  The  increasing  use  of  water  for  manufacturing  and  mechanical 
purposes,  especially  where  no  large  quantities  of  fresh  water  are  available 
for  such  uses  except  from  the  public  works. 

(4)  Unpreventable  waste  from  numerous  small  leaks  which  could  be 
repaired  only  at  excessive  cost  and  which  with  ageing  pipes  and  structures 
will  doubtless  continue,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  a  large  amount  of 
^•a.«te  has  been  and  must  continue  to  be  eliminated  to  the  fullest  practicable 
*^xtent. 

(5)  Metering  the  remaining  services  after  75  per  cent  have  been 
riH'tered  is  unlikely  to  have  any  material  effect  in  reducing  the  consump- 
*Km  of  water  per  capita,  while  on  the  contrarj^  the  common  and  well-nigh 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


212  PROPOSED   EXTENSION  OP  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

universal  experience  has  been  that  the  per  capita  consumption  continues 
to  increase  after  75  per  cent  of  the  services  have  been  metered,  notwith- 
standing the  increase  in  the  number  of  meters. 

(6)  The  consumption  of  water  per  capita  in  the  MetropoUtan  Water 
District  is  not  excessive  when  compared  with  cities  of  similar  size  in  this 
country.  On  the  contrary  it  is  now  decidedly  less  than  in  any  city  of 
similar  population  and  climatic  conditions  in  the  United  States. 

(7)  The  cost  of  water  is  and  will  continue  to  be  exceedingly  small  for 
a  very  long  time  to  come;  in  fact  the  present  price  for  the  average  family 
seldom  exceeds  the  cost  of  the  daily  newspapers,  and  the  chai^  for  water 
is  not  included  in  the  general  tax  levy.  It  is  a  special  tax  and  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  some  of  the  water  income  is  diverted  in  many  cities  for  other 
municipal  uses,  the  charges  for  water  even  now  are  higher  in  some  places 
than  they  need  to  be  if  the  water  revenue  was  used  solely  for  providing  and 
maintaining  a  water  supply. 

(8)  Heat,  drought,  and  excessive  cold  all  produce  marked  variations 
in  the  consumption  of  water  and  large  allowances  must  be  made  for  varia- 
tions from  such  causes.  Extremes  of  temperature  and  of  rainfall  such  as 
have  occurred  in  the  past  will  occur  again  and  perhaps  in  even  greater 
severity. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  estimate  with  certainty  the  quantity  of 
water  that  will  be  used  per  capita  in  the  Metropolitan  District  in  future 
years;  but  in  the  face  of  the  evidence  that  the  use  of  water  has  ever  been  a 
constantly  increasing  one  and  that  the  indications  point  to  a  growing  use 
in  the  future,  it  is  unreasonable  to  ignore  the  available  facts,  and  while 
every  effort  must  be  made  to  keep  the  water  consumption  within  reasonable 
limits,  the  health  of  the  people  should  not  be  placed  in  jeopardy  or  the 
pubUc  put  even  to  serious  inconvenience  because  of  the  assumption  that 
means  can  and  will  be  found  and  applied  in  the  immediate  future  to  restrict 
the  growing  use  of  this  important  necessity.  Prudence  requires,  that  —  in 
estimating  for  the  future  —  allowance  shall  be  made  for  an  increase  in  the 
consumption  of  water  per  capita  to  the  extent  indicated  by  past  experience. 

Estimated  Increase  in  Water  Supply  Requirements  in  the 
Metropolitan  Water  District. 

In  the  cities  included  in  the  table  already  given  the  increase  in  the 
consumption  of  water  per  capita  in  metered  cities  has  ranged  as  a  general 
rule  from  0.85  to  2.50  gal.  per  person  per  year  and  has  averaged  1.31  gal. 
per  year  if  the  year  1920  be  omitted.  If  comparison  is  made  of  the  con- 
sumption of  water  in  the  cities  of  Boston,  Somerville,  Chelsea  and  Everett 
in  the  early  80's,  when  effective  measures  were  being  enforced  to  prevent 
unnecessary  use  and  waste  of  water,  with  the  consumption  of  water  in  the 
same  municipaUties  in  1920,  it  appears  that  the  consumption  has  increased 
at  about  the  same  rate. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


213 


The  record  of  the  use  of  water  in  these  four  cities  covering  a  long  period 
\i  years  is  a  very  interesting  one  in  this  connection,  and  a  summary  has 
)€en  made  of  the  available  information  as  to  the  consumption  of  water  in 
hese  cities  since  a  water  supply  was  first  introduced  into  the  city  of  Boston 
tt  1848.  The  construction  of  the  Mystic  works  was  not  begun  until  1862,  or 
,4  yeare  after  the  completion  of  the  Cochituate  works  designed  for  the 
wpply  of  the  city  of  Boston. 

The  population  and  consumption  of  water,  so  far  as  the  records  show, 
D  these  four  cities  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


Population  and  Water  Consumption. 
(Boston  with  annexations,  1849-1872,  inc.) 
Boston  with  annexations  with  Somerville,  Chelsea  and  Everett,  1873-1920  inc.) 


r  .». 

Popu- 
lation. 

Av.  Daily 

Cons. 
Mil.  Gals. 

Per                              Per 
Capita                          Cent 
Daily                             Ser- 
Cons.                            vires 
Gals.                         Metered 

WQ  .   ... 

...      132  378 

3.6800 

27.8 

I^50 

...      136  881 

•  5.8379 

42.7 

is51 

...      141  603 

6.8838 

48.6 

M2     

...      146  325 

8.1258 

55.5 

ivy    

...     151  046 

8.5423 

56.6 

IK>1 

...     155  768 

9.9020 

63.6 

IK5.1 

...      160  490 

10.3463 
12.0486 

64.5 
73.5 

l\V)     

...      163  960 

l>57     .  .    .  . 

...     167  430 

12.7260 

76.0 

K>    .... 

...     170  900 

12.8470 

75.2 

K>9 

...     174  370 

13.1750 

75.6 

I^) 

...      177  840 

17.2380 

96.9 

1^1 

...     180  736 

18.1893 

100.6 

l»«J       .  .  .  . 

...     183  631 

16.6000 

90.4 

m 

...      186  527 

16.2385 

87.0    • 

1^  . . .  . 

...     189  422 

16.6810 

88.1 

IHV)      

...     192  318 

12.6620 

65.8 

[v>^ 

...     194  557 

12.2290 

62.8 

iv;:  .... 

...     227  752 

13.5650 

59.6 

Nvs    ... 

...     231  257 

14.7692 

63.9 

l'*^*     

...     246  713 

15.0704 

61.2 

1^711 

...     250  526 

15.0077 

59.9 

>71     .  .    . 

...     258  497 

13.9455 

54.0 

'^2  ... 

...     266  468 

15.0634 

56.5 

ICi      .  .  . 

...     364  086 

25.6090 

70.3 

K4      .. 

...     376  130 

25.7179 

68.4 

Ko    .    .. 

...     388  175 

27.0193 

69.6 

K6    .    .. 

...     393  283 

29.0635 

73.9 

hM 

...     398  390 

29.0598 
31.7215 

72.9 

78.4 

Iv7s 

. . . .     403  498 

>:9  .... 

.  .  . .     408  605 

34.5794 

84.6 

*^*^) 

.  .  . .     413  713 

35.8879 

86.7 

1^1   ..  . 

.  . , .     421  350 

38.2149 

90.7 

i^jfi  .  ... 

. . . .     428  987 

38.5452 

89.9 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


214 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION  OF  METBOPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


Av.  Daily 

Coos. 
Mil.  Gals. 

Per 

Capita 

Daily 

Cons. 

Gal.s. 

Per 
Cent 
Ser- 
vices 
Metered 

39.6561 

90.8 

31.3003 

70.4 

32.3446 

71.6 

34.0277 

72.8 

37.4811 

77.7 

41.5691 

83.6 

39.9005 

77.8 

42.1731 

79.9 

46.7421 

86.3 

51.1232 

91.9 

58.1957 

102.0 

56.8421 

97.2 

60.2581 

100.6 

68.2393 

110.9 

70.3862 

111.4 

Records  for  this  period 
not  available. 

100.7935 

139.8 

5.5 

102.5884 

140.3 

6.8 

103.3884 

138.3 

7.7 

109.2872 

143.0 

9.0 

110.9217 

142.1 

10.0 

105.8716 

132.8 

16.6 

98.9463 

121.6 

24.8 

96.7298 

116.5 

32.7 

102.1083 

118.4 

39.5 

90.6642 

103.1 

45.6 

93.6701 

104.4 

51.2 

88.9594 

97.4 

56.5 

92.5047 

101.0 

61.4 

94.9708 

103.5 

62.9 

108.9342 

118.4 

63.2 

102.2390 

110.8 

64.1 

108.2463 

117.1 

65.9 

Popu- 
Year  lation. 

1883 436  624 

1884 444  261 

1885 451  898 

1886 467  040 

1887 482  181 

1888 497  323 

1889 512  464 

1890 527  606 

1891 541  876 

1892 556  146 

1895 570  417 

1894 584  687 

1896 598  957 

1896 615  354 

1897 631  751 

1898 648  149 

1899 664  546 

1900 680  943 

1901 690  965 

1902 700  987 

1903 711  008 

1904 721  030 

1905 731  052 

1906 747  593 

1907 764  134 

1908 780  675 

1909 797  216 

1910 813  757 

1911 830  018 

1912 862  933 

1913 .879  768 

1914 "896  603 

1915  • 913  437 

1916 915  641 

1917 917  844 

1918 920  048 

1919 922  251 

1920 924  455 

Note:  EajBt  BoBton  supplied  from  the  Myvtio  works  in  1870,  1871  and  1872.  but  reoords  of  the  quantity 
of  water  so  supplied  are  not  available.  If  the  population  of  East  Boston  be  deducted  for  these  three 
years  the  per  capita  figures  will  be  66.2.  58.2  and  62.5  respectively. 


These  results,  together  with  the  estimated  population  and  water  consump- 
tion in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  and  these  four  cities,  are  shown  on 
the  diagram  No.  14. 

It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  the  application  of  meters  to  the  remaining 
services  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  may  reduce  the  consumption  of 
water  slightly  within  the  next  few  years,  although  there  is  no  indication 
from  past  experience  that  such  a  result  is  likely  to  be  attained.    It  is 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


QOODNOUGH. 


215 


- 

POPULATION 

AND 
AVERA6e     OAILV    WATER     C0N5UMPTI0 

MLTR0P0LITA?5  " WATER    DI5TR 

INCLUDING    NEWTON 

r 

AOODOOO 

AVeRA6£    DAILY    WATER  CONSUMPTION 

U5?H««-«.i 

^000.  coo 

IN 
BOSTON  .  ^MBUVILLE.  CHtLACA   «  EVtRCTT 

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1 

1 

\eoo 


Ifl50  1900 

Diagram  No.  14. 


1950 


probable,  however,  that  some  saving  can  be  effected  in  the  loss  of  water  by 
leakage  from  pipes.  In  estimating  the  future  consumption  of  water  per 
capita  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  it  has  been  assumed  that  the 
iimount  of  water  used  will  be  reduced  in  the  next  few  years  following  the 
vi^ar  1920  by  the  appUcation  of  meters  to  unmetered  services,  and  that  in 
■<-»n«^uence  of  this  reduction  the  consumption  will  not  again  rise  above 
lrt.5  gallons  until  after  1925.  Beyond  that  year  it  has  been  estimated  that 
the  rate  of  increase  will  average  about  one  gallon  per  capita  per 
vf-ar,  being  slightly  greater  in  the  earUer  years  of  the  period  but  growing 
K->*  as  time  goes  on.  Other  than  the  complete  metering  of  all  services, 
including  the  effective  maintenance  of  the  meter  system  and  the  prevention 
<►!  losses  of  water  by  leakage  so  far  as  it  is  practicable  to  prevent  them, 
no  further  means  appear  to  be  available  for  reducing  materially  the  con- 
sumption of  water  per  capita  at  the  present  time  unless  by  some  form  of 
rtitioning  water  which  under  present  conditions  would  doubtless  be  deemed 
mipracticable  and  objectionable.  On  the  basis  of  this  estimate  and  using 
:h^  es^timates  of  population  already  given,  the  quantity  of  water  required 
lor  ihe  supply  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  for  the  next  50  years 
would  be  about  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


216 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


217 


Capacity  of  the  Present  Sources  op  Water  Supply  of  the  Metro- 
politan Water  District.. 

The  sources  of  water  supply  owned  and  controlled  by  the  Metropolitan 
District  at  the  present  time  are: 

(1)  Wachusett  and  Sudbury  Reservoirs,  including  Framingham 
Reservoir  No.  3; 

(2)  The  southern  portion  of  the  Sudbury  River  above  Framingham, 
including  Framingham  Reservoirs  1  and  2,  and  the  Ashland,  Hopkinton 
and  Whitehall  Reservoirs; 

(3)  Lake  Cochituate  in  Natick  and  Wayland. 

The  elevation,  area  and  capacity  of  the  various  reservoirs  on  all  these 
watersheds  together  with  the  drainage  area  of  each  is  shown  in  the  following 

tahle:  Area  of 

Total  Watershed 

Elevation*  Area  of  Storage  including 

of  Reservoir  Capacity  Reservoir 

R»-*nroir.  High  Water.  Sq.  Mi.  Mil.  Gals.  Sq.  Mi. 

Wachusett 395.00**  6.46  64  968.0  108.84t 

Njdbuo' 260.00  2.21  7  253.5  22.28 

Framingham  No.  3 186.74  0.39  1  199.7  5.40 

Total 9.06  73  421.2  136.52 

Ashland   225.21  0.27  1  416.4  6.43 

WhitehaU 337.91  0.94  1  256.9  4.35 

Hopkinton 305.00  0.30  1  520.9  5.86 

Framingham  No.  2 177.87  0.21  529.9  28.50 

Framingham  No.  1 169.32  0.23  289.9  1.84 

Cochituate 144.36  1.14  2  097.1  17.68 

Finn  Pond    159.25  0.26  167.5  0.54 

Total 3.35  7  278.6  65.10 


Since  the  Metropolitan  water  works  was  established  and  water  first 
iised  from  the  Nashua  River  on  January  1,  1898,  the  water  supply  of  the 
^iistrict  has  been  obtained  very  largely  from  the  Wachusett  Reservoir, 
Sudbury  Reservoir  and  Framingham  Reservoir  No.  3  though  at  times  large 
quantities  of  water  have  been  drawn  from  the  other  sources;  as,  for  ex- 
arople,  in  the  very  dry  year  of  1911  about  40  per  cent  of  the  water  used  in 
the  Metropolitan  Water  District  was  drawn  from  the  Sudbury  and  Co- 
chituate sources.  The  quantity  of  water  used  from  the  Wachusett  and 
North  Sudbury  sources  in  1920  was  equal  to  and  in  fact  probably  somewhat 
iii  excess  of  their  safe  capacity  in  a  period  of  very  dry  years.  Consequently 
^  the  consumption  of  water  increases  hereafter  it  will  be  nece^ary  to  draw 
ciore  and  more  water  from  the  Cochituate  and  southern  Sudbury  sources. 

Lake  Cochituate  furnishes  water  of  very  poor  quality  which,  though  not 
vm- highly  colored,  contains  much  organic  matter  and  is  usually  affected  by 

•  KleratJoii  in  feet  above  Boston  City  Base. 

**  It  is  poirible.  by  use  of  two  flashboards,  to  raise  the  water  to  elevation  397.    At  that  elevation  the 
=»*^^t3-  of  the  reservoir  would  be  67  686.1  million  gaUons. 

t  ExHunve  of  areas  diverted  by  the  city  of  Worcester  amounting  to  9.35  square  miles. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


218  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

an  objectionable  taste  and  odor.  The  water  of  the  southern  Sudbury  sources 
is  for  the  most  part  highly  colored  and  is  also  affected  by  tastes  and  odors. 
Both  the  southern  Sudbury  and  Cochituate  watersheds,  especially  the 
latter,  contain  large  populations  per  square  mile,  but  while  the  pollution 
of  Lake  Cochituate  enters  largely  at  its  extreme  southerly  end  the  water  is 
drawn  from  the  northerly  basin  of  the  lake.  The  conditions  in  the  southern 
Sudbury  watershed  are  quite  different.  The  large  reservoirs  on  the  Sud- 
bury River  are  located  near  the  head  of  the  watershed  while  at  the  lower 
end  is  only  the  small  Framingham  Reservoir  No.  2,  having  a  total  capacity 
of  about  530  000  000  gal.  fed  by  a  direct  watershed  of  28.5  sq.  mi.  Neither 
source  should  be  used  regularly  for  the  water  supply  of  the  district  unless 
properly  filtered. 

In  the  case  of  the  Wachusett  and  Sudbury  Reservoirs  and  Reservoir 
No.  3,  there  is  also  more  or  less  population  on  the  watersheds,  especially 
on  that  of  the  Sudbury  Reservoir;  but  most  of  the  sewage  is  diverted  from 
the  watershed  of  the  latter  source  and  all  of  the  water  flowing  from  the 
densely  populated  portion  of  the  city  is  either  filtered  or  treated  with 
chlorine.  Long  storage  is  also  depended  upon  both  for  protection  of  the 
supply  from  the  effects  of  possible  pollution  and  for  the  improvement 
of  the  quality  of  the  water  which  long  storage  affords.  It  has  accordingly 
been  assumed  in  estimating  the  safe  capacity  of  the  Metropolitan  sources 
that  enough  water  will  be  retained  in  the  Wachusett  and  Sudbury  Reser- 
voirs and  in  Reservoir  No.  3  to  secure  efficient  purification  by  storage  and 
render  the  water  safe  and  acceptable  for  use;  and  that  the  water  of  the 
southern  Sudbury  and  Cochituate  sources  will  be  purified  by  filtration 
whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  them  again  for  the  supply  of  the 
district.  For  these  reasons,  in  estimating  the  combined  yield  of  the  various 
watersheds  allowance  has  been  made  for  retaining  in  Wachusett  Reservoir, 
Sudbury  Reservoir  and  in  Reservoir  No.  3  a  total  of  something  over  20  000 
000  000  gal,  and  in  the  other  reservoirs  of  the  southern  Sudbury  and 
Cochituate  system  about  1  400  000  000  gal.,  a  large  part  of  which  would 
remain  in  Lake  Cochituate  and  should  be  retained  there  to  prevent  ob- 
jectionable odors  from  the  exposed  bottom  of  the  lake.  These  allowances 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  are  less  than  desirable 
and  if  the  water  were  drawn  to  so  low  a  level  the  color  would  probably 
increase  so  as  to  become  noticeable  in  the  water  supplied  to  the  district. 

The  estimated  gross  yield  of  all  the  present  sources  of  water  supply  of 
the  district  as  given  in  the  State  Board  of  Health  report  in  1895  was 
173  000  000  gal.  per  day.  Since  that  time  water  from  a  part  of  the  Wa- 
chusett watershed  has  been  diverted  for  the  use  of  the  city  of  Worcester 
and  the  area  of  the  Wachusett  watershed  reduced  from  118.19  sq.  mi.  to 
108.84  sq.  mi.  Not  all  of  this  water  has  yet  been  diverted  but  when  the 
Pine  Hill  Reservoir  of  the  city  of  Worcester,  now  under  construction,  is 
completed,  it  will  be  practicable  for  that  city  to  divert  the  entire  flow  of 
water  from  the  area  set  apart  for  its  use  in  dry  periods  and  it  is  consequently 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  219 

essential  in  estimating  the  safe  yield  of  the  Metropolitan  water  works  to 
assume  that  all  of  the  water  from  this  area  will  be  diverted  by  Worcester. 
Allowing  for  this  diversion  the  gross  yield  of  the  present  source  is  about 
169  000  000  gal.  per  day.  The  yield  is  of  course  larger  than  the  yield  of  the 
Sudbury,  Cochituate  and  Wachusett  sources  computed  separately  since  by 
operating  them  together  a  larger  amount  can  be  obtained  than  by  operating 
them  as  separate  units. 

Of  the  gross  yield  of  169  000  000  gal.,  a  considerable  part  is  diverted  for 
various  purposes,  a  part  is  lost  by  leakage,  a  further  part  is  used  for  the 
water  supply  of  certain  cities  and  towns  within  the  Metropolitan  watersheds 
which  are  authorized  to  take  water  therefrom,  another  part  is  lost  by  leakage 
into  sewerage  systems  in  these  watersheds  by  which  it  is  diverted  to  points 
outside  their  limits,  and  there  are  unavoidable  losses  in  other  ways.  With- 
out going  into  details,  these  allowances  aggregate  about  14  500  000  gal.,  so 
that  the  available  safe  yield  of  all  existing  sources  is  about  154  500  000 
gal.  per  day.  This  estimate  has  been  based  upon  the  yield  in  the  dry  period 
from  1908  to  1915,  and  no  allowance  has  been  made  for  a  period  of  lower 
rainfall.  Such  dry  periods  have  occurred  some  5  or  6  times  in  a  century, 
so  far  as  rainfall  records  in  New  England  show,  and  in  some  of  these  periods 
there  has  been  a  smaller  precipitation,  and  hence  no  doubt  a  smaller  yield 
of  watersheds  than  in  the  dry  period  which  began  in  1908.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  estimate  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  all  of  the  sources 
of  water  supply  are  available  for  use  at  all  times.  Under  present  conditions 
it  is  unsafe  to  use  the  southern  Sudbury  or  Cochituate  sources  without  filtra- 
tion, and  no  provision  has  yet  been  made  for  treating  these  waters.  Unless 
these  sources  are  in  regular  use,  the  yield  is  likely  to  be  less,  and  perhaps 
considerably  less  than  the  estimate  here  given. 

Consumption  of  Water  in  the  City  of  Newton. 

In  comparing  the  consumption  of  water  in  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District  with  the  capacity  of  the  sources,  it  is  essential  to  consider  the  city  of 
Newton  which,  though  a  part  of  the  district,  has  continued  to  supply  itself 
with  water,  except  in  emergencies,  from  its  own  sources  near  the  Charles 
River,  up  to  the  present  time.  The  capacity  of  these  sources  has  recently 
been  the  subject  of  a  careful  study  by  the  city  engineer  of  Newton,  which 
indicates  that  that  city  can  furnish  from  its  own  works  at  the  present  time 
in  a  very  dry  period,  if  these  works  are  used  in  connection  with  the  Metro- 
politan Water  District,  about  4  000  000  gal.  of  water  per  day.  Without 
going  into  details  as  to  the  capacity  and  probable  limitations  of  the  yield  of 
the  Newton  water  works  sources,  it  may  be  said  that  the  estimate  of  a  safe 
yield  of  4  000  000  gal.  per  day  from  the  Newton  sources  used  in  connection 
with  the  sources  of  the  MetropoUtan  Water  District,  as  seems  probable, 
appears  to  be  a  reasonable  one  under  the  conditions  which  exist  in  the 
Charles  River  valley  at  the  present  time. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


220       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Capacity  of  Present  Sources  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District 
TO  Meet  the  Requirements  of  the  District. 

The  estimated  yield  of  all  the  sources  of  supply  available  to  the 
Metropolitan  Water  District  is  in  round  numbers  154  000  000  gal.  Adding 
to  this  the  estimated  safe  yield  of  the  sources  of  water  supply  of  the  city  of 
Newton,  the  safe  yield  of  all  available  sources  of  the  cities  and  town  in  the 
district  is  158  000  000  gal.  per  day.  This  amount  will  diminish  no  doubt 
in  the  future  on  account  of  increases  in  the  amounts  of  water  diverted  for 
water  supply  by  the  towns  now  using  water  from  the  Metropolitan  water- 
sheds and  also  by  leakage  into  the  sewerage  systems  in  those  watersheds. 
The  following  table  shows  a  comparison  of  the  yield  of  the  available  sources 
with  the  estimated  quantity  of  water  required  as  given  in  the  earlier  portion 
of  this  report. 

Tabije  showing  a  Comparison  of  the  Yield  op  the  Metropolitan  Water  Supply 
Sources  Plus  those  of  the  City  of  Newton  and  the  Consumption  of 
Water  in  the  present  Metropolitan  Water  District 
IN  Census  Years,  1920  to  1935. 

1920*  1925  1930  1935 
(Million  Gals,  per  Day.) 
Safe  Yield  of  aU  Metropolitan  sources  in- 
cluding Newton  supply 158.0            158.0            158.0             157.0** 

Consumption  of  water  in  Metropolitan 

Water  District  (including  Newton) ....     131.0  145.0  168.5  193.1 

Excess 27.0  13.0  

Deficiency   10.5  36.1 

*  Actual;  other  figures  estimated. 

**  An  allowance  for  a  reduction  of  1  000  000  gallons  per  day  is  made  to  provide  for  additional 
increases  in  the  diversions  of  water  from  the  Metropolitan  watersheds  and  increasing  losses  by  leakage. 


This  table  shows  that  by  the  year  1930  the  quantity  of  water  required 
by  the  district  on  the  basis  of  the  estimates  already  given  will  exceed  the 
safe  yield  of  the  sources  of  supply  on  an  average  about  10  000  000  gal.  per 
day. 

In  this  estimate  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  taking  of  additional  water 
from  the  district  sources  by  any  of  the  municipaUties  having  rights  reserved 
therein  under  various  legislative  grants  which  have  not  yet  exercised  such 
right.  Rights  have  been  reserved  to  some  19  municipalities  but  have  thus 
far  been  exercised  by  only  9. 

More  important  still,  however,  is  the  fact  that  no  allowance  is  made 
in  these  calculations  for  supplying  water  to  municipalities  outside  of  the 
limits  of  the  present  district  but  within  the  10-mile  radius  from  the  State 
House  which  may  join  the  district  if  they  so  elect.  There  are  also  several 
other  municipalities  which  may  desire  to  take  water  from  the  district 
and  which  may  properly  be  supplied  therefrom  under  the  terms  of  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


221 


Metropolitan  water  act.  While  neither  Worcester  nor  the  other  municipal- 
ities outside  the  present  limits  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  are 
members  of  that  district,  they  nevertheless  have  substantial  claims  upon  a 
water  supply  from  or  in  connection  with  the  district,  and  it  is  essential  that 
their  possible  requirements  shall  be  taken  into  account  in  any  consideration 
of  the  future  water  supply  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  It  is  not 
practicable,  however,  within  the  limits  of  this  paper  to  consider  except  in  the 
briefest  way  the  possible  needs  and  requirements  of  the  municipalities  not 
now  connected  with  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  but  which  are  likely 
to  require  a  water  supply  from  the  district  in  some  future  time. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


222       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Water  Supply  of  the  City  op  Worcester. 

First  in  importance  among  the  municipalities  requiring  consideration 
in  this  connection  is  the  city  of  Worcester  which  has  grown  steadily  for 
many  years  and  in  which  the  per  capita  consumption  of  water  has  been 
increasing  quite  rapidly  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the 
services  have  been  metered  for  the  past  26  years.  These  results,  together 
with  the  estimated  population  and  water  consumption  are  shown  in  diagram 
No.  15. 

An  investigation  for  an  additional  water  supply  for  the  city  of  Wor- 
cester was  made  by  a  special  commission  of  that  city  under  the  authority 
of  Chapter  176  of  the  Acts  of  the  year  1918  and  a  report  of  that  commission 
is  printed  as  Senate  Document  No.  346  of  the  year  1920.  This  report  pre- 
sents in  some  detail  the  results  of  studies  of  the  sources  of  water  supply  in 
the  region  about  the  city  of  Worcester  and  recommends  that  that  city  be 
authorized  to  take  an  additional  supply  from  Quinepoxet  Pond  and  a 
neighboring  stream,  tributaries  of  the  Quinepoxet  River  which  is  one  of  the 
main  feeders  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir.  The  portion  of  the  Wachusett 
watershed  from  which  the  city  of  Worcester  desires  to  take  water  has  an 
area  of  about  17.4  sq.  mi.  or  about  15.9  per  cent  of  the  area  remaining 
tributary  to  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  after  which  the  diversion  of  the 
watershed  of  Pine  Hill  and  Kendall  reservoirs  was  authorized  in  the 
original  Metropolitan  Water  Act. 

That  Act,  in  Section  22,  states  that  "  the  towns  of  Clinton,  Sterling, 
Boylston,  West  Boylston,  Lancaster,  Holden,  Rutland,  Princeton  and 
Leicester  and  the  city  of  Worcester  may  take  from  the  south  branch  of  the 
Nashua  River  alx)ve  the  dam  of  the  proposed  reservoir  on  said  river  so  much 
of  the  water  thereof  as  they  have  already  been  or  may  hereafter  be  author- 
ized by  the  legislature  to  take  for  supplying  their  inhabitants  with  water, 
etc.*'  The  act  goes  on  to  provide  for  payment  for  any  water  that  may  be 
diverted  under  the  act.  In  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  1895 
relative  to  a  Metropolitan  water  supply  a  certain  area  is  marked  on  the  plan 
of  the  Nashua  River  watershed  as  ''recommended  for  the  city  of  Worcester" 
and  by  the  provisions  of  a  later  act  the  city  was  granted  the  right  to  take 
water  from  that  area. 

The  present  sources  of  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Worcester  are  a 
group  of  storage  reservoirs  on  Kettle  Brook  in  Leicester  and  Paxton,  on 
Lynde  Brook  in  I^icester,  on  Tatnuck  Brook  in  Holden,  and  on  certain 
tributaries  of  the  Quinepoxet  River  within  the  watershed  of  the  Wachusett 
Reservoir.  The  Kettle  and  Lynde  Brook  sources  supply  the  high  service 
districts,  while  the  reservoirs  on  Tatnuck  Brook  known  as  Holden  Reser- 
voirs Nos.  1  and  2,  supplemented  with  water  from  Kendall  Reservoir  within 
the  Wachusett  watershed  which  is  diverted  into  the  upper  end  of  Holden 
Reservoir  No.  1,  supply  the  low  service  districts.  A  reservoir  much  larger 
than  any  now  in  use,  kno^vn  as  the  Pine  Hill  Reservoir,  is  being  constructed 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  223 

within  the  portion  of  the  Wachusett  watershed  assigned  to  Worcester. 
The  w^ater  of  this  reservoir  will  flow  by  gravity  to  Kendall  Reservoir  and 
thence  to  the  Holden  Reservoirs. 

The  area  and  capacity  of  the  various  reservoirs  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table. 

Worcester 


Elevation.** 

Rcaen'oir.  (Feet) 

Kettle  Brook,  No.  4   1  082.74 

Kettle  Brook,  No.  3   1  040.00 

Kettle  Brook,  No.  2   988.50 

Kettle  Brook,  No.  1    845.36 

Lynde  Brook    .  • 822.94 

Upper  Holden 750.88 

Lower  Holden 718.80 

Kendall 814.00 

Pine  HDl 910.00 


Area  of 
Reservoir 
(Sq.  Mi.) 

Total 

Storage 

Capacity 

(MiLGaU.) 

Area  of 
Watershed 
indudinc 
Reservoir 
(Sq.  Mi.) 

0.186 

514 

1.805 

0.058 

152 

0.722 

0.048 

127 

0.569 

0.007 

19 

1.002* 

0.206 

toi 

2.921 

0.211 

794 

4.555 

0.089 

283 

0.676 

0.273 

850 

2.451 

0.720 

3  000 

6.899 

1.798  21.600 

*  Includes  Peter  Brook. 
**  Above  Mean  Sea  Level. 

The  safe  yield  of  present  sources  of  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Wor- 
cester is  16  million  gallons,  but  with  the  completion  of  the  Pine  Hill  Reser- 
voir the  yield  will  be  increased  to  19.3  million  gallons  per  day.  At 
the  rate  of  increase  in  the  use  of  water  maintained  by  the  city  for  many 
years,  the  present  sources  with  the  Pine  Hill  Reservoir  completed  will  be 
sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  the  city  for  about  5  or  6  years  only. 

The  city  of  Worcester  now  desires  an  additional  water  supply.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  city  of  Worcester  will  eventually  supply  water 
to  some  of  the  adjacent  municipalities.  Its  population  and  the  quantity  of 
water  used  by  the  city  in  census  years  since  1900  and  the  estimated  quantity 
required  until  1970  are  shown  in  the  following  table. 


Year.  Population. 

1900 118  421 

1905 128  135 

1910 145  986 

1915 162  697 

1920 179  754 


CONSUMPTION  AND   PeR  CaPITA   CONSUMPTION, 

1900-1920. 

Per  Capita 

Ck>n8uniption 

(GaU.). 

Total 
Consumption 

(Gals.). 

69.0         

8  153  000 

75.0        

9  581  000 

74.0         

10  805  000 

79.0         

......     12  818  000 

91.9         

16  515  000 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


224  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF   METROPOLITAN   WATER  DISTRICT. 

Estimated    Population,    Daily  Water    Consumption    and    Per    Capita 
Consumption  1920-1970. 

Per 
Capita  Total 

Popu-  Consumption  Consumption 

laUon.  (Gals.).  (GaU.). 

1920*  179  754  91.9    16  515  000 

1925 198  500  96.8    19  215  000 

1930 217  500  101.6    22  098  000 

1935 237  000  106.2    25  169  000 

1940 257  100  111.0    28  538  000 

1945 277  800  115.5    32  086  000 

1950 298  000  120.1    35  790  000 

1955 318  800  124.3    39  627  000 

1960 339  600  128.6    43  673  000 

1865 360  000  132.8    47  808  000 

1970 380  700  137.0    52  156  000 

*  1920  figures  actual;  others  estimated. 


Probable  Requirements  of  Cities  and  Towns  Within  10  Miles  of 
THE  State  House  not  at  Present  Included  in  the  Metropolitan 

Water  District. 

The  cities  and  towns  within  the  10-mile  limit  from  the  State  House 
which  are  eligible  to  join  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Metropolitan  Water  Act  are  the  following: 


Cambridge 

Canton 

HuU 

Saugus 

Brookline 

Braintree 

Wakefield 

Winchester 

Wellesley 

Weymouth 

Wobum 

Waltham 

Needham 

Hingham 

Lynn 

Dedham 

The  Metropolitan  Water  Act,  Chapter  488  of  the  Acts  of  the  year 
1895,  provides  that  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board  "shall  on  application 
admit  any  other  city  or  town,  any  part  of  which  is  within  ten  miles  of  the 
State  House,  into  said  water  district,  etc.  ...  on  such  payment  of  money 
as  said  board  may  determine."  As  already  stated  a  number  of  cities  and 
towns  have  joined  the  District  since  the  Metropolitan  Water  Act  was  passed 
and  it  is  interesting  to  examine  the  conditions  under  which  those  municipali- 
ties were  admitted  to  the  district  and  the  entrance  fee  paid  for  the  purpose. 

The  towns  which  have  been  admitted  since  the  district  was  created 
and  the  amounts  paid  by  each  are  as  follows: 

Arlington,  admitted  Jan.  31,  1899,  entrance  fee  $15  000  and  property  valued  at 

$15  000. 
Lexington,  admitted  Feb.  13,  1903,  entrance  fee  $27  250. 
Milton,  admitted  March  10,   1903,  entrance  fee  $10.     (Previous  pajTnents  by 

Milton  Water  Company  being  a  consideration  in  part  for  admittance.) 
Nahant,  admitted  Sept.  13,  1898,  entrance  fee  $20  000  and  an  annual  payment  of 

$800  until  Swampscott  began  to  buy  water. 
Quincy,  admitted  June  24,  1897,  entrance  fee  $5  000. 
Stoneham,  admitted  May  23,  1901,  entrance  fee  $30  000. 
Swampscott,  admitted  May  3,  1909,  entrance  fee  $90  000. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  225 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  record  that  the  last  town  admitted  was  Swamp- 
scott  in  1909,  13  years  ago,  and  the  last  one  previous  to  Swampseott  was 
Milton  admitted  in  1903,  19  years  ago.  A  number  of  cities  and  towns 
have  since  sought  to  join  the  district  but  have  been  deterred  mainly  by 
the  large  entrance  fee  likely  to  be  assessed  upon  them  for  admission. 

This  question  of  the  charge  for  the  admission  of  other  cities  and  towns 
to  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  is  constantly  arising.  Hitherto  it  has 
been  customary  to  require  the  municipality  applying  for  entrance  to  the 
district  to  pay  its  proportionate  share  of  the  accumulated  sinking  fund  as 
determined  by  the  Conunission,  with  possibly  some  extra  charge  for  the 
necessary  works  required  for  a  physical  connection  with  the  District. 
T!ie  method  was  a  satisfactory  one  in  the  beginning  at  least,  because  for 
those  who  came  in  early  the  share  of  the  sinking  fund  was  comparatively 
small,  and  at  that  time  the  works  were  ample  for  all  requirements. 

In  the  year  of  the  last  admission,  in  1909,  the  sinking  fund  amounted 
to  $7  203  406.08.  With  the  increase  in  the  total  amount  of  the  sinking 
fund  which  amounted  in  1920  to  $16  953  165.15  the  charge  for  admission  of 
additional  municipalities  has  been  necessarily  a  constantly  increasing  one; 
yet,  while  the  charge  for  admission  is  increasing,  the  prospective  benefit  of 
the  works  to  the  entering  municipality,  as  well  as  their  practical  value,  is 
decreasing,  since  their  capacity  is  being  approached  and  some  obsolescence 
has  occurred. 

The  matter  has  reached  a  stage  where  the  cost  of  admission  has 
apparently  become  a  serious  deterrent  to  the  addition  of  other  municipali- 
ties to  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  In  the  end  of  course,  within  a 
comparatively  few  years,  the  sinking  fund  will  be  used  for  the  payment  of 
the  bonds,  the  debt  will  be  fully  paid,  and  the  basis  for  this  method  of 
determining  the  charge  for  admission  of  other  mimicipalities  to  the  district 
wiU  disappear.  With  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  works  which  must 
inevitably  be  made  and  the  material  addition  to  the  cost  which  must  come 
in  the  immediate  future,  it  seems  necessary  that  a  new  basis  for  the  charge 
for  entrance  to  the  district  should  be  devised. 

The  Metropolitan  water  act  gives  the  MetropoUtan  District  Commis- 
sion the  sole  right  to  determine  the  charges  for  admission  of  other  cities  and 
towns  to  the  Metropolitan  Water  District;  but  a  change  in  the  law  could 
probably  be  made  if  agreed  to  by  the  Metropolitan  District  Commission, 
and  an  arrangement  might  be  reached  which  would  be  a  reasonable  one  and 
would  be  generally  acceptable.  The  charge  based  on  the  past  methods 
of  computation  are  regarded,  probably  with  reason,  as  excessive  at  the 
present  time.  The  method  should  be  revised  as  promptly  as  possible  in  the 
interests  of  all  concerned.  The  matter  is  a  most  important  one  and  its 
present  status  unsatisfactory. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


226 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


The  aggregate  population  in  1920  of  the  sixteen  municipalities  which 
though  eligible  have  not  joined  the  district,  was  391  448;  and  the  total 
quantity  of  water  consumed  by  them  was  34  241  000  gal.  per  day,  or  87.4 
gal.  per  person  per  day.  The  population,  per  capita  consumption,  per  cent 
of  metered  services  and  total  consumption  of  water  in  each  of  these  muni- 
cipaUties,  so  far  as  the  records  are  available  in  the  last  20  years,  are  sho\^Ti  in 
the  following  table. 


Population  and  Consumption  of  Water  of  16  Municipalities  Within  10  Miles 

OF  State  House. 

1900-1920. 


1900 

1901 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Population. 

sumption. 
(Gals.) 

Rumption. 
(1000  Gals.) 

Population. 

sumption. 
(Gals.) 

sumption. 
(1000  Gals.) 

Cambridge  . . . 

91  886 

79.0 

7  304 

92  996 

83.0 

7  690 

Brookline 

19  935 

97.0 

1  941 

20  635 

92.0 

1  902 

WeUesley  .... 

5  072 

47.0 

239 

5  295 

46.0 

244 

Needham 

4  016 

56.0 

224 

4  070 

57.0 

231 

Canton* 

4  584 

46.0 

209 

4  608 

43.0 

197 

Braintree 

5  981 

91.0 

544 

6  161 

78.0 

479 

Weymouth**  . 

11  324 

610 

11  376 

630 

Hinghamf 

Hullt 

5  059 

50.8 

257 

5  Oil 

51.5 

258 

1  703 

145.0 

247 

1  774 

146.8 

260 

Wakefield(c).. 

9  290 

60.0 

557 

9  500 

60.0 

570 

Wobum 

14  254 

78.0 

1  117 

14  284 

78.0 

1120 

Lynn    1 

Saugus / 

Winchester(/) . 

73  597 

64.0 

4  680 

75  537 

60.0 

4  506 

7  248 

225 

7  447 

240 

Waltham  .... 

23  481 

90.6 

2  118 

24  041 

95.6 

2  291 

Dedham 

7  457 

79.0 

586 

7  520 

83.0 

621 

Totals  . . 

284  887 

73.2 

20  858 

290'  255 

73.2 

21  239 

1902 

1903 

Cambridge  . . . 

94  105 

86.0 

8  099 

95  215 

91.0 

8  642 

Brookline 

21  335 

92.0 

1  961 

22  036 

96.0 

2  116 

WeUesley  .... 

5  519 

47.0 

257 

5  742 

51.0 

294 

Needham 

4  123 

67.0 

275 

4  177 

71.0 

295 

Canton 

4  631 

49.0 

226 

4  655 

55.0 

254 

Braintree  .... 

6  340 

85.0 

538 

6  520 

88.0 

574 

Weymouth    . . 

11  428 

650 

11  481 

670 

nSr*™!'. !!! 

4  963 

52.2 

259 

4  915 

52.8 

260 

1  846 

148.5 

274 

1  917 

150.2 

288 

Wakefield  .... 

9  681 

60.0 

577 

9  877 

60.0 

588 

Wobum 

14  313 

83.0 

1  193 

14  343 

94.0 

1  351 

Lynn 1 

Saugus J 

Winchester   . . 

77  476 

60.0 

4  684 

79  416 

65.0 

5  138 

7  646 

250 

7  844 

255 

Waltham  .... 

24  601 

99.0 

2  435 

25  162 

90.0 

2  254 

Dedham 

7  584 

89.0 

675 

7  647 

104.0 

796 

Totals  . . 

295  591 

75.6 

22  353 

300  947 

79.0 

23  775 

For  references,  see  page  i 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


227 


1904 

1905 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Population. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

Population. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

(Gals.) 

(1000  Gals.) 

(Gak.) 

(1000  Gals.) 

Cambridge  . . . 

96  324 

92,0 

8  847 

97  434 

92.0 

8  973 

Brookline 

22  736 

103.0 

2  348 

23  436 

95.0 

2  228 

WeUesley  .... 

5  966 

52.0 

313 

6  189 

47.0 

289 

Needham  .... 

4  230 

65.0 

274 

4  284 

66.0 

284 

Canton 

4  678 

62.0 

288 

4  702 

63.0 

296 

Braintree 

6  699 

88.0 

592 

6  879 

87.0 

600 

Wevmouth  .  . . 

11  533 

690 

11  585 

700 

Hingham 

HulT. 

4  867 

5i3.5 

260 

4  819 

54.1 

261 

1  989 

152.0 

302 

2  060 

153.8 

317 

Wakefield  .... 

10  072 

65.0 

655 

10  268 

73.0 

747 

Wobum 

14  372 

98.0 

1  413 

14  402 

103.0 

1  490 

Lynn    1 

Saupis j 

Winch^ter    . . 

81  355 

66.0 

5  333 

83  295 

59.0 

4  924 

8  043 

260 

8  242 

270 

Waltham 

25  722 

81.6 

2  073 

26  282 

79.0 

2  070 

Dedham 

7  711 

135.0 

1  041 

7  774 

135.0 

1  046 

Totals  . . 

306  297 

80.6 

24  689 

311  651 

78.6 

24  495 

1906 

1907 

Cambridge  . . . 

98  915 

96.0 

9  491 

100  396 

109.0 

10  992 

Brookline 

24  307 

84.0 

2  048 

25  178 

89.0 

2  236 

Welkaley  .... 

6  034 

45.0 

273 

5  879 

52.0 

305 

Needham  .... 

4  432 

77.0 

342 

4  581 

69.0 

315 

Canton 

4  721 

49.0 

230 

4  740 

51.0 

244 

Braintree 

7  116 

77.0 

549 

7  354 

66.0 

484 

Weymouth .  . . 

11  848 

720 

12  109 

740 

Hingham 

Huir 

4  848 

54,7 

265 

4  877 

55.4 

270 

2  069 

155.5 

322 

2  077 

157.2 

'  327 

Wakefield.... 

10  495 

69.0 

729 

10  722 

68.0 

724 

Wobum 

14  583 

104.0 

1  513 

14  764 

114.0 

1  682 

Lynn   \ 

Saugus / 

86  113 

60.0 

5  133 

88  930 

68.0 

6  018 

Winchester . . . 

8  455 

280 

8  669 

290 

Waltham 

26  592 

73.6 

1  941 

26  903 

84.0 

2  272 

Dedham 

8  076 

95.0 

770 

8  378 

104.0 

868 

Totals.  . 

318  604 

77.2 

24  606 

325  557 

85.3 

27  767 

1908 


Cambridge 

Brookline 

Wellesley 

Needham 

Canton  . . 

Braintree 

Weymouth 

Hingham 

Hull  .... 

Wakefield 

Wobum  . 

Lynn   . . . 

Saugus  . . 

Winchester 

Waltham 

Dedham 


Totals  . . 


101  877 

26  050 
5  723 
4  729 
4  759 

7  591 
12  371 

4  907 

2  086 

10  950 

14  946 

91  748 

8  882 

27  213 
8  680 

332  512 


10  450 
2  353 
310 
355 
280 
424 
770 
275 
332 
730 

1  652 

6  118 

300 

2  266 
947 

27  562 


1909 

103  358 

95.0 

9  859 

26  921 

86.0 

2  314 

5  568 

58.0 

324 

4  878 

69.0 

335 

4  778 

60.0 

287 

7  829 

63.0 

493 

12  633 

790 

4  936 

56.7 

280 

2  094 

160.8 

337 

11   177 

62.0 

698 

15  127 

119.0 

1  803 

94  565 

68.0 

6  394 

9  095 

310 

27  524 

87.0 

2  382 

8  982 

129.0 

1  160 

339  465 

81.8^ 

27  766 

Digitized  by  ^ 


228 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN   WATER  DISTRICT. 


1910 

1911 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Population. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

Population. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

(Gal8.) 

(1000  Gala.) 

(Gals.) 

(1000  Gals.) 

Cambridge  . . . 

104  839 

100.0 

10  458 

105  636 

97.0 

10  226 

Brookline 

27  792 

89.0 

2  476 

28  932 

90.0 

2  605 

WeUesley  .... 

5  413 

61.0 

331 

5  618 

63.0 

354 

Needham 

5  026 

66.0 

332 

5  329 

58.0 

308 

Canton 

4  797 

61.0 

293 

4  962 

65.0 

323 

Braintree  .... 

8  066 

81.0 

653 

8  321 

63.0 

524 

Weymouth    . . 

12  895 

810 

13  110 

840 

Hingham  .... 
Hull 

4  965 

57.3 

284 

5  025 

57.9 

291 

2  103 

162.5 

342 

2  140 

164.2 

351 

Wakefield    ... 

11  404 

61.0 

694 

11  679 

57.0 

664 

Woburn 

15  308 

139.0 

2  134 

15  528 

120.0 

1  856 

Lynn    \ 

Saugus / 

Winchester   . . 

97  383 

72.0 

7  027 

99  112 

68.0 

6  710 

9  309 

325 

9  448 

340 

Waltham  .... 

27  834 

88.6 

2  443 

28  298 

89.0 

2  513 

Dedham 

9  284 

129.0 

1  202 

9  636 

128.0 

1  235 

Totals  . . 

346  418 

86.0 

29  804 

352  774 

82.6 

29  140 

1912 

1913 

Cambridge  . . . 

106  432 

101.0 

10  793 

107  229 

98.0 

10  549 

Brookline 

30  071 

88.0 

2  633 

31  211 

87.0 

2  708 

Wellesley  .... 

5  823 

64.0 

374 

6  029 

65.0 

389 

Needham  .... 

5  632 

63.0 

356 

5  936 

58.0 

344 

Canton 

5  127 

75.0 

386 

5  293 

64.0 

338 

Braintree 

8  577 

68.0 

587 

8  832 

62.0 

545 

Weymouth    . . 

13  325 

870 

13  539 

900 

Hingham  .... 
Huir 

5  085 

58.6 

298 

5  144 

59.2 

304 

2  178 

166.0 

362 

2  215 

167.8 

372 

Wakefield    ... 

11  955 

60.0 

713 

12  230 

56.0 

684 

Woburn 

15  749 

128.0 

2  014 

15  969 

109.0 

1  744 

Lynn    ] 

Saugus j 

Winchester   . . 

100  841 

67.0 

6  750 

102  571 

62.0 

6  366 

9  587 

350 

9  727 

360 

Waltham  .... 

28  762 

95.6 

2  743 

29  226 

93.0 

2  714 

Dedham 

9  988 

116.0 

1  156 

10  339 

108.0 

1  121 

Totals  . . 

359  132 

84.6 

30  385 

365  490 

80.6 

29  438 

1914 

1915 

Cambridge  . . . 

108  025 

94.0 

10  137 

108  822 

82.0 

8  957 

Brookline 

32  350 

89.0 

2  875 

33  490 

82.0 

2  750 

Wellesley  .... 

6  234 

64.0 

398 

6  439 

73.0 

470 

Needham  .... 

6  239 

63.0 

395 

6  542 

62.0 

405 

Canton 

5  458 

53.0 

291 

5  623 

56.0 

313 

Braintree  .... 

9  088 

60.0 

549 

9  343 

53.0 

498 

Weymouth    . . 

13  753 

930 

13  969 

69.0 

966 

Hull  . .,/.'.'/. 

5  204 

59.9 

312 

5  264 

60.5 

318 

2  253 

169.5 

382 

2  290 

171.2 

392 

Wakefield    ... 

12  506 

47.0 

590 

12  781 

46.0 

592 

Woburn 

16  190 

116.0 

1  883 

16  410 

122.0 

1  996 

Lynn    | 

Saugus j 

104  300 

65.0 

6  761 

106  029 

60.0 

6  385 

Winchester   . . 

9  866 

380 

10  005 

395 

Waltham  .... 

29  690 

8i3.6 

2  465 

30  154 

76.0 

2  294 

Dedham  

10  691 

99.0 

1  054 

11  043 

88.0 

973 

Totals  . . 

371  847 

79.1 

29  402 

378  204 

73^ 

27  704 

Dig 

tizedby^C 

>ogle 

GOODNOUGH. 


229 


1916 

1917 

Per  Capital 

Total 

Per  Capita 

Total 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Con- 

Population. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

Population. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

(Gab.) 

(1000  Gals.) 

(Gals.) 

(1000  Gals.) 

Cambridge  . .  . 

108  996 

89.0 

9  711 

109  171 

89.0 

9  712 

Brookline  .... 

34  342 

83.0 

2  838 

35  193 

87.0 

3  078 

Wellesley  .... 

6  396 

78.0 

498 

6  353 

86.0 

544 

Needham 

6  636 

62.0 

413 

6  730 

56.0 

379 

Canton 

5  687 

53.0 

301 

5  752 

51.0 

296 

Braintree 

9  590 

65.0 

625 

9  838 

60.0 

588 

Weymouth    . . 

14  187 

.65.0 

918 

14  404 

78.0 

1  127 

Hingham  .... 
Hull   

5  332 

61.1 

326 

5  400 

61.8 

334 

2  186 

173.0 

378 

2  082 

174.8 

364 

Wakefield    ... 

12  830 

48.0 

619 

12  879 

43.0 

554 

Wobum 

16  443 

136.0 

2  229 

16  476 

124.0 

2  046 

Lynn    1 

Saugus i 

Winchester   . . 

106  828 

66.0 

7  065 

107  626 

68.0 

7  316 

10  101 

410 

10  197 

430 

Waltham  .... 

30  306 

75.0 

2  258 

30  458 

74.0 

2  249 

Dedham 

10  993 

92.0 

1  008 

10  943 

95.0 

1  041 

Totals  . . 

380  853 

77.7 

29  597 

383  502 

78.4 

30  058 

1918 

1919 

Cambridge  . . . 

109  345 

102.0 

11  127 

109  520 

96.0 

10  513 

Brookline 

36  045 

87.0 

3  144 

36  896 

90.0 

3  309 

Wellesley  ... 

6  310 

86.0 

545 

6  267 

83.0 

622 

Needham 

6  824 

68.0 

462 

6  918 

57.0 

396 

Canton 

5  816 

68.0 

393 

5  881 

75.0 

439 

Braintree 

10  085 

72.0 

722 

10  333 

62.0 

637 

Weymouth   . . 

14  622 

99.0 

1  445 

14  839 

81.0 

1  208 

Hingham  .... 
KvST, 

5  468 

62.4 

341 

5  536 

63.1 

349 

1  979 

176.5 

349 

1  875 

178.2 

334 

Wakefield    ... 

12  927 

61.0 

786 

12  976 

45.0 

584 

Wobum 

16  508 

141.0 

2  320 

16  541 

109.0 

1  796 

L3mn    1 

Saugus J 

Winchester    . . 

108  425 

77.0 

8  374 

109  223 

74.0 

8  048 

10  293 

42.0 

435 

10  389 

43.0 

444 

Waltham  .... 

30  611 

82.0 

2  510 

30  763 

63.0 

1  952 

Dedham 

10  892 

104.0 

1  133 

10  842 

73.0 

796 

Totals  . . 

• 

386  150 

88.3 

34  086 

388  799 

80.6 

31  327 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


230 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


1920 


Per 

Capita 

Total 

Population. 

Con- 

Con- 

sumption. 

sumption. 

(Gala.) 
104.2 

(1000  Gals.) 

Cambridge  . . . 

109  694 

11  435 

Brookline    ... 

37  748 

91.4 

3  451 

Wellesley  .... 

6  224 

86.1 

536 

Needham 

7  012 

64.2 

450 

Canton 

5  945 

70.5 

419 

Braintree 

10  580 

70.1 

742 

Weymouth    . . 

15  067 

97.0 

1  464 

Hingham  .... 

Huir 

5  604 

63.7 

357 

1  771 

180.0 

319 

Wakefield    ... 

13  025 

47.6 

620 

Woburn 

16  574 

127.0 

2  104 

Lynn    \ 

Saugus / 

Winchester   . . 

110  022 

82.8 

9  113 

10  485 

45.0 

472 

Waltham  .... 

30  915 

63.4 

1  960 

Dedham  

10  792 

74.0 

799 

Totals  . . 

391  448 

87.5 

34  241 

^Canton  —  1913  and  1920  water  consumption  figures  estimated. 
*♦  Weymouth  —  All  water  consumption  figures  estimated,  except  1916-20,  inclusive. 

t  Hingham  and  Hull  —  Water  consumption  figures  e^imated. 
(f)  Wakefield  —  1900  and  1901  estimated  figures  for  water  consumption. 
(/)  Winchester  —  All  water  consumption  figures  estimated,  except  1918  and  1919. 


Most  of  these  municipalities  must  inevitably  obtain  all  or  part  of  their 
water  supplies  from  the  Metrop)olitan  Water  District  in  the  not  distant 
future,  that  is  within  the  next  10  or  15  years,  though  some  of  them  have 
water  enough  to  last  for  a  longer  time.  Out  of  the  total  population  of 
about  391  000  in  these  cities  and  towns  in  1920,  it  is  probable  that  about 
two-thirds  or  about  270  000  will  require  a  water  supply  from  the  Metropoli- 
tan Water  District  within  the  next  10  or  15  years,  the  length  of  this  period 
depending  largely  upon  the  rainfall.  These  suburban  municipalities  use 
less  water  per  capita  of  course  than  the  present  Metropolitan  Water  District 
and  in  estimating  future  requirements  of  the  district  including  these  munici- 
palities a  smaller  consumption  of  water  is  allowed  for  than  in  the  case  of  the 
district  alone. 

Besides  the  municipalities  within  the  10-mile  limit,  there  are  others 
beyond  that  limit  which  may  require  a  water  supply  from  the  Metropolitan 
District  within  the  next  10  to  15  years,  some  for  the  reason  that  their  wat^r 
supplies  are  limited  and  are  likely  soon  to  become  exhausted,  others  because 
of  the  poor  quality  of  the  waters  now  used,  and  still  others  because  of  the 
expense  of  maintaining  their  present  works.  The  more  important  of  these 
municipalities  contained  an  aggregate  population  in  1920  of  44  120. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


231 


Without  going  into  the  matter  further  and  omitting  any  consideration 
of  the  remaining  towns  which  have  rights  to  take  water  from  the  Metro- 
politan watersheds  and  omitting  also  those  towns  which  will  naturally  take 
their  water  supplies  at  some  time  in  the  future  from  the  city  of  Worcester, 
there  is  a  total  population  of  some  570  000  which,  including  the  city  of 
Worcester,  eithier  have  rights  in  the  Metropolitan  watersheds  or  may  claim 
the  right  to  a  supply  of  water  from  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  A 
number  of  these  places,  however,  can  probably  obtain  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water  from  their  own  sources  for  many  years. 

It  is  not  practicable  within  the  limits  of  this  paper  to  give  a  detailed 
statement  as  to  the  water  supplies  of  all  of  the  cities  and  towns  which  may 
desire  to  join  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  or  may  require  a  water  supply 
therefrom  within  the  not  distant  future.  With  the  coming  of  a  dry  period 
there  is  likely  to  be  a  large  increase  in  water  supply  requirements  from  the 
district  sources  coming  from  territory  outside  its  present  limits,  and  the 
demands  of  outside  cities  and  towns  for  water  for  use  in  emergencies  could 
not  of  course  be  denied.  It  is  necessary,  however,  that  all  local  sources 
which  are  still  suitable  for  use  shall  be  continued  in  use  so  long  as  practicable 
and  only  surplus  requirements  drawn  from  the  works  of  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District  until  the  district  sources  have  been  materially  increased. 

Including  the  city  of  Worcester  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  popula- 
tion in  the  municipalities  within  the  10-mile  limit  of  the  State  House  which 
are  not  at  present  connected  with  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  and 
omitting  any  provision  for  municipalities  outside  that  limit,  the  total 
population  to  be  supplied  and  the  quantity  of  water  which  is  likely  to  be 
required  for  the  next  15  years  would  be  about  as  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


1920 

1925 

Population. 

Per 
Capita 
Daily 
Con- 
sumption. 
(Gals.) 

Average 
Daily 
Con- 
sumption. 
(Gals.) 

Population. 

Per 
Capita 
Daily 
Con- 
sumption. 
(Gals.) 

Average 
Daily 
Con- 
sumption. 
(Gals.) 

Metropolitan  District 

as  supplied    

Newton     

1  206  849 
46  064 

105.5 

127  265  000 
3  687  000 

1  333  680 
50  200 

105.5 

140  703  000 
4  267  000 

Total    

Near-by     cities    and 
towns     

1  252  903 
272  840 

104.6 

130  952  000 
24  659  000 

1  383  880 
299  276 

104.8 

144  970  000 
28  288  000 

ToTAii   . . . : 

Worcester   

1  525  743 
179  754 

102.0 

155  611  000 
16  515  000 

1  683  166 
198  500 

102.9 

173  258  000 
19  215  000 

Total    

1  705  497 

100.9 

172  126  000 

1  881  656 

102.3 

192  473  000 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


232 


PROPOSED    EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


1930 

1935 

Metropolitan  District 

ajB  supplied    

Newton   

1  463  870 
54  500 

111.8 

163  661  000 
4  883  000 

1  592  460 
58  900 

117.8 

187  592  000 
5  537  000 

Total   

Near-by     cities     and 
towns 

1  518  370 
327  512 

111.0 

168  544  000 
32  249  000 

1  651  360 
355  358 

116.9 

193  129  000 
36  260  000 

Total   

Worcester   

1  845  882 
217  500 

108.8 

200  793  000 
22  098  000 

2  006  718 
237  000 

114.3 

229  389  000 
25  169  000 

Total   

2  063  382 

108.0 

222  891  000 

2  243  718 

113.5 

254  558  000 

The  quantity  of  water  which  may  be  required  from  the  sources  of  water 
supply  of  the  Metropolitan  District  by  the  population  which  is  likely  to 
take  water  from  the  district  within  the  next  15  years,  as  compared  with 
the  capacity  of  available  sources,  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Million  Gallons  per  Day. 


Safe  yield  of  sources  of  Metropolitan  Water 
District  plus  Newton 

Safe  yield  of  sources  of  nearby  cities  and 
towns,  —  which  can  probably  be  re- 
tained in  use 

Total  Safe  Yield 


Requirements  of  Metropolitan  Water  Dis- 
trict and  Ne^'ton 

Requirements  of  nearby  cities  and  towns. . 

Total  Requirements   155.6 

Excess  of  safe  yield  over  requirements  of 

District  alone    27.0 

Deficiency    

Excess  of  safe  yield  over  requirements  with 

adjacent  municipalities  added 25.2 

Deficiency    

Safe  yield  of  present  sources  which  can  be 

retained  in  use,  with  Worcester  added . .     200.1 

Total  requirements,  with  Worcester  added . .     172.1 

Excess  of  safe  yield  over  requirements 28.0 

Deficiency    


1920 

1925 

1930 

1935 

158.0 

158.0 

158.0 

157.0 

22.8 

22.8 

22.8 

22.8 

180.8 

180.8 

180.8 

179.8 

131.0 

145.0 

168.5 

193.1 

24.6 

28.3 

32.3 

36.3 

173.3 


13.0 


7.5 


200.1 

192.5 

7.6 


200.8 


10.5 


20.0 

200.1 
222.9 


22.8 


229.4 


36.1 


49.6 

199.1 
254.6 

55.5 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table  that  the  consumption  of  water 
in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  at  the  probable  rate  of  increase  indicated 
by  past  experience  is  likely  to  exceed  the  safe  capacity  of  the  present  sources 
in  the  year  1930  by  about  10  million  gallons  per  day.     If  other  cities  and 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  233 

towns  within  the  10-mile  radius  from  the  State  House  should  join  the  dis- 
trict and  take  only  their  surplus  requirements  therefrom  beyond  the 
capacity  of  their  present  sources,  the  deficiency  in  the  supply  of  the  Metro- 
poUtan  District  in  that  year  may  reach  20  000  000  gal.  per  day  without 
allowance  for  the  city  of  Worcester.  The  requirements  of  the  district  alone 
as  at  present  constituted  are  likely  to  reach  to  from  30  000  000  to  35  000  000 
gal.  per  day  in  excess  of  the  yield  of  present  sources  by  1935  and  to  over 
80  000  000  gal.  per  day  10  y^ars  later.  Of  course  if  the  city  of  Worcester 
and  other  municipalities  should  be  added  to  the  district  or  should  take  water 
from  the  District  sources,  as  inevitably  will  be  the  case,  these  amounts 
would  be  materially  exceeded. 

Present    Situation    of  the   Metropolitan  Water    District  and 
Other  Municipalities  in  its  Neighborhood  in  Eastern 
Massachusetts  with  Regard  to  Water  Supply. 

The  seriousness  of  the  situation  with  regard  to  water  supply  in  eastern 
Massachusetts,  that  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  and  the  adjacent 
territory  including  the  city  of  Worcester,  is  well  illustrated  by  considering 
what  is  likely  to  happen  in  this  territory  should  a  dry  period  occur  within 
the  next  10  to  15  years,  assuming  that  all  available  sources,  both  of  the 
district  and  the  other  cities  and  towns,  should  be  used  to  their  fullest  prac- 
ticable capacity,  and  assuming  also  that  a  new  supply  of  33  000  000  gal.  per 
day  will  be  introduced  from  the  Ware  River  to  be  referred  to  later  as 
speedily  as  practicable.  The  safe  yield  of  present  sources  of  supply  for  the 
Metropolitan  District  alone  is  sufficient  until  the  year  1928  if  no  other 
municipalities  are  added.  If  a  severe  drought  should  occur  at  about  that 
time  the  district  supplies  might  be  exhausted  as  early  as  1926.  If  a  supply 
of  33  000  000  gal.  per  day  should  be  introduced  from  the  Ware  River  it 
would  be  sufficient  for  the  district  alone  until  the  year  1935,  but  if  the  city 
of  Worcester  and  half  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
district  which  seem  likely  to  need  water  with  the  next  dry  period  should  be 
added  to  the  district  the  supply  would  be  sufficient  only  until  about  1932. 
Even  if  it  were  assumed  that  there  will  be  no  increase  whatever  hereafter  in 
the  consimiption  of  water  per  capita  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District, 
the  consumption  of  water  in  that  district  including  the  nearby  cities  and 
towns  likely  to  require  water  therefrom  and  the  city  of  Worcester  would 
reach  the  safe  capacity  of  all  available  sources,  even  with  an  additional 
supply  of  33  000  000  gal.  from  the  Ware  River,  by  1936.  In  other  words,  if 
a  supply  of  33  000  000  gal.  per  day  should  be  introduced  as  soon  as  possible 
from  the  Ware  River,  a  still  further  supply  would  be  needed  by  1931,  and 
even  if  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  in  the  present  Metropolitan 
District  can  be  kept  from  increasing  beyond  the  figure  of  1920,  a  further 
additional  supply  would  be  needed  by  1936,  even  though  all  of  the  present 
available  sources,  so  far  as  possible,  should  be  retained  in  use. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


234       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Circumstances  which  Affect  the  Selection  of  Water  Supply 
FOR  THE  Metropolitan  District. 

There  have  been  marked  changes  in  the  conditions  affecting  the  use  of 
inland  waters  in  Massachusetts  since  the  earlier  water  supply  projects 
were  considered.  Massachusetts  is  an  industrial  State  and  its  rivers  are 
most  important  sources  of  power,  the  value  of  which  has  increased  with  the 
great  increase  that  has  taken  place  in  the  demand  for  power  and  the  cost 
of  fuel.  But  not  only  is  the  water  of  the  rivers  of  great  value  for  power  but 
also  for  manufacturing  and  mechanical  uses,  and  large  quantities  of  water 
are  used  for  these  purposes  in  some  of  the  more  important  industries  of 
the  State.  Furthermore,  with  the  growth  in  population  and  the  increase  in 
industry,  especially  within  the  past  30  years,  there  has  been  a  great  increase 
in  the  quantity  of  sewage  and  industrial  wastes  requiring  disposal  in  the 
river  valleys  of  the  State. 

River  sanitation  had  hardly  been  thought  of  in  this  country  50  years 
ago,  and  the  first  general  laws  of  importance  relating  to  that  subject  were 
not  enacted  until  1886  and  1888.  Knowledge  of  its  requirements  was  still 
in  its  infancy  when  the  investigations  for  the  present  Metropolitan  water 
system  were  begun  nearly  30  years  ago. and  even  at  the  present  day  the 
progress  attained  still  leaves  much  room  for  improvement. 

While  works  for  treating  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes  are  com- 
mon as  compared  with  the  conditions  30  years  ago,  these  wastes  still  find 
their  way  into  the  streams  in  some  ca^es  with  more  or  less  effective  purifica- 
tion but  commonly  with  none  at  all.  Under  these  conditions,  the  question 
of  the  diversion  of  water  from  a  given  watershed  may  affect  in  a  much 
greater  degree  than  was  the  case  30  years  or  more  ago  the  conditions  in  the 
valley  of  a  river  below  a  proposed  point  of  diversion.  These  considerations 
have  a  most  important  effect  upon  the  availability  of  many  of  the  rivers 
of  the  State  for  use  as  sources  of  water  supply. 

The  diversion  of  the  flow  of  water  from  any  considerable  portion  of 
the  watershed  of  many  of  the  streams,  besides  the  effect  it  may  have  on  the 
use  of  the  streams  for  other  purposes,  especially  in  the  drier  part  of  the  year, 
means  a  reduction  in  the  water  available  for  the  dilution  of  effluents  dis- 
charged lower  down  and  an  increase  in  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  main- 
taining proper  sanitary  conditions  in  such  streams.  In  some  of  the  river 
valleys  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  respect  to  the  use,  and  it  must 
be  admitted  the  abuse,  of  the  streams  in  the  past  30  years  which  require 
careful  consideration  in. connection  with  any  plan  for  diverting  water  from 
such  streams  for  water  supply  uses,  since  such  diversions  may  involve  large 
claims  for  damages  wholly  aside  from  the  use  of  the  streams  for  power  or 
other  industrial  purposes.  These  considerations  affect  materially  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  use  of  some  of  the  proposed  sources  of  wat^r  supplj''  con- 
sidered available  at  an  earUer  day. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


goodnough.  235 

Sources  of  Water  Supply  Considered. 

The  Charles  River  is  one  of  the  streams  which  have  been  mentioned  as 
possible  additional  sources  of  water  supply  for  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District.  It  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place 
since  its  use  was  first  seriously  proposed  as  a  source  of  water  supply  for  the 
city  of  Boston  in  1874.  The  river  above  the  Boston  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany's dam  at  Waltham  drains  an  area  of  about  248  sq.  mi.,  but  as  one- 
third  of  the  flow  is  diverted  into  Mother  Brook  at  Dedham,  the  effective 
watershed  at  Waltham  is  only  182  sq.  mi.  At  the  present  time  17  cities 
and  towns  obtain  their  water  supply  from  this  watershed,  the  population  of 
these  municipalities  and  the  quantity  of  water  used  in  each  in  1895  and  in 
1920,  so  far  as  information  is  available,  being  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Supply  Consumption 

Intro-  Population  in  Gallons 

duced  Municipality.  Supplied.  per  Day. 

in.  1895  1920  1895  1920 

1873  Waltham 20  876  30  915  •       1  222  000  1  960  000 

1856  Cambridge 81  643  109  694  6  074  000  11  435  000 

1874  Lincoln 1111  1042  144  500*  221000 

1896  Weston 2  282            159  000 

1884  WeUesley   4  229  6  224  175  000  636  000 

1876  Newton 27  590  46  054  1  801  000  3  687  000 

1890  Needham   .     3  511  7  012  139  000  450  000 

1875  Brookline  16  164         37  748  1  318  000        3  451  000 

1881         Dedham  7  211  10  792  419  000  799  000 

1891  Holliston 2  718  2  707  79  000  119  000 

1891  Millis 1  006  1  485  33  200*            61  000 

1889  Medfield 1  872  1  900**  56  000*            76  000* 

1911  Medway 2  913  2  956  90  300*  122  000 

1881  Milford&Hopedale.  10  336  16  248  527  000  987  000 

1884  Franklin 5  136*  6  497  201000  513  000 

1908  Wrentham   2  808  89  000 


186  316        286  364  12  279  000      24  665  000 


♦  Estimated.  *♦  Omitting  asylum  population. 

Besides  the  amount  diverted  by  the  water  supplies,  large  quantities 
of  water  are  diverted  from  the  lower  part  of  the  watershed  by  the  system  of 
sewers  in  Waltham,  Newton,  West  Roxbury,  Dedham  and  WeUesley. 
The  only  site  where  it  would  be  possible  to  construct  a  large  storage  reser- 
voir within  the  Charles  River  watershed  is  in  the  area  which  includes  the 
Medfield  Meadows,  so  called,  extending  from  South  Natick  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Medway.  The  area  of  the  watershed  tributary  to  a  reservoir  in 
this  location  would  be  about  156.3  sq.  mi. 

The  reservoir  would  hold  about  9  000  000  000  gal.  with  an  average 
depth  of  9  ft.,  or  18  000  000  000  gal.,  with  a  12-foot  depth,  and  might 
furnish  a  safe  yield  of  from  63  000  000  to  93  000  000  gal.  per  day  according 
to  the  height  of  the  dam. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


236  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN   WATER  DISTRICT. 

Obviously  the  diversion  of  all  of  the  water  from  the  drainage  area  above 
this  proposed  dam  would  greatly  damage  the  water  supplies  along  the  river 
below  and  the  requirement  that  one-third  of  the  flow^  of  the  river  must  be 
allowed  to  flow  through  Mother  Brook  introduces  another  complication. 
The  necessity  of  maintaining  proper  sanitary  conditions  in  the  river  below, 
and  especially  in  the  Charles  River  basin,  is  stiU  another  requirement,  be- 
sides the  need  of  allowing  enough  water  to  run  for  the  use  of  the  factories 
and  mills  along  the  stream.  Certainly  any  taking  of  water  from  the  upper 
part  of  this  valley  now  would  have  to  be  a  limited  one  and,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  cost  of  the  proix)sed  reservoir,  together  with  the  cost  of 
properly  purifying  the  wat^r  and  conveying  it  to  the  district,  would  un- 
questionably be  excessive  in  view  of  the  quantity  of  water  likely  to  be 
obtained. 

Among  other  near-by  rivers  which  may  be  considered  as  possible 
sources  of  additional  water  supply  are  the  Shawsheen,  the  Ipswich  and  the 
Merrimack.  The  Shawsheen  was  considered  many  years  ago  and  rejected 
as  impracticable.  The  Ipswich  River  has  already  been  divided  up  between 
the  cities  of  Lynn,  Peabody,  Salem  and  Beverly  and  the  towns  of  Danvers, 
Saugus,  Reading  and  Middleton,  and  the  question  has  been  raised  as  to 
whether  it  may  not  be  a  proper  source  for  some  of  the  municipalities  in  the 
Merrimack  valley.  With  the  highest  practicable  development  a  very  large 
part  of  the  supply  from  this  source  would  be  required  for  the  cities  and 
towns  in  the  densely  populated  county  of  Essex,  and  little  would  remain  for 
the  use  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  The  use  of  the  Merrimack 
River  as  a  source  of  water  supply  for  the  Metropolitan  District  w^  care- 
fully investigated  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1895  and  rejected  for 
.  reasons  which  proved  satisfactory  to  the  Legislature  of  that  day.  Far 
more  serious  objections  would  arise  to  any  proposition  to  use  that  river  as 
a  source  of  water  supply  for  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  at  the  present 
time,  even  assuming  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  would  be  willing  to 
use  so  polluted  a  water  for  drinking  even  with  the  best  system  of  purification 
that  it  would  be  practicable  to  devise.  The  use  of  the  water  of  this  river  for 
water  supply  purposes  would  require  a  thorough  system  of  filtration  and 
would  make  necessary  the  pumping  of  all  of  the  water  drawn  therefrom  for 
the  supply  of  the  district.  Furthermore,  the  use  of  that  source  would 
eventually  not  only  reduce  materially  the  amount  of  water  available  for 
power  and  industrial  uses  at  Lowell  and  Lawrence,  which  would  have  to  be 
replaced  by  power  from  other  sources,  but  would  also  involve  the  in- 
stallation of  power  plants  for  pumping  the  water  required  by  the  district 
and  the  use  of  an  ever  increasing  quantity  of  fuel  for  the  purpose  or  the 
purchase  of  power  which  would  otherwise  be  available  for  other  uses. 
The  taking  of  this  wat^r  would  also  involve  serious  interference  with  the 
flow  of  water  available  for  maintaining  proper  sanitary  conditions  in  this 
river  which  has  already  been  the  source  of  complaint  below  the  proposed 
point  of  diversion.    The  use  of  this  river  was  rejected  for  excellent  reasons 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  237 

many  years  ago  and  its  use  would  obviously  be  more  objectionable  today. 
The  waters  of  many  rivers  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  like  the  Aberjona 
River  and  its  impounding  reservoir,  the  Upper  Mystic  Lake,  are  unfit  for 
domestic  use.  In  this  class  are  the  Neponset  and  Blackstone  rivers  and 
the  Nashua  River  and  its  North  Branch,  while  the  Squannacook  —  which 
is  the  only  large  branch  of  the  Nashua  suitable  for  water  supply  —  would 
not  furnish  sufficient  water  to  pay  for  its  development  for  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District. 

There  are  no  practicable  sites  for  storage  reservoirs  on  the  Concord 
and  Sudbury  rivers,  and  of  the  large  natural  lakes  and  ponds  which  might 
otherwise  be  available,  Lake  Winnepesaukee  is  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Assawompsett  and  its  tributary  ponds  are  used,  and  will  be  needed,  by  the 
municipalities  of  Bristol  County. 

The  Assabet  River. 

In  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1895  containing  the  plan 
for  the  present  Metropolitan  water  supply,  certain  tributaries  of  the  Assabet 
River  are  mentioned  for  use  in  the  first  probable  extension  to  the  Metro- 
politan water  supply  system  when  an  additional  supply  should  become 
necessary.  The  investigations  at  that  time  indicated  that  the  waters  of 
several  small  streams  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Assabet  River  watershed, 
through  which  the  Wachusett  Aqueduct  passes  in  its  course  to  the  Sudbury 
Reservoir,  could  be  utilized  for  supplementing  the  Metropolitan  water  sup- 
ply by  diverting  them  into  the  aqueduct  through  some  six  separate  connec- 
tions. The  watershed  of  one  of  these  streams,  however,  is  used  as  a  source 
of  water  supply  for  the  town  of  Northborough  and  that  of  another  which 
drains  an  area  along  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  above  Westborough 
has  become  much  more  populous  than  was  the  case  years  ago.  Further- 
more, the  sewage  disposal  works  of  the  town  of  Westborough  are  located  in 
this  valley  just  below  the  proposed  point  of  diversion,  and  if  the  flow  of  this 
watershed  were  to  be  diverted  as  proposed  little  water  would  be  left  in  the 
river  during  the  drier  part  of  the  year  to  dilute  the  effluent  from  those 
works.  There  has  been  much  litigation  over  the  condition  of  this  river 
below  the  sewage  disposal  works  in  past  years  and  under  the  circumstances 
the  diversion  of  water  from  this  tributary  at  the  present  time  is  inadvisable. 
Omitting  these  areas,  including  one  other  small  area  which  would  natur- 
ally be  grouped  with  them,  the  total  remaining  watershed  is  21.9  sq.  mi., 
and  if  aU  of  the  water  possible  should  be  diverted  from  this  area  for  the 
use  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  the  additional  safe  yield  thereby 
obtained  would  not  exceed  about  17  000  000  gal.  per  day. 

The  Assabet  River  watershed  below  the  areas  drained  by  these  streams 
contains  several  large  towns  in  which  are  located  important  factories  and 
mills,  some  of  which  use  large  quantities  of  water  in  their  processes;  while 
one,  the  woolen  mills  at  Maynard,  uses  at  times  nearly  the  whole  dry- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


238  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

weather  flow  of  the  river  for  such  purposes.  Furthermore,  in  addition  to 
the  effluent  of  the  sewage  disposal  works  of  the  town  of  Westborough,  that 
of  the  town  of  Hudson  is  also  discharged  into  the  river;  and  similar  disposal 
is  made  of  the  effluent  from  small  sewage  disposal  works  in  the  town  of 
Maynard,  which  flows  into  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  river.  There  are 
also  works  for  treating  manufacturing  wastes  at  some  of  the  mills,  the 
effluent  of  which  is  discharged  into  the  stream.  This  river  has  been  the 
source  of  much  complaint  in  past  years  on  account  of  pollution  by  sewage 
and  manufacturing  waste  and  considerable  litigation  has  resulted  therefrom. 
Its  condition  finally  became  so  objectionable  that  the  Legislature  passed  a 
stringent  law  designed  to  prevent  its  further  poUution.  The  conditions  now 
existing  in  this  valley  are  such  that  if  the  whole  flow  of  water  from  the  por- 
tion of  its  watershed  in  question  were  diverted  from  the  river  the  condition 
of  the  stream  would  no  doubt  become  more  objectionable.  Under  the  cir- 
cumstances the  damages  which  would  be  likely  to  result  from  the  taking 
of  the  entire  flow  of  these  streams,  in  addition  to  the  damage  to  water  power 
alone,  would  be  likely  to  be  large,  and  it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  so  com- 
plete a  taking  of  water  would  or  should  be  authorized  by  the  Legislature  at 
the  present  time.  The  amount  of  water  which  could  be  obtained  from  this 
source  would  consequently  depend  upon  the  limit  of  taking  which  might 
be  imposed  by  the  Legislature.  Limited  takings  are  common  enough  in 
the  legislation  of  Massachusetts  and  the  advisability  as  a  general  policy  of 
limiting  the  quantity  of  water  that  may  be  diverted  from  most  of  the  water- 
sheds of  the  State,  sufficiently  to  prevent  any  serious  diminution  of  their 
flow  in  the  drier  part  of ,  the  year,  will  hardly  be  questioned  by  anyone 
having  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  conditions  which  exist  in  most  of  the 
river  valleys.  If  the  district  should  be  authorized  to  take  all  of  the  flow  of 
these  streams  in  excess  of  0.35  of  a  c.f  .p.s.  per  square  mile  of  watershed,  or 
about  225  000  gal.  per  square  mile  per  day,  which  is  the  approximate 
limit  of  taking  in  the  case  of  the  Ipswich  River,  but  without  other 
limit  as  to  the  quantity  or  time  of  diversion,  the  safe  yield  obtainable 
from  the  use  of  these  streams  in  the  Assabet  River  watershed  would  be 
about  11  000  000  gal.  per  day.  This  amount  would  be  suflScient  for  the 
needs  of  the  district  for  no  more  than  about  three  years  after  the  capacity  of 
the  present  sources  had  been  reached  and  the  amount  obtainable  would 
hardly  pay  for  the  trouble  and  expense  of  the  taking.  Furthermore,  the 
taking  might  be  even  further  restricted  and  in  that  case  the  amount  of 
water  available  would  be  less.  With  conditions  as  they  are  it  has  seemed 
inadvisable  to  recommend  the  taking  of  any  water  from  the  Assabet 
River,  though  it  may  become  necessary  to  use  water  from  some  portions  of 
this  watershed  in  case  an  emergency  should  arise  since  water  can  be  diverted 
from  these  streams  more  readily  probably  than  from  any  other  available 
source. 


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goodnough.  239 

The  Ware  and  Swift  Rivers. 

In  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  a  Metropohtan  water 
-upply  in  1895  it  was  recommended  that  a  second  source  of  considerable 
>ize  could  be  tapped  when  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  supply  on  the  Nashua 
River  could  be  augmented  by  building  a  tunnel  to  Coldbrook  on  the  Ware 
River  and  diverting  the  water  from  a  drainage  area  of  about  100  sq.  mi. 
It  was  further  suggested  in  that  report  that  later  on  a  reservoir  could  be 
built  in  the  Swift  River  valley,  and  the  water  also  delivered  to  Wachusett 
Reservoir  by  gravity  through  an  extension  of  the  tunnel  from  Goldbrook 
to  the  Swift  River.  Reference  was  also  made  to  the  possibility  of  using 
loiter  as  supplementary  supplies  water  from  the  Deerfield  and  Westfield 
rivers  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  state. 

WTien  the  recent  investigation  was  undertaken  great  changes  had  taken 
place  in  the  conditions  affecting  the  use  of  these  rivers  as  sources  of  water 
supply  for  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  The  population  in  the  rural 
areas  throughout  the  State  has  declined  steadily  for  many  years  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  industries  along  many  of  the  river  valleys  have  grown 
and  the  population  has  grown  with  them,  and  the  prosperity  of  these  valleys 
has  become  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  industries 
ulong  the  rivers.  In  the  Ware  River  watershed  Uttle  change  of  importance 
has  taken  place  in  the  neighborhood  of  Coldbrook  or  above  it,  in  the  region 
:n)m  which  it  was  proposed  in  1895  to  take  an  additional  water  supply  for 
the  Metropolitan  Water  District;  but  in  the  valley  of  the  Ware  River 
f-elow  Coldbrook,  and  in  that  of  the  Chicopee  River  of  which  the  Ware 
L-  one  of  the  principal  tributaries,  the  industries  have  become  much  more  im- 
[jortant  than  in  1895.  And  the  water  is  used  not  only  for  power  but  for 
various  manufacturing  processes  in  the  mills  and  factories  along  the  stream. 
Furthermore  the  dry  weather  flow  of  the  rivers  is  depended  upon  for  the 
f  ffective  dilution  of  the  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes  which  after  more 
<jr  less  purification  m  some-  cases,  and  in  others  none  at  all,  are  discharged 
<lirectly  into  the  stream.  The  total  drainage  area  of  the  Ware  River  at  its 
uiouth  is  about  221  sq.  mi.,  and  if  all  of  the  water  were  diverted  from  100  sq. 
rui.  above  Coldbrook,  the  flow  of  the  river  would  be  diminished  nearly  one- 
^uilf  in  the  neighborhood  of  its  mouth  and  in  an  increasing  proportion  from 
point  to  point  farther  up  stream,  until  in  the  vicinity  of  the  proposed  dam 
here  would  be  little  or  no  flow  after  the  full  supply  of  this  source  came  to 
>  required  by  the  district,  except  such  amounts  as  might  be  wasted  at 
times  of  high  freshets,  usually  in  the  early  spring.  There  is  no  question 
that,  in  order  to  avoid  excessive  costs  and  damages,  and  especially  to  avoid 
permanent  injury  to  the  prosperity  of  this  valley,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
limit  the  amount  of  water  to  be  diverted  from  it,  especially  in  the  drier  part 
•'f  the  year.  Since  it  was  deemed  inadvisable  to  divert  any  part  of  the 
As>4abet  River  watershed  for  the  permanent  use  of  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District,  and  since  only  a  Umited  taking  of  water  from  the  Ware  River  is 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


240  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

likely  to  be  authorized,  the  question  of  obtaining  a  material  addition  to  the 
water  supply  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  required  the  consideration 
of  other  additional  sources. 

The  source  suggested  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1895  for  the  next 
extension  beyond  the  Ware  River  was  the  Swift  River,  upon  which  the 
preliminary  studies  indicated  that  a  very  large  storage  reservoir  could  be 
constructed  by  means  of  a  dam  above  West  Ware  about  8  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  at  such  a  height  as  to  make  practicable  the  deliver^'  of 
nearly  all  its  storage  into  Wachiisett  Reservoir  by  gravity.  While  the 
effect  of  the  diversion  of  the  whole  flow  of  the  Swift  River  might  be  com- 
paratively small,  so  far  as  the  remaining  drainage  of  that  river  below  the 
proposed  dam  is  concerned,  the  effect  upon  the  Chicopee  valley  below,  of 
which  the  Swift  River  is  one  of  the  three  principal  tributaries,  would  l>e 
most  important,  and  in  this  case  again  the  taking  of  the  whole  flow  of  the 
stream  was  deemed  inadvisable,  on  account  of  the  large  damages  that  might 
result  and  the  possible  injury  to  the  prosperity  of  this  important  industrial 
district. 

While  the  taking  of  the  whole  flow  of  the  Swift  River  would  be  objec- 
tionable, the  possibilities  of  the  great  reservoir  which  might  be  constructed 
in  the  Swift  River  valley,  afforded  by  the  circumstances  of  its  location,  pre- 
sented an  opportunity  rarely  offered  to  reverse  the  usual  practice;  and,  in- 
stead of  taking  the  entire  flow  or  even  the  larger  part  of  the  flow  of  any  one 
or  two  streams,  to  take  the  freshet  flows  of  a  large  area  by  combining  a 
number  of  streams  together,  and  thus  avoid  any  interference  whatever  with 
flows  which  are  materially  less  than  the  average  and  which  prevail  ordinarily 
for  more  than  half  the  year;  that  is,  to  take  from  the  top  of  the  time  flow 
curve  instead  of  the  bottom. 

Conservation  of  Flood  Waters  by  Diverting  only  the  Higher 
Flows  from  Large  Areas. 

The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  in  New  England  is  such  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  water  yielded  by  the  rainfall  and  melting  snows  passes  off  in 
the  streams  in  the  winter  and  spring  and,  while  the  river  valleys  are  ordi- 
narily inundated  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  latter  season,  the  streams  usually 
shrink  to  comparatively  small  dimensions  for  many  months  in  the  summer 
and  fall.  The  Swift  and  Ware  rivers  and  the  other  rivers  in  that  region  are 
no  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Measurements  of  the  Swift  River,  at  a  measur- 
ing station  maintained  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  in  cooperation  with 
the  State  of  Massachusetts  for  several  years  at  West  Ware,  a  short  dis- 
tance below  the  proposed  main  dam  in  this  valley,  have  shown  a  maximum 
flow  in  the  period  extending  from  August  1912  to  December  1921  as  high 
as  8  000  000  gal.  per  square  mile  per  day  and  a  minimum  below  80  000  gal. 
Wider  variations  would  no  doubt  have  been  shown  if  records  of  a  longer 
period  were  available.     There  are  ordinarily  many  weeks  in  the  winter  and 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  241 

spring,  and  also  periods  in  the  summer  and  autumn  in  some  years,  when  the 
flow  of  water  exceeds  the  capacity  of  the  wheels  in  most  of  the  power  plants 
on  the  Swift  and  Ware  rivers  and  on  the  Chicopee  River  below  them;  and 
water  runs  to  waste  over  all  of  the  dams  on  these  streams.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  summer  and  autumn  the  flow  usually  falls  below  the  capacity 
of  the  wheels,  and  a  part  of  the  power  necessary  for  operating  machinery  in 
the  factories  and  mills  must  in  many  cases  be  obtained  from  other  sources 
or  from  auxiliary  steam  plants  maintained  for  the  purpose. 

The  diversion  of  the  water  of  the  higher  flows  into  an  adequate  storage 
^ser>'oir,  would  diminish  the  freshets,  which  interfere  at  times  with  the 
operation  of  power  plants  and  cause  injury  in  other  ways.  The  storage 
afforded  by  the  proposed  reservoir  in  the  Swift  River  valley  would  be  so 
great  that  with  that  reservoir  in  use  it  would  be  practicable  so  to  regulate 
the  discharge  into  the  Swift  River  that  instead  of  a  variation  of  flow  ranging 
from  80  000  to  8  000  000  gal.  per  square  mile  per  day,  a  nearly  uniform 
quantity  of  water  could  be  discharged  to  the  milk  below  at  all  times,  in 
years  of  excessive  rainfall  and  in  years  of  drought,  with  comparatively  little 
waste  in  proportion  to  the  whole  quantity  used. 

If  a  supply  should  be  obtained  for  the  Metropolitan  Water  District 
by  taking  the  entire  flow  of  the  Ware  and  Swift  rivers  for  the  use  of  the 
(ii5trict,  the  damage  done  to  the  mill  powers  and  other  interests  in  the 
valleys  below  might  not  be  serious  in  the  beginning  but  it  would  have  to 
tie  paid  for,  though  a  part  of  the  water  would  be  available  for  many  years 
for  the  use  of  its  former  owners.  On  the  other  hand,  by  taking  advantage 
of  the  storage  afforded  by  the  great  reservoir  in  the  Swift  River  valley,  and 
retaining  therein  only  the  higher  flows  above  the  quantities  of  water  which 
are  required  by  the  majority  of  the  industrial  power  plants,  the  water  flow- 
ing in  periods  of  excess  could  be  diverted  for  water  supply  uses  and  the 
remaining  water  allowed  to  flow  past  the  dams  in  varying  quantities,  as  it 
does  to-day,  or  in  such  quantities  and  at  such  times  as  might  be  mutually 
ajjreed  to  be  to  the  best  advantage  of  those  who  use  the  water  for  power. 
In  this  way  the  damages  to  water  powers  could  be  greatly  reduced,  the 
variations  in  the  flow  of  the  river  could  be  regulated,  and  injury  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  valleys  prevented. 

Utilizixg  the  Flow  of  Other  Rivers  in  Connection  with  that 
OF  THE  Swift  and  Ware. 

Following  out  the  idea  of  combining  the  flows  of  several  rivers  and 
taking  only  the  higher  flows,  which  are  now  of  little  or  no  value  and  usually 
a  detriment  to  the  valleys  which  the  rivers  drain,  studies  have  been  made 
of  the  other  rivers  from  which  water  might  be  diverted  into  a  proposed 
n-servoir  in  the  Swift  River  Valley.  The  results  of  these  studies  indicate 
that,  in  addition  to  the  waters  of  the  Ware  River  and  of  parts  of  the  water- 
shed of  the  Lower  Ware,  so  called,  between  Coldbrook  and  Gilbertville, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


242  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN   WATER  DISTRICT. 

water  could  be  diverted  into  the  proposed  reservoir  from  large  parts  of  the 
watersheds  of  the  Millers,  the  Quaboag,  the  Deerfield  and  the  Westfield 
rivers.  In  fact,  the  total  drainage  area  which  could  ultimately  be  made 
tributary  to  this  reservoir  amounts  to  more  than  1  200  sq.  mi.  and  is  equi- 
valent to  about  one-sixth  the  total  area  of  the  State. 

With  the  amount  appropriated  for  the  investigation  it  was  possible 
to  make  an  adequate  preliminary  study  of  all  of  the  watersheds  which 
might  be  utilized  in  connection  with  this  plan.  The  nearest  of  the  rivers 
to  the  proposed  reservoir,  aside  from  the  Ware,  are  the  Quaboag  and 
the  Millers  rivers,  and  of  these  the  Millers  would  apparently  be  the  more 
favorable  for  use  since  it  has  a  larger  watershed  than  the  Quaboag  and 
requires  a  shorter  conduit  for  connection  with  the  proposed  Swift  River 
Reservoir.  The  Millers  River  was  not  carefully  considered  as  a  source  of 
water  supply  at  the  time  of  the  previous  investigation  because  of  the  fact 
that  one  or  two  towns  of  considerable  population  are  located  within  its 
watershed  and  might  cause  objectionable  pollution  of  the  water.  Further 
consideration  of  the  possible  use  of  this  watershed  shows  that  the  larger  of 
the  towns  is  but  little  greater  in  size  than  the  largest  municipality  within 
the  present  Metropolitan  watershed  area,  and  if  the  largest  of  the  towns  in 
the  latter  watershed,  which  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Sudbury  Reservoir 
can  be  so  dealt  with  as  to  prevent  its  being  a  menace  to  the  Metropolitan 
water  supply  at  the  present  time,  it  seemed  possible  that  the  drainage  from 
the  towns  on  the  Millera  River  riiight  also  be  cared  for  satisfactorily, —  in 
view  of  the  circumstances, —  if  it  should  be  desirable  to  use  that  stream  for 
water  supply  purposes.  Accordingly,  studies  were  made  to  determine  the 
practicabihty  of  combining  the  freshet  flows  of  the  Millers  River  with  those 
of  the  Ware  and  Swift  in  the  Swift  River  Reservoir.  The  results  of  these 
studies  show  that  by  combining  the  flows  of  the  Ware,  Swift  and  Millers 
rivers,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  an  additional  water  supply  of 
200  000  000  gal.  per  day  for  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  to  divert  only 
those  flows  which  are  in  excess  of  1.2  c.f.p.s.  per  square  mile  of  watershed 
or  the  flows  in  excess  of  about  775  000  gal.  per  square  mile  per  day.  Such 
an  additional  supply  would  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District  and  the  municipaUties  which  may  be  dependent  thereon 
for  water  for  a  very  long  time  in  the  future. 

In  this  study  a  considerable  portion  of  the  flow  of  the  Lower  Ware 
River,  so  called,  that  is,  that  portion  of  the  watershed  of  the  Ware  River, 
below  Coldbrook,  has  been  included.  While  there  have  been  no  material 
changes  in  the  valley  of  the  W^are  River  above  Coldbrook,  a  region  which  is 
very  sparsely  populated,  the  conditions  in  the  valley  of  the  river  below 
Coldbrook  have  changed  materially  and  the  plan  of  diverting  water  directly 
from  the  Ware  River  in  this  part  of  its  watershed  would  be  impracticable 
at  the  present  time  on  account  of  the  pollution  of  the  river;  but  it  will  be 
feasible  to  divert  the  freshet  flows  of  the  more  important  streams  in  this 
watershed  having  an  aggregate  area  of  at  least  20  square  miles,  and  probably 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  243 

much  more,  by  diverting  these  flows  directly  into  the  shafts  of  the  proposed 
tunnel  from  the  Swift  River  to  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  at  points  where  the 
tunnel  passes  beneath  these  areas,  whenever  it  may  be  deemed  desirable  to 
do  so. 

Cost  of  Utilizing  the  Freshet  Flows  as  Compared  with  More 
Complete  Taking  of  Smaller  Watersheds. 

Having  determined  that  an  adequate  water  supply  for  the  Metro- 
politan district,  and  the  cities  and  towns  likely  to  be  dependent  thereon  for 
water  for  many  years  in  the  future,  could  be  obtained  by  the  development  of 
such  a  plan  as  has  been  described,  the  necessary  studies  were  made  to 
determine  the  advantages  and  comparative  cost  of  developing  a  water 
supply  in  this  way,  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  the  more  complete  takings 
of  a  smaller  area  of  watershed  common  in  an  earUer  day.  In  making  these 
estimates,  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  limit  of  the  taking  of  water  from 
these  streams  would  be  placed  higher  than  in  the  case  of  the  Ipswich  River, 
where  the  maximum  taking  was  limited  to  flows  in  excess  of  about  230  000 
gal.  per  square  mile  of  watershed  per  day.  The  conditions  in  the  valley  of 
the  Ware  River,  and  of  the  Chicopee  River  below  the  junction  with  the 
Ware  River,  are  very  different  from  those  along  the  Ipswich  River  below  the 
lowest  point  of  taking  on  that  stream.  The  Ipswich  River  valley  below 
these  takings  is  very  sparsely  populated  with  no  factories  or  mills  or  villages 
of  any  notable  size  within  it  until  the  river  reaches  Ipswich,  where  it  dis- 
charges into  the  sea.  In  populous  valleys  like  those  of  the  Ware  and 
Chicopee  rivers,  a  limit  should  necessarily  be  placed  inuch  higher  than 
in  the  case  of  the  Ipswich  River,  if  serious  injury  to  the  prosperity  of  these 
valleys  is  to  be  avoided.  It  has  been  assumed  in  these  estimates  that  the 
limitmight  be  about  twice  as  high  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ipswich  River;  that  is, 
that  the  takings  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ware  and  Swift  rivers  might  be  limited 
to  flow^s  in  excess  of  about  500  000  gal.  per  square  mUe  per  day,  or  about  0.8 
of  a  cf.p.s.  per  square  mile.  With  this  limitation  the  estimated  cost  of  a 
water  supply  to  the  Metropolitan  Water  District,  from  the  Ware  and 
Swift  rivers  combined,  was  found  to  be  practically  the  same  as  the  estimated 
cost  of  a  water  supply  from  the  Ware,  Swift  and  Millers  rivers  combined 
with  a  taking  in  excess  of  775  000  gal.  per  square  mile  per  day.  Since 
there  would  be  much  less  interference  with  the  flow  of  the  streams  in  the  case 
of  this  latter  taking,  there  is  no  question  as  to  which  method  is  the  better 
for  the  State  to  adopt. 

As  a  result  of  these  investigations  the  plan  recommended  for  obtaining 
an  additional  water  supply  for  the  MetropoUtan  Water  District  is  the  con- 
struction of  the  proposed  reservoir  in  the  Swift  River  valley,  the  diversion  of 
the  higher  flows  of  certain  portions  of  the  Millers  and  Ware  rivers,  into 
the  Swift  River  Reservoir  and  the  construction  of  a  tunnel  to  convey  the 
water  to  Wachusett  Reservoir,  and  thence  to  the  district.    This  scheme 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


244  PROPOSED   EXTENSION    OF   METROPOLITAN   WATER  DISTRICT. 

lends  itself  remarkably  well  to  the  growing  needs  of  the  district  and  of  the 
other  communities  requiring  water  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  With 
the  present  rate  of  growth  and  increase  in  the  use  of  water,  an  additional 
water  supply  will  be  needed  by  the  district  soon  after  1928,  the  exact  time 
depending  upon  the  uncertain  factor  of  the  rainfall  in  the  period  when  the 
consumption  of  water  in  the  district  reaches  the  safe  capacity  of  the  works. 
It  will  be  practicable  if  work  is  begun  without  delay  to  construct  the  first 
half  of  the  tunnel  as  far  as  Coldbrook  within  the  next  6  years,  and  thus  make 
available  part  of  the  freshet  flows  of  the  Ware  River  with  which  the  safe 
yield  of  the  Metropolitan  sources  would  be  increased  by  about  33  000  000 
gal.  per  day,  assuming  that  the  taking  of  water  from  the  watershed  of  the 
Ware  River  above  Coldbrook  would  be  limited  to  quantities  in  excess  of  1.2 
c.f.p.s.  per  square  mile  of  watershed.  The  plan  also  makes  possible  an 
additional  water  supply  for  the  city  of  Worcester.  It  is  possible  to  ob- 
tain water  for  Worcester  from  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Quinepoxet 
River,  though  this  is  likely  to  be  objected  to  by  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District,  while  a  more  favorable  plan  is  that  of  pumping  directly  from 
Wachusett  Reservoir  for  the  supply  of  the  city  of  Worcester  as  was  done 
in  an  emergency  some  10  years  or  more  ago.  Under  the  plan  now  proposed 
the  tunnel  would  pass  beneath  the  upper  end  of  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
new  Pine  Hill  Reservoir,  and  water  can  be  pumped  from  the  tunnel  into 
this  tributary  for  the  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Worcester  if  desired. 

While  the  safe  yield  of  the  Metropolitan  sources  would  be  increased 
33  000  000  gal.  with  the  completion  of  the  first  section  of  the  tunnel,  the 
safe  yield  of  the  Ware  River  watershed  above  Coldbrook  would  be  increased 
to  some  47  000  000  gal.  per  day  with  the  completion  of  the  Swift  River 
Reservoir  and  a  tunnel  thereto,  under  the  same  taking,  since  the  extension 
of  the  tunnel  would  make  it  practicable  to  store  a  part  of  the  water  in  the 
reservoir  on  the  Swift  River  which  would  go  to  waste  while  only  the  lower 
or  Ware-Wachusett  Section  was  in  use. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  diversion  of  the  freshet  flows  of  the  Quaboag 
River  into  the  Swift  River  Reservoir  in  the  beginning  would  make  prac- 
ticable a  limit  of  taking  somewhat  higher  than  suggested  in  the  report 
presented.  The  question  whether  it  would  be  advantageous  to  make  this 
diversion  in  the  beginning,  or  to  divert  the  freshet  flows  from  some  of  the 
smaller  tributaries  of  the  Ware  River  below  Coldbrook  requires  further  con- 
sideration and  can  be  postponed  to  a  later  time. 

The  Swift  River  Reservoir. 

The  Swift  River  is  the  westernmost  of  the  three  streams  which  unite 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  village  of  Three  Rivers  in  the  town  of  Palmer 
and  form  the  Chicopee  River.  These  three  streams  with  their  drainage 
areas  are  as  follows: 

Swift  River 213  square  miles 

Ware  River    221  square  miles 

Quaboag  River    210  square  miles 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  245 

It  is  practicable  to  create  a  reservoir  in  the  valley  of  the  Swift  River 
which  would  have  about  half  the  area  of  Lake  Winnepesaukee  by  con- 
structing a  dam  across  the  main  river  at  the  boundary  line  between  Enfield 
and  Ware  and  a  secondary  dam  or  dike  in  the  Beaver  Brook  valley  about 
3  miles  northeast  of  the  main  dam. 

The  Main  Dam  and  Dike. 

At  the  site  of  the  proposed  main  dam  the  bed  rock  is  overlaid  by  a 
deep  deposit  of  gravel  and  sand,  porous  and  water-bearing,  and  a  form  of 
^construction  carried  to  bed  rock  will  be  necessary  as  the  overlying  material 
cannot  be  made  impervious  to  water.  The  proximity  of  great  quantities 
of  {suitable  material  indicates  that  an  earthen  dam  with  a  core  wall  of 
impervious  material  will  be  the  most  appropriate  form  of  construction  under 
the  circumstances.  An  excellent  location  for  a  spillway  and  overflow 
channel  is  found  beyond  the  rocky  hill  at  the  westerly  end  of  the  dam  where 
the  waste  water  will  be  returned  to  the  river  well  below  the  dam  and  safe 
from  possible  injury  to  the  dam  or  other  structures.  The  conditions  for 
constructing  a  dike  at  the  divide  between  the  Swift  and  Ware  rivers  are 
not  satisfactory,  but  a  suitable  site  for  the  dike  is  found  in  the  valley 
of  Beaver  Brook  about  a  mile  south  of  the  divide  where  the  conditions  are 
similar  to  those  at  the  site  of  the  main  dam,  and  though  its  length  will  be 
less,  the  form  of  construction  proposed  is  similar. 

Some  of  the  principal  dimensions  of  the  proposed  structures  are 
shown  in  the  following  table. 

Dimensions  of  Main  Dam. 

Ele\'ation  of  flow  line  above  present  surface  of  river 147  ft. 

Eevation  of  flow  line  above  bottom  of  rock  gorge    263  ft. 

Width  of  gorge  at  flow  line   2  700  ft. 

Height  of  top  of  dam  above  flow  line 18  ft. 

Width  of  dam  at  top  roadway 36  ft. 

Dimensions  of  Beaver  Brook  Dike. 

Hei^t  of  flow  line  above  present  brook  115  ft. 

Hei|5hl  of  flow  line  above  bottom  of  rock  gorge 260  ft. 

Length  of  dike  at  flow  line 2  150  ft. 

Height  of  top  of  dike  above  flow  line 18  ft. 

Width  of  dike  at  top  roadway 36  ft. 

The  upstream  slopes  of  both  dam  and  dike  would  be  somewhat  less  steep  than  1  to  3 
a&i  the  downstream  slopes  somewhat  less  steep  than  1  to  2.5. 

Character  of  the  Proposed  Reservoir  Area. 

The  reservoir  would  contain  a  number  of  semi-mountainous  islands, 
rocky  and  for  the  most  part  covered  with  forest  at  the  present  time;  and 
it  would  be  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  water  to  acquire  all  of  the 
inlands,  together  with  lands  about  the  margin,  in  order  to  keep  them 


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246 


PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 


free  from  population  and  from  uses  which  might  be  objectionable  in  t\ 
neighborhood  of  a  reservoir  used  as  a  source  of  public  water  supply. 

The  dimensions  of  the  reservoir,  tributary  drainage  area  and  otb 
facts  concerning  it  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Area  of  water  surface 39  sq.  m 

Area  of  watershed,  Swift  River 186  sq.  m 

Area  of  watershed  divertible  from  Ware  River 130  sq.  m 

Area  of  watershed  divertible  from  Millers  River *220  sq.  m 

Total  capacity 410  000  000  000  gals. 

Length    17  mi. 

Maximum  width 4  mi. 

Total  length  of  shore  line  not  including  islands 86  mi. 

Maximum  depth 150  ^ft. 

Average  depth 51  ft. 

Length  of  railroads  flooded 15.9  mi. 

Length  of  highways  flooded    106  mi. 


Population  on  the  Reservoir  Area. 

In  the  construction  of  the  proposed  reservoir  it  would  be  necessarj'  t< 
remove  practically  the  entire  population  of  three  towns  and  a  considerabl 
population  would  be  affected  in  three  others,  while  the  habitations  of  i 
few  people  in  five  other  towns  would  also  probably  have  to  be  acquired 
The  towns  affected,  together  with  their  population  in  national  census  yean 
since  1880,  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1910. 

1920. 

Estimated  Population 
in  1920. 

Town. 

Within 

Proposed 

Swift  R. 

Res. 

Within 

Area  of  a! 

Probable 

Takinjt-. 

Enfield      .      . 

1  043 
736 
869 
614 
633 
460 

952 
700 
856 
486 
526 
376 

1  036 
790 
807 
462 
491 
380 

874 
736     1 
639     1 
467 
452     1 
320     1 

1 

I 

790 
599 
512 
503 
399 
236 

694 
331 

60 

20 

393 

63 

30 

4 

3 

7 

0 

790 

Dana 

378 

New  Salem   

Pelham 

8:3 
36 

Greenwich 

Prescott 

399 
236 

Hard  wick** 

Belchertown**  .... 

Shutesbury**    

Petersham** 

Ware** 

65 
26 
17 
10 

S 

Totals 

4  355 

3  896 

3  966 

3  488 

3  039 

1  605 

2  048 

The  foregoing  table  indicates  that  the  habitations  of  somewhat  more 
than  2  000  persons  would  have  to  be  removed  in  the  construction  of  the 
proposed  reservoir  as  against  1  711  in  the  case  of  the  Wachusett  Reser\'oir. 

♦This  area  includes  certain  small  watersheds   from  which   the  water  suppliea  of  Aahburnham,  Gardner. 
Winchendon  and  Athol  are  taken. 
**  Population  of  these  towns  ver>'  slightly  affected. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


247 


The  assessed  value  of  real  estate  in  the  six  towns  most  seriously 
affected  in  the  years  1901,  1914  and  1920  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Town  1901 

Enfield    $414  890 

Dana 248  957 

New  Salem 246  760 

Pelham 164  799 

Greenwich    175  915 

Prescott    139  012 

«  - 

Totals $1  390  333 


1914 

1920 

$470  680  . . 

$472  440 

344  441  . . 

413  395 

328  600  . . 

409  910 

338  903  . . 

431  165 

210  500  . . 

295  345 

171  322  . . 

176  905 

$1  864  446  . . 

.  $2  199  160 

An  examination  of  the  area  to  be  flowed  shows  that  it  contains  in  all 
1  040  buildings  besides  18  abandoned  and  66  in  ruins  or  with  their  founda- 
tions only  in  evidence.  The  character  of  these  buildings  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 


Mill  structures 14 

Stores  in  use 38 

Churches 6 

Schoolhouses   13 

Other  public  buildings 2 

Railroad  stations, 

Freight  houses,  etc 14 


Houses,  occupied 463 

Houses,  vacant 30 

Barns,  in  use 381 

Bams,  vacant •  18 

Camps  and  summer  cottages  ....  61 

Total   1  040 


The  total  number  of  occupied  dwelling  houses  as  shown  by  the  above 
table  is  463,  or  about  12  per  square  mile,  as  compared  with  224,  or  about 
35  per  square  mile,  on  the  area  taken  for  the  Wachusett  Reservoir. 

A  survey  has  also  been  made  to  determine  the  character  of  the  areas 
to  be  flooded  and  the  present  uses  of  the  land.  These  statistics  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Orchards 51  acres 

Pasture  and  open  land 2  118  acres 

Swamp  and  meadow 2  338  acres 

Scrub  and  young  growth 7  889  acres 

Timber  land 6  845  acres 

Water  surfaces 1  233  acres 

Cemeteries 11  at:res 

Unclassified  lands  such  as  village  and  cultivated  land,  highways  and 

railroads 4  385  acres 

Total 24  870  acres 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


248       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Treatment  of  the  Reservoir  Area. 

The  greater  part  of  lands  that  will  be  covered  by  the  proposed  reser- 
voir are  at  present  sandy  plains  covered  with  brush  or  wood  and  having  a 
very  thin  surface  layer  of  loam.  Swamps  containing  peat  are  exceedingly 
rare,  the  aggregate  area  of  such  deposits  amounting  apparently  to  less  than 
700  acres.  A  large  part  of  the  swamp  and  meadow  land  is  low  ground  be- 
tween the  main  stream  and  the  uplands,  kept  in  a  swampy  condition  in 
many  cases  by  the  ground  water  percolating  from  the  gravelly  lands  ad- 
jacent. The  preparation  of  this  great  area  for  reservoir  purposes  b^  the 
removal  of  all  vegetation  and  of  all  surface  soil  besides  would  be  imprac- 
ticable on  account  of  the  excessive  cost,  and  is  unnecessary  in  the  existing 
circumstances.  The  land  should  be  cleared  of  bushes  and  trees  and  all 
organic  matter  destroyed  so  far  as  practicable.  It  is  probable,  moreover, 
that  over  large  areas  even  the  surface  soil  can  be  reduced  largely  to  ashes, 
so  that  by  this  process  the  small  amount  of  organic  matter  that  remains  is 
likely  to  have  little  permanent  ejffect  upon  the  quality  of  the  water  of  this 
great  basin.  In  the  earlier  years,  after  the  area  is  first  flowed,  the  water 
will  doubtless  have  a  noticeable  color,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  or- 
ganic matter  will  be  taken  up  by  contact  with  the  material  in  the  bottom 
of  the  reservoir,  but  this  condition  is  unlikely  to  affect  the  water  materially 
beyond  the  first  few  years.  It  will  take  several  years  to  fill  the  reservoir, 
and  during  much  of  that  time  there  is  no  doubt  that  water  of  such  quality 
can  be  obtained  from  it  that  after  subsequent  storage  in  Wachusett  Reser- 
voir the  quality  of  the  water  of  the  latter  source  would  not  be  materially 
affected  thereby,  since  the  water  need  be  drawn  in  the  earlier  years  from  the 
Swift  River  Reservoir  only  at  times  when  the  quality  is  at  its  best.  The 
capacity  of  the  proposed  reservoir  is  such,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its 
watershed,  that  the  water  stored  there  will  eventually  become  thoroughly 
bleached  and  probably  nearly  or  quite  colorless,  and  while  it  may  be 
affected  at  times  in  the  earlier  years  by  growths  of  organisms  and  the 
objectionable  tastes  and  odors  which  result  therefrom,  the  use  of  the 
reservoir  at  such  times  can  be  avoided. 

With  the  increasing  demand  for  water  of  the  best  quality,  it  is  possible 
that  most  surface  waters,  no  matter  how  free  from  probable  danger  of 
pollution,  will  be  filtered  before  delivery  to  consumers,  and  this  may  sooner 
or  later  be  the  case  with  water  supplied  from  the  Wachusett  system,  but 
such  a  demand  seems  unlikely  to  arise  for  many  years. 

If  it  should  ever  be  found  desirable  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  water 
of  the  proposed  Swift  River  Reservoir  by  filtration  before  discharging  it 
into  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  rather  than  to  filter  all  of  the  water  supplied 
from  the  latter  source,  it  would  be  practicable  to  filter  it  on  lands  in  Oakdale 
adjacent  to  Wachusett  Reservoir.  But  it  is  not  probable  that  the  water 
of  the  proposed  Swift  River  Reservoir  would  differ  materially  from  that 
of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  after  the  first  few  years. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


goodnough.  249 

Tunnel  from  the  Proposed  Swift  River  Reservoir  to  Wachtjsett 

Reservoir. 

The  divide  between  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  and  the  watersheds  of 
the  Ware  and  other  rivers  to  the  west  rises  to  a  height  of  over  1  000  feet 
above  sea  level,  a  height  which  it  maintains  generally  for  many  miles  from 
the  northerly  nearly  to  the  southerly  boundary  of  the  State.  This  high 
divide  must  be  pierced  by  a  tunnel  in  order  to  bring  water  from  the  Ware 
or  Swift  rivers  into  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  and  this  connecting  link 
between  the  present  and  the  proposed  supplies  will  be  a  most  important 
item  of  construction. 

The  tunnel  as  designed  will  leave  the  Swift  River  Reservoir  about 
half  a  mile  south  of  East  Pond  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  rocky  hill  rising  some 
400  feet  above  the  Root  of  the  Swift  River  valley  east  of  the  village  of 
Greenwich,  and  will  run  northeasterly  to  the  neighborhood  of  Coldbrook 
in  the  Ware  River  valley,  whence  it  will  turn  to  the  east  and  follow  an 
easterly  course  to  the  Wachusett  Reservoir. 

The  tunnel  from  the  Swift  River  valley  to  the  Wachusett  Reservoir 
will  pass  so  close  to  Coldbrook  on  the  Ware  River  that  the  slight  change  in 
alignment  made  necessary  to  provide  for  the  diversion  of  the  wat«r  of  this, 
river  directly  into  one  of  the  tunnel  shafts  would  have  very  little  effect 
on  the  length  of  the  line.  Since  the  control  works  would  be  located  at  the 
Wachusett  end  of  the  tunhel,  the  tunnel  itself  would  become  in  effect  a 
part  of  the  reservoir,  and  floods  from  the  Ware  River  would  flow  back 
through  the  tunnel  and  be  stored  in  the  Swift  River  Reservoir  whenever 
necessary. 

As  previously  stated,  it  would  be  possible,  whenever  desirable,  to  divert 
the  fiood  flows  from  several  small  watersheds,  having  an  aggregate  area  of 
19  square  miles  or  more,  tributary  to  the  Ware  River  below  Coldbrook 
into  the  tunnel  at  various  shaft  heads.  These  connections  are  not  included 
in  the  preliminary  estimates,  however,  because  the  expense  of  their  con- 
struction would  probably  not  be  justified  for  many  years. 

The  total  length  of  the  proposed  tunnel  to  the  Swift  River  Reservoir 
is  about  25.1  miles.  It  would  be  located  in  rock,  and  the  surface  indica- 
tions are  favorable  to  construction  by  methods  known  and  tried  in  many 
similar  cases,  but  as  many  of  the  construction  shafts  must  be  deep,  it  is 
desirable,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  that  they  should  be  spaced  at  intervals 
of  3  or  4  miles,  and  probably  at  least  four  years  will  be  required  for  actual 
construction  to  get  the  first  water  from  the  Ware  River  at  Coldbrook  into 
the  Wachusett  Reservoir.  Delay  in  beginning  the  construction  of  this 
tunnel,  which  would  require  more  rapid  work,  would  mean  a  serious 
addition  to  the  cost. 

The  cost  of  such  a  tunnel  and  the  time  required  for  its  construction 
make  it  advisable  to  build  it  large  enough  to  carry  as  large  a  quantity  of 
water  as  can  probably  be  utilized  from  the  Swift  River  Reservoir,  developed 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


250  PROPOSED    EXTENSION   OF   METROPOLITAN   WATER   DISTRICT. 

as  ultimately  proposed,  since  the  larger  tunnel  will  cost  less  in  proportion 
to  its  size  than  a  small  one.  Accordingly,  for  the  purpose  of  estimating 
the  cost,  this  diameter  has  been  taken  at  12  feet  9  inches.  With  this  di- 
ameter, in  a  series  of  dry  years,  which  might  cause  the  main  reservoir  to 
be  drawn  down  55  feet,  or  to  about  elevation  474,  there  would  still  remain 
sufficient  head  on  the  tunnel  to  enable  it  to  carry  500  000  000  gal.  per  day. 
The  lowest  gate  sill  in  the  intake  gatehouse  has  been  designed  at  elevation 
435,  which  is  about  the  floor  of  the  main  portion  of  the  Swift  River  valley. 
This  will  allow  an  initial  supply  to  be  obtained  the  first  year  that  the  stor- 
age of  water  is  begun,  and  would  make  it  practicable  to  draw  nearly  the 
maximum  storage  of  the  proposed  Swift  River  Reservoir  into  the  Wachusett 
Reservoir.  At  its  lower  end  the  invert  of  the  tunnel  as  proposed  would  be  at 
grade  370,  the  outlet  of  the  tunnel  being  at  Oakdale  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  Wachusett  Reservoir. 

Aqueduct  for  Millers  River  Diversion. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  proposed  diversion  of  water 
from  the  Millers  River.  This  would  be  accomplished  by  a  tunnel  and 
aqueduct  leading  from  diversion  works  just  above  Athol  to  Eagleville 
Pond,  an  existing  millpond  on  the  Millers  River  watershed  just  north  of  the 
divide  between  the  Swift  and  Millers  River  drainage  area,  and  thence  by 
a  channel  cut  through  the  divide  from  the  southerly  end  of  that  pond  into 
the  Swift  River  Reservoir.  For  the  purposes  of  this  estimate  the  tunnel 
and  aqueduct  to  Eagleville  Pond  is  designed  at  about  11.5  feet  in  diameter, 
and  would  be  capable  of  diverting  flows  in  excess  of  the  normal  undiverted 
flow  of  the  river  up  to  and  including  5  cubic  feet  per  second  per  square  mile. 
The  watershed  of  the  Millers  River  above  the  proposed  point  of  diversion  is, 
as  already  stated,  201  square  miles,  but  the  flow  would  be  reduced  slightly 
by  the  diversion  of  water  for  certain  water  supplies  and  by  the  removal 
of  the  effluent  from  the  sewage  disposal  works  in  Gardner  and  Templeton, 
as  well  as  those  which  may  be  built  in  Winchendon.  The  amount  of 
these  diversions  from  the  higher  flows  of  the  river  is  small. 

Estimates  of  Cost. 

In  making  estimates  of  the  cost  of  the  proposed  works  difficulty  was 
encountered  on  account  of  the  constant  changes  in  prices  of  labor  and 
commodities  in  recent  years.  It  wa^  decided  to  base  the  estimates  wholly 
upon  pre-war  prices,  and  this  plan  has  been  followed  throughout.  The 
following  table  shows  also  an  estimate  of  the  probable  cost  of  the  works  on 
a  pre-war  basis  plus  an  addition  of  30  per  cent  to  allow  for  conditions  which 
may  exist  if  the  bulk  of  these  works  should  be  constructed  within  the  next 
ten  to  fifteen  years.  In  making  the  estimates  experience  in  similar  con- 
struction on  the  metropolitan  water  supply  in  recent  years,  on  similar 
work  now  under  construction  for  the  city  of  Providence,  and  especially  on 


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Google 


GOODNOUGH. 


251 


the  water  supply  of  the  city  of  New  York,  has  been  utilized,  as  well  as  that 
of  other  cities.  In  every  construction  item  an  allowance  of  about  22  per 
cent  has  been  made  for  unforeseen  contingencies,  all  preliminary  surveys 
and  designs  and  the  preparation  of  contracts,  as  well  as  administration, 
general  supervision  and  engineering  during  construction. 


Summary  op  Cost  Estimates. 


Main  dam  at  West  Ware  station: 

Main  embankment $7  124  000 

Diversion  tunnel  and  control  works  .  1  201  900 

Spillway  and  flood  channel 251  700 

Beaver  Brook  dike: 

Main  embankment 6  529  000 

West  dike 85  000 

Main  storage  reservoir  in  Swift  River  valley: 

Clearing,  grubbing  and  fencing 

Relocation   and   reconstruction   of   highways,   47 

miles  

Relocation  of  railroad,  21}  miles   

Relocation  of  cemeteries   

Relocation  of  transmission  lines 

Sanitation  and  forestry   

Eagleville  Reservoir  diversion: 

Raising  Eagleville  dam    44  700 

New  channel  via  Hacker  Pond 108  400 

Millers  River  diversion: 

Diversion  dam  and  intake 159  400 

Aqueduct  to  Eagleville  Reservoir  ...  1  173  600 

Gardner  and  Winchendon  sewer  ....  729  400 


Aqueduct  to  Wachusett  Reservoir: 

Timnel  and  shafts 17  457  100 

Intakes  to  aqueduct 376  000 

Wachusett  terminal    339  400 


Conrtruetion 

Cost  and 

Overhead 

(Pre- War  Basis). 


Probable    Co»t 

•  in  1924-35 
(Pre- War  Ba^is 
+30  Per  Cent.) 


$8  577  600        111  150  880 


6  614  000 


5  064  300 


8  598  200 


6  583  590 


153  100 


2  062  300 


18  172  500 


199  030 


2  680  990 


23  624  250 


Total  Construction  . 


Real  estate,  rights  of  way,  depreciation,  business 
damages,  diversion  damages  and  water  rights  of 
mills  and  factories  below  points  of  diversion 

Total 


S40  643  800    $52  836  940 


7  109  600 


S59  946  540 


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252       proposed  extension  of  metropolitan  water  district. 

Estimated  Cost  of  Proposed  Extension  to  the 
Ware  River. 

The  first  addition  to  the  metropolitan  water  supply  under  the  plan 
herein  proposed,  which  will  give  an  additional  safe  yield  of  about  33  000- 
000  gallons  a  day,  is  the  taking  of  the  flow  of  the  Ware  River  at  Coldbrook 
in  excess  of  1.2  cubic  feet  per  second  per  square  mile  of  watershed.  This 
involves  the  construction  of  the  proposed  tunnel  from  a  shaft  at  the  Quine- 
poxet  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  as  far  as  a  shaft  at 
the  Ware  River  in  Coldbrook,  including  the  necessary  terminal  works  and 
diversion  spillway  at  the  Quinepoxet  shaft  near  the  Wachusett  end. 

The  estimated  cost  of  this  portion  of  the  works  is  as  follows.  This 
estimate  does  not  include  the  simultaneous  cost  of  any  preliminary  work 
on  the  further  extension  to  the  Swift  River  Reservoir,  although  this  exten- 
sion would  need  to  be  begun  before  the  tunnel  to  the  Ware  is  completed. 

Summary  of  Cost  Estimates. 
First  Extension  to  the  Ware  River  at  Coldbrook. 

Construction  Probable    Cost 
Cost  and  in  1924-27 

Overhead  (Pre-War  Basis 

(Pre- War  Basis) .  +  30  Per  Ce^nt ) 

Tunnels  and  shafts  S8  368  600        $10  879  180 

Intakes  to  aqueduct  297  000  386  100 


Total  Construction  8  665  600  11  265  280 

Real  estate,  rights  of  way.  diversion  damages  and  water 
rights,  mills  and  factories  below  the  point  of  diversion .  778  100 


Total $12  043  380 

Summary  and  Conclusions. 

If  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  continues  to  grow  it  will  need  an 
additional  water  supply.  If  it  grows  at  a  somewhat  less  rate  than  before 
the  war  and  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  does  not  increase,  the  safe 
yield  of  the  present  supplies  will  probably  be  adequate  until  about  1930, 
but  if  the  consumption  per  capita  continues  to  increase,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  the  district  in  recent  years  and  in  practically  every  city  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  United  States,  notwithstanding  the  general  metering  of  the 
services,  the  consumption  of  water  will  equal  the  safe  yield  of  the  sources 
of  supply  by  1928.  The  city  of  Worcester,  if  its  past  rate  of  growth  con- 
tinues, will  also  need  a  new  water  supply  in  1928;  and  the  most  favorable 
source  from  which  that  city  can  obtain  a  supply  under  present  conditions 
is  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  or  its  watershed.  There  are  other  cities  and 
towns  adjacent  to  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  which  are  now  using 
nearly  or  quite  ail  of  the  water  which  their  sources  are  capable  of  yieldmg 
in  years  of  low  rainfall  and  which  will  inevitably  require  a  water  supply 
from  the  district  with  the  coming  of  the  next  dry  period.     Such  periods 


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GOODNOU6H.  253 

have  occurred  at  irregular  intervals  averaging  about  five  or  six  times  in  a 
century,  the  last  one  in  recent  years  ending  in  1911.  Ten  years  more, 
or  even  a  longer  time,  may  yet  pass  before  another  dry  period  begins, 
or  it  may  begin  in  the  present  year.  Just  at  the  present  time  with  the 
experience  of  the  heavy  rainfalls  of  recent  years,  especially  in  the  summer 
season,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  convince  anyone  unfamiliar  with  water 
supply  problems  that  the  time  will  come  when  the  sources  of  water  supply 
now  in  use  will  prove  inadequate.  Water  has  wasted  in  practically  every 
recent  year  in  great  abundance  over  the  dams  of  all  of  the  reservoirs  in 
such  quantities  as  to  make  it  appear  that  all  that  is  required  in  order  to 
obtain  an  increased  water  supply  is  to  add  a  few  feet  to  the  top  of  the  dam. 

But  the  increase  in  the  yield  of  a  watershed  obtainable  by  enlarging 
the  storage  is  by  no  means  directly  proportional  to  such  enlargement. 
While  the  yield  of  a  given  watershed  with  a  storage  of  25  000  000  gal. 
per  square  mile  may  be  nearly  doubled  when  the  storage  is  increased  to 
50  000  000  gal.  per  square  mile,  on  the  contrary  doubling  the  storage 
capacity,  when  the  storage  is  equivalent  to  200  000  000  gal.  per  square 
mile,  in  ordinary  cases  only  increases  the  safe  yield  from  12  to  15  per  cent. 
On  the  Metropolitan  watersheds  the  storage  is  highly  developed,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  which  comprises  80  per  cent  of  the 
entire  storage  of  the  system  and  upon  which  the  storage  developed  is  over 
600  000  000  gal.  per  square  mile  of  watershed. 

It  is  impossible  with  such  a  distribution  of  rainfall  as  obtains  in  New 
England  so  to  adjust  the  draft  from  a  reservoir  like  the  Wachusett  as  to 
make  available  all  of  the  water  which  the  watershed  yields;  for  if  the  draft 
were  adjusted  to  insure  the  use  of  all  of  the  flow  in  periods  of  maximum 
rainfall,  that  draft  would  exhaust  the  storage  in  years  of  drought.  The 
draft  from  any  water  system  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  supply  will  be 
adequate  in  periods  of  drought,  and  in  consequence  there  will  inevitably 
be  a  waste  in  periods  of  high  rainfall.  Furthermore,  reservoirs  are  not 
built  for  immediate  needs  and  cannot  commonly  be  built  from 
year  to  year  to  supply  growing  wants;  but  new  construction  generally 
allows  for  increasing  requirements  for  a  considerable  period  of  years; 
and,  in  consequence,  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  use  of  a  water  supply  reser- 
voir, large  quantities  of  water  may  be  wasted  because  the  draft  has  not 
reached  the  safe  capacity  of  the  source  of  supply.  But  as  the  draft 
becomes  equal  to  or  exceeds  the  safe  yield  of  the  source,  years  of  low  rain- 
fall quickly  demonstrate  its  inadequacy  and  unless  provision  is  made  in 
advance,  shortgage  inevitably  results. 

In  the  case  of  the  water  supply  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District, 
the  consumption  of  water  already  equals  the  safe  yield  of  the  Wachusett 
and  northern  Sudbury  sources,  and  further  increase  in  the  needs  of  the 
district  must  be  supplied  from  the  old  southern  Sudbury  and  Cochituate 
sources  which  have  a  combined  capacity  of  perhaps  30  000  000  gal.  per  day. 
These  sources  were  used  regularly  in  the  past  and  in  the  last  very  dry  year, 


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254  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN   WATER  DISTRICT. 

1911,  when  Wachusett  Reservoir  was  drawn  to  the  lowest  level  thus  far 
recorded,  40  per  cent,  of  the  supply  of  the  district  was  obtained  from  the 
Sudbury  and  Cochituate  works,  chiefly  the  older  Sudbury  Reservoir  and 
later  Cochituate.  The  waters  of  these  latter  sources,  to-day,  are  unsafe 
and  objectionable  for  water  supply  purposes  unless  properly  filtered. 
Filters  are  not  yet  available  for  the  treatment  of  these  waters;  but  unless 
provided  and  used  before  Wachusett  Reservoir  becomes  materially  de- 
pleted at  the  beginning  of  a  dry  period,  the  safe  yield  of  the  Metropolitan 
sources  will  be  much  less  in  such  a  period  than  shown  by  the  figures  pre- 
sented. The  calculations  are  based  on  the  records  of  yield  in  the  dry 
period  which  practically  closed  in  1911,  —  a  period  which  was  not  as  dry  as 
others  of  record.  If  the  water  supply  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  is 
to  be  maintained  to  meet  conditions  of  drought  such  as  have  occurred  in  the 
past,  an  additional  supply  should  be  available  by  1928  or  1930,  since  the 
district  is  likely  then  to  be  using  all  of  the  water  which  the  sources  will 
safely  yield;  and  if  a  severe  drought  should  occur  at  that  time,  bringing 
demands  from  other  cities  and  towns,  as  has  been  the  case  in  past  dry 
periods,  a  shortage  will  inevitably  occur.  If  no  unusual  difficulties  are 
encountered  it  will  take  about  6  years  to  construct  the  necessary  works  for 
diverting  water  from  the  Ware  River  to  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  and  from 
12  to  15  years  after  the  work  is  begun  to  make  water  from  the  Swift  River 
available  to  the  Metropolitan  Water  District. 

The  plan  for  securing  an  additional  water  supply  for  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District  has  been  so  designed  that  it  lends  itself  in  a  remarkable 
degree  to  gradual  development,  step  by  step,  and  involves  no  expenditures 
for  temporaiy  or  make-shift  construction.  It  thus  allows  the  details  of 
construction  to  be  modified  by  circimistances  and  requirements  which  may 
appear  from  time  to  time. 

Beginning  with  the  diversion  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  Ware  River 
watershed,  the  plan  provides  not  only  for  extension  to  the  Swift  River  but 
looks  ahead  ultimately  to  a  much  longer  future  and  a  very  much  larger 
supply.  Water  can  be  diverted  into  the  great  reservoir  on  the  Swift 
River  not  only  from  its  own  watershed  and  the  watersheds  of  the  Ware  and 
Millers  rivers  as  proposed,  but  also  from  the  Quaboag,  the  Deerfield  and 
the  Westfield  rivers,  the  waters  of  which  will  flow  by  gravity  into  the  great 
reservoir  on  the  Swift  River,  The  plan  proposed  will  avoid  serious  injury 
to  water  powers  on  the  rivers  below  by  taking  only  the  freshets  and  the 
higher  flows  in  excess  of  about  775  000  gal.  per  square  mile  of  watershed, 
per  day,  which  means  that  water  would  be  diverted  in  average  years  only 
about  43  per  cent,  of  the  time;  while  during  57  per  cent,  of  the  time  the 
water  would  run  in  all  of  the  rivers,  as  it  does  today:  that  is,  from  the  late 
spring  to  early  winter  there  would  be  no  interference  with  the  flow,  unless  in 
the  case  of  excessive  summer  rainfalls  when  the  excess  would  be  stored  in  the 
reservoir.  In  very  dry  years  the  period  of  diversion  of  water  would  neces- 
sarily be  shorter,  and  Uttle  water  would  be  diverted  from  the  rivers  during 


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GOODNOUGH.  255 

eight  or  nine  months  of  the  year.  The  requirements  of  the  district  in  such 
periods  would  be  drawn  from  the  great  storage  in  the  Swift  River  Reservoir, 
which  would  hold  an  ample  supply  for  the  longest  drought  for  a  population 
very  much  greater  than  any  which  is  likely  to  require  a  supply  from  this 
watershed  for  many  years  in  the  future.  Furthermore,  when  an  additional 
supply  again  is  needed  the  same  policy  can  be  followed  of  taking  freshet 
flows  from  the  other  rivers;  and  while  200  000  000  gal.  per  day  would  be 
obtained  with  the  development  thus  far  proposed,  this  quantity  can  be 
much  more  than  doubled  by  similar  takings  from  other  available  sources. 

Incidental  to  the  creation  of  this  additional  water  supply,  the  develop- 
ment of  water  power  would  be  made  practicable  at  several  points.  At  the 
main  dam  in  the  Swift  River  valley  there  will  be  a  fall  of  about  141  ft.  in 
discharging  the  water,  which'  must  be  allowed  to  flow  down  the  stream 
continuously  up  to  the  limit  of  1.2  c.f.p.s.  per  square  mile  of  watershed. 
At  the  Wachusett  terminal  of  the  tunnel  there  will  be  a  head  of  about  125 
ft.  available  for  power  as  soon  as  the  Swift  River  Reservoir  is  full;  and  this 
head  will  continue  to  be  available  for  many  years,  diminishing  in  time  with 
the  increased  draft  through  the  tunnel  as  the  draft  approaches  its  full 
capacity.  It  will  also  be  possible  by  intercepting  the  Quinepoxet  River  and 
thus  diverting  the  water  from  one  of  its  main  tributaries  into  the  tunnel 
and  thence  to  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  to  utilize  the  full  power  of  that 
stream  at  a  very  small  additional  cost,  thus  restoring  the  power  destroyed 
when  this  rivfer  was  stripped  of  its  power  plants  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course  when  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  was  built.  Additional  power  will  of 
course  be  created  at  the  Wachusett  dam  at  Clinton  and  at  the  Sudbury 
dam,  while  one  or  two  small  power  developments  would  be  available  at 
other  points.  The  additional  power  readily  obtainable  as  an  incident  to 
the  construction  of  these  works  would  add  very  materially  to  the  developed 
water  power  of  the  State. 

The  cost  of  the  entire  works  when  completed  is  not  excessive  when 
compared  with  the  amount  of  water  that  will  be  secured  thereby.  The 
greater  part  of  these  works  will  be  adequate  for  a  very  long  period  of  time 
in  the  future  and  this  consideration  should  be  taken  into  account  in  the 
payment  of  indebtedness  created  for  the  construction  of  the  works.  The 
cast  of  the  present  Metropolitan  water  system  will  in  all  probability  change 
but  Uttle  in  the  next  14  years,  though  there  will  probably  be  a  gradual  in- 
crease in  the  cost  of  maintenance,  while  the  total  cost  per  capita  will  gradu- 
ally decrease.  In  the  year  1935  nearly  one  third  of  the  bonds  issued  for  the 
construction  of  the  present  works  will  become  due  and  the  cost  per  capita 
charges  will  then  diminish  rapidly  for  the  next  seven  or  eight  years,  when  the 
bulk  of  the  entire  indebtedness  will  be  paid.  Under  these  conditions,  in 
financing  the  proposed  new  works  the  construction  of  which  cannot  be  com- 
pleted in  any  case  before  1936  even  if  begun  at  once,  it  will  be  a  great  ad- 
vantage if  the  payments  on  capital  charges  are  made  small  in  the  beginning. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


256  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

and  increased  materially  when  pajinents  on  the  original  net  debt  begin  to 
reduce  rapidly  the  charge  on  that  account  in  the  year  1936. 

The  results  of  a  careful  study  of  the  financial  condition  of  the  district 
as  a  whole  and  its  various  special  divisions,  indicates  that  the  income  of  the 
district  is  likely  to  grow  more  rapidly  than  the  expense,  even  including 
the  cost  of  financing  the  new  system,  except  possibly  in  the  earlier  years 
before  the  payment  of  the  existing  Metropolitan  water  debt;  and  even  in 
that  case,  by  a  reasonable  arrangement  of  payments  of  the  new  debt,  the 
income  of  the  water  works  should  be  sufficient  to  meet  all  requirements. 
Following  1936  the  surplus  receipts  of  the  water  departments  -vvill  soon 
greatly  exceed  the  requirements  for  financing  the  proposed  new  works. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  worth  noting  that  the  maintenance  cost  of  water 
per  capita  to  the  municipalities  in  the  Metropolitan  district,  is  generally 
less,  and  in  most  cases  much  less,  than  the  cost  to  those  municipalities 
which  have  remained  outside  the  district  and  have  operated  independent 
works  up  to  the  present  time.  This  condition  was  to  have  been  expected 
and,  even  with  the  financing  of  the  new  works  added,  water  will  no  doubt 
be  cheaper  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  Metropolitan 
Water  District  generally,  when  a  long  time  in  the  future  is  considered,  than 
to  those  outside. 

Discussion. 

The  President.  Gentlemen,  this  very  interesting  sketch  of  a  very 
big  piece  of  work  is  before  you  for  discussion.  I  don't  know  how  many  of 
us  are  able  to  get  an  adequate  idea  so  that  we  can  intelligently  add  much 
this  afternoon,  but  there  are  some  present  who  have  had  to  do  with  this 
investigation.  Dr.  Kelley,  the  Massachusetts  Commissioner  of  Health,  is 
present.     Dr.  Kelley. 

Dr.  Eugene  R.  Kelley.  The  speaker  has  mentioned  one  point  that 
needs  emphasis;  that  is  in  reference  to  the  first  section  under  the  project. 
The  first  section,  the  construction  of  the  tunnel  to  the  Ware  River,  when 
built  will  take  care  of  the  immediate  water  problem  for  the  MetropoHtan 
District  and  for  the  city  of  Worcester.  No  one  can  predict  exactly  how 
long  it  will  be  before  the  final  unit  to  the  Swift  River  will  be  required  in 
order  to  insure  ample  water  supply  at  all  times.  We  have  recommended  as 
our  final  conclusion,  as  a  Commission,  that  the  first  part  is  imperative  and 
should  be  done  at  once,  and  then  we  can  decide  by  circumstances  which  will 
depend  on  the  growth  of  population,  the  increase  of  consumption  per 
capita  and  the  meterologieal  conditions.  Of  course  it  is  only  safe  to  assume 
the  output  of  the  absolutely  dry  years  in  any  water  supply  prediction. 
We  thought  that  the  decision  as  to  the  construction  of  the  final  unit  could 
be  safely  left  to  the  authorities  responsible  for  the  construction,  completion 
and  putting  into  effect  of  the  work,  simply  putting  it  up  to  them  that  the 
water  should  be  there  at  the  time  it  was  needed. 


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DISCUSSION.  257 

I  don't  know  as  Mr.  Goodnough  brought  out  the  point  that  our  esti- 
mate indicates  taking  over  ten  —  probably  nearly  fifteen  —  years  from  the 
time  of  the  beginning  of  work  before  the  water  could  be  available  through 
our  pipes  from  the  Swift  River  reservoir.  Therefore  you  see  it  is  necessary 
to  allow  a  considerable  time  to  be  devoted  to  construction  work. 

The  President.  Are  there  any  men  here  present  who  are  not  mem- 
bers of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  who  are  our  guests 
to-day  and  who  are  interested  in  this  problem? 

Dr.  Kelley.  Mr.  President,  I  would  suggest  that  Mr.  J.  Waldo 
Smith,  Chief  Engineer  Board  of  Water  Supply  of  New  York,  be  invited  to 
speak. 

The  President.  I  have  him  in  mind,  Dr.  Kelley,  as  a  reserve,  but  I 
want  to  know  if  there  are  any  men  who  are  interested  in  this  problem,  mill 
owners  for  instance,  some  one  who  maybe  affected  by  this  proposed  develop- 
ment? We  would  like  to  hear  from  any  of  you  gentlemen.  Mr.  Smith, 
will  you  say  a  few  words? 

Mr.  J,  Waldo  Smith.  Mr.  Goodnough  has  stated  the  facts  so  clearly 
that  there  is  not  much  more  to  be  said.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  problem, 
reduced  to  its  lowest  terms,  is:  Does  the  district  need  more  water  and 
from  what  locality  can  it  be  best  obtained?  The  other  controUing  factors 
are  the  size  of  the  population  how  supplied,  the  probable  rate  of  growth 
and  the  probable  rate  of  per  capita  consumption.  This  committee  has 
been  working  on  this  problem  for  two  and  a  half  years,  and  unless  one  is  so 
imbued  with  supreme  pessimism  that  he  believes  this  district  is  not  going  to 
grow,  or  is  even  going  to  decrease  in  population,  he  must  believe  it  is  going 
to  increase,  and  for  this  reason  must  have  more  water,  and  must  have  it 
in  the  immediate  future.  Then  comes  the  question  of  where  such  additional 
supply  may  be  best  obtained.  Whether  it  is  best  to  provide  a  comprehen- 
sive plan,  looking  a  long  time  to  the  future  and  which  can  be  developed  by 
successive  increments,  the  first  increment  amounting  to  about  one  sixth  of 
the  cost  of  the  entire  work;  or  whether  it  is  best  to  look  only  to  the  imme- 
diate future  and  develop  at  about  the  same  cost  a  supply  which  by  no 
means  could  ever  become  part  of  a  large  comprehensive  plan. 

I  think  this  question  has  been  very  well  answered  by  eleven  out  of  the 
twelve  members  of  the  coromittee.  They  have  signed  a  report  recom- 
mending a  comprehensive  plan,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  no  other  plan  can 
receive  serious  consideration. 

The  district  is  very  large,  and  in  the  past  has  had  a  steady  growth. 
I  believe  it  is  going  to  continue  to  grow  in  the  future,  although  perhaps  at 
a  lower  rat€  than  is  estimated  for  many  other  places.  It  is  true  that  the 
wat^r  developed  at  the  Wachusett  reservoir  under  the  plan  of  1895  has 
lasted  longer  than  was  then  believed  probable,  as  has  been  very  clearly 
shown  by  Mr,  Goodnough's  diagrams.  The  rat^  of  increase  in  the  popu- 
lation which  was  then  predicted  has  not  been  realized.  In  view  of  the  ex- 
perience of  these  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  I  think  that  the  estimated  in- 


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258  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

creased  population  as  laid  down  in  this  report'  is  very  conservative.  In 
the  district  with  which  I  am  most  familiar^  I  should  certainly  have  allowed 
a  higher  rate.  But  as  finally  recommended  in  this  report,  my  estimate  is 
that  the  projected  increase  in  consumption  will  be  realized,  if  not  exceeded 
in  the  future. 

The  President.  Prof.  Whipple,  can  you  speak  on  the  subject  this 
afternoon? 

Mr.  George  C.  Whipple.*  Mr.  President  and  Members  of  the  Asso- 
ciation: As  a  member  of  the  joint  committee  that  Mr.  Goodnough  has 
referred  to,  I  have  taken  great  pleasure  in  studying  this  great  problem. 
No  one  who  has  been  connected  with  it  can  fail  to  realize  it«  magnitude  and 
no  one  can  fail  to  realize  the  excellent  work  which  has  been  done  by  Mr. 
Goodnough  and  his  corps  of  assistants,  which  has  included  a  number  of  the 
members  of  this  Association,  —  Mr.  Brewer,  Mr.  Kennison,  Mr.  Weston, 
Mr.  Hammond,  and  some  others  that  you  probably  know.  I  have  been 
studying  this  problem  along  with  Mr.  Goodnough  and  Mr.  Smith;  and 
being  an  engineer  I  have  naturally  made  some  estimates  of  my  own  in 
connection  with  some  of  these  matters,  as,  for  example,  the  probable 
future  population  of  the  district  and  the  per  capita  consumption;  and  I 
am  frank  to  say  that  my  estimates  have  not  agreed  absolutely  with  those 
of  Mr.  Goodnough.  No  two  estimates  could  be  expected  to  agree  exactly. 
I  think  that  the  growth  of  population  will  probably  be  not  quite  as  great  as 
he  expectfl  it  to  be;  also  that  the  per  capita  consumption  perhaps  will  not 
increase  quite  as  much.  And  yet  I  was  not  able  to  agree  with  the  twelfth 
man  on  our  joint  board  who  made  the  minority  report.  His  estimates  of 
future  population  and  water  consumption  seem  to  me  to  be  too  low.  I 
think  that  this  district  is  bound  to  grow  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  it 
has  grown  in  the  past,  but  at  a  continually  lessening  rate. 

Now  there  are  two  or  three  complicating  factors  in  this  water  situa- 
tion which  need  explanation.  If  it  were  a  question  of  the  Metropolitan 
District  alone  the  problem  would  be  a  good  deal  easier  to  solve  than  it 
really  is.  Mr.  Goodnough  has  already  referrred  to  the  city  of  Worcester 
and  its  needs.  This  city  is  located  near  the  Wachusett  supply  of  the 
Metropolitan  District,  —  in  fact,  its  watershed  is  contiguous  to  that  of  the 
Wachusett  area,  —  and  it  is  very  natural  that  as  Worcester  is  getting  short 
of  wat^r  she  should  want  some  territory  for  her  own  supply.  It  seems  to 
me  that  it  would  be  most  unjust  to  the  Metropolitan  District  to  allow 
Worcester  to  take  this  large  fragment  of  the  Wachusett  area  which  she 
desires.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  very  much  better  solution  is  to  provide  a 
supply  which  can  he  used  jointly  by  the  city  of  Worcester  and  the  Metro- 
politan District,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  the  Joint  Board  recommended 
the  Ware  River  as  the  first  extension  of  the  District's  water  supply.  The 
Ware  River  will  help  to  take  care  of  the  Metropolitan  District  for  a  good 
many  years,  and  it  will  also  provide  Worcester  with  what  she  needs. 

(*  Profeaoor  of  Sanitary  Engineering,  Harvard  University.) 

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DISCUSSION.  259 

Furthermore,  in  going  west  of  the  divide  and  taking  water  from  the 
Connecticut  River  watershed,  it  is  proposed  to  take  simply  the  flood 
flows,  not  the  entire  stream  flow;  and  it  seems  to  me  that  this  is  the  great 
outstanding  feature  of  Mr.  Goodnough's  report.  While  not  without 
precedent  even  in  Massachusetts,  the  magnitude  of  this  project  makes  it  a 
notable  recommendation.  The  plan  is  to  take  the  flood  flows  only,  leaving 
the  summer  flows  and  the  low  flows  of  the  Ware  River  just  about  as  they 
are  at  present,  —  I  may  say  almost  exactly  as  they  are  at  present.  I 
think  that  is  a  very  important  matter  which  deserves  careful  thought. 

Then  there  is  another  element  in  the  problem  which  Mr.  Goodnough 
did  not  mention,  —  for  lack  of  time,  of  course,  because  he  could  not  speak 
of  all  these  things  in  one  short  paper,  —  namely,  the  fact  that  certain  of 
the  present  supplies  of  the  District  are  able  to  furnish  about  25  000  000  or 
30  000  000  gal.  of  wat^r  which  is  not  now  satisfactory  in  quality.  If  I 
am  not  mistaken,  we  may  place  the  present  supply  of  good  water  in  the 
MetropoUtan  District  at  something  like  125  000  000  gal.  a  day.  The  total 
supply  is  more  than  that,  —  say  155  000  000  or  perhaps  160  000  000  gal. 
per  day,  provided  that  the  waters  of  the  South  Sudbury  and  Lake  Co- 
chit  uate  are  filtered.  Now  if  it  were  not  for  the  need  of  Worcester,  fil- 
tration would  perhaps  be  the  logical  step  to  take  first,  but  that  would  not 
do  Worcester  any  good.  But  by  building  the  tunnel  to  the  Ware  River  we 
can  get  just  about  the  same  amount  of  water  that  could  be  obtained  from 
the  South  Sudbury  and  Cochituate  by  filtration,  we  can  provide  Worcester 
with  what  she  needs,  and  can  provide  a  large  factor  of  safety  for  the  Metro- 
politan District,  which  I  believe  is  a  good  thing. 

There  is  another  factor  which  has  not  been  touched  upon  to-day  and 
was  not  mentioned,  in  a  conspicuous  way,  in  the  report  of  the  Joint  Board, 
and  that  is  the  possibility  of  the  development  of  a  large  water  supply  in  the 
valley  of  the  Ipswich  River.  That  project  has  been  proposed  a  number  of 
times  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  a  feasible  project.  The  time 
is  coming  when  the  cities  in  that  part  of  the  state,  —  the  Essex  County 
cities  —  will  need  to  have  a  great  water  supply  of  their  own,  and  if  they  can 
make  a  joint  development,  if  they  can  create  a  district  in  that  part  of  the 
state  and  secure  a  joint  supply,  it  can  be  made  to  serve  not  only  as  a  supply 
for  those  cities  but  as  a  stand-by  supply  for  the  Metropolitan  District  to 
tide  over  a  very  dry  year.  You  all  know  that  when  we  say  that  the  supply 
of  the  District  is  155  000  000  gal.  a  day,  we  mean  155  000  000  gal.  in  a  very 
dry  year;  that  in  nineteen  out  of  twenty  years  we  can  get  more  than  that, — 
just  how  much  more  depending  largely  upon  the  storage  provided.  If  we 
have  at  hand  a  reservoir  and  a  reserve  supply  which  can  tide  us  over  this 
dr>''  period,  our  present  supplies  will  last  just  so  much  longer.  And  I  be- 
lieve we  should  study  very  seriously  this  Ipswich  River  problem  in  con- 
nection with  the  problem  of  the  Metropolitan  District.  In  fact,  we  have 
asked  the  Legislature  for  an  appropriation  to  enable  the  State  Department 
of  Public  Health  to  make  such  a  study.     This  study  was  not  made  in  any 


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260  PROPOSED   EXTENSION   OF  METROPOLITAN  WATER  DISTRICT. 

detailed  way  in  connection  with  the  investigation  which  Mr.  Groodnough 
has  been  telling  us  about. 

My  plan,  therefore,  based  on  the  report  of  the  Joint  Board,  would  be 
first  to  build  the  Ware  River  tunnel;  and,  second,  a  little  later,  i.e.  when 
necessary,  to  filter  the  South  Sudbury  and  Cochituate  supplies;  third,  to 
construct  the  Ipswich  River  development;  and,  fourth,  at  some  later  date 
to  extend  the  Ware  River  tunnel  to  the  Swift  River  and  complete  the 
development  which  Mr.  Goodnough  has  described.  Personally  I  doubt 
very  much  if  we  shall  see  that  Swift  River  reservoir  in  op)eration  within 
my  own  lifetime.  It  may  be  that  it  will  be  necessary,  but  that  will  depend 
upon  the  growth  of  the  Metropolitan  territory  and  on  the  feasibility  of 
developing  the  Ipswich  River  and  other  eastern  sources.  Yet,  as  an 
engineering  proposition,  I  believe  in  the  Swift  River  project.  I  think 
it  is  an  excellent  one.  I  think  that  it  will  some  day  be  needed  and  I  even 
go  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  would  be  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  to  acquire  —  by  right  of  eminent  domain  if  necessary^  — 
the  necessary  sites  for  the  dams  and  perhaps  to  go  further  than  that  and 
obtain  by  purchase  from  willing  sellers  such  other  land  as  may  be  necessary. 
I  believe  it  would  be  good  business  on  the  part  of  the  State  to  get  some  of 
those  pieces  of  land,  even  though  they  may  not  be  necessary  to  be  used 
perhaps  for  twenty  years  or  more. 

Speaking  of  the  Ipswich  River,  it  may  be  said  that  another  advantage 
of  a  great  development  there  would  be  to  help  out  the  cities  of  the  Merri- 
mack valley.  The  Ipswich  River  water  is  now  being  taken  up  or  asked  for 
at  the  hands  of  the  Legislature  by  various  local  communities.  The  Joint 
Board  believes  that  it  would  be  much  better  for  these  cities  to  pool  their 
issues  and  develop  a  supply  adequate  for  all.  This  Ipswich  water  would 
have  to  be  filtered,  of  course. 

Those  of  you  who  read  the  report  of  the  Joint  Board,  which  is  now  in 
press,  and  which  will  be  issued  before  many  weeks  will  be  especially  interested, 
I  think,  in  two  or  three  things  which  Mr.  Goodnough  has  not  mentioned. 
One  of  them  is  the  general  attitude  of  the  state  authorities  towards  the 
filtration  of  the  surface  water  supplies  in  the  state.  We  have  unreservedly 
approved  that  poHcy.  We  beUeve  that  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when 
practically  all  of  our  surface  waters  will  have  to  be  filtered.  Personally  I 
believe  that  the  time  is  not  very  far  distant  when  the  MetropoUtan  water 
will  be  filtered. 

You  will  also  be  interested  in  the  policy  which  has  been  set  forth  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  great  ponds.  There  have  been  some  discussions  in 
this  Association,  as  you  know,  in  regard  to  boating,  fishing,  and  bathing 
in  reservoirs.  A  policy  has  been  defined.  The  Joint  Board  says,  for 
example,  that  while  from  a  health  standpoint  it  is  quite  possible  to  safe- 
guard the  water  consumer  against  infectious  disease  by  filtration  and  dis- 
infection, every  community  ought  to  have  the  right  to  say  whether  it  wants 
to  drink  water  which  has  been  subjected  to  possible  pollution  and  sub- 


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DISCUSSION.  261 

sequently  purified.  In  other  words,  the  sentimental  objections  ought  to 
be  considered,  as  well  as  the  hygienic  and  economic  phases  of  the  problem. 

I  think  you  will  also  be  interested  in  studying  very  carefully  the  very 
important  point  which  Mr.  Goodnough  has  brought  up  in  regard  to  the 
use  of  flood  flows.  In  some  respects  it  is  a  different  method  of  taking  from 
what  has  been  customary  in  the  past.  As  you  know,  the  courts  in  this 
country'  do  not  recognize  what  is  called  "  compensation  in  kind."  The 
principle  appears  to  be  a  good  one;  it  has  been  adopted  already  in  some 
places  by  agreement  between  the  mill  owners  and  the  water  works  authori- 
ties. I  think  that  is  a  matter  which  this  Association  ought  to  discuss  very 
carefully,  —  perhaps  at  some  subsequent  meeting.  I  mean  the  general 
relation  between  the  use  of  water  for  power  and  the  use  of  water  for  water 
supply  purposes.  Let  us  see  if  we  cannot  come  to  some  friendly  agree- 
ment between  the  mills  who  want  water  for  power  and  the  cities  who  want 
water  for  water  supply  purposes.  Both  are  very  desirable  things  and 
there  ought  to  be  some  better  way  of  solving  those  problems  than  by  going 
to  court  every  time  we  have  a  difference  of  opinion. 

I  am  sure  that  you  will  all  be  interested  in  the  report  when  you  have  an 
opportunity  to  read  it,  and  I  know  that  you  will  all  appreciate  Mr.  Good- 
nough's  paper,  just  as  I  have.     (Applause.) 


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262  WATER   SUPPLY   AT   SALEM,    OHIO. 


ADDITIONAL  DISCUSSION  OF  WATER  SUPPLY  CONDITIONS 

AT  SALEM,  OHIO. 

Mr.  H.  F.  Dunham.*  The  excellent  paper  of  Mr.  Dittoe  read  at  the  I 
Bridgeport  meeting  and  the  interesting  discussion  following  it  brought  to 
the  surface  two  or  three  inquiries  and  comments  that  may  be  worthy  of 
notice.  The  work  described  was  carried  out  in  a  generation  earlier  than 
Mr.  Dittoe's  and  in  behalf  of  fairness  and  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Salem  Water  Company,  Mr.  E.  C.  Clarke,  the  writer  begs  the  favor  of  a 
page  in  your  Journal. 

The  Salem  Water  Company  purchased  a  small  local  water  plant  that 
obtained  its  supply  from  drilled  wells  almost  in  the  center  of  the  city. 
With  this  nucleus  a  franchise  was  obtained  by  Eastern  parties  who  ne- 
glected or  overlooked  sundry  facts  relating  to  the  difference  between  glacial 
drift  deposits  in  Ohio  and  in  New  England.  Despite  protests  relating  to 
geology,  the  insistent  demands  of  the  city  were  finally  complied  with  and  a 
section  in  the  franchise  limited  the  supply  to  wells  and  springs.  It  was 
necessary  to  keep  up  the  service  from  the  old  wells  during  the  new  construc- 
tion. But  at  the  same  time,  the  weakness  and  danger  in  that  source  were 
recognized  and  a  favorable  area  sought  outside  the  city  limits  for  a  more 
abundant  supply  of  softer  water,  the  well  water  being  very  hard. 

While  the  location  for  the  new  water  works  pumping  station  was  not 
all  that  could  be  desired,  it  was  fairly  satisfactory  for  the  important  feature 
of  direct  fire  protection.  With  an  outside  supply  to  keep  the  stored  water 
level,  at  the  station,  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  as*  intended,  there 
could  be  little  danger  of  pollution.  It  may  be  noted  that  under  the  condi- 
tions incident  to  almost  complete  and  continuous  exhaustion  of  water  from 
reservoirs  and  wells  at  that  station,  pollution  was  sought  scientifically  and 
not  detected. 

The  works  were  built  at  the  new  location  and  a  well  drilled  to  a  depth 
of  six  or  seven  hundred  feet  or  down  to  near  the  *^black  shale^'  which  is  taken 
to  be  everywhere  dry.  Little  water  could  be  obtained.  The  old  wells 
were  connected  to  the  new  station  by  wrought-iron  instead  of  cast-iron  pipe 
under  the  comfortable  impression  that  it  would  be  needed  for  only  a  short 
time  and  could  be  more  easily  removed. 

But  when  it  came  to  an  effort  to  secure  a  change  in  the  terms  of  the 
franchise,  complete  failure  resulted.  Then  the  water  company  tried  to 
secure  a  change  in  the  Ohio  code  that  would  have  removed  a  very  serious 
handicap  and  enabled  the  company  to  first  obtain  a  better  supply  and  then 


*  Civil  Engineer,  New  York. 

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DISCUSSION.  263 

treat  with  the  city  for  a  change  in  the  franchise.  At  that  time  no  water 
company  in  Ohio  could  exercise  the  right  of  eminent  domain, —  a  right 
that  might  be  about  as  necessary  to  a  water  company  as  is  a  charter  to  a 
railway  company.  Only  two  or  three  years  previous  to  that  time  the  legis- 
lature had  passed  such  an  enabling  act  but  in  its  passage  an  amendment  was 
introduced  making  an  exception  of  cities  having  more  than  a  certain  number 
of  inhabitants.  This  addition  to  the  original  bill  annulled  the  whole  act 
by  making  it  "Special  Legislation."  Apparently  it  was  a  simple  affair  to 
petition  again.  One  of  Ohio's  very  able  attorneys,  the  late  Honorable 
William  A.  Lynch,*  a  leader  in  the  political  party  then  in  control  of  the 
legislature,  prepared  and  introduced  the  bill.  At  the  writer's  suggestion  a 
clause  made  it  impossible  for  any  water  company  in  that  State  to  ever  exer- 
cise the  right  of  eminent  domain  unless  all  of  its  purposes  and  plans  had 
been  presented  in  careful  detail  to  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health  and  fully 
approved  by  that  Board. t  The  Bill  was  endorsed  by  the  Council  of  one 
Ohio  city  then  supplied  with  water  by  a  private  water  company.  That  city, 
however,  was  Massillon  not  Salem.  The  Legislature  turned  down  the  bill 
in  record  time! 

There  is  an  excuse  for  thus  mentioning  items  from  the  past  for  they 
show  the  absence  of  that  full  cooperation  between  State  and  City  authorities 
and  private  water  companies  which  would  have  been  so  helpful  in  Ohio 
during  that  period.    Experiences  at  Newark,  Ohio,  are  readily  recalled. 

The  writer  is  not  familiar  with^the  conditions  under  which  the  city 
of  Salem  acquired  its  water  works  property,  but  the  authorities  have  been 
consistent  in  this,  namely,  they  have  continued  to  secure  and  accept  a  very 
scanty  supply  of  hard  water  during  a  period  of  nearly  forty  years. 


*  Mr.  Lynch  was  chainnan  of  the  Ohio  delegations  when  Cleveland  was  nominated  for  presidency, 
t  The  Bill  had  the  approval  and  as  far  as  possible  the  support  of  the  Board.     (H.  F.  D.) 


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264  ELECTRIFICATION   OF  GATE  VALVES. 


ELECTRIFICATION  OF  GATE  VALVES. 
Importance  of  quick  and  positive  control  in  preventing  property 

LOSS    BY    flooding.      HoW    THE    VALVE    OPERATING    SYSTEM  WORKS. 

BY  PAYNE  DEAN.* 
[December  I4,  19SL] 

Electricity  as  applied  to  the  operation  and  the  control  of  large  water 
works  gate  valves  represents  an  engineering  development  of  relatively 
recent  origin.  The  remarkable  success  that  has  followed  the  installation 
of  modem  electrical  equipment  in  various  systems  during  the  past  few 
years  has  fully  demonstrated  the  importance  of  valve  control,  not  only  as 
a  labor  saving  means,  but  as  a  safe-guard  against  the  hitherto  enormous 
damage  to  property  due  to  flooding  from  broken  mains. 

Within  but  a  few  years  the  electrical  valve  control  system  described 
herein  has  almost  entirely  superseded  all  other  methods  of  power  valve 
operation,  including  the  hydraulic-cylinder  type  which  had  been  in  use 
to  some  extent  in  the  past  where  conditions  were  favorable,  and  where 
remote  control  was  not  essential. 

Operating  Large  Gate  Valves. 

Large  gate  valves  as  a  rule  do  not  receive  a  great  deal  of  attention 
once  they  have  been  installed,  but  after  they  have  been  in  service  for  some 
years  they  become  exceedingly  difficult  to  operate.  It  is  not  unusual  for 
the  closing  of  a  large  valve  to  require  the  combined  efforts  of  six  or  eight 
men.  In  view  of  the  physical  effort  required  it  is  easily  understood  why 
the  valve  is  avoided,  and  in  fact  totally  neglected  in  many  instances. 
Under  these  circumstances,  the  condition  of  the  valve  gradually  becomes 
worse,  until  when  it  is  suddenly  called  upon  in  an  emergency  it  is  not  fit 
for  operation  and  hence  impossible  to  close. 

The  water  works  superintendent  is  obviously  aware  of  the  condition 
of  the  valves  and  the  more  important  valves  in  the  system  are  almost 
always  a  source  of  considerable  worry  to  him.  The  amount  of  time  and 
labor  required  to  manually  test  the  valves  is  so  great,  however,  that  in 
many  cases  it  is  a  practical  impossibility  for  him  to  maintain  the  valves 
in  thorough  working  condition  without  neglecting  other  important  work. 

Shut-ofifs  take  considerable  time,  and  in  the  event  of  a  break  con- 
siderable damage  may  be  done  by  an  uninterrupted  flow.  To  be  able  to 
close  a  pair  of  36-in.  or  48-in.  gate  valves  in  from  10  to  12  minutes  would  at 
least  save  a  bad  washout  and  considerable  property  damage.    This  can 

♦  New  York  City.     Member  A.S.M.E.  and  A.I.E.E. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DEAN.  266 

be  accomplished  from  a  convenient  point  and  requires  the  attention  of  but 
one  man  who  has  merely  to  turn  a  small  handwheel. 

It  is  also  possible  to  op)erate  standpipe  valves  from  a  remote  point. 
This  is  important  in  systems  where  it  is  required  to  pump  high  pressure 
directly  into  the  mains.  Pump  discharge  valves  are  electrically  operated 
in  many  installations,  allowing  different  pumps  to  be  put  into  service 
without  loss  of  time.    When  an  electrically  operated  pump  of  the  centri- 


Dean  Control.        Floor  Stand. 

fugal  type  is  shut  down,  the  failure  of  the  check  valve  to  close  would  pro- 
bably cause  considerable  damage.  By  applying  electrical  operation  to  the 
discharge  valve  adjacent  the  cheek,  both  the  pump  and  the  motor  are 
afforded  additional  protection  as  well  as  greater  flexibility  of  operation 
and  control. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  important  fields  for  electrical  valve 
operation  is  in  the  protection  against  the  serious  consequences  which  might 
otherwise  follow  the  breaking  of  large  mains.  A  shut-off  may  be  effectively 
made  where  the  more  important  valves  are  under  electrical  control,  and  a 
portable  automotive  type  of  valve  closing  apparatus  is  maintained  for  use 


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260  ELECTRIFICATION   OF   GATE   VALVES. 

in  outlying  districts.  The  portable  valve  closing  apparatus  is  also  useful 
for  operating  the  numerous  small  valves  of  lesser  importance  and  which 
may  be  situated  at  widely  separated  points. 

Valve  Control  in  Congested  Districts. 

There  are  certain  extremely  congested  business  centers  in  our  large 
cities  that  would  be  subject  to  enormous  loss  and  serious  inconvenience 
if  undermined  and  flooded.     Public  buildings,  such  as  art  museums  and 


Two  48-iN.  Electrically  Operated  Valves  in  Vault. 

libraries  housing  v^aluable  works  of  art,  would  be  in  serious  danger  if  large 
volumes  of  water  p)enetrated  through  their  foundations.  Underground 
railways  are  especially  susceptible  to  water  damage,  and  while  the  third 
rail  and  other  electrical  equipment  is  submerged  the  system  is  inoperative. 
There  are  innumerable  reasons  why  consideration  should  be  given  to 
the  subject  of  protection  against  damage  from  broken  wat^r  mains,  and  it 
is  interesting  to  know  that  municipal  authorities  are  beginning  to  more 
fully  appreciate  the  savings  which  may  be  effected  by  the  installation  of 
suitable  valve  operating  equipment. 


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DEAN.  267 

Electrical  Systems  Most  Efficient. 

Until  numerous  installations  had  been  made  and  actually  operated 
over  a  period  of  time,there  was  considerable  doubt  in  the  minds  of  superin- 
tendents and  others  as  to  the  reliability  of  electrically  controlled  valves. 
It  is  now,  however,  an  established  fact  that  a  few  well  placed  electrically 
operated  and  controlled  valves  will  afford  ample  protection  for  any  con- 
gested district.  Further,  it  has  been  shown  that  electricity  affords  the 
only  system  adopted  to  meet  all  of  the  varying  conditions  under  which 
valves  must  operate.  Electricity  is  the  most  reliable  source  of  power 
known  and  is  now  almost  universally  available. 


Mechanical  Position  Indicator. 

The  design  and  construction  of  the  electric  motor  has  been  carried  to 
a  high  degree  of  perfection  and  dej)endability.  It  is  available  for  almost 
any  use  and  can  be  made  water-tight  and  able  to  withstand  operation 
in  the  oj)en  exposed  to  snow  and  ice,  and  even  while  under  water.  Ob- 
viously the  control  apparatus  can  be  ruggedly  constructed  and  inclosed 
in  a  moisture  and  fool-proof  casing  so  that  a  complete  system  may  be 
built  up,  all  of  the  oj)erating  parts  of  which  are  fulh'  protected  against 
outside  influences. 

By  the  employment  of  lead  and  steel  covered  cable,  the  conductors 
may  be  laid  in  an  open  trench. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


268  electrification  of  gate  valves. 

Valve  Operating  Apparatus. 

The  large  valves  in  street  vaults  present  a  number  of  difficulties  for 
the  following  reasons.  Frequently  the  valve  'is  very  old,  corroded  and 
difficult  to  operate.  It  is  required  to  be  closed  against  velocity  due  to 
break  in  the  line.  The  control  apparatus  must  be  of  such  a  size  and  nature 
as  to  pass  through  the  ordinary  man  hole.  Space  is  limited  in  the  vault, 
making  it  imperative  that  the  installation  be  made  with  as  little  labor  as 
possible.     The  apparatus  must  of  course  be  absolutely  water  and  damp 


30-iN.  Inside  Screw  Valve  Fitted  with  Dean  Control. 

proof,  and  should  not  be  affected  by  water  that  may  collect  in  the  vault. 
Also  standing  idle  for  long  periods  must  not  affect  the  operativeness  of 
the  system.  The  equipment  must  be  self-contained,  self-lubricating  and 
unaffected  by  extremes  of  temperature.  For  the  protection  of  the  valve 
the  mechanism  must  be  provided  with  means  positively  operating  to  stop 
the  gate  at  each  extreme  of  its  travel. 

Dean  Control  System. 

This  system  has  been  especially  developed  for  the  electrical  operation 
of  valves  and  incorporates  all  of  the  essentials  which  long  experience  has 
shown  to  be  necessary  for  these  valves.  It  is  the  only  complete  system  of 
valve  control  that  has  been  devised,  and  hundreds  of  installations  in  various 
kinds  of  service  are  in  satisfactory^  operation  throughout  the  country. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


DEAN.  269 

There  are  five  important  characteristics  of  the  Dean  System  — 

1  — It  is  a  single  standardized  unit. 

2  — The  unit  may  be  attached  to  existing  valves  with  a  minimum  of 
effort  and  without  shutting  down  the  line. 

3  — Operation  is  positive  and  accurate,  and  does  not  depend  upon  the 
momentum  or  drift  of  the  moving  parts  to  seat  the  valve. 

4  —  The  motor  exerts  a  high  initial  torque  and  affords  a  sufficient 
reserve  of  power  for  operating  the  valve  under  various  conditions  of 
velocity  and  pressure. 

5  — The  complete  system  is  totally  inclosed  and  water-proof. 

The  Dean  Unit  embraces  the  driving  motor,  reduction  gears,  and 
limit  trip  mechanism  all  inclosed  in  a  standardized  moisture-proof  casing. 
The  units  are  built  in  a  series  of  types  embracing  the  complete  range  of 
valve  sizes.  Each  unit  is  equipped  with  feet  provided  with  four  bolt 
holes  for  attachment  to  the  valve. 


Electrically  Operated  Valve  Manhole  Cover  Construction. 

Indicating  Devices  for  Valves. 

For  showing  the  position  of  the  valve  gate  two  types  of  indicators 
are  employed.  At  the  valve  a  mechanical  indicator  is  installed  which 
shows  upon  a  dial  how  many  tunis  have  been  made  in  opening  the  valve 
so  that  danger  of  jamming  the  valve  parts  is  eliminated. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  operate  the  valve  from  a  distant  point  an  electri- 
cal indicating  system  is  employed  so  that  an  operator  at  the  remote  station 
can  note  the  position  of  the  gate  from  a  conveniently  placed  dial.  In 
both  of  these  systems  the  mechanism  is  thoroughly  protected  from  moisture 
and  dust  by  a  suitable  casing. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


270  electrification  of  gate  valves. 

Dean  Unit. 

The  motor  of  the  Dean  Unit  is  completely  inclosed  and  water-proof 
and  develops  an  extremely  high  torque.  The  normal  speed  is  2  400 
R.P.M.,  and  through  a  system  of  worm  and  planetary  gearing  the  slow 
speed  shaft  which  drives  the  valve  stem  rotates  at  approximately  50 
R.P.M.  The  motor  and  worm  shaft  are  ball  bearing  and  the  gearing 
runs  in  oil. 

The  system  is  furnished  for  220  volts,  25,  40  or  60  cycles,  single  phase 
A.C.,  or  110  or  220  volts  D.C. 

The  valves  may  be  controlled  from  one  or  more  local  or  remote  points, 
the  control  stations  being  provided  with  red  and  green  indicating  lamps 
showing  the  position  of  the  valve.  The  system  is  applicable  to  any  existing 
valves  whether  of  the  O.S.  &  Y.,  or  I.S.  types  without  shutting  down  the 
line  and  the  valve  may  be  operated  manually  if  the  current  fails. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Garrett.*  On  the  question  of  a  unit  which  can  be  operated 
electrically  and  also  by  hand,  is  it  necessary  to  turn  the  motor  of  the 
electrical  control  in  operating  it  by  hands? 

Mr.  Dean.  There  is  a  clutch  that  you  have  to  pull  out  by  turning 
three  times  around  the  screw.  That  declutches  it.  Ours  has  a  worm 
drive;  and  turning  the  worm,  a  reversible  worm,  is  quite  hard;  but  even  a 
worm  will  turn.  But,  preferably,  you  have  to  unclutch  to  do  it.  That  is 
the  best  way. 

Mr.  Garrett.  And  when  you  couple  it  up  again,  you  automatically 
put  it  back? 

Mr.  Dean.  You  have  to  put  it  back  manually.  If  you  do  not  put 
it  back  when  you  have  finished  operating  by  hand,  we  have  indicating 
lights  in  the  control  station  and  the  light  shows  that  it  is  open.  The  red 
light  comes  up  and  shows  you  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  the  system. 

Mr.  Garrett.  There  is  the  possibility  of  getting  into  trouble  if  you 
have  hand  operated  and  electrically  operated  combined? 

Mr.  Dean.  You  have  to  have  hand  operated  and  electrically  operated 
combined.  The  thing  to  do  is  to  get  a  safety  device  to  show  you  that  you 
are  not  in  mesh,  as  it  were,  before  you  start  operating  by  power. 

Mr.  Garrett.     You  can't  put  it  back  in  mesh  wrongly,  then? 

Mr.  Dean.  No.  You  only  have  to  turn  a  handle.  But  that  has 
been  one  source  of  trouble  to  every  operating  force  in  the  water  works 
departments,  through  their  overlooking  those  fine  features. 

Mr.  E.  a.  Hancock.     How  accessible  is  the  control  for  repairs? 


♦  Civil  Engineer,  Hartford,  Conn. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  271 

Mr.  Dean.  It  is  as  accessible  as  a  piece  of  machinery  of  that  kind 
can  be  made.  In  putting  the  covers  on  the  vaults,  we  have  them  large 
enought  to  allow  handling  the  machine.  The  vault  is  the  worst  thing  in 
the  world  to  make  repairs  in.  Of  course  the  atmosphere  in  a  vault  is  of 
high  humidity  and  it  is  difficult  to  keep  it  absolutely  dry.  But  we  need  to 
go  to  the  extent  of  keeping  all  the  electrical  contacts  so  that  they  will 
operate  when  we  put  the  juice  through  them.  Our  diflSculty  is  principally 
in  constructing  a  device  that  is  fool-proof,  and  which  can  be  put  into  any- 
body's hands,  and  I  don't  know  yet  whether  or  not  we  have  succeeded. 
We  are  keeping  an  eye  on  all  we  have  out. 

Mr.  Hancock.    Is  that  furnished  for  all  electrical  power? 

Mr.  Dean.  All  circuits  up  to  220  volts.  We  have  stipulated  a 
maximum  voltage  of  220,  because  of  the  inadvisability  of  putting  higher 
voltage  on  a  small  motor.  Another  thing  you  want  to  bear  in  mind  in 
operating  the  valve  is  this:  The  high  strains  put  on  at  the  time  of  winding 
represent  the  maximum  strain  that  should  be  put  on  the  windings  of  the 
machine,  because  you  do  not  have  any  resistance  to  check  the  current 
down. 

President  Sherman.  Have  you  had  any  trouble  with  the  electric 
welding  of  old  yokes? 

Mr.  Dean.  We  take  the  yoke  out  when  we  can.  When  the  superin- 
tendent is  not  looking  we  sneak  the  yoke  out.  I  had  a  superintendent 
from  Cambridge  call  me  up  this  morning.  My  man  went  away  and  left 
some  of  the  yokes  oflf  his  valves.  The  man  who  did  it  is  in  Philadelphia. 
He  says  he  can't  operate  the  valves.  We  will  take  the  yoke  ofif  and  weld 
it  and  get  it  back  quickly. 

President  Sherman.    You  find  those  Welds  stand  up  in  good  shape? 

Mr.  Dean.  Splendidly.  They  are  electrically  welded.  Sometimes 
we  use  thermite,  and  there  is  a  tremendous  strain  on  that  yoke  when  we 
test  it.  There  is  a  strain  of  some  8  000  foot  pounds  on  the  valve  stem,  and 
we  have  found  it  operates  easily  enough. 

President  Sherman.  Do  you  have  a  uniform  operating  speed 
throughout? 

Mr.  Dean.  No;  the  motor  is  wound  and  the  unit  is  wound  with 
particular  reference  to  the  necessity  of  shutting  the  line  down,  first  fast 
and  then  slowly.  You  will  notice  when  a  crane  pulls  out  a  10-ton  load  it 
goes  very,  very  slowly,  of  necessity;  but  when  it  pulls  out  a  1-ton  load  it 
goes  very  fast.  In  shutting  down  the  gate  you  can  go  |  of  the  way  very 
fast,  12  inches  a  minute;  but  when  you  get  to  throttling  water  at  high 
velocity  you  have  to  slow  down,  and  the  motor  slows  down  until  it  gets 
almost  to  a  stop. 

President  Sherman.  It  slows  down  suflSciently  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  water  hammer? 

Mr.  Dean.  I  might  say  that  after  experimenting  and  getting  the 
advice  of  our  engineers  we  have  decided  on  closing  mains  under  all  con- 


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272  ELECTRIFICATION  OF  GATE  VALVES. 

ditions  at  3  inches  a  minute,  and  no  faster.  That  is  what  we  advise  right 
through.  I  do  not  think  you  will  get  any  water  hammer  then,  at  3  inches 
a  minute.  And  we  gear  to  suit  that.  That  is  what  we  have  been  able  to 
find;  and  that  is  what  the  engineers  think  about  right. 

Mr.  Garrett.    What  distance  from  the  valve  is  it  economical  to 
oj)erate  with  a  single  unit  without  a  relay  conduit? 

Mr.  Dean.  About  500  feet.  Beyond  that  distance  your  copper 
becomes  excessive  and  you  best  buy  small  copper  wire  and  put  a  relay  in. 

Mr.  Garrett.    Beyond  500  feet? 

Mr.  Dean.  Beyond  500  to  700  feet,  depending  on  the  size  of  valve 
and  current  required.    A  large  valve  takes  120  volts;  that  is  25  kilowatts. 

Mr.  Garrett.  If  at  one  station  the  valve  is  partly  opened  and  left 
in  that  position,  can  the  other  station  close  it? 

Mr.  Dean.    Each  station  has  complete  control  over  the  valve. 

Mr.  Garrett.  And  the  indicator  in  the  other  station  will  show  what 
has  been  done? 

Mr.  Dean.    The  lights  will  show  it. 

Mr.  D*  L.  Furness.  When  you  have  operated  a  valve  by  hand  and 
want  to  put  it  back,  do  you  have  to  put  the  motor  back  in  the  position 
where  you  operated  it  by  hand? 

Mr.  Dean.  Oh,  no;  leave  it  where  it  is.  In  the  new  units,  we  are 
bringing  out,  the  oj)eration  will  be  entirely  automatic.  That  is  a  matter  of 
evolution  in  the  device  we  are  getting  out.  I  might  mention  one  test  that 
is  costing  probably  $15  000.  We  have  had  great  difficulty  in  shutting  ofif 
high  pressure  steam  in  case  the  line  breaks.  The  ordinary  velocity  on  a 
steam  line  going  to  a  turbine  has  a  maximum  of  5  000  ft.  a  minute.  If  the 
line  breaks  that  velocity  is  apt  to  go  up  to  50  000  ft.  or  more.  The  engineers 
have  put  an  electrically  operated  valve  in  to  ^hut  that  down.  We  are 
having  a  test  where  there  is  40  000  h.p.  of  steam  available.  We  are  given  a 
22-in.  header  and  a  10-in.  header  going  to  these  40  000  h.p.  boilers.  There 
are  eight  different  valves  on  the  header,  an  English  valve,  a  German 
valve  and  several  American  valves  to  keep  that  tight,  — that  test  being 
carried  out  under  my  jurisdiction  by  the  National  Electric  Light  Society, 
in  New  York. 


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SHERMAN.  273 


SOME  OBSERVATIONS  ON  WATER  CONSUMPTION. 

BY  CHARLES  W.   SHERMAN.* 

{Presented  January  It,  1928,] 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  bring  to  your  attention  some  of  the 
things  we  do  not  know  about  water  consumption,  and  especially  about 
w^hat  constitutes  a  reasonable  water  consumption,  rather  than  to  submit 
any  new  facts  or  to  draw  conclusions  from  existing  data. 

Everyone  knows  that  what  may  be  reasonable  consumption  in  one 
city  would  represent  extreme  wastefulness  in  another,  and  that  local 
conditions  have  great  effect  upon  legitimate  water  consimiption.  This 
statement  is,  however,  of  little  aid  in  attempting  to  reach  a  conclusion  as 
to  what  is  a  reasonable  consumption  for  any  given  case. 

It  is  natural  to  expect  that  in  the  available  literature  upon  water 
supply,  a  fair  amount  of  information  upon  this  subject  may  be  had,  and 
that  it  should  be  possible  with  the  assistance  of  various  books  and  pubhca- 
tions  to  obtain  sufficient  data  upon  which  to  base  a  reasonable  conclusion. 

To  test  this  assumption  let  us  try  the  principal  sources  of  such  in- 
formation. 

Turning  first  to  the  "  Water  Works  Hand  Book,"  compiled  by  Flinn, 
Weston  and  Bogert,  1916,  we  find  (page  545)  a  chapter  entitled  "  Water 
Consumption."    This  chapter  begins  as  follows: 

"  Per  Capita  Consumption  in  U.  S.  cities  and  towns  ranges  approxi- 
mately from  50  to  400  g.p.d.  For  communities  having  service  connections 
wholly  or  largely  metered,  it  is  commonly  under  100  g.p.d.  and  for  small 
cities  and  towns  often  much  less.  For  large  cities  with  few  meters,  but 
well  managed  works  in  good  condition,  125  to  150  g.p.d.  is  a  reasonable 
allowance.  Character  of  industries,  climate,  and  other  local  conditions 
have  important  influences." 

The  remainder  of  the  chapter  is  given  up  to  figures  upon  quantities  of 
water  required  for  irrigation  and  discharged  by  lawn  sprinklers,  and  a 
table  upon  water  consumption  in  foreign  cities.  On  page  414,  however 
(in  a  chapter  upon  distribution  systems),  we  find  a  table  giving  the  con- 
sumption of  water  for  the  year  1906  in  19  American  cities  and  towns, 
which  are  stated  to  be  well  metered.  No  other  significant  information 
upon  what  constitutes  reasonable  consumption  is  to  be  found  in  this  book. 

Referring  next  to  the  American  Civil  Engineers'  -Hand  Book,  4th 
Edition,  1920,  somewhat  more  and  better  information  may  be  obtained, 


""President  New  Englaod  Water  Worka  Association  1921. 

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274  SOME   OBSERVATIONS   ON  WATER  CONSUMPTION. 

a  table  giving  the  consumption  in  30  American  cities,  usually  for  the  year 
1917;  but  there  is  no  information  upon  which  to  base  a  conclusion  as  to 
what  constitutes  reasonable  consumption,  or  upon  changes  that  should 
be  expected  with  lapse  of  time. 

Failing  to  find  the  desired  information  in  recent  books,  let  us  try 
Fanning's  "  Treatise  on  Water  Supply  Engineering,"  published  in  1877. 
On  page  37,  Fanning  says: 

"  TVater  Supplied  to  American  Cities.  The  limited  use  of  water  for 
domestic  purposes  in  many  of  the  European  cities  during  the  last  half 
century,  led  the  engineers  who  constructed  the  pioneer  water  works  of 
some  of  the  American  States  to  believe  that  30  gallons  of  wat^r  per  capita 
daily  would  be  an  ample  allowance  here;  and  in  their  day  there  was 
scarce  a  precedent  to  lead  them  to  anticipate  the  present  large  consumption 
of  water  for  lawn  and  street  sprinkling  by  hand-hose,  or  for  waste  to  prevent 
freezing  in  our  Northern  cities. 

**  The  following  tables  will  show  that  this  early  estimated  demand 
for  water  has  been  doubled,  trebled  and  in  some  instances  even  quadrupled; 
and  this  considerable  excess,  to  which  there  are  few  exceptions,  has  been 
the  cause  of  much  annoyance  and  anxiety." 

Following  this  statement  is  a  table  of  consumption  for  the  year  1870 
in  23  American  cities,  another  table  showing  comparisons  between  the 
consumption  of  1870  and  1874  in  17  cities,  and  a  third  table  showing  pro- 
gressive increase  in  per  capita  consumption  in  13  cities  from  1856  to  1874. 
Fanning  states  that  *'  the  legitimate  use  of  water  is  steadily  increasing," 
and  that  owing  to  the  greater  variety  of  purposes  for  which  water  is  re- 
quired in  larger  cities,  a  greater  per  capita  consumption  should  be  expected 
in  such  places. 

"  In  the  New  England  towns  and  cities,  the  average  daily  consumption 
and  waste  of  water  according  to  population  is  approximately  as  follows: 


of  10  000  population 

35-45 

gallons  per  cap 

20  000 

f} 

40-50 

yy           }i      It 

30  000 

tf 

45-65 

it           n      >» 

50  000 

tt 

55-75 

}t           tt      tt 

75  000 

)i 

and  upwards 

60-100 

It           it      tt 

In  the  files  of  the  Journal  of  the  New  England  Water  Works 
Association,  we  find  the  report  of  a  committee  presented  March  12,  1931, 
which  contains  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  information,  more  especially  upon 
the  quantities  of  water  required  for  different  classes  of  service  or  consumed 
in  various  cities  at  that  time,  together  with  some  information  upon  varia- 
tions in  consumption  over  a  limited  period  of  years  for  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  cities.  This  information  is  of  much  significance,  yet 
very  little  assistance  can  be  derived  from  the  statistics  given  in  attempting 
to  decide  what  changes  are  likely  to  occur  as  time  goes  on. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SHERMAN. 


275 


Turning  back  to  an  earlier  date,  we  find  a  report  by  Dexter  Brackett, 
on  the  consumption  of  water  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  in  Vol. 
XVIII  for  the  year  1904.  This  report,  which  was  drawn  upon  freely  by 
the  committee  previously  mentioned,  contains  much  of  value,  but  has  to 
do  more  particularly  with  the  need  for  metering  water  in  the  Metropolitan 
District  as  a  method  of  restricting  waste.  A  considerable  amount  of 
helpful  information  may  also  be  found  in  Transdctiansy  American  Society 
of  Civil  EngineerSy  Vol.  XL VI  (1901)  p.  407,  reporting  an  informal  discus- 
sion upon  "  The  Consumption  and  Waste  of  Water.'* 


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In  Appendix  II  to  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  "of 
Health  upon  "  A  MetropoUtan  Water  Supply,"  1896,  Mr.  Brackett  dis- 
cussed the  present  and  future  consumption  of  water  in  the  Metropolitan 
District,  and  this  report  contains  the  most  complete  discussion  of  changes 
in  consumption  as  well  as  reasonable  use  of  any  which  has  come  to  my 
attention,  not  excepting  the  valuable  reports  upon  the  additional  water 
supply  of  New  York.  Changes  in  per  capita  consumption  from  1850  to 
1893  are  shown  for  17  American  cities. 

Mr.  Brackett  called  attention  to  the  necessity,  in  estimating  consump- 
tion for  future  years,  of  giving  consideration  to  the  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  water  fixtures  and  also  to  the  effect  of  increased  pressure  in 
causing  greater  use  and  waste  of  water. 

The  actual  experience  of  the  City  of  Boston,  including  the  data  upon 
which  Mr.  Brackett's  studies  were  based,  with  the  figures  brought  down 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


276  SOME  OBSERVATIONS   ON  WATER  CONSUMPTION. 

to  the  present  time,  furnishes  a  striking  illustration  of  variations  in  con- 
sumption from  time  to  time.  The  table  submitted  herewith  shows  the 
per  capita  cohsiunption  of  Boston  from  the  construction  of  the  Cochituate 
works  in  1849,  to  1921.  With  the  exception  of  the  period  1908-1915 
inclusive,  during  which  a  reduction  in  consumption  was  accomplished  by 
the  extension  of  the  use  of  service  meters,  a  general  increase  is  to  be  noted, 
excepting  only  periods  when  the  consumption  was  limited  on  account  of 
shortage  of  the  supply,  and  the  period  following  1883  when  waste  was 
controlled  to  some  extent  by  the  use  of  the  Deacon  meters. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  when  a  water  supply  for  Boston  was 
first  contemplated  in  1825,  the  quantity  of  water  probably  required  was 
estimated  on  the  following  basis: 

/'Taking  the  inhabitants  of  Boston  at  50  000,  collected  into  8  000 
families,  and  supposing  each  family  to  use  60  gallons  for  washing,  and  on 
the  same  day  40  gallons  for  all  other  purposes,  we  have  100  gallons  to  each 
family.  As  not  more  than  6  000  families  would  be  likely  to  wash  on  the 
same  day,  6  000  families  at  100  gallons  each  and  the  remaining  2  000 
families  at  40  gallons  each,  making  680  000  gallons.  Now,  if  we  take  the 
other  ordinary  demands  by  the  trades  and  for  watering  cattle,  streets, 
etc.,  together  with  the  loss  by  leaks  and  waste,  at  500  WO  gallons  more 
we  get  1  180  000  gallons,  as  the  maximum  daily  consumption,  allowing 
every  family  to  use  the  water.*' 


This  figure  is  equivalent  to  24  gallons  per  capita  daily. 
•     In  1844,  when  plans  for  the  Cochituate  supply  were  being  developed, 
the  commissioners  reported  that  the  amount  to  be  supplied  should  he 
equivalent  to  28^  gallons  per  capita  dail3^ 

As  the  table  shows,  the  consumption  for  the  first  year  the  works  were 
in  operation  (1849)  was  28  gallons  per  capita  for  the  entire  population. 
The  commissioners  probably  felt  their  forecast  was  justified.  This  in- 
creased very  rapidly,  however,  to  73  gallons  per  capita  in  1856,  and  101 
gallons  in  1861. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SHERMAN. 

2i 

Water  Consumptton  of  Boston,  Mass. 

In  gallons 

per  capita  daily. 

Year 

Coneumption.                 RemarkB. 

Year. 

CoDsumpftion. 

Remarks. 

1849 

28 

1890 

83 

1850 

43 

1 

90 

1 

49 

2 

96 

2 

56 

3 

107 

3 

56 

4 

100 

4 

64 

5 

104 

5 

64 

6 

117 

6 

73 

7 

118 

7 

76 

8 

119 

8 

75 

9 

128 

9 

76 

1900 

132 

1860 

97 

X 

137 

1 

101 

2 

141 

2 

91 

3 

140 

3 

87 

4 

149 

4 

88 

5 

150 

5 

66 

6 

148 

6 

601 

7 

153 

7 

63 

8 

153 

Metering  law 

8 

67 

Supply 

9 

143 

9 

67 

inadequate 

1910 

130 

1870 

66 

1 

125 

1 

60 

2 

126 

2 

63 

3 

no 

3 

72 

4 

111 

4 

72 

5 

104 

5 

69 

6 

106 

6 

71 

7 

106 

7 

72 

8 

120 

8 

80 

9 

119 

9 

87 

' 

1920 

125 

1880 

■    87 

1921 

112 

Pitometer 

1 

94 

surveys 

2 

95 

3 

97 

4 

731 

Deacon 

5 

73 

meter 

6 

74) 

work 

7 

80 

8 

87 

9 

81 

Note:  Records  for  1849  to  1893  are  for  the  Cochituate  works  only;  the  remainder 
are  for  the  entire  city.  The  figures  for  the  years  1898  to  1903  have  been  estimated 
from  those  of  the  Metropolitan  District. 

Doubtless  a  portion  of  the  increase  was  due,  as  is  always  the  case 
with  a  new  water  system,  to  the  fact  that  at  the  beginning  a  comparatively 
small  portion  of  the  population  was  actually  served,  and  figures  of  per 
capita  consumption  based  upon  the  total  population  would  accordingly 
give  too  low  a  result.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  fact,  however,  that  the  greater 
portion  of  the  increase  was  due  to  waste  and  leakage. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  figures  which  competent  engineers  esti- 
mated at  later  dates  as  representing  reasonable  and  proper  consumption 
for  Boston.  In  1873,  Joseph  P.  Davis,  in  reporting  upon  "  An  Additional 
Supply  of  Water,''  stated: 

"  The  average  daily  consumption  per  inhabitant  has  varied  during 
the  past  few  years  between  wide  limits,  having  feeen  ninety  to  one  hundred 
gallons  as  a  maximum,  and  somewhat  less  than  sixty  as  a  minimum. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


278  SOME   OBSERVATIONS   ON  WATER  CONSUMPTION. 

"  As  the  new  area  to  be  provided  for  will  undoubtedly  contain  a  less 
proportion  of  manufacturing  and  shipping  interests  than  that  now  supplied, 
and  as  there  will  probably  be  means  devised  at  no  distant  day  to  cheek 
the  great  waste  that  has  heretofore  t^ken  place,  an  allowance  of  sixty 
gallons  for  each  person  should,  and  without  much  doubt  will,  be  ample." 

City  Engineer  William  Jackson  in  a  report  upon  "  The  Wat^r  Supply 
of  Boston,"  dated  1886,  said: 

"  The  Proper  Allowance  per  Head  of  Popidation, — As  is  shown  by 
the  opinions  of  engineers,  quoted  by  Mr.  Crafts,  the  proper  allowance 
per  head  of  population  varies  largely,  and  the  earlier  estimates  were  much 
smaller  than  those  of  recent  years,  and  also  much  smaller  than  the  experi- 
ence of  any  American  cities  will  at  present  warrant. 

Since  the  construction  of  the  Cochituate  works,  in  1848,  the  facilities 
for  the  use  of  water  as  well  as  the  uses  to  which  it  has  been  put  have  been 
constantly  increasing  not  only  here  but  throughout  the  world. 

In  1857  there  were  48  000  house  water  fixtures  connected  with  20  000 
services  in  the  city  of  Boston;  in  1885  there  were  188  000  fixtures  supplied 
from  52  000  services.  In  other  words,  the  number  of  fixtures  per  service 
had  increased  in  twenty-eight  years  from  2^  to  5 J. 

*        *        * 

"  That  a  certain  portion  of  the  water  supplied  in  Boston  is  wasted, 
and  that  the  present  consumption  per  capita  can  be  reduced  to  some 
extent,  is  not  disputed;  but  in  view  of  the  previously  stated  fact  that  the 
ejBforts  of  the  past  three  or  four  years  have  not  reduced  the  consumption 
below  70  gallons  per  head,  it  is  not  deemed  safe  or  advisable  to  use  a  less 
amount  in  considering  the  future  requirements  of  the  city." 

In  his  1895  report  cited  above,  Mr.Brackett  does  not  give  an  estimate  of 
the  reasonable  consumption  of  Boston,  but  states  that  in  estimating  the  re- 
quirements of  the  entire  Metropolitan  District  for  the  succeeding  30  years, 
a  consumption  of  100  gallons  per  capita  daily  should  be  assumed.  This  may 
probably  be  assumed  as  equivalent  to  about  120  gal.  per  day  for  Boston. 

In  the  report  of  1903,  his  estimate  was  that  if  wa^te  were  not  prevented, 
the  per  capita  consumption  of  the  District  should  be  expected  to  increase 
from  134  gal.  per  day  in  1910  to  174  gal.  in  1930,  (corresponding  roughly 
to  160  and  205  gal.  per  day  for  Boston) ;  and  that  if  waste  were  prevented, 
the  corresponding  figures  would  be  80  and  100  gal.  per  day  for  the  District 
(95  and  120  gal.  for  Boston).  For  1920,  his  figure  would  have  been  154 
gal.  per  day  for  the  District  if  waste  were  not  checked,  and  90  gal.  if  waste 
were  prevented  (180  and  105  gal.  for  Boston). 

The  experience  of  Boston  has  been  cited  as  more  or  less  typical  of 
that  in  the  larger  American  cities,  and  indicates  how  difficult  it  is  to  draw 
a  fair  conclusion  upon  reasonable  consumption  at  the  present  time,  much 
more  so  for  a  future  period.  In  view  of  the  present  conditions  in  Massa- 
chusetts with  the  probable  need  for  an  early  extension  of  the  water  supplies 
of  some  of  our  important  cities,  it  is  a  subject  to  which  serious  consideration 
must  be  given  and  upon  whjch  it  is  most  important  that  sound  conclusions 
be  reached  if  proper  provision  for  the  future  is  to  be  made. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  279 


TOPICAL   DISCUSSION:     CAN    HIGH-VALUE   WATERSHED 
LANDS  BE  PUT  TO  PROFITABLE  USE? 

[Sevtemher  IS,  1921.] 

Mr.  Samuel  P.  Senior.*  Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen:  Some 
time  ago  Mr.  Sherman  came  to  Bridgeport  and  asked  me  to  write  ia  paper 
about  Bridgeport's  water  supply.  I  told  him  I  would  do  it.  And  I  also 
told  him  that  I  would  like  to  ask  a  question  about  watershed  lands. 

The  problem  I  want  to  ask  about  is  this  —  by  the  way,  I  have  never 
heard  it  discussed  or  seen  a  reference  to  it  in  any  of  the  publications  of 
the  various  engineering  societies.  In  the  case  of  rough  and  rather  cheap 
lands  it  is  customary,  I  believe,  for  water  companies  to  plant  conifers, 
such  as  white  pine,  red  pine,  and  so  forth,  and  get  some  return  in  that  way. 
But  the  thing  I  want  to  know  about  is  regarding  land  of  better  character 
and  higher  value.  For  instance,  we  have  perhaps  1  000  or  1  500  acres  of 
land  that  is  valued  at  $200  or  $250  an  acre.  Manifestly  you  could  not 
expect  to  get  a  return  from  land  of  that  value  by  planting  pines  or  other 
tDnifers. 

The  question  is,  What  are  you  going  to  do  with  that  land?  If  you 
allow  it  to  take  care  of  itself  in  a  few  years  it  will  grow  up  to  white  birches, 
V>riers,  and  so  forth,  and  your  land  which  cost  $200  an  acre  will  be  worth, 
perhaps,  $25  or  $30.  So  that  the  problem  is  to  keep  that  land  up  to  its 
initial  value. 

I  would  like  to  know  what  the  various  members  do  with  land  of  that 
kind.  We  have  an  agricultural  account  which,  I  think,  runs  up  to  about 
s'lO  OOO  a  year  for  work  of  this  kind.  We  have  tried  potatoes  and  com, 
and  other  forms  of  crops,  but  the  difficulty  is  right  here,  in  my  opinion:  a 
farmer  can  live  and  make  a  living  from  such  land  in  this  locality  where 
he  keeps  cows  in  connection  with  the  farm  work.  He  can  with  the  same 
amount  of  labor  keep  12  to  15  cows,  and  from  them  get  a  daily  income, 
and  in  addition  to  that  get  fertilizer  that  he  uses  to  take  care  of  his 
^•rops.  We  failed  to  show  a  profit  on  potatoes,  com,  and  similar  crops.  In 
laot.  found  that  we  worked  at  a  loss,  and  for  that  reason. 

At  the  present  time  most  of  our  land  we  are  getting  into  grass  and 
^W  a  great  deal  of  standing  hay.  We  also  cut  a  lot  of  it,  bale  it  and  sell 
it  at  the  best  price  we  can  get.  The  idea  of  getting  it  into  grass  is  that 
'f-^s  labor  is  required  on  land  so  planted  than  anything  we  know  about. 

We  also  are  experimenting  with  orchards.  There  are  about  100  acres 
now  planted  to  standard  apples,  and  in  many  cases  peaches  are  grown  in 
U*tween  the  apples  and  we  have  marketed  some  peaches.      We  have  some 


*  President  Bridgeport  Hydraulic  Company. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


280  HIGH-VALUE  WATERSHED   LANDS. 

apple  trees  that  are  nearly  old  enough  to  bear.    As  you  know  it  takes 
about  eight  years  to  get  a  crop  of  apples. 

Mr.  J.  W.  DivEN.*  The  main,  if  not  the  sole  object  and  reason  for 
purchasing  watershed  lands,  is  to  protect  and  improve  it  as  gathering 
ground  for  the  water  supply,  not  to  make  profit.  If  the  land  is  to  be  used 
or  leased  for  ordinary  farming  purposes  then  why  buy  it?  Unquestionably 
forestation  is  the  best  way  to  use  such  lands,  the  way  that  will  most 
improve  them  as  gathering  grounds  and  that  will  most  improve  the  water 
supply  from  them.  Cropping  them,  using  them  as  pasture  lands,  culti- 
vating them  will  not  improve  the  quality  of  the  water  gathered  on  them, 
in  fact  will  leave  them  about  as  they  were  under  individual  ownership. 

But  if  not  satisfied  with  the  slow  asset  of  timber  raising,  or  if  the  land 
is  not  suitable  for  that  purpose  or  is  considered  too  valuable,  then  the 
consideration  becomes  what  can  be  raised  on  it  that  will  have  the  least 
injurious  effect  on  the  water  supply.  This  will  depend  largely  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil.  But  it  should  be  always  borne  in  mind  that  the  least 
the  land  is  **  worked  "  —  plowed,  cultivated  or  in  any  way  broken  up  —  the 
better.  Plowed  land  will,  with  heavy  rains,  wash  into  the  streams, 
reservoirs,  etc.,  making  the  water  turbid,  as  well  as  carrying  with  it  many 
impurities  and  injurious  substances.  If  the  land  is  suitable  for  hay, — and 
most  of  our  northern  hill  lands  are  —  that  will  be  among  the  most  suitable 
crops  for  watershed  lands.  On  the  ordinary  hill  soils  hay  crops  will  run 
from  four  to  six  years  without  reseeding,  possibly  with  proper  care,  late 
fall  and  early  spring  seeding  on  the  sod,  it  will  run  much  longer.  Alfalfa, 
if  the  soil  is  suitable,  would  be  a  better  crop,  as  it  stands  longer,  and  its 
tough  and  deep  roots  would  best  prevent  gullying  and  washing  of  the  land. 
Either  are  profitable  crops  and  require  little  working.  With  the  modem 
farming  machinery,  tractor  propelled,  it  would  not  even  be  necessar}'  to 
go  on  the  land  with  horses,  thereby  eliminating  one  possible  source  of 
contamination  of  the  supply. 

Fruit  orchards  or  nut  groves  would  entice  the  small  boy  to  trespass, 
and  surely  the  fewer  people  permitted  on  the  watershed  the  better,  for 
any  one  might  be  a  typhoid  carrier  and  cause  serious  contamination, 
resulting  possibly  in  an  epidemic.  Fruit  orchards  to  be  properly  cared 
for  and  protected  would  mean  the  dwelling  on  the  land  of  many  people, 
always  a  source  of  danger.  Orchards  require  considerable  care,  the  using 
of  chemicals  that  would  not  be  considered  pleasant  in  drinking  water, 
among  other  things,  and  they  surely  require  close  watching  if  the  owners 
are  to  reap  any  benefit  or  profit  from  them.  Nut  trees  require  little  care, 
but  do  need  guarding,  and  in  places  remote  from  residences  are  considered 
by  the  small  boy  as  common  property. 

It  may  be  argued  that  leased  lands  can  be  better  controlled  than 
privately  owned,  that  proper  restrictions  and  regulations  can  be  made. 
The  speaker^s  experience  is  that  the  restrictions  are  hard  and  costly  to 

*  Secretary  American  Water  Works  As«ociatioii. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  281 

enforce,  the  lessee  naturally  wants  to  get  all  he  can  from  the  land,  and, 
unless  his  lease  is  to  be  a  long  one,  apt  to  get  from  the  land  all  he  can, 
putting  as  little  as  possible  into  it,  so  that  the  land  would  soon  be  exhausted, 
worked  out  and  unfit  for  farm  land.  Perhaps  this  would  be  a  good,  as 
well  as  a  logical,  solution  of  the  problem,  as  there  would  be  no  high  value 
land  to  be  considered  and  forestation  would  be  the  final  outcome,  and 
the  best  watershed  protection  be  accomplished. 

Mr.  Allen  Hazen.*  But  little  of  the  land  acquired  for  water  works 
purposes  in  New  England  and  the  adjoining  states  has  been  sufficiently- 
valuable  to  make  this  question  important.  Ordinarily  devoting  the  land 
to  forestry  seems  to  be  the  best  solution.  There  are,  however,  places 
where  much  more  valuable  agricultural  land  has  been  taken  for  water 
supply  purposes.    In  California  some  very  valuable  land  has  been  so  taken. 

The  Spring  Valley  Water  Company,  supplying  San  Francisco,  has 
perhaps  the  largest  holdings.  It  owns  about  100  000  acres  of  land.  This 
includes  several  million  dollars  worth  of  very  productive  land.  The 
company  is  not  able  to  operate  that  land  directly  at  a  profit,  but  what  it 
has  done  has  been  to  oi^anize  an  agricultural  department  with  a  very 
competent  superintendent  who  finds  out  what  each  parcel  of  land  is  fitted 
for,  and  can  be  used  for  without  injury  to  the  water  supply  and  then  leases 
that  parcel,  restricting  its  uses  to  these  purposes  that  he  has  decided  upon. 
The  leases  provide  strictly  what  tenants  can  and  cannot  do,  and  they 
contain  all  the  provisions  which  are  thought  to  be  necessary  to  protect 
the  water  from  pollution.  These  conditions  vary  according  to  how  the 
land  is  located.  Some  of  it  where  the  conditions  make  it  suitable,  is  used 
for  general  agricultural  purposes  and  is  cultivated  and  cattle  kept  upon 
it.  In  other  locations  closer  lines  are  drawn.  Areas  about  reservoirs 
may  not  be  ploughed  and  cultivated,  but  they  have  been  leased  for  grazing 
purposes.  Sheep  are  found  to  be  cleaner  than  cattle,  and  sheep  have  been 
permitted  in  certain  places  where  cattle  would  have  been  regarded  as 
objectionable. 

The  agricultural  operations  of  the  company  have  resulted  in  sub- 
stantial net  profits,  running  up  to  something  approximating  $200  000  per 
annum  and  this  is  quite  an  important .  aid  to  the  company  in  carrying 
these  valuable  lands  that  are  necessary  for  protecting  the  quality  of.  the 
water  supply.  From  an  accounting  standpoint  there  are  some  practical 
difficulties.  As  you  know  the  state  supervision  of  public  utilities  of 
California  is  very  close  and  the  state  officers  find  it  difficult  to  satisfactorily 
audit  these  agricultural  accounts.  One  way  out  of  the  difficulty  that 
has  been  talked  of  but  not  yet  adopted,  would  be  to  form  a  subsidiary 
land  company  making  a*  contract  with  the  water  company  for  the  manage- 
ment of  lands  and  completely  separating  the  accounts  from  those  of  the 
water  company. 

♦  Consulting  Engineer,  New  York. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


282  HIGH-VALUE  WATERSHED   LANDS. 

Mr.  William  A.  Mackenzie.*  I  have  not  had  personal  experience 
along  the  line  of  utilizing  the  higher  priced  land  in  the  watersheds  of  public 
water  supplies.  Wallingford  has  had  success  planting  Norway  and 
Scotch  pines,  but  I  can  not  predict  how  it  will  turn  out  from  a  financial 
standpoint. 

However  in  my  section  there  are  a  large  number  of  apple  and  peach 
orchards.  These  lands  on  the  rolling  hills  have  been  bought  for  a  nominal 
price  and  then  by  planting  apple  and  peach  trees  in  alternate  rows  they 
have  yielded  a  good  profit  within  a  few  years. 

1  havjB  in  mind  one  farm  in  particular  where  I  do  not  think  the  present 
owner  paid  over  $5  000  for  an  80  acre-farm.  The  apple  trees  have  been 
bearing  about  four  years  and  this  year  his  entire  crop  of  peaches  and  apples 
was  worth  about  $45  000,  and  he  was  offered  $100  000  for  the  property 
with  this  year's  crop.  But  the  owner  stated  that  his  lowest  price  was 
$125  000.  The  owner  is  not  a  farmer  and  does  not  live  at  the  farm  or  keep 
any  stock  on  the  premises. 

I  believe  high-priced  sections  of  watershed  lands  can  be  set  out  to  apple 
trees  and  with  expert  care  show  a  profit  within  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 

Mr.  J.  E.  GARRATT.t  The  experiences  that  we  have  had  at  Hartford 
may  be  of  some  interest.  The  lands  that  Hartford  bought  for  its  new  water 
supply  were  of  many  kinds,  of  course,  and  amongst  those  lands  were 
orchards  that  perhaps  would  not  run  as  the  best  quality,  but  they  were 
orchards  that  bore  fruit.  Our  experience  has  been  that  the  best  proposition 
is  to  cut  those  orchards  down  and  get  rid  of  them  because  of  the  fact  that 
to  care  for  the  fruit  and  to  get  it  for  our  own  use  would  require  such  a 
guard  that  it  would  hardly  pay  to  save  that  fruit.  I  wonder  if  you  did 
go  into  the  fruit  business  whether  you  would  be  able  to  save  it  for  yourself, 
or  whether,  as  water-works  lands  are  located,  being  separated  from  the 
populated  districts,  the  fruit  would  be-  taken  care  of  by  others. 

Mr.  Theodore  L.  Bristol. {  Our  problem  is  considerably,  I  think. 
Uke  Mr.  Senior's.  We  tried  everything  to  get  some  revenue  from  our 
lands.  We  first  started  in  setting  out  some  pasture  land  to  chestnut, 
planting  the  nuts  themselves,  and  then  installed  a  nursery  and 
planted  seedling  chestnuts  from  the  nursery.  Of  course,  most  of  those 
are.  gone.  Then  we  tried  white  pine,  and  some  of  the  stock  came  from 
Germany  and  was  infected,  and  a  good  deal  of  that  has  gone.  Now  we 
are  planting  red  pine. 

Then  we  tried  chemical  fertilizing  and  green  manuring.  No  stock 
was  kept  on  this  property,  so  tried  green  manuring  by  ploughing  under 
rye.  That  was  a  failure,  —  I  think  perhaps  because  we  did  not  under- 
stand how,  although  we  had  a  farmer  in  charge.   ' 

Then  we  tried  sheep  and  started  in  with  a  man  who  knew  his  busi- 
ness.    The  highest  number  of  sheep  was  400  and  when  we  got  through 

*City  tingineer  and  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Wallingford,  Conn. 

t  Civil  Engineer,  Hart  lord.  Conn. 

j  President  Ansonia,  Conn.,  Water  Company. 


Digitized  by  Vj'OOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION,  283 

we  were  $3  500  out  of  pocket,  and  hadn't  any  sheep.  At  the  present 
time  we  are  trying  to  keep  the  land  that  is  not  too  poor  in  grass,  but  hardly 
get  our  money  back  for  taking  care  of  it  and  keeping  it  up,  re-seeding, 
and  trying  to  make  grass  land  out  of  it.  We  have  tried  alfalfa,  that  was 
not  a  success. 

Mr.  Divbn.     You  did  not  try  it  right;  you  forgot  the  lime. 

Mr.  Bristol.,  No;  we  bought  carloads  of  lime,  —  a  great  many 
carloads  of  lime  —  and  have  used  fertilizer.  You  have  to  treat  the  soil 
with  bacteria.  I  do  not  think  there  is  a  speck  of  that  alfalfa  left.  We 
had  a  fair  stand  to  start  with,  but  the  second  year  there  was  none  left, 
having  been  winter-killed. 

Now  I  think  our  principal  revenue  is  from  cider  apples.  The  only 
way  I  can  see  that  we  can  make  any  money  on  cider  apples  is  to  sell  some- 
body the  output  of  the  orchard  and  let  them  watch  it,  because  we  could 
never  keep  any  apples  on  the  orchard  ourselves.  I  think  if  we  told  some- 
body that  they  could  have  those  apples  at  a  certain  price,  they  would  watch 
the  orchard  to  see  that  nobody  got  them. 

Mr.  Hugh  McLean.*  It  is  a  question  in  my  mind  whether  or  not 
we  are  putting  our  efforts  to  any  good  purpose  when  we  are  trying  to  do 
something  with  our  farm  lands.  We  have  got  about  3  500  acres.  We 
have  gradually  been  accumulating  farm  after  farm.  But  it  does  seem 
that  there  should  be  some  power  somewhere  that  would  compel  the  water 
commissioners  to  put  that  land  to  some  use.  We  have  taken  it  away  from 
productive  possibilities.  We  buy  a  200-acre  farm,  which  was  formerly 
capable  of  taking  care  of  35  or  40  head  of  cattle  and  raising  crops,  and 
it  is  abandoned.  The  buildings  are  taken  down  and  everything  goes  to 
seed.  Whether  it  is  in  the  form  of  reforestation,  or  whether  it  is  in  the 
form  of  fruit  trees,  or  grass  and  hay  in  some  form,  it  seems  to  me  that 
there  should  be  something  worked  out  through  our  agricultural  colleges, 
which  we  maintain  by  taxation  so  that  we  will  have  some  service  rendered 
and  advice  given  us  as  to  what  it  is  best  to  do. 

Two  years  ago,  having  that  in  mind,  we  set  out  about  500  000  pine 
trees  on  our  watershed.  Now,  is  it  going  to  be  profitable?  Some  people 
say  that  we  can  sell  them  for  a  million  dollars  in  thirty  years;  and  if  in 
thirty  years  time  they  are  worth  a  million  dollars,  we  have  done  the 
public  a  good  service. 

Is  there  any  other  tree  that  might  be  set  out?  For  instance,  the  black 
walnut?  I  understand  that  the  black  walnut  of  the  country  is  about 
gone.  It  might  be  possible  to  set  out  forests  of  black  walnut  if  the  lands 
are  adapted  to  them.  We  ought  to  clean  up  the  forests,  and  set  out  some- 
thing that  wiU  pay. 

We  have  had  quite  a  good  many  fruit  trees  on  our  land,  but  they  have 
grown  old  and  are  not  profitable,  so  we  decided  to  cut  them  down  and 

*  Water  ComnauMoner.  Holyoke,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


284  HIGH-VALUE  WATERSHED   LANDS. 

set  out  something  that  would  be  profitable.  I  think  the  pine  trees  will 
preserve  the  purity  of  the  watershed,  and  will  bring  us  a  harvest  in  time 
unless  a  fire  gets  into  them.  I  think  we  ought  to  be  compelled  to  do  some- 
thing by  the  state. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Baker.*  As  a  general  proposition  I  should  suppose 
that  there  would  be  no  question  but  that  forestry  work,  even  for  relatively 
high-priced  lands,  might  in  the  long  run  be  the  best  thing.  It  has  been 
common  in  Europe,  as  many  of  you  know,  for  generations,  and  in  some 
cases  for  centuries  past,  for  cities  to  maintain  municipal  forests.  If 
this  matter  were  taken  up  in  a  broad-minded  and  scientific  way  with 
proper  cooperation,  it  seems  to  me  that  forestry,  in  the  long  run,  would 
be  found  to  pay.  We  certainly  have  got  to  do  something  in  this  countr>' 
to  provide  for  the  future  timber  supply.  I  know  by  my  own  experience 
that  so  far  as  any  immediate  returns  are  concerned,  it  is  entirely  out  of 
the  question  for  a  private  individual  to  replenish  denuded  lands  by  planting 
forest  trees.  I  planted  some  50  000  trees  (cuttings  and  transplants)  on 
an  Adirondack  farm  that  I  sold  recently.  I  did  it  for  amusement  and 
for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  grow,  and  I  feel  I  got  my  money  back  from 
that  viewpoint,  but  of  course  only  my  children  would  have  reaped  any 
direct  profit  from  these  plantations,  had  I  retained  the  land,  unless  I 
should  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to  live  and  retain  my  faculties  to  a  ripe 
old  age.  Doubtless,  I  sold  the  farm  to  better  advantage  because  a  con- 
siderable part  of  it  had  been  reforested. 

I  believe  the  Massachusetts  forestry  tables  are  the  ones  generally 
cited  in  this  country  as  to  the  possibility  of  revenue.  They  show  a  slight 
return  from  white  pine,  after  only  some  twenty-five  years.  The  white 
pine  experience  has  been  somewhat  disastrous  on  account  of  the  blight, 
and  attention  now  is  being  given  to  planting  other  species  of  pine.  I  found 
in  my  own  experience  that  for  immediate  results  the  Scotch  pine  was 
very  much  better  than  the  white  pine  in  the  Adirondacks.  (I  never 
had  any  trouble  with  blister  or  any  other  disease.)  The  Scotch  pine  takes 
hold  much  more  quickly  and  makes  much  more  rapid  growth  than  the  white 
pine.  When  it  becomes  marketable  it  will  not  be  worth  as  much  as  the 
white  pine,  however,  and  that  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Reforestation  must  be  regarded  as  a  long  range  proposition,  and  it 
should  be  taken  up  in  a  very  broad  way.  In  a  number  of  states  there  is 
no  diflBculty  whatever  for  a  city  or  private  water  company  to  get  all  the 
cooperation  that  they  may  reasonably  desire  from  the  state  in  which 
they  are  located.  In  New  York  and  in  Pennsylvania,  —  and  I  dare  say 
the  same  is  true  in  other  states,  but  it  is  conspicuously  notable  in  those 
two  states  —  an  immense  number  of  young  trees  have  been  set  out  on 
water  works  drainage  areas. 


*  ABsoci»t«  Editor,  Engineering  Newt  Record,  New  York. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  285 

Mr.  X.  H.  GfOODNOUGH.*  I  believe  the  planting  of  forest  trees  on 
watersheds  is  becoming  quite  common  in  Massachusetts  from  what  I 
have  learned  from  the  State  Forester  and  elsewhere.  Many  of  the  cities 
have  purchased  forest  trees  and  are  beginning  forestry  on  their  water  supply 
watersheds. 

As  to  profit  from  forestry,  I  think  that  the  Forestry  Department 
published  some  years  ago  a  statement  in  which  they  said  that  after  25 
years  a  little  income  might  be  obtained  but  that  in  30  or  35  years  the  in- 
come would  be  a  better  one  and  eventually,  on  the  basis  of  the  recent 
price  of  pine,  they  believe  that  an  income  of  $7  an  acre  can  be  obtained 
from  the  pine  lands.    That  would  be  all  profit,  as  I  understand  it. 

The  planting  of  forests  is  about  the  best  method  of  utilizing  the  water- 
sheds of  public  water  supplies,  as  I  see  them  in  Massachusetts.  Most 
of  these  watersheds  are  rough  lands  not  adapted  to  general  farming  and 
forestry  is  handled  very  well  on  some  of  those  watersheds. 

The  Agricultural  Department  appears  to  think  that  such  lands  can 
be  used  for  grazing.  The  land  varies  greatly  of  course  as  to  the  number 
of  animals  it  will  support.  Some  pasture  land  will  support  quite  a  number 
of  sheep  per  acre  —  something  like  5  to  7  —  but  it  appears  that  such  a 
number  of  sheep  would  require  better  than  the  average  pasture  land  so 
that  it  is  safer  to  estimate  on  5  or  7  sheep  on  2  acres  of  the  kind  of  pasture 
land  that  is  ordinarily  met  with  in  the  various  watersheds. 

Orcharding  could  not  be  handled  as  a  rule  by  municipal  authorities, 
and  in  order  to  handle  it  properly  of  course  it  has  to  be  dealt  with  by  long 
leases.  I  do  not  know  of  any  place  in  Massachusetts  where  orcharding 
has  been  tried,  but  I  think  the  general  feeling  is  now  that  the  pine  crop 
is  something  that  is  worth  trying,  and  has  so  far  been  pretty  successful. 
There  has  been  no  very  great  loss  as  yet  from  fires.  There  was  one  large 
fire  in  New  Bedford  sevefTal  years  ago,  but  other  than  that  I  have  not 
heard  of  any  large  losses  from  fires  in  pine  lands  within  water  supply 
watersheds. 

Mr.  Rudolph  HERiNO.f  It  seems  to  me  when  we  are  making  such 
improvements  in  the  purification  of  water  that  it  may  not  be  very  far 
distant  when  we  shall  purify  all  surface  water  and  give  up  the  possession 
of  watershed  Ismds  from  which  we  expect  to  get  fairly  pure  water.  There- 
fore, I  am  somewhat  in  doubt  about  how  to  answer  Mr.  Senior's  question. 
It  depends  a  good  deal  on  how  much  we  can  absolutely  guarantee  in  the 
way  of  purifying  water  from  small,  as  we  do  now  from  large,  streams, 
where  the  cities  do  not  own  any  territory  at  all  but  rely  entirely  upon 
the  purification  of  the  water.  Now,  if  we  can  filter  and  purify  the  water 
satisfactorily  from  the  smaller  areas,  in  time  we  shall  not  be  required  to 
possess  large  areas  of  watershed  land  where  the  difficulties  that  have  just 
been  mentioned  by  the  speakers  will  arise. 

*  Chief  Engineer,  Mass.  Stote  Dept.  of  Public  Health, 
t  Consulting  Engineer  New  York. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


286  HIGH-VALUE   WATERSHED   LANDS. 

Mr.  Bristol.  I  would  like  to  ask  if  anybody  has  leased  the  berr>' 
privilege  on  their  lands.  We  have  a  lot  of  berr>'  pickers  that  get  a  lot  of 
revenue  from  our  land. 

Mr.  DrvEN.    Keep  the  berry  pickers  oflF. 

Mr.  Bristol.    It  is  some  job. 

Mr.  William  J.  Willson.*  I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Senior  regarding  the 
care  of  these  trees, — whether  the  underbrush  is  cut  down  and  some  expense 
incurred  in  caring  for  the  trees,  or  are  they  allowed  to  grow  without  care? 

Mr.  Senior.  We  usually  clear  the  land  the  year  before  we  plant  it, 
and  then  I  think  you  would  have  to  clear  the  brush  overhead  about  twice 
before  the  trees  got  big  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Clear  the  land 
where  the  trees  are  planted  and  then  in  a  few  years  you  will  find  that 
they  are  being  over-topped  because  they  have  not  sufficient  start  to  get 
ahead  of  the  underbrush;  and  a  few  years  later  it  is  quite  likely  you  would 
have  to  cut  it  out  again.  We  have  been  having  trouble  with  just  that 
thing  this  summer,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  it  pays  in  some  cases. 
The  underbrush  gets  a  start,  and  it  costs  a  lot  of  money  to  cut  it  out. 
In  some  cases  we  have  actually  left  it  and  let  it  drive  the  pines  out,  because 
the  cost  was  prohibitive.  To  raise  the  conifers  to  commercial  size  is  a 
difficult  thing,  and  it  is  a  question  in  my  mind  whether  it  ever  pays,  even 
in  rough  lands,  because  of  some  of  those  practical  costs. 

Another  thing  is  fire.  You  lose  a  lot  of  them  through  fire.  Thase 
of  you  who  have  had  to  clean  up  brush  land  for  your  reservoirs  know  that 
the  cost  is  a  very  real  item.  If  the  brush  gets  in  there  it  will  crush  your 
pines  down  when  you  go  to  cut  them.  And  it  costs  too  much  to 
handle  the  wood  and  carry  it  out,  so  that  you  can't  get  anything  for  it. 
There  are  quite  a  few  practical  difficulties. 

A  lot  of  you  have  said  that  raising  orchards  would  not  pay  because 
your  fruit  would  be  stolen.  I  do  not  think  ther^  is  anything  to  that  at  all, 
because  there  are  commercial  orchards  all  over  the  country  that  have  ver>' 
little  trouble.  If  you  have  trees  enough  in  .one  locality  —  and  you  must 
have,  to  make  it  worth  while —  you  can  protect  them  without  any  trouble. 
In  fact»  you  have  to  have  a  man  on  duty  there  while  the  apples  are  ripen- 
ing, and  perhaps  have  a  couple  of  dogs  there,  or  something  like  that. 

There  is  a  man  here  named  Jackson  who  has  made  a  very  great  success 
of  his  orchards.  Last  year  he  sold  a  thousand  barrels  of  the  Mackintosh 
apple,  worth  $10  000,  off  land  that  he  planted  a  few  years  ago,  which  only 
cost  him  $10  or  $15  an  acre  —  cut  over  land.  I  do  not  see  why,  if  he  can  do 
that,  we  cannot  do  it.     And  we  are  trying  it  on  a  comparatively  small  scale. 

What  I  wanted  to  bring  out  to-day  is,  what  are  you  gentlemen  doing? 
not  what  is  your  theory  about  it,  so  much  as  what  are  you  doing  now? 
It  is  a  condition,  not  a  theory.  I  am  telling  you  what  we  do,  and  I  would 
like  to  know  what  some  of  you  are  doing  to-day.     It  is  a  big  problem. 


♦  8uperint<?ndont  Water  Works,  Greenwich,  Conn. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  287 

You  have  thousands  of  acres  of  land,  good,  fertile  land  —  and  what  are 
you  doing  with  it?  Are  you  allowing  it  to  grow  up  to  briers  and  go  back 
to  cheap  land,  or  are  you  planting  it,  or  what  are  you  doing  with  it?  That 
is  what  I  want  to  know. 

Mr.  Garratt.  In  Hartford  most  of  our  land  is  rough  land.  The 
amount  of  fertile  land,  meadow  land,  was  relatively  small  and  was  near 
the  reservoirs.  On  rough  land  we  have  a  definite  forestation  plan,  whereby 
each  season  we  plant  about  30  000  pines,  red,  Scotch  and  white.  The 
brush  on  those  plantations  is  kept  cut  for  the  first  few  years.  It  is  an  ex- 
pensive proposition  to  grow  them  now,  but  what  they  will  return  in  the 
future  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  say. 

The  open  land,  the  good  land  near  the  reservoirs,  we  are  planting  to 
grass.  It  is  plowed  and  fertilized  with  commercial  fertilizer,  treated  with 
lime  and  sowed  down. 

The  land  that  is  already  forested  is  trimmed  out  as  our  force  allows 
and  made  into  lumber,  cord  wood,  ties  and  telegraph  poles. 

Mr.  McLean.  I  think  it  has  been  estabhshed  that  it  is  possible  to 
take  care  of  the  land  if  it  is  nothing  but  a  forest.  We  have  men  who 
haven't  much  to  do  in  the  winter  time,  and  instead  of  letting  them  be 
idle  it  is  best  to  send  them  into  the  woods  to  chop  down  the  wood  and  sell 
it;  otherwise  I  think  we  will  be  compelled  to  give  up  the  land  to  the  people 
who  own  it  and  who  do  something  with  the  soil,  and  filter  our  water.  If 
the  boys  steal  the  fruit  oflF  the  trees,  that  can  be  easUy  stopped. 

Mr.  Baker.  I  hope  the  idea  won't  get  abroad  that  everywhere 
there  is  such  a  serious  struggle  between  the  forest  weeds,  as  they  are  cafled, 
and  the  pine  that  are  planted,  as  seems  to  be  the  experience  in  some  places. 
I  do  not  question  that  it  may  be  true  here  in  Bridgeport,  but  probably 
several  if  not  many  of  those  present  know  of  good  pine  plantations  in  this 
country  and  elsewhere  where  there  has  been  absolutely  no  trouble,  or  only 
very  insignificant  troubles  with  other  growth.  If  the  trees  are  properly 
spaced,  in  a  very  few  years  pine  will  completely  cover  the  ground.  One 
area  in  particular  which  I  planted  about  ten  years  ago  has  grown  up  so 
that  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  anyone  to  walk  through  it,  the  ground  is  so 
completely  covered,  the  branches  from  one  row  of  trees  interlocking 
already  with  the  branches  from  another.  And  that  is  my  general  observa- 
tion wherever  I  have  seen  forestry  work  being  carried  on.  There  may  be 
places,  of  course,  where  some  of  the  softer  woods  do  get  in  and  grow  so 
rapidly  that  they  choke  out  the  pines,  but  I  think  experience-  will  show 
that  after  fifteen  or  twenty  years  the  pine  will  be  in  the  Ascendency.  The 
pine  is  a  rapid  grower  and  I  think  will  destroy  everything  else. 

Mr.  Senior.  The  difficulty  we  have  is  in  cut-over  land.  You  would 
not  experience  that  on  pasture  land. 

Mr.  DrvEN.  I  think  in  the  long  end  of  the  struggle  you  will  find 
that  the  pine  will  win. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


288  DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF  QLOVERSVILLB  STANDPIPE. 


THE  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE 
GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE. 

BY   FRANK  A.   MARSTON.* 

[January  12,  1922.] 

The  City  of  Gloversville,  well  known  because  of  its  extensive  leather 
and  glove  industries,  is  locate  in  the  easterly  portion  of  New  York  State 
about  forty  miles  northwest  of  Albany.     Its  population  in  1920  was  22  026. 

The  main  water  supply  is  derived  from  a  number  of  creeks  located 
at  a  distance  of  from  three  to  ten  miles  from  the  city  a,nd  at  sufficient 
elevation  above  it  to  enable  the  supply  to  be  distributed  by  gravity. 

The  water  consumption  of  Gloversville  varies  widely,  depending 
upon  the  activity  of  the  tanning  industry.     In  the  period  from  November, 

1919,  to  March,  1920,  within  which  the  tanneries  were  very  active,  the 
average  water  consumption  was  2.8  million  gallons  per  day,  with  a  maxi- 
mum rate  of  from  4.5  to  5  million  gal.  per  day,  and  the  average  per  capita 
consumption  amounted  to  127  gal.  per  day.    By  contrast,  during  July, 

1920,  when  the  tanneries  were  shut  down,  the  average  water  consumption 
was  1.75  million  gal.  per  day,  with  a  maximum  rate  of  from  3.0  to  3.5 
million  gal.  per  day,  and  the  average  per  capita  consumption  amounted  to 
but  80  gal.  per  day.    The  services  are  nearly  all  (99.2%)  metered. 

With  the  tanneries  in  full  operation  the  maximum  demand  for  water, 
from  these  industries,  during  the  daytime,  has  been  sufficient  in  the  past 
to  reduce  the  normal  water  pressure  in  the  center  of  the  city,  from  about  90 
to  about  65  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

According  to  the  standard  regulations  adopted  in  1916  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  the  maximum  rate  of  demand  for  water  at 
fires  is  approximately  4  760  gal.  per  minute,  or  a  rate  of  6.85  million 
gal.  per  day,  computed  by  the  formula,  — 

Gallons  per  minute  =  1020  vp  (l-.Ol  Vp) 
Where  ?« population  in  thousands =24  (estimated)  1935  population. 

This  maximum  rate  is  to  be  taken  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  maximum 
water  consumption  demand  based  upon:  "The  maximum  consumption 
for  24  hours  in  the  past  three  years  . . .  unless  conditions  have  so  changed 
that  this  maximum  will  not  occur  again." 

It  is  further  required  that  for  cities  of  2  500  population  or  over,  "  ten 
hours'  fire  flow  could  be  obtained." 

The  fire  demand  rate  of  6.85  million  gal.  per  day  for  a  period  of  ten 
hours  requires  a  total  amount  of  2.86  million  gal.  To  provide  water  storage 
to  meet  these  conditions  would  require  the  construction  of  a  reservoir. 

*  Of  Metcalf  and  Eddy,  Consulting  EncmeezSt  Boston,  Mbm. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MARSTON.  289 

preferably  of  at  least  5  million  gal.  capacity.  Such  a  resenroir  has  been 
proposed  as  a  part  of  the  future  construction  program  of  the  Water  Works 
Department;  but  in  view  of  the  financial  situation  of  the  Department 
and  the  need  of  reinforcing  the  distribution  pipe  system,  the  local  authori- 
ties felt  that  the  cost  involved  by  the  construction  of  a  reservoir  of  5  milUon 
gal.  at  the  present  time  was  not  warranted  and  that  the  expedient  of 
building  a  standpipe  with  a  capacity  of  about  one  million  gallons  would 
tide  over  the  situation  until  some  future  time  when  a  larger  appropriation 
could  be  made. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  fire  protection  the  standpipe,  by  reason  of 
its  small  capacity,  would  have  but  Uttle  eflfect.  During  the  first  hour  or 
two  of  the  fire,  to  be  sure,  unless  the  niunber  of  fire  streams  used  was 
large,  the  pressure  would  be  somewhat  increased  by  the  standpipe  storage; 
but  in  a  prolonged  fire  requiring  upwards  of  a  million  gallons  of  water,  the 
influence  of  the  standpipe  would  be  nearly  negligible. 

The  standpipe  will,  however,  have  the  effect  of  maintaining  higher 
water  pressure  in  the  center  of  the  city  during  the  hours  of  the  day  when 
the  demand  from  the  tanneries  is  such  as  to  reduce  the  available  pressure 
to  below  desirable  limits.  In  designing  the  standpipe  it  was  assumed  that 
its  effect  would  be  to  limit  the  minimum  pressure  to  72  lb.,  more  or  less, 
(with  the  tanneries  active)  whereas  in  the  past  during  the  daylight  hours 
(from  8  A.M.  to  3  or  4  p.m.)  the  pressure  has  sometimes  fallen  to  nine  pounds, 
more  or  less,  below  this  limit,  as  actually  recorded  by  the  gage  in  the  Water 
Department's  office. 

During  periods  of  depression  in  the  tanning  industry  the  maximum 
demand  for  water  will  be  less  and  it  is  expected  that  the  pressure  will  be 
maintained  at  somewhat  higher  figures. 

Design  of  Standpipe. 

After  studying  several  methods  of  improving  the  pressure  in  the 
distribution  system,  and  taking  into  account  the  various  conditions  in- 
volved it  was  decided  to  construct  a  steel  standpipe,  60  ft.  in  diameter 
and  55  ft.  in  height,  on  high  land  near  South  Eagle  Street  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  city.  Drawings  and  specifications  were  prepared  by  Metcalf  & 
Eddy,  Consulting  Engineers,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  standpipe  rests  upon  a  reinforced  concrete  foundation,  and  has 
been  so  located  that  the  top  of  the  tank  is  5  ft.  below  the  overflow  level  of 
the  spillway  of  Rice  Creek  inlet,  —  the  nearest  of  the  several  reservoirs 
supplying  the  city.  Near  the  base  of  the  standpipe,  a  12-in.  Ross  pressure 
regulating  valve  has  been  installed,  to  prevent  water  from  overflowing  the 
top  of  the  standpipe  at  times  of  unusually  low  consumption.  Under  the 
usual  operating  conditions,  even  with  the  minimum  weekday  demand, 
overflow  is  not  expected  to  occur,  due  to  the  friction  loss  in  the  distribution 
system.  As  a  protection  in  the  event  of  accidental  overflow,  however, 
provision  against  serious  damage  has  been  made  in  the  grading  of  the  stand- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


290  DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF  GLOVERSVILLE   STANDPIPE. 

pipe  lot  and  by  the  construction  of  a  concrete  walk  around  the  structure 
at  its  base. 

By  thus  locating  the  standpipe  and  providing  against  overflow  a 
saving  of  6  ft.  in  the  height  of  the  structure  was  realized,  and  its  capacit}- 
made  more  available  than  would  have  been  the  case  with  a  standpipe  of 
equal  capacity  but  with  the  top  carried  to  the  same  elevation  as  the  spillway 
of  the  reservoir. 

As  the  cost  of  housing  a  standpipe  is  substantially  equal  to  that  of  the 
standpipe  itself,  one  of  the  first  questions  to  be  decided  was  whether  or  not 
it  would  be  necessary  to  roof,  or  to  completely  house,  a  standpipe  such  as 
this  in  an  exposed  location. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  in  Gloversville,  during  the  winter,  is 
but  slightly  above  the  freezing  point.  Observations  made  by  Mr.  Alex- 
ander Orr,  Superintendent  of  the  Water  Department,  indicated  tempera- 
tures of  from  36  to  38  degrees  Fahrenheit  between  February  10  and  Febru- 
ary 14,  1920.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  a  temperature  of  the  air  of  from 
10  to  20  degrees  below  zero  will  be  reached  on  several  successive  days,  with 
the  maximum  temperature  at  such  times  but  little  if  any  above  the  freezing 
point.  In  order  to  be  thoroughly  informed  as  to  what  experience  has 
shown  regarding  standpipes  of  diflferent  kinds  and  dimensions,  a  question- 
naire was  prepared  and  sent  to  about  300  water  works  located  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  The  results  of  this 
inquiry  were  reported  in  a  paper  entitled  "  Experiences  with  Ice  in  Stand- 
pipes  ",  presented  by  Mr.  Leonard  Metcalf  and  published  in  the  Journal 
OF  THE  American  Water  Works  Association,  Volume  VII,  No.  4,  July, 
1920,  pages  578  to  588. 

The  records  fully  established  the  fact  that  an  open  standpipe  could  be 
used  safely  in  Gloversville,  despite  the  cold  winter  climate.  Furthermore, 
the  comparatively  large  diameter  of  the  standpipe  (60  ft.)  decreased  the 
likelihood  of  trouble  from  floating  ice  or  from  ice  forming  against  the 
cylindrical  sides  to  an  objectionable  thickness. 

No  overflow  pipe  was  provided,  since  it  was  believed  that  if  con- 
structed on  the  inside  of  the  standpipe  it  might  be  torn  out  by  ice  action, 
and  if  on  the  outside  it  would  soon  become  frozen,  in  case  of  overflow,  and 
thus  rendered  useless. 

Specifications. 

In  writing  the  specifications  it  was  the  intention  to  state  the  require- 
ments in  such  a  way  that  the  bidders  might  be  able  to  make  use,  as  far  as 
possible,  of  their  own  standard  forms  of  joint,  methods  of  co^8t ruction, 
economical  width  of  plate,  and  certain  other  features  which  would  not 
aflfect  the  strength  or  durability  of  the  standpipe,  but  would  result  in  a 
material  saving  in  cost. 

Only  certain  portions  of  the  specifications,  of  especial  interest,  will 
be  mentioned. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MARSTON.  291 

Stresses, 

The  specifications  required  that  all  parts  of  the  structure  should  be 
proportioned  so  that  the  sum  of  the  dead  and  live  loads  would  not  cause 
the  stresses  to  exceed  those  given  in  the  following  table: 

Tension    in   plates    forming   sides    or 

bottom  of  standpipe 12  000  lb.  per  sq.  in.  of  net  area 

Shear  on  rivets 9  000  lb.  per  sq.  in. 

Shear  in  plates 10  000  lb.  per  sq.  in. 

Bearing  pressure  on  rivets 18  000  lb.  per  sq.  in. 

The  above  allowable  stresses  are  somewhat  lower  than  those  frequently 
employed  for  standpipes  and  other  steel  structures.  The  additional 
cost  involved  by  the  thicker  plates  required,  appeared  to  be  justified  in 
view  of  the  conditions  of  extreme  cold  and  exposed  location,  to  which 
the  standpipe  is  subjected. 

Plates  and  Structural  Shapes. 

"  The  bottom  of  the  standpipe  shall  be  made  of  steel  plates  f  in.  in 
thickness,  with  single  riveted  lap  joints." 

'*  The  sides  of  the  standpipe  shall  be  made  with  courses  of  steel  plates 
varying  in  thickness  from  ^  in.  to  1  in.  The  stresses  determining  the 
thickness  of  any  circumferential  course  of  plates  and  the  design  of  the 
vertical  joints  shall  be  the  stresses  computed  at  the  line  midway  between 
the  double  row  of  circumferential  riveting  at  the  bottom  of  the  course." 

While  it  would  have  been  possible  with  high  efficiency  joints  to  use  a 
somewhat  thinner  plate  for  the  lowest  course  of  side  plates  than  that 
specified  (1  in.),  it  was  deemed  prudent,  in  view  of  all  the  conditions,  to 
provide  the  thicker  plate.  One  consideration  which  led  to  the  adoption 
of  this  thicker  plate  was  the  fact  that  the  results  of  examinations  of  old 
standpipes  indicated  far  more  serious  pitting  of  the  plates  in  the  lowest 
course  than  in  any  of  the  other  courses. 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  that  no  limitations  were  placed  on 
the  width  of  plates  to  be  used,  making  it  possible  for  the  manufacturer 
to  adopt  such  widths  as  might  prove  most  advantageous  from  his  point 
of  view. 

'*  The  plates  forming  the  sides  of  the  standpipe  shall  be  of  such 
diameters  that  the  courses  shall  be  cyUndrical  and  shall  overlap  each 
other  inside  and  outside  alternately. 

*'  The  circumferential  joints  shall  be  double-riveted  lap  joints.  The 
vertical  joints  shall  be  butt  joints  with  inside  and  outside  straps." 

*'  Rivets  shall  be  spaced  so  as  to  make  the  most  economical  and 
watertight  seam.  The  butt  joints  shall  be  so  designed  as  to  develop  an 
efficiency  of  at  least  70  per  cent. 

**  The  lowest  course  of  the  side  plates  shall  be  connected  to  the  bottom 
plates  by  means  of  a  6-in.  by  4-in.  by  J-in.  steel  angle  placed  on  the  inside, 
with  the  6-in.  leg  double-riveted  to  the  side  plates. 

**  The  top  of  the  tank  shall  be  stiffened  with  a  3-in.  by  2^-in.  by  f-in. 
Z  bar  placed  on  the  outside." 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


292  DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OP  GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE. 

Quality  of  Steel. 

It  was  required  that  all  of  the  steel  should  be  made  by  the  open 
hearth  process  conforming  to  the  requirements  of  the  standard  specifications 
of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

For  the  plates  **  flange  steel  *'  was  specified,  having  a  tensile  strength 
of  55  000  to  65  000  lb.  per  sq.  in. 

Planing  and  Drilling  Plates. 

"  All  caulking  edges  of  plates  and  of  the  butt  straps  shall  be  bevelled 
slightly  by  planing. 

"  In  plates  f  of  an  inch  or  less  in  thickness  the  rivet  holes  except  for 
butt  joints  may  be  punched  full  size  from  the  faying  surface  of  the  plate. 

"  In  plates  more  than  |  inch  and  less  than  J  inch  in  thickness  and  for 
butt  joints  in  thinner  plates,  the  rivet  holes  may  be  either  drilled  full  size, 
or  punched  at  least  A  ii^ch  less  in  diameter  than  the  finished  diameter,  and 
drilled  or  reamed  to  the  finished  diameter. 

"  Rivet  holes  in  plates  |  inch  in  thickness  or  greater  shall  be  drilled. 

"  The  finished  diameter  of  all  rivet  holes  shall  not  exceed  the  diameter 
of  the  rivet  to  be  used  by  more  than  tV  inch.'* 


Proposals  for  Construction. 

Bids  for  the  construction  of  the  standpipe  were  opened  April  5,  1921. 
Seven  bids  were  received,  as  shown  in  Table  1,  the  lowest  being  that  of 
the  Pittsburgh-Des  Moines  Steel  Company.  The  estimated  weights 
shown  were  computed  by  Metcalf  &  Eddy.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
estimated  price  per  pound  varies  from  7.5  cents  to  11.4  cents  per  lb.  for 
the  steel  standpipe  erected,  including  sand  blasting  and  painting,  but 
exclusive  of  the  reinforced  concrete  foundation,  which  was  constructed 
under  another  contract. 

It  is  of  special  interest  to  compare  the  proposed  thicknesses  of  plates 
and  widths  of  plates  as  submitted  by  the  several  bidders,  inasmuch  as  the 
bidders  were  only  limited  in  regard  to  the  minimum  and  maximum  thick- 
ness of  plates.  The  accompanying  diagram.  Fig.  1,  shows  the  thickness  of 
plates  on  an  enlarged  scale  and  the  depth  below  the  top  of  the  standpii^e 
(equivalent  to  the  depth  of  water)  on  a  reduced  scale.  The  series  of 
stepped  lines  indicates  the  thickness  and  weight  of  plates  proposed  by  the 
several  bidders.  The  full  line  shows  the  design  proppsed  by  the  Pittsburgh- 
Des  Moines  Steel  Company,  the  low  bidder  to  whom  the  contract  was 
awarded. 

The  diagonal  lines  indicate  the  theoretical  required  thickness  for  an 
allowable  tensile  stress  of  12  000  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  joint  efficiencies  of 
100,  90,  80  and  70  per  cent.,  respectively.  While  such  a  diagram  cannot 
be  relied  upon  solely  in  a  study  of  the  strength  of  the  joints,  it  is  of  aid  in 
indicating  the  location  of  the  critical  joints  and  in  forming  judgment  as  to 
the  comparative  value  of  the  several  bids. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


HARSTON. 


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294 


DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF   GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE. 


-  LEGEND  - 

PmsmjMH'DesMoiHes  Steel  Co.     — ^^— ^ 
Tippet  •  Wood  -— - — -.-— 

CMfCAOO  BRtDSE  i  IPON  YIOOM  ——.—..—..—. 

Piter- CoNLSY  Co.  

Walsh's  MoLYOKE  Steam  Boiler  Mams 

T^  Petroleum  fpoM  Works  Co.       

GLOVERSVILLE ,  NY. 

Sou™  Eagle  St.  Standpipe 

Comparison  of  Plates 

PROPO0BD     BY 

Various  Bidders 

^        BIDS    RECEIVED  APRIL  5.  \9tX 
METCALPrEDDY 

CONSUUTIKIO     EMOrislCER* 
BOSTON  -  MAS6. 

Diameter  60  ft. 
Height    55  ft. 


Fig.  I. 


Standpipe  Foundation. 


The  drawings  and  specifications  for  the  reinforced  concrete  standpipe 
foundation  and  the  valve  chamber  substructure  were  also  prepared  by 
Metcalf  &  Eddy,  and  contract  for  the  construction  was  awarded  to  Morrell 
Vrooman,  Inc.,  of  Gloversville,  the  lowest  bidder.  The  principal  details 
are  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

The  foundation  consists  essentially  of  a  circumferential  wall  of  con- 
crete, 3  ft.  wide  and  about  7  ft.  high,  and  is  entirely  in  excavation,  the  only 
fill  required  being  adjacent  to  the  wall  at  the  top,  and  very  small  in  amount. 
The  material  excavated  was  such  that  no  sheeting  was  required  in  excava- 
ting the  trench  for  the  foundation  wall.  No  forms  were  used  for  the  wall 
except  the  upper  part  on  the  exterior  where  they  were  necessary  in  order 
to  obtain  the  desired  finish. 

The  foundation  slab,  12  in.  in  thickness,  is  reinforced  with  ^in. 
round  deformed  steel  bars  12  in.  on  centers  in  two  directions  at  right 
angles  to  each  other. 

Over  the  inlet  pipe  a  small  manhole  is  provided,  affording  access  to 
the  joint  between  the  inlet  pipe  and  the  bottom  plate  of  the  standpipe. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


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Foundation     Wall 


FiG.  2. 

N.    B,    W.    W.    AaeOCIATION. 

VOL.^XXXVl. 

MAIWTON  ON 

OLOVEMVILLS    STANDPIPB. 


Gloversville  ,  N.Y. 
South  Eagle  St.  Stakidpipe 


V^LVE  Chamber  AND 
Standpipe  Foundation 

i9ai 

METCAUF   er  EDDV 
Consulting  ENGtMccRS 

BOSTON  -  MA6S. 


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MARSTON.  295 


Valve  Chamber. 


The  valve  chamber,  a  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  houses  the 
valves  controlling  the  operation  of  the  standpipe. 

The  inlet  pipe  is  divided  into  three  lines  where  it  passes  through  the 
valve  chamber.  The  first  line  contains  a  12-in.  Ross  W-R  type  regulator 
valve,  by  means  of  which  water  is  allowed  to  enter  the  standpipe  up  to  a 
point  a  few  feet  below  the  top.  When  it  attains  this  height  the  regulator 
valve  will  close,  stopping  the  entrance  of  water  and  preventing  overflow 
of  the  standpipe.  A  gate  valve  is  provided  on  either  side  of  the  regulator 
valve,  so  that  the  latter  can  be  removed  without  throwing  the  standpipe 
out  of  service.  This  line  also  contains  a  branch  with  a  gate  valve,  to 
serve  as  a  drain  for  emptjring  the  standpipe. 

The  second  line  contains  a  16-in.  check  valve  arranged  to  open  out- 
ward, allowing  water  to  leave  the  standpipe,  but  preventing  the  entrance 
of  water  through  this  connection.  A  gate  valve  is  provided  on  either  side 
of  the  check  valve  to  permit  its  being  removed  while  the  standpipe  is  in 
service. 

The  third  line  is  a  by-pass  and  contains  a  gate  valve.  In  case  of 
damage  or  interruption  of  service  in  either  one  of  the  other  two  lines  the 
by-pass  can  be  opened  and  the  standpipe  kept  in  service. 

The  piping  and  valves  were  furnished  and  installed  by  the  Water 
Department. 

The  connection  between  the  standpipe  and  the  inlet  pipe  was  made 
with  a  flanged-spigot  cast-iron  pipe.  The  flange  was  bolted  to  the  rein- 
forced steel  bottom  plate  of  the  standpipe,  and  the  spigot  end  was  set 
into  a  bend  with  a  lead  joint,  as  shown  on  Fig.  2.  The  lead  joint  provides 
for  a  slight  movement  of  the  bottom  of  the  standpipe  without  throwing 
undue  strain  on  the  inlet  pipe.  If  there  should  prove  to  be  frequent 
movement  of  the  pipe  tending  to  loosen  the  joint  it  can  be  caulked  tight 
since  it  is  conveniently  accessible. 

Provision  has  been  made  to  retain  the  sediment  in  the  standpipe  and 
to  prevent  it  from  being  washed  into  the  outlet  when  water  is  drawn 
from  the  standpipe,  by  means  of  a  silt  stop  built  from  a  piece  of  16-in. 
wrought  iron  pipe  with  6  brackets  made  of  IJin.  by  1^  in.  by  i  in.  angles, 
each  four  inches  long,  riveted  to  the  sides  of  the  wrought  iron  pipe,  and 
so  located  that  the  pipe  will  extend  four  inches  above  the  floor  of  the 
standpipe.  This  is  not  fastened  in  place,  but  is  sufficiently  heavy  to 
retain  its  position  without  being  dislocated  by  the  current  of  water. 

Construction  of  Standpipe. 

Bids  for  the  construction  of  the  steel  standpipe  were  opened  on  April  5 
and  the  contract  with  the  Pittsburgh-Des  Moines  Steel  Company  was 
signed  on  April  8,  1921.  It  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  3,  whereon  the  principal 
design  details  are  given,  that  the  tank  is  55  ft.  high  and  has  nine  courses 


Digitized  by 


Google 


296  DESIGN   AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF  GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE. 


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STRAPS  yERTtCAL   ORCUMF. 
JOINTS      JOINTS 


iWr\  Glqversville  ,  N.Y. 

r*A^?  South  Eagle  St.  Standpipe 
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METCALF  ft   EDDY 

CONSULTIMO      EnOINECRS 
BOSTON  -  MASS. 

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South  Eaolji  St.  Standpipe: 


Fio.  4. 

N.    B.     W.     W.    AB0OCIATION. 

VOL.  XXXTI. 

liABSTON  ON 

GLOVCS8VILLB    STANDPIPE. 


TVPICAL    DEITAIL-S 

1921 


Metcair  &  Elddy 
Coneulting    Elngineere 

Boston,  Mass . 


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MARSTON.  297 

of  12  plates  estch,  the  plates  varying  in  width  from  6  ft.  lOj  in.  to  5  ft.  11 J  in. 
and  in  thickness  from  1  in.  at  the  bottom  to  ^  in.  at  the  top.  The  rivets 
vary  in  diameter  from  1  in.  to  |  in.  Typical  details  are  shown  on  Fig.  4. 
After  the  reinforced  concrete  foundation  had  been  completed  the 
6rst  shipment  of  steel  plates  was  delivered  (on  June  21)  and  on  July  2 
the  erection  of  the  bottom  plates  began.  They  were  assembled,  riveted 
together,  the  angles  attached  to  the  circumference,  and  all  joints  caulked, 
with  the  bottom  supported  on  wooden  horses  three  feet  above  the  con- 
crete foundation.  Four  jack  screws  were  then  inserted  to  support  the 
interior  plates,  and  the  wooden  horses  removed.     The  exterior  or  periphery 


Plate  I. 

of  the  bottom  was  supported  on  blocking  in  such  a  way  that  it  could  easily 
l)e  lowered  by  removing  one  block  at  a  time.  This  use  of  blocking,  instead 
of  jaekscrews,  around  the  edge,  may  at  first  thought  seem  objectionable, 
as  it  permitted  the  plates  to  sag  as  much  as  4  in.  between  the  blocks,  as  one 
after  another  of  the  blocks  was  removed.  But  as  far  as  could  be  determined 
no  damage  to  either  plates  or  joints  resulted. 

The  photograph  (Plate  I)  indicates  the  general  manner  of  lowering 
the  blocking,  one  man  operating  each  of  the  four  jack  screws  and  other  men 
l)eing  located  around  the  periphery  of  the  bottom  to  remove  the  blocks. 
In  this  way  the  bottom  was  lowered  on  to  the  foundation  wnthin  a  period 
of  about  two  hours,  in  a  successful  manner  and  without  undue  strain  on 
any  of  the  plates,  the  gang  required  consisting  of  one  foreman,  seven  iron 
workers  and  three  laborers. 

The  jack  screws  above  referred  to,  passed  through  threaded  flanges  or 
nuts,  riveted  to  the  upper  side  of  the  bottom  plates  (see  Plate  II).  These 
flanges  were  left  in  place  and  the  threaded  hole  closed,  upon  removal  of 
the  jack  screws,  by  means  of  a  special  screw  plug.  The  lower  ends  of  these 
jack  screws  were  hemispherical  in  shape  and  rested  on  small  steel  pads 


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298  DESIGN   AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF   GLOVERSVILLE   STANDPIPE. 

set  on  top  of  the  concrete  foundation.  These  pads,  when  the  tank  bottom 
had  been  lowered  to  within  18  in.  of  the  foundation,  were  removed  from 
under  the  jackscrews  so  that  the  latter  rested  directly  upon  the  concrete. 
This  resulted  in  some  movement  of  the  jack  screws  as  the  bottom  was 
lowered  further,  and  damaged  the  threads  of  the  screws,  but  so  far  as 
could  be  determined  resulted  in  no  damage  to  the  plates. 


Plate  II. 

With  the  exception  of  the  bottom  rivets,  all  of  which  were  driven  by 
pneumatic  hammers,  the  riveting  up  to  the  sixth  course  was  done  by  a 
compression  riveter,  or  **  gap  riveter  "  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  This 
equipment  is  shown  in  Plate  III.  The  caulking  was  done  with  pneumatic 
caulking  tools,  using  a  round  nosed  chisel.  Above  the  sixth  course, 
pneumatic  hammers  were  used  as  the  plates  were  thinner  and  better 
progress  could  be  made  in  that  manner. 

Stagings  used  during  the  riveting  and  caulking  processes  were  supported 
by  brackets  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  standpipe,  for  which  provision  had 
been  made  in  the  fabrication  of  the  plates.  The  holes  for  the  bracket 
supports  were  closed  later  by  rivets.  The  type  of  staging  used  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  6.  The  ^^  dolly  bars  '^  use  in  bucking-up  against  the  rivet  head 
were  swung  from  a  rope  or  chain  supported  by  the  upper  edge  of  the  side 
plates.    They  weighed  about  100  lb,  each.    For  the  riveting  of  the  bottom 


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MAR8TON.  299 

plates  the  dolly  bars  were  supported  by  a  so-called  "  bucking-up  stool." 
This  consisted  of  a  plank,  one  end  of  which  was  inserted  under  the  lower 
end  of  the  vertical  dolly  bar,  with  a  block  on  the  under  side  of  the  plank  to 
act  as  a  fulcrum,  and  with  the  operator  sitting  on  the  other  end  of  the 
plank,  using  it  as  a  lever  to  force  the  dolly  bar  up  against  the  rivet  head. 


Plate  III. 

For  the  erection  of  the  side  plates  a  structural  steel,  guyed  derrick 
was  used,  the  mast  being  about  90  ft.  in  length  and  the  boom  about  80  ft. 
This  derrick  was  erected  after  the  tank  bottom  had  been  lowered  on  to 
the  concrete  foundation.  Its  foot  was  supported  on  wooden  blocking 
resting  directly  on  the  tank  plates  which  in  turn  rested  on  the  concrete 
underneath.  The  erection  of  the  derrick  was  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
a  60-ft.  gin  pole  made  up  of  two  30  ft.  8  in.  x  8  in.  timbers  spliced  with 
2-in.  planks.  After  the  erection  of  the  standpipe  and  before  sand  blasting 
and  painting  were  begun,  the  derrick  and  boom  were  dismantled  and 
hoisted  out  piece  by  piece  by  means  of  the  gin  pole. 

After  the  erection  of  the  sixth  course  of  side  plates,  but  previous  to 
the  removal  of  the  derrick,  grouting  operations  were  commenced,  to  fill 
the  space  between  the  tank  bottom  and  the  concrete  foundation.     The 


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300  DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF  GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE.  * 

grout  was  composed  of  a  mixture  of  cement,  sand,  and  wat<^r  in  the  pro- 
portions of  one  part  by  volume  of  Portland  cement  to  one  part  of  fine 
sand,  with  only  sufficient  water  to  make  the  mixture  flow^  freely. 

Threaded  flanges  were  provided  in  each  of  the  plates  forming  the 
bottom  of  the  standpipe,  into  which  were  inserted  2-in.  wrought  iron 
grouting  pipes  limited  in  length  to  24  in.,  in  order  to  avoid  undue  upward 
pressure  upon  the  bottom  plates.  Through  these  grout  was  poured  until 
the  space  between  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  the  concrete  foundation  was 
filled  as  completely  as  possible.     Some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  filling 


Plate  IV. 

this  space,  because  of  buckling  of  the  plates  due  in  part  to  the  grout  pres- 
sure and  partly  to  expansion  from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Some  upward 
movement  of  the  center  plates  may  have  occurred  when  the  derrick  was 
removed,  so  that  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  grouting  operation  was  entirely 
satisfactory.  It  is  believed  to  be  somewhat  more  satisfactory  than  the 
sand-cement  cushion  method  of  bedding  the  bottom  plates.  Neither 
method  seems  to  give  ideal  results,  although  both  methods  have  been  used 
successfully.  It  is  anticipated,  however,  that  with  water  in  the  tank  a 
fairly  uniform  pressure  of  the  structure  on  the  grouted  foundation  will  be 
obtained.  Upon  completion  of  the  grouting  the  grout  pipes  were  removed 
and  the  threaded  flange  holes  closed  with  screw  plugs. 

In  the  erection  of  the  plates  ver>^  little  work  was  required  to  fair  the 
holes,  —  that  is,  to  make  the  holes  match.     While  drift  pins  were  used  to 


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MARSTON.  301 

a  slight  extent  and  in  an  unobjectionable  manner,  it  may  be  said,  in  fair- 
ness to  the  contractor,  that  the  layout  of  the  plates  was  unusually  good. 
Practically  all  of  the  holes  were  reamed  after  the  plates  were  set  in  place, 
to  ensure  a  good  surface  for  bearing  against  the  rivets. 

The  small  openings  left  in  the  top  and  bottom  of  each  vertical  butt 
joint  were  closed  by  driving  in  steel  wedges  or  "  dutchmen  "  and  by 
caulking  over  the  top  of  the  wedge. 

The  specifications  required  that  the  plates  should  be  given  one  coat  of 
boiled  linseed  oil,  before  leaving  the  shop.  The  contractor,  however, 
was  allowed  to  omit  the  oiling  of  the  plates  except  on  the  laps,  since  it  was 
bdieved  that  the  slight  rusting  which  would  occur  in  the  body  of  the  plate 
would  aid  in  softening  the  mill  scale  and  facilitate  the  sand  blasting. 
Very  little  rust  formed  on  the  plates  before  they  were  painted,  so  it  was 
difficult  to  determine  whether  the  omission  of  the  oiling  aided  the  sand 
blasting  or  not. 

Sand  Blasting. 

Before  the  first  coat  of  paint  was  applied  the  surface  of  each  plate 
was  thoroughly  cleaned  with  the  sand  blast,  using  a  local  sand  which  was 
discharged  through  a  nozzle  with  air  pressure  from  a  sand  atomizer.  By 
this  means  all  loose  scale  and  rust  were  removed.  The  first  coat  of  paint 
was  applied  immediately  after  the  sand  blasting  had  been  completed  and 
before  the  cleaned  surface  had  an  opportunity  to  rust.  Both  sand  blasting 
and  painting  were  done  from  a  staging  suspended  from  trolleys  supported 
by  the  Z-bar  attached  to  the  top  of  the  tank. 

Painting. 

The  inside  and  outside  of  the  standpipe  were  given  three  coats  of  paint 
mixed  according  to  the  following  formulae: 

For  interior  of  standpipe: 

Fint  coat  — 100  pounds  paste  red  lead,  2  gallons  pure  boiled  linseed  oil,  8  pounds 
fine  litharge  mixed  in  I  pint  raw  linseed  oil  and  1  quart  turpentine. 

Second  coat  —  Same  as  above,  with  the  addition  of  J  pound  of  paste  lamp  black. 

Third  coat  — 100  pounds  paste  red  lead,  4  pounds  paste  lamp  black,  2.25  gallons 
boiled  linseed  oil,  8  pounds  fine  litharge  mixed  in  1  pint  raw  linseed  oil  and  1  quart 
turpentine. 

For  exterior  of  standpipe: 

First  coat  — 100  pounds  paste  red  lead,  2.5  gallons  raw  linseed  oil,  1.5  pints 
turpentine,  1.5  pints  drier. 

Second  coat  —  Same  as  above  with  the  addition  of  }  pounds  of  paste  lamp  black. 

Third  coat  —  (Dark  green)  100  pounds  paste  red  lead,  12 J  pounds  paste  chrome 
yeUow,  medium,  7J  pounds  paste  Prussian  blue,  4.54  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil,  1  pint 
turpentine,  1  pint  drier. 


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302  DESIGN   AXD   CONSTRUCTION   OF  GLOVERSVILLE   STANDPIPE. 

Paint  materials  were  received  on  the  work  in  the  original  packages 
and  mixed  at  the  site  of  the  work.  During  the  painting  operations  one  man 
was  continuously  employed  in  keeping  the  paint  in  the  stock  barrel 
thoroughly  mixed. 

Both  sand  blasting  and  painting  were  done  by  the  iron  workers  who 
erected  the  tank. 

TABLE  2. 

pROOREss  Data. 

Date  ElB[Me<l 

1921.  Time. 

Standpipe; 

Asked  for  bids Mai-ch  1 

35  days 

Opened  bids April     5 

3  days 

Contract  signedf • ^ . . .  .April     8 

29  dayiB 

Shop  drawings  received May      7 

7  days 
(Steel  received  at  shop  about May    12) 

Shop  drawings  approved* May    14 

38  days 

First  steel  shipment  arrived June    21 

11  days 

Erection  started July      2 

19  days 

Bottom  lowered July     21 

34  days 
Erection  completed Aug.    24 

23  days 
Sand  blasting  and  painting  completed Sept.    16 

Total  time  from  signing  of  contract 161  days 

(Contract  agreement 150  days) 

Foundation: 

Asked  for  bids March  1 

35  days 
Opened  bids April     5 

3  da3rs 

Contract  signed April      8 

25  days 

Ground  broken May      3 

3  days 

Concreting  started May      6 

14  days 

Foundation  completed** May    20 

Total  time  from  signing  of  contract 42  days 

(Contract  required  completion  of  this  part  of  the 
work  on  or  before  June  1,  1921.) 

t  Steel  ordered  soon  after. 

*  Fabrication  started  soon  after  this. 

**  Except  for  grading  and  granolithic  walk,  which  were  completed  after  standpipe  was  erected. 


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MARSTON.  303 

Testing. 

After  the  erection  had  been  completed  the  tank  was  filled  with  water, 
for  testing.  The  amount  of  leakage  was  found  to  be  very  slight,  which  fact 
reflects  much  credit  upon  the  thorough  manner  in  which  the  erection  work 
was  performed.  A  few  seams  required  a  little  caulking  and  a  few  rivets 
which  showed  small  leaks  were  touched  up  with  the  caulking  tool.  One 
rivet  which  was  broken  was  cut  out  and  replaced. 

The  time  required  for  the  various  parts  of  the  work  are  indicated  in 
the  progress  table  (Table  2).  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  tot€d  time 
required  for  completing  the  steel  standpipe  contract,  including  sand 
blasting  and  painting,  from  the  date  on  which  the  contract  was  signed, 
was  161  days.  The  time  limit  specified  in  the  contract  was  150  days. 
A  delay  of  several  days  was  caused  by  breakdown  of  the  air  compressing 
plant. 

Cost  of  Standpipe. 

The  cost  of  the  standpipe,  classified  imder  certain  general  headings, 
is  given  in  Table  3.  The  total  cost  of  the  structure,  including  foimdations, 
sand  blasting  and  painting,  valve  chamber  and  piping,  but  excluding 
engineering,  administration,  cost  of  land  and  fencing,  is  $35  015.80,  equi- 
valent to  $30  000  per  million  gal.  of  capacity.  The  fencing,  constructed  by 
the  Cyclone  Fence  Company,  8  ft.  in  height  with  three  strands  of  barbed 
wire  on  the  top,  cost  about  $1.55  per  linear  foot,  erected.  This  sum  in- 
cludes two  swinging  gates.  The  above  cost  figures  do  not  include  the  cost 
of  the  small  trees,  which  were  set  out  by  the  Water  Department.  These 
were  obtained  from  the  nursery  maintained  by  the  Department,  which 
for  a  number  of  years  has  made  a  practice  of  systematic  planting  on  the 
watersheds  and  other  lands  in  its  charge.  In  this  and  other  ways  Mr. 
Orr  has  shown  wise  management  in  the  handling  of  many  perplexing 
problems  in  connection  with  the  operation  of  the  water  works. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  commend  the  conscientious  manner  in  which  the 
construction  of  this  structure  was  supervised  by  the  resident  engineer, 
Mr.  Fred  W.  Carlson,  to  whom  the  writer  is  indebted  for  much  of  the 
information  relating  to  the  construction  work. 

The  work  of  the  contractor,  also,  deserves  commendation,  as  it  was 
evident  from  the  start  that  not  only  those  in  authority  in  the  company, 
but  also  the  erecting  crew,  intended  to  do  first-class  work  in  strict  ac- 
cordance with  the  specifications.  The  shearing  of  the  plates,  the  alignment 
of  the  joints,  the  forming  of  the  rivet  heads,  the  caulking  and  all  of  the 
mechanical  operations,  were  extremely  well  done. 


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304 


DESIGN   AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE. 


77oA^ 


TABLE  3. 
Glovebsviixe,  N.  Y. 
cost  of  south  eagle  steeet  standpipe,  foundation,  and  connection  with 
mains.    built  in  the  summer  of  1921. 

Tot.  wt.  331^000  lb.;  equiv.  cost  per  lb.  7.5c. 

Standpipe  contract  (Pittsburgh-Des  Moines  Steel  Co.) $24  940.00 

Foundation,  gate  chamber,  12''  vitrified  pipe,  blow-off  and  grading 6  609.20 

Castings: 

4  16'xl2'Ybr.,3  8771b6.  @.08H $329.55 

1  12'  X  10'  tee.  540  lbs 

1  16'    90**  bend,  760  lbs 

4  12'    45^  bend,  2416  lbs.  @  .07^ 18120 

1  16'  F  4  S  p.  4  feet,  4  inches.  815  lbs.,  @  .09^ 75.39 

2  16'  F  &  S  p.  24  inches,  651  lbs.,®  .10}^ 66.73 

2  12'  F  &  8  p.  3  feet,  540  lbs.  @  AOH 55.35 

1  12'  F  &  S  p.  2  feet,  7  inches,  262  lbs.  @  .10^ 26.86 

1  12'  F  A  S  p.  12  inches,  121  lbs.  @  .lOK 12.40 

Manhole  casting  and  cover 16.00 

Gate  box  casting 12.00 

Gate  valves,  etc.: 

2  16'  flg.  gates  @  153.00 306.00 

3  12'  flg.  gates  @  81.00 243.00 

1  10*  h  &  s  gate 60.00 

1  16*  ck.  valve 143.10 

1  16*  hub  gate 143.00 

1  12*  Ross  altd  valve 410.52 

Connecting  gate  chamber  with  main  in  street  and  gate  chamber  with  standpipe 

36'  16'  c.  1.  p.,  3  900  lbs.  @  64.00 $124.80i 

1  16'  sleeve,    280  lbs.  @  .07J^ 21.00l 

692  lbs.  lead  @  .05 34.60J 

Labor  account,  $107.50,  $144.00,  $69.00 

Freights 

Gate  House  (of  tapestry  brick  with  raked  joints,  11' 4"  x  12' 4"  plan,  by 
about  10'  hixh  (approx.  $0.60  per  c.f.) 

Capacity  of  Standpipe  1 163  000ffal 

Total  cost  per  m.g.  excl.  eng'g.,  administration,  land  and  fencing. 


1  305.62 


180.40 

320.50 

34.60 

850.00 
30  000.00 


Total  cost $35  015.80 


Discussion. 


Mr.  a.  0.  Doane.*  The  Metropolitan  District  Commission  has  just 
awarded  a  contract  for  a  steel  tank  to  be  built  at  Arlington  Heights  which 
will  be  61  ft.  high  and  75  ft.  in  diameter.  We  have  had  several  stand 
pipes  built  since  the  work  commenced,  and  have  tried  various  methods  of 
designing.  In  the  previous  ones  the  policy  had  been  of  designing  the 
standpipe  complete;  that  is,  giving  the  size  and  location  of  the  rivets  and 
all  other  details. 

In  this  particular  instance  we  have  done  very  much  the  same  a? 
Metcalf  &  Eddy,  the  difference  being  simply  in  the  matter  of  detail  rather 
than  in  the  matter  of  principle,  largely  from  the  same  considerations  that 
Mr.  Marston  mentioned,  of  allowing  a  reasonable  and  proper  latitude  to 

*  Divisioa  Engineer  Meiropolitaa  Water  Works. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  305 

the  contractor  in  selecting  his  height  of  plates  and  in  the  general  detail  of 
carrying  on  the  work,  and  at  the  same  time  making  sure  that  the  stand- 
pipe  will  have  the  desired  strength. 

In  this  case,  instead  of  specifying  a  maximum  allowable  stress  of 
12  000  lbs.  per  sq.  in.  of  net  section  in  the  steel  plates,  we  have  given  a  net 
formula  which  takes  into  consideration  the  efficiency  of  the  joints,  —  the 
joint  to  be  designed  by  the  contractor  with  certain  limitations  and  checked 
up  by  the  engineer.  In  the  case  of  any  of  the  vertical  joints  the  strength 
of  the  joint  must  be  at  least  4^  times  as  great  as  the  bursting  pressiire  at 
the  bottom  of  the  joint.  It  was  specified  that  all  joints  should  be  of  the 
butt  type,  with  inner  and  outer  cover  plates;  but  there  was  no  limitation 
made  as  to  the  number  of  rows  of  rivets  in  the  vertical  joints.  It  was  also 
specified  that  no  matter  how  the  formula  worked  out,  no  side  plate  should 
be  less  than  |  in.  in  thickness.  The  bottom  plates  of  the  standpipe  must 
be  not  less  than  |  in.  in  thickness.  The  general  detail  of  the  standpipe 
was  not  very  much  diifferent  from  the  one  shown  here,  except  that  the 
circumferential  seams  were  single  instead  of  double  riveted. 

The  bids  that  we  received  seemed  to  show  that  there  was  a  pretty 
general  agreement  amongst  the  bidders  in  the  matter  of  the  thickness  of 
plates  proposed  in  the  different  bids.  The  efficiency  of  the  joints  pro- 
posed by  the  successful  bidder  was  checked  over  and  foimd  to  be  correct. 

The  specifications  provided  that  the  water  pressure  governing  the 
designs  of  any  course  of  side  plate  should  be  taken  at  the  bottom  of  the 
course.  The  depth  of  water  assumed  to  be  in  the  tank,  and  the  pressure 
per  foot  in  depth,  were  also  given. 

The  principal  point  of  diGFerence  between  the  specifications  that  Mr. 
Marston  mentioned  and  the  Metropolitan  specifications  was  in  following 
the  provisions  of  the  boiler  rules  rather  than  the  structural  practice  of 
giving  the  allowable  stresses.  As  no  construction  work  has  been  done  we 
cannot  tell  exactly  how  this  method  of  specifying  will  work  out,  but  from* 
the  way  the  bids  were  received  and  the  general  agreement  amongst  different 
bidders  it  seeme  to  have  worked  out  pretty  well  in  this  particular  instance; 
and  it  has  the  advantage  that  Mr.  Marston  mentioned  of  probably  pro- 
ducing a  somewhat  less  cost  than  if  we  tried  to  go  into  minute  detail  and 
tying  the  contractor  up  in  all  sorts  of  ways,  though  that  is  impossible  to 
tell,  especially  under  the  present  conditions  of  business  when  many  con- 
tractors seem  willing  to  sacrifice  profits  in  order  to  keep  their  works  running. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Sherman.*  What  were  the  bids,  Mr.  Doane? 
WTiat  was  the  accepted  bid? 

Mr.  Doane.  '  There  were  eight  bids  ranging  from  $29  737  to  $49  820; 
the  price  bid  included  taking  down  and  disposing  of  an  existing  standpipe, 
60  ft.  high  and  40  ft.  in  diameter. 

Mr.  Sherman.  How  does  that  work  out  on  the  pound*  basis,  —  do 
you  know? 


*  Of  Metcslf  &  Eddy.  Boston.  Mass. 


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306  DESIGN  AND   CONSTRUCTION  OF  GLOVERSVILLE  STANDPIPE. 

Mr.  Doane.  It  is  almost  exactly  five  cents  a  pound  for  the  lowest 
bidder. 

Mr.  Sherman.    Is  that  standpipe  to  be  enclosed  in  a  tower? 

Mr.  Doane.  Yes,  the  standpipe  is  to  be  enclosed  in  a  masonry 
tower,  so  that  we  were  not  so  much  concerned  with  the  eflfect  of  severe 
weather  and  severe  winds,  though  from  our  experience  with  other  tanks 
and  from  other  people's  experience,  we  feel  that  the  tank  is  so  constructed 
that  it  will  take  a  violent  wind  to  effect  it.  The  capacity  is  about  2  000  000 
gallons. 

We  also  plan  to  have  the  tank  in  this  case  lowered  onto  a  sand  and 
cement  cushion  instead  of  using  the  grouting  process.  I  have  personally 
tried  both  ways  and  I  rather  lean  to  the  sand  and  cement  method,  though 
each  has  its  advantages  and  very  decided  disadvantages.  I  do  not 
think  there  is  any  entirely  satisfactory  way  of  supporting  the  bottom 
plates  on  the  foundation. 

Mr.  G.  a.  Sampson.*  What  was  the  price  on  the  Gloversville  and 
East  Chicago  standpipes  for  sand  blasting  and  painting? 

Mr.  Marston.  The  Gloversville  was  7J  cents  per  pound,  including 
sand  blasting  and  painting;  the  East  Chicago  was  6^  cents  including  sand 
blasting  and  painting.  I  think  Mr.  Doane  said  5  cents  a  pound  did  not 
include  sand  blasting  and  painting. 

Mr.  Doane.  No,  that  does  not  include  sand  blasting  and  painting, 
but  I  think  the  sand  blasting  and  painting  would  be  around  a  half  cent  or  a 
little  more. 

Mr.  Reeves  J.  NEWSOM.f  How  long  is  it  expected  that  the  paint 
will  last? 

Mr.  Doane.  I  can  perhaps  throw  some  light  on  that.  From  our 
experience  with  painting  that  has  been  thoroughly  done,  I  should  say 
it  ought  to  last  five  or  six  years  anyway,  and  does  actually  last  that.  A 
smaller  tank  that  I  know  of,  which  has  one  layer  of  Gilsonite  paint  over 
the  red  lead,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  building,  was  painted  ten  years  ago  and 
it  is  not  at  all  in  bad  shape  now.  Ice,  of  course,  makes  a  great  deal  of 
difference,  —  also  exposure  to  the  weather.  If  you  have  ice  going  up 
and  down  it  will  scrape  any  kind  of  paint  off. 


*  Of  Weaton  A  Sampson,  Boston.  Mass. 
t  Water  Commissioner.  Lynn,  Mass. 


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REPORT   OF  COMMITTEE.  307 


RELATIVE   TO    THE    REPORT    OF    THE    AMERICAN 
COMMITTEE   ON  ELECTROLYSIS 

The  American  Committee  on  Electrolysis  has  just  issued  its  1921 
report,  superseding  its  preliminary  report  of  1916.  This  report  embodies 
such  statements  of  facts  and  descriptions,  and  discussions  of  methods  of 
electrolysis  testing  and  electrolysis  mitigation  as  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee have  been  able  thus  far  to  agree  upon  unanimously.  In  the  preface, 
signed  by  Bion  J.  Arnold,  Chairman  of  the  Conmiittee,  the  following 
statement  is  made: 

"While  this  report  supersedes  the  preliminary  report  of  1916,  it 
should,  unless  the  principals  see  fit  to  discontinue  the  work  of  the  main 
conamittee,  be  considered  as  in  the  nature  of  a  progress  report  and  not  as 
final,  as  it  is  impossible  at  the  present  time  to  answer  finally  many  of  the 
outstanding  questions  involved.  Also  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  report 
is  confined  to  the  technical  and  engineering  aspects  of  the  subject  and  does 
not  attempt  to  deal  with  matters  of  policy  or  with  legal  questions,  such 
as  the  rights  and  responsibilities  of  the  several  interests  concerned." 

The  report  comprises  five  chapters.  Chapter  One  sets  forth  princi- 
ples and  definitions.  Chapter  Two  is  devoted  to  a  detailed  discussion  of 
design,  construction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  railways  and  under- 
ground structures  affected  by  electrolysis,  and  to  a  discussion  of  questions 
involving  the  interconnection  of  affected  structures  and  railways,  ending 
with  a  summary  of  good  practice.  Chapter  Three  gives  a  discussion  of 
the  fundamentals  of  the  whole  question  of  electrol3rsis  surveys,  their 
purpose,  scope,  possibilities  and  interpretation,  and  also  a  discussion  of 
the  instruments  suitable  for  electrolysis  testing.  Chapter  Four  is  devoted 
to  an  analysis  of  present  European  practice  relating  to  electrolysis  mitiga- 
tion. In  Chapter  Five  the  committee  outlines  certain  researches  which 
it  deems  necessary  to  have  carried  out  in  order  to  make  it  possible  to  reach 
a  final  solution  of  some  of  the  fundamental  questions  pertaining  to  elec- 
trolysis mitigation. 

The  American  Conmiittee  on  Electrolysis  which  prepared  this  report 
is  a  joint  committee  having  three  representatives  from  each  of  the  following 
organizations: 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 
American  Electric  Railway  Association. 
American  Gas  Association. 
American  Railway  Engineering  Association. 
American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company. 
American  Water  Works  Association. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


308  REPORT  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COMMITTEE  ON   ELECTROLYSIS. 

National  Electric  Light  Association. 
Natural  Gas  Association  of  America. 
National  Bureau  of  Standards. 

Arrangements  have  been  made  for  placing  this  report  on  sale  by  the 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  33  West  39th  Street,  New  York, 
N.  Y.    The  price  is  one  dollar  per  copy. 

November  25,  1921. 

(This  statement  forwarded  by  Alfred  D.  Flinn,  a  representative  of 
American  Water  Works  Association.) 


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CEMENT    JOINTS    FOR    CAST-IRON    WATER    MAINS.  309 


CEMENT  JOINTS  FOR  CAST-IRON  WATER  MAINS. 
D.  D.  Clarke* 

{By  leUer,) 

In  the  Journal  for  March,  1922,  under  the  heading  "  Pipe  Joint 
Compounds,"  there  appears  a  discussion  which  took  place  September  14, 
1921  upon  the  relative  merits  of  the  compounds  called  leadite,  —  hydro- 
tite  etc.,  participated  in  by  a  number  of  water  works  superintendents  and 
engineers. 

Without  exception  the  speakers  confined  their  remarks  to  their  ex- 
perience in  the  use  of  leadite  or  hydro-tite  as  a  substitute  for  the  poured 
lead  joint  for  cast-iron  pipe,  long  in  customary  use. 

In  no  case,  however,  was  mention  made  of  the  use  of  cement  as  a 
substitute  for  lead  in  its  various  forms  or  combinations,  and  it  therefore 
occurs  to  the  writer  that  a  statement  of  the  experience  of  the  Portland, 
Oregon  Water  Department  in  the  caulking  of  water-pipe  joints  with  cement 
might  make  an  interesting  addition  to  the  discussion. 

Prior  to  the  year  1915,  poured  lead  joints  were  the  only  kind  in  general 
use  for  cast-iron  water  mains  in  this  city.  Lead  wool  had  been  used  to  a 
limited  extent  for  under  water  work,  and  leadite  had  been  experimented 
with  in  a  small  way;  but  the  poured  lead  joint  was  the  main  dependence 
for  pipe-joint  work.  In  December  of  that  year,  1915,  there  came  to  the 
notice  of  the  writer,  then  engineer  of  the  Water  Bureau,  articles  in  the 
Engineering  News  —  (November  25  and  December  30,  1915)  calling 
attention  to  the  experience  of  Wm.  Mulholland,  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Bureau  of  Water  Works  of  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  in  the  use  of  cement  for 
cast-iron  pipe  joints  in  that  city.  Mr.  Mulholland  in  his  letter  called 
attention  to  the  issue  of  the  News  for  December  8, 1904,  which  contained  a 
letter  from  the  late  James  D.  Schuyler,  Consulting  Engineer  of  Los  Angeles 
upon  the  same  subject. 

An  examination  of  these  papers,  and  the  favorable  results  secured  at 
Los  Angeles,  caused  the  writer  to  recommend  the  adoption  of  similar 
materials  and  methods  in  this  city.  First,  the  lajring  of  an  experimental 
line  of  1  000  ft.  of  8-in.  pipe,  which  proved  to  be  so  successful  that  other 
lines  speedily  followed  until  at  the  present  time,  as  I  am  informed  by  Chief 
Engineer  F.  W.  Randlett  of  the  Water  Bureau,  practically  no  other  caulk- 
ing material  than  cement  is  used,  except  in  special  cases  where  the  main 
must  be  put  into  use  before  the  expiration  of  the  48-hour  period  necessary 
for  the  proper  setting  of  the  cement  joint. 

*  Consulting  Water  Supply  Engineer.  Portland.  Ore. 

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310  CLARKE. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  cement  and  filling  the  joint  adopted  here 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  used  in  Los  Angeles,  viz.,  First  quality 
medium  setting  cement  is  used,  mixed  so  dry  that  the  impress  of  the  hand 
will  be  left  upon  a  small  ball  which  will  crumble  when  let  fall  from  the 
height  of  twelve  inches.  The  pipe  should  be  laid  up)on  a  firm  foundation; 
the  spacing  of  the  spigot  in  the  bell  may  be  effected  by  placing  a  small  bit 
of  lead  under  it.  A  small  bit  of  yam  should  be  used,  just  sufficient  to 
keep  the  cement  from  entering  the  pipe.  After  filling  the  bell  with  cement 
it  is  thoroughly  compacted  with  a  yarning  iron,  by  hand.  This  will  have 
to  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  before  the  face  of  the  joint  can  be  properly 
smoothed  and  rounded. 

To  the  present  time  there  have  been  laid  in  this  city  approximately 
27.8  miles  of  4-in.,  6-in.,  8-in.,  10-in.,  12-in.,  and  16-in.  pipe  with  cement 
joints.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  approximately  4  000  ft.  of  24-in. 
and  30-in.  pipe  has  been  taken  up  and  relaid  with  cement  joints  during  the 
progress  of  "  grade  crossing  "  elimination  work. 

When  the  first  line  of  8-in.  pipe  was  laid  in  1916,  minute  leaks  occurred 
which  were  entirely  taken  up  in  a  few  weeks  time.  In  relaying  the  30-in. 
pipe  mentioned  above  it  was  placed  in  a  concrete  lined  tunnel  which 
afforded  an  opportunity  of  observing  the  leakage.  When  the  pressure  was 
turned  on  the  500  or  more  feet  of  30-in.  pipe  in  the  tunnel  section,  the 
leakage  was  very  considerable.  After  draining  the  water  from  the  tunnel 
two  or  three  times  the  leakage  was  noticed  to  be  decreasing  and  at  the  end 
of  six  months  had  stopped  entirely  and  all  the  joints  have  since  remained 
tight. 

At  a  later  date  it  became  necessary  to  raise  100  ft.  of  16-in.  pipe  which 
had  been  laid  with  cement  joints.  This  pipe  was  raised  approximately 
4  ft.  under  full  working  pressure  of  about  70  lb.  without  any  leaks  resulting. 

Prior  to  the  general  use  of  cement  as  a  jointing  material,  as  indicated 
above,  the  Department  instituted  a  series  of  tests  to  determine  the  degree 
of  flexibility  in  the  joints  of  cast-iron  pipe  when  laid  with  joints  of  neat 
cement,  leadite  or  pig  lead.  These  tests  were  described  by  Mr.  Handle tt 
in  a  contribution  to  the  discussion  of  a  paper  upon  "  Cement  Joints  for 
Cast-iron  Water  Mains  ",  by  Clark  H.  Shaw,  Associate  Member  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  printed  in  Transactions  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  83,  page  277.  Mr.  Randlett  concludes  from  these 
tests,  *'  that  for  all  ordinary  mains  cement  joints  are  superior  to  either 
lead  or  leadite,"  and  his  later  experience  has  confirmed  this  opinion. 


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PROCEEDINGS.  311 


PROCEEDINGS. 


February  Meeting. 

Boston  City  Club, 
Boston,  February  14,  1922. 
The  President,  Mr.  Frank  A.  Barbour,  in  the  chair. 

Karl  R.  Kennison,  civil  and  hydraulic  engineer,  Boston,  F.  W. 
Scheidenhelm,  hydraulic  engineer,  New  York  City,  and  Egbert  D.  Case, 
hydraulic  engineer.  New  York  City,  were  duly  elected  members  of  the 
Association. 

The  President.  I  recognize  that  this  large  audience  has  come  out 
for  a  definite  purpose,  to  hear  the  speaker  of  the  afternoon,  Mr.  Goodnough. 
We  have,  however,  a  matter  of  some  importance  which  it  is  necessary  to 
bring  to  your  attention.  With  the  notice  of  this  meeting  the  prospectus 
of  the  proposed  Affiliation  of  Technical  Societies  was  sent  out  to  you. 
This  proposed  AfiiUation  is  the  result  of  a  long  series  of  informal  meetings 
by  representatives  of  different  societies.  It  has  reached  the  point  now 
where  the  local  sections  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers, 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  and  Metallurgical 
Engineers,  the  American  Society  of  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engineers, 
and  the  American  Association  of  Engineers,  have  voted  in  favor  of  this 
Affiliation.  The  matter  comes  up  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Engineers 
to-morrow  night. 

It  has  been  contemplated  from  the  beginning  that  the  New  England 
Water  Works  Association  would  become  a  member  of  this  Affihation. 
Some  weeks  ago  your  Executive  Committee  voted  in  favor  of  the  principle. 
That  did  not  commit  the  Society;  it  only  gave  us  grounds  for  going  forward 
with  the  movement. 

The  scheme  is  that  an  affiliation  of  societies  shall  be  formed  —  not  of 
individual  members,  but  a  grouping  of  societies;  that  this  Affiliation  will 
take  over  the  present  headquarters  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Engineers; 
that  the  Affiliation  will  be  governed  by  councillors,  two  elected  from  each 
Society.  If  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  joins  there  will 
be  two  councillors  elected  from  this  body  who  will  sit  on  this  council  which 
has  the  control  of  the  Affihation.  It  is  proposed  that  they  shall  take  over 
the  premises  of  the  Boston  Society,  that  they  shall  install  a  permanent 
secretary,  that  that  secretary  shall  have  secretarial  assistants,  one  of  whom 


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312  PROCEEDINGS. 

will  probably  be  the  present  assistant  secretary  of  the  New  England  Water 
Works  Association.  This  movement  has  nothing  to  do  whatever  with  the 
identity  of  this  Association.  We  go  forward  with  our  own  work  just  as  we 
are  doing  to-day;  it  is  merely  a  grouping  of  societies  for  headquarters 
purposes. 

This  movement  has  been  the  result  of  some  twenty  years  of  dreaming. 
When  the  Engineers'  Club  was  started  it  was  hoped  that  it  might  be 
founded  by  a  group  of  technical  societies.  We  have  sometimes  thought 
we  would  have  a  building  of  our  own  or  we  would  take  the  upper  floor  of 
some  building  under  construction.  This  movement  is  based  on  taking 
what  we  have  got  —  the  headquarters  of  the  Boston  Society,  and  starting 
with  that,  with  the  hope  that  it  will  lead  to  something  bigger  in  the  very 
near  future.  There  is  reason  to  expect  that  the  membership  will  run  up 
to  three  thousand  at  the  very  beginning  and  there  is  a  possibility  of  five 
thousand  sooner  or  later. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  this  morning  the  following 
vote  was  passed: 

"  Voted: — That  the  Executive  Committee  recommend  that  The  New 
England  Water  Works  Association  approve  the  purpose  and  general 
provisions  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Affiliation  of  Technical  Societies  of 
Boston  submitted  with  the  notice  of  the  meeting  of  February  14, 1922,  and 
that  the  Executive  Committee  be  directed  to  appoint  a  suitable  committee 
to  represent  the  Association  empowered  to  consummate  the  formation  of 
said  Affiliation,  to  prepare  the  constitution  and  by-laws,  and  to  negotiate 
the  necessary  working  agreement  to  govern  the  relations,  rights  and  obli- 
gations of  the  Affiliation  and  The  New  England  Water  Works  Association." 

With  this  brief  introduction,  gentlemen,  the  subject  is  open  for 
discussion. 

Mr.  Leonard  Metcalf.  Mr.  President,  I  have  a  resolution  that  I 
would  Uke  to  offer  at  this  time,  which  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Sherman  and 
myself,  which  would  put  into  effect  the  idea  which  Mr.  Barbour  has  so 
clearly  outUned  to  you.  I  will  read  the  motion  first,  and  then  I  would  like 
to  say  just  a  word  in  support  of  it,  if  I  may,  without  taking  much  of  your 
time: 

"  Whereas,  a  committee  of  representatives  of  various  technical 
societies,  or  sections  of  societies  in  greater  Boston  having  an  aggregate 
membership  of  over  3  500,  have  outlined  a  plan  for  an  alliance  under  the 
name  of  The  Affiliated  Technical  Societies  of  Boston,  and    . 

"  Whereas,  closer  cooperation  between  technically  trained  men  in 
the  water  works  and  engineering  fields  is  desirable,  to  make  more  effective 
their  influence  in  public  matters,  to  broaden  information,  interest,  and 
acquaintanceship;  and 

"  Whereas,  the  past  advantages  obtained  by  coordination  of  effort, 
avoidance  of  duplication,  maintenance  of  a  conamon  headquarters,  etc., 
have  been  of  much  value  to  this  Association;  and 


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PROCEEDINGS.  313 

"  Whereas,  the  proposed  affiliation  is  in  effect  a  further  extension  of 
the  cooperation  that  has  obtained  for  many  years  between  this  Association 
and  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers;  now,  therefore, 

"  Be  it  Resolved,  that  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association 
approves  the  purpose  and  principle  of  the  proposed  affiliation  and  authori- 
zes its  Executive  Committee  to  determine  after  careful  investigation 
whether  or  not  this  Association  shall  join  said  affiliation,  and  if  the  de- 
cision shall  be  favorable,  to  appoint  two  representatives  of  this  Association 
with  power  to  act  for  this  Association  upon  the  Council  or  other  repre- 
sentative body  of  the  affiliation." 

The  war  has  served  to  bring  home  to  engineers  and  to  men  such  as 
are  here  to-day  the  country  over — the  water  works  men,  the  electric  light 
men,  the  gas  men  and  men  in  public  utilities  generally,  technically  trained 
men  in  general  —  that  they  might  exercise  a  much  larger  influence  for  the 
public  good  if  they  were  more  closely  tied  together.  We  have  felt  that 
need  in  this  city  ourselves  within  the  last  year  or  two  in  certain  measures 
that  have  come  before  the  Legislature  that  seemed  unwise  legislation  to 
water  works  men.  It  would  have  been  helpful  at  that  time  if  we  could  on 
short  notice  have  called  together  technically  trained  men  who  would  see 
the  point  at  issue  quickly  and  could  have  helped  to  formulate  public 
opinion.  This  measure  would  help  in  just  that  sort  of  contingency.  The 
plan  has  been  tried  out  in  a  number  of  cities  in  this  country  —  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  Chicago,  where  during  the  war  it  was  of  tremendous  advantage 
to  the  government;  in  Los  Angeles  and  in  many  other  cities  it  has  worked 
well.  In  some  cases  it  has  been  developed  in  a  way  to  make  possible  certain 
club  features,  making  it  possible  to  have  dinners  in  advance  of  the  meeting. 
In  other  cases  it  has  been  simply  a  tjang  together  of  the  various  organizi- 
tions.  There  is  the  further  fact,  faced  not  only  by  associations  of  this 
sort  but  by  small  clubs,  the  country  over,  that  expenses  have  increased  so 
enormously  that  they  have  become  very  burdensome,  and  it  looks  almost 
as  if  many  of  our  small  societies  and  clubs  were  doomed.  The  only  method 
of  meeting  the  difficulty  seems  to  be  in  some  form  of  cooperation  or  consoli- 
dation. Now  this  organization  has  been  set  up  on  a  basis  of  cooperation 
rather  than  consolidation,  with  the  behef  that  while  these  different  groups, 
such  as  this  one,  will  prefer  to  continue  to  get  together  as  a  group,  they  may 
yet  enjoy  the  advantage  of  combination  and  may  occasionally  like  to  get 
together  with  the  other  groups  with  a  view  to  broadening  acquaintance- 
ship. The  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  faces  this  year  a  deficit  of 
over  $2  000.  Its  expenses  to-day  and  next  year  will  be  greater,  not  only 
than  its  income  under  present  dues,  but  than  its  income  plus  the  income  on 
its  permanent  fund;  therefore  it  means  a  curtailment  of  activities  involving 
financial  supp)ort  in  order  to  meet  the  situation  unless  some  such  plan 
can  be  adopted. 

This  organization  has  felt  the  financial  burdens.  Therefore  it  seems 
the  sensible  thing  to  do  —  it  has  seemed  so  to  many  men  the  country  over — 
to  get  together  in  such  a  way  as  this,  so  that  the  cost  of  maintaining  the 


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314  PROCEEDINGS. 

necessary  facilities  that  we  all  want  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  so  that 
our  power  for  good  may  increase  without  loss  in  identity  of  the  organiza- 
tion or  indeed  of  its  independence.  The  effect  upon  the  dues,  I  think,  will 
not  be  material.  Whether  it  will  involve  a  little  increase  at  first  or  not, 
I  am  not  sure.  I  think  it  may  involve  a  slight  increase,  but  it  will  be  small. 
It  may  well  be  possible  to  carry  it  without  any  increase.  Within  a  few 
years  I  have  no  question  that  it  will  involve  either  a  decrease  or  a  very 
distinct  improvement  in  the  facilities  open  to  members.  I  am  confident 
that  looking  forward  for  a  longer  period  of  years,  we  shall  find  it  possible 
with  a  larger  group  of  four  or  five  or  six  thousand  members  to  have  joint 
facilities  such  as  are  enjoyed  in  this  club,  —  I  won't  say  on  so  large  a  scale, 
but  I  mean,  where  men  of  our  interest  can  get  together  and  do  their  work 
satisfactorily  and  cheaply.  Therefore  it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  highly 
desirable  that  this  association  should  join  with  others  in  making  possible 
the  saving  of  expense  to  all  of  the  organizations  and  in  giving  greater 
influence  to  the  work  which  engineers  may  undertake.  I  see  no  serious 
disadvantages;  I  see  very  distinct  possibilities  in  the  movement,  and 
therefore  I  hope  it  will  prevail.     I  thank  you  for  your  attention. 

Mr.  David  A.  Heffernan.  There  is  one  thing  which  as  a  member  of 
the  Executive  Committee  and  a  superintendent  I  wish  Mr.  Metcalf  would 
make  a  little  clearer.  This  proposition  will  probably  be  misjudged  on  the 
part  of  some  of  the  superintendents,  who  may  feel  that  it  involves  losing 
the  identity  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association.  This  Associa- 
tion was  formed  years  ago  by  superintendents.  Now  the  superintendents 
here  to-day  might  possibly  misconstrue  this  matter,  and  if  Mr.  Metcalf 
would  go  into  it  from  the  superintendents'  point  of  view  to  impress  them 
that  there  will  be  no  material  change,  I  think  th^  will  go  away  better 
satisfied. 

Mr.  Metcalf.  Mr.  President,  I  am  very  glad  to  say  a  word  along 
that  line.  As  I  see  the  movement,  the  intention  of  the  movement  and 
what  I  believe  will  result,  it  makes  absolutely  no  change  in  this  organization 
in  your  methods  of  doing  business  except  as  to  detail,  or  in  the  way  in  which 
you  will  run  this  Society.  We  should  have,  as  we  have  to-day,  headquarters. 
We  should  have  at  those  headquarters  probably  a  managing  secretar>^ 
who  will  take  care  of  the  work  of  the  Affihation.  That  secretary  will  send 
out  the  notices  upon  request  of  the  secretary  of  any  one  of  these  societies, 
so  that  the  clerical  force  of  the  Afliliation  may  do  certain  detailed  work. 
The  library  facilities  will  be  maintained  in  common  as  they  are  to-day. 
They  will  be  bettered  by  the  fact  that  other  organizations  than  our  own 
will  add  their  libraries  to  our  library.  An  employment  bureau  will  be  run 
for  the  Affiliation  for  the  benefit  of  all  concerned  —  not  this  group  or  the 
Mechanicals  or  the  Civils,  but  of  all  men.  That  is  the  cheapest  way  to  do 
it.  The  elections  of  this  Society  and  the  procedure  in  regard  to  all  busine^ 
matters  wiU  be  just  as  independent  undert  he  future  conditions  as  to-day. 
It  would  merely  mean  that  we  would  have  a  central  council  to  which  we 


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PROCEEDINGS.  315 

would  make  appeal  when  questions  of  importance  to  water  works  men  were 
to  come  up  before  the  Legislature  or  elsewhere  and  the  assistance  of  the 
Affiliation  as  a  whole  through  its  Council  would  be  invoked  at  those  times. 
On  matters  touching  the  public  good  as  to  which  we  could  advise  with  ad- 
vantage to  the  public,  that  advice  would  be  given  again  through  the  Council 
through  our  representatives  on  the  Council,  who  would  take  part  in  its 
deliberations  and  be  the  direct  agency  by  which  that  Work  would  be  done. 
So  that  as  I  see  it  you  sacrifice  nothing  in  your  independence;  the  Society, 
I  should  hope  and  of  course  I  believe,  will  continue  to  be  run  by  water  works 
men,  by  superintendents,  not  by  the  engineers.  No  one  organization  will 
run  the  Affiliation;  no  group  of  men  will  run  the  Affiliation.  The  central 
organization  does  the  work  simply  for  the  public  good  and  the  essential  busi- 
ness that  we  all  want  to  get  rid  of.  The  individual  work  of  the  individual 
society  will  still  be  run  by  its  own  officers.  The  individual  societies  will 
still  have  their  presidents,  their  secretaries,  whatever  staff  they  wish  to 
maintain  independent  of  the  Affiliation.  But  it  is  only  in  those  matters 
as  to  which  economy  can  be  effected  by  joint  use,  by  joint  publications 
and  so  on,  that  we  expect  to  benefit. 

Now  a  word  in  regard  to  publication.  At  the  present  time,  as  far  as 
the  understanding  has  gone,  it  has  been  that  all  of  these  societies  would 
save  expense  in  publication  of  notices  by  having  the  notices  go  out  at  stated 
periods.  That  notice  might  be  as  it  is  with  certain  groups  of  societies 
to-day,  a  long  list  on  which  the  meetings  of  A  Society  will  be  held,B  Society, 
C  Society,  the  different  groups.  The  mailing  would  be  done  through  the 
central  office.  In  that  way  you  would  save  a  substantial  amount  of  money 
in  the  clerical  work  of  getting  those  notices  out  and  in  the  cost  of  printing. 
Personally  I  believe  that  finally  the  Affiliation  may  well  publish  a  journal 
to  embody  the  important  papers  of  the  various  organizations.  That 
matter  is  wholly  in  the  air;  it  has  not  been  broached  in  the  discussions  of 
the  men  who  have  been  particularly  interested  in  the  possibilities  of  this 
movement,  so  that  that  question  will  be  decided  later  on  by  the  Council 
with  the  approval  of  the  societies  affected.  If  this  organization  still  wished 
to  publish  its  own  independent  journal  it  would  go  on  doing  so.  The 
Affiliation  cannot  of  course  say  that  it  shall  not  do  so;  it  cannot  force  it 
to  support  the  other  measures;  but  I  believe  it  would  be  advantageous  to  the 
members  of  this  Association  if  it  were  possible  in  the  future  to  have  the 
publications  in  one  volume  so  that  you  would  have  the  advantage  of  the 
interesting  papers  which  are  pubUshed  by  the  Mechanicals,  the  Electri- 
cals,  by  the  men  of  other  groups  as  well  as  your  own.  But  that  is  whoUy 
in  the  air. 

I  do  believe  sincerely  that  this  Affihation  will  broaden  the  opportuni- 
ties for  men  who  are  members  of  this  organization.  There  will  be  under 
the  plan  as  contemplated  no  overlapping  dues.  If  a  man  is  a  member  of 
three  or  four  or  five  different  organizations,  as  a  number  of  the  men  in 
this  hall  are,  the  dues  will  be  paid  but  once  to  the  Affiliation.     That  is 


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316  PROCEEDINGS. 

one  of  the  things  which  must  and  will  be  adjusted  undoubtedly.  Have 
I  answered  all  your  questions? 

Mr.  Heffbrnan.    Yes. 

The  President.  Any  other  questions?  Mr.  Metcalf  has  made  a 
motion  that  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  approves  the 
purpose  and  principle  of  the  proposed  AflSliation  and  authorizes  its  Execu- 
tive Committee  to  determine,  after  careful  investigation,  whether  or  not 
this  Association  shall  join  said  Afiiliation,  and  if  the  decision  shall  be 
favorable,  to  appoint  two  representatives  of  this  Association  with  power 
to  act  for  this  Association  upon  the  Council  or  other  representative  body 
of  the  Affiliation.    Is  the  motion  seconded? 

[The  motion  was  seconded.] 

Mr.  Henry  V.  Macksey.  In  the  circular  sent  out  with  regard  to 
the  Affiliation,  there  was  a  statement  that  the  assessment  on  the  varioas 
associations  entering  would  not  be  more  than  $3  per  year  per  member. 
Three  dollars  per  year  per  member  is  not  a  large  amount  of  money  and  we 
know  that  we  do  get  some  benefit  from  our  present  connection  with  the 
Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  and  that  we  have  had  that  benefit  for 
years.  We  have  not  paid  a  great  price  for  it  and  we  ought  to  be  willing  to 
help  them  if  their  financial  load  is  becoming  too  heavy  to  bear.  It  seems 
to  me  that  we  should  consider  whether,  if  we  are  called  upon  to  pay  8^3 
per  year  to  the  Affiliation,  we  would  have  enough  remaining  to  carrj-  on 
our  own  work  and  our  own  activities  without  materially  increasing  our 
dues.  Many  of  us  are  paying  dues  to  a  number  of  societies  and  the  total 
is  a  considerable  sum.  Would  it  not  be  well  for  us  to  consider  the  financial 
side  more  closely  before  our  committee  binds  us  by  this  agreement?  We 
can  very  easily  go  in  and  while  it  may  be  easy  to  drop  out  again  it  could 
not  be  done  gracefully.  If  we  go  in  we  must  stick  and  carry  through. 
What  are  we  to  gain  at  present  other  than  that  we  will  be  in  touch  with 
other  societies  when  we  desire  to  take  part  in  a  public  movement  and  that 
we  will  have  a  little  more  privilege  in  the  apartments  that  we  now  occupy? 
The  financial  side  should  be  presented  more  definitely,  because,  as  Mr. 
Metcalf  has  said,  it  wiU  not  reduce  our  running  expenses;  in  fact,  will 
increase  them.  We  cannot  increase  our  running  expenses  without  increas- 
ing our  dues.  There  are  many  of  us  who  beUeve  that  our  own  Journal 
deaUng  only  with  water  works  matter  is  fullj'  as  useful  if  not  more  useful 
than  one  in  which  the  best  of  our  papers  are  incorporated  "with  papers  that 
are  interesting  to  mechanical  engineers,  electrical  engineers,  gas  engineers 
and  others  with  whom  we  have  no  close  business  or  professional  connection 
and  whose  papers  would  be  of  no  interest  and  perhaps  go  over  the  heads  of 
many  of  our  members. 

The  President.  I  am  glad  Mr.  Macksey  has  raised  this  question, 
because  I  think  it  is  one  that  ought  to  be  considered  by  the  members 
before  they  vote  on  this  proposition.  While  a  definite  statement  cannot 
now  be  presented  as  to  the  cost  to  this  Association  of  entering  the  Affilia- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PROCEEDINGS.  317 

tion,  I  can  perhaps  make  an  approximate  statement  which  will  leave  the 
members  content  to  give  the  Executive  Committee  power  to  act  in  this 
matter. 

The  assessment  payable  to  the  Affihated  Technical  Societies  will 
cover  the  cost  of  rent,  of  clerical  services  at  headquarters,  of  printing  and 
mailing  notices,  and  of  such  other  items  which  now  altogether  cost  —  under 
our  present  arrangement  —  somewhat  under  S3. 00  per  member.  The 
prospectus  of  the  proposed  Affiliation  states  that  the  assessment  shall  not 
exceed  $3.00  per  member  and — ^  assuming  this  to  be  the  figure  finally 
adopted  and  that  for  this  assessment  we  shall  be  housed  and  furnished 
services  by  the  AflSliation,  which  now  cost  us  but  little  less  than  $3.00  per 
member,  it  follows  that  the  final  cost  to  us  will  be  about  the  same  as  at 
present,  and  it  is,  therefore,  from  present  information  not  anticipated  that 
any  increase  in  dues  will  be  necessary. 

I  assume  that  the  Executive  Committee  —  if  authorized  to  act  for 
the  Association  in  this  question  —  will  carefully  analyze  the  expense 
involved  before  deciding  to  enter  the  AffiUation,  and  knowing,  of  course, 
that  the  dues  cannot  be  increased  without  vote  of  the  Association  and  an 
amendment  of  the  Constitution, will  make  their  arrangements  accordingly. 

Mr.  Patrick  Gear.  Mr.  President,  if  there  is  any  superintendent 
here  listening  to  this  argument,  I  don't  want  him  to  go  out  of  the  hall 
by  and  by  and  say,  "  Well,  it  is  too  bad  that  we  affiliate  and  become  a  small 
toad  in  a  big  puddle  instead  of  being  a  big  toad  in  a  small  puddle,  as  we 
are  now."  I  am  in  favor  of  the  Aifiliation,  but  I  don't  want  any  superin- 
tendent to  come  around  to  me  by  and  by  and  say,  "  Well,  why  did  you 
allow  that  to  go  through  in  the  Executive  Committee?"  I  am  in  favor  of 
it;  I  think  it  is  a  good  thing.  If  we  are  affiliated  with  those  men  it  will  be 
a  big  help  to  us.  We  can  make  lots  of  acquaintances.  I  can  go  home  and 
say,  "  I  met  a  lot  of  big  fellows  in  Boston;  I  was  talking  to  them." 
ILaughterj      If  anybody  has  any  fault  to  find,  now  is  the  time  to  find  it. 

Mr.  Metcalf.  May  I  say  just  one  word?  I  am  in  sympathy  with 
Mr.  Macksey's  viewpoint  in  regard  to  facing  the  question  of  finance. 
It  is  a  perfectly  proper  question.  The  approximate  rough  analysis  which 
I  made  of  the  expenses  indicated  that  probably  the  increase  in  dues  at  the 
present  time  would  be  likely  to  be  less  than  fifty  cents,  or  somewhere 
about  that  figure.  And  as  I  said  before,  ultimately,  and  perhaps  imme- 
diately, there  would  be  a  decrease.  It  was  for  that  reason  that  I  stated 
that  it  did  not  seem  to  me  that  it  was  likely  to  make  any  material  difference 
to  an3''body  in  this  organization  in  a  financial  way.  So  far  as  the  publi- 
cation is  concerned,  that,  as  I  stated  before,  is  a  matter  for  the  future. 
It  is  not  involved  in  the  present  discussion.  We  have  that  and  will  still 
have  that  in  our  own  hands. 

The  President.  Those  in  favor  of  this  motion  will  please  say  Aye. 
[General  response.]  Opposed,  No.  [No  response.]  The  motion  is 
unanimously  carried.     [Adjourn£d.\ 


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318  OBITUARY. 


SAMUEL  EVERETT  TINKHAM. 


Samuel  Everett  Tinkham,  who  died  on  April  21,  1921,  was  bom  in 
Taunton,  Massachusetts,  on  March  31,  1852.  After  attending  the  public 
schools  and  receiving  additional  instruction  by  a  private  tutor,  he  entered 
the  newly  established  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  from  which  he 
was  graduated  in  1873  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Civil 
Engineering.  This  was  the  sixth  class  to  be  graduated  from  this  institution 
and  he  was,  therefore,  one  of  its  earliest  graduates. 

After  graduation,  he  served  for  a  year  as  assistant  in  the  Corps  of 
Engineers  of  the  United  States  Army,  being  employed  on  harbor  improve- 
ment work  in  Edgartown,  Massachusetts.  In  October  1874,  he  entered 
the  engineering  service  of  the  City  of  Boston,  with  which  he  was  continu- 
ously connected  up  to  the  time  of  his  death  except  from  1882  to  1884  when 
he  served  as  assistant  engineer  on  the  New  York  and  New  England  Railroad 
in  charge  of  the  design  and  construction  of  bridges  for  the  double  tracking 
of  that  road.  His  services  for  the  city  prior  to  1882  consisted  chiefly  of 
bridge  engineering,  although  his  duties  also  included  work  on  the  Boston 
Main  Drainage  System  particularly  in  connection  with  the  design  and 
construction  of  the  Calf  Pasture  Pumping  Station  of  that  system. 

Soon  after  his  return  to  the  employ  of  the  city  in  1884,  he  received  the 
title  of  Assistant  Engineer  and  Principal  Draftsman  of  the  Engineering 
Department  and  until  the  late  90's  his  work  was  largely  that  of  office  super- 
vision of  the  preparation  of  plans  for  highway  bridges,  a  considerable 
number  of  such  bridges  being  designed  and  constructed  during  this  period 
under  the  direction  of  the  Boston  Engineering  Department.  As  the  en- 
gineering activities  of  the  city  increased,  they  became  in  time  so  extensive 
as  to  require  him  to  devote  practically  all  of  his  attention  to  supervision 
of  construction,  leaving  the  preparation  of  designs  to  others,  and  during  the 
last  quarter  century  of  his  service,  he  supervised  the  construction  of  many 
engineering  projects  of  large  magnitude,  includingnot  only  bridges  but  grade 
crossing  eliminations,  sea  walls  and  difficult  foundations. 

In  the  reorganization  of  the  city  departments  which  took  place  in  1911 
and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  present  Public  Works  Department, 
Mr.  Tinkham  was  made  Construction  Engineer  of  the  Bridge  and  Ferry 
Division,  a  position  he  continued  to  hold  until  his  death.  He  also  served  as 
Acting  Division  Engineer  in  1914  and  1915. 

In  addition  to  his  engineering  work  for  the  city,  Mr.  Tinkham  served  as 
consultant  on  many  bridges  built  in  various  parts  of  New  England,  on  build- 
ings and  on  foundation  problems  as  well  as  upon  certain  phases  of  con- 
struction of  the  Metropolitan  Waterworks  System. 

While  his  active  engineering  work  brought  him  into  close  contact  with 
City,  State  and  Public  Service  engineers  in  the  Boston  Metrop)olitan  district. 


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OBITUARY.  319 

he  was  better  known  to  the  engineering  profession  at  large,  particularly  in 
New  England,  as  the  genial,  efficient  and  alert  secretary  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers,  a  position  which  he  filled  with  marked  ability  for  27 
years  preceding  his  death.  During  this  long  period,  the  interests  of  the* 
Society  were  always  prominent  in  his  mind.  New  presidents  took  office 
knowing  that  in  Mr.  Tinkham  they  would  find  not  only  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  affairs  of  the  Society  and  of  the  problems  that  confronted  it, 
but  that  they  would  also  receive  his  hearty  and  effectual  cooperation  in  any 
measure  that  had  to  do  with  its  welfare.  Members  at  large  knew  that  they 
would  receive  from  him  a  cordial  greeting  at  Society  meetings  and  sincere 
and  effective  assistance  in  making  use  of  the  Society  organization.  His  re- 
election year  by  year  by  general  vote  of  the  Society  was  a  foregone  con- 
clusion. 

In  addition  to  his  services  for  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 
he  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Asso- 
ciation and  was  also  active  in  the  affairs  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  having  twice  been  a  member  and  once  chairman  of  its  Nominat- 
ing Committee  and  having  served  also  as  a  member  of  other  committees. 

Amongst  other  of  his  numerous  activities  may  be  mentioned  his  con- 
nection with  the  Civil  Service  Commission  of  Massachusetts.  In  1897, 
the  provisions  of  the  Massachusetts  Civil  Service  law  were  extended  to 
include  engineers  in  municipal  employ  and  in  1902  to  include  also  engineers 
in  the  employ  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.  Mr.  Tinkham  was 
appointed,  in  1897,  as  one  of  the  members  of  the  first  Board  of  Examiners 
for  civil  engineers  in  the  Classified  Service,  which  position  he  held  for  more 
than  fifteen  years.  During  this  time  his  influence  was  exerted  in  placing  the 
examinations  for  engineers  upon  a  practicable  working  basis  to  the  end  that 
a  man's  fitness  for  appointment  to  the  various  engineering  positions  in  the 
city  or  state  should  not  be  based  entirely  upon  his  ability  to  pass  written 
examinations  but  also  upon  experience  and  demonstrated  abiUty. 

This  paper  would  not  be  complete  without  mentioning  Mr.  Tinkham's 
Masonic  activities.  As  evidence  of  his  faithful  service  and  of  the  esteem 
in  which  he  was  held  by  his  associates  in  the  Masonic  organizations  to  which 
he  belonged,  it  is  only  necessaty  to  cite  his  services  as  Worshipful  Master  of 
Washington  Lodge  in  Roxbury,  as  Eminent  Commander  of  Joseph  Warren 
Commandery  of  the  Knights  Templars  and  as  President  of  the  Association 
which  controls  the  Masonic  Temple  in  Roxbury,  Massachusetts. 

All  who  knew  Mr.  Tinkham  have  a  feeling  of  great  personal  loss  and 
a  sudden  Tealization  of  how  much  his  unselfish,  honest,  untiring  interest  in 
the  various  activities,  whose  success  was  so  close  to  his  heart,  is  going  to  be 
missed. 

Frederic  H.  Fay. 
F.  A.  McInxes. 

Committee 


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320  OBITUARY. 


HERBERT  L.  HAPGOOD. 

Herbert  L.  Hapgood  was  bom  in  Athol,  Massachusetts,  February  5, 
1850.  He  was  the  son  of  Lyman  W.  and  Eliza  Hapgood.  He  was  killed 
by  an  automobile  when  crossing  the  street  near  his  home  on  the  evening 
of  October  8,  1921. 

Mr.  Hapgood  was  educated  in  the  local  schools  and  the  New  Salem 
Academy,  which  at  that  time  had  a  high  rating.  After  graduating  from 
the  academy  he  apprenticed  himself  in  the  Baxter  D.  Whitney  shops  of 
Winchendon,  Massachusetts.  Here  the  young  man's  mechanical  inventive 
abihty  was  developed. 

Upon  his  return  home  in  1874  he  entered  his  father's  business.  The 
Diamond  Match  Company,  and  carried  it  on  until  1892.  He  perfected 
many  patents  valuable  in  the  production  of  matches,  a  sandpapering 
machine  being  the  most  notable. 

Mr.  Hapgood  came  of  a  long  line  of  patriots,  municipal  leaders  all. 
After  retiring  from  active  business  he  entered  enthusiastically  into  the 
executive  business  of  the  Town,  holding  the  principal  office  for  fourteen 
consecutive  years,  together  with  the  management  of  various  other  depart- 
ments, instituting  some  and  supervising  the  construction  of  others,  the 
sewage  system,  for  instance.  In  1909  Mr.  Hapgood  was  made  Superintend- 
ent of  the  Water  Department  and  continued  to  be  chairman  of  the  board 
of  commissioners,  which  position  he  had  held  for  several  years.  He  was 
particularly  adapted  to  this  work'and  it  was  agreeable  to  him.  He  devel- 
oped the  plant  to  its  present  efficient  system  and  was  formulating  extensive 
improvements  at  the  time  of  his  death.  The  sand  filter  which  he  con- 
structed, has  filtered  itself  into  exemplary  fame  among  Engineers. 

Mr.  Hapgood  was  by  position,  disposition  and  knowledge  a  veritable 
Town  Father;  naturally  a  student,  he  weighed  all  questions  imposed  upon 
him  from  every  angle,  beginning  with  the  legal  and  never  forgetting  the 
human  element.  Mr.  Hapgood  collected  and  prepared  much  historical 
data  that  is  invaluable  to  the  Town  and  the  District  —  his  works  are  his 
monument,  they  will  endure  without  end. 

Mr.  Hapgood  married  Mary  Josephine  Proctor,  in  1875;  he  is  survived 
by  his  wife  and  two  sons,  Ljrman  P.  Hapgood  and  Frederic  H.  Hapgood 
both  Civil  Engineers,  and  one  daughter,  Edith  E.  Hapgood. 


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OBITUARY.  321 


ALFRED  EARL  MARTIN. 


Bom  September  23,  1852,  at  Brooklyn,  Conn. 
Died  February  21,  1922,  at  Springfield,  Mass. 

In  the  death  of  Alfred  E.  Martin  the  New  England  Water  Works 
Association  loses  a  member  of  sterling  worth  long  active  in  the  work  of 
the  Association.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Association  April  21, 
1885,  less  than  three  years  after  its  organization,  and  has  rendered  valuable 
service  on  committees  from  time  to  time,  being  honored  by  election  as  its 
president  in  1908. 

His  early  education  was  received  in  the  pubUc  schools  of  his  native 
town  and  in  Woodstock  Academy,  Uving  in  Connecticut  until  he  was 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  teaching  in  some  of  its  district  schools. 

Health  prevented  the  realizing  of  his  ambition  for  an  advanced 
scientific  training,  but  he  continued  along  technical  lines,  working  as  a 
civil  engineer  with  J.  Herbert  Shedd,  chief  engineer  of  the  Providence 
Water  Works  and  Sewer  department,  and  Howard  R.  Carson  from  1874 
to  1877. 

He  was  assistant  engineer  in  charge  of  the  Brookline  main  sewer,  and 
in  construction  of  a  large  filter  basin  in  Lonsdale,  Rhode  Island;  was 
engaged  in  sewer  construction  for  the  City  of  Boston,  and  in  other  con- 
struction work. 

For  four  years  he  was  superintendent  of  the  construction  work  on 
* '  Dam  No.  4  "  of  the  Boston  Water  Works  at  Ashland,  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  Mr.  A.  Fteley,  C.E. 

In  1886  he  became  superintendent  of  the  Framingham  Water  Company, 
where  for  eighteen  years  he  was  a  vital  factor  in  the  development  of  the 
Framingham  system. 

On  March  1,  1093  he  became  superintendent  of  the  Municipal  Water 
Works  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  during  the  nineteen  years  of  his  service 
he  saw  the  Springfield  system  rebuilt  along  modem  lines  and  more  than 
doubled  in  size  and  service. 

During  his  thirty-seven  years  of  service  as  a  water  works  superin- 
tendent he  was  known  as  an  excellent  official  and  a  capable,  faithful  and 
conscientious  public  servant.  He  was  a  faithful  attendant  at  the  Associa- 
tion meetings  and  his  remarks  and  counsel  were  always  considered  soimd 
and  carried  weight  of  practical  experience.  His  frank  personality  at- 
tracted lasting  friendships,  and,  as  the  Assistant  Secretary  has  so  aptly 
stated,  '*  He  will  be  missed  greatly  by  the  older  members  of  the  Association, 
and  his  genial  manner,  which  was  so  genuine,  will  be  a  pleasant  remem- 
brance of  him.'* 

In  1879  he  married  Miss  Eleanor  M.  Flagg  of  Providence,  who  died  in 
Springfield,  March  8,  1917.  Besides  a  brother,  Frank  L.  Martin  of  Brook- 
lyn, Conn.,  he  leaves  a  sister-in-law,  Mrs.  Clara  A.  Kilburn,  who  has  lived 


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322  OBITUARY. 

with  him  since  Mrs.  Martin's  death,  and  four  nieces;  Miss  Celia  May 
Chase,  formerly  of  Newton,  Mass.,  Mrs.  Andrew  Sharp  of  Elliot,  Conn., 
Mrs.  Abbie  Holbrook  of  Pomfret,  Conn.,  and  Mrs.  William  Farmer  of 
Greenfield,  Mass. 

Mr.  Martin  was  a  past  master  of  Alpha,  A.F.  and  A.M.  of  Framingham, 
a  member  of  Springfield  Commandery  Knights  Templar,  Massachusetts 
Consistory  32,  and  Melha  Temple,  A.A.O.X.M.S.,  and  was  also  a,  past 
noble  grand  of  the  Odd  Fellows  in  Ashland  and  a  member  of  the  Orpheus 
Club  of  Springfield  and  prominent  in  musical  circles  in  both  Framingham 
and  Springfield. 

He  was  one  of  the  first  presidents  and  a  founder  of  the  Public  Service 
Associates  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  a  unique  local  "  get-together  "  organiza- 
tion of  officials  connected  with  pubhc  work  and  public  utilities  in  that 
city,  which  he  helped  to  form  some  ten  years  ago. 

Alfred  R.  Hathaway, 
Elbert  E.  Lochridge, 

Committee. 
Springfield,  Mass., 
April  26,  1922. 


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Volnme  36,  SEPTEMBER,   1922.  $4.00  a  Year. 

Number  3.  $1.25  a  Number. 


JOURNAL 


OF    THE 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 


ISSUED    QUARTERLY. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE    NEW    ENGLAND   WATER    WORKS    ASSOCIATION, 

715  Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass. 


Entered  as  aecond-class  matter  September  23.  1903.  at  the  Post  Office 
at  BoetOB,  Maae.,  under  Act  of  Congre^  of  March  3.  1870. 

Copyritht,  1922,  by  the  Naw  England  Wateb  Wobk8  Amociation. 


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OFFICERS 

OF  THE 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 

1922. 


PBESIDBNT. 

Frank  A.  Barbour,  Consulting  Hydraulic  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  Boston,  Maas. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

Patrick  Gear,  Superintendent  of  Water  T^orks,  Holyoke,  Mass. 
George  A.  Carpenter,  City  Engineer,  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 
Reeves  J.  Newsom,  Commissioner  of  Water  Supply,  Lynn,  Mass. 
Davis  A.  Heffernan,  Supe  intendent  of  Water  Works,  Milton,  Mass.    . 
Frank  E.  Winsor,  Chief  fencineer,  Water  Supply  Board,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Theodore  L.  Bristol,  President  Ansonia  Water  Company,  Ansonia,  Conn. 

secretary. 
Frank  J.  Gifpord,  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Dedham,  Mass. 

TREASURER. 

Frederick  I.  Winslo'w,  Division  Engineer,  Metropolitan  District  Commisson,  Consult- 
ing Engineer,  Framingham,  Mass. 

EDITOR. 

Henry  A.  Stmonds,  Consulting  Engineer  and  Manager  of  Water  Companies,  70  Kilby 
Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

ADVERTISING  AGENT. 

Henry  A.  Symonds,  70  Kilby  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

ADDITIONAL  ME&CBER8  OF  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

George  H.  Finneran,  Superintendent  Wafer  Service,  Boston,  Mass. 

Frank  A.  Marston.  of  Metcalf  &  Eddy,  Consulting  Engineers,  Boston,  Mas. 

Melville  C.  Whipple,  Instructor  of  Ssuiitary  Chemistry,  Harvard  University. 

finatcce  committee, 
A.  R,  Hathaway,  Water  Registrar,  Springfield,  Mass. 
Edward  D.  Eldredge,  Superintendent  Onset  Water  Company,  Onset,  Mass. 
Stephen  H.  Taylor,  Assistant  Superintendent  Water  Works,  New  Bedford,  Maas. 


nPHE  Association  was  organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  on  June  21,  1882,  with  the  object 
-^  of  providing  its  members  with  means  of  social  intercourse  and  for  the  exchange  of 
knowledge  pertaining  to  the  construction  and  management  of  water  works.  From  an 
original  membership  of  only  twenty-seven,  its  growth  has  prospered,  untfl  now^  it 
indudes  the  names  of  800  men.  Its  membership  is  divided  into  two  prinet|ial  daasesy 
vis.:  Members  and  AssoaATES.  Members  are  divided  into  two  clashes,  vis.:  Rxsi* 
DENT  and  NoN'Rebidbnt,  —  the  former  comprising  those  residing  within  the  limits  of 
New  Endand,  while  the  latter  class  includes  those  residing  elsewhere.  The  ImriATioN 
fee  for  the  former  elaes  is  five  dollars;  for  the  latter,  three  dollars.  The  annual  dues 
for  both  classes  of  Active  membership  are  six  dollarB._.As80ciate  membAship  is 
xipen  to  firms  or  agents  of  firms  engaged  in  dealing  in  water-works  supplieB.  The 
initiation  fee  for  A£oclatb  xfiembership  is  ten  dolkurs,  and  the  annual  dues  twidntt 
doQars.  This  Association  has  six  regular  meetings  each  year,  all  of  which,  exo^  the 
annual  convention  in  Septem1:>er,  aie  held  at  Boston. 


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Table  of  Contents- 


PAGE 

The  New  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Providence.     By  Frank  E. 

Winsor 323 

Co5peration  of  Water  Works  Operators  with  the  Pub.ic  and  Em- 
ployees,    By  F.  T.  Kemble 363 

Description  of  New  Bedford  Water  System — Experiments  with  Sub- 
stitutes for  Lead  for  Jointing  Cast-Iron  Pipe.  By  Stephen  H. 
Taylor 370 

A  New  Method  of  Purifying  Water.     By  H.  W.  Clark 38o 

The  Use  and  Discard  of  Auxiliary  Fire  Protection  from  a  Polluted 

Source.     By  Caleb  Mills  Saville '. . .     392 

Some  C^ourt  Decisions  Incident  to  the  Purchase  of  the  Braintree  Water 

Supply  Co.     By  Henry  A.  Symonds 426 

Should  the  Water  Department  be  Merged  with  other  Municipal 
Departments  in  its  Management  and  Finances?  By  George  W. 
King 434 

Why  We  Should  Inspect  Water  Works  Equipment.     Thomas  E.  Lally     450 

The  Deep  Core-Wall  of  the  Wanaque  Dam.     By  Major  Arthur  H. 

Pratt 457 

Topical  Discussion. — The  Flushometer 467 

Painting  Fire  Hydrants 470 

Memoirs.     Florence  M.  Griswold 472 

Proceedings: 

^orty-First  Annual  Convention.     New  Bedford,  Mass 474 

Address  Hon.  W.  H.  B.  Remington,  Mayor  of  New  Bedford 474 

Address  Mr.  William  Ritchie,  President  New  Bedford  Board  of 

Commerce 475 

Address  President  Frank  A.  Barbour 476 

Award  of  Dexter  Brackett  Medal 478 

Financing  of  Municipal  Water  Works 479 


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New  England  Water  Works  Association 


ORGANIZED    1882. 


Vol.  XXXVI.  September,  1922.  No.  3. 


Tki$  At$oci€Uton,  as  a  body,  is  riot  responsible  for  the  atcUements  or  opinions  of  any  of  its  members. 

THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF. PROVIDENCE. 

BY  FRANK   E.   WINSOR.* 

Present  Supply  and  New  Supply  Compared,  The  present  supply  is 
taken  from  the  Pawtuxet  River  at  Pettaconset  with  a  drainage  area  of 
199.6  sq.  mi.  where  the  water  is  first  pumped  from  the  river  to  filter  beds, 
is  filtered  and  again  piunped  to  a  distributing  reservoir  about  170  ft.  above 
the  filters,  from  which  is  supplied  the  low  service  area  of  the  city. 

For  some  years  the  quantity  used  has  been  considerably  greater  than 
the  natural  low  flow  of  the  river  and  the  supply  has  been  maintained  by 
water  Stored  by  the  mills  located  above  the  intake  and  let  down  by  them 
for  their  own  use. 

The  water  at  the  present  source  is  polluted  by  trade  wastes  and  human 
dejecta,  most  of  which  enters  the  river  from  mills  and  mill  villages  having 
an  aggregate  population  of  over  30  000  people  and  located  within  a  radius 
of  about  8  mi.  of  the  pumping  station. 

The  new  supply  will  be  taken  from  about  92.8  sq.  mi.  of  drainage  area 
which  is  a  part  of  the  area  tributary  to  the  present  supply  but  which  is 
above  practically  all  sources  of  pollution.  It  involves  the  building  of  a 
large  storage  reservoir  on  the  north  branch  of  the  river  from  which  water 
will  be  conveyed  by  gravity  to  an  elevation  about  50  ft.  higher  than  the 
present  distributing  reservoirs  which  serve  the  low  service  area  of  the  city. 
The  drainage  area  of  the  new  reservoir,  while  slightly  less  than  half  that 
tributary  to  the  present  pumping  station,  will  be  sufficient  with  available 
storage  to  guarantee  a  safe  yield  to  the  city  of  85  m.g.d.  or  nearly  four 
times  the  present  consumption  and  fully  seven  times  the  natural  low  water 
flow  at  Pettaconset. 

Detmls  of  Present  Supply.  Agitation  for  a  comprehensive  water  supply 
for  the  City  of  Providence  began  about  75  years  ago.  In  March,  1853,  the 
City  Council  created  a  committee  of  investigation  and  between  this  date 
and  1868  five  different  committees  made  six  separate  reports.  The  water 
supply  project  was  three  times  defeated  by  votes  of  the  tax  payers,  who, 
however,  finally  approved  the  plan  which  provided  the  present  supply, 

♦Chief  Engineer  Providence  Water  Supply  Board. 

323  Digitized  by  Google 


324  THE   NEW  WATER  SUPPLY   OF  THE  CITY   OF  PROVIDENCE. 

the  first  service  pipe  of  w^hich  was  opened  on  December  1,  1871.  The 
present  supply  is  under  the  able  direction  of  City  Engineer,  Milton  H. 
Bronsdon,  member  of  this  Association. 

Water  is  taken  from  the  Pawtuxet  River  at  Pettaconset,  about  3J  mi. 
from  tide  water  and  at  about  elevation  10.*  Since  1905,  when  filtration 
was  introduced,  water  has  been  first  pumped  from  the  river  by  low  lift 
pumps  to  the  filters  from  which  it  flows  to  an  open  pump  well  and  is  again 
pumped  to  Sockanosset  Reservoir  about  a  mile  distant  at  an  elevation  of 
181.75. 

Sockanosset  Reservoir  is  about  5 J  mi.  from  the  center  of  the  city  and 
from  it  is  supplied  by  gravity  most  of  the  area  of  the  water  district  below 
elevation  90.  The  water  from  this  reservoir  also  flows  into  Hope  Reservoir 
located  near  the  center  of  the  city  at  elevation  162.5,  which  latter  reservoir 
serves  to  equalize  fluctuations  of  consumption  and  provides  a  considerable 
storage  near  the  center  of  population.  There  is  another  pumping  station 
at  Hope  Reservoir  which  raises  water  to  the  high  service  storage  reservoir 
at  Fruit  Hill  at  elevation  274.75,  from  which  those  parts  of  the  city  above 
about  elevation  90  are  supplied,  and  which  also  furnishes  high  pressure  to 
a  special  fire  district  covering  generally  the  congested  business  area  of  the 
city.  About  15  per  cent,  of  the  present  consumption  is  used  in  the  high 
service  area.  The  filter  plant,  prior  to  the  completion  of  which,  in  1905, 
water  was  used  direct  from  the  river,  consists  of  10  acres  of  slow  sand  beds, 
originally  open  but  after  a  short  period  of  operation  roofed  over  with  con- 
crete groined  arches  covered  with  earth.  The  filters  are  generally  operated 
at  a  rate  somewhat  less  than  3  milb'on  gallons  per  acre  daily.  For  the 
past  5  years  the  safety  of  the  water  has  been  further  assured  by  chlorination 
subsequent  to  filtration. 

Pumping  Equipment  in  General  Use. 

At  Filter  Plant  Lift  about  9  Feet,  2  DeLaval  horizontal  centrifugal 
pumps  direct  connected  to  Bullock  500-volt  D.C.  50  h.p.  motors,  current 
for  which  is  either  generated  by  steam  at  the  Pettaconset  Pumping  Station 
or  is  purchased  from  the  Narragansett  Electric  Lighting  Co.  Capacity 
of  each  unit  20  m.g.d. 

At  Pettaconset  Station  Lift  about  172  Feet.  1  Allis-Chalmers  vertical 
triple  expansion  engine  and  pump,  capacity  25  m.g.d.  1  DeLaval  hori- 
zontal centrifugal  pmnp  direct  connected  to  a  General  Electric  2  200-volt 
A.C.  1  300  h.p.  motor,  current  purchased  from  the  Narragansett  Electric 
Lighting  Co.,  capacity  30  m.g.d.  There  are  three  other  pumps  located 
at  Pettaconset,  some  of  which  are  obsolescent,  which  have  a  combined 
rated  capacity  of  about  29  m.g.d. 

All  of  the  above  pumping  plant  will  be  abandoned  following  the  in- 
troduction of  the  new  supply. 

^Elevations  are  above  mean  high  water  of  Providence  harbor. 

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wiNSOR.  325 

At  Hope  Reservoir  Lift  about  112  Feet.  (High  Service.)  1  Worthington 
horizontal  triple  expansion  engine  and  pump,  capacity  10  m.g.d. 

1  DeLaval  steam  turbine  driven  centrifugal  pump,  capacity  8  m.g.d. 

About  one  half  the  present  high  service  area  may  be  supplied  by  grav- 
ity from  the  new  system  and  the  future  lift  will  be  greatly  reduced. 


Reservoirv. 

Elevation 
(full). 

Area 
Acres. 

Capac 
Million 

SockanoBset 
Hope 
Fruit  HiU 

181.75 
162.50 
274.75 

ll.O 

12.5 

4.5 

55.0 
76.0 
25.0 

It  is  probable,  owing  to  the  future  higher  level  of  gravity  distribution 
that  Sockanosset  and  Hope  Reservoirs  will  be  eventually  superseded  by 
a  new  covered  reservoir  on  Neutaconkanut  Hill  at  the  west  side  of  the 
city  at  an  elevation  of  about  225.  Fruit  Hill  reservoir  will  ako  probably 
be  eventually  superseded  by  a  new  covered  high  service  reservoir  about  \  mi. 
northerly  from  it  at  an  elevation  of  about  305.  Land  for  both  of  these 
new  reservoirs  has  already  been  acquired  by  the  city.  Inasmuch  as  the 
new  supply  will  eliminate  all  pumping,  except  to  a  much  reduced  high 
service  area,  thus  reducing  the  hazard  of  interruption  of  service,  the  ten- 
tative designs  of  the  new  covered  distribution  reservoir  contemplates  much 
less  storage  capacity  than  at  present,  with,  however,  provisions  for  enlarge- 
ment as  the  consumption  increases. 

The  sizes  and  lengths  of  pipe  in  the  present  system  are  as  follows 
(as  of  December  31,  1921) : 


42  in. 

25  631  ft. 

36  in. 

10  242  ft. 

30  in. 

61592  ft. 

24  in. 

50  824  ft. 

20  in. 

9  626  ft. 

16  in. 

115  659  ft. 

12  in. 

184  800  ft. 

10  in. 

14  622  ft. 

Sin. 

351816  ft. 

6  in. 

1515  815  ft. 

2  340627  ft. 

Number  of  public  fire  hydrants  in  use  December  31,  1921,       2  702 

Number  of  services  in  use  December  31,  1921 34  055 

Number  of  meters  in  use  December  31,  1921 32  232 

Per  cent,  of  services  metered  December  31,  1921 95 

The  area  supplied  includes  portions  of  City  of  Cranston  and  of  the 

Towns  of  North  Providence,  Johnston  and  Warwick. 

Statistics  of  population,  estimated  consumption,  etc.,  are  shown  upon 

the  diagram  below,  Plate  1. 

The  population,  and  per  capita  consumption  calculated  therefrom, 

shown  on  Plate  1  by  full  lines,  are  based  from  1915  to  1920  inclusive  upon 

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326  THE   NEW   WATER   SUPPLY   OF  THE   CITY   OF   PROVIDENCE. 

the  assumption  that  the  change  in  population  from  the  State  Census  in 
1915  to  the  Federal  Census  in  1920  was  proportional  to  the  time.  It  is 
the  writer *s  belief  that  the  Federal  Census  for  1920  was  much  too  low. 


Plate  I. 


If  the  City  Engineer's  estimate  (as  published  in  his  Annual  Reports)  of 
population  of  water  district  from  1916  to  1919  be  used,  and  the  writer's 
estimate  of  305  000  for  1920  and  312  000  for  1921  be  taken,  the  population 
and  per  capita  consumption  for  each  year  are  shown  on  this  plate  by  broken 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


wiNsoR.  327 

lines.  Eistimated  future  population  is  based  upon  past  growth  and  the 
increase  which  has  actually  occurred  in  cities  similar  to  but  now  larger 
than  Providence.  Future  per  capita  consumption  is  believed  to  be  con- 
servatively estimated  and  assumes  a  metered  system  coupled  with  the 
same  careful  management  which  has  characterized  the  water  works  from 
their  beginning. 

The  average  hardness  and  alkalinity  of  the  river  water  of  the  present 
supply  in  parts  per  million  was  10.5  and  6.4  respectively  for  1921. 

In  1921  the  average  color  of  the  present  supply  before  and  after  fil- 
tration was  45  and  29  respectively.  The  filters  remove  nearly  uniformly 
about  one-third  of  the  color  in  the  raw  water.  The  filtered  water  varies 
in  color  from  about  15  to  50  with  occasional  higher  peaks,  for  example, 
in  the  summer  of  1916  it  was  above  60  for  about  three  weeks  and  in  August, 
1922,  a  maximiun  of  54  was  reached.  Even  when  most  highly  colored  the 
water  is  bright  and  sparkling,  the  color  being  a  vegetable  stain  or  dye. 

The  gross  revenue  of  the  water  works  has  increased  from  about 
S855  000  in  1913  to  $986  000  in  1921.  The  outstanding  bonded  indebted- 
ness on  December  31,  1921,  was  $1  632  000  old  bonds  and  $1  GOO  000  for 
new  works.  It  is  expected  that  with  some  slight  readjustment  of  water 
rates,  the  net  income  from  the  water  works  will  be  suflScient  to  defray 
interest  and  sinking  fund  charges  on  the  new  water  supply,  and  additions 
to  and  changes  in  the  distribution  system,  all  of  which  are  now  estimated 
to  cost  about  .S20  000  000. 

Details  of  New  Supply.  Investigations  for  a  new  supply  were  begun 
by  a  conmiittee  of  the  City  Council  in  1913.  An  Act  was  presented  to 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  at  the  January  session,  1914,  but  failed 
to  pass,  and  after  some  modification  the  present  Act,  under  which  the 
work  is  being  carried  on,  was  passed  at  the  following  session  and  became 
a  law  on  April  21,  1915. 

Some  rather  unusual  features  of  the  law  are  as  follows: — 

(a)  As  one  of  the  results  of  the  preliminary  investigations  and  discus- 
sion the  outside  boundary  within  which  the  City  could  condemn  land  for 
reservoir  purposes  was  prescribed. 

(b)  The  right  of  condemnation  of  either  land  or  water  rights  was 
limited  to  two  years  after  passage  of  Act. 

(c)  In  case  a  part  only  of  any  farm  or  of  any  lot  or  tract  of  land  is 
taken  imder  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  Act and  the  remain- 
der or  any  portion  thereof is  damaged  or  lessened  in  value  by 

such  taking,  the  owner  or  owners  thereof  may  surrender  to  said  City  the 
portion  so  damaged  or  lessened  in  value  ....  within  one  year  a&er 
said  taking;  whereupon,  the  portion  so  surrendered  shall  be  deemed  \o 

be   included  in  such  taking (applies  to  taking  for  reservoir 

only). 

(d)  Similar  provision  for  surrender  of  mill  property  including  reseit 
voirs,  dams,  etc. 

(e)  Owners  of  land  contiguous  to  that  taken  for  reservoir  purposes, 
which  is  directly  or  indirectly  decreased  in  value  thereby,  are  permitted 


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328      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

to  recover,  provided  they  filed  a  claim  within  three  years  after  passage 
of  Act. 

(f)  Damages  to  business  and  damages  for  loss  of  employment  are 
provided  for. 

(g)  Very  elaborate  provisions  are  made  for  the  regulation  of  flow  in 
the  stream  past  the  dam  from  the  time  the  city  first  begins  to  interfere  with 
the  stream;  e.g.,  the  city  cannot  hold  or  divert  any  water  until  the  reser- 
voir is  ready  for  use;  from  the  time  the  city  first  begins  to  store  wat^r 
until  for  the  first  time  20  000  000  000  gal.  have  been  stored,  the  city  shall 
not  reduce  the  natural  flow  of  the  stream  during  any  week  day,  except  that 
it  may  hold  any  water  in  excess  of  20  m.  g.  d.  flow;  after  20  000  000  000  gal. 
are  first  stored  the  city  shall  draw  from  the  reservoir  not  less  than  70  m.g.d. 
and  the  portion  of  this  not  used  for  water  supply  shall  be  discharged  into 
the  river  below  the  dam,  concentrated  so  as  to  best  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  mills  below  (the  above  quantity  of  70  000  000  gal.  may  be  tempor- 
arily reduced  to  65  000  000  gal.  provided  the  reservoir  does  not  fill  by 
June  1  in  any  year);  the  city  shall  forever  dischara^  500  000  gal.  per  day 
from  the  reservoir  and  such  further  amount  as  may  be  necessary  to  main- 
tain a  flow  of  6  000  000  gal.  each  day  into  the  Ar\^right  mill  pond  (located 
about  3  mi.  downstream  from  the  reservoir  with  an  intermediate  drainage 
area  of  9.4  sq.  mi.) ;  also  under  certain  conditions  such  further  amount  as 
may  be  necessary  to  maintain  a  flow  not  exceeding  72  000  000  gal.  weekly 
into  the  Clyde  mill  pK)nd  (located  about  5  mi.  downstream  from  the  reser- 
voir with  an  intermediate  drainage  area  of  13.2  sq.  mi.) ;  the  city  is  required 
to  establish  and  maintain  gaging  stations  at  or  near  Arkwright  and  Clyde. 

The  Act  at  its  passage  in  April,  1915,  established  an  unpaid  Water 
Supply  Board  consisting  of  the  seven  persons  who  then  constituted  the 
committee  on  increased  water  supply  previously  appointed  by  the  City 
Council.  The  personnel  of  the  Board  has  remained  unchanged  and  their 
sustained  intelligent  interest  and  unselfish  public  service  has  insured  a 
continuity  of  poHcy  which  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  work.  The  preliminary  investigations  prior  to  1915  were  made  under 
the  direction  of  the  late  Samuel  M.  Gray,  then  a  member  of  this  Asso- 
ciation, and  the  general  plans  then  outlined  have  been  followed  in  the  sub- 
sequent development  of  the  project.  The  writer  became  Chief  Engineer 
in  August,  1915,  and  complete  topographic  and  real  estate  surveys  were 
pushed  to  completion  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Horizontal  control  was  in- 
sured by  a  rectangular  coordinate  system  established^y  triangulation 
and  vertical  control  by  a  net  of  precise  levels.  Subsurface  investigations 
for  all  structures  were  begun  almost  immediately.  All  Structures  connected 
with  the  reservoir,  including  relocated  roads,  new  cemetery,  dam,  dike, 
etc.,  were  located,  approval  obtained  from  various  authorities  as  necessary 
and  title  taken  by  condemnation  to  the  entire  area  of  12  450  acres  on 
December  6,  1916.  Similarly  title  was  taken  to  land  required  for  the 
aqueduct  on  April  4,  1917. 

The  first  construction  contract,  for  river  control  at  the  Main  Dam, 
was  let  in  January,  1917,  and  it  was  then  expected  to  follow  this  with  a 
contract  for  the  major  part  of  the  work  on  the  dam  in  the  fall  of  that  year. 

/ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


wiNSOR.  329 

O^'ing  to  the  coming  on  of  war  in  April,  1917,  the  major  contract  referred 
to  was  not  let  until  May,  1921,  and  the  completion  of  the  entire  work 
ha-s  been  of  necessity  delayed  thereby  from  two  to  three  years.  It  is  now 
expected  to  begin  storage  of  water  in  the  smnmer  or  fall  of  1925  and,  depen- 
dent upon  rainfall  and  run-off,  to  begin  furnishing  water  either  in  the 
summer  of  1926  or  the  following  winter.  The  essential  construction  pro- 
gram should  be  completed  in  1926  if  present  plans  are  carried  out. 
Following  is  a  smnmary  of  statistics  of  the  new  supply: 

SciTUATE  Reservoir 

Drainage  area 92.8  sq.  mi. 

Storage  capacity 36,900  000  000  gal. 

Area  of  water  surface 3  600  acres. 

Average  depth  of  water 32  ft. 

Flow  line  elevation  above  mean  high  water  of  Providence  harbor 284  ft. 

Maximum  depth  of  water  (in  river  bed  at  dam) 87  ft. 

Length  of  east  branch,  measured  from  dam,  about 7  mi. 

Length  of  west  branch,  measured  from  dam,  about 5.7  mi. 

Maximum  width,  near  dam,  about 21  mi. 

Length  of  flow  line,  not  including  islands,  about 38    mi. 

Number  of  islands 28 

Highways  to  be  abandoned  (including  7.4  mi.  regraded) 34.7   mi. 

Highways  to  be  built  and  regraded 26.0  mi. 

Real  Estate. 

Area  which  City  was  permitted  by  law  to  acquire  : 16  000  acres 

•Area  which  City  condenmed  for  reservoir 12^450  acres 

Length  of  main  taking  line 56  mi. 

Total  area  which  City  condemned  for  reservoir,  new  highways  and  ceme- 
teries  12  547  acres  or  19.6  sq.  mi. 

Total  area,  including  property  surrendered,  which  City  will  control, 

about 15  000  acres 

(Total  area  of  the  City  of  Providence  is  11  700  acres) 

I>welling  houses  on  condemned  area 357 

School  houses  on  condenmed  area 7 

Churches  on  condenmed  area 6 

Cotton  mill  plants  on  condenmed  area 6 

Total  buildings  on  condemned  area 1  195 

Cemetery  lots  on  condemned  area 173 

Main  Dam. 

Length,  about ' 3  200  ft. 

Maximum  height  above  valley,  about 100  ft. 

Maximum  height  above  bed  rock,  about , 180  ft. 

Maximum  thickness  at  base 640  ft. 

Thickness  at  flow  line 118  ft. 

Width  on  top,  13  ft.  above  flow  line 37  ft. 

Cubic  contents  of  dam,  including  refilling  below  surface  of  the  ground, 

about 2  500  000  cu.  yds. 

liength  of  spillway  at  west  end  of  dam,  (net)  about 413  ft. 

Length  of  spillway  channel  to  river  below  dam,  about 1  800  ft. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


7 

mi. 

80  acres 

50 

ft. 

200 

ft. 

3i 

mi. 

140 

ft. 

1 

mi. 

2} 

mi. 

330  THE   NEW   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   THE   CITY  OF   PROVIDENCE. 

Dike. 

Length,  about 4  000  ft. 

Maximum  height  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  about 33  ft. 

Average  height  above  surface  of  the  ground,  about 15    ft . 

Aqueduct. 

Total  length  from  gate  house  in  dam  to  present   distribution   system, 
about  

Land  condemned,  about 

Minimum  width  of  taking -. . 

Maximum  width  of  taking  (except  at  shaft  and  tunnel  portals) 

Tunnel,  concrete  lined,  equivalent  to  about  7  ft.  9  in.  diameter  circle .... 

Depth  of  constniction  shaft,  about  7  200  ft.  from  east  portal 

Masonry  aqueduct  or  pipe  lines  in  open  cut 

West  of  tunnel 

East  of  tunnel 


Scituate  Reservoir.  After  a  thorough  investigation  it  was  decided 
in  1916  not  to  strip  the  top  soil  from  the  area  to  be  flooded  as  was  done  at 
the  Wachusett  Reservoir  of  the  Metropolitan  System,  as  the  benefits 
therefrom  would,  it  was  believed,  be  incommensurate  with  the  cost  It 
is  the  writer's  opinion  that,  while  removal  of  soil  may  be  and  in  some  in- 
stances undoubtedly  has  been  very  beneficial  in  the  early  years  of  a  res- 
ervoir's use,  it  probably  accomplishes  little  or  nothing  of  permanent  value 
and  that  it  cannot  be  considered  in  any  sense  a  satisfactory  substitute 
for  filtration.  With  present  and  prospective  wage  scales  and  the  propor- 
tion of  hand  labor  involved,  it  seems  reasonably  certain  that  soil  removal 
from  large  storage  reservoirs  will  seldom  if  ever  be  economically  justified 
in  the  future.  The  reservoir  area  including  a  30-foot  marginal  strip  will 
be  cleared  of  all  vegetation  immediately  prior  to  flooding  and  stumjjs  and 
roots  will  be  generally  removed  from  areas  to  be  submerged  less  than  about 
25  ft.    It  was  also  decided  in  1916  to  filter  the  new  supply. 

The  principal  shallow  flowage  area  is  at  the  upper  end  of  the  east  ami 
of  the  reservoir  and  to  insure  keeping  this  area  flooded  when  the  main 
reservoir  is  drawn  down,  and  to  provide,  before  the  completion  of  the  new 
project,  some  storage  which  could  be  sent  down  the  river,  if  and  as  needed, 
to  the  present  Pettaconset  Pumping  Station,  a  structure  known  as  the 
Regulating  Dam  was  designed  and  built  in  1918  at  the  village  of  North 
Scituate.  The  dam  floods  an  area  of  about  210  acres  to  a  maximum  depth 
of  about  12  ft.,  with  an  average  depth  of  about  5  ft.  at  Elevation  284, 
the  level  of  Scituate  Reservoir.  In  order  to  increase  the  capacity  tempor- 
arily the  reservoir  has  been  maintained  generally  at  Elevation  285.5  by 
18-in.  flashboards,  thus  providing  a  storage  of  about  420  000  000  gal.  which 
has  been  available  if  and  as  needed  at  Pettaconset  since  the  spring  of  1919. 
This  dam  as  shown  on  the  accompanying  photograph  is  circular  in  plan 
and  of  a  true  arch  type.  The  radius  of  the  upstream  edge  of  the  dam  is 
50  ft.  and  the  ends  near  the  highway  connect  with  the  abutments  of  the 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WINSOR.  331 


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332      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

new  Danielson  Pike  Bridge  by  reverse  curves.  The  spillway  has  a  net 
length  of  about  220  ft.,  the  concrete  crest  being  at  the  same  elevation  as 
the  crest  of  the  spillway  of  the  Scituate  Reservoir  about  6  mi.  below.  The 
dam  is  mainly  on  coarse  sand  and  gravel  and  water-tightness  was  secured 
by  placing  a  blanket  of  soil  and  subsoil  2  ft.  thick,  rolled  in  thin  laj^ers, 
outside  the  wall  of  the  dam  for  a  radial  distance  of  75  ft.  The  concrete 
section  except  at  the  abutments  and  gate  chamber,  is  L  shaped  being  15  ft. 
high  and  vertical  on  the  water  face  and  10  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom.  The 
thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  spillway  level  is  30  in.,  and  12  ft.  down,  42  in., 
this  being  the  level  of  the  concrete  apron  which  forms  the  horizontal  part 
of  the  L  and  which  is  3  ft.  thick.  The  water  falls  over  the  spillway  and 
drops  12  ft.  on  to  the  concrete  apron,  which  is  6  ft.  6  in.  in  width.  The 
bottom  is  further  protected  by  paving  6  ft.  in  width  and  additional  pro- 
tection is  provided  in  front  of  the  gate  chamber  through  which  the  water 
is  drawn  off. 

SciUiate  A  queduct.  The  Scituate  Aqueduct  runs  in  an  easterly  direction 
from  the  Main  Dam  to  the  present  distribution  system  near  Sockanosset 
Reservoir  and  is  about  7  mi.  long,  3^  mi.  of  which  is  in  tunnel,  a  contract 
for  which  was  awarded  September  6,  1922.  The  westerly  end  of  the  aque- 
duct at  the  Scituate  Dam  is  only  about  10  mi.  from  the  civic  center  of  Provi- 
dence and  when  the  great  distances  that  many  cities  have  had  to  go  for 
water  are  considered,  it  is  remarkable  that  a  sparsely  settled  drainage 
area  of  92.8  sq.  mi.,  all  situated  in  the  small  state  of  Rhode  Island,  is  avail- 
able so  near  at  hand. 

Subsurface  Investigations,  Subsurface  investigations  were  begun  late 
in   1915.    These  investigations  may  be  divided  into  4  classes: 

1.  Wash  borings  to  the  surface  of  the  rock,  followed  by  diamond  drill 

borings  into  rock. 

2.  Wash  borings  to  determine  character  of  material    except    rock. 

3.  Rod  soundings  to  eliminate  rock  to  the  depth  of  the  sounding. 

4.  Test  pits. 

(1)  Work  under  class  1  was  done  entirely  by  contract  with  Sprague 
it  Henwood,  Inc.,  of  Scranton,  Pa.  The  material  overlying  the  rock  con- 
tains commonly  boulders  of  both  large  and  small  size  and  core  borings 
only  were  depended  upon  for  accurate  infonnation  as  to  the  locations  of 
ledge  rock.  In  connection  with  the  investigations  for  the  dam,  tunnel 
and  other  works,  a  total  of  202  borings  was  made  in  this  class  aggregat- 
ing 5  202  ft.  of  wash  boring  and  3  738  ft.  of  core  boring  in  rock.  The 
total  cost  of  the  work,  exclusive  of  administration  and  engineering,  was 
$18  416,  making  the  average  price  paid  per  foot  for  wash  and  core  borings 
respectively,  $1.65  and  $2.63.  Great  care  was  taken  in  the  preservation 
of  cores  in  rock  and  to  obtain  accurate  information  in  regard  to  the  character 
of  tbe  overlying  material.  Some  of  the  provisions  of  the  specifications  are 
as  follows: 


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wiNSOR.  333 

An  accurate  record  shall  be  kept  of  all  materials  penetrated  as  well  as  the  depth 
of  each  boring.  Samples  of  the  materials  penetrated,  other  than  cores  of  rock,  shall 
be  taken  in  the  manner,  and  as  frequently  as  directed,  placed  in  receptacles,  furnished 
by  the  Board,  which  shall  be  so  numbered  and  marked  as  to  be  readily  identified,  and 
shall  be  delivered  in  boxes^  furnished  by  the  Contractor  at  such  places  as  the  Engineer 
may  direct.  Ihe  cores  of  rock  shall  be  carefully  handled  so  that  they  will  not  be 
destroyed  or  injured.  They  shall  be  carefully  preserved,  marked  and  placed  in  wooden 
boxes,  furnished  by  the  Contractor,  of  a  design  approved  by  the  Engineer.  Upon 
the  completion  of  a  hole  the  covers  of  the  boxes  shall  be  securely  screwed  on  and  the 
boxes  delivered  at  such  places  as  directed  and  shall  remain  the  property  of  the  City. 
Should  it  prove  impracticable  at  any  depth  to  obtain  a  core,  or  should  a  seam  be  encoun- 
tered, particular  care  shall  be  taken  to  get  accurate  samples  of  the  materials  penetrated 
and  the  correct  limits  between  which  no  core  can  be  obtained. 

It  is  important  that  as  large  a  percentage  as  possible  of  the  cores  shall  be  recovered, 
and  the  Contractor  shall  regulate  the  speed  of  his  drill  and  remove  the  core  as  frequently 
as  directed  in  order  to  maintain  a  maximum  percentage  of  recovery,  special  care  being 
taken  where  the  character  of  rock  being  penetrated  is  uncertain.  If  the  appliances 
on  any  machine  are  not  such  as  will  give  a  reasonable  amount  of  core  in  the  opinion  of 
the  Engineer,  the  Contractor  shall  furnish  such  appliances  as  will  be  satisfactory. 

Blasting'  with  small  charges  w^ill  be  allowed  for  the  removal  of  a  boulder  or  other 
obstruction  which  cannot  be  conveniently  removed  otherwise. 

The  Contractor  shall  drive  to  such  depths  as  directed,  generally  to  sound  bed- 
rock, a  wrought-iron  or  steel  casing  at  such  points  as  are  designated.  These  casings 
shall  be  of  such  sizes  that  it  will  be  feasible  to  continue  the  boring  into  bed-rock,  as  a 
core  boring. 

The  casings  for  the  wash  borings  are  to  be  driven  by  some  suitable  form  of  wash- 
boring  rig  that  will  penetrate  all  material  other  than  sound  rock  to  be  found  in  the 
territory  to  be  explored  and  give  the  speed  required  for  the  completion  of  the  work.  The 
wash  water  may  be  used  repeatedly  if  necessary,  but  sufficient  tubs  or  buckets  shall  be 
provided  to  allow  all  the  coarser  material  to  settle  out  before  using  the  water  again. 
Where  the  character  of  the  material  will  permit,  it  is  desirable  to  drive  not  over  5  ft. 
before  each  washing,  and  under  no  circimistances  may  the  wash  pipe  advance  more  than 
6  in.  below  the  bottom  of  the  casing. 

The  Contractor  shall  provide  all  facilities  and  assistance  necessary  to  secure  sam- 
ples of  materials  penetrated  whenever  required.  Dry  samples  obtained  by  forcing 
the  sampler  tube  below  the  limits  of  the  washing,  will,  in  general,  be  required  about 
every  5  ft.  in  depth  and  may  be  reqtiired  at  more  frequent  intervals. 

Whenever  ordered,  wash  borings  which  have  been  carried  to  sound  bed-rock  shall 
be  further  continued  by  core  borings  into  the  sound  rock  to  such  depths  as  may  be  deemed 
advisable  by  the  Engineer,  usually  about  20  ft.  Unless  otherwise  permitted,  cores 
shall  have  diameters  of  not  less  than  1)  inches  if  diamond  drills  are  used  and  not  less 
than  2i  inches  if  shot  driUs  are  used. 

While  the  specifications  permitted  using  shot  drills,  the  contractor 
actually  used  only  diamond  drills.  The  method  used  in  obtaining  samples 
was  also  used  in  all  wash  borings  done  under  (2)  and  w^as  found  to  be  ex- 
tremely satisfactory,  the  materials  indicated  by  the  samples  being  thus 
far  in  very  close  agreement  with  those  found  where  actual  excavations  have 
been  made. 


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334       THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

In  addition  to  the  diamond  drill  borings  made  by  the  Board,  27  borings 
having  an  aggregate  depth  of  790  ft.  in  earth  and  358  ft.  in  rock  were  made 
by  the  Committee  of  the  City  Council,  mainly  in  1914. 

(2)  Extensive  investigations  were  made  by  wash  borings  to  determine 
the  character  of  material  available  for  building  the  dam,  and  to  obtain 
negative  information  as  to  rock  at  various  other  structures.  The  method 
of  taking  samples  was  the  same  as  already  described  and  no  samples  were 
permitted  to  be  taken  of  material  washed  out  of  the  various  holes,  unless 
it  was  found  impossible  to  get  dry  samples.  One  hundred  twenty-two 
borings  having  an  aggregate  depth  of  3  046  ft.  were  made. 

(3)  Rod  soundings  made  by  driving  a  rod  into  the  ground  were  also 
made  by  employees  of  the  Board,  the  aggregate  depth  for  1  264  sound- 
ings being  6  649  ft. 

(4)  1  143  test  pits  were  made  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  some  725  of 
them  (total  depth  1  750  ft.)  being  to  determine  the  material  available  for 
impervious  core,  which  investigation  covered  a  very  large  area  below  the 
flow  Hne  of  the  reservoir. 

Nearly  all  of  this  work  was  done  by  labor  directlj'  employed  by  the 
Board. 

Rainfall  and  Run-off,  A  record  of  the  rainfall  and  run-oflF  on  the  North 
Branch  of  the  Pawtuxet  River  has  been  kept  since  1916,  indicating  con- 
ditions in  general  similar  to  those  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  for  the  same 
period.  The  average  yearly  rainfall  for  the  past  six  calendar  years  was 
48.8  in.,  with  an  average  run-oflF,  from  land  surfaces  only,  of  57,5  per  cent, 
the  corresponding  figures  for  the  Wachusett  drainage  area  being  45.1  in. 
rainfall  and  57.8  per  cent.  run-oflF  from  land  surfaces  only.  The  estimated 
average  long  term  rainfall  on  the  Scituate  Reservoir  drainage  area  is  about 
45.5  in.  as  compared  with  the  Wachusett  average  from  1897  to  1921  in- 
clusive, of  45.3  in.  The  average  elevation  of  the  drainage  area  of  Scituate 
and  Wachusett  Reservoirs  are  470  and  750  ft.  above  sea  level  respectively. 
Detailed  figures  of  rainfall  and  run-oflF  are  given  in  the  annual  reports  of 
the  Water  Supply  Board  and  also  in  Water  Supply  Papers  SOI  and  521 
of  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey. 

Four  standard  8  in.  Friez  rain  gages  are  maintained  and  a  Gurley  auto- 
matic elevation-recording  stream  gage  makes  a  continuous  record  of  the 
depth  of  water  on  the  Fiskeville  dam,  an  unused  mill  dam  about  3^  mi. 
downstream  from  the  Scituate  Dam,  the  watershed  area  of  which  is  101.8 
sq.  mi.  The  discharge  curve  for  the  Fiskeville  dam  was  based  on  experi- 
ments at  Brown  University  in  1916  on  a  model  section  checked  by  current 
meter  observations  at  a  convenient  point  a  short  distance  upstream  and 
further  checked  by  published  experimental  data  in  Waier  Supply  Paper 
No.  200  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  and  elsewhere.  There  have  been 
no  floods  of  magnitude  since  the  gaging  station  was  established,  but  it  is 
of  interest  to  note  that  the  two  highest  run-oflFs  occurred  in  July  and  Sept- 
tember  of  this  year,  the  peaks  at  Fiskeville  being  26  and  28  second  feet  per 


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wiNsoR.  335 

square  mile  of  total  drainage  area.  At  the  time  of  the  July  storm  a  peak 
of  50  second  feet  per  square  mile  was  reached  from  22  sq.  mi.  of  this  same 
drainage  area  at  the  regulating  dam  at  North  Scituate.  The  summer 
rainfall  and  run-oflF  of  1922  has  probably  seldom  if  ever  been  exceeded  in 
this  locality. 

Quality  of  Water  in  Scituate  Reservoir.  The  average  hardness  and  alka* 
Unity  of  the  water  flowing  past  the  site  of  the  Main  Dam  during  1921  was 
about  6.3  and  4.0  parts  per  million  respectively.  The  color  of  the  present 
stream  at  the  Main  Dam,  based  mainly  upon  observations  during  the  past 
6  years,  averaged  46  with  considerable  variations.  On  48  sampling  days 
in  1916  the  average  color  was  43,  36  of  these  days  being  between  26  and  50 
and  12  days  between  51  and  100.  On  31  sampling  days  in  1917  the  average 
color  was  39,  28  of  these  days  being  between  26  and  51,  and  3  days  between 
51  and  100.  In  the  early  years  after  filling  it  is  probable  that  there  will 
be  little  if  any  improvement  in  color  over  the  average  of  the  influent  water 
and  in  fact  temporary  seasonal  increases  in  color  may  be  expected.  It 
seems  certain,  however,  that  after  a  few  years  the  reservoir  with  its  storage 
of  400  000  000  gal.  per  sq.  mi.  (the  Wachusett  Reservoir  stores  about 
600  000  000  gal.  per  sq.  mi.)  will  have  a  strong  decolorizing  or  bleaching 
effect  upon  the  water  stored.  The  average  population  on  the  drainage 
area  will  in  1925  probably  not  exceed  25  persons  per  sq.  mi.,  mostly  being 
on  isolated  farms  with,  however,  some  local  concentrations,  the  largest 
of  which  will  be  in  North  Scituate  about  six  miles  above  the  reservoir  intake 
at  the  dam.  The  city  owns  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  the  drainage  area, 
the  taking  line  except  at  North  Scituate  being  generally  at  least  500  ft.  dis- 
tant from  the  flow  line  and  averaging  over  one  quarter  mile.  The  type  of 
filters,  which  will  be  located  between  the  dam  and  the  tunnel,  has  not  yet 
been  determined.  It  has  not  yet  been  necessary  to  design  the  filters,  as 
their  construction  need  not  be  begun  before  late  in  1923,  and  in  the  mean- 
time advantage  may  be  taken  of  any  advances  in  the  art  of  treating  water 
of  this  character. 

Cemeteries.  Upon  the  area  acquired  by  the  city  there  were  101  farm 
cemeteries  and  a  community  cemetery  near  Rockland  containing  about 
75  lots.  The  total  number  of  known  bodies  was  2  308  which  number  has 
been  materially  increased  by  the  discovery  of  unmarked  graves  as  the  work 
of  removal  progressed.  About  one  half  of  the  farm  cemeteries  are  so  far 
distant  from  the  flow  line  that  their  removal  is  unnecessary,  although 
further  burials  have  been  prohibited.  A  new  cemetery  known  as  the  New 
Rockland  Cemetery  was  established  upon  a  sandy  knoll  about  f  mile 
distant  from  the  flow  line  of  the  Rockland  arm  of  the  reservoir  and  6  miles 
distant  from  the  dam.  The  removal  of  bodies  was  begun  in  September, 
1918,  and  this  work  was  practically  finished  in  July,  1922.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  cemetery,  including  drives,  etc.,  was  done  by  forces  in  the 
direct  employ  of  the  Board,  as  was  also  nearly  all  the  work  of  removal  of 
bodies  thereto,  moving  and  resetting  headstones,  monuments,  etc.  The  new 


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336  THE   NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

cemetery  was  laid  out  and  the  plan  filed  in  the  records  of  the  town  where 
located.  In  consideration  of  a  release  to  all  right,  title  and  interest  in  the 
old  ground,  parties  interested  are  given  a  deed  to  a  lot  sufiicient  for  their 
needs  in  the  new  grounds,  and  the  bodies  in  which  they  are  interested, 
together  with  head  stones  and  monuments,  moved  thereto.  Some  of  the 
rules  of  the  new  cemetery  are  as  follows: 

All  work  in  the  old  and  new  cemeteries  shall  be  done  only  by  parties  previously 
approved  by  the  city. 

All  lots  shall  be  bounded  by  permanent  concrete  monuments  provided  by  and 
set  by  the  city,  such  monuments  to  be  5  in.  square  and  20  in.  long. 

There  shall  be  no  curb  stones,  iron  or  stone  fences  or  close  hedges  permitted. 

No  foot  stones  will  be  permitted  and  foot  stones  in  existing  groimds  will  not  be 
brought  to  the  new  grounds. 

Head  stones  shall  be  set  at  least  as  permanently  and  satisfactorily  as  in  present 
grounds. 

Field  stones  without  lettered  inscriptions  marking  graves  in  existing  grounds  will 
not  be  moved  to  the  new  grounds. 

Suitable  records  shall  be  kept  showing  the  position  of  all  unmarked  graves  in  the 
new  cemetery  and  the  locations  from  which  they  were  removed. 

The  work  of  removing  cemeteries  is  practically  complete,  there  having 
been  1  598  bodies  removed,  of  which  1  448  have  been  moved  to  the  new 
cemetery,  the  remainder  having  been  moved  to  lots  provided  by  parties 
interested,  in  other  cemeteries,  generally  in  the  State  of  Rhode  Island.  The 
grounds  have  been  maintained  to  date  by  the  city  and  the  approximate 
cost  of  the  work,  including  bodies  moved  to  other  cemeteries,  has  been 
as  follows: 

Maintenance  $2  800,  received  for  original  interments,  $500,  net 
cost  of  maintenance  $2  300.  Development  of  new  grounds  $15  800,  mov- 
ing bodies,  head  stones,  monuments,  etc.,  $17  100.  Total  $35  200.  Cost 
of  land  $1  700.  Total  cost  including  land  $36  900.  Cost  per  body  moved 
from  old  grounds  $23.09.  The  above  costs  do  not  include  administration, 
engineering,  or  fencing,  which  may  later  be  necessary. 

Main  Dam  and  Dike. 

The  accompanying  plans,  Plates  II  and  III,  show  the  main  features 
in  the  design  of  these  structures. 

The  cross  sections  of  the  valley,  the  character  and  depth  of  the  material 
overlying  the  rock  and  the  ease  and  economy  of  construction  of  an  independ- 
ent masonry  spillway  founded  on  rock  clearly  indicated  an  earth  dam  to 
be  the  best  and  most  economical  type  for  the  Main  Dam.  Subsurface 
investigations  of  the  material  overlying  the  bed  rock  showed  it  to  be  a 
modified  glacial  drift  varying  from  very  fine  sand  to  coarse  gravel  with 
very  irregular  stratification  and   freely  water  bearing.     The  materials 


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WINSOR. 


337 


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338 


THE   NEW   WATER   SUPPLY   OF  THE   CITY   OF   PROVIDENCE. 


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wiNsoR.  339 

encountered  in  the  excavations  so  far  made  agree  very  closely  with  those 
indicated  by  the  borings.  The  underlying  rock  is  a  granitic  gneiss  of  fairly 
uniform  quality  and  no  fault  appeared  in  the  bottom  of  the  rock  valley. 

The  control  of  the  stream  during  construction  was  accomplished  by 
diverting  it  into  a  horseshoe  shaped  conduit  25  ft.  wide  by  21  ft.  4  in.  high 
and  462  ft.  long  passing  through  and  under  the  dam,  with  its  bottom  eleva- 
tions substantially  the  same  as  the  old  river  bed.  This  conduit  is  founded 
upon  ledge  rock  and  is  connected  with  the  river  by  approach  and  discharge 
channels  about  1  000  ft.  and  200  ft.  long  respectively.  The  approach  chan- 
nel is  lined  with  concrete  up  to  the  height  of  ordinary  river  flows,  mainly 
with  the  idea  that  the  percolation  into  the  deep  portions  of  the  core  trench 
during  construction  might  be  reduced  thereby.  The  upstream  and  down- 
stream sides  of  the  deep  excavations  are  guarded  by  earth  embankments 
forming  the  toes  of  the  dam  and  referred  to  as  the  upstream  and  down- 
stream cofferdams.  The  upstream  cofferdam  is  at  a  sufficient  height  to 
provide  without  being  overtopped,  for  the  continuous  passage  of  about  150 
second  feet  per  square  mile  through  the  stream  control  conduit. 

Provision  for  a  flood  of  this  unusual  magnitude  was  considered  neces- 
sary' because  of  the  important  mill  properties  on  the  stream  below  the  dam 
which  might  suffer  great  damage  if  accumulated  storage  was  suddenly 
released  by  the  failure  of  an  inadequate  temporary  structure.  It  was  also 
very  important  to  avoid  any  possibility  of  flooding  the  deep  portion  of 
the  cut-off  trench  during  its  excavation  and  refilling.  The  largest  run- 
off per  square  mile  in  this  vicinity,  of  which  any  reliable  record  has  been 
found,  occurred  in  February,  1886,  from  about  32  sq.  mi.  of  this  same  drain- 
age area,  when  a  peak  of  undoubtedly  short  duration  of  about  140  second 
feet  per  square  mile  occurred.  The  storage  below  the  top  of  the  upstream 
cofferdam  is  about  2  500  000  000  gal.,  the  accumulation  of  which  would 
materially  reduce  the  peak  of  a  short  quick  flood  at  the  dam. 

The  gate  house  is  located  about  60  ft.  upstream  from  the  center  of 
dam  and  over  the  stream  control  conduit.  When  the  embankment  of 
the  dam  is  substantiaUy  completed  a  steel  and  wooden  bulkhead  will  be 
built  at  the  upstream  end  of  the  stream  control  conduit  and  a  temporary 
cofferdam  near  its  lower  end.  The  ordinary  dry  season  flow  of  the  stream 
will  then  be  carried  in  a  36-in.  steel  pipe  already  laid  in  the  masonry  invert 
of  the  conduit,  while  the  conduit  is  being  plugged  at  the  gate  house  and 
permanent  stream  control  gates,  etc.,  are  provided.  After  the  closure 
of  the  conduit  is  completed  the  36-in.  pipe  will  be  permanently  closed  and 
the  filling  of  the  reservoir  begun.  The  river  control  conduit  downstream 
from  the  gate  house  will  be  divided  by  a  horizontal  floor  about  half  way  up, 
upon  which  will  be  supported  the  pipes  which  carry  water  to  the  City  and 
below  which  will  flow  the  water  released  for  use  of  the  mills  downstream. 
The  gate  house  will  be  equipped  with  shutters  which  will  provide  for  draw- 
ing either  city  or  mill  water  substantially  from  the  bottom,  from  a  depth 
of  about  47  ft.  or  from  any  depth  down  to  32  ft.  below  full  reservoir  level. 


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340      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

The  gate  house  is  also  designed  to  permit  the  installation  of  turbines  cap- 
able of  developing  the  power  available  from  either  city  or  mill  water  pass- 
ing through  the  dam.  A  Venturi  meter  for  measuring  the  flow  of  mill 
water  will  be  provided  near  the  downstream  end  of  the  conduit. 

The  approach  to  the  spillway  of  the  reservoir  is  separated  from  the 
main  dam  near  its  west  end  by  a  knoll  of  ledge  rock  extending  slightly  above 
the  top  of  the  dam.  A  three  span  reinforced  concrete  arch  bridge  about 
250  ft.  long  extends  over  this  arm  of  the  reservoir  near  the  spillway  and 
connects  the  public  road  to  be  built  over  the  dam  with  the  main  land.  The 
spillway  is  a  solid  masonry  structure  with  a  maximum  height  above  rock 
as  indicated  by  the  borings  of  about  20  ft.  and  with  a  gross  length  of  about 
440  ft.  The  net  length  is  about  413  ft.  and  a  platform  will  be  provided 
about  4  ft.  above  the  crest  from  which  low  flashboards  can  be  placed  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  water  due  to  wave  action  when  the  reservoir  is  full. 
The  length  of  spillway  is  conservatively  designed  in  connection  with  the 
great  area  of  the  reservoir  to  take  care  of  any  possible  floods  without  unduly 
raising  the  water  surface.  The  minimum  elevation  of  the  top  of  the  main 
dam  and  dike  is  13  ft.  above  flow  line  of  the  reservoir  and  the  higher  portions 
of  the  structure  will  be  built  with  an  allowance  for  ultimate  settlement 
to  this  minimum.  After  falling  over  the  spillway  the  waste  water  will 
be  conducted  back  to  the  river  through  an  excavated  channel  about  1  800 
ft.  long,  with  the  bottom,  except  near  the  river,  in  rock. 

It  was  necessary  in  order  to  make  a  tight  dam  to  provide  an  impervious 
cut-off  down  to  rock.  A  thorough  examination  indicated  that  soil  and 
subsoil  were  the  only  materials  available  in  sufficient  quantity  and  of  de- 
pendable uniformity  for  making  a  water  tight  cut-off.  The  mat-erial  under- 
lying the  subsoil  within  a  practicable  distance  of  the  dam  is  modified 
glacial  drift,  very  similar  in  its  general  characteristics  to  that  encountered  in 
the  excavation  of  the  cut-off  trench.  Its  very  variable  character  and  the 
absence  from  large  portions  of  it  of  fine  materials  precluded  its  use  for 
the  core. 

A  masonry  core  wall  was  cpnsidered  and  estimates  of  cost  were  made 
with  various  designs.  It  was  not  deemed  good  design,  on  account  of  the 
very  porous  character  of  the  material  available  for  the  abutting  fill,  to 
depend  for  watertightness  solely  upon  a  non-stable  masonry  wall,  of  any 
dimensions  economically  practicable,  which  would  be  apt  to  crack  under 
unbalanced  pressure,  and  all  designs  for  masonry  cores  contemplated  a 
considerable  amount  of  soil  and  subsoil  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  wall. 
The  placing  of  the  soil  would  be  complicated  by  the  presence  of  the  wall 
and  it  was  concluded  that  a  more  satisfactory  and  more  nearly  watertight 
structure  could  be  obtained  under  the  conditions  which  here  prevail  by 
the  adopted  design,  which  contains  about  2^  times  more  impervious  mater- 
ial than  the  minimum  considered  with  the  masonry  wall  and  has  also  the 
advantage  of  considerable  economy  over  any  design  of  masonry  core 
considered. 


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WINSOR.  341 

The  possibilities  of  hydraulic  dam  construction  were  considered  at 
great  length,  and  it  was  finally  decided  to  require  that  the  impervious  core 
be  placed  in  thin  layers  (not  more  than  6  in.  after  rolling)  wet  and  rolled 
with  heavy  rollers.  There  were  several  reasons  for  this  conclusion,  some 
of  which  are  as  follows: 

(1)  The  excavation  and  refilling  of  the  deep  portions  of  the  core 
trench  with  a  maximum  depth  of  80  ft.  and  a  length  of  over  1  000  ft.  had 
to  be  done  generally  below  the  ground  water  level  and  the  placing  of  water- 
tight material  under  these  conditions  (such  material  aggregating  about 
one-fourth  the  entire  amount  of  this  material  required  in  the  dam)  could, 
it  was  believed,  be  only  satisfactorily  accomplished  by  a  dry  method. 

(2)  The  borrow  pits  available  are  so  varied  in  character  and  contain 
so  many  large  masses  of  very  coarse  material  that  it  was  considered  unsafe, 
for  the  portion  of  the  dam  above  the  ground  water  level,  to  depend  upon 
them  to  produce  suflScient  fine  material  to  secure  a  satisfactory  watertight 
core,  if  deposited  by  the  usual  hydraulic  method  of  dam  construction. 

(3)  The  soil  and  subsoil  which  are  being  used  in  the  core  could,  it  was 
believed,  even  in  the  upper  part  of  the  dam,  be  as  economically  placed 

n  position  by  the  dry,  as  by  hydraulic  methods,  particularly  when  it  is 
considered  that  a  plant  for  placing  about  i  of  it  in  the  dry  would  be  required 
for  the  portion  of  the  dam  below  ground  water  level. 

(4)  All  the  borrow  pit  material  practically  available  lies  in  the  valley 
upstream  from  the  dam  and  to  place  it  in  the  dam  hydraulically  would 
involve  lifting  to  a  maximum  height  of  about  90  ft.  The  material  contains 
considerable  amounts  of  coarse  gravel,  cobbles  and  large  boulders  which 
would  render  pumping  very  difficult  and  expensive. 

The  contractor  was  given  an  option  in  the  manner  of  placing  the 
material  outside  the  soil  core  and  he  has  decided  to  place  substantially 
all  such  material  with  cars,  either  deposited  in  two-foot  layers  consolidated 
by  heavy  hose  streams  or  under  some  conditions  dumped  into  pools  of  water. 

Some  clauses  in  the  specifications  for  the  dam  affecting  the  placing 
of  materials  are  as  follows: 

Sect.  11.5.  Impervious  Embankment  of  Soil,  Item  11.  Under  Item  11  the  Con- 
tractor shall  furnish  and  place  the  impervious  embankment  of  soil  in  the  core  of  the  dam 
and  dike  and  in  the  upstream  face  of  the  cofferdam  begun  under  a  previous  contract, 
and  elsewhere  if  directed.  Material  for  this  portion  of  the  embankment  shall  consist  of 
top-soil  and  subsoil,  free  from  vegetation  occurring  above  the  ground  siuf  ace,  containing 
no  masses  of  roots  or  individual  roots  more  than  24  in.  long  or  ^  inch  in  diameter,  large 
stones,  porous  materials  and  other  undesirable  matter.  It  shall  be  of  acceptably  impervi- 
ous quality.  Top-soil  containing  an  excess  of  organic  matter,  and  silt  &nd  muck  will  not 
be  acceptable.  Suitable  materials  from  the  excavations  may  be  used  in  the  soil  embank- 
ment. The  remainder  shall  be  obtained  from  approved  locations  within  the  reservoir 
limits  but  not  closer  than  500  ft.  to  the  upstream  toe  of  the  dam  and  dike.  Such  addi- 
tional material  shall  not  be  included  for  payment  under  any  excavation  item,  but  all 
cost  of  excavating  and  hauling  it  to  the  dam  and  placing  it  in  the  embankment  shall 
be  included  in  the  price  stipulated  for  Item  11,  however  great  the  haul  required.  The 
most  convenient  areas  immediately  upstream  from  the  dam  from  which  acceptable 
soil  can  be  obtained  are  indicated  on  Sheets  9,  10,  and  11  of  the  contract  drawings.  To 
obtain  sufficient  acceptable  material  from  easily  excavated  areas  it  will  be  necessary 
to  go  beyond  the  areas  shown.    Acceptable  material  for  impervious  embankment  will 


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342      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

generally  be  found  only  upon  upland  areas  and  many  large  cleared  areas  in  or  near  the 
bottom  of  the  valleys,  the  most  extensive  of  which  are  near  the  main  dam,  will  not  be 
permitted  to  be  used  owing  to  the  presence  of  silt,  sand  and  an  excessive  amount  of 
organic  matter.  Material  placed  under  Item  11  shall  be  roUed  in  6-in.  layers  in  the 
manner  specified  in  Section  11.6.  Care  should  be  taken  in  starting  the  soil  embankment 
for  the  core  to  secure  thorough  filling  of  all  irregularities  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  and 
a  compact  bearing  of  the  soil  on  the  top  and  edges  of  the  concrete  covering  of  the 
rockand  the  cut-oiT  walls,  described  in  Section  17.24,  without  damaging  the  masonr>'. 
This  work  will  require  some  hand  placing  and  tamping  and  shall  be  done  with  great 
thoroughness. 

Sect.  11.6.  Rolling.  Refills  and  embankments  of  soil  placed  under  Item  11 
shall,  unless  otherwise  permitted  or  required,  be  deposited  in  approximat-ely  horizontal 
layers  not  exceeding  6  in.  in  thickness  when  compacted,  and  unless  sufficiently  moist 
as  spread  shall  be  wetted  in  such  manner  as  will  secure  the  uniform  moistening  of  all 
portions  of  each  layer.  The  compacted  surface  shall  be  acceptably  sprinkled  immedi- 
ately before  placing  each  new  layer.  Each  layer  shall  be  rolled  by  approved  rollers 
having  grooved  or  banded  rolls.  The  heaviest  wheels  of  the  roller  shall  cause  a  cal- 
culated average  pressure  of  at  least  30  lb.  to  the  square  inch  on  a  bearing  surface  consid- 
ered as  the  width  of  the  roll  multiplied  by  half  the  arc  bounding  a  segment  of  the  roll, 
at  the  bottom  of  the  grooves,  having  a  middle  ordinate  of  one  inch.  The  roller  shall 
pass  over  every  part  of  each  layer  that  can  be  traversed  by  it  as  many  times  as  may  be 
necessary  to  thoroughly  compact  the  material.  Items  11,  and  12  or  13,  where  contig- 
uous, shall  be  brought  up  simultaneously,  and  the  thorough  compacting  of  the  soil 
where  it  adjoins  the  pervious  materials  will  be  essential  to  avoid  an  unsatisfactory  soft- 
ening of  the  embankment  from  the  use  of  water  in  compacting  the  pervious  materials. 
Portions  of  the  refills  or  embankments  which  the  roUers  cannot  reach  for  any  reason, 
shall  be  compacted  by  extra-heavy  tampers  used  energetically,  or  by  other  means  which 
will  secure  a  degree  of  compacting  equivalent  to  that  obtained  by  rolling  as  specified. 
At  the  beginning  of  each  season,  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  the  enbankment  previ- 
ously placed  shaU  be  carefully  cleaned  and  thoroughly  rolled  before  placing  any  new 
material,  to  consolidate  any  portions  that  may  have  been  loosened  by  frost  action  or 
otherwise. 

Sect.  11.7.  Pervious  Filling  of  Deep  Core  Trench y  Item  12.  The  refilling  of 
the  deep  core  trench  east  of  the  stream  control  conduit  shall  be  placed  by  the  method 
outlined  in  Section  11,  unless  an  alternative  plan  be  approved.  The  pervious  materials 
each  side  of  the  soil  core  shall  be  placed  under  Item  12  in  approximately  horizontal 
layers  not  over  2  ft.  thick,  consolidated  by  the  use  of  jets  of  water  from  hose  under  pres- 
sure and  by  allowing  the  ground  water  to  rise  in  the  materials.  If  fine  sand  is  used  for 
this  refilling  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  maintain  a  considerable  thickness  of  material 
above  the  ground  water  level  to  avoid  conditions  like  quick  sand.  It  is  essential  that 
the  refilling  materials  be  thoroughly  consolidated  so  as  to  avoid  subsequent  settlement, 
and  special  care  shall  be  taken  to  wash  earth  and  sand  into  all  interstices  of  riprap  and 
other  piles  of  rock  fragments  on  the  side  slopes  of  the  excavation  as  the  filling  progresses. 

Sect.  11.8.  PervioiLS  Embankment  Ahoiye  Elevation  195 ^  Iiem  13.  The  pervious 
refilling  and  embanking  for  the  dam  and  dike  above  Elevation  195  shall,  unless  an  alter- 
native plan  be  approved,  be  placed  under  Item  13  in  approximately  horizontal  layers 
not  over  2  ft.  thick  and  consolidated  by  the  liberal  use  of  jets  of  water  from  hose  under 
pressure  or  by  other  efTective  means.  The  water  pressure  shall  be  sufficient  to  easily 
move  coarse  sand.  The  quantity  of  water  that  will  be  required  for  this  purpose  cannot 
be  predicted  and  may  vary  materially  from  time  to  time,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  embankment  materials  and  other  conditions.  P^or  the  purpose  of  a  rough  estimate 
it  is  assumed  that  the  equivalent  of  8  in.  depth  of  water  on  each  2  ft,  layer  will  be  ordi- 
narily sufficient,  and  much  les.s  than  this  may  prove  to  be  satisfactory  under  certain 
conditions.  ^-^  ^ 

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wiNsoR.  343 

Items  12  and  13  above  referred  to  (Sects.  11.7  and  11.8)  are  pervious, 
fill  both  sides  of  the  soil  core,  and  Section  17.24  (referred  to  Sect.  11.5) 
is  as  follows: 

Sect.  17.24,  Concrete  in  Core  Trench.  The  middle  30  ft.  of  the  bottom  of  the 
core  trench,  excavated  and  cleaned  as  specified  in  Section  4.8,  shall  be  covered  or  leveled 
up  with  concrete  to  the  extent  directed  from  place  to  place..  This  work  will  generally 
be  done  before  grouting  the  bottom.  The  purpose  of  this  concrete  is  to  fill  up  the  larger 
irregularities  of  the  bottom,  to  facilitate  the  grouting  and  the  placing  of  the  soil  core, 
to  seal  exposed  joints  and  seams  in  the  rock  bottom  and  to  form  two  low  cut-offs  near 
either  edge  of  the  30-ft.  strip  to  break  the  continuity  of  the  contact  between  the  rock 
and  the  soil  core.  W  here  the  bottom  is  irregular,  as  was  found  to  be  the  case  for  consid- 
erable of  the  portion  immediately  west  of  the  stream  control  conduit,  the  two  cut-offs 
will  be  provided,  but  the  remainder  of  the  concrete  will  be  placed  as  best  meets  the  con- 
ditions, and  the  higher  projections  of  the  rock  bottom,  if  sound,  may  be  left  with  no 
concrete  covering. 

Construction  was  begun  on  a  small  portion  of  the  Main  Dam  in  Janu- 
ary, 1917,  under  Contract  3,  which  provided  in  part  for  the  work  necessary 
to  divert  the  river  and  which  contemplated  completion  on  October  31  of 
the  same  year.  War  was  declared  in  April,  1917,  and  owing  to  the  delays 
occasioned  thereby,  work  on  this  contract  was  not  completed  until  Decem- 
ber 23,  1918.  A  second  contract,  No.  11,  was  entered  into  in  April,  1919, 
for  the  completion  of  the  river  diversion  and  for  a  variety  of  other  work 
essential  to  securing  the  rapid  prosecution  of  construction  following  the 
later  letting  of  the  major  contract.  It  was  expected  to  complete  work 
on  Contract  11  on  December  31, 1919,  but  owing  mainly  to  labor  difficulties 
this  contract  was  not  completed  until  November  1,  1920.  With  the  com- 
pletion of  the  stream  control  work  under  these  two  contracts  the  river 
was  diverted  into  the  horseshoe  shaped  concrete  conduit,  25  ft.  wide  by 
21  ft.  4  in.  high  and  462  ft.  long,  built  in  solid  rock  across  the  foundation 
of  the  Main  Dam.  The  approach  channel  lined  on  bottom  and  sides  with 
concrete  and  about  1  000  ft.  long  and  the  discharge  channel  about  200  ft. 
long  completed  the  river  diversion  channel,  into  which  the  river  was  turned 
on  November  5,  1919.  Portions  of  the  up  and  downstream  cofferdams 
were  built  and  about  500  ft.  of  foundation  of  the  dam  inmiediately  west 
of  the  river  diversion  conduit  was  uncovered,  the  ledge  rock  grouted  and 
the  trench  refilled  to  the  original  surface  with  impervious  material.  The 
aggregate  value  of  contract  work  done  on  the  Main  Dam  prior  to  the  letting 
of  Contract  8,  which  provides  for  the  completion  of  this  work,  was  about 
$278  000. 

Contract  8  for  the  Main  Dam  and  Dike  was  executed  on  May  12, 1921. 
A  schedule  of  the  bids  received  for  this  contract  is  appended.  The  Con- 
tractors, Winston  &  Co.,  Inc.,  erected  an  excellent  camp  on  an  area  of 
about  18  acres  of  sandy  ground  situated  about  J  mile  south  of  the  dam. 
The  camp  housesa  population  of  about  400  and  is  supplied  with  a  suitable 
water  supply,  electric  lights,  plumbing  for  kitchen,  laundry,  sinks,  etc. 
the  drainage  from  which  is  satisfactorily  disposed  of  in  cesspools;  provision 

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344  THE   NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE   CITY  OF  PROVmENCE. 

is  made  for  incineration  of  garbage,  and  the  Kaustine  system  is  used  for 
disposal  of  human  excreta.  A  thoroughly  equipped  hospital  with  atten- 
dants is  provided  at  the  camp.  Some  of  the  sanitary  provisions  of  the 
contract  are  as  follows: 

General  Requirements.  The  Contractor  and  his  employees  shall  promptly  and 
fully  carry  out  the  sanitary  and  medical  requirements  as  hereinafter  described  or  as 
may  from  time  to  time  be  promulgated  by  the  Engineer  to  the  end  that  the  health  of 
his  employees,  of  the  local  communities  and  of  the  people  using  water  from  the  drainage 
areas  affected  by  his  operations  may  be  conserved  and  safeguarded.  The  Contractor 
shall  also  obey  regulations  and  orders  of  the  properly  constituted  authorities,  Municipal 
and  State.  The  Contractor  shall  summarily  dismiss  and  shall  not  again  engage,  except 
with  the  written  consent  of  the  Engineer,  any  employee  who  violates  the  sanitary  and 
medical  requirements;  nor  shall  any  person  be  employed,  without  the  written  consent 
of  the  Engineer,  who  is  known  to  have  violated  the  sanitary  regulations  on  other  works 
of  the  City. 

Inspection.  The  Engineer  shall  have  the  right,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the 
requirements  of  this  contract  as  to  sanitary  matters  are  being  complied  with,  to  enter 
and  inspect  any  camp  or  building  or  any  part  of  the  works,  and  to  cause  any  employee 
to  be  examined  physically  or  medically  or  to  be  vaccinated  or  otherwise  treated;  also  to 
inspect  the  drinking  water  and  food  supplied  to  the  employees. 

Quarters  and  Stables.  The  Contractor  shall  provide  suitable  and  satisfactory 
buildings  for  the  housing,  feeding  and  sanitary  necessities  of  the  men,  and  suitable  stab- 
ling for  animals,  employed  upon  the  work.  All  buildings  for  these  or  kindred  purposes 
shall  be  built  only  in  accordance  with  approved  drawings  and  specifications.  All  houses 
occupied  by  employees  shall  be  thoroughly  screened  to  exclude  mosquitoes  and  flies. 
The  quarters  for  the  men  shall  be  grouped  in  properly  arranged  camps  located  downstream 
from  the  proposed  dam.  The  Contractor  shall  submit  the  locations  proposed  for  his 
camps,  buildingiS)  and  sanitary  works  to  the  Engineer  for  approval,  whether  located  on 
the  land  of  the  City  or  elsewhere,  and  no  such  structures  shall  be  erected  until  such 
approval  shall  have  been  obtained. 

Sanitary  Conveniences  and  Disposal  of  Excreta.  Buildings  for  the  sanitary  neces- 
sities of  all  persons  employed  on  the  work,  beginning  with  the  first  men  employed  to 
build  camps  or  for  other  preliminary  operations,  shall  be  constructed  and  maintained 
by  the  Contractor  in  the  number,  manner  and  places  ordered.  These  conveniences 
shall  be  of  an  approved  chemical  or  an  approved  incinerator  type,  except  that  closets 
having  watertight  removable  receptacles  may  be  used  in  special  cases,  if  and  as  permitted. 
Satisfactory  precautions  shall  be  taken  to  render  the  interior  of  the  closest  inaccessible 
to  flies.  The  requirements  for  sanitaries  in  any  locality  shall  be  on  a  basis  of  not  less 
than  one  unit  for  each  20  persons,  including  both  those  on  duty  and  those  in  camp  off 
duty,  who  are  dependent  on  the  sanitaries  in  the  locality  in  question;  it  being  further 
stipulated  that  the  required  number  are  always  reasonably  near  the  work,  and  that 
incinerators,  if  used,  are  always  in  sufiicient  number  in  any  locality  to  permit  a  reasonable 
proportion  to  be  out  of  service  for  the  daily  incineration  of  their  contents.  The  Contrac- 
tor shall  rigorously  prohibit  the  committing  of  nuisances  upon  land  of  the  City  or  adjacent 
private  property. 

Medical  and  Surgical  Attendance.  The  Contractor  shall  retain  the  services  of 
one  or  more  acceptable,  qualified  physicians,  who  shall  reside  at  the  work  and  have  the 
care  of  his  employees,  shall  inspect  their  dwellings,  the  stables  and  the  sanitaries  as  often 
as  required,  and  shall  supply  medical  attendance  and  medicines  to  the  employees  when- 
ever needed.    The  Contractor  shall  provide  at  the  works  from  approved  plans,  a  building 


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wiNsoR.  345 

properly  fitted  for  the  purpose  of  a  hospital,  with  facilities  for  heating  and  ventilating 
in  cold  weather,  and  for  screening  and  ventilating  in  warm  weather.  This  hospital 
shall  be  provided  with  all  necessary  medicines  and  medical  appliances  for  the  proper 
care  of  the  sick  and  injured.  At  such  places  as  directed  all  articles  necessary  for  giving 
'*  First  aid  to  the  Injured,"  shall  be  provided. 

Medical  Supervision  of  Employees;  Reports.  The  medical  supervision  of  the 
Contractor  over  his  employees  shall  extend  to  the  physical  and  medical  examination 
of  all  applicants  for  employment,  in  order  to  prevent  persons  having  communicable 
diseases  from  becoming  connected  with  the  work,  and  the  Contractor  shall  employ 
only  persons  shown  by  such  examination  to  be  free  from  communicable  diseases.  Any 
employee  having  a  conununicable  disease  shall  be  removed,  when  and  as  directed,  to 
an  approved  permanent  hospital.  Whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Engineer,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  protection  of  the  public  health  or  the  health  of  the  employees,  the  Con- 
tractor shall  remove  any  employee  either  to  a  hospital  or  permanently  from  the  work 
or  camp.  Once  each  week,  if  required,  the  Contractor  shall  give  the  Engineer,  in  such 
detail  as  may  be  prescribed  from  time  to  time,  a  written  report,  signed  by  a  physician 
in  regular  attendance,  setting  forth  clearly  the  health  condition  of  the  camp  or  camps 
and  of  the  employees.  If  any  case  of  commimicable  disease  be  discovered,  or  any  case 
of  doubtful  diagnosis,  it  shall  be  reported  at  once  to  the  Engineer,  by  telephone  or  messen- 
ger, and  confirmed  in  writing. 

Domestic  Water  Supply.  The  water  furnished  by  the  Contractor  shall  include 
a  sufficient  supply  of  drinking  water  of  acceptable  quahty  for  all  his  employees,  to  be 
obtained  from  approved  sources.  He  shall  provide  ample  bathing  and  clothes-washing 
facilities  for  his  employees  and  sufficient  water  of  acceptable  quality  therefor.  If  any 
water  supply  for  domestic  use  should  become  contaminated,  the  contractor  shall  prompt- 
ly provide  a  new  supply  from  an  approved  source  and  abandon  the  contaminated  supply, 
or  shall  provide  works  for  purifying  the  contaminated  water,  when  and  as  ordered.     ' 

TreaimerU  of  Drainage.  Drainage  from  kitchens,  laundries,  sinks,  baths,  and 
stables  shall  be  conducted  in  tight  drains  or  other  satisfactory  conveyors  to  approved 
points  of  disposal  where  it  will  filter  through  the  ground  before  entering  any  water- 
course. 

Disinfectant  and  Fumigation.  The  Contractor  shall  supply  corrosive  sublimate, 
quick  lime,  sulphur  and  other  disinfectants  and  fumigants  in  ordered  quantities,  and 
perform  the  labor  necessary  to  apply  these  materials  when  and  as  directed  in  disinfect- 
ing and  fumigating  camp  and  other  buildings  and  disinfecting  stables  or  grounds. 

Garbage  Disposal.  Garbage,  both  liquid  and  soHd,  shall  be  promptly  and  satis- 
factorily removed  from  the  building  and  immediately  placed  in  approved  tight  recep- 
tacles of  sufficient  capacity  of  about  one  day's  ordinary  production.  At  least  once 
in  every  twenty-four  hours  all  such  garbage  shall  be  incinerated  or  otherwise  thoroughly 
and  satisfactorily  disposed  of  in  an  approved  manner. 

Care  of  Stables.  Manure  will  not  be  permitted  to  accumulate  upon  the  premises 
but  must  be  removed  daily  to  an  approved  distance  or  daily  incinerated.  Removable 
stall  racks  shall  be  provided  to  permit  thorough  cleaning. 


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346  THE   NEW   WATER  SUPPLY   OF   THE   CITY   OF   PROVIDENCE. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WINSOR. 


347 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


348      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

The  construction  of  a  standard  gage  railroad  about  2.3  mi.  long,  con- 
necting the  N.Y.,N.H.  &  H.  Railroad  at  Jackson  with  the  dam,  was  com- 
pleted on  August  13, 1921.  A  high  tension  power  line  about  1  mile  in  length 
connecting  the  Narragansett  Electric  Lighting  Company's  line  with  the 
work  at  the  dam  was  completed  September  28,  1921.  Electric  current 
is  used  for  lighting,  pumping,  for  operating  machine  shop  and  saw  mill 
and  for  a  variety  of  other  purposes.  The  contractor's  equipment  in  use 
at  the  dam  consists  mainly  of  3-ft.  gage  cars  and  locomotives,  large  and 
small  steam  shovels,  small  drag  line  excavators,  steam  rollers,  one  12-ton 
traveling  cable  way,  crossing  the  deep  excavation  transversely,  directly'- 
connected  electrically  driven  pumps  with  a  total  capacity  of  about  9 
million  gallons  daily  against  a  lift  of  about  80  ft.,  pumps,  tanks  and  piping 
for  water  supply,  compressor,  grouting  machine,  bottom  dumping  wagons, 
mules  and  the  usual  rock  drills  and  small  tools.  The  excavation  for  the 
deepest  portion  of  the  core  trench  was  completed,  the  foundation  grouted 


Main  Dam,  Scituate  Reservoir. 

Core  trench  looking  west  towards  stream  control  conduit.  Sump  in  fore- 
ground is  deepest  point  of  foundation,  about  80  feet  below  original  surface. 
Pump  machine  shows  under  canvas  covering  in  right  foreground.  Soil  core 
being  started  part  way  up  slope.     Contract  8,  August  14,  1922. 

and  refilling  begun  in  August,  1922.  In  order  to  keep  the  deep  portion  of 
the  core  trench  unwatered,  extensive  pumping  was  necessary  as  shown  in 
a  later  tabulation.  The  average  side  slopes  of  the  excavation  for  the  deep 
portion  of  the  cut-off  trench  are  about  2  horizontal  to  1  vertical  and  the 
heavy  shovels  were  operated  when  necessary,  and  without  serious  diflSculty, 
in  very  fine  sand  with  the  line  of  saturation  practically  at  its  surface. 
The  material  in  the  excavation  was  very  variable  in  stratification  and  un- 
watering  was  accomplished  by  open  sumps  below  the  general  level  of  the 
excavation  in  locations  where  the  material  was  coarse  and  from  which  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


wiNsoR.  349 

water  was  pumped.  In  one  instance  the  excavation  of  a  sheeted  pump  well 
through  fine  sand  to  coarse  underlying  strata  shown  by  the  borings  was 
attempted  and  after  a  considerable  expenditure  of  time  and  money  was 
given  up  because  the  running  in  of  the  sand  rendered  its  excavation  practi- 
cally impossible  by  the  ordinary  methods  which  were  available.  This 
same  sand,  when  relieved  of  upward  water  pressure  by  tapping  the  coarse 
material  at  some  point  below  it,  stands  up  at  a  steep  slope.  Had  the  very 
fine  portions  of  the  materials  to  be  excavated  been  deposited  in  horizontal 
strata,  more  difficulty  would  have  been  experienced  in  excavation,  but  with 
this  material  existing  in  pockets,  even  though  some  of  them  were  very  large, 
ittle  difficulty  was  experienced,  with  the  aid  of  the  preliminary  borings 
in  selecting  satisfactory  sites  for  sumps.    The  prosecution  of  the  work 


Main  Dam,  Situate  Reservoir. 

Looking  east  along  portion  of  core  trench  west  of  stream  control 
conduit,  showing  placing  of  soil  core.     Contract  8,  August  14, 1922. 

has  demonstrated  fully  to  the  writer  that,  with  the  material  varying  from 
very  fine  sand,  extremely  active  under  water  pressure,  to  gravel  and  with 
boulders  of  all  sizes  up  to  several  yards  in  volume,  the  method  of  excavation 
used  is  the  best  and  most  economical. 

The  experience  so  far  gained  has  demonstrated  that  a  rolled  sand  and 
gravel  embankment  in  thin  layers  either  side  of  the  soil  core  would  have 
been  prohibitive  in  cost  owing  to  the  boulders  in  the  material  available. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


350 


THE   NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF   PROVIDENCE. 


The  following  tabulation  gives  various  progress  data  regarding  the 
excavation  and  pumpage  from  the  deep  portion  of  the  dam  foundation. 

SciTUATE  Dam.     Pumpage  and  Excavation  for  Deep  Portion  of  Foundation. 

Total  Excavation 

Vertical  Projection  of        Maximum  Depth         (Contract  8) 

Area  of  Cut  Below  El.  of  Cut  Below       Including  30  000 

200.  (Approximate  Elevation  200,        Cu.  Yda.  above 

Original  Ground  Water  Except  at  Elevation  200 

Level)  Sq.  Ft.  Sump  Ft.       Cu.  Yds. 

8  800  12         62  600 


Averaffe  Weekly 

Pumpase 
Million    . 

Date. 

GuLs.  Daily. 

Oct.  10, 1921 

15 

I'.S 

22 

1.3 

29 

1.7 

Nov.  5 

1.7 

10 

12 

i.9 

19 

2.1 

26 

2.2 

Dec.  3 

2.4 

10 

2.6 

17 

2.9 

24 

3.0 

31 

3.1 

Jan.  7,  1922 

3.1 

10 

14 

3.7 

21 

4.1 

28 

3.4 

Feb.  4 

3.6 

10 

11 

3.7 

18 

3.7 

25 

3.8 

Mar.  4 

3.8 

10 

11 

3.9 

18 

3.9 

25 

4.0 

Apr.  1 

4.2 

8 

4.1 

10 

15 

4"8 

22 

4.5 

29 

3.9 

May  6 

3.7 

10 

. , 

13 

4.5 

20 

4.7 

27 

4.6 

June  3 

4.3 

10 

4.4 

17 

4.2 

24 

4.3 

July  1 

4.3 

8 

4.3 

15 

4.6 

22 

4.4 

29 

5.6^ 

Aug.  5 

6.1* 

10 

12 

5.4 

19 

4.6 

26 

4.9 

Sept.  2 

5.0 

12  700 


16  700 


19  900 


25  300 


30  600 


34  400 


38  600 


41300 


43  300 


44  400 


24 


24 


31 


36 


41 


45 


54 


64 


71 


74 


80  690 


125  600 


151000 


181900 


208  800 


230  400 


248  300 


263  600 


272  200 


280  300 


♦Probably  too  large,  as  water  pumped  contained  much  fine  sind  and  quantity  is  baaed  on  pump  hours. 


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WINSOR.  351 

Preparation  of  Rock  Foundation.  After  the  earth  and  boulders  have 
been  removed  from  the  core  trench  the  top  of  the  ledge  rock  is  excavated 
to  the  extent  directed  without  the  use  of  explosives,  the  object  being  to 
remove  so  far  as  possible  all  seamy,  broken  and  disintegrated  rock  such 
as  would  permit  the  flow  of  water  from  the  upstream  side  of  the  dam  after 
completion.  The  entire  width  of  exposed  rock  bottom  is  then  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  scrupulously  freed  from  all  dirt,  gravel,  boulders,  loose  frag- 
ments, etc.,  streams  of  water  under  sufficient  pressure,  stifiE  brushes, 
hammers  and  other  effective  means  being  used  to  accomplish  this  cleaning. 
The  full  ordered  width  of  the  bottom  of  the  trench  then  receives  special 
treatment  by  raking  out  all  remaining  seams  and  cavities  and  filling  them 
with  grout  or  mortar. 

The  middle  portion  of  the  core  trench  about  30  ft.  in  width  is  then 
covered  or  leveled  up  to  the  extent  directed  from  place  to  place  with  con- 
crete, the  purpose  being  to  fill  the  larger  irregularities  of  the  bottom,  to 
facilitate  the  grouting  and  placing  of  the  soil  core  and  to  seal  exposed  joints 
and  seams  in  the  rock  bottom.  There  are  also  generally  two  low  concrete 
cut-off  walls  near  either  edge  of  the  30-ft.  strip  which  break  the  continuity 
of  the  contact  between  the  rock  and  the  soil  core.  The  rock  bottom  ex- 
posed is  generally  very  irregular  and  the  concrete  and  the  walls  are  placed 
so  as  to  best  meet  the  conditions  encountered,  there  frequently  being  no 
concrete  over  high  projections  of  the  bottom  and  the  concrete  walls  being 
omitted  in  places  where  they  would  serve  no  useful  purpose.  Sometimes 
before  and  sometimes  after,  placing  the  concrete,  holes  are  drilled  for 
grouting. 

These  holes  generally  do  not  extend  more  than  20  ft.  into  the  rock 
but  occasionally  holes  for  test  grouting  and  for  other  purposes  are  drilled 
to  considerably  greater  depths. 

Steel  pipes  with  standard  couplings,  plugs  and  other  fittings,  are  set 
in  the  rock  or  masonry  where  required  so  as  to  give  water-tight  joints  to 
which  the  grouting  machine  is  connected.  The  apparatus  for  mixing 
and  placing  grout  is  imounted  on  wheels  with  a  direct  connected  engine, 
and  consists  essentially  of  an  air-tight  chamber  in  which  the  grout  is  me- 
chanically stirred  and  from  which  it  is  forced  by  air  pressure  into  the  voids. 
The  grout  is  generally  placed  under  low  pressure,  much  of  it  at  about  5  lb. 
to  the  square  inch  and  little  exceeding  20  lb.  After  a  section  of  the  cut- 
off trench  has  been  grouted,  deeper  holes,  generally  30  to  35  ft.  in  depth, 
are  drilled  at  occasional  points  to  test  the  completeness  of  the  previous 
grouting.  About  half  of  the  foundation  for  the  dam  has  already  been 
satisfactorily  grouted. 

Tests  of  Materials  for  Core.  Tests  were  begun  in  1917  of  materials 
available  for  the  impervious  core  of  the  dam.  Those  tests  demonstrated 
top-soil  and  subsoil  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  and  were  in  close  agreement 
with  an  extensive  series  of  tests  made  upon  top-soil  by  the  Metropolitan 
Water  Works  of  Massachusetts  some  25  years  ago,  following  which  top- 


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352  THE   NEW   WATER   SUPPLY   OF  THE   CITY   OF   PROVIDENCE. 

soil  was  depended  upon  solely  for  watertightness  in  the  construction  of 
the  north  and  south  dikes  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir.  Experiments  were 
made  of  the  rate  of  percolation  through  large  cans  and  through  small  cans, 
the  apparatus  for  each  of  which  is  shown  on  accompanying  photographs. 
For  the  large  can  experiments,  the  apparatus  consists  essentially  of 
four  circular  galvanized  iron  tanks  each  2  ft.  4\  in.  in  diameter  and  5  ft. 
high,  the  sectional  area  being  1/10  000  of  an  acre.  Near  the  bottom  was 
a  sill-cock.  On  the  side  of  the  tank  were  three  perforations  spaced  18  in. 
vertically  on  centers,  with  which  were  connected  on  the  inside  perforated 


Apparatus  for  Large    Can  Percolation  Test. 

pipes  traversing  the  material  under  test  in  the  tank  and  on  the  outside 
glass  gages.  A  waste  vent  was  provided  near  the  top  of  the  tank.  The 
tanks  were  filled  in  the  following  manner:  At  the  bottom  was  placed  a 
5-in  layer  of  pervious  material  graduating  up  from  coarse  gravel  at  the 
bottom  to  medium  sand  at  the  top.  Directly  on  top  of  this  was  placed 
the  material  to  be  tested.  This  material  had  a  total  depth,  or  thickness, 
of  3  ft.  8  in.  and  on  top  of  this  was  placed  a  1-in.  layer  of  coarse  sand.  The 
material  to  be  tested  was  put  into  the  tank  in  quantities  such  that  with 
energetic  tamping  it  was  consoUdated  into  layers  from  1 J  to  2  in.  in  thick- 
ness. Water  was  liet  into  the  tanks  from  the  bottom  by  attaching  to  the 
sill-cock  a  piece  of  rubber  garden  hose  connecting  with  a  funnel  suspended 
so  as  to  give  a  moderate  head.  As  it  appeared  advisable  this  funnel  was 
raised  until  water  appeared  on  the  surface  of  the  sand  near  the  top  of  the 
tank.  Water  was  then  admitted  to  the  open  top  of  the  tank,  the  level 
being  kept  constant  by  an  overflow.  The  rubber  hose  was  then  removed 
from  the  sill-cock  and  the  water  allowed  to  percolate  through  the  material 
as  it  would.  It  was  the  endeavor,  however,  to  keep  the  flow  such  that  the 
loss  of  head  between  the  top  and  bottom  perforated  pipes  would  be  approxi- 
mately three  feet.     To  accomplish  this  there  was  attached  to  the  sill-cock 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


wiNSOR.  353 

a  short  piece  of  garden  hose,  the  end  of  which  was  raised  or  lowered  as 
desired,  thereby  reducing  or  increasing  the  total  effective  head.  The 
material  under  observation  in  the  tanks  was  traversed  at  three  places 
by  perforated  pipes  leading  to  the  connections  at  the  sides  of  the  tank 
and  through  them  connected  with  glass  tubes  placed  against  a  gage  board. 
The  perforations  in  these  pipes  were  about  I  in.  in  diameter  and  spaced 
in  two  diametrically  opposite  straight  lines  at  about  three  inches  center 
to  center.  At  first  these  pipes  were  wrapped  with  a  copper  mosquito  netting 
ha\ing  8  or  10  meshes  to  the  inch,  but  upon  disassembling  the  first  tank 


Apparatus  for  Small  Can  Percoij^tion  Test. 

the  pipes  were  found  nearly  filled  with  material.  Thereafter  each  pipe  was 
covered  with  copper  screening  of  100  meshes  to  the  inch  carefully  soldered 
to  the  pipe,  with  the  result  that  practically  no  material  entered  the  pipes. 
Pieces  of  rubber  garden  hose  connected  the  pipes  with  the  stiff  connections 
through  the  wall  of  the  tank.  These  connections  were  in  turn  joined  to 
the  glass  tubes  by  white  rubber  tubing,  care  being  taken  that  it  made  a 
sharp  slope  upward  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass  tube.  This  was  calculated 
to  permit  easy  egress  for  air  bubbles  and  was  adopted  only  after  consider- 
able attention  had  been  given  to  the  removal  of  air  from  the  pipes.  In 
placing  each  perforated  pipe  in  the  tanks  the  material  was  tamped  up  to  a 
slightly  greater  height  than  that  required  for  the  pipe.    A  groove  was  then 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


354  THE   NEW   WATER  SUPPLY   OF  THE   CITY   OF   PROVIDENCE. 

dug  out  of  the  compacted  material,  the  pipe  was  put  in  place  and  leveled 
up  and  then  the  material  carefully  tamped  around  and  over  it.  Difficulty 
was  experienced  in  keeping  these  pipes  level,  but  that  is  not  felt  to  be  a 
serious  defect.  The  gage  glasses  were  about  2^  in.  in  diameter.  One 
gage  board  served  for  all  three  tubes  in  each  tank  and  was  graduated  to 
hundredths  of  a  foot  A^ith  the  zero  at  the  top  and  approximately  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the  tank.  The  total  loss  of  head  at  the  different  levels 
in  the  tank  was  therefore  easily  read  at  a  glance. 

All  materials  were  used  just  as  dug  from  the  fields  except  for  thorough 
mixing  and  the  addition  at  times  of  water.  Mixing  consisted  of  the  shovel- 
ing from  the  pit  into  the  wagon,  the  shoveling  out  of  the  wagon  and  at  least 
three  complete  turns  on  the  floor.  No  frozen  material  was  used  and  all 
lumps  were  carefully  broken  down.  In  the  case  of  the  gravelly  material 
used  in  Experiment  4-C  great  care  was  taken  to  see  that  the  stones  did  not 
sort  themselves  out  in  the  handling.  In  packing  all  the  tanks  it  was  the 
practice  to  have  the  porous  layer  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  full  of  water 
before  the  test  material  was  placed  to  any  extent.  This  was  to  do  away 
with  the  considerable  pocket  of  air  that  could  have  been  moved  only 
upward  through  the  entire  mass  of  the  material  or  possibly  through  the 
three  perforated  pipes. 

Considerable  difficulty  was  experienced  from  time  to  time  throughout 
the  experiments  with  entrained  air  and  it  is  probable  that  some  of  the 
otherwise  unexplainable  differences  in  results  may  be  due  to  entrained  air. 
The  time  available  and  the  limitations  of  the  apparatus  did  not  permit 
pursuing  to  a  final  solution  all  the  problems  which  arose.  Difference  in 
temperature  was  also  important  and  the  results  have  been  reduced  finally 
to  a  temperature  of  50°F.  There  are  doubtless  other  factors  which  may 
enter  into  a  more  refined  consideration  of  the  problem,  such  as  atmos- 
pheric pressure  which  was  considered  but  was  disregarded.  The  results 
are  believed  to  be  sufficiently  accurate  for  the  purpose  intended  and  are 
as  good  as  it  appeared  practicable  to  obtain  unless  apparatus  with  very 
great  refinement  is  used. 

The  small  cans  are  about  9  in.  high  and  6  in.  in  diameter.  The  bottom 
of  the  can  is  covered  with  a  half  inch  layer  of  porous  sand.  The  material 
to  be  tested  is  then  tamped  in  thin  layers  upon  this  to  a  total  depth  of  6  in. 
and  the  top  covered  with  porous  sand  §  in.  deep.  A  small  hole  through  the 
bottom  of  the  can  into  which  is  threaded  a  loose  cord  to  control  the  drip 
provides  the  means  for  collecting  the  percolation  and  conducting  it  as 
required  into  a  glass  graduate.  After  filling,  the  cans  were  placed  in  a 
tub  of  water  and  the  material  saturated  through  the  hole  in  the  bottom  in 
order  to  expel  the  air.  In  some  of  the  experiments  a  device  was  used  to 
increase  the  pressure  while  filling  the  small  cans  with  water  by  sealing  the 
tops  of  the  cans  and  creating  a  partial  vacuum  on  top  of  the  sand,  thus 
reducing  the  time  of  filling.  Following  saturation  the  cans  were  removed 
from  the  tub  and  filling  over  the  top  was  begun.     The  arrangements  for 


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WINSOR. 


355 


insuring  a  constant  head  upon  a  series  of  tanks  are  indicated  upon  Plate  IV 
and  accompanying  photograph.  Parallel  tests  of  the  same  materials  in 
both  large  and  small  cans  indicated  a  sufficiently  close  agreement  to  demon- 


j^trate  that  the  results  from  small  can  tests  could  be  depended  upon  to  indi- 
cate relative  porosity  within  the  limits  of  accuracy  required.  Tests  with 
the  small  cans  are  therefore  being  kept  up  of  the  materials  for  core  as  they 
are  being  collected  in  the  field  and  as  they  are  being  placed  in  the  core. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


356  the  new  water  supply  of  the  city  of  pro\adence. 

Results  of  Tests  Made  Prior  to  Adoption  of  Design  of  Dam 
Mainly  Large  Can  Tests. 

There  are  considerable  masses  of  very  fine  sand  in  strata  and  pockets 
near  the  dam  and  the  finest  of  these  materials  were  also  tested.  The 
results  plainly  divided  themselves  into  two  classes: 

(1)  The  fine  sands,  which  permit  a  relatively  large  rate  of  percolation. 

(2)  The  top  soils  and  subsoils,  which  have  a  high  degree  of  imper- 
meability. 

A  further  test  of  the  fine  sands  was  made  by  separating  that  portion 
only  which  passed  a  200  mesh  sieve. 

That  the  temperature  of  the  water  has  a  great  influence  on  the  rate 
of  percolation  through  sand  has  been  well  demonstrated  in  other  experi- 
ments. In  these  experiments  it  would  perhaps  have  been  well  if  continuous 
records  had  been  made  of  the  temperature  of  both  the  water  and  the  air 
but  this  was  not  done.  A  dairy  thermometer  was  provided  and  read  at 
frequent  intervals  and  at  times  more  elaborate  observations  as  to  the 
effect  of  the  temperature  were  attempted  but  no  definite  results  were 
achieved.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  also  that  the  barometric  pressure  has 
an  appreciable  influence  but  this  has  been  entirely  neglected. 

The  temperature' of  the  air  or  water  in  the  interior  of  the  tank  at  any 
point  or  time  was  not  determined.  That  changes  in  the  interior  of  the 
tanks  are  not  so  marked  as  those  in  the  air  surrounding  them  or  in  the 
water  on  top  of  them,  and  that  there  is  an  appreciable  lag,  is  probably  true. 
Yet  these  outside  changes  form  the  only  data  available  from  which  to  make 
correction.  Measures  of  flow  accumulated  throughout  the  night  have 
been  considered  as  check  measurements  only  and  have  not  been  corrected 
for  the  reason  that  the  night  temperatures  were  not  known.  That  this 
knowledge  is  necessary  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  every  case  the  flow 
decreased  at  night  due  to  the  lower  temperature. 

In  general  two  or  perhaps  three  measurements  were  made  each  day, 
the  total  time  between  say  nine  and  three  o'clock,  being  consumed  in  the 
combined  measurements.  At  the  same  time  the  temperature  of  the  water 
standing  in  the  tanks  was  observed  and  it  is  from  these  temperatures, 
averaged  for  the  interval  of  each  measurement,  that  the  corrections  are 
figured.  That  they  are  not  completely  satisfactory  may  be  accounted 
for  generally  by  an  appreciation  of  the  probable  amount  of  the  lag  and  the 
influence  of  this  lag  upon  both  the  viscosity  and  the  air  entrained  in  the 
pores.  In  some  of  the  early  work  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  not 
closely  observed  and  in  these  cases  the  atmospheric  temperature  has  been 
made  use  of. 

The  correction  for  temperature  is  figured  by  the  formula  derived  bj^ 
Allen  Hazen,  Past  President  of  this  Association,  and  stated  in  the  Annual 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


wiNSOR.  357 

Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  for  1902,  page  541.  For 
application  to  the  problem  in  hand  it  may  be  expressed  as  follows: — 

Rate  at  50^F==  Observed  Rate      ,  .^,  t  being  the  observed  temperature. 

As  stated  previously  the  value  of  t  is  more  or  less  indeterminate  but  has 
been  taken  usually  as  that  of  the  water  standing  on  top  of  the  tank. 

Another  uncertain  element  and  perhaps  the  most  uncertain  of  all, 
is  in  the  difficulty  of  securing  uniformity  in  placing  material  in  the  tanks. 
This  probably  accounts  for  much  of  the  variations  in  duplicate  tests  of 
samples  of  the  same  material.  Tamping  and  moisture  control  are  most 
important.  The  tamping  was  done  with  a  light  iron  rammer  about  4  in. 
in  diameter.  It  was  Hfted  each  time  a  comfortable  height,  about  9  in., 
and  forcibly  pounded  down.  A  large  heavy  rammer  was  attempted  but 
it  was  discarded  almost  at  once  as  it  jarred  the  tanks,  even  the  adjacent 
ones,  to  ^uch  an  extent  that  it  was  felt  that  possibly  it  was  doing  more 
damage  than  good.  Under  its  use  too  the  material  would  creep  and  break 
up  around  the  edges.  A  uniform  working  all  over  the  surface  was  decided 
upon  as  being  best. 

The  most  satisfactory  condition  and  the  one  aimed  at  in  all  cases 
seemed  to  be  in  that  middle  zone  where  the  material  was  damp  and  yet 
not  too  wet,  where  it  would  pack  without  breaking  up  or  creeping  and 
where  the  feeling  on  the  handle  of  the  rammer  was  that  of  a  firm  refusal 
with  no  "  give  "  either  of  a  dry  crumbling  or  a  soft  mushy  nature. 
Grenerally  speaking  it  was  felt  to  be  in  satisfactory  condition  when  the 
surface  after  tamping  became  moist  enough  to  feel  "  tacky  ".  This  could 
readily  be  detected  by  tapping  with  the  feet  when  the  tacky  condition 
could  be  both  heard  and  felt. 

It  was  suggested  that  tamping  in  this  condition  brought  about  a 
separation  of  the  materials  with  the  result  that  the  very  finest  particles 
were  segregated  into  a  film  over  the  entire  surface  where  they  would  form 
a  layer  so  dense  as  possibly  to  preclude  any  percolation  through  it  except 
where  it  might  be  imperfect  or  broken.  -In  the  tanks  first  packed  and 
first  dug  out  a  tendency  to  such  a  segregation  was  shown  by  the  fact  that 
at  places  the  layers  were  plainly  to  be  observed  and  could  be  separated 
into  definite  planes  but  no  tendency  towards  the  formation  of  a  film  could 
be  definitely  observed.  To  obviate  the  possibility  of  this  thereafter  the 
surface  of  each  layer,  after  being  tamped,  was  scratched  with  a  fine  rake. 

A  variety  of  other  interesting  and,  in  some  cases,  not  readily  explain- 
able phenomena  developed  during  the  progress  of  the  tests  but  space  does 
not  permit  of  detailing  them  here.  They  are  not  believed  to  have  an 
important  bearing  on  the  results  and  more  refined  apparatus  would  be 
necessary  to  account  fully  for  many  of  them. 

Results  of  large  can  experiments  are  given  in  the  following  tabulation. 
The'diflference  between  top-soil  and  subsoil  can  perhaps  be  best  appreciated 
by  quoting  the  definition  given  in  the  specifications  for  the  Main  Dam: 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


358      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

'*Soil  shall  mean  the  material  composing  the  surface  layer  of  the  ground 
which  has  been  so  affected  by  vegetable  growth  that  it  contains  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  organic  matter'^  —  page  17,  Contract  8,  etc. 

Per  cent . 

Organic 

Per  cent.  Matter 

Duration                                                                        Rate  of                Passing  Lo«s  on 

Experiment.         Days.                                Material.                      Percolation.           200  Sieve.  Ignition. 

2  A                    32  I          Mixed  top-soil  and  subsoil  I                  i           t58.1  3.67 

IB                   40            Subsoil                                     21350                 35.4  3.32 

2B                   38            SubsoU  and  discolored  fine        3  200                 38.1  3.46 
sand 

3  B  38  Mixed  top-soil  and  subsoil  1 500  56.9  7.00 
4B  30  „  „  „  „  2  200  60.4  5.21 
IC  11  Topsoil  (Grass  roots  in)  10  800  38.6  5.74 
2C  11  „  (  »  n  out)  10  000  36.9  4.80 
3  C  18  Fine  discolored  sandy  subsoil  1 1  700  48.0  4. 12 
4C                   25            Gravelly  subsoil                        6  300                 22.6  3.01 

>  Simprfinp  u^hif.p  nanrl  / 


4  A  10 


Superfine  white  sand         I  337  QOO  [  ^^ 


0.0 


Tests  in  small  cans  of  material  tested  in  large  can  experiments  3A 
and  4A  above  gave  a  rate  of  579  000  gal.  per  acre  as  compared  with  514  000 
and  387  000.  A  test  of  the  portions  of  this  material  passing  a  200-mesh 
sieve  gives  200  500  gal.  per  acre.  Two  tests  each  in  small  cans  of  material 
tested  in  large  can  experiments  IB  and  2B  gave  following  results: 


IB  Large  Can 

21350t 

Small  can  No.  5 

4500 

Small  can  No.  6 

3  200 

2B  large  can 

3  200 

Small  can  13 

3800 

Small  can  14 

3  200 

Following  is  a  tabulation  of  small  can  tests  made  during  construction, 
mainly  to  demonstrate  the  quality  of  material  proposed  for  or  used  in  the 
core.     Tests  run  from  6  to  10  days. 

Rejected  or  For  Other  Reasons  Not  Used. 

Date.  Percolation.  Material. 

July  —  Aug.  1920  53  000        Coarse  sand  mixed  with  top  soil  in  core. 

July  —  Aug.  1920  115  000         Discolored  coarse  sand  under  top  soil  in  core. 

July  —  Aug.  1920  15  000        Very  fine  sand  (rock  flour)  occurring  in  a  thin 

streak  in  core  trench  —  not  available  for  and 

not  used  in  core. 
July  —  Aug.  1920  8  300         Dark  top  soil  and  subsoil  with  some  silt.     Very 

little  used  in  core. 


♦CJallons  per  acre  per  daj'  figured  as  for  1  :  1  slope,  from  data  on  the  total  loss  of  head  and  cor- 
rected for  temperature. 

tOnly  that  portion  of  material  passinia;  No.  10  sieve  considered.  * 

JTliis  was  the  first  large  can  to  be  filled  with  soil  and  the  rate  of  percolation  is  undoubtedly  higher 
than  would  have  obtained  in  later  work  after  experience  had  been  gained  in  the  consolidation  of  the  material. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WINSOR. 


359 


Aug.  1921 


33  000 


Aug.  1921 

42  000 

Nov.  1921 

25  000 

April  1922 

20  000 

.Vpril  1922 

13  000  1 
8000/ 

May  1922 

600of 
2200j 

May  1922 

4000 

Aug.  1922 

21000 

Aug.  1922 

66  000\ 

65  000/ 

Acceptable  ani 

Aug.  1921 

10  000 

Aug.   1921 

11000 

Sept.  1921 

9000 

Sept.  1921 

4000 

Sept.  1921 

9000 

Sept.  1921 

3000 

Oct.   1921 

1200 

Oct.   1921 

2000 

Oct.  1921 

3000 

Nov.  1921 

5300 

AprQ  1922 

12  000 

April  1922 

17  000 

April  1922 

9000 

April  1922 

18  000 

April  1922 

40  000 

April  1922 

2000  1 
11000/ 

April  1922 

1400\ 
1300/ 

May  1922 

400\ 

1,400/ 

May  1922 

300  \ 

900/ 

May  1922 

1300  1 
900/ 

May  1922 

1200  1 
lOOO/ 

May  1922 

1700  1 
1400/ 

May  1922 

6  300\ 

1600/ 

Aug.  1922 

240oi 
525/ 

Very  fine  white  Band  which  occurred  in  small 

quantities  in  cut-off  trench. 
Ck)ar8e  sandy  subsoil. 
Coarse  sandy  subsoil. 
Coarse  sandy  subsoil. 

Very  fine  sand  below  subsoil. 

Very  fine  sand  below  subsoil. 

Material  under  subsoil. 

Retest  of  same  material  as  above  (first  test  appears 
to  have  been  in  error.) 

Coarse  loamy  material  from  storage  pile. 


Top  soil  and  subsoil. 

Subsoil. 

Subsoil. 

Subsoil 

Subsoil. 

Subsoil. 

Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 

Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 

Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 

Subsoil. 

Top  soil. 

Subsoil. 

Top  soil. 

Subsoil 

Top  and  subsoil.  This  is  evidently  a  poor  test 
as  appearance  of  material  is  excellent  and  is 
similar  to  that  tested  in  following  two  tests. 

Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 
Subsoil  in  place. 
Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


360      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 


Aiig.  1922  1  200 

14  000 


Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 


Aug.  1922  270  J  Top  soU  and  subsoU. 

Aug.  1922  680  Top  soil  and  subsoil  from  storage  pile. 

Aug.  1922  2  600\  ^i    i  ^  i 

1800  J  Bl^^k  top  soil. 

Aug.  1922  2  200 

2600 


Top  soil  and  subsoil. 

Top  soil. 

Subsoil  underlying  above  top  soil. 

Mixture  of  above  top  and  subsoils. 

Samples  of  Material  Actually  Takek  from  Soil  Core  After  Placing. 


Aug.  1922  11000\ 

13  000/ 

Aug.  1922  5  000\ 

5000  J 
Aug.  1922  4  000  i 

2000/ 


SUtion. 

ElevBtion 

22+00 

216.5 

21+00 

209.0 

20+00 

207.0 

21+50 

213.1 

20+50 

211.0 

19+50 

206.3 

20+00 

213.0 

21+00 

213.5 

22+00 

216.0 

20+50 

216.4 

21+60 

215.8 

22+50 

219.6 

Aug.  17,  1920  2  000  Ck)re  of  Dam 

Aug.  17,  1920  2  400  Core  of  Dam 

Aug.  17,  1920  2  200  Core  of  Dam 

Aug.  25,  1920  2  400  Core  of  Dam 

Aug.  25,  1920  1  800  Core  of  Dam 

Aug.  25,  1920  1  800  Core  of  Dam 

Aug.  30,  1920*  9  000  Core  of  Dam 

Sept.    1,  1920  2  000  Core  of  Dam 

Sept.    1,  1920  2  000  Core  of  Dam 

Sept.    1,  1920  2  000  Core  of  Dam 

Sept.  11,  1920  2  000  Core  of  Dam 

Sept.  11,  1920  2  000  Core  of  Dam 

Sept.  11,  1920  3  000  Core  of  Dam 

Mechanical  analyses  were  made  of  materials  tested  in  the  large  cans 
and  also  of  those  used  in  a  considerable  number  of  the  small  can  experiments. 
In  some  of  the  later  work  the  elutriation  method  has  been  used  to  determine 
the  smaller  grain  sizes.  It  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  make  positive 
deductions  from  these  tests,  which  are  being  continued. 

It  is  the  writer^s  tentative  opinion  that  the  sizes  and  proportions 
of  the  grains  account  for  the  high  degree  of  imperviousness  in  soils  and 
that  the  organic  content  has  little  if  any  relation  thereto.  It  is  probable 
that  experiments  of  a  more  refined  character  may  be  required  to  establish 
the  relation  between  imperviousness  and  the  sizes  and  proportions  of 
the  particles. 

The  loss  of  water  through  the  dam  as  designed,  if  core  materials 
having  an  average  rate  of  percolation  of  10  000  g.d.  were  used,  would  be 

*Thi9  sample  was  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  material  delivered  at  core  the  appearance  of  which  in- 
dicated it  to  be  of  doubtful  suitability  for  which  reason  the  test  was  made.  The  sample  was  obtained  b^ 
scraping  from  the  surface  what  appeared  to  be  the  most  pervious  material  which  could  be  found.  Thi» 
is  l)elieved  to  be  the  most  i>erviou8  material  so  far  used  in  the  core  and  as  the  quantity  used  is  negligible  an 
average  porosity  is  represented  by  the  other  samples. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


■,  Main  Dam  and  Dike. 
iNSTON  &  Co.,  Inc.,  Mat  12,  19J 


ts  Co., 

Mg.. 
/a. 


C.W.  Blakeslek  6:  Sons, 

58  Waverly  St., 

New  Haven.  Conn. 


Price. 


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362      THE  NEW  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PROVIDENCE. 

about  54  000  g.d.,  the  quantity  varying  directly  with  the  percolation 
rate  of  the  material  used.  It  is  seen  therefore  that  the  core  material  used 
is  exceptionally  well  fitted  for  the  purpose. 

This  paper  of  necessity  cannot  cover  some  interesting  features  of  the 
project  which  are  as  yet  in  the  formative  stage  and  it  may  at  some  future 
time  be  desirable  to  present  to  this  Association  some  further  description 
of  designs,  of  methods  of  construction,  of  bases  of  settlements  for  river 
diversion  damages,  now  nearing  a  conclusion  by  negotiation,  and  of  the 
experiences  in  the  early  years  of  operation. 

A  statement  of  contracts  entered  into  to  date,  and  a  tabulation  of 
bids  on  Contract  8  for  the  Main  Dam  and  Dike  are  appended  hereto. 

The  new  water  supply  is  being  built  by  a  conmiission  known  as  the 
Water  Supply  Board,  the  members  of  which  are  B.  Thomas  Potter,  Chair- 
man, William  A  Schofield,  Henry  A.  Grimwood,  William  P.  Vaughn,  John 
Kelso,  Joseph  H.  Gainer,  and  Walter  F.  Slade.  Samuel  N.  Grammont  is 
Secretary  of  the  Board  and  the  writer  is  Chief  Engineer;  William  W. 
Peabody,  Frank  E.  Waterman  and  Francis  B.  Marsh,  all  members  of  this 
Association,  are  respectively  Deputy  Chief  Engineer  (in  charge  also  of 
Dam  and  Aqueduct  Division),  Division  Engineer  (in  charge  of  Reservoir 
Division)  and  Designing  Engineer.  Frederick  P.  Steams  and  Samuel 
M.  Gray  were  Consulting  Engineers  up  to  the  time  of  their  deaths,  the 
former  in  December,  1919,  and  the  latter  in  November,  1921.  Messrs. 
Allen  Hazen  and  J.  Waldo  Smith  are  on  the  present  consulting  staff.  The 
writer  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  all  of  the  above  mentioned  asso- 
ciates and  also  to  many  others  of  the  engineering  staff,  past  and  present. 
The  valued  advice  and  assistance  of  Charles  T.  Main,  Consulting  Engineer 
in  mill  damage  cavses  and  of  Julius  W.  Bugbee,  City  Chemist,  are  also 
hereby  acknowledged. 


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KEMBLE.  303 


(COOPERATION  OF  WATER  WORKS  OPERATORS  WITH  THE 
PUBLIC  AND  EMPLOYEES. 

BY   F.   T.    KEMBLE.* 

[September  13,  19gg.] 

Following  the  drought  season  of  1910  and  1911  there  seemed  to 
be  an  awaking  of  the  interest  of  the  public  in  the  matter  of  their  water 
supply,  with  a  good  sized  percentage  of  them  in  one  way  or  another 
getting  some  posting,  more  or  less  accurate,  perhaps  sometime  entirely 
erroneous,  as  to  where  their  supply  came  from  and  some  of  the  conditions 
of  their  service. 

Formerly  a  great  mass  of  people  seemed  to  think  that  water  should 
be  free  as  air,  but  that,  owing  to  the  Municipality  or  some  man  or  men 
having  obtained  the  rights  to  serve  in  their  territory,  a  tax  was  imposed 
on  them.  The  sound  shore  district  of  New  York  State  is  a  residential 
section  with  a  population  of  as  high  average  intelligence  as  elsewhere; 
yet  numbers  of  them  do  not  seem  to  be  able  to  get  away  from  the  idea 
that  we  tax  them  and  grade  the  tax  according  to  the  size  of  a  house  and 
the  number  of  persons  we  believe  occupy  it,  using  our  meters  in  some  way 
that  they  do  not  understand  to  back  up  our  argimients. 

Some  of  you  may  recall  the  late  Mayor  Gaynor,  a  few  years  ago, 
writing  an  open  letter  to  the  Commissioner  of  Water  Supply  of  New 
York  City  in  which  he  expressed  an  opinion  to  the  effect  that  the  public 
should  be  encouraged  to  use  as  much  water  as  they  could  in  their  dwellings, 
that  it  would  be  unwise  to  install  meters  in  the  tenements  or  houses  of 
the  poorer  persons  as  they  would  be  apt  to  use  less  water  for  bathing  or 
culinary  purposes,  certainly  they  should  not  be  charged  by  meter  and  that 
their  tax  should  be  as  low  as  possible. 

A  certain  percentage  of  those  who  take  issue  with  us  in  relation 
to  the  amount  of  their  charge,  insufficient  volume  or  something  else,  are 
really  just  "trying  it  on;"  hoping  that  they  will  be  slick  enough  to  some- 
how or  other  come  out  ahead,  but  probably  a  majority  of  those  who  take 
up  such  matters  with  us  don^t  at  all  clearly  understand  the  situation. 
Many  are  convinced  that  they  are  right,  that  we  are  in  error. 

To  satisfy  our  customers  when  they  demand  a  lowering  of  their 
charges  or  a  change  in  some  of  our  conditions  often  times  requires  a  lot 
of  patience  (if  possible  a  customer  should  never  be  just  gotten  rid  of), 
but  the  particularly  annoying,  hard  customer  to  deal  with  is  the  party 

♦Secretary  New  Rochelle  Water  Co.,  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y. 

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364    COOPERATION   OF  THE  PUBLIC  AND   WATER  WORKS  OPERATORS. 

wanting  to  have  pipes  extended  into  the  property  he  is  developing;  and 
in  ahnost  every  case  when  such  a  party  rows  with  us,  it  is  a  matter  of 
'*  trying  it  on,"  endeavoring  to  get  better  conditions  than  others  have. 

In  my  opinion,  doing  business  in  as  straightforward  a  manner  as 
possible  will  later  mean  the  most  good  to  all  concerned,  —  be  far  more 
advantageous  than  having  gotten  the  best  of  matters  at  any  particular 
comer. 

When  one  has  a  set  course  of  procedure,  based  on  years  of  experience, 
some  of  the  kicks  and  demands  made  seem  hard  to  take  seriously.  Yet  the 
ones  who  make  them  are  to  remain  as  customers;  and,  unless  they  are 
very  outrageous,  it  is  advisable  to  try  to  convince  them  that  the  company 
wishes  to  satisfy  them,  wishes  to  give  them  the  best  service  possible 
under  the  conditions  that  obtain. 

An  endeavor  to  place  oneself  in  the  other  fellow's  position,  to  find 
his  viewpoint,  may  be  at  any  time  of  considerable  service, —  if  in  nothing 
else,  in  aiding  one  to  disabuse  him  of  some  of  the  prejudice  he  generally 
comes  in  with. 

The  same  idea  might  be  suggested  as  regards  dealings  with  one's 
employees,  who  —  be  they  good,  bad  or  indifferent  —  are  apt  to  get  a  deal 
of  ill  advice  off  the  job.  This  applies  both  to  the  Italians  who  at  the 
meetings  of  their  societies  on  Sunday  afternoons,  in  addition  to  the  listen- 
ing to  newspapers  and  yarns  from  back  home  in  Napoli  or  Calabria, 
are  from  time  to  time  harangued  by  countrymen  of  theirs  who  visit  in 
from  near  by  cities;  and  applies  also  to  the  men  of  more  training  and  value 
to  the  plant  who  have  relatives  or  friends,  holding  down  political  or  other 
cinch  jobs,  who  preach  to  them. 

In  my  opinion  what  is  particularly  wanted  from  employees  is  "heart 
in  the  work;"  and  the  more  thorough  the  understanding  between  the 
heads  of  the  force  and  the  various  members  of  same  the  better  the  chance 
for  finding  this. 

I  grew  up  in  the  service  of  one  of  the  railroads  particularly  known  for 
the  esprit  de  corps  and  belongedness-to-t he-job  of  its  force.  On  the  line  we 
used  to  say  that  intelligence  counted  and  experience  counted  but  what 
counted  most  was  heart-in-the-work;  and  my  idea  of  the  latter  is  that  it 
should  mean  not  merely  zeal  to  get  on  the  job  but  the  continuous  earnest 
effort  to  appreciate  and  further  the  requirements  of  a  plant;  and  I  con- 
sider efforts  made  by  the  force  to  make  satisfied  patrons  of  consumers  as 
a  showing  that  they  have  the  interest  of  the  plant  at  heart. 

We  are  told  a  great  deal  about  the  inefliciency  of  men  at  work,  of  all 
classes.  "  They  don't  seem  to  care.  We  never  were  so  poorly  served. 
They  are  too  old,  etc." 

Well,  I  don't  know  where  we  ever  got  100*^,  and  I'm  sure  that  no 
matter  what  the  cost  or  how  many  gray  hairs  may  be  put  in  the  head  of  the 
men  getting  the  work  done,  our  plants  are  growing  and  we  are  accomplish- 
ing more  each  year  than  in  "  them  good  old  days  we  hear  tell  on." 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  365 

The  old  type  of  foreman  that  would  bawl  out  his  men  proved  not  to  be 
the  one  who  could  get  best  results  from  Dagoes  who  had  been  in  the  Army 
and  had  learned  to  jolly  and  tease  and  who  were  not  to  be  handled  the  way 
their  fathers  had  been;  and  yet  some  of  these  younger  ones,  though  only  too 
ready  to  sit  aroimd  and  look  at  work  going  on,  can  be  led  to  take  an  interest 
in  their  work,  to  show  what  pep  they  Ve  in  'em  and  so  liven  up  a  whole  gang. 

With  both  customers  and  employees,  it  is  up  to  the  Wat^r  Company 
management  to  get  the  work  through  that  they  are  responsible  for  and  the 
more  heart  put  into  their  dealings  the  more  thorough  will  be  the 
aecorfplishmen  t . 

Discussion. 

President  Barbour  This  paper  of  Mr.  Kemble's  must  have 
touched  on  some  phases  of  water-works  management  which  will  appeal 
to  some  of  you.  It  is  different  from  the  average  paper,  and  I  think  it 
justifies  discussion.  Mr.  Taylor  is  going  to  tell  you  how  he  organized 
the  gang  that  we  saw  yesterday,  and  deny  that  they  were  speeded  up  for 
our  particular  benefit,  as  some  of  us  were  inclined  to  think. 

Mr.  Stephen  H.  Taylor.*  That  was  our  regular  organization.  We 
have  been  laying  pipe  along  those  lines  since  July,  1921,  and  they  are  pretty 
well  trained.  They  do  that  right  along  when  there  is  trench  open  to  lay 
the  pipe  in.  There  is  not  always  so  much  trench  ahead,  but  we  made  an 
efifort  to  have  plenty  of  trench  ready.  I  think  we  put  in  about  five  while 
you  were  there  during  the  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  That  pace 
can  be  maintained  as  long  as  there  is  a  trench  ready.  The  digging  is  in 
rock  and  hardpan.  The  program  is  that  the  shovel  goes  ahead  and  ex- 
cavates the  trench,  and  the  derrick  follows  behind  and  lays  the  pipe  in  it. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  derrick  lays,  in  two  or  three  hours  in  the  afternoon, 
what  the  shovel  digs  in  a  day.  The  material  is  loaded  into  trucks  as  exca- 
vated by  the  shovel,  then  hauled  and  dumped  in  the  back  fill.  They 
excavate,  lay  and  back  fill  anywhere  from  75  to  100  ft.  every  day,  with 
a  crew  of  12  or  15  men,  two  machines  and  a  couple  of  trucks.  I  think 
we  laid  in  one  day  14  pipes,  which  was  our  maximum  for  one  day, 
excavating,  laying  and  back  filling.  Work  which  you  saw  was  not  parti- 
cularly speeded  up,  except  to  have  a  little  more  trench  open,  perhaps, 
than  usual. 

In  some  cases,  in  going  through  the  swamp,  we  had  to  go  a  little 
slower.  It  was  very  soft  ground.  The  banks  would  cave  in,  and  we  would 
just  dig  out  12  ft.,  lay  a  pipe,  and  then  in  digging  for  the  next  pipe  bring 
the  shovel  back  and  drop  the  material,  taken  out  in  front,  into  the  back 
fill.  The  combination  proved  a  very  efficient  way  of  handling  the  job. 
We  have  been  through  some  wet  swamp  and  have  not  had  to  sheet  pile. 

*  Superintendent  Water  Works,  New  Bedford,  Moss. 

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366     COOPERATION   OF  THE   PUBLIC   AND  WATER  WORKS  OPERATORS. 

The  derrick  is  also  used  for  a  pile-driver.  The  steam  hammer  which  hangs 
on  the  derrick  drives  the  piles.  We  put  on  the  cap,  pick  up  the  pipe, 
put  it  in  place,  go  ahead  and  drive  the  next  pile,  and  so  on. 

President  Barbour.  Mr.  Taylor,  you  did  not  catch  my  idea 
exactly.  I  was  not  so  interested  in  the  detail  of  what  was  accomplished 
as  in  how  you  established  the  morale  which  apparently  was  in  evidence 
yesterday. 

Mr.  Taylor.  It  is  the  result  of  the  training  of  a  year  and  a  half  on 
that  same  line  of  work,  and  the  men  who  are  doing  that  work  have  been 
with  us  for  a  great  many  years,  and  will  do  anything  that  we  want  them 
to  do. 

Mr.  Beekman  C.  Little.*  I  wonder  if  there  is  any  solution  of  the 
difficulty  that  I  have,  and  I  think  that  all  must  have,  of  getting  younger 
men  to  do  the  digging  in  the  trench  and  the  back  filling,  the  work  with 
pick  and  shovel.  We  have  a  very  good  lot  of  men  but  they  are  all  getting 
older.  They  have  been  with  us  a  good  while  and  are  loyal,  and  are  the 
kind  of  men  Mr.  Kemble  suggests.  We  have  a  great  deal  of  cooperation 
from  them.    But  have  hard  work  getting  new  men  to  come  in. 

This  question  was  asked  the  other  day  by  somebody  who  came  to 
the  shop:  '*  Ain't  you  got  no  automobile  for  me  to  drive?"  I  said,  **  No, 
we  ain't  got  no  automobile."  -  They  all  seem  to  want  either  to  drive  a  car 
or  go  into  an  office.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  difficulty  in  getting  men  to 
do  hard  work.    We  can  get  men  but  they  are  not  trustworthy. 

Mr.  Caleb  M.  Saville-I  We  have  had  in  Hartford,  some  difficulty 
there,  as  elsewhere,  because  of  mimimum  wages  for  new  men  but  there 
are  younger  men  that  can  be  obtained. 

I  am  rather  inclined  to  think  that  the  pension  system  for  the  older 
men  may  offer  some  solution  of  this  problem.  We  have,  as  all  of  our  New 
England  Water  Works  Departments  have,  older  men  who  have  been  in 
the  department  a  long  time.  They  know  the  business  from  A  to  Z;  they 
know  it  a  great  deal  better  than  many  other  people  that  can  come  in  and 
do  ordinary  work.  Those  men  are  exceedingly  valuable  to  us.  And  more 
than  being  valuable  in  knowing  how,  they  will  stay  when  the  younger  men, 
or  the  newer  men,  will  not.  If  there  is  a  wet  trench,  or  something  breaks 
in  the  middle  of  the  night  alongside  the  car  tracks,  which  has  to  be  fixed, 
those  men  will  stay  by  and  do  the  work.  But  they  are  getting  older,  and 
while  they  can  spurt  and  do  more  work  in  a  short  time  than  some  of  the 
younger  men  will  do,  yet  for  steady,  all  around  work,  you  have  got  to  have 
the  younger  man  with  his  younger  muscles. 

Now,  the  older  men  have  gradually  been  increased  in  pay  as  wages 
have  gone  up,  and  many  of  them  have  come  to  the  time  when  they  are 
getting  the  maximum  pay.  W^hen  you  take  the  younger  man,  whom  you 
are  going  to  rely  on  for  muscle  work,  you  can't  put  those  men  on  at  first 

♦  Superintendent  Water  Works.  Rochester  N.  Y. 

t  Chief  Engineer  Water  Commission,  Hartford.  Conn. 


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DISCUSSION.  367 

at  the  maximum  pay,  you  have  to  put  them  on  at  what  you  might  call 
your  minunum  pay.  Then  you  get  into  trouble  right  away,  because  the 
man  who  is  getting  the  minimum  wage,  doing  the  strong  arm  work,  sees 
these  older  men  getting  quite  a  bit  more  money  than  he  is  getting,  and 
while  he  has  some  enthusiasm  in  the  first  place,  and  would  be  satisfied 
if  the  pay  was  uniform,  it  is  the  pay  envelope  at  the  end  of  the  week  that 
counts  and  makes  him  dissatisfied  with  his  job. 

So  that  there  is  something  else  which  must  offer  a  solution  to  your 
problem.  If  there  was  some  pension  system  that  the  older  men  could 
look  forward  to  it  would  be  a  good  thing.  Not  a  system  that  makes  a 
man  work  forever  before  he  can  get  a  pension,  but  a  system  that  gives 
a  good,  faithful  employee  really  something  to  look  forward  to.  I  believe 
that  something  of  that  kind  is  bound  to  come  in  order  to  work  out  this 
problem,  and  I  believe  that  in  order  to  be  most  efficient  the  pension  system 
must  not  be  a  gratuity  for  old  age  —  charity  if  you  please  —  but  an  in- 
surance built  up  by  payments  from  both  the  employer  and  the  employees. 
In  this  way  you  approach  the  desirable  ends;  loyalty  to  service  is  created 
by  personal  interest  in  growth  of  the  personal  fund,  and  an  investment 
available  when  the  time  of  maximum  abilities  for  service  has  passed. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.*  Some  superintendents  who  manage  municipal 
plants  do  not  always  have  the  choice  of  the  men  the}'^  will  hire.  If  the 
superintendent  gets  out  with  his  men  once  in  awhile,  gets  down  into  the 
trench  to  see  what  is  going  on,  makes  himself  more  or  less  one  of  them, 
he  may  get  better  cooperation.  I  believe  the  superintendent  who  can't 
get  the  good  will  and  loyalty,  and  even  a  little  of  the  love  of  the  man  he 
works  with,  is  going  to  make  a  failure. 

Mr.  Patrick  Gear.!  I  do  not  know  that  Mr.  Saville  is  familiar 
with  the  pension  system  we  have  here  in  Massachusetts.  I  know  of  a 
man  who  has  been  seventeen  years  a  laborer,  and  has  been  a  foreman  now 
for  two  years,  and  when  he  is  sixty-five  he  can  retire  at  $400  a  year  as  a 
foreman.  If  he  had  stayed  a  laborer  he  would  retire  at  half  pay,  which 
would  give  him  about  $800  a  year. 

Mr.  Saville.    I  said  a  good  pension. 

Mr.  Gear.  Now,  it  is  more  advantageous  for  a  man  to  stay  as  a 
laborer  than  to  go  on  as  a  foreman  to-day.  Then  if  he  goes  from  that 
on  up  to  be  superintendent  he  doesn't  get  anything.  The  laborer  has 
the  advantage  if  he  only  knew  it.  Then  you  get  the  young  class  of  men 
that  Mr.  Kemble  speaks  of,  who  are  of  the  sporting  type,  and  they  are 
not  reliable. 

Mr.  Henry  V.  Macksey.  J  I  cannot  agree  that  we  wouldma  terially 
help  our  present  difficulty  by  the  pension  system.  The  cause  of  the  trouble 
is  that  most  of  the  young  men  whom  we  might  expect  to  become  laborers 
are  American  born,  and  educated.     They  are  filled  with  an  ambition  to 


♦  Secretary  American  Water  Works  Association, 
t  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Holyoke,  Mass. 
t  Superintendent  of  Public  Works,  Framingham,  Mass. 

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368      COOPERATION  OF  THE   PUBUC  AND   WATER  WORKS  OPERATORS. 

be  something  better  than  laborers.  We  should  be  in  sympathy  with 
them.  When  a  young  man  comes  to  me,  an  American  bom  citizen, 
and  wants  a  job  as  a  laborer,  unless  he  is  in  hard  luck  and  really  needs 
work  and  money  at  once,  I  try  to  find  out  what  other  line  he  is  fitted  for 
and  to  help  him  to  properly  place  himself,  rather  than  retain  him  as  a  labor- 
er. I  think  that  I  am  doing  the  right  thing,  for  that  man  will  never  be  a 
good  laborer  because  his  heart  can  not  be  in  his  work. 

We  all  know  that  we  have  depended  for  years  for  crude  labor  on 
importations.  The  Irishmen  of  former  days  were  the  best  laborers  in  the 
world;  we  can  get  no  more  of  them,  and  our  best  bet  is  the  Italian.  The 
Italian  is  not  yet  assimilated.  He  does  not  think  he  is  one  of  us.  He 
does  not  take  the  interest  in  municipal  affairs  that  the  Irishman  does. 

Now,  the  real  difficulty,  it  seems  to  me,  is  this:  we  do  not  have  all 
year  around  work  for  all  of  our  men.  If  we  have  a  pension  system  we  must 
keep  the  men  regularly  employed.  With  water  supply  work  in  this  climate, 
of  course  we  expect  to  carry  a  much  larger  gang  in  the  summer  than  in  the 
winter.  In  the  winter  our  work  is  principally  emergency  work.  The 
average  city  or  town  is  not  willing  to  do  outdoor  work  in  the  winter,  which 
costs  25  or  30  per  cent,  more  than  it  would  if  done  in  the  sununer,  just 
to  keep  an  organization  together.  You  can't  keep  a  complete  organization 
all  the  year  round  under  our  present  way  of  managing  municipal  works. 
In  our  little  town  to-day  we  pay  five  cents  per  hour  more  than  contractors 
are  paying  around  us,  but  men  do  not  come  to  us  for  work.  The  story 
told  all  over  this  part  of  the  country  to-day  is  that  there  is  no  idle  labor. 

Mr.  SaviCle.  I  think  I  shall  have  to  take  exception  to  what  my 
friend  has  just  said.  We  have  little  idle  labor  in  Hartford,  and  we  can  get 
all  the  labor  that  we  need  at  reasonable  prices. 

We  keep  a  rather  large  force  all  the  year  around  in  order  to  have 
an  efficient  gang.  W^e  have  large  forestry  areas  and  they  work  in  these 
during  the  winter.     This  increases  somewhat  in  the  sununer. 

Mr.  Kemble.  I  have  made  a  big  effort  in  recent  years  to  keep  the 
men  we  have  and  get  such  men  as  we  could.  I  have  not  been  quite  as 
altruistic  as  my  friend,  about  men  being  better  fitted  for  something  else.  I 
have  tried  to  find  work  for  them,  wet  or  dry,  and  we  have  worked  our  gangs 
right  through  the  winter.  In  bad  weather  we  have  tried  to  find  work 
around  the  yards.  The  older  men  who  are  on  the  job  will  stay.  They 
would  be  unhappy  elsewhere.  The  younger  Italians  come  and  go.  They 
won't  stay  with  you  as  soon  as  they  can  get  more  money  elsewhere,  but 
will  leave  you  in  the  lurch. 

Mr.  Richard  H.Ellis.*  It  seems  to  me  that  in  the  small  municipal 
system,  a  great  many  times  we  should  meet  conditions  as  existing  in  our 
neighboring  industries.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  case  altogether  of  supply 
and  demand.  A  good  many  times  the  municipality  sets  a  wage  over  which 
the  official  in  charge  of  the  work  has  no  option  in  granting  a  little  more 

*  Superintendent  Board  of  Public  Works,  North  Andover,  Mass. 

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DISCUSSION.  369 

money  or  a  little  less  money,  and  consquently  we  have  to  put  up  with  the 
type  of  labor  that  is  willing  to  accept  a  low  wage.  The  solution  seems 
to  be  to  pay  a  little  bit  more  money,  where  we  cannot  hold  our  employees 
the  year  around,  so  as  to  get  the  best  labor  available.  The  pay  envelope 
if  it  is  large  enough  is  sufficient  incentive  to  get  a  man's  best  efforts. 

Mr.  Henry  T.  Gidley.*  We  have  tried  to  make  a  practice  of  keeping 
a  small  gang  employed  most  of  the  year  round  rather  than  a  very  large 
gang,  but  of  course  have  more  in  the  summer,  but  try  to  spread  the  work 
out  throughout  the  year.     We  are  a  private  company. 

In  the  matter  of  pay,  we  confer  with  the  Street  Department  to  find 
out  what  they  are  going  to  pay,  and  pay  about  the  same  wage,  so  that 
the  men  are  not  dissatisfied  and  moving  from  one  department  to  another. 
I  think  that  idea  of  a  small  gang  and  keeping  them  employed,  if  you  can 
do  so,  is  rather  better  than  to  have  a  large  force  in  the  summer  and  dis- 
charging them  all  in  the  winter. 

Mr.  George  F.  Merrill.j  I  think  Mr.  Taylor's  work  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  what  the  use  of  machinery  will  do  in  keeping  the  size  of  your  gang 
down.  I  have  found  that  in  laying  pipe  with  a  trenching  machine  you 
can  do  with  ten  or  a  dozen  men  as  much  as  could  ordinarily  be  done  with 
40  or  50  under  usual  methods  of  hand  labor.  It  gives  a  chance  to  employ 
a  smaller  gang,  which  can  be  kept  employed  throughout  the  year.  And 
it  keeps  a  better  class  of  men. 

Mr.  Taylor.  One  of  the  main  reasons  we  got  the  shovel  was  be- 
cause of  that  big  job  of  36-in.  pipe  (about  6  600  ft.),  on  the  boulevard, 
and  there  was  a  shortage  of  labor  at  that  time.  So  we  got  the  shovel  to 
overcome  that  difficulty,  but  found  it  such  a  labor  saver  that  we  kept  on 
with  it  when  men  were  plenty. 

Last  winter  when  the  ground  froze  up  so  that  it  was  rather  expensive 
to  do  that  work,  we  put  the  crew  in  the  woods  on  forestry  work.  Those 
who  have  forest  work  to  do  can  utilize  their  regular  gang  in  the  winter, 
and  that  is  the  time  of  year  when  you  can  burn  up  your  rubbish  and  do 
a  lot  of  trimming  and  cutting  out  of  dead  wood.  We  keep  practically  all 
that  gang  the  year  around,  besides  other  men  down  town  for  service  work, 
and  the  emergency  crew.  I  think  our  pay-rolls  in  the  winter  carry  perhaps 
40  or  50  of  what  might  be  called  the  laboring  force,  between  the  forestry 
work  and  the  emergency  crew.  We  also  utilize  our  emergency  crew  in  the 
winter  in  making  up  gate  boxes,  concrete  forms,  and  all  sorts  of  things 
for  the  next  year's  work.  Our  crew  does  not  vary  so  much  except  when  we 
get  a  big  rush  of  small  main  pipe  work,  short  lines,  where  it  does  not  pay 
to  send  a  shovel.    When  we  get  a  rush  of  that  we  have  to  increase  our  crew. 

In  New  Bedford  the  Portuguese  prove  about  as  good  laborers  as  we 
can  get,  —  better  than  the  Italians.  They  seem  to  have  a  little  more 
intelligence  and  more  ambition  to  get  ahead. 

*  SuperintendeDt  Water  Works,  Fairhaveo,  Mass. 
t  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Greenfield,  M&ss. 


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370  DESCRIPTION  OF  NEW  BEDFORD  WATER  SYSTEM. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  NEW  BEDFORD  WATER  SYSTEM. 

BY   STEPHEN    H.    TAYLOR.* 

[September  t»,  19tt.] 

On  March  6,  1860,  an  order  was  passed  by  the  City  Council,  calling 
for  a  committee  "to  consider  the  practicability  and  expediency  of  intro- 
ducing a  permanent  supply  of  fresh  water  into  the  City  and  report  some 
plan  with  the  probable  cost  of  doing  so,"  etc.  As  a  result  of  the  studies 
of  this  and  successive  committees,  an  act  authorizing  the  supplying  of 
the  City  of  New  Bedford  with  pure  water,  was  passed  by  the  State  Legis- 
lature April  18, 1863,  and  after  three  years*  of  study  the  first  real  effective 
water  system  in  New  Bedford  was  started  in  1866.  It  was  completed  in 
1869.  A  dam  was  built  across  the  valley  of  the  Acushnet  River  in  the 
Town  of  Acushnet  seven  miles  north  of  the  center  of  the  city.  This 
created  an  impounding  reservoir  of  300  acres,  at  40  ft.  elevation  above 
M.  H.  W.,  supplied  by  a  water  shed  of  about  three  to  four  thousand  acres. 

From  this  reservoir  an  egg-shaped  brick  conduit  4  ft.  high  by  3  ft. 
wide  was  constructed  to  bring  the  water  to  a  receiving  reservoir  of  three 
million  gallons  capacity,  at  an  elevation  of  30  ft.,  located  in  what  was  then 
the  outskirts  of  the  city.  From  here  the  water  was  pumped  1  879  ft. 
west  through  a  16-in.  cast-iron  force  main  to  the  Mt.  Pleasant  distribut- 
ing reservoir,  the  capacity  of  which  is  fifteen  million  gallons,  at  elevation 
154  ft.,  thence  by  gravity  to  the  distributing  system. 

The  original  pumping  engine  was  a  five  million  gallon  McAlpine, 
cross  compound,  of  the  walking  beam  type.  This  was  later  augmented 
by  a  three  million  gallon  Worthington,  and  still  later  by  a  five  million 
gallon  Worthington,  with  the  necessary  boilers  in  each  instance. 

The  population  of  the  city  was  then  about  20  000,  and  the  distribut- 
ing system  consisted  of  17  miles  of  main  —  some  cast-iron  but  mostly 
wrought  iron,  cement  lined,  from  4  to  12  in.  in  diameter;  and  553  services 
mostly  of  lead.  The  average  consumption  of  water  for  the  first  year 
was  329  375  gal.  per  day. 

In  1886  the  consumption  had  increased  to  an  average  of  3  000  000 
gal.  per  day.  As  this  was  beyond  the  safe  capacity  of  the  original  im- 
pounding reservoir,  a  connection  was  made  to  Little  Quittacas  Pond  by 
means  of  an  open  ditch  1^  miles  long,  following  in  part  an  existing  stream. 

In  1893,  5  000  000  gal.  per  day  was  being  used.  That  was  about 
the  safe  limit  of  the  system,  and  besides  this,  building  activities  were 
extending  into  the  higher  parts  of  the  city,  some  of  which  were  above 
the  level  of  the  reservoir. 

^Superintendent  Water  Works,  New  Bedford.  Masa. 


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TAYLOR.  371 

Messrs.  George  S.  Rice  and  George  E.  Evans,  Engineers,  were  em- 
ployed to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  situation  and  recommend  the 
best  means  of  obtaining  an  increased  supply  at  greater  pressure.  Their 
work  was  done  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  R.  C.  P.  Coggeshall,  Superin- 
tendent, and  as  a  result  of  their  combined  efforts  the  present  system  was 
built.  It  has  been  in  service  since  1899,  with  the  old  Acushnet  System 
held  in  reserve,  the  old  distributing  reservoir  being  connected  by  a  check 
valve. 

The  right  was  obtained  from  the  Legislature  to  take  water  from 
Little  and  Great  Quittacas  Ponds,  located  in  Rochester,  Lakeville  and 
Middleboro,  about  twelve  miles  north  of  the  city,  with  ample  powers  to 
construct  and  maintain  the  system.  It  also  authorized  acquiring  such 
lands  as  were  necessary  for  this  purpose  by  purchase  or  condemnation. 

A  dam  was  built  between  Great  Quittacas  and  Pocksha  Ponds  with 
suitable  waterways  for  the  discharge  or  overflow  of  the  surplus  waters 
from  Great  Quittacas  into  Pocksha,  but  preventing  water  from  flowing 
back  from  Pocksha  to  Great  Quittacas  Pond. 

A  six  foot  masonry  conduit  connects  Great  and  Little  Quittacas 
Ponds,  the  flow  through  which  is  regulated  by  a  sluice  gate. 

The  storage  capacity  of  Great  Quittacas  Pond  is  4  500  000  000  gal.; 
the  area  of  the  pond  is  If  sq.  mi.,  and  its  water  shed  is  9f  sq.  mi. 
Little  Quittacas  has  a  storage  capacity  of  1000  000  000  gal.;  area  of 
pond  is  about  i  sq.  mi.  and  water  shed  a  little  less  than  1  sq.  mi.  The 
elevation  of  these  ponds  is  50  ft.  above  sea  level. 

No  filtration  or  chemical  treatment  has  been  found  necessary,  as 
the  entire  shore  of  both  ponds  and  a  part  of  their  tributaries  is  owned  by 
the  city.  There  are  very  few  buildings  on  these  shores.  They  are  kept  free 
from  pollution  and  almost  entirely  covered  with  a  good  growth  of  wood. 

It  is  a  very  gratifying  fact  that  although  all  cases  of  typhoid  or  other 
water  borne  diseases  are  carefully  traced,  none  has  ever  been  traced  to  the 
city's  water  supply. 

The  city  now  owns  about  2  000  acres  of  land  on  the  water  shed  and 
is  buying  more  as  the  opportunity  offers.  A  great  deal  of  forestry  work 
has  been  and  is  being  carried  on  there.  Most  of  the  hard  woods  have 
been  cut  off  and  many  thousand  white,  red  and  Scotch  pines  have  been 
planted,  as  well  as  some  firs  and  hemlocks. 

A  scheme  is  now  under  consideration  which,  if  carried  out,  will  place 
the  remaining  Lakeville  Ponds  in  the  control  of  a  joint  commission  for  the 
use  of  all  the  cities  and  towns  of  Southeastern  Massachusetts. 

The  combined  area  of  the  entire  group  of  ponds  is  about  9  sq.  mi., 
and  the  total  water  shed  38  sq.  mi. 

The  pumping  station  is  located  on  the  southerly  shore  of  Little 
Quittacas  Pond.  The  pump  well  in  the  pumping  station  is  connected  by 
a  six  foot  masonry  intake,  on  the  outer  end  of  which  is  an  eight  mesh 
revolving  screen. 


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372  DkSCRIPTION    OF  NEW  BEDFORD  WATER  SYSTEM. 

The  pumping  equipment  consists  of  two  ten-million-gallon,  steam 
driven,  compound  beam  and  fly  wheel  engines,  designed  by  E.  D.  Leavitt 
and  built  by  the  Dickson  Manufacturing  Co.  of  Scranton,  Pa.,  each 
operating  two  differential  plunger  pumps. 

Steam  is  furnished  by  two  150  h.  p.  boilers  of  the  Scotch  Marine 
type,  also  designed  by  Mr.  Leavitt.  No  extensive  repairs  have  ever 
been  necessary  on  this  plant.  It  is  still  in  excellent  condition  and  is 
running  twenty-four  hours  a  day,  showing  an  average  duty  of  130  000  000 
ft.  lbs.  figured  on  total  fuel  used  for  all  purposes. 

A  six  million  gallon  DeLaval  centrifugal  pump  driven  by  a  G.  E. 
squirrel  cage,  type  I,  3  phase,  60  cycle,  550  volt,  250  h.p.  induction 
A.  C.  motor  was  installed  in  1918.  This  is  a  convenient  auxiliary  though 
less  economical  than  the  steam  puinps,  and  can  be  operated  without  any 
additional  attendants. 

The  water  is  pumped  through  a  steel  force  main  eight  miles  long  to 
High  Hill  Reservoir.  This  pipe  was  laid  across  country  in  a  strip  of  land 
5  rds.  wide,  which  was  purchased  by  the  City.  From  Braley's  Station,  on 
the  N.Y.N.H.  &  H.  R.R.  to  the  Pumping  Station,  it  is  paralleled  by  a 
standard  gage  railroad.  The  road  was  built  early  in  the  construction  of 
the  system  and  was  a  very  important  feature  in  the  transportation  of  the 
materials  for  building  and  equipping  the  Pumping  Station  and  force 
main.  It  is  used  now  for  the  transportation  of  coal  and  heavy  supplies 
to  the  Pumping  Station.  All  of  the  6  600  tons  of  pipe  for  the  new  48-in. 
cast-iron  force  main  were  delivered  over  this  road.  The  main  is  of  -^-in. 
riveted  steel  with  lap  joints  and  coated  inside  and  out  with  asphalt. 

Great  care  was  taken  when  laying  it  to  patch  the  coating  where 
broken  in  transit  or  in  laying.  Frequent  tests  for  leakage  are  made  and 
careful  internal  inspections  have  been  made  from  time  to  time.  Last 
year  a  piece  was  cut  out  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  36-in.  connection  to 
the  new  48-in.  cast-iron  now  being  laid.  This  piece  may  be  seen  at  the 
Water  Works  Office  in  the  Municipal  Building. 

The  results  of  all  these  examinations  seem  to  show  that  while  there 
is  considerable  pitting,  the  pipe  is  still  good  for  several  years  service. 

A  new  48-in.  cast-iron  main  is  now  being  laid  which  will  make  it 
possible  to  pump  directly  to  the  distributing  system,  in  case  of  trouble 
with  the  steel  main,  using  the  reservoir  as  a  balance.  This  cast-iron 
main  will  eventually  be  carried  to  High  Hill  Reservoir;  we  hope,  before 
the  steel  main  fails. 

A  wrought  iron  standpipe  20  ft.  diameter  by  75  ft.  high  has  been 
erected  and  is  connected  with  the  new  pumping  main  at  the  summit, 
which  is  also  the  highest  point  in  the  city.  The  connection  to  the  main 
was  made  by  using  a  tangent  branch  with  the  outlet  arm  at  the  top  of  the 
pipe.  This  is  intended  principally  for  an  air  vent  and  surge  tank.  The 
reservoir  pressure  fills  the  standpipe  about  half  way,  the  remainder  of 
the  height  allowing  for  the  surge  when  pumping  directly  to  the  city. 


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TAYLOR.  373 

High  Hill  Reservoir  is  located  five  miles  northwest  of  the  center  of 
the  city,  in  the  Town  of  Dartmouth.  When  full  the  water  stands  at 
elevation  216  giving  from  14  to  90  lb.  pressure  on  the  system.  The 
average  pressure  in  the  business  district  and  where  the  hotel  is  located 
is  65  lb.  The  reservoir  is  1  000  ft.  x  500  ft.  x  20  ft.  deep,  and  is  divided 
by  a  masonry  wall  across  the  middle  into  two  sections  500  ft.  square.  Its 
total  capacity  is  68  000  000  gal.  The  inlet  and  outlet  gate  houses  are 
so  arranged  that  either  half  may  be  emptied  for  cleaning  or  repairs  and 
the  other  half  kept  in  service.  The  piping  is  so  arranged  that  the  reser- 
voir may  be  by-passed  and  water  pumped  directly  into  the  distributing 
mains  if  desired. 

The  reservoir  was  built  by  excavating  part  of  the  top  of  the  hill  and 
building  up  the  embankment  in  layers  with  a  stone  retaining  wall  from 
elevation  207  to  218;  elevation  216  being  H.W.  The  bottom  and  sides 
from  elevation  196  to  11  are  covered  with  a  9-in.  layer  of  concrete.  They 
have  a  slope  of  2  to  1.  The  top  of  the  bank  is  at  elevation  220,  and  the 
outside  slope  is  2  to  1,  and  is  covered  with  a  good  growth  of  grass  from 
which  quite  a  crop  of  hay  is  harvested  each  year.  No  leakage  from  the 
reservoir  has  ever  occurred  and  aside  from  occasionally  pointing  up  the 
stone  walls  at  the  water  level,  and  a  few  very  small  cracks  in  the  concrete 
slopes,  no  repairs  have  been  necessary. 

Two  36-in.  cast-iron  mains  run  parallel  to  each  other  from  the  High 
Hill  Reservoir  to  the  northwest  part  of  the  city  from  which  point  they 
form  a  loop  of  36-in.  and  30-in.  pipe  around  the  city.  The  entire  dis- 
tributing system  is  gridironed  with  a  goodly  percentage  of  large  pipes  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  statement  of  sizes: 

48-in.  5.1  per  cent.  35-in.  6.9  per  cent.  30-in.  4.2  per  cent. 

24-m.  1     per  cent.  20-in.  1.2  per  cent.  16-in.  5     per  cent. 

12^in.  5.6  per  cent.  10-in.  7.6  per  cent.  8-in.  21.4  per  cent. 

6-in.  37.6  per  cent.  4-in.  4.4  per  cent. 

This  does  not  include  the  12  000  ft.  of  48-in.  cast-iron  pipe  being  laid 
this  year. 

.We  are  quite  proud  of  the  fact  that  this  system  is  charged  with  only 
thirty-one  of  the  possible  seventeen  hundred  points  of  defect  in  the  latest 
report  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Fifteen  of  these  are 
because  of  the  pressure  in  the  high  value  mercantile  district  being  sixty- 
five  instead  of  their  standard  eighty  pounds.  New  Bedford  is  now  in  the 
second  class  in  the  National  Board  schedule  of  ratings. 

Our  mileage  of  main  pipe,  4-in.  and  over,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
was  185i  not  including  hydrant  branches  and  blow-off  connections.  The 
system  is  cut  into  moderate  sized  sections  by  2  545  gates.  There  are 
1  650  public  and  447  private  fire  hydrants.  The  number  of  services  is 
16  354,  all  the  active  ones  being  metered  except  private  fire  supplies. 

Water  is  also  supplied  to  the  towns  of  Dartmouth  and  Acushnet 


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374  DESCRIPTION  OF  NEW   BEDFORD  WATER  SYSTEM. 

through  meters  located  at  the  Town  Line,  as  well  as  a  few  houses  in  Free- 
town and  Lakeville. 

The  average  daily  consumption  last  year  was  about  9  500  000  gal.  or 
71  gal.  per  capita.  Manufacturing  meters  account  for  41  per  cent., 
domestic  and  commercial  meters  for  40  per  cent.,  leaving  19  p)er  cent,  for 
fires,  flushing  and  all  unmetered  uses  and  leakage. 

Water  is  sold  for  manufacturing  purposes  at  10c.  per  thousand  gal- 
lons and  for  all  other  purposes  at  15c.  per  thousand.  PubUc  buildings, 
parks  and  cemeteries  are  charged  the  same  as  private  owners,  but  no 
income  is  derived  from  fire  hydrants  or  private  fire  supplies.  The  annual 
revenue  of  the  department  is  sufficient  to  cover  all  maintenance  and  repairs 
including  payment  of  bonds,  sinking  fund  and  interest,  and  provides  for 
a  moderate  expenditure  for  extensions  each  year. 

The  total  cost  of  the  works  to  December  1,  1921,  was  $4  676  910.93, 
and  the  net  debt  was  $482  755.97.  Both  figures  are  exclusive  of  the 
$700  000  bond  issue  for  the  new  48-in.  cast-iron  force  main  now  under 
construction. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  works  the  total  receipts  for  water  have 
been  $7  273  084.85  of  which  $1  826  662.79  have  been  applied  to  construc- 
tion. All  ordinary  extensions  including  the  48-in.  main  now  under  con- 
struction are  made  by  the  department. 

In  1920  the  department  had  about  6  600  ft.  36-in.  main  to  lay  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  extensions,  and  as  labor  was  scarce,  it  was 
decided  to  purchase  a  14B  Bucyrus  Steam  Shovel  with  an  extended  dipper 
arm  for  trenching,  and  in  1921  when  the  48-in.  main  was  started  a  14B 
Bucyrus  '^Clamshell"  and  derrick  machine  with  a  30-ft.  boom  was  pur- 
chased. These  machines  have  proved  great  money  savers  on  the  large 
pipe  work  which  has  been  done  in  the  past  three  years.  The  latter 
machine  is  used  for  pipe  laying,  and  in  places  where  the  ground  is  too  soft 
to  support  the  steam  shovel  over  the  trench,  excavating  is  done  with 
the  clamshell  outfit  on  the  same  machine.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
the  excavation  is  done  by  the  steam  shovel  travelling  on  platforms  over 
the  trench  with  the  derrick  following  close  behind,  laying  the  pipe.  The 
shovel  deposits  the  excavated  material  into  trucks  which  haul  it  directly 
to  the  backfill  close  behind,  or  to  the  spoil  bank. 

With  reasonably  good  conditions,  from  120  to  180  ft.  of  trenching, 
pipe-laying  and  backfilling  per  day  is  accomplished  with  a  crew  of  from 
15  to  20  men,  two  or  three  trucks,  and  the  steam  shovel  and  derrick.  The 
advantage  of  a  small  crew  is  particularly  great  in  our  present  work,  which 
is  ten  to  twelve  miles  from  the  city,  and  as  there  is  very  little  local  labor 
available  the  men  must  either  be  boarded  near,  or  transported  to  and 
from  the  job. 

A  convenient  and  well  equipped  work  shop  and  pipe  yard  are  main- 
tained near  the  center  of  the  city,  with  an  emergency  crew  and  gate 
operating  truck  always  available  to  handle  breaks  or  other  sudden  calls. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TAYLOR.  375 

Experiments  with  Substitutes  for  Lead  for  Jointing 
Cast-Iron  Pipe. 

Until  within  a  comparatively  few  years  Water  Works  engineers  have 
been  pretty  unanimously  of  the  opinion  that  the  best  if  not  the  only 
satisfactory  material  for  jointing  cast-iron  bell  and  spigot  pipe  was  a 
good  grade  of  soft  pig  lead,  well  caulked.  As  you  all  know,  it  was  applied 
by  pouring  the  melted  lead  and  then  driving  it  firmly  into  the  joints  with 
caulking  tools. 

During  the  past  fifteen  or  twenty  years  various  substitutes  have  been 
placed  on  the  market  and  widely  advertised  throughout  the  Water  Works 
field.  The  principle  advantages  claimed  for  these  substitutes  was  the 
great  saving  of  expense  for  both  material  and  labor. 

The  writer,  like  all  good  conservative  Water  Works  officials,  has 
hesitated  to  change  from  the  estabhshed  custom  of  using  lead. 

Some  ten  years  ago  a  few  joints  in  the  smaller  sized  pipe  were  made  in 
the  New  Bedford  Water  system  with  two  of  the  substitutes, —  Leadite  and 
Lead-Hydro-Tite,  and  no  trouble  has  ever  been  experienced  from  either. 

In  the  Spring  of  1920,  the  writer  decided  to  make  some  more  exten- 
sive experiments  with  them.  The  City  of  New  Bedford  was  then  con- 
templating the  laying  of  about  6  600  ft.  of  36-in.  pipe  in  addition  to  the 
usual  yearly  work,  and  as  prices  of  everything  were  extremely  high,  any 
saving  that  could  be  made  without  decreasing  the  efficiency  of  the  work 
was  worth  considering. 

At  that  time  Leadite  was  offered  at  12c.  per  pound  and  Lead-Hydro- 
Tite  at  10c.  while  lead  was  selling  for  about  TJc.  per  pound.  One  pound 
of  either  substitute  would  fill  as  much  joint  space  as  four  pounds  of  lead, 
so  that  it  would  take  30c.  worth  of  lead  to  do  the  same  work  as  10c.  worth 
of  Hydro-Tite  or  12c.  worth  of  Leadite.  There  is  also  a  further  saving  in 
the  reduced  labor  cost,  because  no  caulking  is  necessary,  and  the  size 
of  bell  holes  is  greatly  reduced.  The  only  chance  for  skepticism,  then, 
was  as  to  their  efficiency.  As  the  contemplated  work  involved  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  jointing  material,  the  two  cents  per  pound  difference 
in  cost  of  Leadite  and  Hydro-Tite,  was  worth  saving  if  the  two  materials 
were  equally  efficient.  The  experiments  here  described  were  made  to 
determine  this  point  as  well  as  to  determine  their  ability  to  stand  high 
pressure,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  materials. 

The  experiments  were  made  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  W.  R.  Conard, 
Engineer,  Mr.  Hays  R.  Kuhn,  at  that  time  employed  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Water  Co.,  who  was  familiar  with  handling  Leadite,  and  Mr.  Jacob 
Handy,  Superintendent  of  Dartmouth  Water  Works,  who  had  consider- 
able experience  with  Lead-Hydro-Tite.  Mr.  George  McKay  of  the 
Leadite  Company  and  several  Water  Works  officials  from  nearby  cities 
and  towns  were  also  present. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


376  DESCRIPTION  OF  NEW  BEDFORD  WATER  SYSTEM. 

Experiment  No,  1.  Six  lengths  of  6-in.  pipe  were  put  together  on 
skids  about  two  feet  high  in  the  pipe  yard  of  the  New  Bedford  Water 
Works,  with  a  plug  and  sleeve  on  one  end  made  up  with  lead  and  a 
patented  plug  in  the  other.  Three  joints  were  made  of  Leadite  and  three 
of  Hydro-Tite.  Dry  white  jute  was  used  in  their  different  forms.  One 
joint  with  each  material  being  made  with  loose  yarn,  one  with  the  same 
yam  twisted  lightly,  and  a  third  with  the  same  yarn  braided;  similar  in 
appearance  to  packing,  but  without  oil  or  grease. 

The  pipes  were  first  filled  at  city  pressure  (84  lb.)  and  the  joints 
were  all  reasonably  tight,  the  greatest  leak  occurring  at  the  joint  made  of 
Leadite  with  loose  yam. 

There  were  also  some  leak  at  the  joint  made  of  Hydro-Tite  with  twisted 
yarn.  The  pressure  was  then  raised,  first  to  150  lb.  and  then  to  200  lb., 
all  joints  remaining  reasonably  tight  and  becoming  entirely  so  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  above  mentioned.  The  high  pressure  was  then 
released  and  normal  yard  pressure  (84  lb.)  maintained  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  test. 

The  ends  of  the  pipe  were  raised  by  means  of  a  derrick  at  each  end, 
the  supports,  which  were  under  the  pipe,  being  removed  as  the  pipes  were 
lifted  from  them  until,  for  a  short  time,  the  line  was  practically  suspended 
by  the  ends,  forming  a  curve  with  about  144  ft.  radius  and  the  ends  6  ft. 
9  in.  higher  than  the  center. 

Finally  joint  No.  5  of  Hydro-Tite  broke,  allowing  the  center  of  the 
line  to  drop  to  the  ground.  It  should  be  said,  in  fairness,  that  the  joint 
which  failed  was  not  made  with  a  continuous  pouring,  because  some  of 
the  material  was  lost  through  a  defective  dam  and  a  second  pouring  was 
necessary.  Only  a  few  seconds  elapsed  between  the  first  and  second 
pouring,  however,  as  the  kettle  was  close  to  the  joint  and  it  was  only 
necessary  to  dip  out  more  material. 

The  whole  line  was  then  lowered  to  the  ground  and  remained  tight 
except  the  two  joints  before  mentioned  (No.  2  and  No.  5).  These  were 
made  tight  by  caulking  with  a  little  lead  wool,  and  for  several  months  the 
line  remained  in  the  yard  in  asbolutely  tight  condition,  in  spite  of  the 
abuse  to  which  it  had  been  subjected. 

Experiment  No.  2.  As  the  principal  work  of  the  year  was  to  be  36-in. 
pipe,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  experiment  with  this  larger  size  to  see  if 
it  could  be  successfully  poured.  Two  lengths  of  36-in.  pipe  were  joined, 
with  a  plug  in  one  bell  and  a  sleeve  and  plug  on  the  spigot  end.  Acci- 
dentally a  class  B  pipe  N.E. W.W.  Assoc,  specifications  was  placed  into  a 
class  F  bell.  This  made  an  unduly  thick  joint  (about  |-in.).  The  class  B 
bell  was  too  small  to  receive  the  beaded  end  of  the  plug,  so  the  plug  was 
reversed.  This  made  an  abnormally  thin  joint  with  no  bead,  as  the  space 
was  so  small  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  caulk  a  lead  joint. 
These  joints  were  made  with  Leadite.  On  the  other  end  the  sleeve  and 
plug  were  normal  i-in.  joints  and  poured  with  lead  Hydro-Tite. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TAYLOR.  377 

When  the  yard  pressure  was  applied,  in  spite  of  the  bracing  at  the 
ends,  the  joint  between  the  two  pipes  sUpped  about  f-in.  This  was  the 
abnormally  thick  joint.  The  84  lb.  yard  pressure  on  the  36-in.  plugs 
develop  a  total  stress  on  each  of.  them  of  about  42^  tons. 

The  braces  were  then  removed  and  the  pressure  applied  with  the  in- 
tention of  pulling  the  work  apart.  When  this  was  done  the  two  abnormal 
joints  made  with  Leadite  held  fast,  and  the  one  where  the  sleeve  joined 
the  pipe  which  was  a  normal  J-in.  joint  made  with  Hydro-Tite  pulled 
apart. 

As  a  result  of  these  tests,  it  was  decided  to  adopt  Leadite  for  our  work, 
and  it  has  been  used  in  practically  all  the  joints  made  since  that  time  with 
excellent  results. 

The  story  of  this  test  would  not  be  complete  without  further  reference 
to  the  advantage  of  the  braided  jute  packing,  which  we  have  also  adopted 
for  general  use.  We  find  that  although  it  costs  a  little  over  twice  as  much 
per  pound  as  the  plain  dry  jute,  the  saving  effected  in  labor  and  material 
more  than  offset  the  extra  cost,  and  that  a  better  joint  is  obtained  because 
there  are  no  loose  ends  of  the  fiber  to  mix  with  the  jointing  material  and 
reduce  its  efficiency. 

Since  writing  the  above,  a  very  favorable  opportunity  was  presented 
for  comparing  the  cost  of  48-in.  joints  made  of  lead  and  Leadite,  as  two 
joints  were  made  of  lead  on  the  check  valves  of  our  48-in.  line,  because  of 
the  extreme  weight  of  the  casting  and  uncertainty  of  the  ground  in  which 
it  was  placed. 

Figuring  the  cost  of  jute  packing,  labor  and  lead,  a  48-in.  joint  cost 
S18.06;  whereas  the  same  items  on  Leadite  joint  cost  an  average  of  $4.42. 
It  took  three  men  one  hour  and  forty  minutes  to  pour  and  caulk  a  lead 
joint,  whereas  the  same  three  men  would  average  to  pour  from  six  to 
eight  joints  per  hour  with  Leadite. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  William  W.  Brush.*  How  long  was  your  high  service  reser- 
voir in  use  before  you  cleaned  it?  If  I  recall  correctly,  you  said  you  had 
6  in.  of  deposit. 

Mr.  Taylor.  There  was  about  6  in.  of  deposit.  That  was  the  result 
of  about  fourteen  years  of  service  since  it  had  been  cleaned.  It  was  very 
light  material. 

Mr.  Brush.    In  what  way  does  that  deposit  cause  you  any  difficulty? 

Mr.  Taylor.  It  did  not  cause  us  any  difficulty,  but  thought  as  a 
matter  of  protection  and  cleanliness  we  had  better  clean  it  out. 

Mr,  Brush.  Did  you  find  any  difference  after  you  had  cleaned  it  in 
the  quaUty  of  the  water  over  what  it  had  been  before  you  cleaned  it? 

*  Deputy  Chief  Engineer  Bureau  of  Water  Supply,  New  York. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


378  DESCRIPTION  OF  NEW   BEDFORD   WATER  SYSTEM. 

Mr.  Taylor.  I  would  not  say  there  was  very  much  difference. 
Our  outlet  is  raised  up  a  little  from  the  bottom  so  that  it  did  not  get  that 
sediment.  I  suppose  there  would  come  a  time  when  the  sediment  would 
get  to  the  bottom  of  the  outlet  and  then  it  would  be  drawn  into  the  mains. 

Mr.  Brush.  There  was  no  difference  in  the  microscopic  growth, 
or  anything  of  that  kind? 

Mr,  Taylor.  No.  I  should  say  it  was  a  vegetable  deposit.  The 
water,  of  course,  travelled  across  the  reservoir,  and  in  the  earlier  days 
it  travelled  much  more  slowly,  because  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  is 
68  million  gal.,  and  when  the  reservoir  was  built  our  consumption  was 
5  000  000  a  day,  so  that  the  rate  across  was  slow  and  it  had  lots  of  time  to 
settle.  Now  it  goes  across  faster  because  our  rate  of  consumption  has 
doubled.     We  use  now  10  000  000  or  10  500  000  gal.  a  day. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DiVEN.*  What  trees  do  you  plant  on  your  watershed, 
Mr.  Taylor? 

Mr.  Taylor.  We  have  planted  mostly  pines,  starting  with  the  white 
pine,  supposing  they  had  about  as  few  enemies  as  any  other  tree.  Then 
came  the  white  pine  borer.  We  are  now  planting,  as  fast  as  we  can  get 
them,  red  and  Scotch  pine.  We  have  not  yet  found  the  enemies  of  the 
red  pine  and  Scotch  pine  and  iare  using  them  at  present,  although  it  is 
very  difficult  to  get  enough  of  them.  Last  year  I  had  to  take  about  half 
of  the  white  pine  and  the  other  half  red  and  Scotch. 

Mr.  Diven.    In  New  York  they  have  given  up  the  white  pine  entirely. 

Mr.  Taylor.  It  is  only  within  a  few  years  we  have  had  trouble  with 
the  white  pine.  We  are  cutting  off  the  hardwoods  as  fast  as  possible  on 
account  of  the  gypsy  moth.  I  would  like  to  find  a  tree  somewhere  that 
has  no  enemy  to  destroy  it;  I  have  taken  up  the  question  with  our  State 
Forestry  Department  and  gotten  the  best  advice  available. 

A  Member.     What  age  pine  do  you  plant? 

Mr.  Taylor.  We  have  raised  some  from  our  own  seeds,  but  usually 
get  about  three  or  four  year  transplants.  We  sometimes  transplant 
a  large  section  from  our  own  reservation  from  one  place  to  another.  When 
buying  we  buy  three  and  four  year  seedlings. 

Mr.  Diven.    How  are  you  taxed  on  your  property  outside  of  the  city? 

Mr.  Taylor.  That  was  fixed  by  the  Legislature  in  our  Act  of  1914. 
The  average  valuation  for  the  three  years  previous  to  the  time  we  bought 
it  becomes  a  fixed  valuation  for  all  time,  Valuation  can  be  neither  raised 
nor  lowered.  Of  course  the  assessments  rise  and  fall  with  the  tax  rate, 
but  the  valuation  remains  the  average  of  the  three  previous  years. 

Mr.  Diven.    They  do  not  tax  you  on  your  improvements? 

Mr.  Taylor.    No. 

Mr.  Diven.     You  get  out  better  than  we  do  in  New  York. 

Mr.  Taylor.  They  get  us  a  little  bit  outside  of  our  watershed. 
We  have  two  houses  for  our  engineers  to  live  in,  and  they  tax  us  there  to 
make  up  on  what  they  lose  on  the  watershed. 


♦Secretary  American  Water  Works  Association. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  379 

Mr.  Diven.  Are  you  taxed  the  full  cost  value  of  the  pipe  lines  in 
the  ground? 

Mr.  Diven.  No;  we  pay  the  city  on  the  same  valuation  made  for 
the  three  previous  years,  without  any  tax  on  the  mains. 

Mr.  Diven.    That  is  a  fair  and  equitable  tax. 

Mr.  Taylor.  I  think  so.  Where  we  go  through  a  town  we  sometimes 
furnish  them  with  water.  In  Freetown,  where  our  new  main  is  laid,  if 
they  want  water  we  serve  them  at  the  same  price  that  we  do  in  NewBedford. 
That,  of  course,  benefits  the  town  a  little. 

Mr.  George  W.  Batchelder**  Did  you  have  to  get  special  legis- 
lation to  furnish  water  in  Freetown? 

Mr.  Taylor.  Yes.  And  it  is  the  same  in  any  other  town.  It  is 
the  same  with  Dartmouth  and  Acushnet. 

Mr.  J.  A.  RAiNviLLE.f  Is  there  anyone  here  who  has  had  experience 
with  cement  pipe? 

Mr.  Taylor.  Our  experience  with  it  is  of  old  times.  When  the 
system  was  first  built,  I  should  say  perhaps  more  than  half  of  it  was 
cement  lined  pipe,  but  it  got  pretty  weak  and  before  we  put  on  the  increased 
pressure  due  to  our  new  system  we  got  it  all  out  and  replaced  it  with  cast- 
iron.  Several  breaks  occurred  in  it  from  time  to  time.  I  think  other 
cities  are  using  it  more  sucessfuUy. 

Mr.  Frederic  I.  Winslow.J  How  much  trouble  did  you  have  in 
getting  your  men  to  use  Leadite  properly? 

Mr.  Taylor.  None  at  all.  We  had  a  man  come  here  who  had  been 
familiar  with  using  it  a  number  of  years.  We  put  a  green  man  on  who 
was  a  fairly  intelligent  laborer,  and  after  seeing  one  or  two  joints  made  he 
did  it  himself.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  instructing  a  man  of  the  ordinary 
laborer's  intelligence.  Of  course  you  would  not  take  the  greenest  sort  of 
man,  but  one  of  your  ordinary  laborers  can  learn  to  use  it  in  a  short  time. 

Mr.  Brush.    Do  you  use  Leadite  here  in  the  city? 

Mr.  Taylor.  Yes;  we  are  using  Leadite  almost  entirely.  As 
the  result  of  our  test  we  felt  that  for  our  particular  purposes  Leadite  was 
what  we  wanted.  It  seemed  to  hold  up,  in  my  opinion,  a  little  stronger 
than  the  other.  I  think,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  for  ordinary  light  work,  there 
would  not  be  a  great  deal  of  difference  between  the  two.  But  the  test 
we  made  seemed  to  show  to  me,  and  all  who  were  present  at  the  test, 
that  the  Leadite  was  a  little  stronger  for  all  around  work. 

Mr.  Brush.  Have  you  had  any  mains  break  where  you  have  used 
the  Leadite? 

Mr.  Taylor.  No.  We  have  not  had  the  slightest  trouble  from  any 
cause.  I  do  not  know  of  a  joint  that  we  have  even  had  to  dig  up,  and  we 
have  put  in,  in  the  last  few  years,  about  ten  miles  in  our  regular  distri- 
buting system,  and  about  three  and  a  half  or  four  miles  in  our  large  36 


♦Water  Commuisioiier,  Worcester,  Mass. 

t  Foreman  Crystal  Water  Co.,  Danielson.  Conn. 

X  Division   Engineer   Metropolitan    District   Commission. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


380  DESCRIPTION  OF   NEW  BEDFORD   WATER  SYSTEM. 

and  48-in.  mains.  There  are  very  few  joints  in  New  Bedford  which  have 
been  tested  before  turning  the  water  on.  We  were  so  confident  that  the 
pipes  are  now  covered  before  filling.  Once  in  awhile  we  have  uncovered 
a  joint,  thinking  it  a  joint  leak,  but  it  proved  to  be  surface  water, 
or  something  else.  So  that  our  experience  with  Leadite  has  been  verj' 
satisfactory. 

Mr.  a.  O.  Doane.*  I  think  it  would  be  interesting  if  you  would  ex- 
plain the  difference  in  the  jute,  as  you  did  this  morning. 

Mr.  Taylor.  Either  one  of  these  joint  materials  requires  white, 
clean  jute.  We  are  using  a  braided  jute.  There  is  a  sample  of  it  in  Mr. 
McKay's  exhibit.  It  costs  about  double  the  cost  of  unbraided,  per  pound: 
but  it  saves,  I  think,  more  than  that  in  labor  and  wastage.  There  is  no 
wastage  from  the  braided  jute,  which  is  cut  just  the  right  length,  and  braided 
good  and  hard.  A  man  tamps  it  in  all  around,  and  you  do  not  have  to 
drive  it  with  a  hanmier.  There  also  is  an  advantage  in  a  joint  of  that 
sort  in  not  having  any  loose  ends  running  out  to  destroy  the  joint.  We 
feel,  even  thought  we  pay  twice  as  much  for  it,  that  better  results  are  ob- 
tained by  using  the  braided  jute.  It  is  the  same  grade  of  dry  jute  as  the 
unbraided. 

Mr.  a.  B.  Coulters. t  What  pressure  was  maintained  on  the  pipe 
in  your  yard  during  the  flexure  test? 

Mr.  Taylor.  Eighty-four  pounds.  I  might  say,  we  had  a  caulker 
who  was  some  caulker,  and  that  after  the  joints  broke  down  he  drove  some 
lead  wool  into  the  broken  joint,  and  the  line  lay  in  the  open  yard  for  months, 
absolutely  tight  with  the  pressure  on. 

Mr.  Frank  A.  Marston.J  In  the  northern  part  of  New  York  State, 
there  are  a  number  of  miles  of  6  and  8-in.  pipe,  in  a  system  for  a  spring 
water  supply,  which  were  laid  with  Leadite,  and  it  was  found  by  test  that 
the  leakage  from  Leadite  joints  was  not  much  greater  than  from  lead 
joints,  after  letting  the  joints  stand  for  about  a  week.  At  first  the  joints 
would  drip  a  little  and  at  that  time  would  fail  to  pass  the  test  limiting  the 
allowable  leakage  to  two  gallons  per  linear  foot  of  pipe  joint  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  but  after  standing  for  a  few  days,  or  a  week,  the  leakage  would 
be  reduced  to  acceptable  limits  unless  there  was  an  imperfectly  formed 
joint. 

One  section  of  pipe  which  was  laid  in  about  a  6-ft.  trench  was  exposed 
during  the  middle  of  the  day  to  the  sun,  while  during  the  remainder  of  the 
day  it  was  shaded.  In  the  morning  and  at  night  the  joint  would  be  tight, 
but  in  the  middle  of  the  day  when  the  sun  rose  so  that  it  shone  on  the  pipe 
and  warmed  it  up  there  would  be  enough  expansion  so  that  the  joint  would 
begin  to  drip  a  little. 

As  far  as  laborers  are  concerned,  my  observation  has  been  that  it  is 
just  as  well  to  start  with  a  green  man  rather  than  to  take  an  experienced 

*  Division  Engineer  Metropolitan  District  Commission. 
tOf  Builders  Iron  Foundrv.  Providence,  R.  I. 
tOf  Metcalf  &  Eldy,  B38ton,  Mass. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  381 

lead  melter,  to  avoid  prejudiced  ideas  as  to  how  the  compound  should  be 
melted.  The  jointing  operations  are  very  simple,  and  an  intelligent 
laborer  can  readily  learn  to  make  good  joints  after  a  few  days  instructions. 

Our  experience  has  shown  these  two  compounds,  Leadite  and  Lead- 
Hydro-Tite,  to  be  satisfactory  where  the  conditions  permit  of  their  use. 

Mr.  Franklin  Henshaw.*  The  difficulty  we  had  with  one  man,  who 
had  previously  been  an  expert  in  handling  lead,  was  his  insistence  on  making 
a  low  gate,  and  you  cannot  get  a  good  Leadite  joint  unless  the  gate  is 
amply  high.  Another  difficulty  was  with  the  jute  packing.  Where 
the  braided  jute  was  used  we  did  not  have  a  bit  of  trouble,  but  in  one 
case  they  ran  out  of  that  and  tried  to  make  a  joint  with  unbraided  jute,  and 
did  not  get  the  fibres  on  that  jute  all  packed  into  the  back  of  the  bell, 
a  few  would  stick  out,  and  in  every  case  where  that  happened  there  would 
be  a  drip.  It  would  be  found  in  the  course  of  time,  but  it  made  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  at  first.  Consequently,  the  braided  jute  was  ordered  and 
used  entirely  after  that. 

Mr.  Henry  T.  GiDLEY.f  I  would  like  to  say  that  we  have  used  almost 
entirely  for  three  years  the  Lead-Hydro-Tite  with  very  good  success. 

I  think  some  of  the  former  speakers  were  right  when  they  said  that 
they  do  not  want  to  take  a  man  who  has  melted  lead  to  use  on  the  Hydro- 
Tite,  for  the  Lead-Hydro-Tite  does  not  require  so  great  heat  as  the  lead, 
and  they  are  apt  to  burn  it  up  at  first,  because  you  can  get  it  too  hot  easier 
than  you  can  just  the  right  temperature. 

The  bending  qualities  of  Lead-Hydro-Tite  we  have  tested  where  we 
had  to  lower  our  pipe,  and  in  one  case  we  lowered  72  ft.  of  6-in.  pipe  2  ft. 
with  the  water  pressure  on  and  no  leaky  joints.  In  another  case,  ivhere 
the  grade  was  changed  in  a  street,  where  there  was  a  cross  street  and  we 
had  to  lower  the  pipe,  we  lowered  it  2  ft.  in  100,  and  the  cross  T  was  lowered 
a  foot,  and  beyond  the  cross  T  the  pipe  was  lowered  until  it  started  to  buckle 
a  little,  but  no  joint  in  the  pipe  showed  the  least  sign  of  leaking.  This 
was  over  a  little  rise,  so  that  the  pipe  as  lowered  was  really  shortened  rather 
than  lengthened. 

Mr.  Taylor.  I  may  call  your  attention,  Mr.  President,  to  the  last 
sentence  of  this  little  paper  of  mine,  —  "  Figuring  the  cost  of  jute  packing, 
labor  and  lead."  There  was  an  opportunity  to  make  a  pretty  accurate 
comparison.  We  made  two  joints  on  a  very  heavy  check  valve,  which 
was  in  a  soft  bottom,  with  lead,  with  the  idea  it  might  need  to  be  recaulked 
at  some  time  or  another.  The  average  of  those  two  lead  joints  was  $18.06. 
That  is  simply  the  packing,  labor  and  lead.  While  the  same  items  in  the 
Leadite  joint  cost  an  average  of  $4.42  per  joint.  That  makes  no  allowance 
for  the  very  great  difference  in  the  depth  in  digging  and  maintaining  bell 
holes  in  wet  trenches. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Hawley.J  We  have  recently  completed  a  line  of  8-in. 
pipe,  but  on  account  of  delay  in  getting  a  right  of  way  we  had  an  oppor- 

*  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Scaradale,  N.  Y. 
t  Suprint«ndent  Water  Worka,  Fairhaven,  Mass. 
t  Chief  Engineer  and  Manager  Pennsylvania  Water  Co.  O  OOqIp 


382  DESCRIPTION  OF  NEW   BEDFORD   WATER  SYSTEM. 

tunity  to  test  about  a  mile  of  it  before  it  was  put  into  service.  After  a 
day  or  two  we  found  that  the  leakage  was  so  little  that  it  would  not  register 
on  the  best  |-in.  meter  that  we  could  pick  out.  I  do  not  know  just  what 
that  is  in  cubic  feet  per  hour,  but  you  can  see  that  the  leakage  was  very 
small. 

We  usually  test  our  pipes  in  the  open  trench.  Perhaps  it  is  not  neces- 
sary, but  we  believe  that  it  gives  us  a  little  closer  check  on  the  man  who 
is  making  the  joints,  because  if  we  find  a  joint  that  shows  any  considerable 
leakage,  anything  more  than  mere  seepage,  we  know  there  is  something 
wrong  in  the  way  that  joint  was  poured,  and  it  gives  us  an  immediate  check 
on  the  man  who  poured  it. 

I  want  to  take  this  opportunity,  by  the  way,  to  correct  a  statement 
that  was  made  in  the  last  Journal,  to  the  effect  that  I  was  the  first  one  to 
use  Leadite  in  Atlantic  City.  That  is  not  correct.  Mr.  Kenneth  Allen, 
my  successor,  used  Leadite  there,  I  think  in  1903  or  1904.  I  did  not  use 
it  until  a  year  or  two  later  at  Wilkinsburg. 

President  Barbour.  Mr.  Marston,  I  believe  you  referred  to  the 
use  of  Leadite  in  a  suction  system  from  springs.  Does  that  mean  it  was 
under  a  vacuum  suction  system? 

Mr.  Marstox.    No;  it  was  a  gravity  system. 

President  Barbour.  Has  anyone  ever  used  Leadite  where  the 
pipe  was  under  a  partial  vacuum?     (No  response.) 

Mr.  Patrick  Gear.*  I  would  hke  to  know  if  any  of  those  gentlemen 
who  use  Leadite  would  take  a  chance  under  a  railroad  track,  where  you 
have  to  cover  it  up  before  testing. 

Mr.  Taylor.  We  would  be  perfectly  satisfied  to  go  ahead  and  use 
Leadite.  We  always  cover  our  pipe  as  soon  as  laid,  without  waiting  for 
a  test,  we  are  so  confident  of  it.  We  never  yet  have  had  a  failure,  and 
sometimes  it  is  under  quite  a  strain. 

Mr.  Hawley.  If  the  pipe  is  laid  by  a  man  who  knows  how  to  lay  it, 
that  is  the  place  for  Leadite. 

Mr.  Marston.  In  a  pumping  station  where  pipe  is  subject  to  vibra- 
tion, Leadite  has  been  used  up  to  12-in.  pipe,  and  they  have  stood  up 
very  nicely. 

President  Barbour.  I  think  I  am  stating  the  fact  in  saying  that 
Mr.  Mclnnes  has  used  Leadite  in  the  crossing  over  the  Neponset  bridge 
where  there  is  very  pronounced  vibration,  and  has  used  it  in  preference 
to  lead  at  that  point. 

Mr.  Alexander  ORR.f  Has  anyone  used  Leadite  or  other  substitutes 
for  lead  in  any  of  the  exceptionally  cold  cities  where  we  have  to  do  consid- 
erable thawing  by  electricity? 

Mr.  George  McKay,  Jr.}  Mr.  Bugbee  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  in  the 
very  cold  winter  of  1917,  had  2  000  services  frozen,  and  used  electricity 

♦  Superintendent  Water  Works.  Holyoke.  Masi«. 
t  Superintendent  Water  Works.  Gloversville,  N.  Y. 
;()f  the  Leadite  Co. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  383 

in  thawing.  They  never  had  any  difficulty  in  putting  the  current  through. 
I  think  the  main  thing  is  to  keep  the  voltage  low  and  get  the  amperage 
up  to  about  250.    Do  not  get  the  voltage  too  high. 

Mr.  Orr.    Are  those  laid  in  the  regular  manner? 

Mr.  McKLa^y.    Laid  in  the  regular  manner. 

Mr.  Doane.  Is  there  testimony  to  be  offered  as  to  the  effect  of 
electrolysis  on  the  water  pipes  containing  these  compounds? 

Mr.  Hawlby.  I  can  say  that  the  Leadite  materially  decreases  the 
amount  of  current  flowing  through  our  mains. 

Mr.  Brush.  From  your  experience  would  you  consider  there  would 
be  any  serious  difficulty  in  running  water  mains  where  your  mains  would 
be  laid  by  a  contractor  who  received  a  contract  as  a  result  of  being  a  low 
bidder,  where  there  would  be  no  testing  of  the  mains  although  the  con- 
tractor would  be  held  responsible  for  a  year  for  any  leakage  that  developed? 

Mr.  Taylor.  If  I  was  having  work  done  by  contract  I  should  cer- 
tainly want  to  see  it  under  pressure  before  it  was  covered.  We  do  all  of 
our  own  work  here,  that  is  why  we  cover  it  up.  We  have  men  who  are 
Yen-  familiar  with  it,  and  we  feel  confident.  But  if  it  is  going  to  be  done 
by  contract  I  would  want  to  see  it  under  pressure  before  it  was  covered, 
by  all  means. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  might  add  one  thing  t)  that,  Mr.  Taylor,  and  say, 
whether  it  is  going  to  be  done  by  contract  or  not. 

Mr.  Joseph  A.  Hoy.*  In  making  water-w-orks  caps,  do  you  use 
Leadite,  or  lead? 

Mr.  Taylor.  We  usually  use  Leadite.  When  we  had  a  big  cross 
connection,  a  36-in.  or  a  48-in.  steel  main,  we  put  the  responsibility  up 
to  the  Water  Works  Equipment  Company.  They  made  the  joints  with 
lead,  and  filled  in  the  space  between  the  joints  with  cement  grout.  But 
we  have  used  Leadite  in  many  cases,  and  with  good  success,  on  our  own 
work. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  would  state  for  the  information  of  the  gentleman  that 
I  made,  on  a  30-in.,  with  the  water  on,  a  Leadite  joint  for  two  8-in.  outlets, 
tapping  the  sleeve  through  two  8-in.  outlets.     I  had  absolutely  no  trouble. 

Mr.  Taylor.  We  very  seldom  contract  any  work  that  we  can  do  our- 
selves. The  48-in.  job  is  handled  very  comfortably  with  the  present  out- 
fit. I  had  estimates  made  of  the  cost  of  steel  and  cast-iron  mains  for  that 
job,  getting  a  contractor's  figure  for  48-in.  main,  and  using  our  own  estimate 
of  our  own  cost  of  laying  a  48-in.  cast-iron  main  and  comparing  it  with  the 
contractor's  figure  for  a  48-in.  steel  main. 

We  could,  by  doing  the  work  ourselves,  put  in  the  cast-iron  main  for 
about  the  cost  of  a  steel  main  through  contract,  and  the  difference  in  value 
is  considerable,  or,  at  least,  that  is  my  opinion.  You  get  a  48-in.  cast- 
iron  main  by  doing  the  work  yourself  for  the  price  of  a  steel  main  by 
contract. 

•Foreman  Water  Dept.,  Worcester,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


384  DESCRIPTION   OF  NEW  BEDFORD   WATER  SYSTEM. 

President  Barbour.  I  think  that  is  a  most  remarkable  statement 
that  Mr.  Taylor  has  just  made.  I  think  you  had  better  add,  if  you  can, 
the  price  of  cast-iron  at  the  time  the  comparison  was  made. 

Mr.  Taylor.  At  the  time  cast-iron  was  high.  My  estimate  was 
based  on  $70  per  ton.  Steel  was  also  high,  of  course.  I  should  think  the 
difference  between  steel  and  cast-iron  was  less  now  than  it  was  twenty- 
three  years  ago  when  the  old  system  was  laid.  At  that  time  there  was 
considerable  difference,  and  it  was  figured  that  the  interest  on  the  difference 
in  cost  —  both  by  contract,  of  course  —  in  twenty  years  would  re-lay  the 
main,  of  course  using  the  prices  of  that  date  as  a  basis. 

But  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  all  know  that  the  prices  are  very  much 
higher  now. 

Mr.  Brush.  Have  you  found  any  corrosion  on  the  exterior  of  your 
steel  line? 

Mr.  Taylor.    No.    All  interior,  from  tuberculation  and  pitting. 

Mr.  Brush.    Have  you  had  any  failure  in  the  entire  line? 

Mr.  Taylor.    No  absolute  failure. 

Mr.  Brush.  Have  you  estimated  about  how  much  longer  that  line 
will  last?  I  know  you  stated  that  you  were  putting  in  cast-iron  as  a  secur- 
ity against  possible  failure  of  the  future. 

Mr.  Taylor.    Yes. 

Mr.  Brush.  You  said  that  some  of  the  pitting  had  gone  through 
just  under  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  metal. 

Mr.  Taylor.  About  that.  Very  roughly  we  have  estimated  that 
we  ought  to  get  fifteen  years  more  life  out  of  the  steel  pipe.  That  is  on 
what  we  have  seen.  Of  course  we  do  not  know  the  condition  in  some  places 
where  we  have  not  seen  it.  But  we  felt  it  was  a  much  safer  measure  to 
have  this  second  main  in  readiness  if  it  did  let  go. 

Mr.  Diven.    That  will  make  a  total  of  thirty-five  years? 

Mr.  Taylor.    Yes,  if  it  mns  fifteen  years  longer,  thirty-eight  years. 

Mr.  Diven.    What  kind  of  soil  is  it  laid  in? 

Mr.  Taylor.  A  little  of  everjiihing;  swamps,  gravel,  and  some  few 
clay  spots. 

Mr.  Diven.    Any  pitting  in  the  clay? 

Mr.  Taylor.  I  have  not  seen  any  piece  from  outside  where  there 
was  any  pitting.  I  perhaps  ought  to  say  that  we  have  not  uncovered 
very  much. 

Mr.  Diven.  My  experience  is  just  exactly  the  opp)osite.  Especially 
in  clay  soil  there  is  more  pitting  from  the  outside  than  the  inside. 

Mr.  Taylor.  We  make  frequent  tests  for  leakage  in  that  steel  main 
by  the  weir  chamber,  shutting  off  all  outlets  and  noting  the  drop  in  the 
very  small  weir  chamber,  and  it  has  been  very  tight  every  time  it  has  been 
tested.    We  are  not  guessing,  but  know  it  by  actual  test. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CLARK.  385 


A  NEW  METHOD  OF  PURIFYING  WATER. 

BY  H.  W.  CLARK.* 

[Septembea  14,  19££.] 

Probably  the  chief  objection  to  slow  sand  filtration  in  the  minds  of 
many  sanitary  engineers  and  water-works  officials  is  that  this  method  of 
water  treatment  seldom  removes  from  the  comparatively  clear  but  often 
highly  colored  waters  of  the  eastern  states  more  than  from  25  to  30  per 
cent,  of  this  color,  and  hence  does  not  produce  a  filtrate  as  clear,  sparkling, 
low  colored  and  altogether  attractive  as  the  filtrate  from  coagulation  and 
rapid  filtration  of  such  waters.  On  the  other  hand,  perhaps  the  chief  ob- 
jections to  the  method  of  coagulation  and  rapid  filtration  when  applied 
to  these  soft,  highly  colored  waters,  are ;  the  tendency  of  this  method  to 
increase  the  corrosive  properties  of  the  soft  water  treated,  the  difficulty 
with  which,  as  generally  speaking,  equally  good  bacterial  results  can  be  ob- 
tained, as  by  slow  sand  filtration,  especially  if  these  soft  waters  are 
badly  polluted;  and  the  fact  now  again  being  widely  commented  upon  that 
occasionally  aluminum  sulphate  does  pass  through  such  filters. 

Owing  to  these  objections  or  criticisms  of  the  two  methods,  a  process 
of  w^ater  treatment  that  will  produce  a  sparkling  water  of  low  color  without 
materially  increasing  its  corrosive  properties,  has  been  much  desired  and 
such  a  method  I  believe  we  have  worked  out  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment 
Station  of  the  Massachusetts  Department  of  Public  Health.  I  am  calling 
this  a  new  method  although  we  have  been  experimenting  with  it  since 
the  latter  part  of  1916  and  have  published  in  our  reports  short  summaries 
of  the  results  obtained. 

Briefly,  the  process  consists  of  loading  the  sand  of  a  slow  sand  filter 
with  the  ordinary  coagulants  used  in  mechanical  filtration  and  operating 
such  a  filter  generally  at  slightly  more  than  the  usual  slow  sand  filter  rates 
or  about  5  000  000  or  6  000  000  gal.  per  acre  daily.  Filters  loaded  in  this 
way  remove  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  organic  matter,  especially 
the  coloring  matter  of  the  applied  water,  produce  an  effluent  clear,  spark- 
ling and  altogether  attractive,  containing  no  more  carbonic  acid  than  in 
the  raw  water  applied  to  the  filters  and  with  the  carbonate  constituents 
of  the  water  slightly  increased. 

This  method  of  water  treatment  has  many  advantages  over  each  of 
the  other  methods  and  but  one  drawback.  The  advantages  are  as  follows: 
(1)  The  corrosive  properties  of  the  effluent  are  not  increased  or  if  so,  not 
materially,  and  neither  aluminum  sulphate  nor  alumina  is  found  in  the 
filter  eflSuent;  (2)  the  aluminum  hydroxide  with  which  the  filter  is  first 
loaded   is  regenerated  whenever  its  color  removal  properties  begin  to 

*  Chief  Chemist.  Massachusetts  Department  of  Public  Health. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


386  A   NEW   METHOD    OF   PURIFYING  WATER. 

fail  and  hence  is  used  over  and  over  again,  —  that  is,  the  primary  cost 
of  coagulants  is  practically  the  final  cost ;  (3)  when  receiving  comparatively 
highly  colored  water  from  storage  reservoirs  practically  free  from  mineral 
matter  in  suspension,  such  as  silt,  etc.,  the  method  of  filter  regeneration 
or  removal  of  stored  color  which  we  employ,  removes  practically  all  organic 
matter  from  the  surface  of  the  filter  as  well  as  from  its  deeper  portions 
and  hence  the  necessity  for  scraping  the  filter  is  largely  obviated,  —  that 
is,  the  expense  of  sand  removal  and  sand  washing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Filters  of  this  type  now  in  operation  at  the  Experiment  Station  have  been 
scraped  only  once  or  twice  during  a  period  of  five  years'  operation  at  rates 
of  5  000  000  gal.  per  acre  daily;  (4)  there  is,  as  I  have  already  stated, 
practically  no  consumption  of  alum.  Filters  operated  now  for  five  years 
have  theoretically  used  up  to  date,  taking  into  consideration  the  amount 
of  aluminum  sulphate  primarily  placed  in  the  filter  and  the  volume  of 
water  filtered,  about  .2  of  a  grain  of  sulphate  per  gal.  of  water  filtered  or 
practically  one-twelfth  of  the  amount  necessary  per  gallon  in  sucessful 
mechanical  filtration  of  the  Merrimack  River  water  such  as  applied  to 
these  loaded  filters.  As  the  loaded  filter  increases  in  age  and  the  volume 
of  water  filtered  and  decolorized  increases,  the  theoretical  or  apparent 
use  of  alum  grows  less  and  less  per  gallon.  Successful  mechanical  filtration 
of  Merrimack  River  water  costs  in  the  neighborhood  of  $6  or  $7  per  million 
gal.  for  aluminum  sulphate  while  with  this  new  method  the  cost  to  date  has 
been  about  55  cents  per  million  gal.  for  this  sulphate,  and  this  cost  is 
constantly  growing  less:  that  is  to  say,  if  in  the  next  five  years  we  filter 
as  large  a  volume  of  water  as  in  the  past  five  and  without  additional  load- 
ing of  the  filter,  the  cost  will  be  28  cents  per  million  gal. 

Up  to  date  we  have  operated  eleven  filters  loaded  with  aluminum 
sulphate  but  for  purposes  of  this  paper  the  results  of  only  five  or  six  need 
be  given.  One  filter,  put  into  operation  in  January,  1917,  and  constructed 
of  4  ft.  in  depth  of  sand  with  an  effective  size  of  .25  mm.,  was  loaded 
with  80  tons  of  aluminum  sulphate  per  acre  of  filter  surface.  The  aluminum 
hydroxide  was  precipitated  in  the  sand  by  flooding  the  filter  alternately 
with  small  doses  of  solutions  of  soda  ash  and  sulphate,  although  the  filter 
can  be  loaded  by  mixing  an  alkali  such  as  magnesium  carbonate  with  the 
dry  sand  and  then  applying  solutions  of  the  sulphate.  During  its  five 
years  of  operation  the  average  color  of  the  effluent  from  this  filter  has 
been  14  and  the  color  of  the  water  applied  to  it,  41  —  a  removal  of  66 
per  cent.  During  long  periods  the  color  of  the  effluent  has  averaged  7, 
however,  and  during  portions  of  these  periods  the  applied  water  has  had 
a  color  of  60,  70  and  even  75:  that  is,  the  filter  has  given  an  average  color 
removal  during  such  seriods  of  about  90  per  cent.  In  other  words,  the 
line  of  the  effluent  has  always  been  nearly  straight  while  the  color  of 
the  applied  water  has  had  many  high  peaks  and  the  higher  the  color  of 
the  applied  water  the  greater  the  percentage  of  the  coloring  matter  removed. 
Up  to  date  this  filter  has  removed  rather  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CLARK.  387 

organic  matter  determined  as  albmninoid  ammonia  and  60  per  cent,  of 
that  determined  as  oxygen  consumed.  It  has  been  treated  with  weak 
solutions  of  caustic  soda  twenty-four  times  in  five  years  in  order  to  remove 
the  coloring  matter  held  in  the  filter  by  the  aluminum  hydroxide.  After 
this  treatment  with  caustic  such  a  filter  is  washed  with  a  volume  of  water 
equal  to  about  2.5  to  3  per  cent,  of  that  filtered  between  treatments  and  is 
then  ready  for  service  for  a  period  of  two  or  more  months.  It  is  not  nec- 
essary to  use  filtered  water  for  this  washing  out  of  caustic.  The  amount 
of  caustic  used  up  to  date  in  the  filter  described  has  been  .5  of  a  grain 
per  gal.  of  water  filtered,  or,  in  other  words,  the  expense  for  the  caustic 
used  has  been  about  S2.50  per  million  gal.  of  filtrate.  We  believe, 
however,  judging  from  later  results  that  we  have  used  in  this  particular 
filter  an  excessive  amount  of  caustic  and  that  this  figure  may  be  much 
reduced.  A  filter  loaded  with  150  tons  of  aluminum  sulphate  per  acre 
has  given  an  average  color  removal  of  78  per  cent,  during  the  past  two 
years  when  operated  at  a  5  000  000-^al.  rate  and  a  filter  constructed  of 
sand  as  fine  as  .11mm.  effective  size  and  operated  at  a  2  500  000-gal. 
rate  has  produced  an  absolutely  colorless  effluent  since  first  put  into  opera- 
tion. The  cost  of  efficiently  loading  an  acre  filter  is  a  smaU  percentage 
of  the  cost  of  filter  construction. 

The  bacterial  results  from  this  method  are  poor  as  the  caustic  used 
removes  from  the  sand  grains  much  of  the  gelatinous  organic  matter  so 
necessary  for  the  retention  of  bacteria;  but  the  effluent — clear,  low  in  color 
and  sparkling  —  is  easily  rendered  practically  sterile  by  the  use  of  small 
amounts  of  chlorine,  and  chlorine  is  in  almost  universal  use  at  filter  plants 
at  the  present  time  in  order  that  their  effluents  may  be  absolutely  safe. 

This  method  of  treatment  is  particularly  applicable  to  stored  waters 
of  a  high  color,  the  improvement  of  which  physically  is  of  more  moment 
than  the  reduction  of  bacteria;  and  it  has  seemed  to  us  that  there  is  no 
serious  objection  to  it  which  would  prevent  its  use  upon  a  large  scale. 
Recent  experience  has  shown  that  perhaps  the  better  way  of  loading 
the  sand  would  be  to  carry  this  loading  process  on  in  comparatively  small 
tanks  or  bins  and  then  transport  the  sand  to  the  filter.  By  this  method 
more  even  distribution  of  the  hydroxide  would  be  obtained  and  strati- 
fication prevented. 

The  following  table  illustrates  some  of  the  results  obtained  at  the 
Experiment  Station  during  the  past  five  years: — 


Tons  of  aluminum  sulphate  per 

acre  precipitated  in  niter, 
Color  removal  (per  cent.), 
Number  of  days  between  caustic 

treatments,  65  67  67  89  89  90 

Grains  of  caustic  soda  used  per 

gaUon  of  water  filtered,  .52  .21  .42  .16  .32  .16 


Filter  Number. 

494. 

512. 

513.             514. 

515. 

516. 

80 

75 

75           150 

150 

225 

66 

73 

73            73 

78 

76 

Approximate  percentage  of  wash 

Rate  of  each  filter  5  000  000  gal.  per  acre  daily.        Digitized  by  UOOglC 


water,  2.5  3.7  3.7  2.8  2.8^       5.^ 

51^ 


388  a  new  method  of  purifyixg  water. 

Discussion'. 

A  Member.  Does  the  aluminum  hydrate  come  through  the  filto 
at  all? 

Mr.  Clark.  Not  after  you  get  the  loading  adjusted.  When  loading 
the  filter  you  may  not  get  your  proportion  of  soda  and  sulphate  just  right 
to  cause  complete  precipitation  of  hydroxide,  but  by  testing  the  water 
coming  through  you  can  adjust  that. 

Mr.  George  W.  Fuller.*  I  would  like  to  ask  whether  during  the 
period  of  some  two  months  or  so  between  regeneration  of  the  hydroxide 
there  is  any  diminishing  percentage  in  the  removal  of  color;  in  other 
words,  is  the  greater  the  amount  of  aluminum  hydrate  you  have  available 
the  greater  the  removal  of  color,  so  that  during  the  first  ten  days  after  you 
regenerate  you  get  a  less  of  color? 

Mr.  Clark.  Yes.  When  you  are  running  a  single  filter,  this  filter 
removes  aU  color  at  first  from  the  water  and  then  when  the  color  of  the 
effluent  gets  up  to  14  or  15  we  regenerate  the  filter.  If  you  have  a  battery 
or  series  of  filters,  by  regenerating  each  one  separately  the  increase  in  the 
color  of  the  effluent  as  the  filters  are  used  would  not  be  noticeable;  that 
is  to  say,  the  color  of  the  mixed  effluents  could  be  kept  at  the  desired  point. 

A  Member.  Is  regeneration  of  the  fflters  carried  on  by  reversing 
the  flow? 

Mr.  Clark.     We  flush  the  caustic  over  the  surface. 

Mr.  Robert  Spurr  WESTON.t  When  you  regenerate  with  caus- 
tic soda,  you  of  course  reduce  the  amount  of  hydrate  available  for  the 
decolorization? 

Mr.  Clark.  We  have  not  found  any  appreciable  amount  is  taken 
in  that  way. 

Mr.  Weston.  You  do  not,  after  regeneration,  need  any  replacement 
of  the  original  loading? 

Mr.  Clark.  We  have  not  replaced  any  in  five  years,  and  our  filters 
are  working  just  as  well  as  they  did  five  years  ago,  i.e.,  removing  just  as 
much  color.  We  may  be  losing  some  slight  amount  of  aluminum  hydroxide 
from  the  filters  but  have  never  found  any  in  the  effluents. 

A  Member.  One  question  occurs  to  me  along  that  line.  Some  highly 
colored  swampy  waters  that  are  decolorized  require  a  large  amount  of 
aluminum  hydrate  to  get  as  nearly  colorless  a  water  as  you  can  obtain 
but  this  does  not  remove  the  salts  or  acids  that  cause  taste.  They  may 
have  been  decolorized  but  apparently  the  swampy  taste  is  not  removed. 
Did  you  consider  that  at  all? 

Mr.  Clark.  We  have  not  considered  that  but  our  effluents  are  practi- 
cally tasteless.  The  Merrimac  River  water  at  times  in  the  last  two  or 
three  years,  especially  the  last  year,  has  been  very  highly  colored." 

♦Consulting  Sanitary  Engineer,  New  York  City. 
t  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston.  Mass. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  389 

Mr.  Fuller.  Of  course  economics  of  this  problem  would  relate 
a  good  deal  to  the  amount  of  turbidity,  mineral  turbidity  or  microscopic 
organisms  like  Algae  in  the  applied  water,  and  then  your  regeneration 
period  would  be  controlled  by  other  matters  than  the  amount  or  organic 
matter  held  in  the  filter  sand. 

Mr.  Clark,  The  regeneration  period  would  not  be  changed.  It 
would  be  necessary  probably  in  such  a  case  to  scrape  the  filter  just  the  same 
as  it  would  if  you  did  not  have  it  loaded  with  aluminum  hydroxide,  as  you 
would  any  sand  filter  receiving  such  water. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.*  Then  after  scraping  you  would  not  have  to 
recharge? 

Mr.  Clark.    No. 

Mr.  Gilbert  H.  Pratt. f  Unfortunately  I  did  not  hear  all  of  Mr. 
Clarke's  paper  and  he  may  have  covered  the  point  I  am  about  to  inquire 
about.  I  am  wondering  whether  in  loading  the  bed  this  has  been  done  by 
the  aluminum  sulphate  —  soda  ash  treatment  to  successive  small  layers 
of  sand  or  to  the  bed  after  in  place.  If  the  latter,  it  would  seem  to  me 
that  there  would  be  a  heavy  layer  on  the  top  of  the  bed  and  as  I  said  before 
I  am  wondering  if  it  was  done  by  treating  successive  small  layers. 

Mr.  Clark.  I  think  by  doing  that  you  might  perhaps,  once  in  a 
while,  get  a  stratified  layer,  a  fine  layer;  that  is,  your  aluminum  hydroxide 
precipitate  might  be  too  heavy  at  one  place  in  the  filter.  As  I  said  in  the 
paper,  you  can  obviate  that  by  having  bins  or  tanks  in  which  you  charge 
or  load  your  sand  before  placing  in  the  filter. 

Mr.  Pratt.  My  point  was  whether  you  thought  you  had  a  heavier 
layer  on  the  top  possibly? 

Mr.  Clark.  We  may  have  a  heavier  layer  on  top  if  the  filter  is  not 
properly  loaded  but  it  is  easy  to  load  the  filter  correctly.  I  think  one  of 
the  great  things  about  this  method  is  the  low  cost  for  aluminum  sulphate. 
When  you  come  down  from  $5  to  $6  a  million  gallons  to  55  cents  and 
then  keep  on  going  down  so  that  it  is  perhaps  half  of  that  before  you  have 
to  use  any  more  precipitant,  you  are  making  a  great  point  on  the  economy 
side.  I  have  more  data  on  this  subject  but  haven't  it  with  me  because 
I  did  not  want  to  talk  about  things  that  I  was  not  absolutely  sure  about. 

Mr.  Weston.  Is  there  any  material  change  in  the  pH  value  of  the 
water? 

Mr.  Clark.  Yes.  The  pH  value  of  the  water  is  increased.  We 
are  running  a  mechanical  filter  right  beside  these  filters  with  the  same 
water  and  the  pH  value  of  the  effluents  from  our  loaded  filters  is  greater 
than  the  effluent  of  the  mechanical  filter. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Green.J  Can  you  see  the  aluminum  hydroxide  in  the 
sand  layers? 

♦  Secretary  American  Water  Works  Association,  New  York  City. 

t  New  England  Manager,  Wallace  &  Tiernan  Company.  Newark,  N.  J. 

X  Superintendent  Filtration  A  Pumping,  Montclair  Water  Co..  Little  Falls.  N.  J. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


390  A   NEW  METHOD   OF  PURIFYING   WATER. 

Mr.  Clark.  It  is  very  diflficult  to  see  it  unless  a  portion  of  the  filter 
is  over-loaded. 

Mr.  Wellington  DoNALDSON.f  May  I  ask  Mr.  Clark  what  strength 
of  filter  solution  is  used  in  filling  or  loading  a  filter? 

Mr.  Clark.    Very  weak  solutions  as  very  slow  loading  is  required. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Baker.J  In  the  paper  it  is  stated  that  there  are  four 
or  five  advantages  and  one  drawback  and  the  drawback  is  not  clearly 
pointed  out  anywhere  in  the  paper.  Perhaps  the  author  of  the  paper  would 
mention  more  specifically  what  the  drawback  is. 

Mr.  Clark.  The  drawback  is  the  poor  bacterial  results.  The 
process  as  we  use  it  removes  about  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  bacteria  as 
determined  by  the  4-day  20°C.  count  and  a  larger  percentage  of  Coli  is 
removed  but  the  bacterial  efficiency  of  the  filter  is  nothing  like  that  ob- 
tained by  good  sand  filtration  or  good  mechanical  filtration.  As  I  have 
stated,  the  process  is  particularly  applicable  to  the  treatment  of  waters, 
the  physical  improvement  of  which  is  of  more  moment  than  bacterial 
improvement. 

Mr.  Green.  This  most  interesting  paper  of  Mr.  Clark's  apparently 
shows  the  existence  of  certain  physical-chemical  properties  of  aluminum 
hydroxide  of  which  we  have  no  former  record.  These  properties  may 
account  for  the  mutual  precipitation  which  is  brought  about  when  a  colored 
stream  and  a  turbid  stream  are  intermixed  by  Mother  Nature. 

When  a  solution  of  aluminum  hydroxide  is  applied  to  a  colored  water 
the  floe  forms  much  more  quickly  than  when  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
alumina  of  equivalent  value  reacts  with  the  alkaline  constituents  of  the 
same  water.  The  decolorizing  "action  of  the  more  slowly  formed  floe  is 
much  greater  than  that  produced  when  the  floe  is  formed  rapidily.  It 
is  possible  to  form  a  floe  so  rapidily  that  masses  of  considerable  size  are 
produced  before  there  is  a  reaction  with  the  organic  coloring  matter  con- 
tained in  the  water.  Only  the  surface  of  the  individual  particles  is  stained, 
the  interior  remaining  white  and  thereby  showing  that  it  has  not  partici- 
pated in  the  decolorizing  action.  Some  recent  experiments  by  the  writer 
with  a  certain  colloidal  coagulant  which  is  now  being  introduced  on  the 
market,*  also  show  that  it  increased  the  reaction  with  the  organic  con- 
stituents if  you  retarded  the  formation  of  the  floe. 

In  connection  with  cleaning  sand  by  means  of  caustic  soda,  we  have 
found  by  laboratory  experiments  that  it  is  possible  to  remove  all  of  the 
organic  matter  from  the  sand  grains  by  this  method.  Also  that  a  hot  solu- 
tion of  the  mixture  of  acaustic  soda  and  soda  ash  gave  the  same  results  at 
a  lesser  cost. 

It  would  be  of  interest  to  know  if  there  is  a  coating  of  the  alumina  on 
the  sand  grains,  or  just  what  is  the  physical  condition  of  the  hydroxide. 


t  Chemist.  Fuller  &  McClintock.  New  York  City. 

t  Associate  Editor,  Engineering  News  Record,  New  York  City. 

♦Senders  Colloidal  Coagulant.     Seydel  Chemical  Co..  120  Broadway.  N.  Y. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  391 

Mr.  Stephen  DeM.  Gage.*  I  have  been  very  much  interested  in 
Mr.  Clark's  paper  for  the  reason  that,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  our  water 
purification  problems  in  Rhode  Island  are  concerned  with  color  removal 
and  improvement  in  physical  quality,  rather  than  with  removal  of  pollution. 

From  the  figures  which  Mr.  Clark  has  presented  it  seems  that  this 
new  process  might  have  considerable  value  in  particular  cases  even  if  ex- 
perience shall  show  that  it  is  not  of  broad  application.  The  more  processes 
we  have  to  choose  from,  the  more  satisfactorily  and  economically  we  can 
work  out  our  individual  problems.  In  explaining  the  figures  on  the  chart, 
Mr.  Clark  specifically  mentioned  a  color  removal  of  66  per  cent,  with  a 
filter  containing  80  tons  sulphate  of  alimiina  and  an  increased  color  removal 
with  a  filter  containing  150  tons  per  acre.  The  chart  also  shows  results 
with  two  other  filters  containing  75  tons  per  acre  with  a  color  removal  of 
73  per  cent.,  or  almost  as  great  removal  as  the  filter  containing  150  tons. 
This  might  perhaps  indicate  that  there  was  a  certain  definite  load  of  alum 
needed  to  produce  the  best  results,  and  that  any  material  increase  over 
that  amount  would  not  be  worth  while.  I  should  like  to  ask  Mr.  Clark 
if  he  can  give  us  any  further  information  on  this  point. 

Mb.  Clark.  I  did  not.  We  did  get  73  per  cent,  removal  with  75 
tons  of  aluminum  sulphate. 

Mr.  Gage.     Is  that  related  to  the  fineness  of  the  sand? 

Mr.  Clark.  The  fineness  of,  the  sand  in  our  filters  was  as  nearly 
the  same  as  we  could  have  it. 


*  Chemist  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  Rhode  Island  State  Board  of  Health. 

Digitfzed  by  VjOOQIC 


392  THE  USE  AND  DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY   FIRE   PROTECTION. 


THE  USE  AND  DISCARD  OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE  PROTECTION 
FROM  A  POLLUTED  SOURCE. 

BY  CALEB   M.   SAVILLE.* 

[September  IS,  19tS.] 

The  matter  of  secondary  fire  protection  by  use  of  water  from  a  polluted 
source,  controlled  by  automatic  check  valves  designed  to  close  when  the 
secondary  supply  is  turned  on,  has  been  the  subject  of  so  much  discussion 
within  the  past  few  years  that  it  seems  desirable  to  put  on  record  some  of 
the  experiences  that  have  been  passed  thru  in  Hartford,  Conn. 

The  intent  is  to  state  the  facts  from  the  water  works  standpoint,  and 
to  complete  some  of  the  statements  which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time 
in  favor  of  such  systems. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  the  home  of  the  largest  fire  insurance  companies  in 
the  world,  was  the  first  to  sanction  the  use  of  the  so-called  Double-Check 
Valve  control  between  its  public  water  supply  system  and  a  secondary 
source  of  water  to  be  used  for  fire  protection. 

It  is  therefore  of  interest  to  note  that  after  a  trial  period  of  13  years, 
Hartford  also  has  been  the  first  city  to  discard  such  control  and  to  require 
the  complete  severance  of  all  connection  between  its  water  system  and  any 
other. 

These  connections  joined  city  pipes,  carrying  carefully  filtered  water, 
with  pipes  into  which  might  be  forced  water  flowing  in  the  Park  River, 
which  is  dirty  and  foul  with  sewage  and  waste.  Under  certain  combina- 
tions of  circumstances  this  water  would  be  injected  into  the  pipes  carrying 
water  for  domestic  use. 

History. 

Historically  and  briefly  stated,  the  fact  that  there  were  a  number  of 
emergency  connections  between  the  Park  River  and  the  City  water  mains 
only  more  or  less  controlled  by  check  valves  of  the  ordinary  type,  buried 
in  the  ground,  was  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  Water  Board  of  the 
City  of  Hartford  in  August,  1907,  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Peck,  a  member  of  this 
Association  and  Engineer  of  the  Board  at  that  time. 

An  order  was  issued  by  the  Board  soon  after,  directing  discontinuance 
of  the  connections;  but  after  several  conferences  with  the  manufacturing 
interests  affected  it  was  agreed  to  stay  the  execution  of  the  order  until  trial 
could  be  made  of  a  double-check  valve  combination  which  had  been  designed 
by  the  engineers  of  the  Associated  Factories  Mutual  Fire  Insurance 
Company.' 

^Manager  and  Chief  Engineer  Board  of  Water  Commissioners.  Hartfi 


lers.  Hartfu^  Conn.    T 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SAVILLE.  393 

These  installations  were  completed  by  February,  1909,  and  their  opera- 
tion was  described  on  page  239,  vol.  30,  Journal  N.  E.  W.  W.  A.  (1916). 

The  matter  did  not  come  up  again  until  July  1915,  when  the  writer  of 
this  paper  reported  to  the  Water  Board  that  "the  valves  very  frequently 
are  found  not  to  close  tightly,  due  to  foreign  matter  being  caught  on  the* 
seat  under  the  clapper."  Owing  to  the  very  nature  of  the  service  a  valve 
left  absolutely  tight  by  the  inspector  may  be  found  leaking  again  soon 
after  his  visit,  although  he  had  left  the  valve  perfectly  tight. 

For  example,  in  192 1 ,  and  this  is  only  one  of  several  instances  on  record, 
although  perhaps  the  most  aggravated  case,  from  January  20  to  March  19, 
inclusive,  because  of  failure  to  hold  tight  on  test,  the  same  valve  was  visited 
eight  times,  and  each  time  found  to  leak  on  test,  and  each  time  put  in 
order  and  left  tight  when  tested. 

The  Associated  Factory  Mutual  Inspector  also  made  a  test  during  this 
period,  found  the  valve  leaking,  repaired  it,  as  had  the  water-works  inspector 
five  days  before,  left  it  tight,  and  nine  days  later  the  water-works  inspector 
again  found  it  leaking. 

The  report  of  the  inspector  states  each  time  that  the  valve  seats  were 
found  dirty,  and  had  to  be  scoured,  and  several  times  the  rubber  seat  ring 
had  to  be  changed  around  or  renewed. 

In  most  every  case  the  emergency  supply  was  taken  from  the  exces- 
sively polluted  Park  River,  a  stream  draining  about  60  sq.  mi.  including 
thickly  settled  parts  of  the  factory  district  of  New  Britain,  the  center  por- 
tion of  West  Hartford,  as  well  as  the  congested  part  of  Hartford. 

That  there  is  a  real  danger  in  such  connections  is  evidenced  by  the 
epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  traced  to  connections  between  the  public  water 
supply  and  polluted  streams,  as  at  Circleville,  Ohio,  February,  1914,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  1913,  Springfield,  Ohio,  1911,  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  1903  and 
others.  The  fact  that  there  may  have  been  no  improved  type  of  check 
or  possibly  only  a  gate  valve  on  these  does  not  weaken  the  evidence  of 
potential  danger  in  the  connection,  at  most  such  installation  could  be  only 
one  more  barrier  and  not  a  preventive. 

December,  1915,  this  matter  was  again  before  the  Board  on  recom- 
mendation to  refuse  thereafter  permission  to  extend  the  system,  and  the 
recommendation  was  adopted  although  protested  by  the  Engineer  of  the ' 
Factory^ Mutual  Companies. 

September,  1918,  the  matter  of  connections  was  again  brought  to 
attention,  by  the  continued  presence  of  B.Coli  in  the  tap  water  at  the 
laboratory,  which  is  located  near  the  center  of  the  city. 

An  exhaustive  search  located  the  trouble  in  a  large  department  store 
where  there  was  an  emergency  connection  between  the  city  water  supply 
and  a  secondary  supply  drawn  from  a  well  driven  several  hundred  feet  into 
the  red  sand  stone  formation  underlying  the  city,  and  from  which  water 
was  pumped  into  a  tank  on  the  roof  of  the  building. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


394  THE   USE  AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY    FIRE   PROTECTION. 

Controlling  this  connection  were  two  check  valves  of  the  ordinary 
type. 

This  sandstone  layer  dips  toward  the  east  and  is  crossed  by  the  Park 
River,  from  which  the  factories  drew  their  secondary  supply  in  case  of  need. 
There  are  many  of  these  wells  in  Hartford  being  used  to  furnish  cooling 
water  for  refrigerating  plants.  Many  tests  of  the  water  from  these  wells 
have  shown  the  presence  of  fi.Coli  in  those  east  of  the  river,  but  none  in 
those  to  the  west.  The  assumption  therefore  seems  warranted  that  there 
is  direct  connection  by  fault  or  seam  between  the  river  and  the  wells. 

The  connection  causing  the  trouble  was  ordered  removed  forthwith, 
and  on  September  25, 1918,  a  special  conmiittee  of  the  Water  Board  recom- 
mended that  an  order  be  issued  for  the  disconnection  and  subsequent  pro- 
hibition of  all  connections  between  the  city  water  system  and  any  other 
supply.  This  recommendation  was  approved  by  the  full  board,  and  the 
order  issued,  to  be  effective  within  a  reasonable  time  after  notice. 

Believing  their  factory  plants  to  be  seriously  menaced,  the  manufact- 
urers affected,  again  ably  supported  by  the  engineers  of  the  Associated 
Factory  Mutual  Insurance  Cos.,  made  a  strong  protest  against  the  opera- 
tion of  the  order;  brought  in  an  eminent  sanitary  specialist  to  give  his 
opinion  of  the  comparative  danger  from  pollution  or  from  fire;  another 
engineer  to  give  general  testimony;  and  designed,  and  built  at  considerable 
expense  a  full  sized  model  valve  all  of  bronze,  with  rubber  gaskets  of  speci- 
ally prepared  material,  which  they  offered  to  install  in  the  place  of  the 
**  F.M."  valves  then  in  service,  and  which  they  and  their  specialist  now 
frankly  acknowledged  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

Through  all  of  the  controversy  the  manufacturers  acted  in  the  very 
best  spirit,  as  good  citizens,  open-minded  and  anxious  only  to  have  that 
protection  to  which  their  plants  as  important  to  industrial  well  being  of 
the  city  were  entitled.  Indeed,  after  the  matter  was  finally  disposed  of, 
some  of  them  said  that  they  had  been  misled  as  to  the  adequacy  of  fire  pro- 
tection afforded  by  the  city  departments  and  if  they  had  been  previously 
as  well  informed  they  would  not  have  opposed  the  order  as  they  did.  At 
one  of  the  first  meeting  a  prominent  manufacturer  said  that  the  matter 
of  cost  did  not  enter  in,  the  only  consideration  being  proper  protection, 
and  subsequent  actions  fully  bore  out  this  assertion. 

It  is  also  pertinent  to  say  that  the  all  bronze  valve  designed  by  Mr. 
C.  D.  Rice,  manager  of  the  Underwood  Typewriter  Plant,  is  by  far  the 
best  mechanism  of  its  kind  that  has  come  to  my  knowledge,  and  the  near- 
est substitute  for  actual  severance  of  connections,  although  in  my  opinion 
there  is  a  very  wide  chasm  between  no  connection  at  all  and  one  controlled 
even  by  the  Rice  valve. 

However  if  you  must  have  double-check  valves  insist  that  all  bronze 
valves  of  the  Rice  type  be  furnished. 

Thereafter  several  hearings  were  held  by  the  Board  at  which  interested 
parties  appeared  and  submitted  testimony  concerning  the  necessity  for 

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8AVILLE.  395 

continuance  of  the  connections  for  fire  protection  service  and  of  the  very 
remote  chance  of  pollution  of  the  city  water. 

At  one  of  these  meetings  the  present  installations  were  roundly  scored 
by  one  of  the  best  known  sanitary  experts  of  the  country,  who  appeared 
for  the  manufacturers  to  testify  as  to  the  very  remote  chance  of  pollution 
and  the  relative  danger  of  considerable  loss  by  fire  and  of  loss  of  life  by 
polluted  water  from  these  connections. 

Even  this  specialist,  however,  stated  that  "there  was  some  danger  in 
any  connection  of  the  public  water  supply  with  a  polluted  source,  and  that 
as  a  general  rule  health  officers  and  practical  water-works  operators  are 
opposed  to  connections  of  this  character;  nevertheless,  that  he  believed  that 
such  connections  could  be  made  of  little  danger  if  controlled  by  a  properly 
designed  check  valve  system;  that  the  present  design  was  not  satisfactory, 
the  chief  difficulty  being  that  there  was  a  danger  of  binding  of  the  hinge  and 
of  rust  and  pipe  moss  becoming  lodged  under  the  seats."  He  further  sug- 
gested that  "these  difficulties  could  be  largely  overcome  with  the  construc- 
tion of  a  bronze  valve  differing  somewhat  from  those  at  present  in  use."  He 
would  not  admit,  however,  that  even  with  such  a  valve  there  would  be 
absolutely  no  danger,  but  stated  that  he  did  believe  that  with  such  a  valve 
the  danger  of  pollution  could  be  so  reduced  that  it  would  be  of  less  import- 
ance than  the  dangers  to  life  and  property  from  insufficient  fire  protection. 

On  November  15,  1920  it  was  again  voted  to  proceed  with  the 
disconnections. 

Again,  however,  at  the  request  of  the  manufacturers,  who  wished  to 
submit  additional  testimony  and  to  have  consideration  given  to  an  all- 
bronze  valve  which  they  had  had  built  and  installed  on  a  test  connection, 
two  other  hearings  were  held,  at  which  time,  beside  the  manufacturers  and 
their  attorney,  there  were  also  present  a  representative  of  the  Associated 
Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Company  (Inspection  Department)  and  a 
representative  of  a  New  York  Engineering  firm  who  had  been  retained  by 
the  remonstrants. 

After  this  hearing  the  matter  was  finally  closed  by  reaffirmation  of  the 
order  to  disconnect,  with  time  extended  to  January  1, 1922,  the  last  hearing 
having  been  held  July  11,  1921,  and  the  manufacturers  at  once  proceeded 
to  install  other  means  to  give  service  satisfactory  to  the  fire  insurance 
underwriters. 

In  all  of  this  discussion  nothing  but  the  best  of  feeling  prevailed  be- 
tween the  manufacturers  and  the  Water  Board  or  its  employees,  and  when 
the  final  decision  was  reached  the  manufacturers  as  a  unit  acted  as  good 
sports  and  good  citizens;  they  accepted  the  verdict  with  good  grace  and 
without  quibble  went  to  work  to  carry  out  the  spirit  as  well  as  the  letter 
of  the  order. 

As  the  hearings  progressed  the  impression  was  given  that  the  insurance 
interests  most  concerned  were  more  disturbed  on  account  of  the  general 
principle  of  disconnection  than  with  its  particular  effect  in  Hartford. 


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396  THE  USE  AND  DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE  PROTECTION. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  none  of  the  fire  insurance  stock  companies  made 
any  objection  to  the  elimination  although,  as  stated,  the  principal  offices 
of  the  larger  companies  are  located  in  Hartford,  and  their  engineering  staffs 
were  thoroughly  informed 

The  manufacturers  stated  that  it  was  not  at  all  a  question  of  expense 
to  them  in  making  the  substitution,  as  their  only  concern  was  adequate 
fire  protection,  and  that  they  had  been  led  to  believe  that  this  could  be 
afforded  only  by  the  double-check  valve  connections.  This  contention  of 
the  manufacturers  was  also  clearly  evident  by  their  attitude  and  sincere 
effort  to  find  some  substitute  which  could  be  considered  the  equivalent  of 
complete  separation. 

Notwithstanding  this  it  is  not  known  that  there  was  any  increase  in 
insurance  rates  due  to  the  change,  and  in  one  case  it  is  stated  that  a  con- 
siderable saving  was  effected  by  the  rearrangement. 

Leading  up  to  the  accomplishment  of  separation  of  the  secondary  supn 
plies,  so  much  study  was  given  to  the  matter  generally  and  to  local  con- 
ditions in  particular  that  a  r^sum^  may  be  of  help  to  water-works  men  in 
more  readily  getting  some  information  which  in  many  of  its  phases  is  of 
vital  importance  to  those  responsible  for  furnishing  pure  and  safe  water  to 
consumers. 

Auxiliary  Connections  Prohibited. 

In  order  that  absolute  protection  of  their  water  supplier  may  be  had, 
many  cities  absolutely  prohibit  connections  between  the  city  water  supply 
and  any  other  source.  Among  these  are  Springfield,  Mass.,  Providence, 
R.  I.,  Lowell,  Mass.,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
Stamford,  Conn.,  and  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

The  Minnesota  State  Board  of  Health  absolutely  prohibits  these  con- 
nections and  has  ordered  out  existing  ones;  the  State  Board  of  Health  of 
Illinois  * 'sanctions  no  such  physical  union  in  the  installation  of  new  factory 
supplies." 

Legal  Responsibility  to  Supply  Safe  Water. 

In  reviewing  the  "Mankato  Typhoid  Case"  where  damages  were 
claimed  and  paid  for  typhoid  death  and  disease  due  to  polluted  water 
entering  the  city  mains,  the  Supreme  Court  of  Minnesota  said;*  "It  is 
obvious,  that  a  sound  policy  holds  a  city  to  a  high  degree  of  faithfulness 
in  providing  an  adequate  supply  of  pure  water,  nor  does  it  appear  why  citi- 
zens should  be  deprived  of  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  fear  of  liabilit)'-  on 
the  energy  and  care  of  its  oflScials;  nor  why  a  city  should  be  exempt  from 
liability  while  a  private  corporation  under  the  same  circumstances  should 
be  held  responsible  for  its  conduct  and  made  to  contribute  to  the  innocent 
persons  it  may  have  damaged." 

♦JouB.  A.  W.  W.  A.,  Jan..  1920.  pase  47. 

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SAVILLE.  397 

In  denying  the  application  for  reargument,  in  the  same  case,  the  Court 
made  the  following  statement;  "The  decision  rested  in  effect  upon  this 
supreme  consideration;  namely,  that  public  policy  requires  the  conserva- 
tion of  human  Hfe,  the  preservation  of  the  public  health,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  public  sanitation  on  a  firm  and  certain  basis  in  the  law." 

Secondary  Supplies  Desirable. 

Secondary  soiu*ces  of  water  supply  are  desired  because  of  the  risk  of 
one  means  of  fire  protection  being  inadequate  or  out  of  commission  in  the 
emergency,  and  fire  insurance  underwriters  properly  give  somewhat  lower 
rates  to  factory  risks  having  such  connections. 

Methods  For  Obtaining  Secondary  Supply. 

This  secondary  supply  may  be  obtained  in  several  approved  ways; 
by  use  of  elevated  tanks,  by  use  of  large  cisterns  imderground,  or  by  con- 
nections with  a  stream.  So  far  as  is  known,  there  is  no  difference  in  rate 
due  to  the  use  of  any  of  these  modes.  In  the  two  methods  first  mentioned 
city  water  may  be  used  to  fill  tanks  and  act  as  a  reserve,  or  polluted  water 
may  ordinarily  be  used  with  the  city  water  entering  above  the  highest  point 
to  which  the  impure  water  can  reach.  In  the  third  case  highly  polluted 
water  may  be  used  separated  from  the  domestic  supply  only  by  automatic 
check-valves. 

Check -Valves  Leak. 

Check  valves  and  gate  valves  of  any  and  all  kinds  leak  more  or  less  at 
times  and  there  can  be  no  positive  assurance  that  any  of  them  are  absolutely 
tight  at  all  times.  Record  of  test  of  double  check-valves  in  Hartford  during 
the  past  10  years  disclose  61  occasions  on  which  leaky  check  valves  have 
been  reported.  Of  these,  on  34  occasions  there  was  leakage  in  the  outer 
check,  21  occasions  leakage  in  the  inner  check  and  6  occasions  leakage 
through  both  checks.  In  two  cases  of  different  sets,  leakage  through  both 
sets  was  found  on  two  successive  monthly  inspections  although  the  valves 
were  left  tight  on  the  first  inspection.  There  is,  however,  no  question  that 
at  any  time  a  zealous  employee  may  directly  by-pass  the  double  check  in  his 
endeavor  to  improve  the  factory  water  system  without  realization  of  the 
danger  of  pollution  to  city  supply. 

Park  River  Not  Drinking  Water  Supply. 

The  Park  River  is  badly  polluted,  and  if  its  water  finds  a  way  into  the 
city  mains  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  or  similar  disease  is  probable. 


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398        the  use  and  discard  of  auxiliary  fire  protection. 

Typhoid  Epidemic  Due  to  Leaky  Check  Valve. 

In  1903  a  single  check  valve,  said  to  be  specially  built  and  the  best  of 
its  kind,  failed  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  when  subjected  to  similar  conditions  to 
which  the  Hartford  double  checks  would  be  subjected  in  case  of  fire;  and  the 
result  was  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  in  which  9  persons  lost  their  h'ves 
and  172  persons  were  incapacitated  for  a  greater  or  less  period  due  to  ill- 
ness. The  financial  loss  in  life  and  health  in  this  community  due  to  this 
epidemic  can  be  estimated  to  have  been  in  the  vicinity  of  $100  000.  The 
fact  that  in  this  instance  there  was  a  single  check  instead  of  a  double  one  is 
of  relative  importance  only. 

Limited  Use  of  Double  Check- Valve  System. 

The  double-check  valve  system  in  Hartford  was  used  by  eight  of  all 
the  factories  here  located,  the  remainder  using  tanks  of  some  kind  for 
secondary  supply  when  this  is  required. 

Small  Openings  a  Source  of  Danger. 

A  small  crack  under  a  check  valve  such  as  might  be  caused  by  a  particle 
of  rust,  sand  or  other  foreign  body,  or  the  sticking  of  the  hinge  due  to  corro- 
sion, might  prevent  the  clapper  of  the  valve  from  seating  and  allow  as  much 
water  to  be  forced  through  by  a  fire  pump  on  a  double  check-valve  as  it  is 
estimated  was  responsible  for  the  trouble  emanating  from  the  auxiliary 
supply  mentioned  above. 

Right  of  Board  to  Order  Disconnection. 

As  to  the  right  of  the  Board  to  prohibit  the  use  of  auxiliary  connections 
and  order  disconnection  of  those  now  in  use,  it  appears  that  theinstaUations 
exist  under  what  may  be  considered  as  a  revocable  license  subject  to  order 
of  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners,  who  are  responsible  for  protecting 
the  purity  of  the  water  supply.  The  earlier  leanings  of  the  law  toward 
granting  precedence  to  property  rights  over  rights  of  personal  protection 
have  gradually  been  changing,  and  at  the  present  time  it  is  generally  recog- 
nized by  the  courts  that  protection  of  life  and  health  is  paramount  to  pro- 
tection of  personal  property.  In  order  to  show  just  cause  for  order  to 
discontinue  any  nuisance  prejudicial  to  public  health  it  is  probable  that  the 
courts  would  hold  it  unnecessary  to  prove  the  actual  occurrence  of  disease 
and  death  resulting  therefrom,  and  would  require  only  reasonable  evidence 
that  the  continuance  of  the  nuisance  might  produce  conditions  which  would 
be  detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  the  community. 


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SAVILLE.  399 

Double-Check  Device  Best  Protection  of  its  Kind. 

The  double  check  device  is  probably  the  best  of  its  kind  if  automatic 
connections  must  be  had  between  a  polluted  source  and  the  city  water 
supply.  That  this  device,  however,  is  not  perfect  is  indicated  by  the  cor- 
roded condition  of  the  interior  of  the  present  valves,  the  constant  supervi- 
sion to  keep  them  in  even  approximately  usable  condition  and  the  fact  that 
the  underwriters'  design  itself  has  been  modified  from  time  to  time  in  the 
matter  of  seat  rings,  valve  facings,  distance  of  valves  apart,  and  the  neces- 
sity in  at  least  one  case  of  using  an  auxiliary  weight  on  the  clapper  to  make 
the  valve  seat  tight.  In  order  to  give  more  assurance  of  tight  closing  under 
pressure  it  is  now  found  necessary  to  insert  a  rubber  gasket  in  the  face  of 
the  valve.  While  the  rubber  is  in  good  condition  this  makes  a  tighter 
joint  than  the  previously  ground  face.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  rubber 
becomes  worn  or  the  life  goes  out  it  peels  oflf,  in  places,  and  leaves  a  larger 
opening  for  water  to  go  through. 

Chance  of  Failure  of  Valves. 

Absolute  safety  lies  only  in  physical  separation  of  these  two  services. 
With  the  character  of  inspection  which  has  been  given  in  the  past,  the 
chance  of  pollution  with  these  check  valves  on  fire  protection  connections 
only,  must  be  recognized  as  probably  remote.  While  such  connections 
exist,  however,  the  chance  exists  that  at  some  time  there  will  be  failure,  and 
conditions  serious  to  life  and  health  will  obtain  in  the  city  water  supply. 

Double-Check  Valve  Systems  Allowed  by  Public  Bodies. 

The  statement  is  made  that  certain  public  bodies  have  allowed  the  use 
of  this  check  valve  in  water  systems.  It  appears  from  correspondence  that 
this  permission  is  not  at  all  a  general  one,  has  been  reluctantly  given  in 
special  cases,  and  none  of  these  bodies  appear  to  consider  this  check  valve 
an  alternative  for  complete  disconnection  as  a  safeguard  to  public  health.  In 
most  cases,  where  the  device  is  allowed,  there  are  many  restrictions  placed 
on  the  use,  which  is  also  limited  as  regards  number  of  connections  and 
character  of  the  secondary  supply.  On  the  other  hand,  all  of  the  Boards  of 
Health  state  that  absolute  safety  is  obtained  only  with  no  connection  with  a 
polluted  source  and  defend  their  action  in  allowing  the  check  valves  on  the 
ground  of  policy  and  expediency.  Many  other  cases  can  be  cited  where  no 
automatic  connection  whatsoever  is  permitted  between  the  public  water 
supply  and  a  secondary  source. 

Financial  Loss  from  Epidemic  Comparable  with  that  of  Fire. 

The  financial  loss  to  the  community  in  case  of  epidemic  is  fully  as 
much  as,  if  not  greater  than  that  in  an  exceptional  fire. 

Johnson  states  that  the  failure  of  a  double-check  valve  to  act  properly 
at  the  right  time  is  a  greater  menace  to  health  than  fire,  and  incidentally  he 


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400  THE   USE   AND   DISCARD    OF   AUXILIARY   FIRE   PROTECTION. 

adds  that  in  the  United  States  in  the  past  30  years  the  vital  capital  dissi- 
pated by  typhoid  fever  was  over  three  times  the  net  property  loss  from  fire, 
"so  in  questions  like  this,  offering  a  choice  between  the  loss  of  life  and 
the  loss  of  property,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  lining  up  on  the 
side  of  health." 

Opinion  in  Regard  to  Double-Check  Valve  Connections. 

In  connection  with  this  matter,  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Leonard  Metcalf, 
one  of  the  best  informed  engineers  in  the  country  on  matters  relating  to 
municipal  and  sanitary  work,  may  be  of  interest  {Proceedings  Am.  W.  W. 
Aaaoc.y  1912,  p.  174)  in  his  answer  to  Mr.  J.  Walter  Ackerman,  Supt.  of 
Water  Works,  Auburn,  N.Y.,  who  asked  what  chance  there  would  be  for 
pollution  in  the  case  of  the  then  recently  installed  double-check  valves  in 
that  city.  Mr.  Metcalf  said:  "In  regard  to  the  desirability  of  using  a 
double-check  valve,  this  decision  must  be  reached  after  very  careful  con- 
sideration of  alh  the  local  conditions.  Health  should  unquestionably  be 
first  taken  into  consideration.  If  you  have  a  city  supply  used  as  a  primary 
supply,  not  as  a  secondary  supply,  but  as  a  primary  supply,  and  a  secondary- 
supply  which  is  reasonably  safe,  it  would  seem  that  there  should  be  no  ques- 
tion but  that  a  double-check  valve,  with  proper  inspection  at  stated  periods 
by  water-works  departments  as  well  as  by  insurance  agents,  might  be  ade- 
quate, particularly  in  those  cases  where  the  pressure  maintained  on  the  risk 
side  of  the  check  valves  is  less  than  the  pressure  maintained  in  the  cit}' 
mains.  //  you  have,  on  the  other  handy  a  secondary  supply ^  or  even  a  primary 
supply,  taken  from  such  a  stream  as  Bubbly  Creek*,  undoubtedly  you  have  no 
right  to  lake  the  hazard  of  installing  even  a  double-check  valve  system,  because 
the  dangers  of  injury  to  the  public  are  altogether  too  great;  so  that  you  must 
take  into  consideration  in  making  your  decisions,  first,  the  question  of  the 
character  of  the  primary  supply  and  of  the  secondary  supply,  admitting 
always  that  it  is  desirable  that  the  primary  supply  should  come  from  the 
pure  public  supply;  second,  the  relative  pressure  maintained  on  the  two 
pipe  systems;  third,  the  character  of  inspection  which  you  can  be  sure 
that  you  will  get. 

"As  to  the  effect  of  corrosion  on  the  double-check  valves,  it  w^ould  seem 
that  this  is  met  by  inspections.  If  you  have  periodic  inspection,  the  in- 
spectors must  know  what  the  condition  of  the  valves  is,  but  even  in  that 
case,  if  the  secondary  supply  is  much  polluted,  the  speaker  would  not  want 
to  rely  upon  a  double-check  valve.*' 

Where  the  line  is  between  Bubbly  Creek  water  and  that  which  is  ab- 
solutely safe,  it  is  then  a  matter  of  individual  judgment,  and  the  part  of 
the  supply  man  is  to  play  safe  with  human  life,  because  if  the  one  chance 
in  a  million  of  a  typhoid  bug  getting  by  and  causing  an  epidemic,  does 
materialize,  it  will  not  be  the  insurance  company  engineer  who  will  have 
the  burden. 

*  A  highly  polluted  stream  ia  Chicago  Stockyards. 

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SAVILLE.  401 

Large  Factory  Fire  Supplies  a  General  Risk  to  the  City. 

The  increased  risk  of  fire  damage  and  conflagration  due  to  elimination 
of  secondary  supplies  in  a  city  as  well  safeguarded  as  Hartford  in  its  public 
water  system  is  as  nothing  compared  with  the  risk  put  on  the  whole  fire 
protection  of  the  city  by  the  sprinkler  supply  systems  in  the  larger  fac- 
tories. A  broken  sprinkler  main  might  so  reduce  the  pressure  in  the  city 
system  as  to  put  a  much  greater  risk  on  the  general  fire  hazard  of  the  city 
than  it  is  possible  to  place  on  the  individual  hazard  of  any  factory  by  the 
elimination  of  the  secondary  supply. 

Adequate  Fire  Protection  Without  Risk  to  City. 

It  is  very  truly  stated  in  the  letter  of  the  manufacturers  that  "no 
practicable  substitute  supply  can  approach  the  equivalent  of  the  protection 
now  afforded  by  the  public  water  supply  through  our  sprinkler  systems." 
It  is,  therefore,  fair  to  presume  that  this  advantage  is  reflected  in  the  rates 
given  to  individual  plant  owners. 

In  the  case,  therefore,  where  a  secondary  supply  is  desired,  and  an 
adequate  one  may  be  obtained  without  suspicion  of  danger  to  the  health 
of  the  city,  even  if  some  expense  is  put  on  the  individual,  Uttle  if  any  actual 
hardship  is  imposed  in  the  view  of  the  special  gain  enjoyed  by  the  individual 
from  use  of  the  city  system  as  a  primary  supply  for  the  protection  of  his 
property.  Moreover,  if  it  is  a  hardship  on  the  few  to  lose  the  source  of 
secondary  supply  under  consideration,  this  loss  is  measurable  in  dollars  and 
cents;  whereas  if  there  is  any  loss  of  life  due  to  the  introduction  of  polluted 
water  into  the  city  mains,  an  irreparable  hardship  has  been  placed  on  the 
many,  because  life  and  health  are  not  to  be  appraised  adequately  by  any 
financial  measure. 

Private  Fire  Systems  Mostly  for  Private  Advantage. 

As  to  public  advantage  derived  from  factory  fire  protection  installa- 
tion, special  gain  to  plant  owners  from  the  benefit  derived  by  them  from  a 
public  water  supply  connection  to  sprinkler  systems,  has  been  too  often 
recognized  by  the  Courts  in  rate  cases  to  warrant  any  successful  argument 
to  be  made  of  a  paramount  advantage  to  the  city  in  safeguarding  life  and 
property  by  such  installations. 

Importance  of  Manufacturing  Industries  Recognized. 

The  Water  Department  of  the  City  of  Hartford  has  fully  recognized 
the  importance  of  its  manufacturing  interests  to  the  existence  and  pros- 
perity of  the  city.  The  benefits  accruing  to  the  city  from  adequate  private 
fire  protection  systems  in  safeguarding  the  lives  of  its  citizens  employed  in 
factories  and  consequential  damages  resulting  from  spread  of  fire  to  other 
plants  and  the  losses  resulting  from  interruption  of  business  has  been  care- 
fully considered  and  generously  met  by  this  city  department. 


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402         the  use  and  discard  of  auxiliary  fire  protection. 

Advantageous  Conditions. 

For  example,  no  charge  is  made  for  the  large  supply  mains  under  high 
pressure,  nor  for  the  ready-to-serve  feature  of  the  city  supply  which  allows 
of  very  large  reductions  in  insurance  rates  to  plant  owners,  a  condition  con- 
sidered by  the  courts  as  a  benefit  not  incidental  but  as  a  peculiar  service 
provided  in  general.  In  many  cities  of  importance,  annual  charges  are 
made  for  connections  of  large  size  whether  or  not  used,  and  often  times  a 
charge  is  also  made  for  each  sprinkler  head  installed.  No  charge  is  usually 
made  for  water  used  for  extinguishing  fires;  but  a  meter  is  often  installed 
on  all  fire  lines  in  order  to  prevent  surreptitious  use  of  water  and  to  allow 
of  a  charge  being  made  for  leakage  and  waste  in  factory  systems.  None  of 
these  methods  have  been  pursued  in  Hartford. 

Editorials  in  re  Cross  Connections. 

Pertinent  to  this  subject,  excerpts  from  two  editorials  appearing  in  the 
Engineering  press  are  of  interest  as  showing  the  trend  of  public  opinion. 
(See  Appendix  G.) 

Fire  and  Water  Engineeririg,  January  21,  1920.  "The  Trend  Toward 
Safer  Water" — "If  a  city  is  responsible  for  the  condition  of  its  public 
highways  and  is  liable  in  case  of  injury  resulting  from  neglect  of  proper 
care,  how  much  greater  is  the  responsibility  when  the  same  neglect  puts 
in  jeopardy  the  health  of  an  entire  community." 

Engineering  New-Record,  May  13,  1920.  "Leaky  Cross-Connection 
Kills  Fifteen,"  commenting  on  the  result  of  a  leaky  valve  which  admitted 
polluted  water  to  the  city  mains. 

"Unfortunately  there  are  still  some  engineers,  especially  those  in  the 
employ  of  the  fire  insurance  companies,  who  see  no  harm  in  cross-connec- 
tions or  who  put  property  risk  above  life  risk." 

In  view  of  the  above  facts  and  after  careful  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject of  dual  connections  existing  between  a  public  water  supply  system 
and  a  polluted  source,  here  and  elsewhere,  the  following  recommendation  is 
respectfully  submitted : 

Loss  OF  Life  by  Fire. 

In  some  of  the  cases  the  author  has  read,  advocating  the  use  of  the 
"F.M.'' Double-Check  Valve  as  a  water  safeguard,  reference  is  made  in 
several  cases  to  the  large  loss  of  life  in  the  burning  building,  and  the  infer- 
ence drawn  was  that  had  there  been  double-check  valves  the  regrettable 
condition  would  not  have  occured. 

Most  of  these  references  have  been  looked  up,  repbes  were  received 
from  a  majority  of  them  and  in  every  case  the  answer  was  that  the  loss  of 
life  was  due  neither  to  lack  of  water  nor  of  fire  fighting  apparatus  but  to 
inadequate  means  of  exit  or  to  flimsy  building  construction. 


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SAVILLE.  403 

State  Sanitary  Engineers  Conference. 

At  the  conference  held  at  Boston,  Mass.,  June  1,  1921,  the  matter 
of  cross-connections  was  taken  up  and  thoroughly  discussed.  As  the  ac- 
counts of  the  conclusions  of  that  body  have  been  somewhat  misleading 
because  of  partial  quotations,  it  is  desired  to  state  here  the  main  principles 
of  that  valuable  report  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  whole  body  of  conclusions 
may  be  included  in  an  appendix. 

Principle  No»  Jf.  No  cross-connection  should  be  established  or  maintained  between  the 
public  water  supply  system  and  any  other  water  supply  system,  private  or  public,  unless 
both  water  supplies  are  of  safe  sanitary  quality  and  both  supplies  have  received  the 
approval  of  the  State  Health  Department. 

Principle  No.  2.  In  cases  where  it  is  necessary  or  advisable  to  supplement  an  impure 
private  water  supply  with  the  public  water  supply,  distributed  in  the  same  piping  system, 
the  public  supply  must  be  made  available  by  delivering  it  into  a  cistern,  suction  well  or 
elevated  tank  at  an  elevation  above  the  high  water  line  of  such  cistern,  suction  well  or 
tank. 

Then  follow  "recommended  modifications  of  the  above  principles  for 
temporary  application  under  excepiionctl  circumstances'^  and  the  first  state- 
ment is  that  "Such  connections  should  not  be  permitted  where  the  available 
public  water  supply  or  private  fire  protection  supply  is  adequate  for  fire 
protection  purposes." 

Changes  Made  at  the  Factories. 

Of  the  seven  factory  plants  affected  by  the  order  for  disconnection, 
five  were  so  rearranged  and  added  to  their  fire  service  connections  that  it 
was  unnecessary  for  them  to  do  expensive  work.  In  this  connection  it  is 
also  proper  to  add  that  the  Hartford  Water  Department  did  its  share 
toward  reinforcing  an  already  excellent  system  of  distribution  mains  in  this 
vicinity. 

Several  new  gates  were  installed  on  the  large  feeders  in  order  that 
smaller  sections  might  be  cut  out  without  detriment  to  the  service,  addi- 
tional hydrants  were  installed  and  a  large  new  feeder  main  will  be  led 
directly  into  the  district  affected  as  soon  as  a  right  of  way  can  be  obtained 
under  railroad  tracks. 

Two  of  the  plants  chose  to  install  more  elaborate  works.  One  of  them 
built  an  elevated  tower  of  large  capacity;  and  the  other,  the  Underwood 
Typewriter  Co.,  has  nearly  completed  an  elaborate  and  unique  plant  which 
is  not  duplicated,  I  think,  in  this  country  and  is  to  be  used,  it  is  said,  as  a 
model  for  similar  systems  elsewhere.  This  plant  will  use  river  water  only 
and  will  be  without  direct  connection  to  the  city  supply. 

The  details  of  this  plant  were  worked  out  by  the  Factory  manager  of 
the  Underwood  plant,  Mr.  Charles  D.  Rice,  in  connection  with  the  Engi- 
neers of  the  Associated  Factory  Mutual  Co.    They  appear  to  embrace  the 


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404  THE  USE   AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE  PROTECTION. 

majority  of  those  features  that  insurance  engineers  deem  requisite  for  a  well 
protected  plant. 

Essentially  this  plant  consists  of  a  double-deck  steel  tank  30  ft.  in 
diameter,  and  about  150  ft.  high.  The  lower  chamber  will  contain  about 
600  000  gal.  of  water  which  will  be  kept  under  pressure  for  immediate  use. 
The  upper  chamber,  holding  about  100  000  gal.  will  be  held  in  reserve  as  an 
emergency  gravity  supply. 

At  the  base  of  the  tank  is  a  pump-house  containing  pumps,  air  com- 
pressors and  other  appurtenances.  To  guard  against  freezing  special  pro- 
visions have  been  made  both  to  heat  the  water  in  the  tanks,  and  in  case  of 
special  necessity  to  cause  complete  circulation  of  the  contents  by  pumping. 

Use  of  "F.  M."  Double-Check  Valve. 

In  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee  of  the  State  Sanitar>^ 
Engineers  referred  to  above,  and  under  Modifications  for  Temporary  Appli- 
cation Under  Exceptional  Circumstances,  the  * 'committee  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  most  eflScient  and  dependable  device  developed  up  to  date  (aside 
from  the  method  described  in  principle  No.  1  above,  (quoted  on  page  11 
herewith  )is  the  check  valve  installation  recommended  by  the  Associated 
Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies  of  Boston,  Mass." 

The  author  of  this  paper  fuUy  concurs  in  this  recommendation  but 
would  suggest  the  substitution  of  an  all  bronze  body  and  valve  for  the 
present  type,  and  similar  to  if  not  identical  with  the  valve  and  its  accom- 
paniments built  for  the  Hartford  Manufacturers  from  the  designs  of  Mr. 
Rice,  as  an  example. 

As  a  condition  precedent  to  the  installation  of  these  connections  for 
temporary  service  only  and  covering  a  stated  period,  agreement  should  be 
made  to  keep  the  water  department  fully  informed  of  any  defects  that 
have  appeared  anywhere  in  the  proper  functioning  of  these  valves,  and 
changes  in  design  should  be  reported  both  to  the  plant  owner  and  to  the 
Water  Department. 

Also  both  the  plant  owner  and  the  insurance  company  should  agree 
to  notify  the  Water  Department  at  once  when  the  risk  is  withdrawn  from 
the  mutual  company  and  placed  with  a  stock  company. 

This  is  essential,  as  the  stock  companies,  being  neither  so  insistent 
on  the  use  of  these  connections  nor  so  impressed  with  their  fire  protection 
advantages  over  other  means,  either  do  not  inspect  them  at  all  or  as  a 
matter  of  routine. 

Inspection  by  Water  Department. 

Inspection  of  these  contrivances  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  no  water 
department  official  may  shift  the  burden  from  his' own  shoulders  to  those 
of  an  insurance  company  and  think  to  have  immunity  in  case  something 
goes  wrong.  Eternal  vigilance  here  as  every  where  else  is  the  price  of 
success. 

At  Hartford  the  inspection  at  the  outset  was  supposed  to  be  and  they 

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SAVILLE.  405 

were  made  conscientiously  by  the  engineer  in  charge.  Then  came  changes 
in  personnel.  For  several  years  the  presence  of  these  valves  was  unknown 
to  the  engineer  as  he  was  not  at  that  time  given  control  of  the  maintenance 
work.  When  charge  was  assumed  after  some  time  the  matter  was  casu- 
ally brought  to  attention  and,  on  looking  into  it,  it  was  found  that  the 
inspections  were  then  of  the  most  perfunctory  kind  and  were  often  omitted 
for  long  periods. 

For  the  last  two  years  of  this  installation  the  inspection  by  the  Board's 
forces  was  made  every  week  for  pressure  test,  and  once  every  three  months 
the  entire  installation  was  taken  apart  and  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
overhauled. 

The  results  of  this  experience  have  firmly  convinced  the  author  that 
such  inspection  is  absolutely  necessary  if  even  a  reasonable  assurance  of 
safety  is  to  be  had. 

Thousands  of  dollars  are  spent  by  water  departments  in  sanitary 
patrol  of  water  sheds,  purchase  of  remote  farms  on  the  drainage  area,  and 
in  all  the  refinements  of  the  modem  filter  system,  and  then  they  often 
forget  a  through  connection  right  at  the  consumer's  door,  trusting  im- 
plicitly in  a  mechanical  device  to  work  perfectly  and  in  a  manner  such  as 
no  other  piece  of  human  mechanism  has  ever  been  known  to  work. 

Responsibility. 

If  pollution  of  the  water  supply  should  obtain  and  an  epidemic  of 
typhoid  fever  ensue,  the  responsibility  for  death,  disease  and  impairment 
of  health  must  rest  squarely  on  those  officials  who  are  in  responsible  charge 
of  the  water  supply  system. 

Inspections  by  insurance  employees,  no  matter  how  conscientiously 
performed,  and  the  assurance  of  insurance  engineers,  no  matter  how  em- 
inent in  the  profession,  can  not  relieve  the  local  water  man  of  his 
accountability  to  the  people  to  furnish  them  with  a  safe  water. 

In  the  final  analysis  by  the  dependants  of  the  lost  one  it  makes  very 
little  difference  whether  death  was  due  to  typhoid  fever  or  by  burning. 
If  pollution  by  the  connectton  is  very  remote,  as  is  the  claim  of  some  ad- 
vocates of  this  system,  so  also  is  the  danger  of  fire,  and  surely  a  water 
department  should  not  be  asked  to  take  even  the  same  chance  with  the 
health  of  the  people  that  is  deemed  unwise  as  concerns  property  loss. 

Conclusions. 

The  PRINCIPLES  enunciated  at  the  conference  of  the  State  Sani- 
tary Engineers,  which  is  referred  to  above,  are  fully  in  accord  with  the  con- 
clusions that  have  been  reached  by  me  as  a  result  of  experience  at  Hartford 
and  knowledge  of  similar  conditions  elsewhere. 

I  am  heartily  in  agreement  with  them,  because  I  believe  them  to  be 
in  accord  with  other  provisions  for  conserving  the  public  health,  which 
are  now  deemed  essential  for  the  protection  of  a  water  supply  used  for 
domestic  purposes. 


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406        the  use  and  discard  of  auxiliary  fire  protection. 

Discussion. 

Mr.  Frederic  I.  Winslow.*  I  do  not  think  I  have  told  this  before, 
but  about  fifteen  years  ago  the  Town  of  Hyde  Park,  then  a  separate  town, 
had  a  very  serious  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever,  which  no  one  was  able  to 
account  for.     It  went  to  two  parts  in  the  town,  a  mile  apart  or  so. 

About  three  years  later  this  town  became  a  part  of  Boston.  I  went 
out  with  some  others  and  found  that  there  were  about  six  mills  in  town 
which  had  two  supplies,  one  from  the  system  in  Hyde  Park  and  another 
from  Mother  Brook,  which  is  a  connection  between  the  Charles  River  and 
the  Neponset  River,  and  a  very  filthy  stream.  We  found  in  one  case 
that  there  had  been  a  fire  just  before  the  epidemic  had  occurred,  and  with- 
out doubt  that  was  the  cause  of  the  epidemic. 

Along  about  that  time  Mr.  Kunhardt,  with  his  able  corps  of  assist- 
ants, devised  the  double-check  valve,  two  checks  built  into  the  same  man- 
hole. I  have  learned  since  that  they  found  in  one  case  where  somebody 
left  a  pair  of  overalls  in  the  pipe,  and  which  stretched  between  the  two 
valves,  holding  both  open,  and  the  water  went  back  into  the  city  system 
from  the  private  one. 

I  am  glad  to  heartily  endorse  the  last  statement  of  the  speaker. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DiVEN.f  I  think  about  the  only  discussion  on  the  propo- 
sition is  that  no  such  double  connection  should  be  allowed  under  any 
conditions,  taking  no  chances  whatever  on  double  checks. 

Mr.  Harry  A.  Burnham.}  It  has  been  several  years  since  this  matter 
of  Check  Valves  on  private  fire  service  connections  has  come  before  this 
Association,  and  this  may  be  an  opportune  time  to  briefly  review  the  situa- 
ation  as  matter  of  record  in  the  general  field  of  fire  protection  by  automatic 
sprinklers. 

The  automatic  sprinkler  has  done  more  to  reduce  fire  losses  than  any 
other  single  device.  In  New  England  these  possibilities  were  quickly 
recognized  in  the  early  days  and  the  efficiency  of  the  fire  extinguishing 
equipments  in  many  communities  was  greatly  increased  by  supplying  these 
sprinklers  direct  from  the  city  mains. 

Soon  the  increase  in  values  made  possible  by  this  improved  protection 
brought  about  the  need  of  a  more  nearly  absolute  continuity  of  supply 
and  sometimes  of  a  larger  delivering  capacity  than  was  afforded  by  the 
average  water-works  system.  This  need  was  satisfied  by  the  secondary 
supplies  now  found  in  practically  all  of  the  large  manufacturing  plants  in 
the  form  of  fire  pumps,  gravity  tanks  or  private  reservoirs.  This  secondary 
supply  to  the  sprinkler  systems  brought  about  the  need  of  check  valves 
on  both  supplies  in  order  to  make  available  automatically  the  combined 
flow  from  both  within  the  sprinkler  system. 

*  Diviaion  Engineer,  Metropolitan  District  Commission.  « 

t  Secretary,  American  Water  Works  Association. 
X  Enipneer.  Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co. 


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SAVILLE.  407 

This  race  between  values  to  be  protected  and  water  supplies  to  pro- 
tect them  with  has  been  going  on  until  it  is  now  impossible  to  place  a  safe 
limit  on  the  amount  of  water  which  may  be  needed  to  extinguish  a  fire  in 
the  large  industrial  plants  of  to-day. 

This  long  period  of  development  of  fire  protection  engineering,  cover- 
ing now  about  forty  years,  has  not  been  entirely  free  from  accident  inciden- 
tal to  the  evolution  of  this  science.  Unexpected  accidents  have  been 
comparatively  few,  however,  and  their  lessons  have  been  well  learned.  The 
problems  presented  by  such  accidents  as  the  destruction  of  extensive  proper- 
ties due  to  inadequate  water  supply,  sudden  loss  of  a  number  of  lives  by 
fire  due  to  the  lack  of  sprinkler  protection,  an  epidemic  of  sickness  or  loss 
of  life  by  disease  due  to  mingUng  of  the  water  suppUes,  the  starting  of 
sweeping  conflagrations  due  to  lack  of  sprinkler  protection,  all  have  re- 
quired careful  consideration  in  their  relation  to  each  other. 

In  the  face  of  these  apparently  conflicting  problems  the  earnest  en- 
deavors of  the  water-works  men  to  supply  clean  water  suitable  for  domestic 
consumption  and  at  the  same  time  to  maintain  the  high  efficiency  of  the 
fire  protection  equipment  have  been  greatly  assisted  by  the  development 
of  better  safeguards  such  as  filters,  chlorinating  plants,  private  pumping 
plants,  special  check  valves  and  other  devices. 

One  device  which  has  already  done  much  to  reconcile  these  conflict- 
ing problems  is  the  simple  swing  check  valve  redesigned  to  secure  thorough 
reliability  in  preventing  leakage  and  installed  two  in  series  in  accessible 
locations  to  encourage  as  excellent  maintenance  as  any  other  part  of  the 
water-works  system  can  receive. 

A  brief  history  of  the  development  of  this  safeguard  known  as  the 
Special  F.  M.  double-check  valve  equipment  was  presented  at  a  meeting 
of  the  Canadian  Section  of  the  American  Water  Works  Association  at 
Toronto,  February,  1921,  and  appears  in  the  May,  1921,  number  of  the 
Journal.  That  article  covered  the  experience  of  the  Associated  Factory 
Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies  with  this  particular  arrangement  of 
special  check  valves. 

Among  the  cases  of  pubUc  recognition  given  in  that  article  are  the 
following: 

In  April,  1918,  the  New  York  State  Department  of  Health  accepted 
this  arrangement  as  a  suflicient  and  satisfactory  safeguard,  with  favorable 
conmient  on  the  Auburn,  New  York,  installations. 

In  1919,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  revised  its  law  relating  to  Emer- 
gency Intakes  and  Factory  Connections  to  require  the  use  of  this  safeguard. 

In  1921,  the  Provincial  Board  of  Health  of  Ontario  issued  regulations 
requiring  this  safeguard. 

In  July,  1917,  the  Water  Department  in  Fall  River  made  the  ruing 
that  all  fire  service  connections  should  be  protected  with  the  double-check 
valve  arrangement  where  a  secondary  supply  is  from  a  pump. 


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<08  THE  USE  AND   DISCAKD   OF  AUXILIARY   FIRE   PROTECTION. 

At  a  Conference  of  the  State  Sanitary  Engineers,  held  in  Boston,  June, 
1921,  a  report  of  the  "  Committee  on  Cross-Conneetions,  By-Passes  and 
Emergency  Intakes  on  Public  Water  Supplies,''  was  accepted  and  adopted 
in  which  the  Committee  "  recognizes  the  relative  degree  of  safety  which 
can  be  provided  by  suitable  check-valve  installations  on  connections  be- 
tween public  water  supplies  and  a  piping  system  used  for  fire  protection 
only.'*  '*  The  Committee  is  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  such  connections 
may  be  proper  and  reasonable  under  certain  conditions,"  and  expresses 
"  the  opinion  that  the  most  elBScient  and  dependable  device  developed  up- 
to-date,"  except  complete  severance,  "  is  the  check-valve  installation 
recommended  by  the  Associated  Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies 
of  Boston,  Mass." 

At  the  San  Francisco  Meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Asso- 
ciation in  June,  1921,  in  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Private  Fire 
Supplies  from  Public  Mains,  Mr.  E.  V.  French,  Chairman,  the  following 
appeared  among  other  topics  which  have  been  receiving  the  attention 
of  that  Committee  for  several  years: 

"  Perhaps  the  most  important  development  under  the  scope  of  the 
committee  work  is  the  continued  excellent  record  of  the  double  check-valve 
equipment  above  mentioned  and  described  in  the  National  Fire  Protection 
Association  proceedings  of  1910.  Over  500  such  equipments  are  now  in 
actual  service  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These  are  periodically  in- 
spected internally  and  tested  for  tightness,  and  as  far  as  is  known  no  case 
of  trouble  in  public  water  mains  from  leakage  of  these  equipments  has  yet 
occurred.  Information  regarding  this  safeguard  has  been  welcomed  by 
many  Water  Works  and  Health  Officials  as  the  best  solution  available  for 
problems  in  which  the  conservation  of  both  life  and  property  must  be 
recognized." 

From  such  information  as  comes  to  our  Inspection  Department  in 
connection  with  our  work  on  fire  protection,  we  gather  that  the  position 
of  absolute  prohibition  of  all  cross-connections  to  unapproved  supplies 
used  for  fire  purposes  has  been  taken  by  very  few,  if  any,  State  Boards  of 
Health. 

The  number  of  cities  taking  this  position  is  extremely  small,  and  speci- 
fic rules  or  ordinances  prohibiting  this  kind  of  connection  are  for  the  most 
part  non-existent  even  in  cities  which  are  opposed  to  such  connection  on 
general  principles. 

The  list  of  cities  and  states  which  require  the  special  check-valve 
arrangement  is  very  much  larger  than  the  list  which  actually  prohibits 
their  use.  * 

The  largest  list  by  far  is  that  of  cities  in  which  no  definite  position  either 
for  or  against  any  fire  service  connection  is  taken,  but  which  permit  the 
installation  of  the  Special  type  F.M.  double-check  valves  as  a  desirable  and 
necessary  improvement  over  old  conditions. 


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DISCUSSION.  409 

A  recent  count  from  our  records  shows  these  installations  now  number 
over  600  in  170  towns  and  cities  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  as  far 
as  can  be  ascertained  there  has  been  no  case  of  trouble  from  foreign  water  in 
the  public  mains  due  to  the  failure  of  any  of  these  equipments. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  development  of  this  safeguard  together 
with  regular  inspections  of  its  condition  has  made  it  possible  for  the  large 
industrial  plants  of  the  country  depending  on  the  public  supply  for  their 
fire  protection  through  automatic  sprinklers  to  retain  the  use  which  they 
have  enjoyed  for  years  of  auxiUary  fire  pump  supplies  from  large  bodies  of 
water,  such  as  harbors,  lakes  and  rivers,  and  this  without  any  appreciable 
danger  to  the  quality  of  the  public  supply. 

As  a  means  of  conservation  of  life  and  property  and  avoidance  of 
unnecessary  duplication  of  large  water  supplies,  the  Special  type  F.  M. 
double-check  valve  equipment  in  its  present  form  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able contributions  made  in  recent  years  to  Water  Works  Engineering. 

Mr.  L.  H.  Kunhardt.*  My  friend,  Mr.  Winslow,  did  me  the  honor 
to  mention  my  name  as  the  one  who  introduced  the  special  double-check 
valve.  I  came  over  here  to-night  as  I  heard  of  the  program,  and  if  I  may 
be  permitted  to  say  a  few  words  I  should  Hke  to  add  that  I  think  the  essen- 
tial thing  in  all  this  work  of  fire  protection,  engineering  and  water  supply 
is  cooperation.  The  owners  of  property  need  that  cooperation;  the  water- 
works people  need  the  cooperation;  the  insurance  companies  need  the 
cooperation.  We  need  to  work  out  a  good  plan,  all  of  us,  of  something 
that  is  better. 

Now,  that  brings  me  back  to  progress.  We  wish  to  progress  in  this 
work,  not  to  go  backward.  Hartford  was  the  first  city,  as  Mr.  Saville 
has  said,  to  adopt  the  special  double-check  valves.  They  did  a  good  thing. 
They  did  it  on  the  basis  of  the  recommendations  of  the  Inspection  Depart- 
ment of  the  Factory  Mutual  Insurance  Companies.  It  was  the  finest 
thing  that  was  put  in  at  the  time  anywhere.  Those  early  check-valves 
were  an  improvement  on  the  first  check  valve,  the  ordinary  commercial 
checks  that  were  made.  They  were  not  perfect;  we  knew  they  were  not 
perfect.  The  then  Engineer  of  the  Water  Board  in  Hartford  knew  they 
were  not  perfect.  The  Company  that  made  them  had  some  difficulties  in 
making  all  the  improvements  that  were  desired,  but  the  check  valves  were 
put  in  because  they  were  needed,  and  served  their  purpose  tdmirably  and 
well,  and  they  protected  the  water  connections. 

Now,  another  point:  If  we  could  have  these  check  valves  on  every 
connection  —  I  am  not  speaking  only  of  fire  service  connections,  but  every 
connection  that  has  any  supply  from  another  source  available  or  in  use, 
and  that  condition  exists  in  a  good  many  cities  and  towns  in  the  United 
States  —  I  could  mention  dozens  of  them  where  business  blocks,  commercial 
buildings  of  all  kinds,  have  double  supplies  of  water;  driven  wells  in  country 
towns  from  which  water  is  put  in  the  same  supply  line  that  the  city  water 

*  Vice  Prcaident  and  Chief  Engineer,  Boston  Manufacturers  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


410  THE  USE  AND  DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE   PROTECTION. 

:s  going  into  —  we  would  then  have  real  security  against  pollution.  Some- 
times they  do  not  have  check  valves  of  any  kind  or  description.  These 
are  the  most  liable  sources  of  contamination. 

My  friend,  Mr.  Winslow,  mentioned  Hyde  Park.  There  were  dozens 
of  poor  connections  in  that  city  other  than  those  two  or  three  in  the  mills. 
The  mill  connections  were  better  protected  than  the  others  were,  —  there 
is  no  doubt  about  that.  As  soon  as  any  water  board,  or  engineer  of  the 
water  works,  in  any  way,  shape  or  manner  expresses  a  desire  to  have  these 
old  conditions  changed,  they  are  always  ready  to  change  them.  I  o  not 
think  there  has  been  a  single  case  where  they  have  not  been  put  in  when 
they  were  asked  for.  The  owners  of  property  are  glad  to  cooperate,  and 
I  am  sure,  as  has  been  already  stated,  that  you  will  find  no  lack  of  coopera- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  fire  insurance  engineers  in  this  country. 

Now,  about  this  reported  leakage  that  occurred  in  Hartford,  Conn.: 
We  never  heard  of  it  until  long  after.  It  was  in  some  of  the  old  tjrpe  check 
valves  which  were  fixed  over  to  make  a  fairly  acceptable  device.  We 
never  recorded  in  any  of  our  tests  a  leakage  of  a  double-check  valve.  Now, 
I  say  that  advisedly.  The  double-check  valve  was  put  in  for  the  very  reason 
that  one  check  valve  might  leak  and  the  other  one  would  not  at  the  same 
time.  That  is  what  it  is  for.  If  one  check  had  been  enough  they  would 
not  have  put  in  two.  There  has  never  been  a  case  of  leakage  back  through 
the  improved  double-check  valves,  such  as  are  approved  and  recommended. 

The  case  cited  at  Lowell  was  so  far  from  having  anything  to  do  with 
this  proposition  that  we  have  before  us  to-day  that  it  hardly  needs  to  be 
mentioned.  It  was  simply  a  case  of  a  check  valve  designed  many,  many 
years  ago,  in  a  pipe  which  was  not  in  use.  The  check  valve  had  been  taken 
out  at  one  time  when  the  canal  was  under  repair,  and  laid  out  on  the  bank 
of  the  canal.  It  was  a  type  of  check  valve  that,  when  you  turned  it  over 
upside  down  and  put  it  back  again,  if  you  did  not  happen  to  put  your  hand 
inside  and  push  the  clapper  down  it  might  not  go  down,  as  I  understand  it, 
and  when  they  put  it  in  the  pipe  they  left  the  clapper  wide  open.  It  was 
on  an  emergency  connection.  Now,  the  big  fire  came  along  when  they 
needed  all  the  water  that  they  could  get;  15  000  gallons  of  water  per 
minute,  I  believe,  were  pumped  into  that  fire.  They  needed  every  drop  of 
it.  They  saved  the  mill.  And  they  opened  the  gate  valve  to  get  the  water 
from  the  city  connection  into  the  fire  lines  of  the  mill,  and  after  the  fire 
was  over  they  did  not  get  that  gate  valve  closed  quite  as  quickly  as  they 
might,  and  there  was  some  water  pumped  back  into  the  mains  in  Lowell, 
so  far  as  is  known.  But  it  was  through  practically  an  open  pipe.  There 
was  no  real  check  valve  on  the  pipe  at  the  time  it  was  pumping;  just  simply 
an  open  pipe  back  into  the  city  main. 

That  is  a  condition,  gentlemen,  thQ<t  exists  in  lots  of  places.  You  have 
open  pipe  connections  in  your  cities  and  towns.  They  ought  to  be  investi- 
gated. I  wish  you  could  have  more  of  these  special  double-check  services, 
rather  than  to  stand  back  and  say  you  won't  admit  them,  and  then  allow 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  411 

the  present  conditions  to  go  on  which  are  a  serious  detriment  to  the  health 
of  the  community. 

Now,  be  careful  not  to  draw  a  wrong  inference.  Be  sure  and  get  all 
the  facts.  I  just  want  to  leave  that  thought  in  your  minds  before  I  sit 
down.  I  have  in  mind  always  that  we  want  to  progress,  and  here  is  a 
device  distinctly  better  than  an3rthing  else  that  has  ever  been  installed 
in  some  of  these  big  manufacturing  plants,  which  need,  not  two,  three  or 
four  thousand  gal.  of  water  a  minute,  but  they  need  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty 
thousand  gal.  of  water  a  minute  to  do  business  with  at  a  fire,  and  you 
can't  find  that  supply  ordinarily  in  a  gravity  system  from  50  to  75  lbs. 
pressure,  which  is  the  normal  pressure  which  exists,  probably,  in  ordinary 
street  mains  of  the  cities  and  towns.  Of  course  there  are  places  like 
Fitchburg  where  they  have  very  high  pressure;  also  Worcester,  and  others 
that  might  be  mentioned.  But  the  ordinary  pressure  of  50  to  75  lbs.  is 
pretty  good  for  sprinklers  and  water  supplied  by  hydrants  until  there  is  a 
big  draft,  and  then  you  find  the  pressure  falls  off  even  with  the  mains  of 
quite  good  size. 

So  I  say,  let  us  work  out  the  problem  of  safeguarding  these  big  indus- 
trial plants.  In  New  Bedford  there  has  been  the  finest  kind  of  cooperation 
between  the  mills  and  the  city  water-works  oflScials.  When  a  mill  is  pro- 
posed the  city  lays  down  the  big  pipes  and  the  mills  put  in  the  fire  pumps 
1  000  to  1  500  gal.  pumps  capacity  per  minute — not  one  or  two  but  often 
three  of  four  —  making  connections  to  the  adjoining  mills,  so  that  there 
may  be  10  or  12  of  these  pumps,  in  addition  to  all  the  water  that  the  public 
water  works  can  supply.  They  gladly  fall  in  with  the  proposition  and 
recognize  the  importance  of  the  double  service.  Without  this  double 
service  in  Hartford  the  protection  is  now  seriously  curtailed. 

Now,  this  double  protection  is  none  too  adequate,  if  you  get  a.sweeping 
fire  at  work  in  the  vicinity  of  one  of  these  plants.  You  have  the  same  thing 
in  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Manchester,  and  other  big  industrial  centers  in  the 
country,  and  also  in  small  communities.  We  need  all  the  water  that  we 
can  get  and  that  it  is  possible  to  have  at  a  high  pressure  for  the  proper 
fire  protection  and  safeguarding  of  these  plants.  I  think  the  property  own- 
ers in  a  city  or  town  have  a  right  to  this  protection  when  they  build  these 
big  plants  on  which  the  success  of  the  conmiunity  and  its  welfare  depend. 
I  thank  you. 

Mr.  Diven.  Unquestionably  the  double,  or  F.  M.,  check  valve  is  a 
great  improvement  over  the  old  form,  especially  as  the  old  ones  were  fre- 
quently buried  in  the  street  with  no  means  of  getting  at  them  for  examina- 
tion. But  even  the  most  improved  check  valve  cannot  be  relied  on  without 
careful,  systematic  and  frequent  inspection,  and  here  the  human  element 
comes  in  —  will  they  have  such  inspection?  Or  will  they  like  many  other 
water-works  appliances  be  instaUed  and  then  forgotten  so  long  as  they  con- 
tinue to  work  or  seem  to  work  all  right. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


412  THE  USE  AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE   PROTECTION. 

It  always  seemed  to  the  speaker  that  the  mills  and  factories  can  have 
full  protection  without  in  the  least  endangering  the  domestic  supply,  this 
by  installing  entirely  separate  systems  for  the  two  sources  of  water  supply', 
two  systems  with  absolutely  no  physical  connection.  This  would  cost 
something,  but  is  not  the  safety,  the  health  and  lives  of  the  water  users  in 
a  city  worth  the  cost?  It  is  urged  that  such  dual  supplies  are  not  entirely 
safe,  that  the  impure  water  lines  may  be  tapped  in  the  mills  and  used  by 
employees  in  the  mill  or  factory.  True,  but  this  would  endanger  the  lives 
of  only  a  small  part  of  the  community,  would  not  contaminate  the  water 
in  the  mains  from  which  the  entire  population  draws  its  supply  of  drinking 
'  water. 

The  mills  and  factories  are  entitled  to  the  fullest  possible  protection, 
it  is  good  business  to  give  it  to  them  as  the  prosperity  of  the  community 
depends  on  them  largely.  This  applies  to  a  water  company  as  well  as  to 
a  municipal  plant,  for  the  prosperity  of  the  water  company  depends  on 
that  of  the  community. 

Mr.  Patrick  Gear.*  The  gentleman  spoke  about  the  improved 
double-check  valve.  What  improvement  is  it  over  the  old  one  that  was 
made  forty  years  ago?    Who  makes  the  improved  check  valves? 

Mr.  Burnham.  Those  check  valves  are  made  by  the  Chapman 
Valve  Company  of  Indian  Orchard,  Mass.,  the  Fairbanks  Company  of 
Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  the  Ludlow  Valve  Mfg.  Co.  of  Troy  N.  Y.,  Pratt  & 
Cady,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  the  Grinnell  Company,  of  Providence  R.  I., 
and  Jenkins  Brothers  of  Montreal. 

Mr.  Gear.  I  have  bought  all  of  them.  I  worked  in  a  machine  shop 
before  becoming  Superintendent  of  the  Water  Works.  I  took  those  check 
valves  apart  when  they  were  new,  and  after  that  for  twenty  years,  and  got 
some  of  the  new  ones  last  year  and  took  them  apart  to  see  where  the  im- 
provement was,  and  I  can't  see  it. 

We  have  check  valves  that  were  installed  in  1893,  around  the  mill 
where  I  was  working  at  that  time, — a  check  valve  set  in  a  12-in.  line,  and 
last  year  we  had  occasion  to  shut  off  that  same  line  and  the  check  valve  was 
tight.     This  is  not  one  of  the  new  ones  that  was  put  in  five  or  six  years  ago. 

In  one  case  the  meter  commenced  running  backwards.  There  was  a 
check  valve  on  the  line  and  the  clapper  was  up  in  the  air.  It  was  one  of  the 
new  ones. 

Mr.  Diven.  WTiile  I  rather  condemn  the  use  of  the  check  valve,  I 
have  used  them,  and  I  will  say  that  the  ones  I  have  seen  lately  have  been  a 
decided  improvement,  having  a  soft  rubber  face  which  makes  a  tight  joint, 
and  the  addition  of  the  second  check  valve  makes  it  possible  to  make  an 
inspection  of  both  valves  with  very  little  trouble  to  see  that  they  are  tight. 

Mr.  Gear.  If  they  can  tell  me  where  the  brass  clapper  of  this  check 
valve  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  away  from  the  cast  iron,  I  will  admit  that  they 
have  improved  it.     It  does  not  give  a  quarter  of  an  inch  clearance  on  the 

♦  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Hoiyoke,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  413 

sides.  Corrosion  occurs  there,  and  it  holds  the  clapper  up.  That  is  why 
they  have  to  inspect  and  clean  them  every  year. 

Now,  if  they  wiU  make  a  check  valve  that  will  have  a  good  clearance 
all  around,  and  all  brass,  so  much  the  better,  as  with  good  space  on  the  sides 
they  will  close  properly.    But  they  have  not  made  them  that  way  yet. 

Mr.  Kunhardt.  I  would  like  to  say  to  Mr.  Gear,  that  if  he  will 
look  at  the  installation  at  the  American  Thread  Co.,  in  Holyoke  he  will 
see  valves  there  that  have  probably  ?4-in.  clearance  between  the  iron  and 
the  brass.  I  think  the  installation  will  prove  very  pleasing  to  you,  and 
certainly  very  much  better  than  do2sens  and  dozens  of  connections  in  your 
city.  It  is  the  best  safeguard  that  has  been  installed  in  Holyoke  for  years, 
and  is  fine. 

Mr.  Saville.  This  Rice  valve  that  I  spoke  of  is  an  all  bronze  valve; 
the  clapper  seat  and  the  housing, — everything  is  bronze.  And  aside  from 
that,  there  is  a  pocket  below  the  valve  which  is  designed  to  catch  gravel 
or  anything  of  that  kind,  that  may  come  through.  The  rubber  that  is 
put  on  for  the  facing  was  specially  designed. 

Mr.  Rice,  previous  to  being  Manager  of  the  Underwood  Typewriter 
Company,  was  Superintendent  for  a  great  many  years  of  the  old  Columbia 
Bicycle  Works,  and  as  such  he  had  a  great  deal  of  experience  with  rubber, 
and  was  much  interested  in  developing  a  rubber  gasket  that  would  have 
many  advantages  over  the  rubber  that  you  could  get. 

Another  thing  that  comes  up  is  the  fact  that  no  matter  how  good  the 
inspection  of  the  Factory  Mutual  people,  inspecting  the  valves  perhaps 
once  or  twice  a  month,  or  once  or  twice  a  year  themselves,  there  is  another 
serious  defect.  In  Hartford  one  or  two  concerns  that  formerly  had  these 
check  valves,  and  were  at  one  time  Factory  Mutual  risks,  gave  up  their 
allegiance  to  that  company.  When  the  Factory  Mutual  Inspectors  ceased 
to  inspect  those  valves  no  notice  was  given  the  water  department.  I  think 
that  is  true,  is  it  not,  Mr.  Bumham? 

Mr.  Gear.  I  have  been  advocating  for  ten  years  both  a  check  valve 
and  a  gate  valve,  that  would  have  sufficient  space  between  it  and  the  cast 
iron. 

Mr.  Winslow.  We  are  all  extremely  gratified  to  see  Mr.  Kimhardt, 
Vice-President  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Manufacturers  Mutual  Ins.  Co. 
present,  and  it  is  our  loss  that  he  is  not  yet  a  member  of  our  Association. 

No  one  appreciates  more  than  the  speaker  the  effective  and  splendid 
achievements  of  his  company  for  the  past  thirty  j'^ears,  under  the  leadership 
of  the  late  Edward  Atkinson,  Mr.  Joseph  P.  Gray,  and  my  friend,  Mr. 
Kunhardt,  with  whom  I  used  to  clash  while  at  City  Hall,  Boston,  and  I 
always  realized,  as  we  all  must,  that  the  underwriters  and  the  water-works 
men  must  cooperate  in  the  matter  of  fire  and  sanitary  protection.  The  only 
point  at  issue  —  and  this  has  not  yet  been  fully  answered  —  is  whether 
the  w^ater-works  man  can  afford  to  take  the  risk  of  possible  contamination 
of  the  water  supply,  however  remote  that  may  appear  to  be.     That  is, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


414  THE  USE  AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE   PROTECTION. 

how  can  we  be  certain  that  both  of  those  check  valves  will  never  be  open 
at  the  same  time? 

Mr.  Diven  has  anticipated  me  in  suggesting  that  the  double  supply 
be  permitted,  but  without  physical  connection,  a  method  probably  too 
expensive  ordinarily;  for  one  main  point  in  getting  mill  owners  to  insure  is 
to  make  the  cost  as  low  as  is  consistent  with  safety. 

The  solution  may  perhaps  lie  in  some  form  of  local  purification  —  in  the 
mill  or  factory  —  of  the  secondary  source  of  supply,  by  chlorination,  copper, 
or  other  chemicals. 

Mr.  H.  O.  Lacount.*  Being  one  of  those  that  was  in  on  this  matter 
at  the  very  start  in  Hartford,  I  have  watched  the  progress  and  development 
there  with  a  good  deal  of  interest,  and"  have  listened  to  Mr.  Saville's  papter 
to-night  giving  the  conclusion  on  the  matter  in  Hartford  with  equal  inter- 
est. It  seems  to  me  that  while  they  have  reached  their  conclusion  there 
deliberately  and  definitely,  that  perhaps  does  not  indicate  the  general 
verdict,  because,  as  we  have  heard  from  Mr.  Bumham's  paper,  there  are 
a  goodly  number,  and  an  increasing  number  of  those  who  are  giving  recog- 
nition to  this  method  of  safeguarding  the  water  supplies. 

I  have  noted  two  things  from  my  own  observation:  First,  that  the 
water  departments  are  appreciating  more  and  more  the  importance  of 
safeguarding  the  public  water;  and  secondly,  that  real  headway  is  being 
made  year  after  year  in  the  use  of  this  particular  method  of  safeguarding 
the  water,  namely,  the  double  checks  of  this  special  design. 

Referring  to  Mr.  Gear's  remarks,  I  am  very  sure  from  what  he  said 
that  he  has  not  yet  had  the  privilege  of  seeing  one  of  these  special  valves, 
because  they  do  have  ^-in.  clearance  around  the  clapper,  between  the 
clapper  and  the  casing,  with  the  direct  object  of  furnishing  more  clearance 
than  in  the  regular  commercial  check  so  that  the  clappers  will  not  be  hung 
up  so  easily  by  incrustation  and  corrosion  of  the  casing  itself. 

Another  feature  of  the  valve  I  may  say  at  this  point,  is  the  bronze 
clapper  and  the  bronze  clapper  arm,  as  well  as  more  distance  between  the 
bronze  valve  seat  and  the  cast  iron  into  which  the  ring  is  set.  I  am  satis- 
fied that  there  is  a  very  definite  improvement  in  these  special  checks  over 
the  so-called  commercial  checks,  of  which  you  will  find  so  many  thousands 
in  use.  And  when  you  consider  the  care  with  which  these  are  installed, 
anel  I  am  glad  to  say,  the  care  that  is  taken  of  them  after  they  are  installed — 
we  have  improved  conditions  very  much,  and  I  think  that  is  being  appreci- 
ated by  a  good  many  of  the  water- works  people. 

Mr.  Diven  has  brought  up  a  point  which  I  have  had  in  mind,  and  that 
is  the  human  element.  There  is  the  human  element  involved  in  the  care 
and  inspection  of  the  valves,  the  valves  being  definitely  designed  to  facili- 
tate that  inspection,  making  it  as  easy  and  convenient  as  possible  to  open 
them  for  inspection  and  cleaning.  But  the  human  element  is  not  absent 
in  a  great  many  of  the  other  water-works  problems.     You  have  a  chlor- 

♦  Engineer  and  Asaietant  Secretary  Inspection  Dept.  As9ociatad  Factory  Mutual  Fire  Ins.  Go's. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  415 

ination  plant. '  I  have  an  idea  that  the  human  element  enters  very  much 
in  the  chlorinating  room.  And  you  have  a  filter  plant,  and  a  great  many 
times  if  not  always  there*  is  a  by-pass  around  the  filter  bed  with  a  valve 
in  the  by-pass.  It  is  put  in  there  to  operate  under  certain  conditions.  The 
human  element  may  function  wrongly  there  and  leave  the  valve  open  at 
the  wrong  time. 

So  that  we  cannot  eliminate  the  human  element  from  our  problem. 
It  is  here,  and  it  is  in  a  great  many  other  places  and  conditions  that  the 
water  department  and  everybody  else  must  reckon  with.  So  there  is  a 
real  point  in  this  cooperation  that  Mr.  Kunhardt  speaks  about,  and  the 
appreciation  of  the  value  not  only  of  property  but  of  life.  We  may  not 
gain  so  much  as  we  think  by  going  to  the  extreme  point  in  any  direction, 
if  by  doing  that  we  cut  down  the  protection  which  otherwise  would  have 
been  provided.  To  discourage  the  installation  of  sprinklers  by  making 
it  difficult  to  get  a  proper  water  supply,  is  to  endanger  the  lives  of  those  in 
the  buildings  not  thus  protected. 

I  think  there  are  several  sides  to  this  question  ,  which  must  be  carefully 
considered  before  it  can  be  regarded  as  settled.  I  am  reminded  that  two 
years  after  this  method  was  introduced  in  Hartford  we  had  a  meeting  of 
the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  and  this  matter  was  discussed. 
It  was  somewhat  of  an  experiment  at  that  time,  and  we  were  speculating 
as  to  what  would  be  the  result.  Six  years  later,  in  1916,  it  came  up  again 
and  was  discussed  at  length.  Now  after  another  period  of  six  years  this 
subject  is  again  on  the  program.  Six  years  from  now  we  may  report  more 
progress  one  way  or  the  other.  It  is  a  matter  which  has  received  a  great 
deal  of  attention  and  has  a  reasonable  recognition  already,  and  I  think  it 
is  going  good  work. 

Mr.  Diven.  While  it  is  true  we  can't  eliminate  the  human  element 
entirely,  that  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  eliminate  it  as  far  as  possible. 
Personally  I  believe  in  the  double-check  valve  if  it  is  properly  handled, 
and  in  any  event  it  is  a  very  great  improvement  over  the  old  style  buried 
and  uninspected  check  valve. 

Mr.  Saville.  There  has  been  considerable  said  about  cooperation 
and  advancement.  I  fully  agree  with  that,  and  I  think  we  all  do.  We  are 
all  here  for  that  purpose,  —  to  see  what  is  the  other  fellow's  viewpoint  and 
do  as  much  as  we  can  to  work  in  harmony.  It  seemed  to  me,  however, 
that  cooperation  and  advancement  might  mean  only  approval  of  the 
double-check  valve.  So  far  as  I  know,  none  of  the  other  insurance  engi- 
neers except  the  Factory  Mutual  people  are  so  insistent  on  this  double-check 
valve  proposition.  All  the  other  insurance  engineers,  the  stock  companies 
particularly,  are  fully  satisfied  with  tanks  of  large  capacity,  or  with  cis- 
terns into  which  city  water  can  be  brought  through  a  large  pipe,  as  large 
as  required,  and  in  case  the  auxiliary  system  breaks  down  the  city  water 
is  available. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


416  THE  USE  AND  DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY   FIRE   PROTECTION. 

The  only  thing  I  can  see  in  favor  of  the  double-check  valve  sjrstem  is 
the  matter  of  cost  of  installation.  I  think  in  Hartford,  with  the  manu- 
facturers the  question  of  the  cost  was  not  a  consideration.  Some  of  them 
have  spent  thousands  of  dollars  in  getting  a  supply  that  would  conform 
with  what  was  wanted  by  the  Water  Works.  And  on  the  other  hand,  a 
double-check  valve  system,  just  two  checks  and  the  little  apparatus  that 
goes  with  it,  is  very  much  cheaper  than  a  good,  big  tank,  or  a  cistern  of 
large  size,  and  if  an  insurance  man  can  go  to  a  manufacturer  and  say, 
"  You  can  get  secondary  protection  with  check  valve  and  cross-connections 
for  $500  or  $600  or  $1  000,  where  you  would  have  to  pay  $10  000  or  $15  OOO 
the  other  way,"  it  is  a  big  argument  in  his  favor. 

Now,  two  of  the  largest  manufacturing  plants  in  Hartford  have  had 
large  imderground  cisterns.  I  am  informed  that  these  manufacturing 
plants  are  getting  as  low  insurance  rates  as  those  that  formerly  had  the 
double-check  valves. 

In  discussing  this  matter  at  one  time  Prof.  Whipple  said  that  practical 
water- works  men  and  health  officials  generally  were  opposed  to  this  method 
of  connecting  up  a  supply,  that  there  was  undoubtedly  some  danger  in  it. 

Mr.  Diven.    Do  you  know  of  any  plant  having  a  double  pipe  system? 

Mr.  Saville.    No,  I  do  not. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  have  heard  of  one.  Do  you  think  the  cost  of  that 
would  be  excessive,  out  of  reason? 

Mr.  Saville.  I  should  think  it  would,  and  also  that  there  would 
be  a  great  deal  of  danger  inside  the  building  of  connecting  up  those  pipes 
by  the  plumbers.  For  instance,  I  was  talking  with  sombody  who  said 
they  tested  a  system  and  it  was  thought  all  the  valves  were  closed,  but  they 
could  not  seem  to  get  the  system  dry.  A  thorough  inspection  was  made 
and  they  found,  unknown  to  the  managers  of  the  plant,  that  a  plumber 
inside  of  the  plant,  in  order  to  get  some  water  to  test  out  some  plumbing 
had  made  a  connection  between  a  secondary  supply  tank  and  the  regular 
system.    There  is  an  example,  of  the  danger  of  two  supplies. 

Conclusion  of  Discussion. 

Caleb  Mills  Saville  {by  letter).  The  author  is  much  pleased  with 
the  discussion  which  his  paper  has  provoked,  and  is  particularly  gratified 
at  the  presence  and  participation  of  the  Engineers  of  the  Factory  Mutual 
Insurance  Company. 

Such  discussion  cannot  fail  to  make  all  of  us  see  more  clearly  the 
veiwpoint  of  the  other  and  so  pave  the  way  for  that  better  understanding 
which  reacts  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  interests  which  we  serve. 

Mr.  Winslow  has  performed  a  distinct  service  to  the  cause  of  pure 
water  in  putting  on  record  the  episode  of  the  overalls  stretched  between 
the  two  check  valves  on  the  cross  connection,  and  holding  both  of  them 
open. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  417 

Hitherto  statements  ref  ering  to  the  danger  of  such  a  happening^  usually 
have  been  flippantly  brushed  away,  with  the  remark,  that  while  anything 
might  happen,  such  a  case  had  not  occured  in  the  past,  and  with  the 
double-check  valves  it  was  too  remote  for  consideration. 

An  actual  condition  and  not  a  theory  is  now  described  and  is  uncon- 
troverted  by  the  representatives  of  the  Factory  Mutual  Insurance  Com- 
panies, who  are  the  particular  sponsors  of  the  type  of  fire  protection,  which 
uses  the  double  check- valve  connection. 

The  sequence  of  events  is  also  interesting;  the  double-check  valves 
on  connections  between  the  city  supply  and  a  foully  polluted  secondary 
source  of  water  supply,  and  the  use  of  the  mill  pumps  for  fire  protection 
preceding  the  epidemic. 

Whether  or  not  the  particular  water  which  passed  through  the  open 
double-check  valves  was  responsible  is  inmiaterial.  The  fact  remains 
that  the  protection  relied  upon  for  such  an  emergency  did  not  work. 

Such  a  condition  would  probably  be  considered  as  proof  so  reasonably 
presumptive  in  a  court  of  law  as  to  warrant  the  placing  of  the  responsibility 
on  the  water  department  that  knowingly  allowed  the  existence  of  such 
an  opportimity. 

In  the  discussion  of  this  paper  and  in  articles  elsewhere  favoring  the 
use  of  cross  connections  controlled  by  double-check  valves,  the  efficacy  of 
sprinkler  systems  has  been  interjected  and  considerably  stressed,  as  if  they 
and  cross  connections  were  inseparable. 

While  the  value  of  sprinkler  service  for  protection  against  fire  must 
be  fully  acknowledged  by  all  well  informed  persons,  it  has  not  been  made 
clear  what  is  its  place  in  a  discussion  of  the  question  as  to  whether  or  not 
a  check  valve  controlled  connection  is  or  is  not  desirable  between  an 
adequate  city  water  supply  and  a  polluted  source. 

The  principal  value  of  sprinkler  service  is  prevention  of  fire  by  extin- 
guishing a  blaze  in  its  incipiency  and  before  it  can  spread.  For  this  purpose 
comparatively  limited  amounts  of  water  are  required. 

Insurance  engineers  generally  place  little  value  on  sprinkler  service 
after  a  conflagration  has  gained  headway;  and  the  opening  of  hundreds  of 
sprinkler  heads,  with  their  continuous  and  promiscuous  discharge,  after 
a  building  has  been  gutted  by  fire,  may  so  reduce  pressure  in  street  mains 
as  to  seriously  interfere  with  proper  fighting  directed  by  brain  rather  than 
by  chance. 

Experience  at  the  Salem,  Mass.,  holocaust  1914,*  offers  unimpeachable 
testimony  supporting  this  assertion. 

Unless  there  is  some  peculiar  virtue  in  sewage  for  fire  extinguishment 
it  would  seem  that  an  amount  of  water  adequate  for  sprinkler  purposes 
might  better  be  had  from  an  elevated  tank  of  proper  size  or  from  an  under- 
ground cistern.  Into  either  of  these  city  water  in  any  quantity  desired  can 
be  run  without  dangerous  connection  with  a  disease  ladened  water  course. 

♦  Poge  97  JouB.  N.E.W.W.A.   Vol.  XXIX.  19Io. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


418  THE  USE   AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE   PROTECTION. 

I  am  led  to  lay  particular  emphasis  on  this  point,  because  so  far  as 
I  know,  no  sound  argument  has  ever  been  presented  by  advocates  of  the 
double-checked  cross-connection  in  support  of  that  means  of  serving  a 
sprinkler  system  as  against  an  adequate  supply  of  water  from  a  cistern  or 
tank  of  proper  size. 

Proper  size  would  be  defined  as  that  size  which  a  majority  of  experi- 
enced insiu^ance  engineers  would  consider  reasonable. 

As  to  yard  hydrants  that  is  a  different  matter  and  it  seems  to  be  clearly 
evident  that  increase  in  eflSciency  is  best  served  by  a  separate  system  into 
which  a  secondary  supply  can  be  pumped  from  a  source  of  unlimited 
capacity. 

Even  in  this  case,  however,  the  practical  need  of  an  automatic  connec- 
tion with  the  city  water  mains  has  not  so  far  as  I  know  been  demonstrated 
in  fact. 

The  installation  of  such  safeguards  as  filters,  sterilizing  plants,  and 
sanitary  control  of  water  sheds  at  the  entrance  to  the  distribution  system 
is  all  for  naught,  if  inside  that  system  there  is  a  connection  with  a  public 
sewer,  under  automatic  control,  which  in  time  of  remote  emergency  may 
fail  to  function  properly. 

Because  filters  may  be  by-passed,  sterilizing  apparatus  get  out  of 
order,  and  chance  pollution  invade  a  water  storage  reservoir,  there  are 
no  arguments  for  knowingly  allowing  connections  which  at  best  can  be 
made  to  operate  only  by  constant  attention. 

Modem  sanitary  safeguards  aim  to  protect  public  health  by  the  most 
eflScient  known  means.  The  fact,  that  being  of  human  contrivance,  the 
methods  are  not  always  infalliable,  certainly  offers  no  excuse  for  consciously 
adding  one  more  opportunity  for  contaminating  a  water  supply. 

The  specious  reasoning,  that  makes  use  of  such  fallacious  and  subtle 
arguments,  indicates  a  tendency  to  sophistry  that  should  serve  to  discredit 
it  in  the  minds  of  thinking  persons. 

As  to  the  reference  of  Mr.  Bumham  to  the  approval  of  State  Boards 
of  Health:  — 

RepUes  of  many  State  Departments  of  Health  from  all  over  the  country 
in  answer  to  a  questionaire  sent  out  by  the  Hartford  Water  Department 
in  reference  to  this  matter,  and  particularly  including  those  that  allow 
the  use  of  the  double-check  connection,  indicate  very  guarded  approval, 
and  none  of  them  seem  to  place  implicit  confidence  in  them.  "  They  are 
better  than  nothing."    These  answers  are  on  file. 

In  some  cases  limited  approval  has  been  given,  in  others  peculiar 
circumstances  were  considered,  and  in  others  matters  of  "  expediency  " 
or  of  "  public  poUcy,"  appeared  to  control. 

The  complete  statement  of  the  principles  enunciated  at  the  State 
Sanitary  Engineers  Conference  at  Boston,  refered  to  by  Mr.  Bumham 
and  mentioned  by  the  author  of  this  paper  on  page  12  of  the  text,  is  added 
to  the  paper  as  Appendix  A. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  419 

As  to  the  statement  "  that  so  far  as  is  known  no  case  of  trouble  in 
public  water  mains  from  leakage  of  this  equipment  has  yet  occured," 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  comment  or  to  trace  the  exact  path  of  the  par- 
ticular disease  germ  when  such  cases  as  the  Hyde  Park  overall  incident 
and  the  leaking  check  valves  at  Hartford  are  of  record. 

The  statement  that  "  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained  there  has  been  no 
case  of  trouble  from  foreign  water  in  the  public  mains  due  to  failure  of 
any  of  these  equipment  "  seems  a  perfectly  safe  one  to  make,  but  difficult 
of  substantial  proof  either  for  or  against.  It  is,  however,  no  conclusive 
argument  because  in  Hartford  and  probably  elsewhere  most  of  these  con- 
nections have  never  been  subjected  to  practical  service  conditions.  In 
the  one  case  that  we  have  of  record,  however,  Hyde  Park,  there  was  probable 
evidence  that  they  did  fail  to  function  when  the  call  came. 

As  indicative  of  the  general  attitude  of  fire  insurance  engineers,  a 
statement  of  Mr.  Geo.  W.  Booth,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters,  is  quoted  (Engineering  News — Record,  June  17, 1920) : — 

"  Insurance  standards  require,  for  complete  reliability  two  independent 
sources  of  supply,  and  the  plant  management,  or  the  municipal  authori- 
ties may,  and  often  do,  use  one  source  which  is  unsafe  or  questionable  from 
a  sanitary  standpoint,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  a  cheaper  or  easier  one. 

"  The  engineers  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  do  not. 
and  we  believe  other  engineers  should  not,  favor  such  connections,  but  it 
is  not  possible,  without  charge  of  discrimination,  to  refuse  credit  for  them 
as  emergency  sources. 

"It  is,  however,  standard  practice  with  many  of  the  insurance  bureaus 
to  recommend  secondary  sources  of  supply  which  will  be  safe,  as  for  instance 
a  storage  reservoir." 

Mr.  Burnham  speaks  for  the  installation  of  the  double-check  valve 
installation  as  a  means  of  avoiding  unnecessary  duplication  of  large  water 
supplies.  If  a  mimicipality  knowingly  and  deliberately  balances  dangers 
of  pollution  of  its  water  supply  against  the  cost  of  proper  fire  protection, 
including  both  water  system  and  public  fire  department,  there  is  no  argu- 
ment. The  city  should  have  what  it  desires,  but  its  authorities  cannot 
shift  responsibility.  They,  and  not  the  insurance  company,  are  to  blame 
in  case  of  trouble. 

If,  however,  a  city  is  willing,  as  Hartford  has  ever  been,  not  to  count 
expense  in  keeping  its  water  system  up  to  the  best  modem  standards  and 
in  providing  a  fire  department  which  is  recognized  by  authorities  as  "equal 
to  the  very  best  in  the  world"  it  would  appear  from  the  antecedent  propo- 
sition of  Mr.  Burnham  that  double-check  valve,  cross-connections  were 
unnecessary. 

I  am  glad  that  Mr.  Kunhardt  has  spoken  of  cooperation,  as  it  gives 
me  a  chance  to  tell  what  Hartford's  Board  of  Water  Commissioners  did  for 
reinforcment  of  a  water  supply  system  in  the  factory  district,  although 
it  was  previously  amply  adequate. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


420 


THE   USE   AND    DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY    FIRE   PROTECTION. 


In  order  to  segregate  smaller  districts,  in  case  of  a  large  fire,  with 
broken  mains  and  factory  standpipes  bleeding  the  system,  two  24-in. 
gates  and  6  gates  on  10  and  12  in.  lines  were  installed;  four  new  hydrants 
were  located;    permission  was  given  for  two  new  fire  connections  of  larger 


Fig.  I. 


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size  than  usually  allowed,  and  promise  was  made  to  install  a  16-in.  connec- 
tion about  1  100  ft.  long  as  soon  as  right  of  way  is  given  by  the  city,  making 
an  entirely  new  connection  into  the  district. 

No  drastic  steps  were  taken  in  the  enforcement  of  the  order  for  dis- 
connection, and  the  factory  owners  were  given  their  own  time  to  complete 
changes  in  their  works.     It  is  proper  to  state,  however,  that  on  their  part 


Digitized  by 


Google 


DISCUSSION. 


421 


the  factory  managers  made  every  effort  to  comply  quickly  with  the  desire 
of  the  Board. 

For  manufacturing  purposes  a  connection  was  deviced  (Fig.  1)  which 
while  allowing  full  use  of  a  private  supply  was  easily  manipulated  to  supply 
city  water  in  case  of  need,  and  yet  provide  absolute  safety  by  complete 
severance.    No  stand-by  charge  is  made  for  this  service. 


..§ 


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O^lXiu^ 


Another  device  (Fig.  2)  was  proposed,  which  also  seemed  to^  afford 
absolute  safety  and  yet  be  ready  for  use  when  needed.  This  was  not 
approved  by  the  Board  because  of  its  desire  to  have  complete  physical  sepa- 
ration of  its  water  system  from  that  from  any  other  source. 

As  to  progress,  also  urged  by  Mr.  Kunhardt^  it  seems  to  the  author 
that  progress  and  cooperation  between  the  public  health  and  the  fire  in- 
surance interests  must  work  toward  that  which  is  advantageous  to  both, 
that  is  what  is  ordinarily  meant  —  the  getting  together  for  mutual  advan- 
tage.    There  is  no  cooperation  when  the  giving  is  all  on  one  side. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


422  THE   USE  AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY  FIRE   PROTECTION. 

Open-minded  consideration  of  standard  means  for  furnishing  the  second- 
ary supply,  ample  service  from  the  city  system,  large-sized  mains,  abun- 
dant hydrants,  and  a  disposition  to  consider  the  faults  in  both  the  private 
and  the  public  demands  in  an  impartial  manner,  seem  to  me  to  be  among 
the  guide  posts  along  the  path  of  cooperation  in  this  matter. 

If,  however,  the  first  regard  of  some  of  the  insurance  interests  is  in 
getting  maximmn  protection  at  lowest  cost,  with  public  health  a  secondarj- 
consideration  in  this  cooperation,  I  fear  that  unity  of  action  is  still  a  long 
way  off. 

Mr.  Kunhardt  argues  that  the  double-check  valves  installed  in  Hart- 
ford in  1908  and  continued  till  the  present  time,  "  protected  the  water  con- 
nections.'* This  seems  a  rather  more  definite  statement  than  the  actual 
facts  would  warrant.  From  the  records  as  stated  above  the  double  checks 
at  Hartford  leaked,  and  leaked  more  or  less  continuously,  both  at  a  time 
and  singly,  and  protection  of  the  city  supply  certainly  was  not  enhanced 
by  danger  of  the  condition  mentioned  by  Mr.  Winslow. 

During  the  Hartford  period  of  experience  with  the  check  valves,  no 
fire  was  reported  from  any  of  the  factories  which  was  of  sufficient  magni- 
tude to  put  the  fire  pumps  in  use  and  bring  service  conditions  against  the 
check  valves. 

So  far  as  is  reported  with  the  old  style  check  valves  in  service  prior 
to  the  installation  of  the  "  F.  M.*'  type,  and  that,  too,  for  many  years, 
there  likewise  never  occured  a  condition  which  tested  these  valves. 

A  point  is  made  of  the  readiness  of  the  Factory  Mutual  Engineers  to 
make  changes  in  the  connection  when  suggested  by  the  local  water 
department. 

Water-works  officials  are  often  not  so  well  informed  as  are  the  insur- 
ance engineers  of  the  failures  of  protective  devices,  arid  in  some  cases  ab- 
solute dependence  is  placed  on  the  periodic  inspection  of  the  engineers 
of  the  insurance  company. 

It  appears  that  the  spirit  of  cooperation  which  is  urged  should  at  once 
take  up  with  water  departments  any  apparent  failure  of  these  connections, 
advise  of  their  improvement  and  insist  to  mill  owners  that  changes 
be  made  for  the  protection  of  health  as  well  as  for  protection  against  fire. 

At  Hartford  the  Factory  Mutual  engineers  now  say  that  the  valves 
were  of  an  older  type,  but  no  notification  was  given  that  a  better  design 
was  even  then  being  installed  at  Holyoke,  only  a  short  distance  away. 

An  outstanding  feature  of  Mr.  Gear's  discussion  is  the  fact  that  the  in- 
surance company  engineers  apparently  found  some  radical  defect  in  one 
or  more  of  the  check  valves  at  Holyoke,  but  did  not  think  it  necessary  or 
desirable  to  inform  the  water  department  that  they  were  making  changes 
which  affected  a  connection  between  the  city  supply  and  a  polluted  second- 
ary supply. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  423 

As  is  generally  understood,  a  prime  requisite  of  cooperation  would 
seem  to  be  a  conference,  if  something  is  to  be  done  which  affects  interests 
of  two  or  more  persons. 

The  Lowell  check  valve  that  failed  is  said  to  have  been  the  best  of 
its  kind,  and  money  was  not  spared  in  its  construction;  the  "  F.  M."  valves 
installed  in  Hartford  in  1908  were  claimed  to  be  the  best  of  their  kind 
and  proposed  as  a  substitute  and  equivalent  for  complete  separation  of 
services;  both  of  these  types  are  now  condemned. 

How  soon  the  present  improved  design  may  go  to  the  discard  no  one 
can  say;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  passing  may  not  be  brought  about 
by  a  duplication  of  the  Lowell  catastrophe. 

As  stated  above  the  author  believes  that  progress  in  the  safeguarding 
of  big  industrial  plants  is  a  vital  obligation  on  the  city,  which  demands 
adequate  water  mains,  duplicate  if  necessary,  proper  pressure  for  fire 
fighting  and  an  efficient  fire  department. 


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424  THE  USE  AND   DISCARD   OF  AUXILIARY   FIRE   PROTECTION. 


"APPENDIX    A/^ 

CONCLUSIONS  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  CROSS-CONNECTIONS. 
BY-PASSES  AND  EMERGENCY  INTAKES  ON  PUBLIC  WATER 

SUPPLIES.* 

The  Comittee  on  Cross-Connection  By-Passes  and  Emergency  Intakes 
on  Public  Water  Supplies,  after  several  meetings  and  full  consideration, 
reconmiends  the  adoption  of  the  following  definitions  and  principles: 

A.    Cross-Connections. 

Definition:  —  A  "cross-connection  "  is  a  physical  arrangement  whereby 
a  public  water  supply  system  is  connected  with  another  water  supply  s>^em 
either  pubUc  or  private,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  flow  of  water  into  such 
public  water  supply  system  from  such  other  water  supply  system  is  possible. 

Principle  No,  1,  No  cross-connections  should  be  established  or  main- 
tained between  the  public  water  supply  system  and  any  other  water  supply 
system,  private  or  public,  unless  both  water  supplies  are  of  safe  sanitary 
quaUty  and  both  suppUes  and  the  connection  thereof  have  received  the 
approval  of  the  State  Health  Department. 

Principle  No.  2.  In  cases  where  it  is  necessary  or  advisable  to  sup- 
plement an  impure  private  water  supply  with  the  public  water  supply 
distributed  in  the  same  piping  system,  the  public  supply  must  be  made 
available  by  delivering  it  into  a  cistern,  suction  well  or  elevated  tank,  at 
an  elevation  above  the  high  water  line  of  such  cistern,  suction  well  or  tank. 

Recommended  Modification  of  above  principles  for  temporary  applica- 
tion under  exceptional  circumstances. 

While  the  Committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  absolute  safety  demands 
such  complete  separation  of  the  pubUc  water  supply  system  from  other 
w'ater  supply  systems  delivering  impure  water,  the  Committee  recognizes 
the  relative  degree  of  safety  which  can  be  provided  by  suitable  check- valve 
installations  on  connections  between  a  public  water  supply  and  a  piping 
system  used  for  fire  protection  only. 

The  Committee  is  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  such  connections  may  be 
proper  and  reasonable  under  certain  conditions,  and  desires  to  express 
the  following  requirements  which  should  be  met  in  making  and  maintaining 
such  installations: 

1.  Such  connections  should  not  be  permitted  where  the  available 
pubUc  water  supply  or  private  fire  protection  supply  is  adequate  for  fire 
protection  purposes. 

♦   F'rom  t  he  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Cross-Connections,  By-Paflfe«  and  Emergencj'  Intakes  oo 
T*ublic  Water  Supplies."     Conference  of  State  Sanitary  Engineers.  Boston,  Mass.,  June  1,  1921. 


Digitized  by 


Goo^z 


DISCUSSION.  425 

2.  That  the  fire  protection  piping  system  shall  not  be  connected  with 
any  other  piping  system  upon  or  within  the  property  served,  and  that 
there  shall  be  no  outlet  from  such  fire  protection  piping  system  except 
through  sprinkler  head,  fire  plugs  and  hose  connections.  This  requirement 
is  intended  to  prevent  a  flow  through  check  valves  except  at  times  when  a 
sprinkler  head,  fire  plug  or  hose  connection  is  open. 

3.  The  cross-connection  shall  be  equipped  with  such  devices  as  can 
most  eflfectually  prevent  an  inflow  of  water  from  the  fire  protection  sys- 
tem to  the  public  water  supply  system. 

4.  The  Committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  most  eflScient  and  de- 
pendable device  developed  up-to-date  (aside  from  the  method  described 
in  principle  No.  2  above)  is  the  check-valve  installation  recommended  by 
the  Associated  Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies  of  Boston,  Mass., 
consisting  of  two  gate  valves  with  indicator  posts,  two  check  valves  of  the 
Factory  Mutual  type,  with  drip  cocks  and  gages  for  testing,  an  alarm 
valve  equipped  with  a  recording  pressure  gage,  a  by-pass  meter  around 
the  alarm  valve,  all  to  be  placed  in  a  vault  of  water-tight  construction 
accessible  to  ready  inspection. 

5.  A  systematic  test  inspection  of  the  cross-connection,  including 
periodic  examination  of  the  interior  of  the  check  valves,  by  the  Department 
in  charge  of  the  public  water  supply  system  must  be  provided,  without 
which  inspections  the  installations  of  the  cross-connection  would  be  a  highly 
dangerous  health  menace.  The  inspection  must  therefore  be  made 
reliable,  thorough  and  responsible. 

6.  The  Committee  views  as  a  self-evident  requirement  that  in  every 
case  where  a  cross-connection  is  being  considered  for  action,  a  thorough 
investigation  will  be  made  as  to  local  conditions  and  as  to  the  necessity 
and  advisability  of  the  cross-connection,  and  that  the  local  municipal 
oflScials  will  be  made  fully  acquainted  with  the  circumstances  and  given  due 
opportunity  for  presenting  their  opinions. 


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426  SOME   COURT  DECISIONS. 


SOME  COURT  DECISIONS  INCIDENT  TO  THE  PURCHASE  OF 
THE  BRAINTREE  WATER  SUPPLY  CO. 

BY  HENRY  A.    SYMONDS.* 

[SepUmber  IS,  199».\ 

The  subject  of  this  paper  is  now  ancient  history,  but  there  are  some 
points  relative  to  the  legal  phases  of  the  controversy  which  I  will  describe 
that  may  be  of  interest  and  undoubtedly  remain  as  strong  precedents  for 
future  cases  of  this  nature. 

The  case  mentioned  is  that  of  the  purchase  of  the  water  works  of  the 
Braintree  Water  Supply  Co.  by  the  Town  of  Braintree  in  the  80's. 

To  make  clear  the  points  to  be  brought  out  in  this  paper,  it  may  be 
well  to  here  state  them  briefly.  The  Court  rulings  seem  to  establish  the 
following: 

First:  That  a  municipality,  acting  under  the  common  form  of  charter 
rights  relative  to  the  purchase  of  a  pubUc  utility,  and  having  once  taken 
a  formal  vote  to  purchase,  cannot  subsequently  rescind  such  a  vot«. 

Second:  That  water  cannot  legally  be  drawn  for  municipal  or  other 
purposes  from  an  underground  supply  having  as  a  source,  as  part  of  its 
supply,  a  pond  or  stream  in  which  no  right  of  the  municipality  or  company 
exists. 

Third:  That  selectmen  of  towns  have  regulatory  supervision  only 
over  streets,  but  the  rights  of  such  a  Board  are  not  sufficient  to  prevent  a 
public  utility  acting  upon  such  streets  in  accordance  with  its  charter. 

Fourth:  Cash  or  other  payments  for  stock  are  not  necessary  to  the 
legal  organization  of  a  public  utility  with  Legislative  charter. 

In  1885  the  town  of  Braintree  had  become  somewhat  interested  in  the 
question  of  a  water  supply  and  obtained  an  Enabling  Act  jointly  with  the 
towns  of  Randolph  and  Holbrook,  in  which  right  was  given  to  each  to  act 
independently  of  the  other  in  establishing  water  supplies,  and  taking  a  por- 
tion of  the  water  from  Great  Pond  in  the  towns  of  Braintree  and  Randolph, 
also  the  customary  right  to  take  water  from  other  sources. 

In  general,  the  provisions  of  this  act  were  the  usual  ones  that  had 
been  incorporated  into  Enabling  Acts  up  to  this  date,  with  a  few  minor 
exceptions.  The  Town  Enabling  Act  was  accepted,  but  no  further  action 
was  taken  to  install  a  water  supply,  and  in  1886  the  Legislature  passed  an 
act  incorporating  the  Braintree  Water  Supply  Co.,  under  the  usual  terms, 
but  giving  the  right  to  take  water  from  Great  Pond  contingent  upon  per- 
mission of  the  Town  of  Braintree.     Section  10  of  this  Act  is  as  follows: 

'The  said  Town  of  Braintree  shall  have  the  right  to,  at  any  time 
during  the  continuance  of  the  charter  hereby  granted,  purchase  the  fran- 


♦  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston.  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SYMONDS.  427 

chise,  corporate  property  and  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  said  corporation 
at  a  price  which  may  be  mutually  agreed  upon  between  said  corporation 
and  the  said  Town,  and  the  said  corporation  is  authorized  to  make  sale 
of  the  same  to  said  Town.  In  case  said  corporation  and  said  Town  are 
unable  to  agree,  then  the  compensation  to  be  paid  shall  be  determined  by 
three  commissioners  to  be  appointed  by  the  Supreme  Judicial  Court  upon 
application  by  either  party  and  notice  to  the  other,  whose  award,  when 
accepted,  by  said  Court,  shall  be  binding  upon  all  parties.  This  authoritj^ 
to  purchase  said  franchise  and  property  is  panted  on  condition  that  the 
same  is  assented  to  by  said  Town  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  voters  present 
and  voting  thereon  at  any  meeting  called  for  that  purpose." 

This  company  began  constructing  a  water  works  plant  during  the 
sununer  of  1886,  completing  a  filter  gallery  on  the  shore  of  Little  Pond  in 
Braintree,  laying  pipe  lines  and  supplying  the  Old  Colony  R.  R.  Shops. 

During  the  Fall  of  1886,  a  strong  sentiment  developed  in  favor  of 
town  ownership  of  the  water  works.  At  a  meeting  called  on  January  12, 
1887,  the  Town  voted  to  purchase  the  corporate  property,  rights  and 
franchise  of  the  Braintree  Water  Supply  Co.  At  an  adjournment  of  this 
mooting,  a  committee  was  appointed  who  were  to  confer  with  the  officers 
i)f  the  water  company,  examine  their  books,  and  get  from  them  a  price  at 
which  they  would  agree  to  sell  their  holdings. 

Shortly  after  this  meeting,  the  committee  met  the  oflficers  of  the  water 
company  as  directed  and  requested  them  to  state  the  price  for  which  they 
would  sell  their  property.  The  company  was  not  ready  to  fix  a  price  but 
offered  to  submit  a  written  proposition,  which  was  done  in  a  communi- 
cation dated  February  8, 1887,  offering  to  sell  their  franchise  and  corporate 
property  for  $23,000,  with  the  provision  that  the  Town  assume  all  obliga- 
tions of  the  company. 

It  was  further  stated  that  the  company  had,  previous  to  the  meeting 
of  January  12  and  before  any  obligation  of  any  character  had  been  assumed 
by  the  company,  offered  to  sell  to  the  Town  its  franchise.  This  offer  was 
not  accepted  and  the  company  had  subsequently  (in  1886)  made  a  contract 
to  build  a  complete  system  of  water  works,  the  cost  not  having  been  fully 
determined,  but  to  be  contingent  upon  the  development  of  the  work.  An 
estimate  was  made  of  $129  000  which,  added  to  the  price  for  the  franchise, 
was  estimated  to  make  the  total  cost  to  the  Town  about  $150  000. 

In  the  last  paragraph  the  company  reserved  the  right  to  "withdraw 
this  proposition  after  30  days  from  date  thereto  unless  the  same  shall  have 
been  accepted  by  the  Town." 

The  conamittee  submitted  a  report  to  the  Town  -at  a  meeting  called 
on  February  23,  1887,  but  the  Town  failed  to  take  action  except  to  accept 
the  report.  On  March  1,  a  notice  was  sent  to  the  Town  by  the  company 
that  they  would  apply  to  the  Supreme  Judicial  Court  for  the  appointment 
of  commissioners  to  determine  the  amount  to  be  paid  the  company  by  the 
Town,  unless  prompt  action  was  taken  by  the  Town.  On  March  9  such 
a  petition  was  filed. 

'Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


428  SOME  COURT  DECISIONS. 

The  men  actively  interested  and  acting  for  the  Town  and  for  the  com- 
pany, were  of  unusual  capacity,  representing  the  highest  professional  and 
business  standards. 

It  is  evident  that,  following  the  report  of  the  Committee,  the  Town, 
having  learned  that  the  company  had  made  a  contract  to  build  a  complete 
system  of  water  works,  and  feeling  that  such  a  system,  built  under  a  contract 
which  they  were  to  inherit,  might  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  plant  they 
wished  to  build,  had  gradually  become  dissatisfied  with  the  arrangements 
and  decided  that  it  was  wise  for  the  Town  to  withdraw. 

At  a  town  meeting  called  on  March  10,  1887,  it  w^as  voted  to  rescind 
its  vote  of  January  12  to  purchase  the  property  of  the  water  supply  com- 
pany, and  it  was  further  voted  to  proceed  to  build  water  works  under  the 
Act  of  1885,  the  Town  Enabling  Act.  On  March  23,  1887,  a  Board  of 
Water  Commissioners  was  elected.  On  May  26  of  the  same  year  the  peti- 
tion for  the  appointment  of  commissioners  was  heard  before  Judge  Wal- 
bridge  A.  Field  of  the  Supreme  Judicial  Court  with  counsel  for  petitioners, 
Hon.  Robert  M.  Morse,  Jr.,  and  Marcus  Morton.  For  the  respondents 
appeared  the  Hon.  Edward  Avery  and  the  Hon.  Benjamin  F.  Butler. 
Such  an  array  of  legal  talent  insured  a  most  interesting  hearing  and  there 
followed  a  trial  which  has  probably  few  equals  in  cases  of  this  kind. 

The  testimony  in  this  case  covers  approximately  240  pages  and  only  a 
few  points  can  be  touched  in  this  paper. 

Mr.  Morse,  for  the  petitioners,  presented  the  case  of  the  company, 
claiming  that  the  Town  had,  by  its  vote  of  January  12,  legally  purchased  the 
water  company  franchise  and  property  and  could  not  withdraw  from  this 
act,  and,  therefore,  that  the  vote  of  March  10  was  void.  The  attorneys 
for  the  respondents  claimed  that  the  vote  of  January  12  was  not  a  vote  to 
complete  the  transaction;  that  it  was  only  the  first  move  toward  buying 
the  works;  that  the  phrase  "that  the  Town  would  purchase"  intended  to 
imply  that  a  contract  would  be  completed  if  satisfactory  terms  were  made. 
They  stated  that  the  Town  had  no  knowledge  of  the  contract  to  build 
works  and,  therefore,  could  not  be  legally  holden  by  a  vote  of  this  nature. 
They  even  argued  that  the  organization  of  the  company  was  not  a  legal 
one;  that,  as  the  stock  which  had  been  subscribed  for  had  not  been  paid 
for  in  cash,  the  company  had  no  standing.  It  also  claimed,  that,  as  the 
company  had  turned  over  to  the  contractors  as  payment  for  completing 
the  water  works  all  of  the  stock  and  bonds  of  the  company,  the  company 
had  nothing  to  sell  and,  therefore,  no  such  purchase  could  be  made.  It  was 
argued  by  Mr.  Avery  that  as  the  company  had  disposed  of  its  stock  and 
bonds  that  the  Town  could  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  outside  holders 
of  these  securities. 

Mr.  Morse  gave  a  very  convincing  closing  argument  to  prove  that  the 
Town,  having  once*  voted  to  purchase  the  works  under  the  provisions  of 
the  Act,  could  not  withdraw  from  that  position. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SYMONDS.  429 

After  considering  the  evidence  and  testimony,  Judge  Field  did  not 
allow  the  petition,  and  a  ruling  to  this  effect  was  given  in  June,  1887. 

Although  the  Town  had  appointed  a  Board  of  Water  Commissioners, 
and  voted  to  authorize  an  issue  of  $100  000  in  bonds  to  build  separate  works, 
no  action  had  been  taken  previous  to  the  decision  of  Judge  Field. 

On  September  8,  1887,  the  water  commissioners  entered  into  a  contract 
with  a  local  firm,  to  complete  a  S5rstem  of  water  works  having  the  source  in 
Great  Pond,  and  work  was  subsequently  strated  upon  this  second  system  of 
water  supply  for  the  Town  of  Braintree.  The  water  company,  however, 
continued  to  operate,  through  its  contractors,  in  constructing  a  system 
from  the  Little  Pond  source. 

The  next  move  was  by  the  Town,  through  its  Board  of  Selectmen,  who 
gave  formal  notice  to  the  contractors  to  cease  deUvering  pipe  and  digging 
up  the  streets  of  Braintree  for  the  purpose  of  laying  pipe. 

The  contractors,  beUeving  they  had  legal  rights  to  proceed,  refused  to 
discontinue  work. 

The  Town  then  attempted  to  bring  an  injunction  restraining  them  from 
operating  in  its  streets. 

A  verbal  ruling  was  given  by  Judge  Charles  Allen,  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  to  the  effect  that  the  company  was  operating  within  its  rights  and 
could  not  be  enjoined  to  prevent  the  exercise  of  its  charter  rights;  that  the 
authority  given  the  Selectmen  by  the  charter  must  be  considered  regulatory 
only. 

Meantime  an  appeal  from  the  ruling  of  Judge  Field  had  been  taken  to 
the  Full  Bench  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  on  April  7, 1888,  Judge  Knowlton 
of  that  court  rendered  a  final  decision  reversing  the  ruling  of  Judge  Field. 
The  substance  of  this  decision  is  perhaps  the  point  to  be  brought  out  in  this 
paper,  and  I  would  like  to  quote  a  few  of  the  paragraphs  which  seem  of 
interest: 

**The  fundamental  question  in  the  case  is,  what  were  the  rights  and 
obligations  of  the  respective  parties  under  this  section?  An  important 
part  of  the  chapter  relates  to  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  Town  in  manag- 
ing the  business  of  furnishing  water,  in  case  it  should  purchase  the  prop- 
erty and  franchise  of  the  petitioner;  and  the  intention  of  the  Legislature 
to  give  the  Town  the  right  to  take  this  business  in  charge  is  manifest.  The 
authority  conferred  was  not  the  power  to  take  property  by  an  exercise  of 
the  'right  of  eminent  domain,'  but  it  was  somewhat  analogous  to  it.  It 
was  an  authority  to  the  Town  to  determine  absolutely  by  its  own  act,  in 
the  form  of  a  two-thirds  vote,  at  any  time  during  the  continuance  of  the 
charter,  that  the  petitioner's  property  and  franchise  should  become  its 
own.  The  statute  calls  it  *a  right  to  purchase'  and  seems  to  contemplate 
a  transfer  of  title  in  the  form  of  a  sale,  and  the  execution  of  some  proper 
instrument  as  evidence  of  the  transfer.  For,  if  the  Town  should  vote  to 
purchase,  after  the  petitioner's  works  had  been  constructed,  there  might 
be  a  great  variety  of  property,  real  and  personal,  to  be  transferred,  and 
no  way  is  pointed  out,  in  which  the  Town  could  obtain  and  preserve  in 
convenient  form  the  evidence  of  its  title  except  through  an  instrument  of 


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430  SOME   COURT  DECISIONS. 

"But,  as  a  preliminary  to  fixing  the  rights  of  both  parties,  —  of  one  to 
have  the  franchise  and  property,  and  the  other  to  have  the  pay  for  it,  — 
no  writing  and  no  negotiation  was  required;  nothing  but  the  vote  of  the 
Town  declaring  its  determination.  The  Legislature  conferred  upon  the 
Company  the  corporate  franchise,  with  a  condition  annexed  in  favor  of  the 
Town.  By  accepting  its  charter,  the  corporation  impliedly  agreed  to  sell 
whenever  the  Town  by  vote  should  decide  to  buy.  The  legal  relation  of 
the  parties  was  as  if  the  corporation  had  made  in  writing  a  continuing 
offer  to  sell,  at  a  price  to  be  subsequently  agreed  upon  by  the  parties,  and 
in  default  of  agreement  to  be  fixed  by  commissioners. 

*The  vote  of  the  Town  to  buy  was  an  acceptance  of  the  offer  which 
completed  the  contract.  The  rights  of  the  parties  were  then  the  same  as 
if  both  had  signed  an  executory  contract  binding  one  to  sell  and  the  other 
to  buy,  at  a  price  to  be  agreed  upon  between  them,  or  determined  imder 
the  statute.  Neither  party  could  then  defeat  the  right  of  the  other  to 
have  the  contract  executed.  By  the  terms  of  the  statute,  it  was  to  be 
specifically  performed.  The  Town  might,  if  it  had  chosen,  have  declined 
to  avail  itself  of  the  offer  held  out  to  it,  under  this  statute,  to  purchase  at 
a  price  to  be  afterwards  fixed,  and  have  voted  under  the  authority  of  Pub. 
Stat.  Chap.  27,  sect.  27,  and  perhaps  of  this  statute  also,  to  negotiate  with 
the  corporation  in  reference  to  making  a  purchase  if  a  satisfactory  price 
could  be  agreed  upon.  It  was  plainly  an  exercise  of  the  Town's  legal  right 
to  buy  at  a  price  to  be  subsequently  fixed.'' 

'*It  is  argued  that  the  petitioner  entered  into  a  contract  with  Wheeler 
&  Parks  which  prevented  the  vote  from  taking  effect,  but  this  argument  is 
not  well  founded.  The  corporation  might  go  on  under  its  charter  and  make 
any  proper  contracts  for  the  construction  of  its  works  and  for  conducting 
its  business.  No  contract  that  it  might  make  could  deprive  the  Town  of 
the  right  to  purchase  its  property  and  franchise  under  the  statute,  or  pre- 
vent the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  determine  the  price  to  be  paid. 
Any  contract  in  terms  inconsistent  with  the  exercise  of  that  right  would  be 
contrary  to  the  statute,  and  void  as  against  the  Town.  Any  contract 
properly  made  in  carrying  on  its  business  would  be  binding  upon  it.  Sec- 
tion 9  of  this  charter  authorized  a  mortgage  of  its  franchise  and  property 
under  certain  limitations,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  mortgage  named 
in  the  vote  of  September  15,  1888,  and  stipulated  for  in  the  contract  of 
October  30,  1886,  was  ever  made.  The  respondent  contends  that  the 
corporation  was  never  so  organized  as  to  be  capable  of  selling  its  franchise 
or  property,  or  of  maintaining  this  petition.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
this  is  a  corporation  created  by  a  charter,  and  that  neither  payment  for  its 
capital  stock,  nor  even  subscription  for  all  of  it  by  individuals  was  a  neces- 
sary preliminary  to  organization  or  to  the  transaction  of  business  by  it. 

*The  provisions  of  Pub.  Stat.  Chap.  105,  Sect.  9,  in  relation  to  organi- 
zation are  merely  directory,  and  are  intended  to  secure  to  all  members  of 
a  corporation  their  right  to  participate  in  its  proceedings.  If  all  the  mem- 
bers consent  to  an  organization  which  disregards  the  statute  requirements 
as  to  notice,  the  organization  is  valid.  Newcomb  v.  Reed,  12  Allen,  362;  . 
Walworth  v.  Brackett,  98  Mass.  98.  The  proof  of  the  Act  of  Incorpora- 
tion, of  the  action  under  it  and  of  the  dealings  of  the  respondent  with  the 
petitioner,  as  such  corporation,  is  presumptive  evidence  that  the  corpora- 
tion was  legally  organized,  and  is  sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  a  petition 
in  the  corporate  name.  Bank  v.  Silk  Co.,  3  Mass.  282;  Society  v.  Davis, 
Id.  133;  Institution  v.  Harding,  11  Cush.  285;  Insurance  Co.  v.  Jesser,  5 
Allen  448;  Toppings  v.  Bickford,  4  Allen  120;  Hawes  v.  Petroleum  Co.,  101 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SYMONDS.  431 

Mass.  385.  The  neglect  of  the  Town  to  act  upon  the  report  of  its  committee 
containing  the  offer  of  the  petitioner  shows  that  the  parties  were  unable  to 
agree  upon  the  compensation  to  be  paid.  Indeed,  bringing  this  petition 
without  evidence  of  negotiation,  or  attempts  to  negotiate,  would  be  enough 
to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  statute  in  regard  to  that.  Burt  v. 
Brigham,  117  Mass.  307;  Aetna  Mills  v.  Waltham,  128  Mass.  422. 

"Upon  facts  agreed,  we  think  the  allegations  of  the  petition  are 
established,  and  that  commissioners  should  be  appointed  to  determine  the 
compensation  to  be  paid  by  the  respondent  for  the  franchise  and  property 
of  the  petitioner.     Ordered  accordingly." 

Following  this  decision,  three  commissioners  were  appointed,  Judge 
John  Powell,  Darwin  E.  Ware  and  Moses  Williams,  Jr.  The  firm  of  local 
contractors  who  had  built  part  of  the  Town  works  from  Great  Pond,  brought 
claim  against  the  Town  for  the  work  done  and  for  anticipated  profits,  which 
was  eventually  settled  by  the  Town. 

As  the  filter  gallery  of  the  company^s  plant  was  close  to  the  shore  of 
Little  Pond,  the  proprietors  of  mills  on  Monatiquot  River  petitioned  the 
Supreme  Court  for  an  injunction  to  restrain  the  Braintree  Water  Supply 
Co.  from  taking  the  water  of  Little  Pond.  There  were  many  interesting 
points  brought  up  in  the  ruling  of  Judge  Devens,  of  which  the  following 
contain  the  substance: 

"The  plaintiffs  have  used,  under  this  authority,  Little  Pond  as  a 
reservoir,  maintaining  a  dam  at  its  outlet,  where  they  own  a  parcel  of  land, 
whereby  the  water  is  retained  until  they  have  need  of,  and  have  occasion 
to  draw  off  the  same  for  the  use  of  their  mills,  about  six  weeks  in  the  year. 
The  water  is  of  great  importance  to  them.  If  deprived  of  it,  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  stop  some  of  their  mills  during  a  portion  of  the  summer,  and  its 
diminution  would  seriously  injure  them  all.  Before  the  shore  of  Little 
Pond  and  near  it,  the  defendant  has  constructed  and  maintains  a  filter 
gallery,  from  which  it  draws  water  with  which  it  supplies  its  customers,  and 
it  is  found  that  a  substantial  part,  much  more  than  half  of  the  water  in  the 
gallery,  filters  from  the  pond,  and  that  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  remainder 
would  have  reached  the  pond  if  not  intercepted  by  the  gallery.  The  use  of 
the  water  during  the  past  season  by  the  defendants  diminished  the  quantity 
in  use  for  the  mills.  It  also  appears  that  if  the  amount  of  water  used  by 
the  defendants  is  increased  a  larger  proportion  will  come  from  the  pond 
than  from  the  land  side,  and  the  larger  the  amount  of  water  used  the 
greater  will  be  this  proportion.  It  is  the  contention  of  the  defendant  that 
the  word  'springs'  and  'waters  connected  therewith'  are  sufficiently  compre- 
hensive to  include  this  pond,  and  that  the  act  gave  the  right  to  take  any 
water  in  the  Town  of  Braintree,  with  the  exception  of  Monatiquot  Springs, 
which  are  not  within  the  watershed  of  Little  Pond,  leaving  to  the  plaintiffs 
a  statutory  right  to  compensation  therefor,  if  they  are  entitled  to  any. 

'*But  a  pond  is  quite  distinguishable  from  the  various  sources  of  supply, 
whether  those  are  the  surface  waters,  or  brooks,  or  springs  which  create  and 
maintain  it.  When  so  large  as  to  have  become  what  is  known  as  a  great 
pond  it  is  subject  to  all  the  rights  which  the  public  possess  or  which  the 
Legislature  may  be  entitled  to  grant  therein.  The  fact  that  the  Act,  under 
which  the  defendant  claims,  specifies  Great  Pond,  so-called,  as  one  which 
may  be  taken,  strongly  indicates  that  the  right  to  take  other  ponds  of  that 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


432  SOME  COURT  DECISIONS. 

class  was  not  inferred.  'Springs'  as  the  word  is  generally  used,  means  the 
sources  of  supply  issuing  from  the  earth  as  found  therein  by  digging  or 
otherwise  opening  it,  and  'the  waters  connected  therewith'  are  those  flowing 
therefrom  or  bubbling  up  therewith. 

"While  in  Peck  v.  Clark,  142  Mass.  446,  it  was  held  that  a  stream  of 
water,  whose  sources  were  on  the  adjoining  land,  might  pass  as  a  spring,  it 
was  so  because  the  evidence  showed  that  this  was  what  the  parties  had 
sought  to  describe,  and  that  the  word  had  been  used  by  them  with  reference 
thereto. 

"If  the  water  cannot  be  taken  directly  from  Little  Pond,  it  cannot  be 
drawn  therefrom  by  percolation.  Hart  v.  Jamaica  Aqueduct  Corporation, 
133  Mass.  488. 

"The  process  by  which  the  defendant  obtains  it  is  unimportant,  and 
the  method  is  one  well-known  and  often  found  convenient.  It  has  often 
been  held  to  be  as  complete  a  taking  of  water  as  the  withdrawal  of  it  by 
pipes.  Brookline  v.  Mcintosh,  133  Mass.  215;  Cowbroy  v.  Woodman,  130 
Mass.  410. 

"The  filter  gallery,  as  described,  is  not  intended  to  gather  alone  the 
water  naturally  upon  or  belonging  to  the  land  where  it  is,  but  being  located 
on  the  shore  the  waters  of  the  pond  percolate  through  the  intervening  earth 
and  fill  it.  Nor  does  the  fact  that  the  defendant  has  purchased  the  land 
bounding  upon  the  pond,  authorize  it  to  withdraw  the  waters  thereof  for 
their  purposes  as  a  corporation.     Potter  v.  Howe,  141  Mass.  357. 

"The  plaintiflf  claims  not  only  the  right  to  the  entire  waters  of  the  pond, 
but  to  those  within  its  watershed,  and  urges  that  the  proper  construction  of 
defendant's  charter  does  not  authorize  it  to  construct  any  well  or  galler>' 
which  would  intercept  any  water  which  otherwise  would  reach  the  pond, 
and  that  the  defendant's  right  to  take  any  springs  is  thus  limited  to  those 
which  are  outside  the  watershed  of  this  pond.  This  would  be  to  construe 
defendant's  charter  too  narrowly.  The  corporation  is  created  for  an 
important  public  purpose.  It  is  authorized  to  *take  the  waters  of  any 
springs  or  artesian  or  driven  wells  within  the  Town  of  Brain  tree',  etc.  The 
reason  why  we  hold  that  this  does  not  authorize  the  taking  of  the  waters 
of  Little  Pond  is,  that  the  water  thus  collected  is  known  by  a  different 
description  from  the  waters  which  are  its  sources  of  supply,  but  it  is  con- 
templated that  these  may  be  taken.  It  is  the  right  of  each  land  owne'r  to 
dig  wells  on  his  own  premises,  even  if  he  thereby  intercepts  the  flow  of 
water  to  the  neighbor's  well  or  streams.  Greenleaf  v.  Francis,  18  Pick. 
117;  Chase  v.  Silverstone,  62  Maine,  172. 

"If  all  that  the  defendant  had  done  was  to  construct  a  gallery  which  would 
reach  the  underground  sources  of  supply  alone,  which  were  on  the  land  when 
it  was  constructed,  or  even  the  surface  water  which  might  flow  thereon, 
quite  a  difTerent  case  would  be  presented  from  that  which  is  here  found. 
When  the  defendant  constructed  a  gallery,  the  principal  use  of  which  was 
to  take  water  from  the  pond,  which  it  had  no  right  to  do,  even  if  it  thereby 
obtained  some  water  which  it  might  lawfully  have  appropriated,  it  had  not 
fairly  exercised  the  authority  with  which  it  was  intrusted,  and  independent 
of  any  right  which  it  might  have  to  take  the  springs,  the  plaintiffs  could 
fairly  ask  that  it  be  enjoined  from  maintaining  it.  If  the  defendant  has 
no  right  to  take  the  waters  of  Little  Pond,  it  is  necessary  to  inquire  whether 
the  plaintiffs  have  any  such  right  therein  that  they  may  ask  protection  of  the 
Court  in  the  enjoyment  thereof,  as  against  the  defendant  who  is  suppljnng 
water  to  certain  inhabitants  for  domestic  uses,  and  it  is  the  contention  of 
the  defendant  that  the  plaintiffs  had  a  most  revocable  license  to  use  and 


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STMONDS.  433 

enjoy  certain  public  property  which  the  State  might  terminate  at  any  time 
at  its  pleasure."  Wattuppa  Reservoir  Company  v.  Fall  River,  147  Mass. 
548. 

*'The  plaintiffs  have  directly  maintained  that  their  dams  have  had  the 
exclusive  control  and  use  of  the  waters  of  this  pond  for  sixty-five  years;  have 
erected  valuable  mills  which  have  been  of  incidental  benefit  to  the  com- 
munity, and  have  had  the  advantage,  during  that  time,  of  the  water  for 
their  mills.  Without  considering  whether  this,  under  all  the  circumstances, 
would  give  more  or  greater  rights,  it  is  suflScient  at  least  to  entitle  them  to 
the  enjoyment  thereof  as  against  a  corporation  acting  ultra  vires  in  removing 
its  water.  Nor  is  it  any  answer  to  say  that  defendant  is  doing  a  valuable 
public  work  in  suppljdng  the  citizens  of  Braintree  with  this  water.  This 
right  to  take  the  water  lawfully  collected  and  enjoyed  by  others  is  still 
limited  to  that  which  is  conferred  by  its  charter." 

"Upon  the  whole  case  we  are  of  opinion  that  the  plaintiff  was  entitled 
to  an  injunction  forbidding  the  defendant  withdrawing  the  water  from 
Little  Pond,  and  from  using  the  gallery  constructed  by  them,  unless  it  can 
be  so  altered  that  it  may  be  used  without  producing  this  result." 

The  company  made  final  settlement  with  the  mill  owners  for  $20  500. 

On  March  13,  1891,  the  commissioners  fixed  the  amount  to  be  paid 
from  the  Town  of  Braintree  to  the  Braintree  Water  Supply  Company  as 
$159  610.44. 

I  am  pleased  to  mention  that  the  Hon.  James  T.  Stevens,  who  so  faith- 
fully represented  the  Town  through  much  of  the  troublesome  time  of 
acquiring  the  water  works,  has  been  since  1902,  and  is  to-day,  a  member  of 
this  Association.  He  has  continued  since  the  construction  of  the  works  as 
chairman  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  and  has  just  passed  his  83rd 
birthday.  While  somewhat  physically  infirm,  he  is  still  at  the  height  of 
his  mental  capacity,  an  alert,  powerful,  comteous  gentleman  of  remarkable 
ability.  He  is  one  of  the  wonderful  men  who  have  brought  out  the  best  in 
municipal  management  with  a  long  record  of  successful  and  businesslike 
water-works  operations. 

The  principal  in  the  Braintree  Water  Supply  Company  was  Mr. 
William  Wheeler,  a  member  of  this  Association  since  1889,  and  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  water  supply  engineers  in  the  country. 

I  wish  to  especially  thank  the  last  two  mentioned  gentlemen  for  their 
assistance  in  furnishing  me  information,  records,  etc.  in  getting  together  this 
brief  description  of  the  purchase  of  these  works. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


434  SHOULD   WATER  DEPARTMENT   BE   MERGED. 


SHOULD    THE  WATER    DEPARTMENT    BE    MERGED    WITH 

OTHER   MUNICIPAL   DEPARTMENTS   IN    ITS 

MANAGEMENT    AND    FINANCES? 

BY   GEORGE  A.  KING.* 
[Read  September  15,  1922.] 

Our  late  esteemed  member,  Frederick  P.  Stearns,  said  : 

"  I  believe  if  any  city  had  a  system  by  which  the  public  works  could 
be  wisely,  prudently  and  honestly  ordered,  constructed  and  maintained, 
it  would  nearly  have  solved  for  itself  the  vexed  problem  of  municipal 
government. 

"It  is  self-evident  that  no  system  will  insure  complete  success  in  the 
management  of  public  works  so  long  as  it  is  possible  to  place  incompetent 
and  dishonest  men  in  charge;  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  character  of  the 
men  selected  and  the  efficiency  of  their  work  depends  very  much  upon  the 
system  employed,  and  the  adoption  of  a  good  system  is  therefore  a  long 
step  toward  good  government." 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  one  man  can  be  master  of  all  the  branches 
of  engineering  in  the  public  works  of  a  city,  but  by  a  division  of  the  work 
it  is  possible  to  have  a  competent  man  at  the  head  of  each  department  and 
he  will  be  able  to  give  its  problems  the  attention  and  study  they  need  and 
this  man  should  have  executive  control  of  his  department  to  gain  the 
highest  efficiency  and  responsibility. 

The  size  of  the  city  may  determine  how  this  shall  be  attained,  whether 
by  a  man  at  the  head  of  all  the  executive  departments  with  assistants  in 
charge  of  each,  or  by  separate  heads  for  each  department  who  shall  co- 
operate where  their  conmion  interests  meet,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the 
city.  The  water  supply  which  involves  the  health,  happiness  and  protec- 
tion of  the  community  should  receive  the  best  and  most  disinterested  con- 
sideration of  the  authorities.  Consideration  of  economy  is  necessary-  but 
it  loses  its  force  and  argument  when  opposed  to  the  health  and  comfort 
of  the  people.  There  can  be  no  financial  measure  of  questions  relating 
to  the  public  health. 

The  management  of  a  water  department  calls  for  a  man  of  wide  and 
varied  experience.  I  cannot  express  it  better  than  to  quote  from  Hubbard 
and  Kiersted  on  "  Water  Works  Management  and  Maintenance  ": 

"  The  maintenance  and  operation  of  a  system  of  water  works  is  often 
believed  to  be  a  purely  business  proposition  requiring  essentially  a  busi- 
ness management.  Regarded  in  a  broad  and  comprehensive  sense  this 
view  may  be  correct,  for  a  far-seeing  business  management  would  not  over- 

*  Superintendent  Taunton  Water  Works,  Taunton,  Mass. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


KING.  435 

look  the  purely  technical  or  scientific  considerations  which  are  necessarily 
involved  in  the  management  of  a  modern  water-works  system.  The  ques- 
tions involved  do  not  relate  solely  to  the  sale  of  a  commodity  supplied  in 
the  form  of  a  water  service,  but  also  deal  with  the  quality  of  the  water 
supplied  and  the  design,  construction  and  operation  of  the  physical  property 
by  and  through  which  the  service  is  rendered. 

''The  selection  of  a  water  supply  drawn  from  an  unpolluted  source 
is  highly  desirable  and  inspires  the  confidence  of  the  public  in  the  manage- 
ment of  water  works.  This  confidence,  however,  may  be  also  secured 
when  circumstances  compel  the  use  of  a  water  drawn  from  polluted  sources, 
pro\'ided  the  water  be  properly  purified  before  use. 

"  Taking  into  consideration  the  many  things  which  have  to  be  regarded 
in  the  selection  and  purification  of  water  supplies,  it  is  clear  that  science 
can  be  serviceable  to  a  water-works  management  in  many  ways,  and  the 
advantage  of  this  kind  of  service  should  become  more  and  more  apparent 
as  communities  increase  and  prosper.  If  the  aid  of  science  is  necessary 
to  select  a  source  of  supply  free  from  dangerous  pollution  or  to  detecft  the 
presence  of  unobserved  polluting  influences,  its  aid  is  even  more  necessary 
in  those  cases  where  a  source  of  supply,  known  to  be  polluted,  requires 
thorough  purification.  It  will  not  suffice  to  seek  scientific  assistance  in 
such  a  case  solely  for  the  purpose  of  designing  and  constructing  purification 
works,  but  it  should  also  be  retained  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  the  satis- 
factory operation  of  these  works  and  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  the 
water  after  treatment.  The  safeguards  of  the  public  health  in  the  way  of 
constructed  works  need  guardsmen  to  see  that  such  works  positively  per- 
form the  functions  expected  of  them  at  all  times  —  a  service  which  may 
yet  have  to  be  suppUed  through  the  State  or  Federal  government. 

"  To  the  requirements  that  extensions  of,  or  additions  to,  a  system 
of  water  works  be  made  in  accordance  with  good  engineering  practice, 
'  that  the  efficiency  of  a  system  from  a  mechanical  standpoint  and  the  sani- 
tary quality  of  the  supply  be  maintained  or  improved,  should  be  added 
the  requirement  that  the  department  be  operated  on  a  business  basis." 

Mr.  Darling,  in  a  paper  before  this  association  some  years  ago,  said : 
"  The  superintendent  should  be  a  man  whose  w/ioZe  r/nnd  is  devoted  to  the 
work,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  he  must  be  able  to  affix  C.  E.  to  his  sig- 
nature, provided  the  services  of  one  can  be  obtained  at  his  convenience 
or  his  need."  Ex-Mayor  John  O.  Hall  of  Quincy  later  stated  that  no  depart- 
ment contained  more  perplexing  problems  than  the  water  department. 

September,  1911,  W.  H.  Richards  of  New  London  read  a  paper  before 
this  association  in  which  he  gave  some  of  the  quahfications  necessary  for 
a  p>erson  in  charge  of  a  water  supply  and  said  that  —  '^  He  should  be  an 
engineer  in  the  larger  sense,  he  should  be  ingenious,  with  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  construction  and  tools,  he  must  have,  or  inamediately  acquire, 
knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  hydraulics  and  above  all 
understand  the  principles  of  business  management  —  and  with  all  these 
he  has  much  to  learn  as  the  management  of  a  water  works  requires  special 
knowledge  and  he  should  have  a  logical  mind  to  separate  the  theoretical 
from  the  practical." 

I  do  not  believe  we  are  egotistic  iii  making  all  these  claims  for  our  de- 
partment and  the  qualifications  we  should  possess.     Can  we  expect  to 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


436  SHOULD   WATER  DEPARTMENT  BE  MERGED. 

find  a  man  who  will  give  to  the  water  department  what  we  believe  it  needs 
.who  also  has  on  his  mind  the  sewers,  streets,  parks,  etc.?  The  public 
is  more  interested  in  its  streets  and  parks  and  more  insistent  that  these 
receive  attention  than  in  the  water  department  which  controls  that  which 
is  much  more  essential  to  its  health  and  happiness,  and  all  thinking  people 
must  concede  that  it  is  the  most  important  of  all. 

With  the  water  department  united  with  the  others  it  will  not  receive 
the  attention  its  importance  demands.  With  the  call  for  many  other 
qualifications  those  specially  needed  in  a  water  department  will  be  over- 
looked. We  all  probably  realize  that  the  more  closely  we  are  in  touch 
with  problems  and  conditions  the  more  important  they  seem  to  us  and  the 
more  likely  they  are  to  receive  the  attention  they  deserve.  Dr.  Brown 
said  a  great  many  years  ago  that  **  the  health  of  a  city  depends  more  on 
its  Water  than  all  the  rest  of  its  eatables  and  drinkables  put  together.'' 

The  supplying  of  water  to  a  municipality  is  not  one  of  the  original 
functions  of  town  government.  It  is  one  of  the  necessities  occasioned  by 
our  advance  in  civilization,  the  demand  for  which  has  been  met  by  legis- 
lative enactment  under  the  general  provision  that  the  legislature  may 
grant  what  is  necessary  for  the  welfare  and  health  of  the  conmiunity. 
It  is  a  form  of  public  trading,  better  known  as  a  public  utility,  which  the 
municipality  has  been  allowed  to  finance  principally  for  the  preservation 
of  public  health  and  incidentally  for  fire  protection  and  manufacturing 
purposes  but  not  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  profit.  As  a  public  utility 
it  should  be  managed  indep)endently  of  the  general  functions  of  municipal 
operations. 

This  argument  for  separate  management  applies  also  to  the  financing 
of  the  department.  The  paper  of  Mr.  Hall,  previously  mentioned,  states 
that  **  transfers  of  water  receipts  to  various  foreign  departments  of  the 
public  service  are  violations  of  law  and  of  great  injustice  to  water  takers. 
Water  expenses  should  be  paid  by  takers  and  any  excess  of  revenue  over 
expenses  should  be  returned  to  them  in  the  form  of  reduce  rates."  Those 
who  remember  Mr.  Hall  will  agree  with  me  that  he  was  a  clear  thinker 
and  sound  reasoner. 

While  it  may  not  be  quite  pertinent  to  this  question  I  will  quote  a 
little  further  from  him.  He  says  that  the  ''  expense  of  establishment  of 
water  should  be  borne  by  real  and  personal  property  of  the  community 
and  should  appear  in  the  general  tax.**  I  do  not  agree  with  him  wholly 
as  I  think  that  the  interest  on  the  debt  incurred  in  construction  should 
be  paid  by  the  consumer  of  water.  Mr.  Hazen  and  many  others  hold 
that  the  rates  should  also  include  a  sum  for  depreciation  which,  of  course., 
is   good  business  and  so  recognized  by  public  utility  conmiissions. 

In  Massachusetts,  the  acts  authorizing  the  establishment  of  muni- 
cipal water  supplies  designate  the  methods  of  financing  and  there  is  a  great 
lack  of  uniformity.  Where  the  Director  of  Accounts,  or  his  predecessor, 
has  been  called  in  for  auditing  and  establishing  a  system  of  municipal 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


KING.  437 

bookkeeping,  he  has  recommended  an  appropriation  for  the  use  of  the  water 
department,  the  same  as  is  done  in  the  usual  municipal  departments  and 
the  receipts  are  turned  into  the  general  fund  of  the  treasury,  to  be  used 
as  are  the  receipts  from  taxes. 

In  case  of  municipally  owned  lighting  plants  the  statute  (Sec.58, 
Chap.  164,  General  Laws)  requires  the  rates  to  include  '*  all  operating 
expenses,  interest  on  the  outstanding  debt,  the  requirements  of  the  serial 
debt  or  the  sinking  fund  established  to  meet  such  bonds,  and  also  depre- 
ciation of  the  plant  reckoned  as  provided  in  the  preceding  section,  and 
losses."  The  depreciation  referred  to  is  3  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  plant, 
"  exclusive  of  land  and  any  water  power  appurtenant  thereto."  The 
manager  or  municipal  light  board  has  sole  power  to  draw  on  the  treasurer 
for  expenses  of  the  department  for  the  funds  earned  and  additional  amounts 
appropriated,  if  any.  The  Public  Utility  Commissions  of  Massachusetts, 
Wisconsin,  and  other  states  seem  to  be  in  accord  on  this  method  of  ac- 
counting. 

Why  there  should  be  this  anomaly  in  the  management  of  two  muni- 
cipally owned  public  utilities  so  closely  related  is  difficult  of  explanation. 
While  we  may  deprecate  further  state  control,  it  is  much  better  to  be  con- 
trolled by  a  commission  who  are  experts  in  the  management  of  utilities 
than  by  a  board  viewing  the  matter  wholly  from  a  bookkeeping  point  of 
view.  Massachusetts  General  Laws,  Chap.  44,  Sec.  36  &  38,  authorize 
the  director  of  accounts  to  establish  accounting  systems  on  petition  of 
town  and  city  authorities  and  these  accounting  systems  shall  be  such  as 
will,  in  the  judgment  of  the  director,  '^  be  most  effective  in  securing  uni- 
formity of  classification  in  the  accounts  of  such  cities,  towns  and  districts." 
You  notice  that  the  system  is  wholly  for  the  purpose  of  securing  "  uniform- 
ity of  classification."  I  think  that  the  methods  of  accounting,  required 
by  the  public  utility  commission,  are  more  efficient  and  businesslike  than 
those  recommended  by  the  Director  of  Accounts. 

Ten  years  ago  Morris  Knowles  advocated  state  control  and  quoted 
from  Hon.  John  H.  Roemer,  Chairman  of  the  Railroad  Commission  of 
Wisconsin,  as  follows:  "  No  greater  benefit  has  been  bestowed  upon  the 
public  by  regulation  of  public  utilities  than  that  resulting  from  the  opera- 
tion of  the  law  upon  municipal  public  utilities As  a  matter  of 

fact,  regulation  is  more  necessary  with  a  municipally  owned  plant  than  a 
private  one;  because  people  often  endure  service  and  rates  imposed  upon 
them  by  their  own  town  officers  which  will  call  forth  vehement  protest  if 
a  private  company  were  involved." 

My  belief  is  that  the  system  under  which  the  municipal  light  plants 
in  Massachusetts  are  managed  and  financed  is  the  best  which  has  been 
devised  for  public  utilities  and  that  cities  should  adopt  a  similar  plan  for 
their  water  departments.  It  is  not  necessary  to  put  them  under  state 
control  to  adopt  this  system  and  a  general  adoption  of  the  system  might 
forestall  state  control. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


438  should  water  department  be  merged. 

Discussion. 

President  Barbour.  This  is  a  live  subject,  concerning  which  we 
have  heard  a  great  deal  of  talk  by  the  various  superintendents  during  the 
past  few  years.  It  ought  to  lead  to  discussion.  It  involves  the  question 
of  subordinating  the  Water  Department  to  a  Board  of  Public  Works, 
and  of  diverting  the  income  of  the  Department  to  the  general  treasury 
of  the  city  or  town.  It  is  a  question  whether  imder  such  conditions 
the  morale  of  the  Department  can  be  maintained  as  well  as  under  the  old 
system,  where  a  man  was  in  direct  charge  of  the  Water  Department  and 
was  credited  with  the  results.     I  hope  that  there  will  be  discussion. 

Mr.  Albert  L.  Sawyer.*  The  Haverhill  Water  Department  is 
one  of  those  that  has  been  entirely  unmerged  in  all  the  coui-se  of  its  exis- 
tence, and  it  has  worked  pretty  well  there.  I  think  there  are  very  few  of 
the  citizens  of  Haverhill  who  would  willingly  acquiesce  to  its  being  merged 
with  the  other  departments  of  the  city.  The  city  took  the  works  about 
thirty-one  years  ago,  and  the  Act  under  which  they  took  them  provided 
that  it  should  be  kept  entirely  separate.  It  seems  to  me  you  get  a  contin- 
uity of  poHcy  in  that  way  that  yoii  can't  get  if  you  are  mixed  up  with  poli- 
tics and  have  the  aldermen  and  councilmen  deciding  what  the  men  shall 
do  and  what  you  should  assign  them. 

In  the  first  place,  in  Haverhill,  what  little  money  we  have  had  has 
always  gone  into  the  development  of  the  works,  or  into  a  reduction  of 
the  water  rates.  If  we  have  a  surplus  it  does  not  go  into  the  municipal 
fimds.  Take  the  average  city  government,  for  instance.  You  have  per- 
haps the  Mayor  or  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen  on  the  Water 
Board,  ex-officio,  and  if  they  outline  the  policy  at  all,  the  longest  they  would 
probably  be  on  the  Board  would  be  four  years,  and  then  you  get  a  new 
set  in  and  the  policy  changes.  In  Haverhill  in  the  thirty  years  since  1891, 
we  have  only  had  seventeen  Water  Commissioners.  One  died  in  1918 
who  had  served  twenty-seven  years.  We  have  another  man  on  now  who 
was  appointed  in  1894,  who  has  served  twenty-nine  years;  another  who 
was  appointed  in  1899,  who  has  served  twenty-two  years;  and  two  other 
members  have  served  eleven  and  ten  years  respectively.  In  that  w^ay 
they  start  out  with  a  policy  of  what  they  want  to  do  and  they  keep  pretty 
well  to  it. 

We  used  to  say  in  Haverhill  that  we  could  generally  trace  out  the 
residence  of  a  councilman  or  alderman  by  the  lamp  posts  in  front  of  his 
house,  and  the  edgestone  on  the  street  where  he  lived.  I  do  not  mean 
to  say  but  that  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners  are  susceptible  to  those 
who  howl  the  loudest  for  water,  but  they  have  tried  to  treat  all  applicants 
fairly.  Haverhill  extends  over  a  great  deal  of  territory,  and  now  about 
e^^erybody  who  has  a  farm  out  in  the  suburbs  expects  to  have  the  mains 
extended. 

The  policy  of  the  Water  Board  is  like  this:  Those  in  need  of  water  ser- 

*    Water  Registrar,  Haverhill,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  439 

vice  who  live  along  the  highways  seem  equally  deserving,  and  they  usually 
endeavor  to  do  a  proportionate  share  of  extension  work  along  all  lines 
each  year  until  the  work  is  completed.  In  other  words,  they  try  to  treat 
all  people  alike  who  want  an  extension  of  the  water  mains  and  give  each 
one  fair  consideration. 

I  have  a  letter  here  which  I  was  showing  to  a  water-works  engineer 
to-day,  and  he  thought  it  was  possibly  of  interest  to  the  members  of  this 
Association.  It  is  a  letter  I  received  in  1908  from  William  H.  Moody. 
Mr.  Moody  was,  as  probably  most  of  you  know,  a  lawyer  in  Haverhill, 
a  member  of  Congress,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  Roosevelt,  Attorney 
General,  and  then  appointed  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  the  counsel,  in  connection  with  ex-Governor  Robinson,  for  the  city 
at  the  time  we  took  the  works  Ii  connection  with  a  paper  which  I  read 
before  the  Association  in  1908,  I  wrote  him  and  his  letter  in  reply  was 
as  follows —  I  am  going  to  read  it  to  you  because  it  seems  pretty  good 
common  sense: 

SupREiiE  Court  of  the  United  States, 
Washington,  D.C. 
Al3ert  L.  Sawyer,  Esq.  April  10,  1908. 

Haverhill,  Mass. 
My  dear  Mr,  Sawyer:  — 

I  hope  you  will  excuse  the  delay  in  answering  your  letter  of  the  30th  ult.  I  have 
been  looking  at  the  different  acts  relating  to  the  Haverhill  water  supply  and  trying  to 
recall  the  circumstances  of  their  passage. 

I  might,  with  the  aid  of  memoranda  which  I  have  at  home,  state  the  facts  with 
greater  accuracy  than  I  can  here.  I  am  so  anxious  not  to  tell  you  anything  of  which 
I  am  not  sure  that  I  fear  I  can  say  little  worth  saying. 

Of  course  I  prepared  the  Act  of  1891.  So  far  as  that  act  dealt  with  the  scheme 
of  management  of  the  aqueduct  property  after  it  should  be  acquired  by  the  City,  it, 
I  think,  passed  the  Legislature  as  I  prepared  it.  I  do  not  think  the  Act  is  quite  like 
any  other  but  I  must  speak  with  caution  on  this  point.  This  much  I  know;  the  main 
purpose  which  I  desired  to  accomplish,  carrying  out  in  this  respect  the  wishes  of  Mayor 
Burnham  and  the  leading  members  of  the  very  able  City  Council  then  in  office,  was  to 
separate  completely  the  Water  Department  from  all  other  affairs  of  the  City.  It  was 
hop)ed  thus  that  the  Department  would  be  managed  upon  strictly  business  principles 
without  regard  to  poUtics.  To  that  end  it  was  provided  that  the  Water  Commissioners 
should  be  appointed  for  a  term  of  five  years,  that  only  one  should  be  appointed  each 
year,  and  that  the  City  be  left  to  pay  for  the  water  which  it  used  like  any  other  consumer. 
The  power  of  management  of  the  Department  was  vested  exclusively  in  the  Commis- 
sioners subject  to  removal  by  the  City  Coimcil  for  cause. 

1  drew  the  Act  of  1892  (Ch.  417)  and  put  into  it  the  provision  that  any  land  taken 
for  the  protection  of  the  water  supply  might  "  be  managed,  improved  and  controlled 
by  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners  in  such  manner  as  they  should  deem  for  the  best 
interests  of  said  City."  The  purpose  of  this  provision  was  to  enable  the  land  thus 
taken  to  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  a  public  park  as  it  since  has  been.  I  hoped  for  good 
results  from  this  provision  but  I  did  not  realize  that  the  result  would  be  a  most  beau- 
tiful park  in  which  all  our  jseople  may  justly  delight. 

I  drew  the  Act  of  1896  according  to  my  best  memory.  The  purposes  which  it  is 
intended  to  accomplish  appear  sufficiently  from  the  Act. 

I  believe  that  this  is  all  that  I  can  say  now  which  by  any  chance  could  be  of  service 
t<o  vou.  Very  sincerely  yours, 

(Signed)  W.  H.  MOODY. 
Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


440  SHOULD   WATER  DEPARTMENT   BE  MERGED. 

Now,  we  started  out  along  these  lines,  and,  as  I  say,  it  has  worked 
very  successfully.  The  Water  Department  has  been  entirely  removed 
from  politics.  The  only  connection,  in  fact,  that  we  have  with  the  Muni- 
cipal Council,  is  the  appointment  of  the  Water  Conunissioner  each  year 
and  the  auditing  of  our  acco\mts  by  the  City  Aiiditor.  Outside  of  that, 
of  course  if  the  Council  makes  reconmiendations  of  certain  things,  the 
Board  would  carefully  consider  them.  But  we  have  never  been  interfered 
with ,  and  I  do  not  think  many  of  the  citizens  of  Haverhill  would  advo- 
cate merging  with  other  departments  of  the  City.* 

I  might  say,  as  a  shining  example  of  keeping  put  of  politics,  that  last 
May  I  completed  thirty  years*  service  in  the  Water  Department  of  Haver- 
hill, and  I  presume  if  it  had  been  in  politics  I  would  have  been  fired  years 
ago. 

Mr.  a.  R.  Hathaway  t  {by  letter).  Pardon  me  for  following  you 
to  New  Bedford  by  letter  (for  that  is  the  only  way  I  can  follow  you), 
but  I  was  just  looking  over  the  program  and  note  you  are  down  for  the  ques- 
tion "  Should  the  Water  Department  be  Merged  with  other  Municipal 
Departments  in  its  Management  and  Finances?"  and  I  wish  I  might  be 
there  to  hear  your  paper  and  to  add  my  little  say  against  any  such  merging. 

But  you  know  that  in  such  matters  the  man  that  has  had  over  forty 
years'  experience  and  observation  is  not  as  well  qualified  to  pass  on  such 
questions  as  is  the  young  "  expert  "  (so-called)  from  the  modem  Bureaus 
of  Research,  and  the  charter  agitators  of  the  present  day. 

However,  if  there  should  be  opportunity  to  be  recorded  on  the  pro- 
position I  wish  you  would  put  me  down  with  an  emphatic  "  No." 

You  and  I  know  that  every  water  works,  municipally  owned  and 
operated y  is  all  the  time  bucking  between  two  influences;  that  of  the  honest 
and  conscientious  water  ofiicial  for  an  up-to-date  btisiness  adminstration 
of  its  aflfairs,  and  the  beneath-the-surface  (often  above  the  surface)  in- 
fluence of  the  politicians  and  their  followers  for  a  political  administraUon; 
with  the  chances  that  the  latter  will  sooner  or  later  control,  when  the  water 
works  will  lose  its  natural  standing  of  a  public- utiHty. 

I  think  every  thinking  citizen  will  admit  that  a  water  works,  like  gas 
and  electric  works,  street  railways,  telephone  systems,  naturally  belong 
to  the  public  utility  class,  and  in  former  years  were  more  largely  owned 
and  operated  by  private  corporations  instead  of  municipal;  that  such 
private  corporations,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results,  adopted  all  modem 
practices  and  devices  and  are  controlled  in  every  state  by  some  form  of 
of  Public  Utility  Commission,  which  protects  both  the  corporation  and 

*  Our  water  act  providen  that  the  Water  Ck)mmissioDer8  shall  fix  the  price  or  rent  for  water  supplied 
annually;  and  the  income  received  therefrom  after  deducting  all  expenses  and  charges  of  distribution  shall 
be  applied.  —  first  to  pay  the  interest  on  bonds  issued;  second  to  pay  the  sinking  fund  requirements  for 
loans;  third  to  the  payment  of  all  current  expenses;  fourth  the  balance  if  any,  may  be  ipplied  to  the 
sinking  funds  at  the  (fiacretion  of  the  Commissioners.  The  Commissioners  may  expend  from  the  annual 
receipts  for  the  purpose  of  new  construction,  a  sum  not  exceeding  twenty  thousand  dollars  in  any  one  \'eaT. 
Our  officers  are  not  in  City  Hall  but  in  a  separate  building  leased  by  the  Water  Board,  and  we  handle  all 
receipts  and  expenditures. 


t  Water  Registrar,  Springfield,  Mass. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  441 

the  people  served,  and  that  they  thus  can  be  operated  for  good  service 
and  also  to  the  payment  of  dividends  to  their  owners,  the  stockholders. 
And  I  maintain  that  a  change  to  municipal  ownership  does  not,  or  should 
not,  alter  the  fundamental  status  of  such  water  works  or  its  relation  to 
the  public  served;  that  the  fundamental  practices  of  best  operation  under 
a  private  ownership  should  certainly  be  followed  under  a  municipal  owner- 
ship, in  order  that  the  fullest  measure  of  public  service  and  the  best  finan- 
cial results  may  be  obtained.  The  only  way  to  insure  these  results,  to 
my  mind,  is  to  treat  such  municipal  water  works  (not  as  one  of  the  govern- 
mental departments  of  the  municipality,  which  are  supported  by  tax 
levy,  but)  as  an  independent  investment  of  the  city,  to  be  self-supporting 
and  operated  on  purely  business  and  public  utility  lines.  The  more  it 
can  be  divorced  from  other  departments  and  political  control,  the  better 
operating  results  you  will  reach  in  the  long  run. 

Without  legal  authority  perhaps,  we  are  trying  to  educate  our  citizens 
away  from  the  "  department  "  idea  by  placing  on  our  stationary  and  bills, 
etc,  the  words  "  Muncipal  Water  Works  "  instead,  as  shown  at  top  of  our 
letter  sheet. 

Mr.  Patrick  Gear.*  Considering  criticism  of  the  man  that  is  doing 
more  for  the  Water  Departments  of  New  England  and  Massachusetts 
than  any  man  that  I  know  of,  or  ever  heard  of,  and  hear  the  criticisms 
that  he  has  to  stand  from  those  who  don't  know  the  business  that  he  is 
attending  to  for  the  people  of  the  State,  look  around  and  see  what  other 
Departments  do  to  defend  the  people  and  promote  their  interests.  When 
the  Commissioner  of  The  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education  advo- 
cates anything  every  superintendent  in  this  State  is  back- of  him  to  help 
him  out;  when  the  State  Department  of  Public  Health  tells  us  how  the 
water  is  to  be  taken  care  of  in  the  State,  we  put  our  hands  in  our  pockets 
and  let  the  director  fight  it  alone;  and  when  different  cities  and  towns 
take  it  into  their  heads  that  they  will  bring  the  water  and  the 
fire  and  the  streets  all  under  one  man,  I  get  a  Kttle  hot.  If  you  make  that 
man  the  king-pin  of  the  city,  the  Water  Department  will  be  bled  to  help  out 
the  Highway  Department,  and  in  a  few  years  you  will  find  that  the  Water 
Department  has  not  got  anything  to  put  out  a  fire.  I  know  of  some  cities 
where  they  change  the  Water  Commissioners  every  time  they  change  the 
Mayor,  and  they  change  the  Mayor  every  time  they  have  a  chance  to 
elect  a  new  one.  In  a  dry  summer  or  a  cold  winter,  they  have  to  buy 
water  from  their  neighbors.  I  believe  that  there  is  only  one  right  way, 
and  that  is  to  let  the  Water  Department  have  their  funds  and  not  come 
to  them  every  time  they  have  a  little  money  in  hand  that  they  do  not  want 
to  use  right  away.  Let  them  put  it  into  their  plant,  and  if  they  have  not 
a  chance  to  put  it  underground  they  can  put  it  on  top  of  the  ground  where 
it  can  be  seen,  so  that  everybody  will  realize  they  are  doing  fine  woik. 
All  our  good  work  is  buried.  It  is  difficult  sometimes  to  make  people  be- 
lieve that  we  are  doing  good  work,  until  a  fire  occurs. 

i  Superintendent  Wat^r  Works.  Holyoke.  Mass.  ^.^.  .^^^  ^^  GoOgl^ 


442  SHOULD   WATER  DEPARTMENT  BE  MERGED. 

I  think  the  Water  Departments  of  the  State  should  stand  back  of  the 
State  Department  of  Health  in  everything  they  do,  and  if  they  find  a  city 
that  wants  to  merge  the  Water  Department  with  the  other  Departments, 
go  to  the  State  House  and  fight  it  out  and  say,  "  We  shall  not  let  you  do 
it."  But  if  you  let  them  bleed  the  Water  Department,  tax  you  for  it,  put  it 
into  the  streets,  build  up  a  Fire  Department,  build  up  a  fine  park  system  at 
the  expense  of  the  Water  Department,  it  will  be  poor  economy  in  the  end. 
There  is  a  fine  city  in  our  part  of  the  State  that  takes  $30  000  or  $40  000  a 
year  out  of  the  Water  Department  and  puts  it  into  the  other  departments. 
That  is  not  right.  But  do  not  reduce  the  rates  too  low.  They  are  not 
high  in  this  section  of  the  country.  In  Holyoke  the  money  is  kept  in  the 
department. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Sherman.*  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  there  is, 
perhaps,  greater  danger  to  the  smaller  cities  and  town  than  to  the  larger 
ones.  The  development  of  a  plan  combining  all  the  public  works  of  a 
municipality  is  not  so  dangerous  to  the  larger  community  in  which  each 
department  is  of  such  magnitude  that  a  man  of  considerable  ability  is 
necessarily  employed  in  charge  of  it. 

In  the  smaller  cities  and  towns,  on  the  other  hand,  everj^thing  may 
be  put  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  can't  be  a  specialist  in  all  lines,  with 
the  result  that  the  man  in  charge  of  another  department  than  the  one  in 
which  he  is  particularly  interested  is  practically  only  a  foreman  under  him, 
with  no  great  authority  and  with  no  .prestige  behind  him,  and  the  depart- 
ment of  which  he  is  in  charge  suffers  in  consequence. 

I  was  considerably  impressed  by  Mr.  King's  argument  in  favor  of 
proper  accounting  for  the  Water  Departments,  and  recommending  for 
our  consideration  the  form  of  accounting  recommended  by  the  Utility 
Commission  for  Electric  Light  Plants.  Perhaps  many  of  our  members  are 
not  familiar  with  the  fact  that  in  Maine  all  Water  Departments,  whether 
publicly  or  privately  owned,  come  imder  the  Utility  Commission.  The 
Public  Water  Departments  have  to  make  exactly  the  same  returns  to  the 
State  Utility  Commission  that  the  private  water  companies  do,  in  Maine, 
and  I  believe  it  has  been  a  mighty  good  thing  for  them.  The  smaller  water 
departments  in  too  many  cases,  especially  country  places,  have  no  account- 
ing system  worthy  of  the  name,  and  the  Maine  Utility  Commission,  which 
has  now  been  doing  business  along  this  line  for  about  eight  years,  has  done 
wonders  in  putting  those  things  on  a  more  scientific  basis.  Of  course 
the  older  companies  which  did  not  have  much  of  any  records  to  start  with  — 
I  hate  to  use  the  term,  but  I  must  say  that  they  had  to  "  fake  *'  some  to 
start  with,  and  perhaps  what  they  used  as  basic  figures  are  not  above  sus- 
picion. But  the  figures  which  are  being  added  annually  do  really  mean 
something.  I  think  other  states  might  well  follow  Maine  to  that  extent, 
by  putting  the  accounting  of  the  Water  Works  of  a  publicly  owned  utility 
on  exactly  the  same  basis  as  a  privately  owned  one. 

*Of  Metoalf  &  Kddy,  Consulting  Engineers.  BoHton,  Mans. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  443 

Mr.  Henry  A.  Symonds.*  About  1914  a  bill  was  entered  in  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature  to  put  the  water  companies  of  Massachusetts, 
which  had  been  up  to  that  time  under  no  special  regulation,  under  the, 
Gas  and  Electric  Light  Board.  It  seemed  at  that  time  to  the  water 
companies  that  this  was  going  to  entail  a  great  deal  of  extra  work, 
that  it  was  something  which  the  companies  would  not  get  much  real  benefit 
from,  and  that  there  was  going  to  be  a  large  expense  involved.  The  re- 
sult was  that  when  the  bill  was  entered,  the  first  year,  I  think  there  was 
almost  unanimous  opposition  from  the  water  companies.  The  bill  was 
again  entered  the  next  year,  not  much  opposition  developed,  and  it  passed 
and  became  operative  in  1915.  I  think  the  first  year  the  companies  did 
the  work  rather  grudgingly.  Of  course  a  great  deal  of  work  was  involved 
in  getting  things  straightened  out  along  the  lines  required,  and  there  was 
considerable  complaint  from  the  water  companies  all  over  the  state.  The 
second  year,  as  things  had  been  somewhat  organized  and  the  information 
collected,  the  companies  did  not  find  as  much  fault,  and  I  think  about  the 
third  year  they  commenced  to  rather  like  the  idea.  It  became  easier, 
and  we  found  we  were  getting  a  great  deal  of  benefit  out  of  those  reports, 
and  out  of  keeping  the  systematic  accounting  and  complete  records  of  the 
phj'sical  plant.  That  has  come  to-day,  I  think,  to  be  recognized  as  having 
been  an  excellent  move  not  only  for  the  general  public  but  for  the  public 
utility  companies  themselves,  and  really  a  much  greater  benefit  for  the 
public  utilities  than  for  the  general  public. 

Mr.  Sherman  has  just  mentioned  that  the  State  of  Maine  Water  De- 
partments have  been  placed  under  public  control.  I  think  Connecticut 
is  also  under  a  similar  regulation.  In  Connecticut,  and  I  presume  the  same 
is  true  in  Maine,  and  perhaps  in  other  places,  the  report  of  the  physical 
plant  is  being  required  along  the  same  lines  as  is  required  of  the  private 
water  companies.  That  is  something  which,  to  those  who  are  looking  for 
general  information,  general  data  relative  to  development  work  and  the 
operation  of  the  plants,  is  of  very  great  value.  The  simple,  uniform  accoimt- 
ing  is  a  step  in  advance  but,  added  to  that,  the  uniform  statement  of  the 
operation  of  the  plant,  from  not  only  the  companies  but  from  all  munici- 
pal plants,  would  be  of  very  great  benefit  when  made  accessible  to  all 
operators.  It  would  be  one  of  the  best  things  which  Massachusetts,  and 
the  other  states  which  have  not  taken  it  up,  could  do,  —  to  place  these 
plants,  whether  publicly  or  privately  owned,  under  Public  control  and 
establish  a  standard  basis  not  only  of  accounting  but  of  all  operating 
records. 

Mr.  King.  Some  weeks  ago  I  wrote  to  Mr.  Whitney  of  Newton 
asking  some  questions  about  their  system,  and  last  Monday  I  received 
this  reply: 


*  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


444  SHOULD   WATER  DEPARTMENT   BE   MERGED. 

City  op  Newton,  Massachusetts. 
City  Hall, 
West  Newton. 
Mr.  Geo.  A.  King,  September  9,  1922. 

Supt.  Water  Works, 

Taunton,  Mass. 
My  dear  Sir^  — 

The  Charter  of  the  City  of  Newton  provides  "  The  Water  Department  to  be 
under  the  charge  of  the  Water  Commissioner  who  shall  have  charge  of  the  construction, 
alteration,  repair,  maintenance,  care  and  management  of  the  Water  Works." 

There  is  no  "Board  of  Public  Works"  expressed  or  implied  in  our  Charter  or  Ordin- 
ances, though  the  Mayor  as  the  Executive  head  of  the  City  can,  if  he  so  chooses,  assume 
such  management. 

However,  to  a  very  fair  degree  cooperation  between  Newton  departments  exists 
with  but  few  cases  of  overlapping  or  interference  with  each  other.  Men  capable  of 
managing  more  than  one  department  are  few  in  number  and  corporations  secure  most 
of  these. 

Consolidation  of  an  income-producing  Water  Works  with  other  departments  "  lean 
and  hungry,"  results  at  times  in  the  absorption  of  any  surplus  income  by  others  and 
obliges  the  Water  Works  to  almost  go  on  their  knees  for  sufficient  funds  to  keep  their 
plant  in  reasonably  good  condition.  It  is  sound  finance  to  use  Water  Income  for  Water 
Department  purposes  only,  and  I  believe  the  average  citizen  gets  more  satisfaction  in 
deding  with  a  Water  Works  than  with  a  small  division  of  a  Public  Works  Department. 

Very  truly, 

(Signed)  J.  C.  WHITNEY, 

Water  Commissioner. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Baker.*  A  phase  of  this  subject  that  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  touched  upon  is  that  one  of  the  great  difficulties  in  the  smaller 
places  is  to  get  a  really  trained  and  experienced  man  to  handle  the  separate 
departments.  It  is  often  quite  beyond  the  financial  possibilities,  or  is 
thought  to  be  so.  If,  to  use  a  familiar  expression,  we  say  that  the  City 
Manager  form  of  government  is  adopted  for  these  smaller  places,  you  at 
least  have  a  man  who  is  trained  in  municipal  administration  to  run  all 
of  the  departments. 

It  is  because  municipal  government  of  late  has  been  taken  up  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  city  as  a  whole  instead  of  being  spht  up  into  many  and 
largely  independent  departments,  that  there  has  been  this  tendency  to 
consolidation. 

New  England  is  accustomed  to  Water  Boards,  and  looks  upon  them 
with  favor  because  they  have  been  largely  continuing  bodies.  But  looking 
at  the  subject  from  a  country-wide  viewpoint,  we  find  quite  different  con- 
ditions prevailing  elsewhere. 

We  have  to-day  in  the  whole  country  doubtless  500  to  600  cities  that 
have  the  Conmiission  form  of  city  government,  whether  with  or  without 
City  Managers.  It  is  the  change  to  the  Commission  plan  of  government 
which  has  brought  about  in  a  large  number  of  cases  changes  that  have 
afToct^^d  the  several  departments.     We  need  better  citv  government  and 


^Aamciate  Editor  Engineering  News-Record, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  445 

we  must  look  at  the  city  as  a  whole  instead  of  at  each  separate  department, 
and  where  there  is  a  Water  Board  and  a  Sewer  Board  and  a  Light  Board, 
as  they  still  have  in  some  places,  and  used  to  have  in  many,  independent  of 
each  other  and  of  the  City  Council,  haphazard  system  of  government 
Ls  the  rule,  and  it  is  impossible  to  have  that  unified  control  and  central 
responsibiUty  that  is  essential  for  efficiency  and  economy  of  municipal 
admiiystration. 

The  basic  thing  is  to  see  that  in  the  management  of  the  water  and 
all  other  departments,  scientific  principles  of  control  are  established  and 
enforced  to  make  sure  that  the  Water  Department,  as  has  been  suggested, 
stands  on  its  own  bottom,  with  water  rates  fixed  to  provide  properly  for 
operation  and  maintenance  and  take  care  of  capital,  and  to  ensure  that  the 
Water  Department  revenues  are  not  robbed,  as  they  have  been  in  many 
cities,  to  pay  the  expenses  of  other  departments. 

Finally,  the  single-headed  Commissioner  is  now  generally  considered 
by  careful  students  of  municipal  and  state  government  to  be  far  preferable 
to  the  Board  of  Commissioners  for  the  exercise  of  excutive  functions. 

Mr.  Gear.  Regarding  this  commission  form  of  government.  Of 
course  the  agitation  was  started  by  a  class  of  people  who  think  they  can  re- 
form human  nature.    They  will  have  an  awful  job. 

Our  Water  Department  has  always  been  kept  separate  from  any  other 
municipal  department.  There  is  no  reason  in  the  world  why  one  man 
should  govern  two  departments.  If  one  department  is  getting  an  income, 
the  other  departments  are  trying  to  spend  it.  One  Board  should  never 
cover  the  two.  The  old  sjrstem  of  government  that  we  have  had  for 
hundreds  of  years  is  fairly  successful,  and  the  new  forms  just  a  fad. 

I  have  not  seen  any  improvement  under  city  managers.  Some  of  the 
cities  that  had  them  have  gone  back  to  the  old  system. 

Mr.  David  A.  Heffernan.*  Up  to  1902  we  were  a  private  water 
company,  having  a  Board  of  Directors  of  course,  and  a  President  who 
took  a  very  great  interest  in  the  equipment  of  the  plant.  Plans  were  for- 
mulated to  use  certain  types  of  gates  and  hydrants,  and  run  on  the  principle 
of  uniformity.  After  all  the  time  that  I  have  been  in  the  employ  of  the 
Town  of  Milton,  thirty-two  years,  I  was  wondering,  if  I  retired  tomorrow, 
what  would  happen  to  {he  present  equipment.  Uniformity  of  gates, 
hydrants  and  other  equipment  standard  in  all  ways,  opening  to  the  right, 
and  giving  perfect  satisfaction.  The  result  in  changing  over  to  a  town 
manager,  or  to  a  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  would  be  that  probably 
the  whole  system  would  be  revised  by  a  man  coming  in  with  different  ideas, 
thinking  that  the  equipment  of  the  plant  is  pasR<^.  I  will  admit  that  there 
are  other  equipments  as  good  a«  mine,  but  when  you  get  a  thirty-two- 
year-old  system,  with  thirty-two  years  of  service,  and  still  going  and 
giving  satisfaction,  I  think  it  is  creditable. 


♦  SuperiDtendent  Water  Works,  Milton.  Ma 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


446  SHOULD  WATER  DEPARTMENT  BE  MERGED. 

To-day  we  have  committees  on  Standardization.  For  what  purpose? 
Just  for  the  very  purpose  we  are  talking  of  to-day,  because  of  the  changes 
in  government  through  politics  and  the  like.  Different  Conmiissions  being 
elected,  different  materials,  different  types  being  introduced  into  that  sys- 
tem, result  in  not  knowing  what  you  have  there;  you  have  special  threads 
—  you  don't  know  what  they  are.  I  am  on  a  Conunittee  on  Standard- 
ization of  Brass  Fittings.  We  have  been  on  that  for  three  years,  not  fjaving 
made  much  headway,  and  I  am  afraid  we  will  not  make  much,  for  the  reason 
that  there  are  certain  iSxtures  on  the  market  which  control  practically 
75  per  cent,  of  the  Water  Departments.  They  have  special  threads. 
The  manufacturers  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  standard  thread  is 
pass^.  I  can  show  you  an  advertisement  in  Fire  and  Water  stating  that 
the  standard  thread  to-day  is  pass^.    Just  think  of  it! 

Mr.  R.  J.  Thomas.*  The  motive  behind  Mr.  King's  paper  probably 
may  not  be  understood  by  a  number  of  the  water-works  people  here.  That 
is  to  say,  they  do  not  realize  the  tendency  that  is  prevailing  in  Massachu- 
setts to-day,  and  in  probably  some  of  the  other  New  England  States,  to 
abolish  the  Water  Department  as  a  separate  department,  and  place  it  under 
a  Board  of  Public  Works,  simply  making  it  a  subordinate  branch  of  the 
City  Government,  without  a  Superintendent.  That  tendency  is  growing, 
and  probably  several  cities  now  with  water  works  organization,  will  be 
merged  under  a  Board  of  Public  Works  within  the  next  year  or  two.  It 
is  an  evil  tendency  that  is  going  to  make  for  poor  management  of  water 
works  and  we,  especially  the  Massachusetts  members  of  the  New  England 
Association,  ought  to  organize  to  do  what  we  can  in  opposition  to  it. 

In  regard  to  this  discussion  that  has  Ijeen  brought  up,  by  Messrs. 
Sherman  and  Symonds,  of  the  State  having  some  control  and  regulation  of 
the  publicly  as  well  as  the  privately  owned  plants :  That  may  be  a  remedy. 
But  something  has  to  be  done  to  prevent  the  Water  Works  Departments 
from  disappearing  in  many  of  our  municipalities  in  Massachusetts. 
There  are  quite  a  few  cities  in  New  England  that  are  not  represented  here 
to-day,  because  nobody  connected  with  them  is  interested  in  water-works 
matters  to  the  extent  of  coming  to  these  meetings.  About  a  year  ago, 
I  had  a  conversation  with  a  man  who  was  head  of  the  public  works  depart- 
ment in  one  of  our  New  England  cities.  I  asked*him  why  he  did  not  attend 
the  water-works  meetings.  He  did  not  think  it  profited  him  to  come. 
In  that  same  city  at  one  time  lived  a  president  of  the  New  England  Water 
Works  Association,  who  was  a  very  able  president,  and  superintendent 
of  water  works,  and  he  has  left  his  impress  on  that  city  to-day.  The 
water  works  as  he  designed  and  built  it  is  furnishing  not  only  that  city 
but  several  neighboring  towns  with  water.  But  his  successor  who  also 
has  other  branches  of  the  public  work  to  take  care  of,  thought  it  would 
not  profit  him  to  come  to  these  meetings.  I  suggested  to  him  that  it 
might  profit  the  Association  if  he  came. 

*  Past  Prondent  Amorifan  and  Xew  England  Water  Works  Assoriation^. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  447 

It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  a  live  question,  especially  because  they 
are  taking  the  revenues  of  the  Water  Department  and  using  them  for  other 
purposes.  I  remember  some  years  back,  the  Water  department  of  the 
City  of  Fall  River  had  $80  000  surplus.  They  wanted  to  put  in  a  new 
standpipe,  but  the  City  Government  appropriated  the  $80  000  for  other 
municipal  purposes.  The  mayor  was  friendly  to  the  Water  Department 
and  he  held  it  up  until  the  Water  Commissioners  had  time  to  act.  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  Water  Works  Association  went  to  the  Legislature  and  had 
an  Act  passed.  We  supposed  at  the  time  it  was  going  to  be  a  general  Act 
to  prevent  the  taking  of  water-works  revenues  for  any  other  than  water- 
works purposes,  and  that  it  was  going  to  apply  to  all  cities,  but  as  passed 
it  simply  applied  to  Fall  River.     It  should  have  applied  generally. 

I  know  of  a  case  where  a  member  of  the  Legislature  introduced  a 
bill  to  reduce  the  rates  in  his  city,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  making  himself 
popular,  that  he  might  be  elected  Mayor.  But  he  proved  one  of  the  worst 
Mayors  they  ever  had.  Reducing  the  water  rates  is  popular  in  a  great 
many  places.  The  Board  of  Public  Works  could  take  care  of  that  feature 
so  that  the  rate  will  not  be  reduced  unduly  so  as  to  promote  the  interests 
of.  any  man  who  is  seeking  to  be  Mayor  or  any  other  public  officer. 

I  think  we  ought  to  get  this  matter  studied  and  see  that  there  is  a  de- 
fense organized  against  these  attacks  on  Water  Works  Managements  in 
our  cities  and  towns  in  Massachusetts  or  Rhode  Island,  or  wherever  it 
is  necessary. 

Mr.  J.  W.  DiVEN.*  The  using  of  water-works  funds,  or  any  part  of 
them,  or  the  surplus,  for  general  tax  purposes,  is  certainly  an  inequitable 
form  of  taxation.  It  is  not  a  tax  based  on  the  value  of  the  property,  because 
it  is  a  tax  on  the  users  of  a  commodity.  A  manufacturer  using  a  large 
amount  of  water  is  paying  a  tax  way  beyond  the  proper  tax  on  the  valua- 
tion of  his  property.  Certainly  a  water-works  fund,  if  they  do  create  a 
surplus,  should  be  used  by  the  water  department,  possibly  for  retiring  bonds 
or  for  depreciation.  If  they  have  not  use  for  a  surplus  then  they  should 
not  create  a  surplus.  In  other  words,  a  mimicipal  plant  should  base  its 
rates  on  the  actual  needs.  If  the  revenue  is  larger  than  is  needed  for  the 
operation  and  proper  maintenance  of  the  plant,  then  reduce  the  rates. 
Certainly  to  use  that  money  for  other  city  purposes  is  taxing  the  commodity 
user  instead  of  the  value  of  the  property. 

Mr.  Gear.  We  have  done  that  a  few  times.  We  created  a  surplus 
of  $40  000  and  used  it  to  extend  a  main  five  or  six  miles  into  a  new  terri- 
tory.    It  could  not  be  done  with  the  surplus  from  one  year. 

A  24-in.  pipe  line  4  mi.  long  is  proposed  for  next  year.  We  are  creat- 
ing a  surplus  now,  and  have  been  for  the  last  couple  of  years,  to  carry  that 
out.  We  do  not  intend  to  borrow  any  money  to  do  it.  Some  people  think 
when  you  have  a  surplus  one  year  it  ought  to  be  taken  away  from  you. 


*  Secretary  American  Water  Works  Association. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


448  SHOULD   WATER  DEPARTMENT  BE  MERGED. 

Mr.  Diven.  You  are  creating  a  surplus  for  needs.  I  said,  not  to 
create  a  surplus  in  addition  to  needs.  It  is  a  question  whether  it  is  right 
and  proper  to  use  the  surplus  of  the  Department  for  construction  work. 
By  using  your  surplus  you  are  taxing  the  large  user  of  water,  the  large 
manufacturer,  perhaps,  to  extend  the  mains.  To  my  mind  extensions 
should  be  made  out  of  capital. 

Mr.  King.  When  I  first  began  to  study  this  subject  which  you  as- 
signed to  me,  I  came  up  against  the  part  which  Mr.  Baker  referred  to,  — 
the  difficulty  of  applying  a  system  to  a  small  municipahty  and  to  large 
cities  like  Boston,  Worcester,  New  Bedford  and  Fall  River.  I  could  not 
see  how  I  could  say  anything  that  would  fit  all  those  places,  and  so  I  had 
to  write  in  a  very  general  way.  I  think  one  great  difficulty  we  meet  with 
is  the  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  benefits  which  people  receive  from  the 
water  system.  Just  an  illustration:  during  the  war  time  when  we  wanted 
coal,  what  rating  were  we  given?  About  third  class.  We  could  have  it 
after  two  or  three  other  classes  got  it.  I  went  to  the  Manager  of  our  Coal 
Company  and  told  him  what  they  would  lose  if  we  could  not  pump  water. 
He  said,"  I  will  see  that  you  have  coal;  I  did  not  realize  your  importance.'' 
I  think  that  is  the  feeling  all  through,  the  people  do  not  realize  the  import- 
ance of  the  Water  Department,  and  when  you  consolidate  with  other 
Departments  the  other  Departments  are  going  to  have  the  attention, 
almost  exclusively,  of  the  party  who  is  put  in  charge,  unless  he  happens 
to  be  a  water-works  man. 

Mr.  Sawyer  touched  on  the  continuity  of  purpose  of  the  Water 
Boards.  We  have  had  in  our  46  years,  including  the  members  we  have 
now,  eight  Commissioners,  —  three  at  a  time.  I  think  that  has  given 
a  continuity  of  purpose  all  these  years,  and  that  the  City  of  Taunton  has 
benefited  by  such  service. 

The  President  wants  to  know  the  good  of  all  this  talk  unless  we  do 
something,  and  I  would  move  that  a  committee  be  appointed  from  the 
Massachusetts  members  to  consider  the  advisability  of  taking  some  action 
with  the  State  authorities  on  this  matter. 

Mr.  Diven.  Why  confine  it  to  Massachusetts;  why  not  the  other 
states? 

Mr.  King.  Years  ago  we  had  a  matter  come  up  in  the  Legislature 
and  this  Association  voted  to  assist.  A  circular  was  put  out  and  Mr.  Kent 
signed  it  as  one  of  the  members.  He  was  from  Narragansett  Pier.  That 
was  used  against  us,  —  that  a  man  from  Rhode  Island  should  be  trj'ing  to 
influence  the  Massachusetts  Legislature.  We  have  to  watch  all  those  things. 

Mr.  Michael  F.  Collins.*  There  is  one  point  I  want  to  bring  up  and 
I  think  it  might  be  added  to  Mr.  King's  motion.  A  number  of  years  ago 
this  Association  formed  a  committee  to  appear  before  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  and  have  a  measure  passed  that  would  make  water  taxes  a  lien 
on  the  property.  Last  year  Mr.  Sullivan  of  the  Boston  Finance  Commis- 
ion  introduced  a  motion,  and  I  believe  it  was  passed  by  the  Committee  on 


♦  Superintendent  Water  Works.  Lawrence,  Mass. 

Digitized  by 


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DISCUSSION.  449 

Cities  and  Towns,  that  the  City  of  Boston  should  be  authorized  to  have  all 
their  water  assessments  placed  as  a  lien  on  the  property.  I  have  spoken 
to  a  number  of  men  I  know,  and  to  a  few  members  of  the  Legislature,  to 
have  them  do  what  they  could  in  order  to  have  that  measure  passed.  I 
told  them  at  that  time  that  the  City  of  Lawrence  was  badly  in  arrears  on 
water  bills.  In  our  city  we  have  had  a  number  of  property  brokers  that 
have  been  passing  the  same  piece  of  property  over,  sometimes  two  or  three 
times  a  month,  so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  Water  Department  to 
keep  track  of  them,  know  who  they  are  and  from  whom  the  money  is  coming 
That  measure  was  introduced  but  was  defeated  by  some  of  the  property 
owners  of  the  City  of  Boston,  though  the  committee  reported  favorably. 
I  believe  at  that  time  there  were  a  million  and  some  five  or  six  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  due  the  city  of  Boston  for  water  assessments,  and  everybody 
thought  under  those  conditions  it  would  pass,  but  it  did  not. 

Now,  if  such  a  bill  could  be  embodied  in  the  motion  made  by  Mr.  King, 
that  this  same  committee  take  under  consideration  the  advisability  of  bring- 
ing the  bill  before  the  next  Legislature,  I  think  with  thfe  cooperation  of  the 
City  of  Boston,  and  with  the  help  and  cooperation  of  all  the  Massachusetts 
^^uperintendents  and  their  friends,  that  there  would  be  no  question  of  doubt 
but  what  that  measure  would  go  through.  If  it  did  go  through  so  that 
money  so  owed  on  property  would  at  the  end  of  a  year,  if  it  was  not  paid, 
go  on  a  tax  bill,  I  think  all  the  Water  Departments  of  New  England,  and  of 
Massachusetts  especially,  would  be  benefited  by  it. 

Mr.  Diven.  My  point  was  that  other  states  might  need  it  as  much 
aj«  Massachusetts. 

Secretary  Frank  J.  Gifford.  Would  it  be  wise,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  you  are  trying  to  divorce  the  Water  Department  from  other 
departments,  to  get  a  bill  through  which  will  relieve  you  by  having  the 
Tax  Department  collect  your  bills  for  you? 

Mr.  Collins.  I  do  not  think  that  would  have  any  bearing  on  the 
subject  at  all. 

Mr.  Gifford.  There  might  be  a  question  whether  you  were  looking 
for  help  from  other  departments,  when  you  want  to  run  your  own  de- 
partment.    You  have  the  power  of  shut-oflf  at  any  time. 

Mr.  Collins.  But  you  have  that  after  the  property  is  sold,  and 
you  can't  make  the  purchaser  pay  the  back  bills. 

Mr.  George  F.  Merrill.*  That  is  a  good  suggestion.  I  think  they 
s*hould  be  entirely  separated  if  we  go  to  any  State  authorities  for  action. 

President  Barbour.  I  will  now  read  Mr.  King's  motion  as  he 
has  written  it  out:  "  It  is  moved  that  a  Committee  of  Massachusetts  mem- 
bers be  appointed  to  consider  the  advisability  of  united  action  with  State 
authorities  of  Massachusetts  on  the  subject  of  merging  the  Water  Depart- 
ments with  other  Departments  in  management  and  finance,  or  either 
of  them."     (This  motion  was  duly  seconded  and  carried.) 


♦  Superintendent  Water  WorkK,  Grcenfipld.  Mass. 

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450  WHY  WE  SHOULD   INSPECT  WATER-WORKS  EQUIPMENT. 


WHY  WE  SHOULD  INSPECT  WATER-WORKS  EQUIPMENT. 

BY   THOMAS   E.    LALLY.* 

[Read  September  13.  Wit,] 

The  remarks  I  shall  make  in  this  paper  I  hope  will  be  of  interest  to 
superintendents  —  and  this  paper  is  offered  with  that  idea  in  view. 

Superintendents  are  usually  criticised  when  some  part  of  the  system 
fails.  These  failures  are  usually  accompanied  by  a  flood  resulting  in 
damage  to  basement  property  or  damage  caused  by  wash  across  property 
to  lower  elevations,  and  in  most  cases  the  newspapers  have  pictures  of 
the  flooded  area  and  the  heaved  street,  and  the  article  usually  ends  with 
some  such  statement  as  "  After  considerable  delay  the  water  department 
shut  off  the  wat^r  and  the  geyser  subsided,''  or  ''  The  water  department, 
aft^r  frantic  efforts  to  locate  the  gates,  finally  shut  off  the  flood." 

When  the  broken  pipe  is  examined,  the  iron  is  usually  found  in  good 
condition,  no  thin  places  in  the  pipe,  but  something  caused  the  break  and 
the  department  is  criticised. 

Again,  we  find  a  thin  place,  a  bubble  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  iron 
on  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the  pipe,  or  a  joint,  like  that  in  a  roll  where 
the  iron  never  ran  together  and  the  water  was  held  in  the  pipe  by  the  tar 
filling  the  seam  when  the  pipe  was  dipped,  and  it  remained  for  a  shock  or 
a  jar  to  start  the  water  through  and  then  the  pipe  let  go  and  you  had  a 
flood. 

I  am  not  going  to  speak  of  blown  joints,  as  they  belong  to  another 
class. 

In  your  fittings  you  will  find  these  same  faults  and  others.  The  knob 
on  the  side  of  a  curve  or  over  the  place  where  the  branch  leaves  the  straight 
pipe  leaks  copiously.  This  is  caused  by  a  loose  chaplet  that  was  placed 
there  to  hold  the  core  in  place  in  the  mold,  and  when  the  iron  was  poured 
it  did  not  cement  itself  to  the  chaplet.  You  are  laying  some  new  lines 
and  find  your  lead  space  a  bit  small,or  have  difiiculty  in  entering  a  spigot 
into  a  bell,  and  perhaps  have  to  chip  off  the  bead.  Then  when  the  water  is 
turned  on  and  the  pipe  gets  the  pressure  you  see  a  large  area  that  **  sweats" 
showing  porous  or  spongy  iron  in  the  walls  of  the  pipe  or  fitting;  all  defects 
that  may  cause  a  bad  leak  some  day. 

You  tr>^  to  shut  down  a  line,  and  after  going  through  the  motions  of 
closing  a  gate,  get  a  flood  of  water  in  the  trench  and  have  to  go  back  and 
close  other  gates  to  stop  it.  Leaky  gates  may  have  the  seat  stripped  off 
because   something  caught  under  the  valve  and  the  seat  was  not  pinned 


*  As-ilstant  Enjunecr,  Public  Works  Dept.,  Boston.  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


LALLY.  451 

in.  A  gate  was  operated  by  the  crew  and  they  could  go  on  turning 
forever.  The  nut  in  the  top  of  the  valve  was  not  pinned  in  when  the 
gate  was  built  and  the  stem  has  turned  it  out.  You  remove  a  gate  box 
cover  in  the  street  and  find  the  gate  gland  leaking  badly.  Either  there  was 
too  little  packing  in  the  gate  or  it  was  not  put  in  properly.  I  could  go  on 
indefinitely  with  these  incidents,  but  they  all  go  back  to  inspection. 

In  the  course  of  my  observations  in  the  inspection  of  water-works 
equipment,  I  found  the  run  of  men  making  these  things,  that  is,  the  owners, 
want  to  do  a  good  job,  sell  their  stock  and  make  some  money.  It  is  usually 
some  of  the  people  in  the  lower  list  of  employees  who  think  it  is  smart 
to  push  along  a  piece  that  is  not  what  it  should  be.  This  is  where  the 
inspection  comes  in.  If  your  equipment  is  inspected  (and  by  inspected 
I  do  not  mean  just  looked  over),  many  of  these  defects  will  be  found; 
and  if  they  can  be  corrected  at  the  time  and  do  no  harm  to  the  piece,  the 
inspector  will  have  it  done,  if  not  he  will  reject  the  piece  and  you  do  not 
get  it  in  the  system.  I  want  to  say  right  here  that  it  is  my  belief  that 
ever>'  inspector  gets  fooled  or  as  the  saying  is  "  has  it  put  over  on  him '' 
sometime  or  other,  whether  he  finds  it  out  or  not.  The  presence  of  an 
inspector  where  material  is  being  fabricated  will  have  a  deterrent  effect 
on  any  tendency  to  slight  the  vTork. 

The  inspection  for  the  City  of  Boston  is  rigid,  and  I  think  all  equipment 
should  be  rigidly  inspected  either  at  the  place  of  manufacture  or  at  the 
local  yards  or  shops.  In  the  inspection  of  main  pipe  the  inspector  finds 
a  pipe  with  a  scab  on  it  and  rejects  it.  Why?  Well,  the  pipe  was  cast 
in  a  tight  fiask,  and  it  is  certain  to  begin  with  that  nothing  got  out,  there- 
fore the  piece  of  core  or  mold  is  in  the  walls  of  the  pipe.  Probably  it  has 
broken  up  into  many  small  pieces  and  is  scattered  alL through  the  pipe. 
Perhaps  it  will  be  found  in  a  lump  stuck  in  the  narrow  wall  with  only  a 
thin  layer  of  iron  around  it,  a  shell  with  a  dirt  core.  At  any  rate  the  dirt 
is  in  the  pipe  and  you  do  not  want  the  pipe. 

Some  foundries  now  pour  their  pipe  with  a  large  riser  or  head  the  full 
diameter  of  the  pipe.  In  fact  it  is  really  an  extension  of  the  pipe  beyond 
the  bead,  this  to  catch  all  the  dirt  that  may  be  floating  on  the  iron  when  it 
comes  up.  Then  they  cut  ofiF  this  riser,  leaving  a  good  bead  and  clean 
spigot.     But  are  you  sure  all  the  dirt  got  to  the  riser? 

The  writer  knows  of  an  instance  where  a  piece  of  dirt  broke  ofiF  of  the 
mold  in  a  pipe  1.25  in.  thick  and  caught  in  the  narrow  wall  of  the  pipe  and 
was  imbedded  in  the  iron.  The  pipe  was  passed  to  the  hydraulic  test 
and  stood  the  required  300  lbs.  without  leaking;  was  subjected  to  the  ham- 
mer test,  and  because  the  inspector's  hammer  happened  to  hit  on  that 
particular  place  and  broke  through,  allowing  the  water  to  spurt  out,  ex- 
pasing  the  weakness,  the  defect  was  found.  Otherwise  the  dirt  would 
not  have  been  discovered,  the  pipe  passed,  and  after  being  in  the  ground 
might  have  started  a  leak,  the  magnitude  of  which  it  is  only  possible  to 
guess.    There  was  only  |-inch  of  iron  in  the  wall  on  either  side.    Again,  — 

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452  WHY   WE  SHOULD   INSPECT  WATER-WORKS  EQUIPMENT. 

inspection.  Had  this  pipe  been  laid  on  poor  soil  where  corrosion  is  rapid 
and  pitting  takes  place,  or  been  subject  to  water  hammer,  a  leak  would 
have  developed,  washing  out  the  support,  causing  settlement,  a  broken 
line,  a  flood,  damage  and  more  criticism  to  the  water  department. 

Roughness  is  another  cause  of  rejection.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
the  ordinary  foundry  roughness  is  smooth  in  comparison  to  the  roughness 
that  pipes  acquire  after  a  few  years  in  the  ground,  due  to  tubercles  forming 
on  the  inside  of  the  pipe  and  retarding  the  flow  of  water  many  more  times 
than  the  ordinary  foundry  roughness. 

The  inspection  of  main  pipe  has  been  so  ably  covered  by  other  writers 
before  this  Association  that  I  wiU  not  take  your  time  to  go  into  it  more  at 
length.  However,  I  want  to  impress  on  you,  in  these  days  when  it  seems 
that  every  person  not  a  producer  is  considered  a  load  to  the  economic 
system,  that  an  inspector,  while  not  a  producer,  is  a  protector. 

In  the  manufacture  of  gates  or  valves  for  the  City  of  Boston  Water 
Service  we  require  the  gates  to  be  finished  in  a  workman-like  manner, 
to  be  inspected  and  tested.  Diu*ing  the  past  fifteen  years  this  service  has 
had  many  hundred  gates  built  outside  of  its  own  shop.  The  city  furnishes 
everything  necessary  to  assemble  the  gates,  in  the  rough  —  iron  castings, 
composition  castings  and  flange  bolts,  gasket  and  packing.  The  con- 
tractor does  all  machine  work,  assembles  the  machined  parts,  tests  and 
delivers  the  finished  gates  to  our  yard.  The  machine  work  is  inspected 
before  assembling  and  must  conform  to  our  standards  both  for  finish  and 
size  and  type  of  threads,  and  all  similar  parts  must  be  interchangeable. 
The  iron  is  tested  through  test  bars  26  in.  x2  in.  x  1  in.,  which  are  broken  on 
supports  24  in.  apart  with  a  center  load.  They  must  show  a  deflection  of 
at  least  '/lo  in.  under  a  load  of  1  900  pounds  before  breaking.  The  castings 
are  inspected  at  the  foundry  for  size,  thickness  of  walls,  dirty  or  spongy 
iron,  cold  shuts  or  blow  holes.  The  general  character  of  the  castings  is 
noted,  also  their  roughness.  This  latter  does  not  affect  the  worthiness  of 
the  castings  but  it  does  affect  the  disposition  of  the  machinists  that  work 
on  them. 

The  composition  is  furnished  in  the  rough  as  I  have  said  before.  This 
was  made  at  a  foundry  having  a  contract  to  furnish  our  material,  and 
test  bars  had  been  taken  and  pulled  for  tensile  strength,  after  which  the 
turnings  were  analyzed  chemically.  This  has  been  done  before  the 
castings  were  accepted  by  the  city. 

Of  course  defects  show  up  in  the  machining.  If  these  unfit  the  piece 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended  it  is  rejected.  With  iron  parts, 
hard  iron,  blow  holes  and  dirt  show  when  the  skin  is  turned  off.  Sometimes 
spongy  and  porous  places  are  exposed,  causing  rejection.  These  defects 
are  of  such  a  nature  that  it  is  unreasonable  to  expect  the  foundry  inspector 
to  find  them  all.  However,  if  there  was  no  inspection  some  of  them  at 
least  would  find  their  way  into  the  finished  product  and  in  a  few  years 
would  give  trouble.     In  testing  the  gates  the  City  of  Boston  requires  that 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


LALLY.  453 

the  gate  be  closed  on  one  bell  by  a  cap  or  head;  the  closed  bell  and  gate 
is  then  filled  with  water,  the  valve  is  slightly  raised,  allowing  the  water 
to  fill  the  bonnet,  the  air  escaping  through  the  gland  which  was  loosened 
for  that  purpose.  After  the  gate  is  full  of  water  the  valve  is  closed  down 
tight  and  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  150  lb.  per  square  inch,  when  any 
leakage  through  the  valve  either  under  the  seats  or  between  them  is  readily 
seen  on  the  open  side.  The  process  is  now  reversed  and  the  other  side  tested. 
This  process  duplicates  the  conditions  in  the  line  as  near  as  may  be  and 
has  been  found  very  satisfactory.  It  shows  up  defects  and  exposes  spongy 
places  in  the  castings.  It  is  preferred  to  the  method  of  tapping  in  a  piece 
of  pipe  in  the  bonnet  and  subjecting  the  bonnet  and  the  parts  surround- 
ing the  valve  to  the  pressure  but  getting  no  pressure  on  the  bells.  This 
latter  method  is  cheaper  for  the  manufacturer  and  consequently  is  in 
almost  universal  use  in  commercial  gates.  It  is  my  opinion  that  the  com- 
mercial method  is  of  advantage  in  the  type  of  gate  having  loose  discs 
because  it  tends  to  force  both  discs  into  seat  at  the  same  time  at  one 
operation.  With  the  solid  wedge  type  of  gate  which  we  use  I  do  not 
advocate  it;  and  as  I  said  before,  it  gets  no  pressure  on  the  bells.  Oiw 
method  will  detect  the  slightest  difference  in  taper  between  the  seat  in  the 
body  and  the  valve  rings.  As  our  gates  are  under  pressure  of  from  25  to 
100  lb.  in  the  line  and  a  very  large  percentage  never  get  a  pressure  of  over 
501b.,  I  believe  150  lb.  test  pressure  is  adequate.  I  do  not  believe  in  putting 
on  an  excessive  test  load  and  straining  the  castings  uselessly,  50  per  cent, 
overload  being  enough. 

We  also  require  the  beaten  in  seats  and  valve  rings  to  be  pinned. 
This  may  seem  a  needless  requirement  as  most  commercial  gate  salesmen 
will  tell  you  that  their  particular  type  of  dovetail  never  pulls  out.  Certainly 
ours  does  not,  and  that  is  what  we  are  after.  The  nut  through  which 
the  stems  in  all  gates  over  ten  inches  operate  to  lift  the  valve  is  also  pinned 
in  to  prevent  the  stem  from  turning  it  out.  This  is  also  a  matter  of  pre- 
caution and  does  not  add  but  a  trifle  to  the  cost  of  the  gate. 

Sometimes  we  find  gates,  before  acceptance,  where  the  nut  used  to 
keep  the  stem  from  rising  in  the  bonnet  is  omitted,  depending  on  the 
gland  to  hold  it  down;  others  where  the  packing  is  poor;  some  leak  between 
the  flanges,  showing  defective  gasket  or  loose  flange  bolts,  leaks  imder  the 
seats,  between  the  seats,  and  it  is  not  beyond  reason  to  think  that  some 
of  them  would  get  into  the  line  if  it  were  not  for  inspection. 

These  instances  are  given  to  fix  in  your  minds  some  of  the  defects 
that  may  be  expected  when  materials  are  inspected  and  also  you  may  infer 
what  you  get  when  they  are  not  inspected. 

In  our  hydrants,  it  is  important  in  the  compression  type,  of  which 
the  City  of  Boston  has  several  sub-types,  to  see  that  the  caps  on  the  out- 
lets are  tight  when  the  barrel  is  under  pressm-e,  that  the  gaskets  between 
the  stuffing  box  and  the  head  of  the  barrel  and  between  the  bottom  of  the 


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454  WHY   WE  SHOULD   INSPECT  WATER-WORKS  EQUIPMENT. 

barrel  and  the  pot  are  good.  In  our  newer  type  care  must  be  exercised  that 
the  waste  closes  before  the  main  valve  has  any  more  than  just  started. 

Many  of  the  water  departments  use  iron  or  steel  pipe.  Do  you  get 
the  material  your  order  calls  for?  Do  you  inspect  the  lengths  for  splits 
and  burrs  before  you  line  it  with  cement?  Perhaps  in  a  whole  car  load 
you  would  get  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  defectives,  but  if  these  get  into 
service  and  develop  leaks  it  will  cost  you  many  times  the  cost  of  the  tests 
to  replace  them,  and  the  public  is  not  inconvenienced  by  tests  of  this  kind. 

With  brass  fittings  which  are  smaller,  you  are  able  to  take  them  in 
your  hand  and  naturally  you  or  your  foreman  look  them  over  and  it  is 
easy  to  see  their  general  condition.  But  are  the  cocks  tight,  do  they  turn 
easily?  What  about  the  make  up  of  the  metal?  This  you  would  only 
know  from  inspection. 

In  this  age  of  fierce  competition,  when  each  concern  is  striving  for  your 
orders,  making  hundreds,  yes,  thousands  of  the  same  kind  of  pieces,  labor 
uncertain  and  overhead  charges  heavy,  a  fraction  of  a  cent  saved  on  each 
piece  means  profit.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  take  a  turning  off  of  the  inside 
of  a  pattern  cutting  down  the  weight  while  the  outward  appearance  is  not 
changed,  put  one  less  bolt  in  a  flange  or  an  ounce  or  two  less  metal  in  a 
stem,  and  the  buyer  does  not  notice  it.  I  was  told  by  the  superintendent 
of  the  practice  of  one  large  concern  in  weighing  ten  of  their  pieces  against 
ten  similar  pieces  of  their  competitor  and  making  theirs  meet  the  competi- 
tor's. It  means  cutting  down  the  factor  of  safety  by  which  you  guard  the 
public.  Some  manufacturers  resent  the  presence  of  an  inspector  in  their 
works.  They  seem  to  think  that  their  business  honesty  is  being  questioned. 
Well,  to  be  frank  with  you,  if  the  City  of  Boston,  during  the  past  few  years, 
had  not  had  some  good  inspectors  in  the  Water  Service  to  look  out  for  its 
interests,  the  taxpayers  would  have  received  some  pretty  poor  returns 
for  their  money. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  a  good  article  is  worth  a  fair  price,  will  last 
longer,  will  give  the  best  service,  and  will  cost  less  to  maintain;  that  a 
cheap  article  is  in  every  way  temporary  in  its  usefulness,  will  give  poor 
service  and  cost  more  to  maintain. 

Why  do  we  inspect  our  water  works  equipment?  To  see  that  we 
got  what  we  contract  for  in  number,  weight,  and  quality. 


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discussion.  455 

Discussion. 

Mr.  Percy  R.  Sanders.*  What  is  done  in  regard  to  testing  the 
pipe  fittings,  6  in.  x  6  in.,  or  8  in.  x  6  in.?  I  understand  those  are  not 
tested  under  water  pressure  where  they  are  made. 

Mr.  Lally.  In  the  City  of  Boston  we  furnish  our  patterns  and  the 
contract  is  let  to  make  the  castings  and  the  fittings  from  these  patterns, 
and  we  have  an  inspector  at  the  foundry  where  they  are  bemg  made,  and 
he  inspects  them  with  a  hammer  without  any  hydrauHc  test.  He  measures 
them,  caUpers  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  does  all  the  testing  except 
hydraulic.  They  are  not  tested  that  way.  The  fittings  for  the  high  pres- 
sure fire  system  in  the  City  of  Boston  were  tested  under  600  lb.  hydraulic 
pressure  in  much  the  same  manner  that  the  main  pipe  were  tested,  and 
subjected  to  the  hanuner  while  under  pressure.  I  will  say  that  they  got 
a  lot  of  them  that  were  porous.  The  pipes  ran  very  thick,  and  it  is  hard 
to  get  thick  pipe  without  getting  porous  iron. 

Mr.  David  A.  Heffernan.!  What  is  the  percentage  of  copper  in 
the  alloys  of  the  brass  fittings? 

Mr.  Lally.  We  have  three  grades.  The  No.  1  is  used  for  stems 
and  bolts,  and  calls  for  88  parts  of  copper,  10  of  tin  and  2  of  zinc. 

Our  No.  2  metal  is  used  for  everything  else  except  stems  and  seats 
that  have  to  be  beaten  in.  It  is  composed  of  84.2  copper,  7.4  tin,  6.3  zinc, 
2.1  lead.  It  is  a  soft  metal  and  makes  a  good  valve  for  the  inside  of  the 
gate,  but  where  it  ever  came  from  I  do  not  know.  It  has  been  in  the  water 
specifications  for  twenty  years  to  my  knowledge. 

The  No.  3  metal  that  we  use  is  nothing  but  ordinary  brass,  —  3  of 
copper  and  1  of  zinc.    That  is  only  used  for  valve  seats  that  are  beaten  in. 

Mr.  Hefpernan.  I  think  the  City  of  Boston  uses  plug  curb  cocks  — 
as  high  as  1|  in.  If  that  is  true,  is  there  any  difficulty  in  regard  to  operat- 
ing those  plug  cocks? 

Mr.  Lally.  Inch  and  a  half,  I  think,  is  the  largest  size  that  we  use, 
but  we  formerly  used  a  2-inch.  We  put  in  an  inch  and  a  half  cock,  with 
inereasers,  usually,  where  a  2  in.  pipe  is  used  immediately  behind  the  cock. 
I  will  say  that  they  do  open  very  hard  after  awhile.  Operators  drop  heavy 
wrenches  down,  which  has  a  tendency  to  drive  the  plug  in,  and  sometimes 
they  have  to  be  dug  out. 

Mr.  Hefpernan.  Some  communities  are  using  plug  cocks,  as  high 
as  2  in.  I  can't  see  how  they  can  get  service  for  any  length  of  time  from 
a  large  cock  installed  under  ground,  or  how  they  can  depend  upon  its 
working. 

Mr.  Lally.  .  I  will  say  now  that  they  are  using  a  2-in.  valve  with  an 
extension  on  it  on  2-in.  cast-iron  pipe  for  services  instead  of  lead.  It  is 
the  regular  standard  commercial  valve  with  an  extension  stem  coming  up 


*  Superintendent  Water  Works  Concord.  N.  H. 
t  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Milton,  Mass. 


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456  WHY  WE   SHOULD   INSPECT  WATER  WORKS   EQUIPMENT. 

to  the  street,  and  a  small  nut  put  on  that  would  not  be  operated  by  a  regular 
gate  wrench.  Our  regular  gate  wrenches  take  in  everything  from  4  in. 
up  to  12.  The  16-in.  has  a  different  size  nut  on  the  top  of  it.  Formerly 
they  used  some  of  these  2-in.  gate  valves,  and  there  was  nothing  to  oper- 
ate after  the  wrench  was  dropped  down  into  the  hole.  So  that  they  have 
brought  these  up  in  an  extension  to  a  1-in.  square  nut  just  under  the  cover. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Nichols.*  How  long  have  these  specifications  been  in 
use? 

Mr.  Lally.  I  think  since  *98.  But  for  the  benefit  of  the  gentle- 
man, who  evidently  takes  a  wrong  impression  from  the  date,  the  metal 
can^t  be  beat  to-day. 

Mr.  Nichols.  I  am  inclined  to  disagree  decidedly  with  the  gentle- 
man that  the  the  metal  can't  be  beat.     It  can  be  decidedly  improved  upon. 

Mr.  Richard  J.  Flinn.j  What  is  considered  the  best  packing  for  the 
stuflBing-box? 

Mr.  Lally.  I  won't  say  that  we  consider  it  the  best,  I  do  not  — but 
what  we  use  is  ordinary  wicking  that  has  been  boiled  in  edible  tallow. 

Mr.  Flinn.  We  use  granulated  cork  for  packing,  and  have  for  ten 
years. 


♦Civil  Kngineer,  Philadelphia.  Pa. 
t  Mechaniriil  Engineer.  Boston.  Moss. 


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PRA.TT. 


457 


THE  DEEP  CORE-WALL  OF  THE  WANAQUE  DAM. 

BY   MAJOR  ARTHUR  H.   PRATT.* 

[Read  September  IS.  192B.\ 

The  Wanaque  Dam,  under  construction  by  the  North  Jersey  District 
Water  Supply  Commission,  will  impound  the  waters  of  the  Wanaque  River, 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Passaic  River,  at  a  point  about  25  mi.  north 
of  the  city  of  Newark.  The  Wanaque  Reservoir,  which  will  supplement 
the  present  Pequannock  River  supply  for  Newark  and  will  also  serve  other 
neighboring  municipalities,  will  impound  between  11  000  and  27  000  million 
gal.,  giving  a  safe  yield  of  50  to  100  m.g.d.,  depending  upon  the  needs  of 
the  municipalities  which  decide  to  enter  the  project.  The  reservoir  will 
be  about  6  mi.  long  and  1  mi.  wide. 


290 
B60 
Wi 

m 
eoo 

160 

leo 

MO 
120 


SOUTHEND 


NORTH  END 


lis 

J\ 

r>% 

KT^ 

Sfwjncf  surface 

^  ' 

^-^ 

. 

^S^ 

A 

^ 

1          1 

1            1            1          '1   T^if^^V    \' 

/ 

\ 
1 

- 

E 

u      w 

9         6         7         6         5         4. 
Stations 

3 

2 

280 
260 
240 
220 
200 
IdO 

leo 

140 

tzo 


Longitudinal  Profile  of  Wanaque  Dam  Site. 


The  site  of  the  dam  is  across  a  valley  about  1  500  ft.  wide  which  is 
to  be  closed  by  means  of  an  earth  dam  having  a  concrete  core-wall  extending 
to  bedrock  which  outcrops  on  both  hillsides  but  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
dips  to  about  100  ft.  below  the  surface.  The  rock  is  gneiss  and  the  over- 
burden is  water-bearing  sand  and  gravel.  The  present  channel  of  the 
river  crosses  the  site  of  the  dam  near  the  south  end  and  the  river  bed 
is  partly  on  the  ledge  rock  which  gradually  dips  away  from  the  river 
to  the  deepest  place  near  the  middle  of  the  valley.  The  method  adopted 
for  constructing  the  core-wall  was  to  drive  two  walls  of  steel  sheet  piling 
across  the  valley,  excavate  between  them,  meanwhile  bracing  the  steel 
sheeting  with  timber,  and  then  fill  the  trench  with  concrete.  The  type  of 
sheeting  used  was  the  Lackawanna,  arch-web,  35  lb.  section.  Previous 
to  putting  down  the  sheeted  trench,  a  stretch  of  open  cut,  with  sloped  sides, 
was  taken  out  with  a  steam  shovel,  giving  a  level  path  upon  which  to  erect 

*Chief  Engineer  North  Jersey  District  Water  Supply  Commission,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


458 


THE   DEEP   CORE-WALL   OF  THE   WANAQUE  DAM. 


the  frame  for  guiding  the  piling  and  for  working  the  two  pile-driving  rigs, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  trench.  These  rigs  had  an  A-frame  75  ft.  high, 
with  an  extension  to  a  total  height  of  92  ft.,  giving  a  clearance  suflScient 
to  handle  and  mesh  one  50-ft.  pile  into  another  when  the  latter  has  been 
driven  about  10  ft.  Rigs  were  equipped  with  Warrington  No.  1  st<?am 
hammers  and  mounted  on  skids  sliding  on  sills  laid  normal  to  the  trench. 
Pile-Driving  Methods.  In  driving  the  piling  the  method  used  was 
to  put  the  sheeting  down  as  a  wall  and  not  as  a  series  of  individual  piles. 
First  a  portable  guide  frame  48  ft.  long  made  of  12  x  12-in.  timbers  was 
set  up  over  the  deepest  part  of  the  trench.  This  frame  was  constructed 
so  that  it  could  be  adjusted  to  various  widths.    The  aim  being  to  obtain 


F/okv  fine  ofreservo/'r ; 


Impervious  ref/fh 


^^nsw^i^fTF^ 


,-f^> 


I     iv  be  bu//f  under 
I      anofher  confracf 


A  Reff/^ 


C/ay  puM/e 


Concrete 
core  wa//-' 


%'^-^5iee/ sffeefpi/fn^ 


Oncrina/  surface,  f/.  ^B3 


-Bleeder  p/pes 


Section  of  Dam  at  Maximum  Core-Wall  Depth. 


a  trench  20  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  there  being  no  experience  upon 
which  to  determine  the  probable  deviation  of  sheeting  for  such  deep  driv- 
ing, the  guide  frame  was  first  set  to  a  width  of  22  ft.  After  the  piling  was 
driven,  the  average  top  width  was  found  to  be  actually  21.5  ft.  The  devia- 
tion from  the  vertical  at  the  rock  was  found  to  be  about  6  in.  for  each  wall 
of  piling,  sometimes  wider  and  sometimes  narrower  than  the  width  at  the 
top.  On  top  of  the  rock  the  slope  of  the  ledge  surface  forced  the  piling  out 
of  line  so  that  the  narrowest  trench  was  18.6  ft.  and  the  widest  was  24.4  ft. 
Later  on  with  this  experience  to  govern  and  for  the  shallower  trench  the 
width  was  reduced  to  14  ft. 

A  wall  of  50  ft.  steel  piling  was  set  up  on  each  side  of  the  guide-frame 
and  driven  into  the  ground  a  few  feet  so  as  to  hold  the  toe  in  place.  Ex- 
treme care  was  exercised  for  the  first  set  to  have  the  piling  true  and  plumb. 
This  precaution  was  found  to  be  ver>'  important  as  the  first  piles  driven 
?ervp  as  pilots  for  all  succeeding  piles.     Succeeding  frames  were  also  set 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PRATT. 


459 


up  very  carefully.  After  the  first  stretch  of  piling  was  erected,  driving  was 
begun  on  a  set  of  three  piles  at  the  middle  of  the  frame.  When  the  first 
three  piles  were  driven  a  few  feet  the  adjacent  three  on  each  side  were 
driven,  and  so  on,  the  rule  being,  in  general,  to  drive  no  pile  more  than  4  ft. 
in  advance  of  its  neighbor.  This  method  was  continued  until  the  top  of 
the  middle  pile  of  the  set  was  down  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  bottoms 
of  the  adjoining  piles  then  being  in  staggered  diagonal  lines  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  frame  was  then  moved  ahead,  another  frame-full 
of  piling  set  up  adjoining  the  first,  and  driving  resumed  until  the  new  set 


A't^dlS.  §^^  ^  cfrfytng 


W>//^////^/^^yV)/Wm^y^^j^//^^^ 


^^'^\  Pf/fn^  sef-up 


IK    /I 


];^^li''Pifi'n^  parfra//y  cfrrven 
(3) 


^'"hy/ng  pcrrficr//y  cffwen 


.^Pl'ffnff  parfia//y  cfriv^n^, 

TSIC^  fV^     Surface  c 
7^7p?V^ —  ^^ 


JMvf'ng  comp/Hecf 
Sequence  of  Operation  Driving  Sheet  Piling. 


and  adjoining  members  of  the  first  set  were  down  to  the  surface  of  the 
g:roimd,  the  end  piles  being  always  left  stepped-up  in  approximately  4  ft. 
steps. 

As  required,  additional  lengths  of  piling  were  spliced  on  top  of  the  lower 
set  by  means  of  a  7-in.  channel  and  a  |-in.  x  65-in.  plate,  bolt-holes  to  fit  be- 
ing previously  punched  in  the  ends  of  the  piles.  In  this  manner,  by  gradu- 
ally working  the  wall  down  with  its  bottom  to  a  slanting  line,  one  of  the 
steel  members  finally  intersected  the  line  of  rising  rock  as  shown  more 
clearly  on  the  diagram.  While  the  first  frame  was  set  up  over  the  deepest 
point,  the  first  pile  to  strike  rock  was  some  50  ft.  to  the  south.  Driving 
to  rock  continued  then  until  the  rock  outcrop  at  the  north  end  of  the  dam 
was  reached. 

The  lengths  of  piles  to  be  driven  were  at  first  determined  by  scale 
from  the  rock  profile  developed  by  the  original  borings,  but  on  account  of 
the  great  unevenness  of  the  rock  it  was  later  found  to  be  better  to  make 


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460 


THE  DEEP   CORE-WALL   OF  THE  WANAQUE  DAM. 


careful  soundings,  with  the  pile-driving  rig  and  a  steel  rail,  on  the  line  of 
piling  to  determine  the  appropriate  lengths  of  piles  more  accurately  in 
advance.  After  the  sheeting  had  been  extended  to  the  north  end,  the  pile- 
driving  rigs  were  moved  to  the  other  end  of  the  walls  of  piling,  the  frame  was 
set  up  and  the  same  methods  used  to  extend  the  sheeting  to  the  south  end 
of  the  dam.  When  possible,  sets  of  three  piles  were  driven  at  one  time  but 
when  the  penetration  became  difficult  two  piles  were  driven  and  finally 
for  the  deepest  part  only  one  pile  was  driven  at  a  time.  The  maximum 
length  of  penetration  was  84  ft.  and  the  slowest  driving  in  that  vicinity 


Sheet  Piling  Rig,  Guide  Frame  and  Derrick. 

was  some  90  blows  to  the  inch.  The  vertical  position  of  the  piling  as  estab- 
lished by  the  first  set  driven  was  maintained  throughout  the  job  so  that 
no  special  wedge  shaped  pieces  were  required. 

A  typical  gang  consisted  of  1  foreman,  1  pile-driver  operator  and 
6  pile-driver  men  for  each  rig.  Two  rigs  were  run  under  one  general 
foreman  and  high  pressure  steam  was  supplied  from  a  central  plant  so  that 
a  fireman  was  not  usually  employed  with  the  driving  rig.  Pile-driving 
progress  for  two  rigs  is  shown  in  Table  1 . 


TABLE   1.  —  Progress  of  Driving  of  Steel  Sheet-Piling. 

Month.  Sq.  Ft.  Month. 


April,  1921. 

May 

June 

July 

August .  .  .  . 
September . 
October.  .  . 


Sq.  Ft. 
5600 
6  500 
9  200 

14,700 
5  200 
6600 

12  800 


Xovember.  .  .  . 

December 

January,  1922 . 

February 

March 

April 

Mav 


Sq.  Ft. 

900 

200 

100 

15  800 

6000 

9900 

6400 


Total 99  900 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PRATT.  461 

Excavation,  As  soon  as  the  driving  was  completed  at  the  north  end 
excavation  was  begun  with  clamshell  buckets  operated  from  stiff-leg  der- 
ricks running  on  a  track  on  top  of  the  west  bank.  As  fast  as  the  trench 
was  excavated  the  sheeting  was  supported  with  12-in.  x  12-:n.  braces  in 
bays  10  ft.  on  centers  with  the  wales  and  braces  spaced  6  ft.  apart  vertically 
for  the  upper  32  ft.  of  the  trench.     Below  this  the  spacing  was  reduced 


Timbering  of  Deep-Core  Wall  Trench. 

to  3  ft.  vertically  and  subsequently  altered  to  double  sets  6  ft.  apart. 
Rangers  14  in.  x  14  in.  and  12  in.  x  14  in.  braces  were  used  for  the  lower 
portion  of  the  trench.  Pumping  was  required  immediately  after  the  in- 
stallation of  the  top  set  of  bracing.  Two  8  in.  discharge,  Morris  Machine 
Co.,  60  in.  diameter,  centrifugal  dredge  pumps  were  installed  and  dredged 
a  considerable  yardage  of  sand  and  gravel  out  of  the  trench,  depositing  it 
on  the  downstream  dam  embankment,  besides  pumping  water.  In  addi- 
tion the  following  pumping  equipment  was  used:  Four  No.  9  Pulsometers; 
two  5  in.  Emersons;  Two  Lawrence  5  in.  electric  centrifugals  and  one 
Worthington  electric  100  h.p.  6  in.  discharge,  centrifugal.  The  quantities 
of  water  ptunped  are  given  in  Table  2. 

TABLE  2.  —  Monthly  Output  op  Trench  Pumps  in  Millions  of  Gallons. 

March,  1921 .6  December 90.5 

April 1.9  January,  1922 81.0 

May .2  February 70.5 

June 3.2  March 120.3 

July 41.5  April 115.8 

August 138.9  May 116.6 

September 102.4  June 1 14.4 

October 101.2  July 94.2 

November 85.8  August oigitrzed  by  Googfe 


462  THE   DEEP   CORE-WALL   OF   THE   WANAQUE   DAM. 

Rates  of  5  000  and  6  000  g.p.m.  were  pumped  in  February,  1922,  when  the 
longest  stretch  of  deep  trench  was  open.  The  total  pumpage  was  about 
93  000  million  foot-gallons. 


Bottom  of  Deep  Core-Wall  Trench. 


Bottom  of  Deep  Core-Wall  Trench. 
Good  Contact  between  Steel  Piling  and  Rock. 

Due  to  the  porosity  of  the  material  and  the  low  rainfall,  the  ground 
water  level  was  very  considerably  lowered  during  the  fall  and  winter  of 
1921-22.  In  general  it  remained  about  20  ft.  above  water  level  in  the 
trench.  The  result  of  this  was  to  appreciably  reduce  the  pressure  on  the 
timber  tracing.  After  a  few  timber  sets  had  been  put  in  and  the  trench 
excavated  about  40  ft.  deep  the  bracing  began  to  show  strain;  one  wale 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PRATT.  463 

cracked  longitudinally  in  about  the  middle,  some  of  the  bracing  cut  into 
the  wales  as  much  as  J  in.  and  some  of  the  braces  split  at  the  ends.  A 
closer  vertical  spacing  was  considered,  but  the  only  change  actually  made 
was  to  substitute  oak  for  pine  bearing  plates  at  the  ends  of  the  braces  and 
to  frame  the  timber  with  even  greater  care  than  before  so  as  to  be  sure 
of  a  bearing  over  the  entire  144  sq.  in.  section. 

As  the  trench  was  deepened  the  ground  water  dropped  and  the  press- 
ures apparently  never  again  reached  those  which  obtained  in  the  more 


Bottom  of  Deep  Core-Wall  Trench. 
Good  Contact  Between  Steel  Sheet  Piling  and  Rock. 

shallow  trench.  Most  of  the  braces  when  removed  were  sawed  and  cut  out 
with  no  great  difficulty  and  some  were  pulled  out  with  a  cable  from  a  derrick 
hoisting  engine  without  any  cutting.  In  general,  the  contact  of  the  steel 
piling  with  the  rock  surface  was  found  to  be  most  satisfactory  but  in  a 
very  few  places  the  piling  had  encountered  rock  fragments  near  the  bottom 
and  had  been  twisted  out  of  its  interlock.  There  were  a  few  piles  that 
had  been  overdriven  and  "  fishhooked."  A  small  pile  hammer  was  rigged 
on  a  derrick  set  upon  the  berm  of  the  sloped  excavation  and  any  piles  not 
showing  a  tight  contact  were  redriven  as  was  found  necessary. 

Turned  up  piles  were  burned  off.  For  a  stretch  of  about  20  ft.  on 
one  side  in  the  bottom  of  the  deepest  section  of  the  trench  an  additional 
set  of  short  piling  was  driven  inside  of  the  original  set.  This  was  the  only 
place  where  a  double  set  was  required. 

Method  of  Concreting  Core-Wall.  As  soon  as  the  earth  was  excavated 
from  the  northerly  end  of  the  trench,  the  concreting  of  the  core-wall  was 
begun.  Aggregate  was  obtained  from  a  gravel  bank  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river  located  on  a  terrace  about  35  ft.  above  river  level  about  one- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC  ' 


464  THE   DEEP   CORE-WALL   OF  THE   WANAQUE   DAM. 

half  mile  away  from  the  core-wall.  The  material  was  excavated  by 
means  of  a  steam  shovel,  hauled  to  and  run  through  a  crusher  and  a  revolv- 
ing screen.  The  portion  of  the  output  of  the  screening  plant  which  could 
be  used  at  once  was  hauled  directly  to  the  concrete  mixer  and  the  remain- 
der stored  in  the  excavated  part  of  the  pit  for  future  use.  There  was  about 
50  per  cent,  of  excess  sand  in  the  pit  which  had  to  be  wasted.  The  con- 
crete mixing  plant  located  300  ft.  from  the  core-wall  trench  consisted  of 
aggregate  storage  piles  feeding  into  bins  by  a  derrick  and  two  Ransome, 


Bottom  of  Deep  Core- Wall  Trench. 
Bad  Contact  Between  Steel  Sheet  Piling  and  Rock. 

size  53,  mixers.  Mixed  concrete  mostly  proportioned  1 :  2^ :  5  was  deposited 
in  bottom-dump  buckets  hauled  to  the  core-wall  trench  on  narrow-gage 
flat  cars  and  transferred  by  stifiF-leg  derricks  to  the  concrete  forms.  In 
the  bottom  of  the  trench,  on  account  of  the  interference  of  timbering, 
concrete  was  placed  through  hoppers  feeding  into  a  vertical  10-in.  st^eel 
pipe. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  work  the  water  in  the  bottom  was  handled 
with  no  difficulty  by  means  of  blind  drains  or  pipes  on  the  sides  of  the 
trench  next  to  the  sheeting,  but  as  the  deeper  portion  of  the  trench  was 
reached  the  quantity  of  water  increased  and  begun  to  interfere  with  plac- 
ing the  concrete.  The  ground  water  back  of  the  sheeting  began  to  leak 
through  and  flow  onto  the  concrete  up  to  a  level  some  20  ft.  above  the 
bottom  of  the  trench. 

To  obviate  this  trouble  holes  were  burned  in  the  sheeting  near  the 
bottom  and  2  in.  pointed  and  perforated  pipes,  3  or  4  ft.  long,  were  driven 
into  the  earth  back  of  the  sheeting.  These  drained  the  water  away  from 
the  back  of  the  piling  so  that  the  flow  into  the  trench  was  largely  confined 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PRATT.  465 

to  these  bleeder  pipes  and  was  easily  controlled.  The  bleeders  were  also 
useful  in  holding  the  ground  water  level  down  so  that  there  was  no  diffi- 
culty in  placing  the  subsequent  layers  of  concrete.  For  the  concrete  in 
the  deepest  section  additional  precautions  were  used.  The  concrete  was 
placed  in  short  stretches,  10  or  20  ft.  long,  and  first  a  concrete  bulkhead 
about  6  in.  wide  and  2  ft.  high  was  built  on  either  side  about  2  ft.  from  the 
sheeting.  Back  of  this  wall  a  blind  drain  or  pipe,  sometimes  connected 
with  the  bleeder  pipes,  carried  the  water  ahead.     Between  these  bulkheads 


Upper  Part  of  Core-Wall  Under  Construction. 

concrete  could  be  placed  in  the  dry  and  afterwards  the  space  back  of  the 
bulkheads  was  concreted,  blind  drains  and  drain  pipes  being  cut  off 
periodically. 

Concreting  was  carried  on  from  the  north  end  of  the  trench  towards 
the  middle  until  the  deepest  point  in  the  excavation  was  reached,  Sta. 
5+00,  where  the  principal  pumping  plant  was  located.  Operations  were 
then  undertaken  part  way  across  the  valley  near  Sta.  7+50,  at  a  point  where 
there  was  a  natural  sump  in  the  rock.  Here  another  pump  was  installed 
and  operations  by  the  same  methods  as  used  before  continued  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  until  the  gap  between  the  new  pump  and  the  main  pumping 
plant  was  filled.  Then  the  closure  at  the  deep  place  was  undertaken,  the 
space  between  the  finished  sections  of  core-wall  being  about  40  ft.  Para- 
pet walls  6-in.  wide  were  built  longitudinally  across  this  stretch  about  2  ft. 
inside  of  the  sheeting;  and  the  water  which  came  underneath  the  piling 
or  through  bleeder  pipes  was  concentrated  on  either  side  between  the  para- 
pet and  the  steel  piling,  leaving  the  center  clear  and  dry  to  be  filled  with 
concrete.  When  the  center  wall  had  been  carried  up  about  6  ft.,  the  spaces 
l)etween  the  parapets  and  the  steel  piling  wore  filled  with  rock  fragments 
and  the  top  was  sealed  over  with  concrete  from  one  wall  of  steel  piling  to 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


466  THE   DEEP   CORE-WALL   OF  THE  WANAQUE   DAM. 

the  other,  leaving  vertical  steel  pipes  built  into  the  concrete  for  pump  suc- 
tions and  float  wells.  The  pumps  were  then  arranged  in  three  sets,  one 
having  its  suction  on  the  upstream  side,  the  second  on  the  downstream 
side  and  the  third  was  arranged  so  that  it  could  be  switched  to  either  side 
when  one  set  of  pumps  of  the  three  was  being  raised.  By  this  means,  alter- 
nately raising  one  pump  at  a  time  and  concreting  under  it  and  building 
the  suction  pipes  up,  the  closure  in  the  deep  section  was  accomplished. 
Meanwhile  concreting  proceeded  at  the  river  end  of  the  trench  where  the 
rock  is  not  so  deep  and  was  completed  in  that  stretch  before  the  final  closure 
was  made. 

To  insure  that  the  concrete  in  the  closure  section  might  never  be 
flooded  the  pump  sections  were  built  up  clear  to  the  top  of  the  sheeted 
trench  and  pumping  continued  until  the  last  batch  of  concrete  l^elow 
ground  water  level  was  placed. 

TABLE  3. —  Monthly  Progress  of  Concrete  in  Ccre-Wall. 

Cu.  Yds.  Cxi.  Yds. 

September,  1921 94         March 1  484 

October 932         April 1  750 

November 1  307        May 6  095 

December 315        June 5  377 

January 1  621         July 5  862 

February 2  061        Aujrast 8  502 

Total 35  400 

The  refill  of  the  sloped  excavation  on  the  upstream  side  with  rolled 
impervious  material  and  on  the  downstream  side  with  sand  and  gravel 
placed  by  the  hydraulic  method  —  both  direct  pumping  and  slushing  from 
a  dry  fill  —  is  in  progress. 

The  construction  of  the  core-wall  was  under  the  direct  supervision 
of  N.  C.  Holdredge,  Assistant  Chief  Engineer,  the  contractor  was  W.  H. 
Gahagan,  Inc.  and  subcontractor  for  driving  the  piling  was  J.  Roy  Horton. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  Robert  Spurr  Weston.*  What  was  done  with  the  piling  after 
the  core-wall  was  put  in? 

Mr.  Pratt.  We  pulled  some  of  the  piling  in  the  north  end  to  use 
a  second  time  to  close  up  the  end  in  the  river.  I  did  not  go  into  the  detail 
of  saying  that  in  building  this  wall  to  the  river  there  was  a  short  stretch 
which  was  left  to  be  finally  closed  after  the  deep  trench  was  filled.  The 
rest  of  the  piling  was  cut  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  left  in  place. 


*  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  467 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSIONS. 
The  Flushometer. 

[September  15,  19££] 

Mr.  Frank.  A.  McInnes.*  I  should  like  to  ask  our  members  what 
experience  they  have  had,  if  any,  with  flushometer  closets.  With  the 
advent  of  modem  plumbing  requests  are  coming  along  for  4  in.  pipes  where 
we  have  been  granting  3  in.;  for  3-in.  pipes  where  we  have  been  granting 
2  in.;  and  for  2  in.  where  we  have  been  i^ranting  1  in.,  and  I  now  have  one 
case  in  the  new  Chamber  of  Commerce  Building  where  a  modest  request 
is  made  for  a  6  in.    This  is  all  caused  by  the  demands  of  the  flushometers. 

We  have  not  had  sufficient  experience  to  know  what  the  flushometer 
requires  for  proper  service,  nor  can  any  of  the  plumbers  I  have  talked  with 
give  the  information.    They  simply  claim  they  must  have  the  water. 

From  the  present  outlook,  the  flushometer,  operated  without  a  tank 
directly  from  the  pressure,  may  easily  become  a  serious  matter,  perhaps 
in  time  rivalling  our  friend  the  fire  pipe. 

Mr.  Carleton  E.  DAvis.f  What  pressure  do  you  have  to  have 
for  the  flushometer? 

Mr.  McInnes.  I  can  only  answer  by  saying  that  all  of  our  pressures 
appear  to  be  satisfactory;  from  45  to  90  lb. 

Mr.  Davis.     Is  there  a  limited  pressure? 

Mr.  McInnes.    I  do  not  know. 

Mr.  David  A.  Heffernan.J  Mr.  Gordon  M.  Fair,  Instructor  in 
Sanitary  Engineering,  Harvard  Engineering  School,  read  a  paper  before 
this  Association  on  February  9,  1921  on  the  Flush  Valve.  This  paper  was 
published  in  the  Journal,  June,  1921,  and  contains  much  valuable  data. 

In  large  cities  where  flushing  valves  are  used  in  modern  buildings, 
facilities  must  be  adopted  by  the  storage  of  water  in  tanks,  or  to  make 
independent  corrections  by  direct  pressure  to  the  valves.  This  latter 
method  requires  larger  services  and  is  objectionable  to  the  water 
departments. 

In  my  opinion  the  use  of  these  valves  by  direct  pressure  should  be 
discouraged  as  much  as  possible  by  water-works  officials. 

Prof.  George  C.  Whipple.  §.  The  Plumbing  Committee  of  the 
department  of  Commerce  working  in  Washington  the  last  year  studied 

^Diviaion  Engineer  Public  Workn  Dept.,  Division  of  Water,  Boston.  Maas. 

t  Chief  Bureau  of  Water,  Philadelphia.  Pa. 

t  Superintendent  Water  Works.  Milton,  Maas. 

S  Professor  of  ^anitar^  Engineering.  Harvard  Engineering  School. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


468  TOPICAL  DISCUSSION. 

that  very  carefully  at  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  We  have  not  as  yet  tested 
the  flushometer,  but  have  tested  the  ordinary  closets.  Experiments  have 
given  us  the  rate  of  flow  each  second  the  time  the  chain  is  pulled  until  the 
flush  goes  out.  I  think  when  we  get  through  with  our  work  we  wnll  know- 
just  what  is  needed  for  rate  of  flow,  both  for  the  flushometer  and  the  other 
kinds.  At  the  present  time,  with  the  ordinary  closet,  you  will  find  the 
maximum  rate  of  discharge  is  about  a  gallon  a  second.  It  runs  up  to  that 
and  then  drops  off. 

Mr.  McInnes.  There  is  the  whole  point.  It  is  the  maximum  demand 
for  the  flush  closet  that  we  are  looking  for. 

Prof.  Whipple.  We  will  probably  have  that  part  of  the  work  done 
within  three  or  four  months. 

Mr.  McInnes.  You  are  probably  aware  of  the  great  demand  for 
flushometer  closets.     It  is  coming  up  in  every  new  building. 

Prof.  Whipple.  People  are  asking  for  it  for  small  houses,  too,  which 
is  the  worst  feature  of  it  all.  I  do  not  think  the  plumbers  really  like  the 
flushometer,  it  is  the  architects,  rather  than  the  plumbers  themselves. 

Mr.  McInnes.     It  is  something  we  have  got  to  meet. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Hawley.*  I  have  had  some  experience  with  the  flusho- 
meter proposition.  Occasionally,  in  the  case  of  a  private  house,  the  demand 
is  made  for  a  service  line  from  twice  to  five  times  the  size  which  would  be 
necessary  for  an  adequate  supply  for  the  house  if  it  were  not  for  the  flush- 
ometer. There  is  not  only  the  question  of  the  increased  investment  in 
service  line  and  meter,  without  any  corresponding  increase  in  the  amount 
of  water  sold,  but  in  the  case  of  a  water  works  carrying  a  high  pressure  on 
its  mains,  there  is  the  added  danger  of  **  water  hammer."  I  have  taken 
the  position  that  while  we  were  willing  to  furnish  all  the  water  that  was 
wanted,  we  would  not  undertake  to  furnish  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  the 
water  in  one  per  cent,  of  the  time,  and  that  if  they  wanted  service  of  that 
kind,  some  arrangement  for  storage  should  be  provided.  We  had  one 
case  where  there  were  20  flushometers  installed  in  a  school  house,  with 
a  demand  for  a  4  in.  service  line,  or  at  the  very  least  a  2  in.  service  line. 
At  our  suggestion,  however,  they  installed  a  surge  tank  in  which  water 
is  stored  with  air  under  pressure,  and  a  1  in.  service  line  has  given  satis- 
factory service  for  several  years  past. 

Prof.  Whipple.  There  is  one  other  phase  of  that  problem.  We  find 
that  a  very  large  part  of  the  difficulty  of  designing  plumbing  systems  has 
to  do  with  the  coincident  discharge  of  the  fixtures.  That  is  a  thing  about 
which  we  are  absolutely  ignorant.  If  a  half  dozen  flushometers  are  going 
off  at  absolutely  the  same  instant,  then  there  must  be  a  big  supply,  but  if 
one  discharges  after  another,  if  they  take  turns,  then  it  is  not  necessary 
to  provide  for  as  large  a  supply.  The  thing  we  need  to  look  into  is  the 
question  of  coincident  discharge.     How  much  of  a  factor  of  safety  must 


*  Chief  Engineer  Penn^sylvania  Water  Co. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  469 

be  provided  on  account  of  the  diflferent  fixtures  going  off  at  once?  There 
is  where  the  crux  of  the  problem  lies. 

Mr.  McInnes.    Absolutely. 

Mr.  F.  N.  Connet.*  Some  years  ago  I  saw  a  water  closet  in  which 
a  large  air  chamber  was  used  in  connection  with  the  flushometer,  and  that 
made  a  storage  of  about  a  cubic  foot  of  water  at  the  point  where  it  was 
needed,  so  that  the  compressed  air  aided  in  flushing  the  closet  without  a 
very  large,  sudden  draft  on  the  main  pipe.  I  thought  the  idea  was  good, 
but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  followed  out. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Baker. t  It  is  interesting  to  hear  that  at  this  seemingly 
late  day  the  flushometer  is  coming  rapidly  into  use.  I  well  remember 
writing  an  illustrated  description  of  the  device  when  it  was  brought  out 
twenty-five  years  ago  (Engineering  NewSy  1897-11,  P.  260) .  Quite  recently  I 
was  wondering  why  I  did  not  see  or  hear  of  the  flushometer  more  frequently. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  that  all  of  a  sudden  something  seems  to  have 
happened.  Somebody  must  be  getting  behind  the  device,  pushing  it  hard, 
either  the  manufacturers,  or  else  the  architects  have  become  suddenly 
convinced.  It  would  be  interesting  to  have  some  light  thrown  on  the 
recent  movement  to  indicate  whether  it  is  likely  to  die  down  or  go  on  and 
become  a  big  problem  for  water-works  men., 

Mr.  Davis.  Does  it  really  flush  any  better  than  the  old  time  tank? 
Is  it  any  more  sanitary?  Isn't  it  merely  an  indication  of  the  tendency  of 
modem  extravagance? 

Prof.  Whipple.  It  looks  neater  and  avoids  the  unsightly  tank.  It 
is  a  matter  of  luxury. 

Mr.  Frank  A.  Marston.J  I  would  like  to  suggest  that  if  this  matter 
is  going  to  be  studied  itwould  be  worth  while  to  measure  the  rate  of  discharge 
from  mills  such  as  are  in  New  Bedford,  and  big  schoolhouses,  where  many 
*  flushes  are  to  be  expected  almost  simultaneously,  as  for  instance,  during 
the  first  few  minutes  after  closing  time  in  a  large  mill,  or  at  recess  time  in 
a  school.  In  an  office  building,  the  conditions  are  entirely  different.  But 
little  informaticn  is  available  on  this  subject,  and  it  would  be  helpful  if 
something  could  be  done  to  accumulate  such  data. 

Prop.  Whipple.  We  have  not  taken  any  steps  to  find  that  rate. 
It  would  be  necessary  to  use  meter  records. 

PREsroENT  Barbour.  If  you  had  some  kind  of  record  of  discharge 
in  large  buildings  from  minute  to  minute  right  through  the  day  you  would 
get  some  information. 

Prof.  Whipple.  It  would  be  a  simple  matter  to  keep  a  stop  watch 
and  find  out  how  frequently  the  discharge  came.  That  has  been  done  in 
the  Grand  Central  Station  in  New  York  for  a  half  hour  and  record  kept 
of  the  number  of  times  they  heard  the  discharge  go  out,  and  it  is  surprising 

♦  Builders  Iron  Foundry- 

t  Associate  Editor  Bnoineering  News  Rteord. 

X  Of  Metcalf  &  Eddy,  Boston,  Mass. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


470  TOPICAL  DISCUSSION. 

how  infrequently  there  are  simultaneous  discharges.     I  think  we  have 
been  allowing  for  too  big  a  factor  of  safety. 

Mr.  William  W.  Brush.*  I  have  not  had  any  personal  experience 
with  this,  Mr.  President.  So  far  they  have  not  affected  materially  the 
supply,  except  the  question  of  the  size  of  connections.  We  have  two  pres- 
sures in  the  upper  part  of  Manhattan  on  account  oif  flushometers.  When 
the  Catskill  system  came  into  it,  it  was  planned  to  place  the  greater  part  of 
northern  Manhattan,  which  has  previously  been  tower  service,  on  the 
Catskill  service,  with  a  gradient  at  that  point  of  around  285.  That  gave 
a  pressure  of  between  40  lb.  and  50  lb.  in  that  section  which  was  previously 
60  lb.  or  more.  Complaints  came  in  from  the  large  new  apartment  houses 
in  that  section,  because  they  were  using  flushometers,  and  with  the  40  lb. 
pressure  at  street  level  —  they  were  about  six  story  apartments  —  they 
did  not  get  satisfactory  flowage  for  the  flushometers,  so  that  we  changed 
over  quite  a  large  area  and  put  it  back  on  the  tower  so  as  to  get  satis- 
factory service. 


Painting  Fire  Hydrants 

[Sfptember  15,  1922.\ 

Mr.  Carleton  E.  Davis.*  In  Philadelphia  we  paint  our  fire  hy- 
drants yellow.  Red  paint  on  fire  hydrants  is  seen  all  right  in  the  daytime, 
but  you  can't  see  them  at  night.  The  same  thing  holds  true  with  green. 
The  aluminum  tops  are  too  expensive;  it  takes  too  long  to  put  them  on. 
Finally  we  tried  yellow  paint,  and  it  appears  to  be  a  very  satisfactory^ 
color.  The  firemen  like  it,  and  it  stands  out  conspicuously.  You  can  see 
yellow  in  the  night  time  under  light,  you  can  see  it  in  the  day  time,  and  on 
a  foggy  or  misty  day.  Furthermore,  yellow  is  a  bright  contrast  in  the ' 
streets.  The  electric  light  and  telephone  pole  is  generally  a  dark  color, 
and  with  the  fire  hydrants  painted  yellow  they  stand  out  conspicuously. 
The  traffic  policemen  tell  me  they  like  the  yellow  hydrants  because  there 
is  no  excuse  for  people  parking  their  cars  in  front  of  the  hydrant.  Ordin- 
arily with  the  fire  hydrant  a  dark  color  they  will  pay  no  attention  to  it  ; 
but  when  you  paint  it  yellow  the  traffic  oflScers  will  say,  '*  Can't  you  see 
this  yellow  fire  hydrant?"  We  do  not  pick  the  very  bright  color,  but  take 
a  shade  called  "4  ",  which  is  something  like  an  old  fashioned  New  England 
pumpkin  in  its  luscious  and  ripe  state. 

Incidentally,  we  are  painting  our  pumps  the  same  color  in  place  of 
green,  formerly  used.  Our  largest  pumps,  which  are  12  twenty  million 
gal.  pumps,  are  painted  yellow  with  black  trimmings,  with  the  steam  pipes 
painted  yellow.  It  has  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  men  and  tends  to  keep 
them  awake  at  night.     It  affects  the  eye,  and  has  a  good  psychological 


♦  Deputy  Chief  PinRineer,  Bureau  of  Water,  New  York, 
t  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Water,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


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TOPICAL  DISCUSSION.  471 

effect.  Yellow  reflects  the  light  on  the  moving  parts,  so  that  they  are 
more  easily  seen.  It  is  rather  a  shock  when  you  think  of  painting  pumps 
yellow,  but  you  will  remember  that  in  the  old  times  yellow  was  the  standard 
color  for  marine  engines,  and  it  was  for  a  purpose,  because  it  lightened 
up  the  dark  parts  of  the  engine.  We  have  come  back  to  yellow,  and  shall 
keep  on  with  it.  It  is  a  first  class  hydrant  color.  The  base  of  the 
hydrant  we  paint  black,  about  6  to  8  in.  up  from  the  ground. 

Mr.  David  A.  Heffernan.*  The  only  trouble  with  that  color 
would  be  that  you  would  have  to  go  over  your  hydrant  more  often;  it 
would  be  apt  to  get  dirtier. 

Mr.  Davis.  Even  if  they  do  get  dirtier,  the  yellow  shows  through 
the  dirt.  If  you  paint  green  or  red  or  black,  the  dirt  seems  to  obscure 
them  even  more  than  with  yellow.  The  yellow  is  a  penetrating  color 
and  it  seems  to  come  through  the  dirt. 

Mr.  Heffernan.     We  paint  ours  black,  and  just  use  a  bronze  paint. 

Secretary  Frank  A.  Gifford.     How  often  do  you  paint  them? 

Mr.  Heffernan.     Every  two  years. 

Mr.  Davis.  We  have  not  had  as  many  collisions  with  the  yellow 
hydrants  as  we  had  with  the  other  colors.  They  are  conspicuous  to  the 
automobilists. 


♦Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Milton,  Maae, 

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472  OBITUARY. 


FLORENCE  M.  GRISWOLD. 


Florence  M.  Griswold  was  born  in  Hoboken,  New  Jersey  in  Novem- 
ber, 1834.  He  received  his  education  in  the  public  schools  and  at  Witten- 
burg  College,  Springfield,  Ohio.  During  the  Civil  War  he  served  with  the 
Union  forces,  enlisting  from  Mainville,  Ohio  near  Cincinnati.  At  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War  he  returned  to  Cincinnati  and  became  Special  Agent  of  the 
old  North  American  Fire  Insurance  Company  of  New  York,  and  under  the 
supervision  of  his  father,  Jeremiah  Griswold,  General  Agent  of  the  Company 
spent  several  months  in  general  field  work  in  that  territory.  In  1866  he  was 
appointed  Assistant  General  Agent  of  the  Company  and  served  in  that 
capacity  imtil  1870.  In  the  succeeding  five  years  he  was  connected  in 
various  responsible  capacities  with  several  of  the  principal  fire  insurance 
companies,  becoming  in  1875  the  General  Inspector  of  The  Home  Insur- 
ance Company  of  New  York  with  headquarters  in  New  York  City.  Since 
that  time  he  has  had  particular  charge  of  the  special  hazards  and  techni- 
cal work  conducted  by  The  Home  Insurance  Company  throughout  the 
whole  field  of  its  operations. 

Mr.  Griswold^s  father,  Jeremiah  Griswold,  was  himself  a  well  known 
insurance  man,  having  been  associated  with  the  Aetna.  Jeremiah  was  the 
author  of  "  Griswold's  Handbook  on  Adjustments,"  '*  Griswold  on  In- 
surance," "  Underwriters'  Text-Book  "  and  other  authoritative  pubUcations 
on  various  phases  of  the  insurance  business. 

At  the  time  of  his  entry  into  fire  insurance,  the  business  was  admitted  to 
be  a  "  System  of  magnificent  guessing  "  as  to  hazards  and  rates,  wherein  a 
risk  was  assimied  almost  without  regard  to  physical  or  other  hazards.  A 
short  experience  convinced  Mr.  Griswold  that  such  method  was  entirely 
empirical  and  he  began  to  study  the  needs  of  the  situation  in  order  to  reach 
a  basis  having  some  evidence  of  scientific  principles  underlying  it,  and  to 
put  into  operation  the  conclusions  arrived  at.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  was  the  realization  that  the  obligations  existing  between  the  insurer 
and  the  insured  are  properly  mutual,  and  that  anything  which  tends  to  the 
profit  or  safety  of  one  is  of  like  value  to  the  other. 

Building  upon  this  foundation,  he  undertook  to  make  himself  familiar 
with  the  processes  and  methods  of  all  classes  of  manufacturing  industries 
and  the  fire  hazards  incident  to  each,  and  then  began  the  work  of  making 
better  that  which  came  under  his  supervision.  He  assisted  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  many  of  the  inspection  bureaus,  and  had  an  active  hand  in  the  for- 
mulation of  a  number  of  schedules  for  rating  industrial  plants.  From  the 
length  of  his  service  and  the  knowledge  gained  by  his  unceasing  study  and 
investigation  of  fire  hazards,  he  perhaps  became  one  of  the  best  versed  men 
in  his  profession  and  was  frequently  referred  to  as  "  The  Dean  of  Fire 
Insurance  Engineers." 


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OBITUARY.  473 

Following,  naturally,  in  the  line  of  preventing  the  occurrence  of  fires, 
arose  the  necessity  for  their  extinguishment.  In  this  line  of  investigation 
he  devoted  much  attention  to  the  betterment  of  public  and  private  fire 
protection,  and  in  pursuit  of  this  particular  line  of  knowledge  and  informa- 
tion, Mr.  Griswold  was  brought  into  intimate  contact  with  the  fire  and 
wat-er  departments  of  many  of  the  principal  cities  of  this  country,  and  was 
known  by  them  as  an  authority  in  this  line.  For  many  years  he  was  an 
ardent  advocate  and  a  strenuous  worker  in  an  attempt  to  secure  universal 
standards  for  all  classes  of  fire-fighting  facilities  and  utiHties,  especially  for 
public  fire  hose  connections.  The  need  for  standard  hose  and  hydrant 
threads  was  apparent,  and  in  view  of  the  broad  experience  and  wide  ac- 
quaintance he  had  throughout  the  country,  the  National  Fire  Protection 
Association  selected  him  to  head  a  special  committee  to  secure  the  adoption 
of  a  universal  standard.  Mr.  Griswold  accepted  the  task  with  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  many  attempts  and  failures  of  past  efforts  for  its  accomplish- 
ment. As  the  result  of  his  persistent  effort  he  secured  the  official  endorse- 
ment of  his  coupling  by  all  of  the  leading  and  most  influential  organizations 
of  this  country,  thus  establishing  a  standard  coupling,  the  adoption  of 
which  has  become  general  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  1917  was 
approved  and  adopted  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards  as  the 
"  National  Standard  Hose  Coupling  and  Hydrant  Fitting  *'  for  public  fire 
service. 

Mr.  Griswold  was  a  member  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  the 
American  and  the  New  England  Water  Works  Associations,  The  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  and  associate  member  of  the  International 
Association  of  Fire  Engineers,  to  which  organization  he  has  for  many  years 
been  the  accredited  delegate  from  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association; 
and  Honorary  Foreign  Correspondent  of  the  British  Fire  Prevention 
Committee,  and  an  Honorary  Life  Member  of  the  National  Fire  Protection 
Association. 

He  was  active  in  his  line  of  work,  kept  in  close  touch  with  all  technical 
matters  affecting  fire  prevention  work,  and  few  men  have  had  so  important 
a  part  in  bringing  fire  underwriting  to  a  point  where  it  can  in  some  truth  be 
called  an  apphed  science. 

During  his  business  connection,  embracing  forty-seven  years  in  the 
study  of  the  technical  principles  of  fire  underwriting,  many  authoritative 
publications  on  fire  prevention  were  prepared  for  The  Home  Insurance 
Company,  whose  interests  he  held  paramount  to  all  others. 

We  can  testify  to  his  strict  integrity  and  loyalty,  and  regret  with  all 
others  who  had  the  pleasure  of  his  acquaintance,  that  so  much  has  been  lost 
to  the  fire  insurance  business.  Morally,  mentally  and  physically  he  was  a 
high  type  of  man,  and  he  will  be  sorely  missed  by  all. 


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474  FORTY-FIRST  ANNUAL  CONVENTION. 


PROCEEDINGS. 


The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  such  parts  of  the  proceedings  at  the 
New  Bedford  convention  as  appears  to  be  of  value  for  the  record. 


Forty-First  Annual  Convention. 

New  Bedford,  Mass. 
September  12,  13,  14,  15,  1922. 
The  Forty-First  Annual  Convention  of  the  New  England  Water  Work 
Association  was  held  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  September  12,  13,  14  and 
15,  1922. 

The  sessions  of  the  convention  were  held  on  the  top  floor  of  the  New 
Bedford  Hotel,  where  also  were  provided  accommodations  for  the  exhibits 
of  the  Manufacturers. 

The  Convention  was  called  to  order  at  10.30  a.  m.,  September  12, 
by  Stephen  H.  Taylor,  Superintendent  of  the  New  Bedford  Water  Works. 
Mr.  Taylor.     Mr.  President,  ladies  and  members  of  the  Associa- 
tion: It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  introduce  to  you  Hon.  Walter  H.  B. 
Remington,  Mayor  of  the  City  of  New  Bedford.     (Applause.) 

Address  of  Welcome  by  Hon.  W^.  H.  B.  Remington, 
Mayor  of  New  Bedford. 

Mr.  Remington.  Mr.  President,  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the  Con- 
vention: During  the  past  summer  it  has  been  my  privilege  to  extend  a 
word  of  welcome  in  behalf  of  the  City  to  several  Conventions,  and  it  has 
been  a  pleasure  to  do  so  in  each  instance.  It  is  no  less  a  pleasure  to  extend 
New  Bedford's  hearty  welcome  to  the  representatives  of  the  New  England 
Water  Works  Association,  and  I  do  so  with  the  best  wish  that  your  stay 
with  us  may  be  enjoyed.  New  Bedford  has  a  particularly  warm  spot  in 
its  heart  for  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association.  For  many  years 
our  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Robert  C.  P.  Coggeshall,  was  promin- 
ently indentified  with  your  Association  in  an  official  capacity,  and  by  reason 
of  his  enthusiastic  appreciation  of  the  work  which  the  organization  was 
doing  for  the  procuring  of  pure  water  we  have  come  to  know  you  well.  Our 
system,  which  you  will  inspect  before  you  return  to  your  homes,  is  a  monu- 
ment, in  a  way,  to  Mr.  Coggeshall's  fealty  to  the  ideals  of  the  New  England 
Water  Works  Association.  We  are  proud  of  it,  and  we  are.  proud  of  him 
and  of  the  members  of  the  Water  Boards  who  have  worked  with  him  to 
achieve  the  results  which  we  are  able  to  show  vou. 


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PROCEEDINGS.  475 

You  will  learn,  if  you  do  not  already  know  about  it,  that  others  appreci- 
ate our  system  as  much  as  we  do  ourselves,  and  are  anxious  to  share  in 
what  we  have.  We  are  not  unwilling  to  share  but  we  do  have  the  same 
feeling  that  induced  the  ox  in  the  fable  to  kick  when  somebody  farther  up 
the  stream  polluted  his  drinking  place.  We  are  satisfied  to  be  let  alone, 
and  we  cannot  see  any  good  reason  why  we  should  be  disturbed  in  the 
possessive  use  of  a  water  system  which  we  have  developed  and  protected 
at  considerable  expense. 

But  we  cannot  expect  you  to  be  interested  in  our  afifairs  during  your 
visit  to  New  Bedford.  Your  Convention  has  affairs  of  its  own,  which  will 
doubtless  claim  your  attention.  But  we  do  expect  you  will  have  a  good 
time  while  you  are  in  New  Bedford,  and  if  there  is  anything  lacking  to 
that  end  just  mention  it  to  Steve  Taylor  —  he  will  do  the  rest.     (Applause.) 

Mr.  Taylor.  Mr.  President,  it  is  a  pleasant  priviledge  to  intro- 
duce Mr.  William  Ritchie,  President  of  the  Board  of  Conunerce  of  New 
Bedford.     (Applause.) 

Address  of  Welcome  by  William  Ritchie, 
President  Board  of  Commerce. 

Mr.  Ritchie.  Mr.  President,  ladies  and  members  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Water  Works  Association:  The  Board  of  Commerce  represents  the 
industrial,  mercantile  and  civic  activities  of  the  City,  and  they  welcome 
you  for  two  reasons:  First,  we  are  always  glad  to  see  visitors;  second, 
w^e  are  proud  of  New  Bedford's  achievement  in  the  development  of  its  water 
works,  due  to  the  foresight  and  sagacity  of  some  of  our  citizens. 

My  predecessor  as  President  of  the  Board  of  Commerce,  Mr.  Edmund 
Wood,  was  a  member  of  the  original  commission  which  started  this  develop- 
ment. When  those  far-seeing  business  men  started  their  work  they  were 
criticised  by  officials  of  other  cities,  and  it  was  with  a  great  deal  of  effort 
that  they  prevailed  upon  our  wise  legislators  to  permit  New  Bedford  to 
finance  the  matter  from  time  to  time.  The  judgment  and  vision  of  those 
men  have  been  demonstrated  by  our  water  system  as  developed  to-day, 
as  I  think  that  you  will  agree  with  me  after  a  visit  to  the  works. 

We  are  indeed  glad  to  have  this  convention  of  experts  meet  in  New 
Bedford  and  observe  our  system,  and  we  hope  they  will  endorse  our  opinion 
of  the  system.  We  hope  also  that  they  will  observe  at  the  same  time  the 
great  industrial  and  civic  growth  of  our  city,  which  is  also  due  to  the 
type  of  men  who  were  responsible  for  the  development  of  our  water 
system. 

I  heartily  endorse  all  our  Mayor  has  said.  The  Board  of  Commerce 
is  made  up  of  the  leaders  in  our  business  and  civic  activities,  and  we  have 
formed  an  organization  for  service,  —  service  to  the  community,  service 
to  the  individual,  and  service  to  visitors.     I,  in  their  behalf,  welcome  you, 

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476  FORTY-FIRST  ANNUAL  CONVENTION. 

and  invite  you  to  use  that  service  in  any  of  our  numerous  boards  or  divis- 
ions while  you  are  here,  one  and  all,  and  we  trust  that  that  service  will 
be  able  to  make  your  visit  here  both  pleasant  and  profitable.  And,  as  our 
Mayor  has  said,  if  we  do  not  live  up  to  it,  go  to  Steve  Taylor  and  ask 
him  why.     (Applause.) 

Response  by  President  Frank  A.  Barbour. 

The  President.  Mr.  Mayor,  Mr.  Ritchie:  For  the  Association  I 
thank  you  for  your  words  of  welcome.  That  these  words  are  to  be  trans- 
lated into  very  tangible  hospitality  we  have  ample  proof  in  the  program 
of  entertainment  which  has  been  prepared.  As  presiding  officer  my  fear 
is  that  the  attractions  of  your  city  will  be  so  great  that  our  technical  sessions 
may  suffer  and  the  serious  purpose  of  this  convention  be  in  some  measure 
lost  sight  of,  and  we  have  a  very  serious  purpose  in  these  meetings. 

We  believe  that  there  is  no  other  public  utility  entrusted  to  municipal 
officers  that  compares  in  point  of  responsibility  with  the  water  system. 
It  is  possible  for  a  city  to  live  without  gas  or  electricity,  or  good  streets 
and,  for  a  time,  without  sewers,  but  if  for  any  reason  the  water  supply  is 
cut  off  for  a  very  short  period,  municipal  life  is  ended.  We  believe  that 
it  is  only  by  associations  such  as  this,  that  the  men  in  charge  of  this  most 
important  public  service  can  be  kept  up  to  the  highest  efficiency,  and  that 
attendance  at  these  conventions  is  the  most  direct  means  of  deriving  from 
this  Association  the  best  that  it  has  to  offer. 

I  am  glad  to  know  that  it  is  the  practice  in  New  Bedford  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  department  officials  to  the  meetings  of  this  and  other 
associations.  In  my  opinion  the  well-known  efficiency  of  your  depart- 
ment is  largely  the  result  of  the  attendance  of  such  men  as  Mr.  Co^eshall 
and  Mr.  Taylor  at  these  meetings,  and  I  think  it  would  be  a  very  wise 
thing  for  all  cities  to  follow  the  course  that  New  Bedford  has  adopted. 

It  is  thirty-six  years  since  we  last  met  here  in  New  Bedford,  but  you 
will  credit  us  with  the  fact  that  we  came  back  just  as  soon  as  you  had  the 
necessary  hotel  accommodations.  There  are  several  reasons  why  we  should 
meet  in  New  Bedford.  The  growth  of  your  city  during  the  past  twenty 
years  has  been  one  of  the  outstanding  facts  in  Massachusetts,  —  and  as 
municipal  officers  —  we  are  interested  in  finding  out  how  you  have  kept 
step  with  this  growth  in  your  public  utihties,  and  particularly  in  your 
water  system.  There  is  another  reason  for  our  coming  here,  and  that  is 
the  hope  that  Mr.  Coggeshall  will  feel  that  we  are  expressing  in  some 
measure  by  our  coming  the  affection  and  respect  that  we  hold  for  him. 

We  note  that  in  the  thirty-six  years  since  we  were  last  here  —  during 
which  time  you  have  grown  from  a  population  of  somewhat  less  than  forty 
thousand  to  somewhat  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  you 
have  had  one  man  for  Mayor  twenty-two  years,  and  I  believe  that  same 
man  has  also  been  chairman  of  the  Water  Board.    We  expect  to  come 


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PROCEEDINGS.  477 

back  again,  Mr.  Mayor,  in  about  twenty  years,  or  perhaps  a  little  less, 
and  I  hope  that  we  shall  then  find  yoi;  in  the  same  position  you  occupy 
to-day. 

I  again  thank  you,  gentlemen,  for  coming  here  and  welcoming  us  to 
your  city,  and  we  hope  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  during  our  stay  for 
us  to  refer  the  Police  Department  to  our  cordial  relations  with  you. 

On  motion  of  Frederic  I.  Winslow,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted  that 
the  President  shall  at  some  time  during  the  convention  appoint  a  committee 
of  five  to  bring  in  at  the  November  meeting  a  list  of  nominations  for  oflBcers 
for  the  ensuing  year.  The  President  later  announced  the  appointment 
on  this  committee  of  Messrs.  Charles  W.  Sherman,  Samuel  B.  Killam, 
Frank  Emerson,  Richard  H.  Ellis  and  Thomas  E.  Lally. 

On  a  motion  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Diven,  duly  seconded  and  amended  by 
Mr.  George  A.  King,  to  omit  the  word  "  alternating  "  and  have  it  refer 
to  all  currents,  it  was  voted  to  appoint  a  committee  to  investigate  the 
grounding  of  alternating  currents  on  house  plumbing,  to  act  in  connection 
with  a  similar  committee  of  the  American  Water  Works  Association. 

The  following  were  duly  elected  members  of  the  Association. 

Active:  John  Brown,  Resident  Engineer,  Fall  River,  Mass.;  Julius 
W.  Bugbee,  Superintendent  and  Chemist,  Sewage  Disposal  Works,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.;  Steve  C.  Burghardt,  Manager  Water  Company,  Stockbridge, 
Mass.;  John  E.  Gleason,  Superintendent  \^ter  Department,  Providence, 
R.  I.;  W.  S.  Lea,  Consulting  Engineer,  Montreal,  P.  Q.;  Alexander 
H.  McDonald,  Superintendent  Water  Department,  Littleton,  N  H.; 
Joseph  W.  Money,  Superintendent  Warwick  Water  Company,  Anthony, 
R.  I.;  Chester  A.  Moore,  Consulting  Engineer,  Somerville,  Mass.; 
Humphrey  Sullivan,  Foreman  Hartford  Water  Works,  Hartford,  Conn.; 
Ellsworth  B.  Tolman,  Assisting  Superintendent  Water  Works,  New 
Bedford,  Mass.;  John  W.  Mulcahy,  Superintendent  Water  Works, 
Braintree,  Mass.;  Francis  H.  Nolan,  Superintendent  Water  Works, 
Avon,  Mass. ;  Richard  F.  Forrest,  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Randolph 
and  Holbrook,  Mass.;  Edmund  Dunn,  Mechanical  Engineer  for  Water 
Commission,  Garfield,  N.  J.;  Henry  S.  Charron,  Superintendent  Water 
Works,  Burlington,  Vt.;  Ernest  E.  Lothrop,  Town  Manager,  Mansfield, 
Mass.;  A.  A.  Gathemann,  Civil  Engineer,  Hanover,  Mass.;  Gilbert 
H.  Pratt,  Chemist,  Belleville,  N.  J. 

Associates:  George  A.  Caldwell  &  Co.,  Boston  24;  New  England  Oil 
Refining  Co.,  Fall  River,  Mass.;  Red  Hed  Manufacturing  Co.,  287  Atlantic 
Avenue,  Boston  3,  Mass. 


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478  forty-rirst  annual  convention. 

Report  of  Progress  of  Committee  on  Standard  Specifications 

FOR  Water  Meters. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Sherman.  Mr.  President,  if  it  is  not  imposing  on 
the  meeting  I  should  like  to  take  a  minute  to  make  verbal  report  of  pro- 
gress for  a  committee.  I  am  reporting  for  the  Joint  Committee  on  Specifi- 
cations for  Standard  Water  Meters  of  this  Association  and  the  American 
Water  Works  Association.  The  Chairman  on  the  part  of  this  Association, 
Mr.  Brush,  is  somewhere  around  the  convention,  but  I  do  not  think  he  is 
here  at  the  moment,  and  I  would  therefore  report  as  Chairman  of  the 
Joint  Committee. 

The  Convention  a  year  ago  accepted  the  standard  specifications  which 
were  recommended  for  disc  meters  and  continued  the  committee  to  consider 
other  classes  of  meters.  Good  progress  is  being  made  and  we  expect  to 
submit  our  report  in  print  in  the  near  future,  so  that  it  may  be  considered 
at  one  of  the  winter  meetings  of  this  Association  and  at  the  next  annual 
convention  of  the  American  Association. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  George  A.  King,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted,  That 
the  President  be  authorized  to  appoint  a  conunittee  of  Massachusetts 
members  to  consider  the  advisability  of  united  action  with  the  State  authori- 
ties of  Massachusetts  on  the  subject  of  merging  water  departments  with 
other  departments  in  management  and  finance,  or  either  of  them. 

Award  ofJDexter  Brackett  Medal. 

Mr.  Robert  S.  Weston.  The  Committee  on  the  award  of  the 
Dexter  Brackett  Medal,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Tighe,  Taylor  and  myself, 
after  having  read  all  the  papers  presented  in  last  year's  Journal,  have 
come  to  the  unanimous  conclusion  that  the  paper  which  merited  the  medal 
was  one  written  by  the  last  speaker,  Mr.  X.  H.  Goodnough,  Chief  Engineer 
of  the  Massachusetts  Department  of  Health.  The  paper  was  on  the  sub- 
ject of  "  Rainfall  in  New  England.''  That  paper,  as  you  know,  was  not 
only  a  presentation  of  the  facts  in  an  interesting  way,  but  it  represented 
twenty  years'  work,  all  under  his  guidance,  and  initiated  by  him. 

(To  Mr.  Goodnough.) 

I  have  great  pleasure,  sir,  in  presenting  this  beautiful  medal,  and 
I  think  you  will  appreciate  it  more,  because  you  have  been  so  closely 
identified  with  the  work  with  which  the  founder  had  so  much  to  do. 
(Applause.) 

Mr.  Goodnough.  I  need  hardly  say  that  I  feel  greatly  honored  at 
being  the  recipient  of  this  medal.  I  knew  Mr.  Brackett,  of  course,  very 
well.  I  was  more  or  less  associated  with  him  for  a  great  many  years,  and 
especially  with  Mr.  Stearns,  who  I  think  was  instrmnental  in  getting  up 

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PROCEEDINGS.  479 

this  memorial.  I  connot  conceive  of  a  more  satisfactory  memorial  to 
Mr.  Bracketty  who  was  one  of  the  chief  workers  for  this  Association  through 
all  of  its  earlier  years. 

The  work  of  the  Association  has  really,  it  seems  to  me,  been  a  wonder- 
ful one.  I  think  that  more  than  any  other  one  thing,  the  work  of  this  Asso- 
ciation has  aided  in  securing  the  very  satisfactory  water  supplies  which  we 
now  have  practically  throughout  New  England.  When  Mr.  Brackett 
was  first  a  member  of  the  Association,  some  thirty  years  or  more  ago, 
we  were  still  using  water  directly  from  the  Merrimack  River  and  other 
polluted  streams,  without  any  idea  that  that  might  be  the  cause  of  the 
typhoid  fever  which  prevailed  so  extensively  in  those  places.  It  was  to 
members  of  this  Association  that  we  owed  the  discovery  of  a  great  many 
of  the  causes  of  sickness  from  water  and  the  means  of  preventing  it;  also 
the  practical  means  of  providing  a  water  which  is  safe  and  of  excellent 
quality,  which  we  have  now  generally  throughout  New  England. 

I  greatly  appreciate  the  honor  which  you  have  done  me.     (Applause.) 

Financing  of  Municipal  Water  Works. 

President  Barbour.  It  is  almost  impossible  under  the  general 
laws  to  finance  any  improvement  of  water  supphes  with  bonds  running 
for  reasonable  terms.  The  result  is  that  at  the  present  time  it  is  necessary 
to  wait  until  the  Legislature  meets  and  obtain  special  legislation.  Mr. 
Waddell,  the  Director  of  Accounts,  has  said  to  me  that  he  would  like  to 
have  the  cooperation  of  this  Association  in  going  before  the  Legislature 
and  getting  some  amendments  in  general  legislation.  I  think  perhaps 
it  would  be  well  if  Mr.  Sherman  would  state  in  a  few  words  just  what  the 
present  condition  of  the  general  laws  is  with  regard  to  municipal  finance 
pertaining  to  water-works  improvements. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Sherman.  This  is  a  matter  really  of  considerable 
importance  to  us,  —  in  Massachusetts  at  least. 

The  present  law  relating  to  the  financing  of  municipal  water  works 
in  Massachusetts  is  contained  in  two  brief  paragraphs  of  Chapter  719  of 
the  Acts  of  1913,  and  is  as  follows: 

Section  6.  Cities  and  towns,  may  incur  debt  outside  the  limit  of 
indebtedness  prescribed  in  this  act  for  the  following  purposes  and  payable 
within  the  periods  hereinafter  specified : — 

(2.)  For  establishing  or  purchasing  a  system  for  supplying  the 
inhabitants  of  a  city  or  town  with  water,  or  for  the  purchase  of  land 
for  the  protection  of  a  water  system,  or  for  acquiring  water  rights,  thirty 
years. 

(3.)  For  the  extension  of  water  mains  and  for  water  departmental 
equipment,  five  years. 

That  is  the  whole  thing,  and  you  will  see  by  this  that,  outside  of  a  whole 
new  sj^gtem,  five  years  is  the  limit  of  time  for  which  bonds  may  be  issued 

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480  FORTY-FIRST  ANNUAL  CONVENTION. 

for  the  installation  of  extensions  of  the  system,  or  the  buying  of  land  for 
the  protection  of  the  supply.  That  is  limited  to  five  years  unless  you  get 
special  legislation.  It  means  that  the  bonds  must  be  paid  within  the 
five  years,  and  in  five  annual  payments.  That  was  promulgated  in  1913 
and  is  about  the  worst  ever.      The  provision  is  for  serial  payments. 

This  struck  some  of  us  as  so  raw  that  at  one  time  Mr.  William  S. 
Johnson,  Mr.  Symonds  and  myself  presented  some  discussion  of  the  law 
to  this  Association,  and  followed  it  up  by  petitioning  the  Legislature  as 
individuals  for  an  amendment  to  the  law. 

Perhaps  I  might  say  that  a  further  point  in  relation  to  the  serial 
payment  of  the  bonds  requires  that  the  payments  shall  begin  at  once  and 
shall  be  for  the  whole  amount,  and  that  the  payment  in  no  year  shall  be 
less  than  that  of  a  succeeding  year.  You  have  to  pay  as  much  in  the  first 
year  as  you  do  in  any  later  year,  if  not  more.  If  the  sum  is  not  equally 
divisible  the  larger  amounts  must  be  paid  the  earlier  years.  We  presented 
what  we  thought  was  an  unanswerable  argument,  but  the  best  we  could 
get  out  of  the  Legislature  was  that  in  the  construction  of  new  works  the 
first  payment  might  be  deferred  for  a  term  of  three  years;  thereafter 
there  must  be  27  instalbnents  to  make  it  up.  That  does  give  you  a  little 
time  to  begin  to  get  some  money  in  before  you  begin  to  pay  it  out.  Under 
the  original  law  you  must  make  as  large  a  payment  in  the  first  year  as  in 
any  other. 

When  we  presented  that  discussion  in  the  Association  we  got  Mr. 
Waddell,  who  was  then  Clerk  in  the  Board  of  Statistics,  to  come  up  and 
discuss  our  paper.  He  could  not  see  our  point  of  view,  and  he  opposed 
what  we  wanted  in  the  Legislature.  It  is  therefore  a  great  pleasure  to  me 
that  he  has  now  come  around  to  see  some  light  in  the  matter  and  recognized 
the  interest  of  this  Association  in  it,  and  asked  the  help  of  the  Association  to 
revise  the  law  in  some  way  which  will  presumably  be  more  satisfactory 
to  water  works  men  and  will  be  more  satisfactory  to  him  also. 

With  that  in  view  I  offer  the  following  motion: 

Moved  that  the  President  be  authorized  to  appoint  a  committee 
of  three  members  to  confer  with  Massachusetts  officials  upon  the  desira- 
bility of  a  modification  of  the  laws  relating  to  the  financing  of  municipal 
water-works,  and  to  report  their  conclusions  and  recommendations  to  the 
Association. 

Mr.  Caleb  M.  Saville.  That  would  have  to  be  Massachusetts 
members. 

Mr.  Sherman.  I  did  not  put  it  in  the  motion,  but  I  assume  that  it 
would  be  Massachusetts  members.     It  might  be  put  in  the  motion. 

Mr.  X.  H.  GooDNOUGH.  I  had  hoped  something  of  this  sort  would 
be  done.  The  handling  of  the  business  has  been  somewhat  elastic,  to  say 
the  least,  by  a  department  which  knows  nothing  whatever,  or  did  know 
nothing  whatever  of  the  water-works  business.     I  think  a  campaign  of 


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PROCEEDINGS.  481 

education  is  sadly  needed,  and  that  some  judgment  should  be  used  in  reg- 
ulating the  issue  of  bonds  without  trying  to  bring  everything  down  to 
a  fixed  rule.    I  hope  the  motion  will  prevail. 

[The  motion  was  duly  seconded  and  carried.] 

On  motion  of  Frank  A.  Marston,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted  that 
the  thanks  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  are  hereby 
extended  to  Hon.  W.  H.  B.  Remington,  Mayor  of  New  Bedford;  to  the 
New  Bedford  Water  Board,  and  to  the  other  officials  and  employees  of 
the  City;  to  the  members  of  the  Honorary  Reception  Committee,  the 
Local  Committee  of  Arrangements,  the  Ladies'  Committee,  and  to  all 
others  who  have  given  so  generously  of  their  time  and  means  to  make  this 
one  of  the  most  successful  conventions  in  the  history  of  the  Association. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  J.  M.  Diven,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted:  Re- 
solvedf  that  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association,  in  Annual  Con- 
vention assembled,  hereby  extends  to  Robert  C.  P.  Coggeshall,  one  of  its 
founders,  for  many  years  its  secretary  and  its  past  president,  its  sincere 
sympathy  in  his  illness,  and  expresses  its  great  regret  that  it  has  not  been 
possible  for  him  to  be  present  at  its  meeting;  and  renews  its  expression 
of  esteem  and  affection,  and  of  appreciation  of  his  great  service  to  the 
Association. 

On  motion  of  Frank  J.  Giflford,  duly  seconded,  it  was  voted  that  the 
thanks  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  are  hereby  extended 
to  the  Water  Works  Manufacturers  Association,  and  to  the  members  of 
its  committees,  who  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  success  of  this,  the 
forty-first  annual  convention. 

(Adjourned.) 


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Vdlame  36.  DBCBMBER»  ld22:'  $4.00  a  Year. 

Number  4.  $1.25  a  Nnmbar. 


JOURNAL 


OF    THE 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 


ISSUED    QUARTERLY. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE   NEW   ENGLAND    WATER   WORKS    ASSOCIATION, 

715  Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass. 


Bntered  as  second-claaa  matter  September  23.  1003.  at  the  Post  Office 
ftt  Boston,  Mass.,  under  Act  of  Congreas  of  March  3,  1879. 

Copyright,  1922,  by  the  Nkw  Enqulkd  Wateb  Wobkb  AsaociATiON. 


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OFFICERS 

OF  THB 


New  England  Water  Works 
Association. 

1922. 


PRESIDENT. 

Telank  a.  Barbour,  Consulting  Hydraulic  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  Bostcxi,  Maas. 

VICE-PRBSIDENTS. 

Patrick  Gear,  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Holyoke,  Mass. 
George  A.  Carpenter,  City  Engineer,  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 
Reeves  J.  Newsom,  Commissioner  of  Water  Supply,  Lynn,  Mass. 
Davis  A.  Heffernan,  Superintendent  of  Water  Works,  Milton^  Mass. 
Frank  E.  Winsor,  Chief  Engineer,  Water  Supply  Board,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Theodore  L.  Bristol,  President  Ansonia  Water  Company,  Ansonia,  Conn. 

SECRETARY. 

Frank  J.  Gifford,  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Dedham,  Mass. 

TREASURER. 

Frederick  I.  Winslow,  Division  Engineer,  Metropolitan  District  Commisson,  Gonsult- 

ing  Engineer,  Framingham,  Mass. 

EDITOR. 

Henry  A.  Symonds,  Consulting  Engineer  and  Manager  of  Water  Companies,  70  Kilby 
Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

advertising  agent. 
Henry  A.  Symonds,  70  Kilby  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

ADDITIONAL  MEMBERS   OF  EXECXJTIVB  COMMITTBE. 

George  H.  Finneran,  Superintendent  Water  Service,  Boston,  Mass. 

Frank  A.  Marston,  of  Metcalf  &  Eddy,  Consulting  Engineers,  Boston^  Mass. 

Melville  C.  Whipple,  Instructor  of  Sanitary  Chemistry,  Harvard  Umversity. 

FINANCE  COMMITTEE. 

A.  R.  Hathaway,  Water  Registrar,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Edward  D.  Eldredge,  Superintendent  Onset  Water  Company,  Onset,  Mass. 

Stephen  H.  Taylor,  Assistant  Superintendent  Water  Works,  New  Bedford,  Maas. 


^HE  Association  was  organized  in  Boston,  Masd.,  on  June  21,  1882,  with  the  object 
^  of  providing  its  members  with  means  of  social  intercourse  and  for  the  exchange  of 
knowledge  pertaining  to  the  construction  and  management  of  water  works.  From  an 
original  membership  of  only  twenty-seven,  its  growth  has  t>ro0pered  until  now  it 
includes  the  names  of  800  men.  Its  membership  is  divided  into  two  princii>al  daases, 
viz.:  Members  and  Associates.  Members  are  divided  into  two  classes,  vii.:  RBai« 
dent  and  Non-Resident,  ^ —  the  former  comprising  those  residing  within  the  limits  of 
New  England,  while  the  latter  class  includes  those  residing  elsewhere.  The  Initiation 
fee  for  the  former  class  is  five  dollars;  for  the  latter,  three  dollars.  -The  annual  dues 
for  both  classes  of  Active  membership  are  six  dollars.  Associate  membership  is 
open  to  firms  or  agents  of  finns  encaged  in  dealing  in  water-works  supplies.  The 
initiation  fee  for  Associate  membership  is  ten  dollars,  and  the  annual  dues  twbntt 
dollars.  This  Association  has  six  regular  meetings  each  year,  all  of  which,  except  the 
annual  convention  in  September,  are  held  at  Boston. 


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Table  of  Contents. 


PAGE 

Boston  High  Pressure  Fire  System  and  General  Problem  of  Special 

Fire  Service.    By  Frank  A.  Mclnnes 483 

High  Pressure  Fire  Systems  from  the  Underwriters  Viewpoint.    By 

G.  W.  Booth 495 

Electric  Pumping  at  Concord  N.  H.     By  Percy  R.  Sanders 517 

Application  of  Copper  Sulphate  to  Hartford  Reservoirs  and  Some 

Effects  Upon  Length  of  Filter  Runs.     By  J.  E.  Garratt 522 

Water  Supply  of  Southeastern  Massachusetts.    By  X.  H.  Goodnough  527 

The  Water  Supply  of  Fall  River.     ByH.  K.  Barrows 549 

Tars,  New  and  Old.     By  S.  R.  Church 571 

The  Proper  Term  for  Which  Water  Works  Bonds  Should  Run.    By 

C.  W.  Sherman 589 

Discussion  by  Frederick  I.  Winslow 

Should  Water  Department  be  Merged  with  other  Municipal 

Departments? 612 

Why  We  Should  Inspect  Water  Works  Materials 613 

Obituary  —  Robert  Carter  Pitman  Coggeshall 614 

Charles  E.  Peirce 616 

Proceedings: 

November  meeting 618 


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New  England  Water  Works  Association 


ORGANIZED    1882. 

Vol. 

XXXVI. 

December,  1922. 

No.  4. 

This  AssocUUlou,  as  a 

:  body,  is  not  responsible /or  tfie  statements 

or  opinions  qf  any  of  its  members. 

BOSTON  HIGH  PRESSURE  FIRE  SYSTEM  AND  GENERAL 
PROBLEM  OF  SPECIAL  FIRE  SERVICE. 

BY   FRANK   A.   MC  INNES.* 

[Sevtember  16,  192i.] 

The  Boston  high  pressure  fire  system,  as  now  proposed,  will  protect 
approximately  one  square  mile  of  territory  covering  practically  the  entire 
congested  value  district  of  the  city.  It  will  consist  of  eight  pumping 
units  in  three  separate  stations  with  19  miles  of  mains.  It  is  designed  to 
operate,  if  the  necessity  should  arise,  at  a  pressure  of  300  lb.  to  the  square 
inch. 

Two  stations  with  four  pumping  units,  11.75  miles  of  mains  and  313 
hydrants  have  been  in  service  for  the  past  seven  months,  furnishing  ap- 
proximateh'  two  thirds  the  measure  of  protection  which  the  completed 
system  will  afford. 

A  description  of  the  existing  system  follows:  — 

Pumping  Station  No.  1. 

Located  in  a  fireproof  isolated  area,  in  the  basement  of  the  Lincoln 
Power  Station  of  the  Boston  Elevated  Railway  Co.,  corner  of  Conunercial 
and  Battery  Streets;  fire  hazard  very  slight. 

Equipment  includes  two  Worthington  3-stage  double  suction  cen- 
trifugal pimips,  each  direct  connected  to  a  Westinghouse  750  h.p.  steam 
turbine  of  the  horizontal  impulse  type,  operating  at  1  165  r.p.m.  with 
steam  pressure  of  175  lb.,  atmospheric  exhaust. 

Two  16-in.  suction  mains,  both  connecting  with  low  service  distribu- 
tion system  of  city  (pressure  50  to  60  lb.)  one  of  them  also  connecting  with 
high  serv'ice  distribution  system  (pressure  85  to  90  lb.).  One  16-in.  suction 
main,  connecting  with  large  intake  conduit  supplying  salt  water  from 
harbor  to  Boston  Elevated  power  station  for  condensing  purposes,  pro- 
vides an  emergency  salt  water  supply.  Two  16-in.  discharge  mains,  each 
equipped  with  a  Venturi  meter,  extend  from  the  station  to  the  H.  P.  F. 
distribution  system.    A  centrifugal  vacuum  pump,  wuth  75  gal.  priming 


♦  Division  En^neer.  Water  DivLsion,  Public  Work-s  Department,  Boston,  Mass. 

483 


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484  BOSTON   HIGH    PRESSURE   FIRE  SYSTEM. 

tank,  driven  by  a  10  h.p.  220  volt  D.  C.  motor  is  provided  to  prime  the  fire 
pmnps  when  suction  is  taken  from  salt  water. 

A  vertical  centrifugal  single  stage  sump  pump,  driven  by  a  220  volt 
D.C.  motor,  takes  care  of  any  leakage,  etc.,  within  the  station. 

The  water  piping  is  of  cast-iron  with  flanged  joints,  each  piece  of  pipe 
in  force  main  being  separately  tested  at  a  pressure  of  600  lb.  per  sq.  in. 
before  being  assembled.  A  4-in.  by-pass  between  suction  and  discharge 
piping  equipped  with  the  necessarj^  check  valves  and  meter,  insures  the 
absence  of  air  in  the  system  and  provides  means  for  measuring  the  leakage. 

The  principal  control  valves  on  the  piping  sjnstem  are  electrically^ 
operated  by  Deane  Control.  Ross  regulating  valves  are  installed  between 
the  suction  and  discharge  of  each  pump  by  means  of  which  the  pressures 
at  the  pumps  are  controlled  from  the  operating  board,  upon  which  the 
necessary  gages  and  indicators  are  installed  and  from  which  the  valves 
in  the  piping  system,  the  vacuum  pump  and  the  sump  pump  are  operated. 

The  turbines  are  started  by  hand  throttle.  Steam  is  supplied  through 
an  8-in.  loop  pipe  connecting  to  each  end  of  steam  header  in  the  boiler 
room  of  the  Boston  Elevated  station,  where  a  battery  of  twenty  (20) 
Babcock  and  Wilcox  boilers  with  a  total  of  10  344  h.p.  are  located,  eight 
to  ten  of  these  boilers  being  always  in  service. 

At  an  acceptance  test  made  on  December  9,  1921,  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  Pump  No.  1  discharged  3  100  gal.  per  min. 
at  301  lb.  pressure  and  4  676  gal.  per  min.  at  201  lb.  pressure.  Pump  No.  2 
discharged  3  114  gal.  per  min.  at  300  lb.  pressure;  5  164  gal.  per  min.  at 
209  lb.  pressure  and  7  400  gal.  per  min.  at  100  lb.  pressure.  The  two 
pumps  together  discharged  6  580  gal.  per  min.  at  292  lb.  pressure  and 
10  266  gal.  per  min.  at  201  lb.  pressure.  The  above  performance  easily 
fulfilled  the  contract  requirements. 

Pumping  Station  No.  2. 

Located  in  a  fireproof  building,  constructed  for  the  purpose,  within 
the  boiler  room  of  the  third  station  of  the  Edison  Electric  Illuminating 
Co.  on  Atlantic  Avenue,  opposite  Pearl  Street;  fire  hazard  very  slight. 

The  equipment  includes  two  Worthington  4-stage  single  suction 
centrifugal  pumpsj  each  direct  connected  through  semi-flexible  couplings, 
to  Westinghouse  750  h.p.  235  volt  D.C.  shunt  wound  interpole  motor  with 
a  speed  range  from  860  to  1  050  r.p.m. 

Two  16-in.  suction  mains  both  connecting  with  low  service  distribu- 
tion system  of  city  (pressure  50  to  60  lb.)  one  of  them  also  connecting  with 
high  service  distribution  system  of  city  (pressure  85  to  90  lb.).  One 
16-in.  suction  main,  connecting  with  large  intake  conduit  supplying  con- 
densing water  for  the  Edison  station,  provides  an  emergency  salt  water 
supply. 

Two  16-in.  discharge  mains,  each  equipped  with  a  Venturi  meter, 
extend  frpm  the  station  to  the  H.  P.  F.  distribution  system.    Two  cen- 


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MC  INNES.  485 

trifugal  vacuum  pumps  with  a  75  gal.  priming  tank,  each  driven  by  10  h.p. 
motor,  are  provided  for  priming  the  fire  pumps  when  suction  is  taken  from 
salt  water.  One  vertical  centrifugal  single  stage  motor  driven  sump  pump 
takes  care  of  any  leakage,  etc.,  within  the  station. 

The  water  piping  is  of  cast-iron  with  flanged  joints,  each  piece  of  pipe 
in  force  main  being  separately  tested  at  a  pressure  of  600  lb.  per  sq.  in. 
before  being  assembled.  A  2-in.  by-pass  between  suction  and  discharge 
piping  equipped  with  the  necessary  check  valves  and  meter,  insures  the 
absence  of  air  in  the  system  and  provides  means  for  measuring  the  leakage. 

The  principal  control  valves  on  the  piping  systems  are  electrically 
operated  by  Deane  control.  Ross  regulating  valves  are  installed  between 
the  suction  and  discharge  of  each  pump  by  means  of  which  the  pressures 
at  the  pumps  are  controlled. 

The  switchboard  consists  of  two  separate  units;  one  board,  designed 
to  handle  the  heavy  starting  and  running  current  required  for  the  main 
motor,  contains  the  connections  from  the  Edison  power  lines,  the  bus  bars 
and  the  secondary  contactors  for  operating  the  motors.  The  other,  or 
main  control  board,  consists  of  f oiu:  panels  —  one  for  each  motor,  one  for 
the  station  auxiliaries,  and  one  for  the  fire  alarm.  Each  motor  panel  is 
equipped  with  drum  master  switches  for  operating  the  main  motor,  con- 
trol switches  for  motor  operated  valves,  gages  to  indicate  suction  and 
discharge  pressure,  anmieter  to  indicate  amount  of  current  required  by 
motor  and  wattmeter  to  register  total  power  required  by  motor. 

In  putting  a  pumping  unit  into  service  it  is  necessary  to  turn  one, 
two  or  three  master  switches,  depending  upon  which  suction  and  dis- 
charge mains  are  to  be  operated;  one  master  switch  only  is  required  to 
bring  motor  up  to  speed,  the  delivering  of  water  and  its  pressure  being 
determined  by  operation  of  a  motor  field  rheostat  and  the  Ross  regulating 
valve;  the  control  of  the  latter  is  through  a  hand  valve  immediately  in 
front  of  each  motor  panel;  the  actual  position  of  the  regulating  valve 
being  shown  at  all  times  on  a  dial  visible  from  the  operating  platform. 
Two  Venturi  meters  which  register  the  water  pumped  into  each  discharge 
main,  are  located  immediately  beside  the  control  board. 

The  above  arrangement  makes  it  possible  for  one  man  to  operate 
easily  and  quickly  the  entire  equipment  in  the  station.  Under  normal 
conditions  fire  pressure  is  available  within  40  sec.  after  an  alarm  is 
received. 

In  the  event  of  failure  of  the  fresh  water  suction  supply,  the  pumps 
can  be  primed  and  ready  for  service  with  salt  water,  in  less  than  three 
minutes  time. 

Power  for  operating  the  pumps  is  furnished  through  cables  extending 
to  the  pump  room  from  the  main  switchboard  in  the  generating  room  of 
the  Edison  third  station  in  which  are  located  four  1  600  k.w.  and  two 
800  k.w.  direct  current  generators,  and  four  1  000  k.w.  and  one  500  k.w. 
motor  generators.    The  direct  current  generators  are  operated  by  engines 


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486  BOSTON  HIGH   PRESSURE   FIRE  SYSTEM. 

supplied  with  steam  from  a  battery  of  nineteen  (19)  boilers  of  8  400  h.p. 
capacity,  six  to  ten  of  the  boilers  being  always  under  steam.  The  motor 
generators  receive  current  at  6  600  volts  A.  C.  from  the  main  station  of 
the  Edison  Co.  in  South  Boston,  delivering  it  at  250  volts  D.C.  Three 
underground  transmission  lines  extend,  over  two  separate  routes,  to  the 
Edison  third  station,  any  two  of  which  have  sufficient  capacity  to  operate 
the  entire  motor  generator  installation  in  the  station.  Ten  direct  current 
tie  lines  from  seven  sub-stations  in  the  city  are  available,  on  an  emergency-, 
to  supply  1  500  to  1  800  k.w.  to  the  Edison  third  station.  In  addition,  two 
storage  batteries  with  a  combined  capacity  of  9  470  ampere  hours,  sufficient 
to  run  both  fire  pumps  for  a  period  of  approximately  two  hours,  are  avail- 
able at  the  Edison  third  station. 

At  a  test  recently  made  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
Pump  No.  1  discharged  3  141  gal.  per  min.  at  298-lb.  pressure  and  4  413 
gal.  per  min.  at  202-lb.  pressure.  Pump  No.  2  discharged  3  000  gal.  per 
min.  at  300-lb.  pressure  and  4  407  gal.  per  min.  at  200-lb.  pressure.  The 
two  pumps  operating  together  discharged  6  580  gal.  per  min.  at  292-lb. 
pressure.  The  above  performance  easily  fulfilled  the  contract  require- 
ments. 

Distribution  System. 

The  system  was  designed  to  deliver  12  000  gal.  per  min.  about  B.ny 
block  with  a  hydrant  pressure  of  250  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  a  pump  pressure 
of  300  lb.  per  sq.  in.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  efficiency  of  the  system 
exceeds  this  requirement  as  during  construction  the  sizes  of  mains  were 
increased  in  several  instances  to  provide  for  diflferent  proposed  locations 
of  pumping  stations.  One  hydrant  is  allowed  for  each  40  000  scj,  ft.  of 
area;  to  secure  this  distribution,  a  tracing  of  the  pipe  sj'stem  was  super- 
imposed on  a  sheet  of  cross  section  paper  in  which  each  square  represented 
40  000  sq.  ft.  In  this  way  a  sufficient  number  of  hydrants  were  located  to 
fulfill  the  requirement. 

The  sj^stem  is  so  deigned  that,  when  completed,  it  will  be  operated 
under  normal  conditions  in  two  parts  overlapping  each  other,  or  as  a 
duplicate  system.  This  arrangement  calls  for  slightly  larger  mains,  but 
greatly  increases  the  efficiency  in  the  event  of  a  broken  main  or  hydrant; 
in  such  a  case,  one  system  would  be  at  once  shut  off  at  the  pumping  station 
and  would  remain  out  of  service  until  the  gates  required  to  control  the 
break  had  been  closed,  the  other  system  continuing  to  function  at  full 
power;  in  other  words,  approximately  one  half  the  hydrants  would  re- 
main in  service  despite  a  break  in  the  system. 

The  system  now  consists  of  — 

20  140  lin.  ft.  20-in.  pipe,  1.51  in.  thick. 
28  808  lin.  ft.  16-in.  pipe,  1.27  in.  thick. 
l.S  081  lin.  ft.  12-in.  pipe,  1.04  in.  thick. 

with  313  hydrants  supplied  by  8-in.  pipe  0.8-in.  thick. 

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MC  INNES.  487 

The  straight  pipe  and  special  castings  are  cast-iron  excepting  branches 
where  the  opening  from  the  run  is  12  in.  or  over,  in  which  case  semi-steel 
is  used.  All  pipes  were  subjected  to  a  hammer  test  at  a  pressure  of  500  lb. 
per  sq.  in. 

Two  lead  grooves  are  cast  in  bell  end  and  two  in  spigot  end  of  each 
pipe.  If  it  is  necessary,  during  installation  of  system,  to  cut  a  pipe,  two  lead 
grooves  are  required  in  their  proper  location  near  the  end  of  the  cut  pipe. 

The  joint  material  used  where  unbalanced  pressures  exist,  or  might 
develop,  is  an  alloy  of  95  per  cent,  lead  and  5  per  cent.  tin.  Extensive 
preliminary  tests  showed  that  the  admixture  of  tin  increased  the  strength 
of  the  joint  sufficiently  to  safely  permit  tie  rods  to  be  dispensed  with;  a 
conclusion  that  has  been  verified  in  practice.  The  joints  were  made  as 
follows:  — 

A  small  pouring  pot  is  kept  warm  floating  in  a  larger  kettle  of  hot 
lead;  when  the  joint  is  to  be  made,  sufficient  lead  is  measured  into  the 
small  pot  and  the  necessary  amount  of  block  tin  is  added  at  the  last  minute. 
The  caulking  is  done  with  dog  tools  using  a  two  handed  4-lb.  hammer, 
a  starting  chisel  and  three  sets  of  caulking  chisels.  The  joint  is  finished  or 
polished  off  with  hand  tools. 

The  mains,  in  order  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  interference  with  sewer 
drains  and  water  services,  were  laid  at  a  normal  depth  of  5.5  ft.  from  the 
surface  of  the  street  to  top  of  barrel  of  pipe  —  they  were  all  tested,  before 
joints  were  covered,  for  a  period  of  one  hour  at  a  pressure  of  400  lb.  per 
sq.  in.  For  several  years  past  no  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  keep- 
ing the  joint  leakage  below  one  half  gal.  per  lin.  ft.  of  pipe  joint  per  24 
hours;  in  fact,  there  is  usually  no  leakage  of  this  kind.  It  is  however, 
impossible  to  avoid  some  loss  of  water  at  gates  and  hydrants,  and  the 
contract  test  requirement  adopted  of  2  gal.  leakage  per  Un.  ft.  of  joint 
in  24  hours  is  as  small  as  is  practicable. 

The  post  hydrant  used  was  designed  and  patented  by  Joseph  A. 
Rourke,  now  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  of  Boston.  It  is  of  rugged 
design  with  SJ-in.  barrel  6j-in.  main  valve,  opening  against  the  pressure, 
and  four  2j-in.  independently  controlled  outlets.  A  notable  feature  of 
the  design  is  an  auxiliarj'^  valve  formed  by  three  way  cock  operated  by  a 
covered  stem  extending  along  the  side  of  the  barrel  and  terminating  in 
an  operating  nut  at  the  head  of  the  hydrant.  One  position  of  the  three 
way  cock  closes  the  waste  and  equalizes  the  pressure  above  and  below  the 
main  valve  in  hydrant  barrel,  the  other  position  opens  the  waste  and 
closes  the  connection  with  hydrant  barrel.  The  hydrant  was  designed  for 
a  normal  delivery  of  2  000  gal.  per  min.,  the  loss  at  this  flow  being  less 
than  8  lb. 

The  valves,  designed  by  the  department,  are  of  the  solid  wedge  type, 
bronze  mounted,  bodies  and  bonnets  of  semi-steel  of  30  000  lb.  tensile 
strength.  All  stems  are  of  monel  metal,  tensile  strength  80  000  lb.  per 
sq.  in.  Each  gate  was  tested  for  strength  at  500  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  for  leakage 
at  450  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  for  operation  at  300  lb.  per  sq.  in.      r^^^^T^ 

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488  boston  high  pressure  fire  system. 

Signal  System. 

Alarms  are  received  in  the  pumping  stations  on  the  usual  tapp)er 
and  gong  circuits  of  the  Fire  Department  alarm  system  with  a  perforating 
register  and  small  gong  on  the  tapper  circuit  and  gong  on  the  gong  circuit. 
For  signalling  from  fires,  two  special  circuits  connecting  telephone  jacks  in 
fire  alarm  boxes  in  high  pressure  fire  zone  to  a  Morse  key,  telephone  jack 
and  relay  at  fire  alarm  headquarters;  the  relays  op)erate  registers,  time 
stamps,  flash  lights  and  sounders.  Portable  telegraph  and  telephone  in- 
struments, carried  by  chief  officers  responding  in  high  pressure  districts, 
are  used  for  code  signals  for  increase  or  decrease  in  pressure;  these  are 
repeated  over  a  special  alarm  circuit  connecting  fire  alarm  headquarters 
with  both  stations;  Morse  keys  and  relays  operating  perforating  registers 
and  red  flash  light  are  provided  at  headquarters  and  each  station;  head- 
quarters has  a  tapp)er  and  time  stamp  and  each  station  an  8-in.  turtle 
gong.  Orders  from  one  station  to  the  other  for  the  operation  of  additional 
pumps  are  transmitted  directly  over  this  circuit.  Fire  alarm  switchboards 
in  the  pumping  stations  are  of  slate,  with  metal  mountings;  standard  fire 
station  keys  and  switches  provide  testing  facilities  on  each  board.  A. 
single  telephone  line  connects  the  Fire  Department  telephone  switchboard 
in  headquarters  with  both  stations. 

All  orders  are  transmitted  by  telegraph,  using  special  code  signals 
for  purposes  of  record;  telephones  are  used  only  for  confirmation.  Signals 
repeated  back  for  verification. 

The  system  is  operated  by  the  Fire  Department,  the  distribution 
system  only  being  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  Department. 

The  two  pumping  plants  complete  were  furnished  and  installed  by  the 
Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co.,  George  S.  Gibbs,  Boston  representative. 

General  Problem  of  Special  Fire  Service. 

A  well  designed  and  properly  installed  H.  P.  F.  system  is  an  in- 
valuable weapon  of  defense  against  fire,  its  notable  characteristics  being 
power  and  dependability. 

At  times,  a  simple  wooden  club  may  suiBice  to  maintain  order;  again, 
a  revolver  is  necessary  to  effect  the  same  purpose,  and  again  a  gatling 
gim  must  be  called  into  service  to  avoid  disaster;  so  in  fire  fighting,  the 
time  is  sure  to  come  when  the  special  fire  system,  like  the  gatling  gun,  is 
indispensable  if  the  fire  demon  is  to  be  held  in  check.  The  ability  to  furnish 
a  sufficient  number  of  large  and  uniformly  powerful  streams,  in  other 
words,  the  power  to  make  every  blow  a  hard  blow,  is  one  outstanding 
advantage  of  such  a  system.  This  does  not  mean  that  high  pressure 
must  always  be  carried,  but  simply  that  the  required  volume  of  water  at 
the  necessary  pressure  is  quickly  and  surely  available;  in  New  York  125- 
Ib.  pump  pressure  has  been  found  to  be  sufficient  in  approximately  90 
per  cent,  of  the  fires;  in  one  instance  only  has  225  lb.  been  found  necessary. 


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MC INNES.  489 

In  Boston,  during  the  eight  months  the  system  has  been  in  service,  125- 
Ib.  pump  pressure  has  not  yet  been  exceeded  in  approximately  100  fires, 
none  of  them,  happily,  being  serious.  If  the  mains  of  the  distribution 
sj-stem  are  of  ample  size,  the  name  ''high  pressures"  will  prove  a  misnomer, 
except  in  the  case  of  multiple  serious  fires  or  of  a  train  of  adverse  cir- 
cumstances resulting  in  a  threatened  conflagration.  When  unusual 
danger  threatens,  the  power  is  available  and  under  other  and  normal 
conditions  the  system  functions  most  eflFectively,  as  a  flood  of  water 
through  large  nozzles  at  a  uniform  pressure  can  be  very  quickly  made 
available. 

A  second  outstanding  advantage  is  the  fact  that  no  connections 
other  than  those  to  hydrants  are  taken,  or  at  least  should  be  taken,  from 
the  mains  of  the  system;  with  the  result  that  the  demands  upon  it  are  only 
those  made  by  the  firemen  who  know  its  limitations,  and  it  can  be  depended 
upon  to  function  with  full  power  under  all  conditions.  The  importance  of 
this  feature  is  apparent  when  the  following  story  of  three  recent  conflagra- 
tions is  told. 

In  Baltimore,  1904,  water  was  found  to  be  flowing  to  waste  more  or 
less  freely  when  the  fire  was  under  control,  through  the  following  pipes:  — 

50  —  3-in.,  4-in.,  G-in.  fire  pipes, 
89  —  3-in,,  4-iii.,  6-in.  elevator  pipes, 
6  —  6-in.  service  pipes, 
29  —  4-in.  service  pipes, 
108  —  3-in.  service  pipes, 
39  —  2-in.  service  pipes, 
24  —  li-in.  service  pipes, 
52  —  1-in.  service  pipes. 

In  Chelsea,  1908,  despite  an  heroic  effort  to  shut  off  all  connections 
from  the  distribution  system  in  advance  of  the  fire,  a  careful  estimate 
shows  that  approximately  6  700  gal.  per  min.  were  flowing  to  waste  and 
destroying  pressure  at  the  height  of  the  fire. 

In  Salem,  1914,  two  4-in.  and  one  6-in.  pipes  were  wasting  approxi- 
mately 7  200  gal.  per  min.  within  40  min.  after  the  fire  started.  In  addi- 
tion, one  8-in.,  six  6-in.  and  two  4-in.  pipes  were  discharging  into  broken 
inside  equipment  before  the  fire  was  under  control. 

In  the  three  above  mentioned  cases  the  inevitable  happened;  the 
work  of  the  firemen  being  fatally  handicapped  by  lack  of  water  due  to 
waste  from  broken  connections,  the  amount  of  which,  in  each  case,  at 
least  equalled  the  volume  of  water  delivered  on  the  fire. 

While  direct  permanent  connections  other  than  to  hydrants  are 
taboo,  yet  hose  connections  from  hydrants  to  outside  pipes  supplying 
sprinkler  sjrstems  and  standpipes  within  buildings  are  of  the  greatest 
possible  value.  This  fact  has  not  been  properly  appreciated,  at  least  as 
far  as  its  practical  application  goes.  It  will  be  conceded  that  water  from 
a  sprinkler  system  is  more  apt  to  reach  the  seat  of  fire  than  are  stream's 


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460  BOSTON    HIGH    PRESSURE   FIRE  SYSTEM. 

directed  from  the  outside;  why  then  is  it  not  sane  and  logical  to  require 
that  a  connection,  equipped  with  pressure  gage,  be  made  to  the  sprinkler 
system  at  the  outset  of  a  fire,  to  be  used  if  the  pressure  on  the  inside  sys- 
tem falls  too  low  for  effective  service,  the  sprinkler  system,  of  course*, 
being  permanently  equipped  with  the  necessary  check  valves. 

The  connections  from  distribution  systems  are  rapidh*^  growing  in 
nmnber  and  size,  due  to  the  increasing  demand  for  sprinkler  protection 
and  to  the  requirements  of  modern  plumbing.  The  danger  of  destruction 
of  hydrant  service  at  time  of  fire  must  also  increase,  and  the  time  is  not 
far  distant  wKen  the  high  pressure  fire  system  will  be  considered  a  nece&sit3^ 
in  all  locations  where  values  are  high  and  buildings  congested.  It  con- 
stitutes the  best  insurance  against  conflagration  yet  devised. 

With  the  belief  that  the  opinions  of  men  who  actually  ^'  chew  smoke" 
in  the  operation  of  special  fire  systems  will  prove  valuable  and  interesting, 
the  following  is  submitted:  — 

(liief  John  0.  Taber  of  Boston  writes:  — 

**The  immense  aggregation  of  values  in  the  buildings  and  their  con- 
tents in  the  business  district  of  Boston,  and  the  possibilit.v  of  conflagrations, 
with  tremendous  losses  which  effect  disastrous  results  on  business  and 
civic  growth,  are  striking  arguments  in  favor  of  providing  the  most  effec- 
tive known  means  of  preventing  such  catastrophies.  The  structural 
conditions  ex:stant  in  our  city,  the  occupancies,  and  other  features,  tend 
to  produce  a  high  conflagration  hazard,  particularly  in  sections  which 
are  crowded  and  poorly  accessible.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  chances  for 
sweeping  fires  in  large  cities  are  considerable,  even  though  the  Fire 
Department  be  eflScient  and  well  maintained.  All  that  is  required  under 
certain  conditions  is  the  right  combination  of  circumstances  to  make  a 
fire  too  large  for  a  department  to  handle.  We  had  such  a  combination 
of  circumstances  in  Boston  on  August  9,  1910.  We  have  had  many  more 
since  then  in  which  we  have  been  lucky.     Pure  luck,  that's  all. 

"With  the  high  pressure  system  in  service,  the  mains  are  well  looped 
in  suflScient  areas,  with  an  ample  supply  of  hydrants  in  which  service  will 
not  be  affected  by  the  breaking  of  connections  inside  buildings,  thereby 
bleeding  the  system.  It  has  been  the  tendency  in  modern  fire-fighting 
to  use  large  penetrating  streams,  and  these  alone  arc  effective  on  a  fire, 
well  under  way,  in  the  ordinary  large  area  buildings  filled  with  combustible 
stock.  Engine  supplies  at  the  present  time  are  not  capable  of  alone  fur- 
nishing the  necessary  volume  through  one  of  our  large  nozzles,  while  one 
hydrant  on  a  high  pn^ssure  system  will  su{)pl3'  four  or  five  such  streams. 

"To  sum  up  the  advantages  of  the  high  pressure  fire  system  it  means 
that  a  large  number  of  powerful  streams  can  be  concentrated  upon  a  fire 
in  a  much  shorter  space  of  time  with  fewer  men  and  less  apparatus  than 
fire  engines,  and  at  the  same  time  the  protection  of  the  rest  of  the  city 
would  not  l)e  weakened  to  the  extent  now  necessary  on  multiple  alarms 
from  the  district  covered  by  the  high  piessure  system.  It  will  deliver  its 
full  capacity  at  any  point  in  the  district  covered  at  any  desired  pressure, 
and  can  sustain  this  pressure  indefinitely.  It  eliminates  the  confusion 
entailed  in  the  operation  of  a  large  number  of  fire  engines.  It  further 
tends  to  prevent  a  misunderstanding  of  orders,  and  in  every  manner 


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MC INNES.  491 

simplifies  operation.  Above  all,  it  provides  protection  to  the  high-value 
district  from  which  about  all  6f  our  sources,  supplies  and  revenue  emanate. 
It  is  the  greatest  insurance  against  conflagration.  It  forms  an  effective 
barrier  against  fires  starting  outside  the  district,  and  offers  the  most 
efficient  check  in  the  district,  which  might  otherwise  involve  a  number  of 
large  blocks. 

*' We  have  used  the  H.  P.  F.  system  for  eight  months  past,  at  approxi- 
mately 100  fires.  On  arrival  at  the  scene  of  fire  we  have  found  in  all 
eases  125-lb.  pressure  ready  and  the  service  has  been  100  per  cent.  I  am 
satisfied  that  the  use  of  the  system  has  been  such  as  to  stop  many  of  the 
fires  in  their  incipiency,  preventing  greater  loss  than  would  have  resulted 
without  it. 

*'I  go  on  record  as  being  unqualifiedly  in  favor  of  the  completion  of 
the  present  high  pressure  system." 

Asst.  Chief  Joseph  B.  Martin  of  New  York  City  writes:  — 

"I  beg  leave  to  state  that  the  high  pressure  water  distributing  system 
is  one  which  admits  of  very  broad  consideration  and,  in  my  opinion,  con- 
sidering the  highly  commendable  and  efficient  result,  which  stands  out 
paramount  on  every  occasion  that  the  high  pressure  system  has  been 
employed  in  New  York  City,  one  is  safely  empowered  if  he  refers  to  it  as 
being  the  greatest,  most  efficient  and  most  substantial  auxiliary  unit  for 
fire-fighting  purposes  ever  employed  or  installed. 

'*The  extensive  fires  and  conflagrations  up  to  and  previous  to  the  year 
1904  in  many  large  American  cities  caused  the  officials,  and  among  them. 
New  York,  to  view  with  alarm  the  possibility  of  a  repetition  of  these  fires 
and  emphasized  the  necessity  of  installing  ways  and  means  of  protection 
against  such  a  calamity.  The  result  was  the  preparation  of  plans  for  the 
introduction  of  the  high  pressure  service,  which  was  inaugurated  in  1904, 
and. completely  installed  and  ready  for  service  in  1908. 

**The  first  high  pressure  system  in  Greater  New  York,  installed  at 
Coney  Island,  demonstrated  its  value  in  July,  1908,  when  it  was  the 
dominant  factor  in  extinguishing  a  conflagration  which  would,  no  doubt, 
have  reduced  the  almost  complete  frame  building  construction  there  to 
ashes. 

**The  constant,  unvarying  efficiency  demonstrated  by  this  high 
pressure  system  enables  and  prompts  me  to  highly  recommend  and  urge 
its  installation  in  any  city  where  water  facilities  are  available  and  ac- 
cessible, and  while  the  primary  cost  of  installation  is  high  in  a  city  like 
New  York,  magnificent  results  are  embodied  in  its  readiness  for  immed- 
iate use,  accessibility  for  connecting  lines  of  hose  to  outlets,  excellent 
water  delivery  and  pressure  control  by  independent  valves,  the  simplicity 
of  operation,  elimination  of  smoke  as  from  steam  pumpers,  ability  to 
operate  four  or  five  lines  from  one  hydrant.  All  of  these  facts  enable  me, 
from  my  practical  association  and  observance  of  the  high  pressure  system 
operation,  to  highly  commend  and  recommend  its  adoption  as  the  para- 
mount factor  in  auxiliary  fire  extinguishing  equipment. 

"Another  reference  that  highly  commends  the  efficiency  of  the  high 
pressure  installation  is  the  fact  that  the  district  charges  imposed  by  the 
underwriters  were  modified  and  reduced  upon  risks  in  buildings  and  con- 
tents located  in  the  high  pressure  districts. 

"And  when  I  recall  the  night  of  January  9,  1909,  when  three  ver>' 
extensive  and  threatening  fires  took  place  at  almost  the  same  time,  and 


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492  BOSTON  HIGH   PRESSURE   FIRE  SYSTEM. 

all  in  the  high  pressure  district  —  fourth  alarm,  station  122,  Hudson  and 
Franklin  Sts.;  third  alarm,  station  169,  Grand  St.  and  Bowery;  fifth, 
alarm,  station  265,  Broadway  and  Bleecker  St.  The  pressure  at  the  pump- 
ing stations  was  raised  to  225  lb.  and  it  was  estimated  that  15  000  000  gal. 
of  water  was  delivered  through  seventy  lines  of  hose,  and  it  was  unani- 
mously agreed  that  the  high  pressure  had  saved  the  borough  of  Man- 
hattan from  a  record  conflagration,  and  I  positively  verify  and  corroborate 
this  statement. 

''At  the  Equitable  Building  fire  in  1912,  the  high  pressure  system  had 
not  been  extended  to  this  locality  at  that  time,  being  only  instaUed  as  far 
as  Maiden  Lane,  several  blocks  north  of  the  Equitable  Building,   but 
several  3-in.  lines  were  stretched  and  even  at  this  distance  did  very  effective  ■ 
work. 

''At  another  serious  and  extensive  fire  on  25th  St.,  between  11th  and 
12th  Ave.,  many  3-in.  lines  were  stretched  from  the  then  northern 
boundary  of  the  high  pressure  system  which  extended  at  that  time  north 
only  as  far  as  23rd  St.  Its  operation  here  was  credited  with  effectively 
controlling  the  area  of  fire  on  that  side. 

"And  so  on  through  a  long  list  of  fires  which  were  controlled  and 
held  and  checked  by  the  first  alarm  assignment  —  four  engines,  two 
trucks  and  a  water  tower  —  operating  at  times  as  many  as  eleven  and 
twelve  effective  streams  at  a  fire  which  would  ordinarily  call  for  a  third 
alarm  assignment  if  the  locality  was  not  within  the  high  pressure  zone 
and  the  excellent  water  dehvery  available. 

"I  respectfully  refer  also  to  the  recent  fire  at  110-114  Jane  St.,  where 
several  explosions  and  falling  walls  presented  a  very  threatening  and 
dangerous  situation.  This  warehouse  extends  through  from  Jane  St.  to 
West  12th  St.;  a  very  extensive  area,  and  when  explosions  took  place  the 
falling  walls  almost  demolished  adjoining  residence  buildings,  and  required 
the  use  of  fifty  lines  of  hose  with  effective  streams  from  each  with  pressures 
of  125  lb.  at  the  start  at  the  pumping  station,  which  I  ordered  increased 
first  to  150  lb.  and  then  to  175  lb.  This  excellent  pressure  was  main- 
tained uninterruptedly  for  nine  hours  when  the  fire  was  under  control  and 
not  a  break  was  suffered  with  this  exceptional  demand  on  the  six  pumps 
which  were  used  in  the  pumping  stations. 

"And  so  on  through  a  long  Hst  of  fires  at  which  the  high  pressure 
water  delivery  has  been  jused  since  1908,  there  is  the  one  sentiment,  and 
that  is  unanimous,  that  it  deserves  the  highest  commendation  and  the 
most  commendable  references  that  can  be  awarded  to  any  auxiliary  fire 
extinguishing  system  in  existence." 

Chief  Ross  B.  Davis,  Philadelphia,  writes:  — 

"The  many  advantages  attached  to  a  high  pressure  system  are  num- 
erous and  can  be  appreciated  all  the  more  after  experiencing  so  many  years 
without  one. 

"The  disastrous  conditions  and  possibly  a  conflagration  may  be 
avoided  by  the  immediate  use  of  the  high  pressure  Hues.  Some  fires  gain 
such  headway  before  arrival  of  apparatus  that  it  is  impossible  to  get 
within  reach  of  them  without  a  high  pressure  stream;  especially  where 
the  fire  reaches  such  a  degree  of  heat  that  the  surrounding  property  is 
instantaneously   ignited. 

"I  recall  a  large  fire  happened  in  the  month  of  February,  1921,  which 
was  a  four-story  brick  building  with  a  200-ft.  frontage  on  a  street  80  ft. 


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MC INNES.  493 

wide.  The  wind  was  blowing  at  about  the  rate  of  22 miles  an  hour  down  this 
street.  Notwithstanding  the  direction  of  the  wind,  the  nature  of  the 
contents  in  this  building  generated  heat  to  such  a  degree  as  to  set  fire  to 
several  buildings  across  the  street,  placing  our  men  in  a  very  hazardous 
position. 

"Many  fires  in  upper  floors  of  high  buildings  can  be  held  and  heat 
waves  broken  by  high  pressure  lines  until  you  can  get  your  hnes  in  action 
on  the  floors  where  the  fire  is  burning.  Extreme  caution  must  be  used 
in  handling  these  lines  and  especially  in  the  loading  of  buildings  with  the 
weight  of  water,  particularly  when  working  lines  in  buildings. 

"  The  installation  of  the  high  pressure  system  is  invaluable  to  any  city 
or  town  and  may  in  time  be  the  means  of  doing  away  with  the  pumping 
unit  in  the  Fire  Departments,  which  may  prove  to  be  more  economical.. 

**The  high  pressure  system,  which  has  been  installed  to  date,  has 
performed  such  excellent  service  and  has  been  such  a  gratifying  success 
that  I  can  not  urge  too  strongly  the  installation  of  such  system  to  cover 
an  entire  city." 

Chief  L.  H.  EUing,  Toledo,  O.,  writes:  — 

**  As  a  Fire  Department  auxiliary  it  has  proven  its  great  value  by  per- 
mitting the  rapid  concentration  of  a  large  number  of  powerful  streams 
within  the  area  served,  and,  by  lessening  the  number  of  fire  engines  required 
to  do  this,  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  fire  service  in  other  parts  of  the 
city  in  case  of  a  second  fire. 

"The  system  has  fulfilled  our  fondest  expectations  whenever  we 
found  it  necessary  to  use  same  in  the  way  of  getting  plenty  of  water,  at 
any  desired  pressure,  through  short  lines  of  hose,  which  has  enabled  us 
to  confine  all  large  fires  in  the  congested  district  to  their  place  of  origin. 

"On  several  occasions  we  found  it  necessary  to  use  more  water  than 
our  combined  fire  engines  could  furnish  and  as  the  high  pressure  system 
uses  raw  water,  it  saves  the  low  pressure  system  that  much  filtration. 

"The  system  is  giving  such  good  service  in  the  territory  covered  that, 
in  my  opinion,  it  should  be  extended  so  that  others  would  receive  the 
benefits  from  same.'' 

Chief  William  Russell,  Toronto,  Canada,  writes:  — 

"I  consider  such  means  of  combatting  fires  the  most  valuable  ac- 
quisition obtainable  and  would  advocate  all  large  cities  installing  such  pro- 
tection, expensive  as  it  may  be  in  the  beginning.  I  venture  to  say  that 
such  a  plant  would  repay  any  large  city  in  no  time.  I  have  used  ours  very 
effectively  at  different  times  and  would  hate  to  assume  my  present  re- 
sponsibility without  it  to  fall  back  on." 

Chief  August  Emrich,  Baltimore,  Md.,  writes:  — 

"I  have  to  say  that  the  important  points  in  connection  with  the 
Baltimore  sjrstem  are  as  follows:  — 

"The  installation  of  a  steam  plant  in  connection  with  horizontal, 
Corliss,  twin  simple,  non-condensing,  crank  and  fly  wheel  types  of  pumps. 

"The  use  of  all  lap-welded,  soft,  open  hearth  steel  pipe,  together  with 
a  imiversal  joint  designed  without  gaskets,  and  which  thereby  prevents 
leakage  on  the  system. 


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494  BOSTON   HIGH   PRESSURE  FIRE  SVSTEM.  HE    I 

**The  use  of  portable  hydrants  of  the  type  used  here  makes  it  possible^  ^ 
to  take  off  of  any  one  of  four  lines  any  pressure  as  may  be  desired,  not  }  m 
exceeding  the  pressure,  of  course,  carried  on  the  main  at  the  time.  ,   ' 

'*  I  have  no  hesitancy  in  saying  that  I  do  not  think  that  a  more  modem 
type  of  high  pressure  system  exists  than  as  installed  in  the  city  of  Balti- 
more, and  when  I  say,  and  as  I  have  shown  you,  that  when  pressure  of 

75  lb.  maintained  on  the  line  can  be  raised  to  250  lbs.  in  from  20  to  22  sec^ 
and  kept  so  for  the  heaviest  fire  service,  I  am  of  the  impression  that  a  more 
practical  system  for  the  extinguishment  of  fires  is  not  in  existence. 

**The  installation  of  high  pressure  systems  to  prevent  conflagrations     | 
and  for  the  extinguishment  of  fires  in  large  cities  is  indispensable,  and 
affords,  in  my  opinion,  the  most  modern  method  of  fire  extinguishment 
possible  at  this  time." 

Chief  Thomas  R.  Murphy,  San  Francisco,  writes:  — 

*'  San  Francisco's  high  pressure  fire  system  has  been  constructed  as 
an  auxiliary  fire  fighting  system,  following  the  failure  of  the  domestic  water 
supply  system  after  the  earthquake  of  1906,  and  as  such,  it  has  so  far  ful- 
filled every  expectation. 

*^  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  not  intended  to  be  used  as  a  primary  fire 
fighting  force,  or  to  eliminate  pumping  engines  in  the  department,  owinjr 
to  the  fact  that  its  mains  cover  only  certain  sections  of  the  city,  and  its 
hydrants  are  in  many  cases  set  too  far  apart  for  efficient  service,  but  for 
its  real  purpose,  viz.  the  reinforcement  of  the  domestic  water  supply  sys- 
tem, it  has  at  very  many  occasions  proved  of  very  great  value. 

''  With  10  500  000  gal.  of  water  stored  at  an  elevation  758  ft.  above 
city  base,  practically  at  the  geographical  center  of  the  city,  and  delivered 
by  gravity  (normally  through  two  zone  tanks  acting  as  pressure  reducers, 
but  capable  of  being  delivered  at  a  pressure  of  over  300  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 
in  the  down  town  and  congested  value  districts),  its  superiority  over  the 
domestic  supply  system  as  a  factor  in  controlling  large  fires,  can  readily 
be  seen. 

**  Whether  or  not  a  high  pressure  system  is  indispensable,  should  of 
course  largely  depend  upon  local  conditions  and  the  capacity  of  the  domes- 
tic supply  system,  as  far  as  San  Francisco  is  concerned,  the  fire  of  1906  has 
demonstrated  the  inadequacy  of  its  domestic  system  and  for  safety,  the 
high  pressure  system  is  absolutely  indispensable. 

''  Ever  since  its  completion,  some  nine  years  ago,  the  local  high  pres- 
sure system  has  been  used  at  every  large  fire  as  far  as  its  mains  extend, 
and  in  every  instance  has  given  complete  satisfaction.*' 

The  accompanying  insert  sheet  gives  a  list  of  the  existing  H.  P.  F. 
and  auxiliary  fire  systems  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  with  data  con- 
cerning the  principal  features  of  each  system.  The  somewhat  wide 
divergence  of  design,  due  in  part  to  local  conditions,  is  notable. 


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BOOTH.  495 


HIGH  PRESSURE  FIRE  SYSTEMS  FROM  THE  UNDERWRITERS' 

VIEWPOINT. 


[Read  September  15th,  1922,  at  New  Bedford,  Maae.] 

Losses  resulting  from  conflagrations  are  those  most  dreaded  by  the 
insurance  companies;  they  correspond  in  fire  insurance  to  what  a  wide- 
spread attack  of  the  plague  would  be  to  life  insurance.  It  was  following 
the  Baltimore  conflagration  in  1904  that  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers organized  the  Committee  of  Twenty,  superseded  two  years  later 
by  a  standing  Committee  on  Fire  Prevention,  one  of  the  principal  func- 
tions of  which  had  been  to  advise  on  means  whereby  conflagrations  might 
be  averted.  The  Baltimore  High  Pressure  System  was  installed  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  experience  in  combating  the  1904  Conflagration  in  that  city, 
and  the  San  Francisco  System  correspondingly  after  the  1906  Conflagration, 
Conflagrations  spread  either  by  the  generation  of  a  heat  wave  of  such 
intensity  that  everything  combustible  in  its  path  is  involved,  or  by  means 
of  flying  brands  carried  by  the  wind  far  in  advance  of  the  origin  of  the  fire 
and  setting  fire  to  combustible  roofs  or  porches.  The  first  type  of  confla- 
gration fs  that  of  which  we  must  think  in  considering  the  installation  of 
High  Pressure  Fire  Systems,  since  most  of  them  occur  in  high  value  con- 
gested districts  and  it  is  only  in  such  districts  that  the  expense  of  install- 
ing and  maintaining  a  separate  fire  main  system  can  be  warranted.  There 
is  of  course  much  (Joubt  as  to  w^hether  such  a  system  or  any  other  fire 
fighting  facility  will  enable  a  fire  department  to  make  a  direct  stop  of  a 
conflagration  well  started;  probably  not,  since  the  heat  wave  is  so  intense 
for  some  distance  in  advance  of  the  fire  as  to  prohibit  a  stand.  But  it  will 
at  least  facihtate  a  narrowing  and  checking  of  the  fire  at  strategic  points, 
and  should  serve  to  prevent  a  threatening  fire  from  assuming  conflagra- 
tion proportions,  as  it  has  in  fact  been  reported  as  doing  in  one  or  more 
cases  in  Baltimore. 

An  inspection  of  the  list  of  cities  in  which  separate  fire  main  systems 
have  been  installed  shows  that  9  out  of  the  18  cities  which  have  installed 
such  systems  ^\ith  special  pumping  stations  to  supply  them  have  a  popu- 
lation in  excess  of  400  000;  four  of  the  other  9  are  in  excess  of  200  000  and 
most  of  the  others  either  present  special  fire  protection  problems  or  were 
able  to  take  advantage  of  favorable  conditions  to  minimize  the  cost  of  in- 
stallation, or  of  maintenance,  or  both.    In  this  comparison  are  not  included 

*  Chief  Engineer,  National  Board  of  Fire  I'nderwritcrs,  New  York  City, 

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496      HIGH    PRESSURE  FIRE   SYSTEMS   FROM    UNDERWRITERS'    VIEWPOINT. 

those  cities  which  have  made  extensions  of  the  domestic  high  service  sys- 
tems into  congested  value  sections  at  lower  elevations.  Such  extensions 
have  been  made  in  Worcester,  Providence,  Newark,  N.  J.,  Fitchburg, 
Lawrence,  and  a  few  other  cities,  and  furnishing  from  3  000  to  8  000  gal. 
per  minute  at  initial  pressures  ranging  from  130  to  180  lb.  must  be  consid- 
ered as  highly  valuable  auxiliaries  to  other  fire-fighting  facilities. 

An  interesting  form  of  development  is  that  in  Atlantic  City,  where 
the  high  value  hotel  district  is  protected  in  part  by  a  system  of  mains  and 
hydrants  installed  by  the  city,  with  supply  from  the  fire  pumps  in  each  of 
the  hotels  under  protection.  A  somewhat  similar  plan  was  established  a 
number  of  years  ago  by  the  proprietors  of  the  locks  and  canals  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  mill  district  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  and  certain  of  the  mills  in 
Lawrence  have  connections  from  their  individual  fire  pumps  to  a  common 
main  running  the  full  length  of  the  plants.  While  this  plan  has  some  dis- 
advantages as  compared  with  a  system  having  supply  and  distribution 
under  single  management  and  control,  it  appears  to  be  well  suited  to 
serve  adjoining  and  common  interests  where  the  more  expensive  complete 
installation  is  not  practicable. 

A  few  years  ago,  when  the  question  of  installing  a  system  in  Boston 
was  being  discussed,  the  National  Board  prepared  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"  The  Desirability  of  a  High  Pressure  Fire  System  in  the  City  of  Boston." 
We  had  perhaps  more  difficulty  in  convincing  ourselves  that  such  a  system 
was  desirable  in  Boston  than  in  most  cities  of  its  size,  in  spite  of  its  narrow 
streets  and  congestion  of  buildings;  because  the  city  of  Boston  had  already 
an  unusually  good  system  for  supplying  water  to  fire  engines,  besides  hav- 
ing extensions  from  the  domestic  high  service  for  serving  automatic  sprink- 
ler equipments  throughout  most  of  the  congested  value  sections.  The 
arguments  in  that  pamphlet  may  be  summarized  as  follows,  and  will 
apply  with  equal  or  greater  force  in  other  large  American  cities:  — 

(1)  The  immense  aggregations  of  buildings  and  contents  in  the  business 
district  of  metropolitan  cities,  and  the  possibility  of  conflagrations  involv- 
ing tremendous  losses  and  disastrous  effect  on  business  and  civic  growth, 
dictate  the  most  effective  known  means  of  preventing  such  catastrophies. 

(2)  A  large  number  of  powerful  streams  can  be  concentrated  on  a  fire 
in  much  shorter  time  and  with  fewer  men  and  less  apparatus  than  with 
fire  engines. 

(3)  The  protection  of  the  rest  of  the  city  will  not  be  weakened  to  the 
extent  now  necessary  on  third  and  fourth  alarms  from  the  district  covered 
by  the  system. 

(4)  It  will  deliver  its  full  capacity  at  any  point  in  the  district  covered 
and  at  any  desired  pressure  and  can  sustain  this  pressure  as  long  as  wanted. 

(5)  It  eliminates  the  confusion  entailed  in  the  operation  of  a  large  niun- 
ber  of  fire  engines,  tends  to  prevent  the  misunderstanding  of  orders,  and  in 
every  way  simplifies  operation. 


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BOOTH.  497 

(6)  It  provides  protection  to  the  congested  value  district  even  with  a 
general  alarm  fire  under  headway  in  another  part  of  the  city,  and  forms 
an  eflfective  barrier  against  fires  starting  outside  the  district,  while  also 
affording  the  most  eflBicient  means  of  checking  fires  in  the  district  which 
might  otherwise  involve  a  number  of  blocks. 

Concerning  the  first  of  these  items,  I  would  not  have  you  believe  that 
there  are  no  other  effective  and  practicable  means  of  offsetting  the  confla- 
gration hazard.  I  recently  had  the  pleasure  of  a  discussion  on  this  subject 
with  the  chairman  of  the  London  City  Council  Conmiittee  on  Fire  Bri- 
ades,  which  corresponds  to  the  position  of  Fire  Department  Commissioner 
in  American  cities.  He  had  been  in  New  York  about  a  week  and  was  won- 
ering  why  it  was  that,  in  spite  of  the  vastly  greater  numerical  and  apparatus 
fire  department  strength  as  compared  with  London,  we  had  such  disastrous 
and  destructive  fires.  When  questioned,  he  stated  what  undoubtedly 
constitutes  the  answer  to  his  problem,  that  in  London  the  building  ordin- 
ances prohibit  any  building  more  than  80  feet  high,  require  fire  walls  to 
subdivide  floor  areas,  and  compel  the  protection  of  all  openings  in  elevator 
shafts  and  other  connections  from  floor  to  floor.  These  requirements,  to- 
gether with  protection  on  exposed  openings  in  exterior  walls  and  with  auto- 
matic sprinkler  equipments  in  buildings  of  hazardous  occupancy,  would 
go  very  far  towards  making  entirely  imnecessary  the  powerful  high  pressure 
systems  we  are  considering.  However,  the  present  situation  and  trend  of 
development  in  American  cities  are  such  that  structural  conditions  will 
for  many  years  to  come  require  the  strongest  possible  fire  protection  facil- 
ities to  offset  them. 

It  is  not  an  impossibility,  even  without  a  high  pressure  system,  to 
concentrate  numbers  of  powerful  streams  on  a  threatening  fire  in  a  large 
area  building,  as  has  been  proved  again  and  again  in  the  city  of  Boston, 
where  the  water  supply  is  ample  and  readily  available  and  the  fire  depart- 
ment trained  and  accustomed  to  do  that  very  thing.  However,  it  is  not 
a  very  common  practice  nor  one  readily  accomplished  without  good  train- 
ing, as  has  been  demonstrated  in  a  number  of  cases  recently,  at  fires  which 
would  have  been  much  less  destructive  had  these  powerful  streams  been 
used.  It  is  not  so  difficult  to  accomplish  for  the  modern  department 
equipped  with  automobile  pumping  engines  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  steam 
fire  engines,  which  are  much  more  awkward  to  handle  and  less  able  to  main- 
tain the  pressure  and  discharge  at  which  they  are  rated.  However,  even  the 
automobile  fire  engine  is  at  a  disadvantage,  since  the  largest  of  those  in 
common  use  has  a  rated  capacity  of  1  000  gal.  per  minute  at  120  lb.  net 
pressure,  and  we  may  reasonably  expect  from  each  of  the  closer  hydrants 
of  a  high  pressure  system  an  average  of  2  000  gal.  per  minute  at  any  pressure 
up  to  250  lb.  Also,  such  a  system  is  much  more  flexible  in  operation  as 
respects  relocation  of  hose  lines  and  regulation  of  pressures  on  individual 
lines  than  one  which  involves  the  use  of  fire  engines. 


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498      HIGH   PRESSURE   FIRE   SYSTEMS   FROM    UNDERWRITERS'    VIEWPOINT. 

Since  July,  1908,  when  the  high  pressure  fire  system  was  put  in  service 
in  Manhattan,  the  most  extensive  use  made  of  it  was  in  January,  1909, 
when  it  was  brought  into  service  for  five  simultaneous  fires,  three  of  them 
of  more  than  usual  severity,  and  one  particularly  so.  At  the  extreme, 
seven  pumps  were  being  operated,  delivering  33  500  gal.  per  minute  against 
an  average  pressure  of  225  lb.  at  the  pumps  and  205  lb.  at  the  hydrants. 
Forty  engine  companies  were  called,  including  more  than  600  men,  and  all 
the  water  thrown  on  the  fire  was  from  the  high  pressure  system. 

The  system  was  also  used  on  the  occasion  of  the  Equitable  Building 
fire,  and  at  a  difficult  fire  in  a  general  storage  warehouse  fire  on  Jane  Street 
in  July,  1922;  because  of  a  disastrous  explosion  in  the  early  stages  of  this 
fire,  it  was  not  considered  safe  for  firemen  to  remain  in  the  building,  and 
the  fire  was  therefore  drowned  by  streams  from  the  outside;  at  one  tinne 
sixty  large  streams,  using  a  total  of  over  30  000  gal.  per  minute  were  in 
service,  at  a  pressure  of  about  200  lb.  at  the  hydrant,  and  a  total  of  87  000- 
000  gal.  of  water  is  reported  to  have  been  used.  Each  of  these  streams 
would  require,  if  fire  engines  were  used,  the  services  of  one  fire  company, 
whereas  each  company  can  lay  and  handle  at  least  two  or  three  lines  from 
a  high  pressure  hydrant  to  turret  nozzles  or  water  towers.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  fewer  companies  will  be  required  for  fires  calling  for  large 
quantities  of  water,  and  a  much  smaller  part  of  the  city  will  be  stripped 
of  its  normal  protection. 

Conversely,  in  the  event  of  a  general  alarm  fire  in  another  part  of  the 
city  sufficient  companies  toyman  a  reasonable  number  of  streams  will  al- 
ways be  left  in  service  for  the  protection  of  the  district  which  is  covered  by 
the  high  pressure  system;  and  should  a  fire  originate  outside  the  district 
and  threaten  the  district  itself,  the  concentration  of  streams  which  can  be 
effected  would  constitute  a  means  whereby  such  an  exposure  fire  could  be 
checked  or  narrowed  with  better  success  than  in  any  other  way,  except 
perhaps  by  the  interposition  of  sprinklered  buildings,  well  provided  with 
window  protection;  these  latter  are  not  frequent  enough  at  present  on  the 
outer  boundaries  of  most  of  our  congested  value  districts  to  constitute 
a  very  reliable  line  of  defence. 

It  is  uncanny  to  witness  the  fighting  of  a  large  fire  when  only  streams 
from  a  high  pressure  fire  system  are  used.  Instead  of  the  noise  and  the 
apparent  confusion  when  either  steam  fire  engines  or  automobile  pumping 
engines  are  used  there  is  only  the  swishing  noise  of  the  streams  as  they 
emerge  from  the  nozzles  or  strike  the  walls  of  the  building.  This,  of  course 
very  much  facilitates  the  issuing  of  orders  by  chief  officers  and  simplifies 
operation  in  every  way. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  definitely  the  question  of  reduction  in 
fire  insurance  rates  which  has  accompanied  the  completion  of  separate 
fire  main  systems  in  different  cities.  The  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers has  no  jurisdiction  and  exercises  no  control  in  matters  of  this 
nature,  and  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  statement  as  to  the  amount  of  credit 


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DISCUSSION.  499 

which  is  in  some  cases  a  percentage  of  the  base  rate  and  in  others  a  flat 
reduction;  in  any  case,  the  matter  is  one  to  be  decided  upon  by  the  insur- 
ance organization  having  local  jurisdiction.  In  most  cases,  no  credit  is 
allowed  in  rates  on  buildings  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers,  in  some 
cases  none  is  allowed  on  stocks  but  only  on  buildings,  and  in  others  the 
principal  credit  relates  to  the  item  covering  exposure  hazard  from  other 
buildings. 

Joint  Discussion. 

Mr.  Booth.  There  is  one  point  I  overlooked  at  the  time  of  writing  my 
paper  which  is  that  a  good  many  of  the  insurance  companies,  having  doubt 
as  to  the  adequacy  of  existing  fire  protection,  will  write  greater  Knes  on 
buildings  after  the  completion  of  a  high  pressure  s>'^tem  than  they  were 
willing  to  before.  I  think  that  was  the  case  in  the  city  of  Boston.  Some 
of  the  larger  companies,  which  had  limited  their  lines  quite  materially, 
felt  that  the  city  was  enough  safer  after  the  system  was  installed  to  warrant 
their  writing  considerably  larger  lines. 

I  have  not  gone  into  detail  on  a  great  many  things  that  occurred  to  me, 
thinking  very  likely  there  would  be  questions  that  would  come  up  which 
would  bring  out  those  points.  One  that  does  occur  to  me  right  now  as  to 
operation  is  that  in  some  cities,  as  you  have  noted  from  Mr.  Mclnnes* 
paper,  the  system  is  used  on  all  fires  that  occur  within  the  area  protected. 
In  other  cities  it  is  used  only  on  second  or  greater  alarm  fires.  It  is  my 
opinion  that  the  oftener  it  is  used  the  more  familiar  the  firemen  become  with 
its  use,  and  the  more  likely  they  are  to  operate  it  effectively  when  the  real 
severe  test  comes.  For  that  reason  we  have  always  felt  that  it  should  be 
used  on  all  alarms. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.*  What  pressure  is  ordinarily  maintained  between 
alarms? 

Mr.  McInnes.    About  fifty-five  pounds. 

Mr.  Diven.  That  would  rather  discourage  a  man  who  wanted  to 
get  it  for  some  other  use. 

Mr.  McInnes.  Mr.  Booth  spoke  of  the  uncanniness  of  operation 
of  the  high  pressure  system.  That  feature  was  strikingly  exemplified  to 
me  at  a  fire  in  the  sixth  or  seventh  story  of  a  building  on  lower  Broadway 
about  two  years  ago.  The  firemen  ran  several  lines  inside  the  building 
quietly,  quickly  and  methodically;  they  also  connected  on  the  outside  to 
fire  pipes  in  the  building.  The  smoke  and  flame  which  had  been  pouring 
out  of  the  windows  suddenly  stopped.  A  visit  to  the  pumping  station 
showed  that  the  delivery  of  water  at  first  was  1  200  gal.  per  min.  When 
the  stage  was  properly  set  it  jumped  up  to  7  000  gal.  per  min.  and  the 
fire  gave  out.  The  only  excitement  was  afforded  by  a  couple  of  thrilling 
rescues. 


*  Secretary  of  American  Water  Work-*  Association. 


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500  MC  INNES  AND   BOOTH. 

Mr.  Carleton  E.  Davis.*  What  is  the  limit  beyond  the  fire  hydrant 
that  you  can  use  this  high  pressure  system? 

Mr.  McInnes.  We  figure  400  ft.  under  ordinary  conditions.  Un- 
doubtedly effective  work  can  be  done  1  000  ft.  away,  using  two  or  more 
lines  siamezed. 

Mr.  Booth.  There  have  been  occasions  where  lines  have  reached 
1  000  ft.  in  New  York.  In  the  Equitable  Building  fire,  the  pipe  system 
was  not  extended  to  that  point  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  but  it  was  close  enough 
to  enable  effective  use  to  be  made  of  it.  Of  course  you  have  to  draw  the 
line  somewhere,  and  we  have  considered  400  ft.  as  a  fair  distance  from  the 
nearest  hydrant,  within  which  you  would  get  reasonable  normal  protection. 

Mr.  William  W.  Brush.*  As  I  recall,  when  we  were  working  on  the 
installation  of  the  New  York  system,  we  estimated  on  600  ft.  as  the  extreme 
distance  from  a  hydrant  that  we  would  consider  the  high  pressure  system 
to  furnish  effective  protection.  I  want  to  ask  Mr.  McInnes  whether  he 
has  any  connection  at  all  between  his  high  pressure  pipe  system  and  his 
domestic  lines,  except  from  the  pumping  stations. 

Mr.  McIxnes.  None  whatever,  Mr.  Brush,  with  the  exception  of 
the  small  by-pass  through  the  station,  to  keep  pressure  on  the  high  pressure 
fire  system,  with  check  valves,  which  we  use  to  keep  air  out  of  the  system, 
to  be  sure  there  is  no  air  in  the  hydrants,  and  also  use  to  measure  the 
leakage.    That  is  the  only  connection  of  any  kind  anywhere  in  the  system. 

Mr.  Brush.  There  is  no  other  connection  to  any  private  system 
which  could  be  put  in  use  by  the  Fire  Department,  except  by  stretching 
hose? 

Mr.  McInnes.    None  whatever. 

Mr.  Brush.  In  Brooklyn,  we  have  two  connections,  between  the 
high  pressure  and  low  pressure  systems,  so  that  the  high  pressure  system 
can  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  service  in  case  of  a  break  down  of  one  of  the 
domestic  pumping  stations.  Those  connections  have  two  valves  on  each 
connection  and  between  the  valves  we  have  a  drain  pipe  to  take  care  of 
any  seepage  which  may  occur  between  the  two  systems. 

If  we  ever  have  to  put  salt  water  in  the  system,  and  we  doubt  if  we 
ever  do,  the  possibility  of  any  salt  water  getting  in  the  domestic  services 
through  these  connections  is  obviated  by  the  drains  at  these  connections. 
We  have  recently  arranged  to  put  in  a  connection  that  will  be  available 
for  the  Navy  Yard  in  Brooklyn.  That  connection  terminates  in  an  open 
pipe,  and  the  Navy  Yard  has  to  provide  a  large  size  special  hose  that  can 
be  used  to  connect  the  two  systems.  The  naval  authorities  are  required 
to  notify  both  the  Fire  Department  and  the  Water  Department  before  they 
place  the  connecting  hose.  That  is  something  that  is  very  special,  and  we 
believe  that  connection  is  amply  safeguarded  in  as  much  as  there  is  no 
direct  connection  between  the  two  systems,  but  this  special  hose  connec- 


*  Chief,  Bureau  of  Water.  Philadelphia.  Pa. 

*  Deputy  Chief  Engineer,  Bureau  of  Water,  New  York. 

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DISCUSSION.  501 

tion  can  be  connected  up  so  that  the  Navy  Yard  in  Brooklyn  can  have  the 
high  pressure  water  in  case  their  own  high  pressure  system  fails. 

Down  at  Coney  Island,  where  there  is  the  first  high  pressure  system 
installed  in  New  York,  we  had  a  number  of  connections  to  the  amusement 
parks.  These  connections  were  put  in  at  the  request  of  the  Fire  Depart- 
ment, the  proprietors  of  the  amusement  parks  having  urged  the  placing 
of  such  connections.  After  the  Dreamland  fire,  if  I  recall  correctly,  the 
Fire  Department  then  requested  that  these  connections  be  closed  and 
sealed  because  the  Fire  Department  exp)erienced  trouble  with  the  unauthor- 
ized use  of  some  of  the  hydrants. 

In  Manhattan  there  have  been  cases  where  through  error,  intentional 
or  otherwise,  there  have  been  small  connections  made  from  the  high  service 
into  buildings,  and  the  evidence  tends  to  show  the  possibiUty  of  there  being 
one  or  more  such  connections  still  existing  on  the  system,  but  we  have  been 
unable  to  locate  them.  They,  of  course,  do  not  represent  any  connection 
which  would  affect  the  delivery  of  the  system. 

We  had  rather  an  interesting  experience  with  a  couple  of  hydrants 
about  which  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
In  April  of  1918  the  fire  chief  reported  that  at  a  fire  the  flow  from  one 
hydrant  suddenly  ceased.  An  examination  was  made  of  the  hydrant 
immediately  after  the  fire  and  there  was  nothing  found  to  be  the  trouble 
with  it.  The  hydrant  was  taken  apart  the  following  day  and  everything 
was  apparently  all  right.  At  that  time  the  only  cause  for  the  obstruction 
of  flow  through  the  hydrant  that  appealed  to  me  was  the  possibiUty  that 
ice  had  formed  at  a  high  point  in  the  system,  become  dislodged,  floated 
into  the  branch  and  cut  off  the  flow.  This  spring  we  had  a  similar  case 
as  far  as  the  cutting  off  of  the  flow  was  concerned.  The  pressure 
suddenly  dropped  from  about  one  hundred  fifty  pounds  to  fifty  pounds 
on  one  hydrant.  We  had  been  getting  ample  flow  from  the  hydrant  and 
several  lines  had  been  taken  off  this  hydrant.  The  hydrant  was 
examined  within  a  few  hours  and  then  taken  apart  the  following 
morning.  Here  again  the  hydrant  was  in  perfect  order  when  it  was 
taken  apart.  The  only  explanation  that  I  could  personally  give  was  that 
ice  had  floated  in  and  temporarily  closed  the  branch  or  hydrant  valve 
opening.  Those  are  the  only  two  instances  of  that  character,  and  the  only 
instances  that  I  can  recall  where  there  was  any  stoppage  of  flow  through 
any  one  of  the  several  thousand  hydrants  that  we  have  on  the  system. 
Chief  Kenyon  did  not  agree  with  me  on  the  ice  theory  in  the  first  instance. 
In  the  second  instance  I  do  not  recall  that  he  made  any  comment. 

President  Barbour.  What  depth  are  the  pipes  laid?  Are  they 
all  the  same? 

Mr.  Brush.  Four  and  one  half  feet.  There  are  some  places  where 
they  come  up  within  two  feet  of  the  surface.  I  think  18  in.  is  the  minimum 
depth  we  have  from  the  surface  to  the  main.  Now,  we  have  had  one  in- 
stance where  the  high  pressure  main  was  frozen  solid,  which  was  during 

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502  MC  INNES  AND   BOOTH. 

the  severe  winter  of  1918.  The  pipe  was  cracked  and  had  to  be  replaced. 
We  have  not  had  any  instance  where  the  general  flow  from  the  mains  has 
been  affected,  as  far  as  could  be  observed,  by  ice  formation. 

Mr.  Diven.     Other  hydrants  in  the  neighborhood  were  working? 

Mr.  Brush.  Yes,  there  were  several  hydrants  working  on  these  two 
fires,  and  they  worked  perfectly,  so  that  there  was  no  trouble  in  the  flow 
of  water  through  the  system.  At  the  Jane  Street  fire  one  of  the  two  pump- 
ing stations,  during  the  height  of  the  fire,  experienced  a  break  in  a  10-in. 
check  valve.  The  check  valve  suddenly  scathed  and  blew  the  casing  top 
oflf,  and  the  result  was  that  the  station  was  verj-^  thoroughly  sprayed  with 
water.  The  load  was  quickly  transferred  over  onto  the  other  station,  and 
the  Fire  Department  never  knew  anything  about  it.  The  station  itself 
could  probably  have  been  kept  operating  on  the  fire  if  it  had  been  essential 
to  do  it.  Within  an  hour  it  was  back  again  on  the  regular  service.  But 
this  shows  how  a  rather  serious  accident  can  occur  in  the  pumping  station 
and  still  keep  the  pressure  up.  There  has  never  been  a  case  where  the 
stations  have  failed  to  function. 

The  Coney  Island  station,  using  gas  engines,  has  not  been  as  satis- 
factory as  the  electrically  operated  stations.  We  have  had  trouble  there 
with  engines  and  with  pumps  from  time  to  time  on  large  fires.  I  think 
that  plant  is  in  better  shape  to-day  than  it  ever  has  been  before.  There 
have  been  changes  made  to  make  the  pumps  and  the  engines  more  reliable. 
But  there  we  have  had  a  lessening  of  the  delivery  of  the  station,  so  that  the 
pressure  has  been  low  when  the  Fire  Department  desired  service  on  one 
or  two  of  the  largest  fires. 

In  the  main  system  of  Brooklyn,  where  we  have  two  stations,  we 
connected  the  Catskill  s>^tem  to  the  mains  and  put  about  one  hundred 
pounds  on  the  system  two  or  three  years  ago,  and  since  then  have  had  less 
than  a  dozen  runs  a  year  with  the  two  stations  combined,  so  that  in  Brook- 
lyn, where  the  Fire  Department  normally  ask  for  75  lb.  at  the  start  of  the 
fire,  the  100  lb.  pressure  takes  care  of  all  except  about  a  dozen  fires.  The 
protected  area  runs  several  miles  along  the  water  front  and  a  mile  deep  in 
the  main  district  of  the  borough. 

Also  in  Brooklyn  the  system  was  laid  out  so  as  to  check  the  confla- 
gration in  the  high  pressure  district  rather  than  to  eliminate  the  use  of  the 
steam  or  other  power  driven  fire  engines,  and  recently  the  Fire  Depart- 
ment have  asked  us  to  extend  the  system  so  that  they  can  do  away  with 
calling  the  fire  engines  in  case  of  fire  within  the  high  pressure  district.  It 
would  mean  installing  mains  in  intermediate  streets  that  are  perhaps 
six  hundred  or  seven  hundred  feet  apart. 

We  have  one  distinct  difference  in  our  system  from  the  Boston  system, 
and  that  is  that  we  operate  the  plants,  and  in  Boston  the  Fire  Department 
operates  the  pumping  plant.  Also  we  get  our  messages  entirelj'^  over  the 
telephone;  and,  as  I  understood  Mr.  Mclnnes,  they  use  the  telegraph 
system  and  confirm  over  the  telephone.     W^e  felt  when  the  system  was  in- 


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DISCUSSION.  503 

stalled  that  the  Water  Department  was  more  likely  to  have  men  suitably 
trained  to  look  after  the  operation  of  the  pumping  station  than  the  Fire 
Department,  and  while  the  Fire  Department  thought  otherwise,  there  was 
not  any  very  serious  objection  made  to  our  department  maintaining  and 
operating,  as  well  as  constructing  the  high  pressure  stations,  and  I  think 
to-day  that  the  Fire  Department  in  New  York  is  perfectly  satisfied  with 
the  system  now  followed.  There  never  has  been  any  friction,  and  the  sta- 
tions have  always  been  able  to  give  the  water  required,  other  than  at  Coney 
Island  where  the  demand  exceeded  the  station  capacity. 

Mr,  McInnes.  Mr.  Brush,  in  the  case  of  the  hydrants  that  failed, 
did  the  flow  entirely  cease,  or  only  diminish  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be 
noticeable? 

Mr.  Brush.  In  the  case  of  last  spring,  which  I  have  clearly  in  mind, 
it  dropped  from  150  lb.  to  50  lb.  at  the  hydrant.  In  the  case  of  1918,  while 
there  was  not  a  complete  stoppage,  there  was  a  greater  stoppage  than  occur- 
red this  spring.  In  both  instances  it  was  before  April  10  that  this  difl5- 
culty  occurred. 

Mr.  McInnes.  Mr.  Brush  correctly  stated  that  in  Boston  the  Fire 
Department  operates  the  stations,  while  the  Public  Works  Department 
maintains  the  system.  In  Mr.  Brush's  case  he  has  an  excellent  mechanical 
engineer  equipment.  We  have  nothing  of  the  kind,  and  we  are  afraid  of 
the  combination.  We  are  afraid  of  one  fellow  blaming  the  other,  and 
we  considered  it  would  be  safer  and  better  to  have  everything  in  the  hands 
of  the  Fire  Department. 

Now,  in  regard  to  the  fire  alarm.  The  Superintendent  of  the  Fire 
Alarm  fought  hard  and  long,  and  succeeded  in  having  it  stipulated  that  all 
alarms  should  go  first  to  headquarters  and  then  to  the  station.  His  reason 
was,  as  I  understand  it,  that  particularly  in  the  case  of  multiple  fires  there 
would  be  much  greater  danger  of  confusion  and  misunderstanding  if  orders 
were  given  by  different  men  directly  to  the  stations  than  if  all  orders  came 
to  headquarters,  where  a  trained  man  would  get  them  and  would  sift  them 
out,  sending  only  those  that  should  be  sent  to  the  pumping  station. 

Mr.  Brush.  There  have  been  one  or  two  instances  where  the  Fire 
Department  men  have  failed  to  coordinate  among  themselves  in  telling 
the  stations  what  to  do.  Whether  they  will  change  sometime  and  have  the 
orders  sent  to  headquarters  and  then  transmitted  or  not,  I  do  not  know. 
Where  we  are  operating  on  two  or  more  fires  we  have  cut  down  the  pressure 
when  ordered  to  do  so  when  the  fire  chief  at  the  second  fire  might  prefer  to 
have  it  kept  up.  There  have  been  two  or  three  instances,  where  the  Fire 
Department  operating  on  one  fire  sent  a  certain  order,  and  from  another 
fire  a  different  order  has  been  sent.  In  New  York  the  men  telephone 
directly  from  the  box  to  the  pumping  station  as  to  what  is  to  be  done. 

Mr.  McInnes.  That  was  the  outstanding  reason  in  our  case  why 
it  was  thought  that  everything  should  go  to  the  trained  man  who  could 
best  say  what  should  go  to  the  stations.    Another  reason,  which  I  neglected 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


504  MC  INNES  AND   BOOTH. 

to  mention,  was  that  we  in  Boston  have  a  dish'ke  of  telephoning,  on  the 
possibihty  of  easily  misunderstanding  a  number  of  different  words,  letters 
and  sounds  over  the  telephone,  so  that  we  were  opposed  to  the  use  of  the 
telephone  for  that  purpose  and  very  much  preferred  the  telegraph  with 
the  telephone  only  for  verification. 

Mr.  Brush.  I  do  not  recall  any  instance  where  there  has  been  any 
misunderstanding  from  the  telephoning  of  orders.  Confusion  has  only 
resulted  due  to  orders  being  given  by  two  separate  fire  chiefs  operating 
on  two  separate  fires  at  the  same  time. 

Mr.  Harry  A.  Burnham.*  The  National  Fire  Protection  Association 
has  a  committee  on  private  fire  services  from  public  mains  and  among  the 
topics  which  they  are  about  to  consider,  is  the  fullest  use  of  these  high 
pressure  fire  services.  As  fire-fighting  equipment  they  are  comparatively 
new  in  the  history  of  fire  fighting,  and  I  think  at  this  time  we  should  approach 
the  subject  with  considerable  caution. 

It  seems  to  me  this  might  be  a  good  time  to  find  out  what  the  real 
reasons  are  for  not  providing  connections  to  automatic  sprinklers  from 
these.  I  think  that  in  some  cases  it  perhaps  can't  be  done.  But  in  others — 
anticipating  Mr.  Mclnnes*  reply  —  it  seems  to  us  a  matter  of  control 
pure  and  simple,  and  if  a  proper  and  safe  method  of  control  could  be  worked 
out  it  seems  as  if  one  of  the  difficulties  might  be  in  a  fair  way  to  be  solved 
in  allowing  sprinkler  connections  to  be  taken  from  these  systems.  It  is 
a  new  subject,  and  I  would  like  to  know  if  that  is  the  only  objection  to 
providing  sprinkler  connections  from  high  pressure  systems. 

Mr.  Davis.  In  Philadelphia,  where  we  have  a  comparatively  low 
normal  pressure,  the  underwriters,  the  sprinkler  people  and  a  number  of 
builders  urged  very  strongly  that  connections  be  made  to  the  high  pressure 
for  sprinkler  purposes.  The  Water  Bureau  opposed  it  strongly  and  will 
object  until  we  see  some  reason  that  has  not  been  presented  at  the  present 
time. 

In  the  first  place,  we  do  not  know  of  any  check  valve  that  will  be  per- 
fectly safe  against  interior  pressure  when  there  is  a  pressure  possibly  up  to 
2501b.  or  300  lb.  Such  a  check  valve  aswould  prevent  bursting  of  the  sprink- 
ler heads  of  the  piping  we  do  not  know  about,  and  do  not  want  to  be  respons- 
ible for  damage  by  water,  neither  do  we  want  to  have  the  high  pressure 
diminished  in  case  of  a  fire,  at  a  very  critical  time,  possibly,  from  that  use. 
Furthermore,  we  do  not  believe  that  it  is  safe  to  put  the  high  pressure  fire 
system  under  the  individual  control  of  private  buildings.  We  know  that 
there  is  a  very  strong  tendency,  not  only  on  the  part  of  responsible  people, 
but  on  the  part  of  irresponsible  employees,  to  make  surreptitious  connection 
inside.     We  do  not  know  yet  of  any  way  to  control  that. 

The  high  pressure  fire  system,  as  Mr.  Mclnnes  has  said,  should  be  the 
gatling  gun,  the  last  resort  against  a  very  serious  conflagration.  It  is  meant 
for^that.     The  fire  fighters  have  the  right  to  expect  that  their  high  pressure 

♦  Engineer  and  Special  Inspector  Factory,  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  505 

system  will  be  absolutely  dependable.  They  are  risking  their  lives,  and 
if  they  have  the  high  pressure  fire  system  and  are  working  it,  they  should 
be  absolutely  assured  that  it  is  perfectly  safe.  When  you  introduce  pressure 
inside  of  the  buildings  you  are  going  to  have  places,  as  Mr.  Mc  Innes  said, 
where  you  will  lose  water.  If  any  city  goes  to  the  expense  of  putting  in 
a  high  pressure  fire  system  it  should  be  for  high  pressure  service,  external 
alone,  and  that  only,  from  the  Water  Bureau  or  the  fiire-fighting  point 
of  view. 

But  I  believe  that  there  may  be  a  tendency  to  over  extend  the  high 
pressure  fire  service.  If  we  were  firemen  we  would  want  the  high  pressure 
fire  service  extended  to  the  utmost.  We  would  want  to  feel  that  we  had 
this  great  flood  of  water  which  could  drown  out  any  fire,  if  it  was  necessary. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  that  tendency  is  met  and  the  high  pressure  system 
is  extended  unduly,  there  may  be,  in  certain  cases,  a  tendency  to  diminish 
and  not  put  so  much  stress  on  the  extension  of  the  ordinary  water  system, 
possibly  not  so  much  stress  laid  on  increasing  the  ordinary  water  pressures, 
and  that  may  tend  to  minimize  the  sprinkler  service  that  would  be  obtained 
from  the  ordinary  water  pressure.  At  the  present  time  we  should  give  due 
weight  to  the  fact  that  these  large  automobile  pumping  engines  that  Mr. 
Booth  mentioned  as  available,  are  much  more  flexible,  much  more  easy 
to  control  than  the  old  time  fire  engine,  and  instead  of  extending  the 
high  pressure  service  unduly  beyond  certain  definitely  defined  lines  the 
money  could  be  more  profitably  expended,  in  many  cases,  in  larger  mains, 
larger  hydrants,  and  a  larger  number  of  modern,  powerful  fire  engines. 

In  regard  to  the  sprinkler  people  in  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Diven  suggested 
that  we  do  not  maintain  high  pressure  all  the  time,  but  we  do  maintain 
ordinary  city  pressure,  so  that  the  mains  are  charged.  But  the  thought 
was  to  put  in  one  or  two  smaller  units,  to  keep  up  the  pressure  at  the  station 
at  a  relatively  small  cost,  and  then  in  case  of  fire  to  put  on  the  larger  pumps. 

There  is  another  factor  in  Philadelphia,  which  does  not  hold  in  many 
cases,  and  that  is  that  one-half  of  the  system  is  charged  with  raw  water 
from  the  Delaware  River,  and  the  other  half  is  filtered  water.  Of  course 
there  is  considerable  objection  to  putting  raw  water  in  the  buildings  where 
connections  might  be  made. 

I  might  mention  one  other  thing,  and  that  is  about  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Water  Bureau  and  the  Fire  Department.  In  Philadelphia  the 
Water  Bureau  operates  and  maintains  the  high  pressure  fire  system,  includ- 
ing the  operation  of  the  fire  hydrants  at  the  time  of  the  fire.  At  each  high 
pressure  station  there  is  stationed  one  fireman  on  duty  all  the  time,  these 
being  generally  men  who  are  crippled  or  hurt  at  the  fires,  and  who  are 
stationed  there  until  such  time  as  they  recuperate,  or  perhaps  permanently, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  injury.  In  fact,  he  is  the  liaison  officer 
between  the  Fire  Department  and  the  Water  Department. 

Every  fire  alarm  is  recorded  at  the  pressure  station,  and  if  it  comes 
within  the  zone  the  pressure  is  raised  to  the  minimum  limit,  I  believe  75  lb. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


506  MC  INNES   AND    BOOTH. 

or  100  lb.  Then  the  Water  Bureau  sends  a  crew  of  men,  uniformed  but 
under  the  control  of  the  Water  Bureau,  to  the  fire,  and  they  operate  the 
fire  hydrants,  and  the  firemen  take  the  water  from  those  hydrants  just 
as  they  do  from  the  ordinary  fire  plugs.  There  are  telephone  fire  boxes 
scattered  through  the  high  pressure  system,  and  orders  through  these 
district  boxes  are  transmitted  to  the  firemen  at  the  high  pressure  station 
by  the  man  who  has  charge  of  the  fire,  and  the  pressure  is  raised  or  lowered 
according  as  requests  come  m  from  the  Fire  Department. 

Mr.  Burnham.  In  reference  to  high  pressure  on  the  sprinkler  system, 
it  may  be  of  interest  to  know  that  there  are  now  several  manufacturing 
plants  where  the  sprinkler  equipments  have  been  under  pressure  of  175  lb. 
to  200  lb.  for  ten  years  or  more.  Of  course  that  is  an  unusual  condition. 
And  no  unfavorable  experience  has  been  met  with  those  s^'stems.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  matter  of  mechanical  strength  can  be  taken  care  of  if 
found  necessary  and  advisable. 

To  raise  the  question  again  about  the  hydrant  failures  Mr.  Brush 
mentioned,  whether  it  was  the  practice  in  laying  those  high  pressure  pipes 
in  Brooklyn  to  lay  them  as  deep  as  the  domestic  service  pipes?  It  occurred 
to  me  perhaps  there  being  no  circulation  in  those  pipes,  that  they  would 
be  more  apt  to  freeze. 

Mr.  Brush.  It  was  the  intention  to  put  these  pipes  deep  enough  so 
as  to  avoid  trouble  of  that  kind,  but  where  we  had  sub-surface  conditions 
which  could  not  be  overcome  in  any  other  way  than  by  raising  the  high 
service  mains,  the  high  service  mains  have  been  raised,  and  there  has 
been  provision  made  for  opening  a  number  of  connections  so  as  to  create  a 
circulation  in  those  locations  where  it  seemed  likely  from  the  local  condi- 
tions that  there  might  be  freezing.  But  we  have  had  no  instance  where 
the  pipe  froze  solidly  and  broke  except  at  Brooklyn  at  one  station.  We 
have  had  the  two  hydrants  where  the  flow  was  suddenly  cut  off  by  an 
unknown  cause.  That,  however,  represents  a  record  of  about  seventeen 
years. 

Mr.  Booth.  I  rather  expected  that  this  matter  of  automatic  sprinkler 
connections  would  come  up.  We  in  the  beginning  approached  the  subject 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  water  works  superintendent,  because  we  are 
interested  in  municipal  fire  protection  as  a  whole  rather  than  in  the  pro- 
tection of  individual  buildings.  It  is  true  that  these  systems  were  installed 
in  practically  all  cases  with  the  idea  of  giving  the  Fire  Department  the 
strongest  weapon  possible  for  use  on  outside  fires.  It  is  true  also  that  in 
ver>^  few  cases  is  the  normal  pressure  carried  sufficient  to  supply  automatic 
sprinklers.  San  Francisco,  if  I  remember  rightly,  is  the  only  city  that 
carried  sufficient  pressure.  But  I  do  think  it  is  possible  to  so  safeguard  the 
connections  as  to  make  the  automatic  sprinkler  practical  and  possible. 
I  expect  there  will  be  come-backs  on  that. 

I  think  Mr.  Mclnnes,  for  instance,  went  too  far  in  stating  that  the 
broken  off  connections  at  Salem,  Chelsea  and  other  places,  were  such  a 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  507 

serious  handicap  to  the  Fire  Department.  I  think  you  should  differentiate 
very  strongly  between  the  connection  to  an  automatic  sprinkler  system  and 
the  connection  for  other  purposes  —  for  elevators,  flushometer  closets, 
and  so  on.  The  building  with  the  sprinkler  in  it  is  so  much  safer,  in  the 
first  place,  than  the  ordinary  building  would  be,  that  you  are  not  rimning 
anything  like  the  risk  in  putting  your  pif)es  in  that  building  that  you  would 
if  the  pipe  was  for  ordinary  domestic  or  manufacturing  purposes. 

We  have  tried  to  find  a  record  of  as  many  cases  as  possible  where  con- 
nections to  automatic  sprinkler  systems  have  been  broken  off  and  reduced 
the  pressure  unduly.  There  are  very  few  of  them.  I  wish  you  men  would 
help  all  you  can  to  get  together  cases  of  that  kind.  A  great  many  references 
have  been  pretty  indefinite.  "A  broken  6-in.  connection  in  such-and-such 
a  place  in  1908  seriously  reduced  the  water  pressure."  It  is  not  very  satis- 
factory when  you  get  no  more  definite  information  than  that.  The  Salem 
case,  I  will  admit,  was  a  marked  one,  where  the  automatic  sprinkler  supply 
failed  to  check  the  fire,  the  connections  were  broken  off,  and  the  system 
was  bled  very  extensively.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  I  do  not  know  of  any  other 
such  definite  case  where  that  happened,  although  there  may  have  been 
other  cases.  In  every  conflagration  that  I  know  of  there  have  been  many 
broken  connections  of  all  sizes.  Mr.  Mclnnes,  for  instance,  read  the  num- 
ber and  sizps  of  connections  broken  off  in  Baltimore  during  that  confla- 
gration. Although  a  great  many  of  them  were  small  they  reduced  the 
pressure  very  materially.  In  fact,  that  happens  in  any  conflagration; 
your  pressure  will  be  reduced  below  the  point  at  which  you  can  use  the 
Fire  Department  equipment  with  the  normal  degree  of  effectiveness.  But 
even  in  cases  like  that  of  the  Salem  fire,  there  is  in  almost  every  case  enough 
pressure  left  at  the  hydrant  to  give  to  the  fire  engine  a  fair  amount  of  water 
—  not  as  much  as  they  could  have  used,  but  enough  for  one  good  stream 
from  each  engine.  I  think  it  is  a  subject  that  ought  to  be  looked  into  fur- 
ther, particularly  as  to  the  differentiation  between  broken  off  connections 
to  automatic  sprinkler  system  and  those  for  other  purposes. 

Mr.  Davis  suggested  the  point  that  if  the  way  were  opened  to  supply 
automatic  sprinklers  from  these  high  pressure  mains,  they  might  become 
so  numerous  that  it  would  be  a  very  serious  menace  to  the  system.  There 
is  another  angle  to  that,  which  is  that  I  do  not  believe  there  is  anything 
which  would  more  greatly  safeguard  your  city  than  a  pretty  general  auto- 
matic sprinkler  installation.  Mr.  Davis  says  it  will  very  materially  injure 
the  system,  but  you  have  to  look  at  it  from  the  other  point  of  view  also, 
and  if  you  get  in  enough  sprinkler  systems  you  will  have  a  district  without 
any  great  conflagration  hazard. 

Mr.  Diven.  Isn't  it  best  to  have  a  system  independent  of  all  these 
other  conditions?  Is  there  anything  to  fight  the  fire  with  when  the  other 
system  gives  out?  Is  it  a  distinct  advantage  to  have  an  independent 
svstem? 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


508  MC  IXNES  AND   BOOTH. 

Mr.  Booth.  I  have  not  been  able  to  satisfy  myself  that  it  is  so  much 
of  an  advantage  as  most  of  you  think  it  is. 

Mr.  Davis.  Where  do  the  sprinklers  do  the  most  good;  in  the  base- 
ments or  in  the  higher  stories?  I  understand  the  great  majority  of  fires 
start  in  the  basements.  In  most  every  system  there  is  pressure  enough  to 
give  a  fairly  satisfactory  sprinkler  service  in  the  basement.  Wouldn't 
that  be  a  good  starting  point  for  the  sprinklers? 

Mr.  Booth.  That  is  entirely  true.  Of  course  any  sj'stem  will 
furnish  a  supply  to  a  basement  sprinkler.  If  you  go  that  far  you  have 
gone  a  long  way  towards  eliminating  the  fire  hazard  in  the  down  town 
sections.     The  basement  fires  are  most  difficult  to  fight. 

Mr.  McInnes.  I  have  to  stand  beside  Mr.  Davis  with  both  feet. 
As  an  objector  to  connections  from  H.P.F.  mains.  But  I  want  to  be  con- 
structive as  well.  I  can't  clearly  see  how  the  ordinary  high  pressure  fire 
system,  in  which  there  is  effective  pressure  only  at  time  of  fire,  can  be  effec- 
tive with  these  little  fires  that  start  when  the  sprinkler  must  begin  its  work. 
Why  cannot  the  same  thing  be  obtained  in  a  more  effective  way  by  provid- 
ing means  for  such  connection  and  making  it  the  invariable  and  impera- 
tive practice  of  the  Fire  Department  to  make  one  of  their  first  connections 
from  the  high  pressure  fire  hydrant  to  the  outside  pipe,  with  check  valve, 
supplying  the  sprinkler  system?  That  has  always  seemed  to  me  to  be  the 
sane  way  to  get  at  it. 

Mr.  Booth.  There  is  a  whole  lot  in  that,  but  not  all  Fire  Depart- 
ments are  as  progressive  as  the  one  Mr.  McInnes  knows  about.  It  is  only 
within  a  few  years  that  a  few  of  the  larger  and  more  progressive  Fire  Depart- 
ments have  been  willing  to  make  it  absolutely  standard  practice  to  connect 
the  first  line,  or  the  second  line  from  the  first  company,  to  your  outside 
sprinkler  connection.  They  are  coming  to  do  it  more  and  more  frequently. 
And  if  they  would  do  it  consistently  and  in  all  cases,  you  would  get  the  second 
connection  made  in  time  to  serve  as  an  adequate  secondary  supply.  That 
is  one  solution  of  the  problem  which  has  been  suggested,  and  it  is  good 
as  far  as  it  goes. 

Mr.  Brush.  If  I  understood  correctly,  Mr.  Booth  suggested  that 
the  water  works  men  get  together  on  this  matter  of  the  connection  with 
the  high  pressure  system,  with  a  view  of  working  out  some  method  whereby 
there  might  be  additional  connections  allowed  for  sprinkler  service.  My 
suggestion  would  be  that  he  keep  the  water  works  men  as  far  apart  as 
possible  if  he  hopes  to  get  that  accomplished.  Get  them  one  by  one  and 
then  sand-bag  them.     (Laughter.) 

I  know  in  New  York  an  effort  was  made  to  have  favorable  considera- 
tion given  to  the  question  of  making  these  connections.  That  was  fought 
by  the  Water  Department,  and  certainly  until  the  Fire  Department  comes 
to  the  forefront  on  the  projwsition  and  says  that  it  wishes  to  have  these 
connections  made,  I  am  sure  that  no  water  works  superintendent  or 
engineer  would  take  the  responsibility  of  advocating  connections  which 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  509 

are  for  the  purpose  of  benefitting  primarily  the  individual  who  owns  the 
large  building,  or  the  building  that  requires  the  sprinkler  system,  whereas 
the  high  pressure  system  has  been  put  in  for  the  benefit  of  the  community 
which  includes  a  great  many  people  who  are  not  directly,  and  perhaps  not 
indirectly  interested  in  the  fire  protection  of  the  one  building.  Of  course 
we  all  appreciate  that  that  one  building  may  be  the  beginning  of  a  fire 
which  will  cause  a  loss  to  the  community,  and  if  properly  equipped  with 
sprinklers  that  fire  might  never  get  headway  in  that  building.  But  the 
individual  can  protect  that  building  satisfactorily,  and  the  community  can, 
and  usually  does,  furnish  an  adequate  water  supply  outside  of  that  building, 
which  can  be  raised  to  sufficient  pressure  by  the  action  of  the  owner  of  the 
building  without  endangering  the  continuity  of  the  supply  for  the  Fire 
Department  from  the  high  pressure  system,  which  is  distinctly  a  defensive 
system. 

Mr.  BtJRNHAM.  I  will  add  a  statement  about  Salem.  I  think  it  was 
definitely  established  that  there  was  a  very  large  flow  of  water  that  drew 
the  pressure  down,  but  I  do  not  think  it  was  quite  as  definitely  established 
that  it  was  caused  by  the  breaking  off  of  the  sprinkler  connections.  We 
looked  into  the  matter  quite  at  length  and  found  that  the  locations  of  the 
sprinklered  and  non-sprinklered  buildings  at  the  start  of  the  fire  were  such 
that  the  heat  from  the  burning  building  which  was  not  sprinklered,  could 
open  sprinklers  in  several  stories  in  the  sprinklered  building.  And  we  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  enough  sprinklers  could  have  opened  in  that  way 
to  have  caused  the  drop  of  pressure  attributed  to  the  broken  main. 

Mr.  McInnes.  The  main  did  not  break.  The  buildings  were 
burned,  and  there  were  pipes  broken  within  the  buildings.  It  was  broken 
inside  equipment  which  caused  the  trouble. 

Presddent  Barbour.  When  I  wrote  Mr.  Booth  to  ask  him  to  con- 
tribute a  paper,  I  suggested  that  it  would  be  well  to  include  in  his  paper 
a  statement  of  the  result  of  reductions  in  rates,  which  have  followed  the 
installation  of  these  high  pressure  service  systems.  He  has  sidenstepped 
this  phase  of  the  situation  entirely  and  apparently  the  thought  that  rate 
reductions  might  reasonably  follow  the  provision  of  what  is  proclaimed  by 
the  insurance  men  and  the  fire  chiefs  to  be  the  greatest  fire-fighting  in- 
strvunent  yet  devised  has  not  forcibly  registered  on  his  mental  screen. 
The  divorcing  of  the  engineering  division  of  insurance  companies  from  the 
income  department  is  certainly  a  most  convenient  arrangement. 

I  may  be  a  foolish  optimist,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  it  should  be  possible 
to  get  on  our  record  a  statement  of  the  economic  return  —  if  any  —  in 
reduction  rates,  which  has  accrued  or  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  accrue 
to  those  cities  which  undertake  large  expenditures  for  high  pressure  fire 
service.    So  far  as  now  appears  there  has  been  no  such  reduction  in  rates. 

High  pressure  fire  systems  have  as  yet  only  been  installed  in  large 
cities.  I  take  it  that  a  certain  minimimi  total  area  of  a  certain  value  will 
justify  high  pressure  service  and  I  am  wondering  whether  or  not  such  areas 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


510  MC  INNES  AND    BOOTH. 

are  found  in  some  of  our  smaller  cities.  I  have  had  the  thought  that  the 
installation  of  high  pressure  service  in  such  cities  might  naturally  affect 
the  design  of  the  general  distribution  system,  and  that  in  some  cases  the 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  this  latter  system  might  in  part  offset  the  cost  of 
the  high  pressure  service.  I  therefore  hope  that  Mr.  Booth  will  give  us 
some  idea  of  the  value  per  acre  in  the  districts  of  the  various  cities  where 
high  pressure  systems  have  been  deemed  necessary. 

Mr.  Booth.  That  reminds  me  of  one  point  I  had  in  mind  to  discuss, 
which  was  the  question  of  the  type  of  city  or  district  in  which  such  a  system 
might  be  warranted.  Of  course  there  is  on  the  one  hand  a  reduction  of 
rates  and  a  saving  to  the  prof)erty  owners.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
the  possibility  of  saving  to  your  city  in  the  maintenance  of  its  Fire  Depart- 
ment. Your  high  pressure  system  can  operate  with  fewer  men,  and  per- 
haps with  fewer  companies.  But  your  district  must  be  of  sufficient  extent 
so  that  the  companies  located  within  that  district  won't  have  to  cover 
any  very  considerable  area  outside  of  the  district,  otherwise  you  have 
to  have  the  same  number  of  men  and  the  same  equipment  in  pumping 
engines  as  you  would  without  the  high  pressure. 

Perhaps  you  will  understand  better  what  I  mean  if  I  say  that  in  a 
district  the  size  of  this  one  in  New  Bedford,  for  instance,  the  down  town 
companies  on  the  first  alarm,  or  at  least  on  the  second  alarm,  run  from  the 
mercantile  or  manufacturing  section  up  into  your  residential  district. 
Is  that  right.  Captain? 

Captain  Gifford.*    Yes. 

Mr.  Booth.  Every  down  town  company  has  a  run  outside  of  the 
district  here? 

Captain  Gifford.     In  this  town,  yes. 

Mr.  Booth.  So  that  your  city  must  have  a  district  of  sufficient  size 
to  warrant  the  maintenance  of  companies  in  that  district  which  have  no 
or  practically  no  runs  outside.  Otherwise,  you  have  to  have  the  same 
men  and  equipment  as  you  would  without  a  high  pressure  system. 

I  remember  a  few  years  ago  the  city  of  Hartford  made  quite  an 
investigation  to  determine  whether  it  was  practicable  to  put  in  a  high 
pressure  system.  They  concluded  that  there  would  be  little  saving  in  Fire 
Department  maintenance,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  district  was 
comparatively  small  in  Hartford.  It  would  take  about  the  same  men  and 
equipment. 

Mr.  Davis.  Does  the  National  Board  recommend  the  lowering  of 
rates? 

Mr.  Booth.  We  have  nothing  to  do  with  that.  We  are  supposed 
to  keep  our  hands  off.  We  do  come  in  indirectly  in  this  way :  The  National 
Board  has  a  standard  grading  schedule  which  I  think  most  of  you  know 
something  about.  It  has  been  discussed  in  the  meeting  of  your  Associa- 
tion.    In  that  schedule  there  is  a  provision  for  a  removal  of  the  points  of 

*  Of  the  New  Bedford  Fire  Department. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  511 

deficiency  charged  against  bad  construction  conditions  following  the 
installation  of  the  high  pressure  system.  In  Philadelphia,  if  I  remember 
rightl3%  about  half  the  points  charged  against  bad  structural  conditions 
are  removed  because  you  have  this  powerful  system.  It  is  certain  in  that 
way  to  better  the  classification  of  your  city. 

Mr.  Davis.  Do  you,  after  investigation,  ever  furnish  the  water 
works  officials  with  the  rating  of  their  cities? 

Mr.  Booth.     Yes,  sir.     On  request. 

Mr.  Davis.    Will  you  furnish  it? 

Mr.  Booth.     I  will  be  glad  to. 

Mr.  David  A.  Heffernan.*  Hasn't  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the 
Fire  Department  been  increased  greatly  with  the  two  platoon  system? 
Have  you  any  idea  what  the  percentage  of  the  increase  is? 

Mr.  Booth.    I  suppose  it  has  doubled  up  in  a  good  many  cases. 

Mr.  Heffernan.  You  said  there  was  a  saving  to  the  cities  with  the 
high  pressure  system.  With  the  two  platoon  system  it  would  be  the  other 
way,  wouldn't  it? 

Mr.  Booth.  I  mean,  it  has  decreased  the  cost  of  maintenance,  because 
Tilth  the  high  pressure  system  you  can  run  your  department  with  fewer 
men  and  less  expensive  equipment.  It  is  true  that  cities  that  have  gone  on 
the  two  platoon  basis  add  on  an  average  a  third  to  the  number  of  men. 
Your  salaries  have  gone  up,  so  that  in  a  good  many  cases  the  total  expense 
has  doubled.  W^e  used  to  think  that  about  two  dollars  or  two  dollars  and 
one-half  per  capita  meant  a  pretty  good  Fire  Department,  but  now  a  good 
many  of  them  run  over  four  dollars,  and  some  five  or  six  dollars  per 
capita. 

Mr.  Diven.  One  of  the  advantages,  to  my  mind,  of  the  high  service 
system,  is  the  possibility  of  a  better  sanitary  supply  for  the  city  —  a  better 
general  domestic  supply.  For  instance,  there  might  be  a  limited  domestic 
supply,  not  sufficient  for  fire  protection  and  the  domestic  supply,  of  an  ex- 
cellent quality  of  water  which  could  be  used  if  the  same  mains  and  the  same 
system  did  not  have  to  also  supply  the  fire  protection.  This  is,  of  course, 
meant  particularly  where  the  high  service  fire  protection  can  be  taken  from 
an  entirely  different  source.  Most  any  water  is  good  enough  to  put  out 
fire;  in  fact,  I  have  heard  firemen  say  that  the  impure  water  was  a  little 
better  than  the  filtered  water  for  fires. 

It  seems  to  me  that  there  might  be  many  cases  where  that  would  be 
a  very  decided  advantage  to  the  city,  and  if  the  two  systems  could  be  de- 
signed together  there  would  be  a  very  great  saving,  perhaps,  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  general  or  domestic  supply  system,  as  smaller  mains  could 
be  used.  You  would  not  have  to  provide  mains  that  would  furnish  a  large 
quantity  of  water  at  a  given  part  of  the  city  at  any  time,  when  mains 
supplying  much  less  than  that  quantity  would  answer  all  of  the  domestic 
purpases.    A  very  decided  advantage  is  the  possibility  in  some  cases  of 

*  Superinten  lent  Wat^r  Works,  Miltaa,  Ma4.s. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


512  MC  INNES  AND   BOOTH. 

securing  a  supply  which  is  good  in  every  respect,  and  an  entirely  separate 
supply  for  fire  protection. 

President  Barbour.  Mr.  Booth,  do  you  think  it  would  be  possible 
for  us  to  get  any  statistics  showing  the  average  valuation  of  the  districts 
that  are  protected  by  high  pressiu-e  systems?  If  there  are  in  some  of  the 
several  departments  of  the  insurance  world,  which  are  so  carefully  separated, 
such  statistics  in  existence,  and  whether  they  are  following  the  installation 
of  these  high  pressure  services  by  reducing  the  rates? 

Mr.  Booth.  It  would  be  pretty  difficult,  from  what  I  know  of  the 
statistics  available,  to  determine  what  the  values  involved  in  the  districts 
are.    I  will  try  to  get  it. 

President  Barbour.  I  think  that  will  be  a  very  interesting  basis 
for  future  consideration  of  the  ordinary  engineer  who  approaches  this 
problem,  if  it  can  be  gotten. 

Mr.  Booth.  Jacksonville,  Florida,  is  a  good  example  of  the  smaller 
city  that  has  been  able  to  afford  a  system  of  this  kind.  That  is  largely 
because  they  operate  a  municipal  lighting  plant  and  get  their  power  very 
cheaply.    They  were  able  to  put  up  a  pumping  station  on  city  owned  land. 

Mr.  Diven.    They  use  river  water  entirely,  do  they  not? 

Mr.  Booth.    Yes. 

Mr.  Diven.    They  are  satisfied  with  very  little. 

Mr.  Booth.  In  answer  to  your  point  made  a  little  while  ago,  the 
total  amount  of  water  used  on  fires  is  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  total 
amount  used  for  domestic  purposes. 

Mr.  Diven.    Yes;  but  it  comes  in  big  chunks. 

Mr.  Booth.  Yes;  but  you  almost  always  have  mains  large  enough 
to  supply  the  big  chunks. 

Mr.  Diven.  You  would  not  necessarily  have  those  if  you  had  other 
mains  to  supply  the  fire  protection. 

Mr.  Booth.  In  most  cases  they  are  already  in.  You  have  to  have 
them  until  your  high  pressure  system,  if  you  put  one  in,  protects  the  district 
in  which  your  high  pressure  is  necessary. 

Mr.  Diven.  How  about  your  filter  plants?  They  would  have  to 
be  larger  if  you  used  a  filtered  supply. 

Mr.  Booth.  There  are  almost  always  areas  outside  of  the  system 
which  demand  about  as  much  water  as  the  mercantile  district. 

Mr.  Diven.  Not  ordinarily.  The  high  pressure  ordinarily  covers 
the  congested  district. 

Mr.  Booth.  Yes;  but  there  are  almost  always  sections  outside  which 
demand  about  as  much  water.  It  has  not  ordinarily  proved  to  be  any 
material  saving  to  the  Water  Department  to  attempt  to  use  a  second  supply. 

Mr^  Lincoln  Van  Gilder.*  Referring  to  the  question  of  reduction 
of  rates  due  to  the  high  pressure  system,  I  can't  give  you  figures  directly 
from  memory,  although  I  think  they  can  be  obtained  from  the  Rating 

*  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Atlantic  City.  N.  J. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION.  513 

Bureau  of  the  city.  But  I  do  know  that  Atlantic  City  recently  got  a 
12  per  cent,  reduction  in  rates,  due  to  better  fire  protection,  or  a  better 
fire-fighting  system;  a  better  volume  of  water  available  for  the  city  and 
also  the  high  pressure.  And  this  is  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  high  pressure 
system  has  not  yet  been  formally  approved  and  that  the  rate  was  raised 
in  every  other  city  in  the  state.  On  the  Board  Walk,  where  the  values 
are  high,  and  where  the  class  of  buildings  and  the  contents  are  very  inflam- 
mable, the  insurance  rates  in  the  past  have  been  very  high,  but  since  the 
installation  of  the  high  pressure  system  the  Rating  Bureau  has  made  a 
substantial  reduction  to  those  buildings  on  the  Board  Walk  that  are  ad- 
jacent to  the  high  pressure  system,  because  of  the  high  pressure  supply, 
and  before  its  formal  approval. 

There  is  another  thing.  The  engine  rooms  are  all  supplied  with  an 
alarm,  so  that  the  alarm  is  struck  through  all  the  engine  rooms  at  the  same 
time  it  strikes  on  the  general  switch  board  in  the  Fire  Department  and 
Electrical  Bureau,  and  they  respond  at  once  by  giving  125  lb.  pressure  until 
further  orders.  The  engine  rooms  are  required  to  respond  if  the  fire  is 
within  one  block  of  the  high  pressure  system. 

On  one  occasion  I  recall  a  fire  two  blocks  away  on  the  Board  Walk 
from  the  nearest  plug  —  850  ft.  by  actual  measurement.  The  chief  of 
the  department  made  connection  and  got  an  effective  fire-fighting  stream. 

President  Babbour.  There  is  another  phase  that  has  not  been  deve- 
loped as  fuUy  as  I  think  it  might.  Mr.  Mclnnes  has  stated  that  only  in 
one  fire  in  Boston  has  more  than  125  lb.  at  the  pumps  been  called  for. 

Mr.  McInnes.    Ten  per  cent,  of  the  fires. 

PRBsroENT  Barbour.  I  think  that  in  Boston  as  yet,  not  more  than 
125  lb.  has  been  called  for. 

Mr,  McInnes.    Not  yet. 

PRBsroENT  Barbour.  I  am  wondering  whether  there  is  any  justifica- 
tion for  the  300  lb.  pressure,  particularly  in  the  smaller  sized  installations. 
I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Booth  if  he  has  an  opinion  to  express  on  this  question 
of  pressure.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  quantity  of  water  at  a  certain  minimum 
pressure  is  the  controlling  factor. 

Mr.  Booth.  That  300  lb.  pressure  I  think  was  a  figure  that  was 
assumed  in  the  case  of  New  York  —  not  by  the  underwriters  but  by  the 
city  authorities  themselves.  I  do  not  believe  myself  that  there  is  any 
justification  for  such  a  high  pressure.  It  has  never  been  used  in  New  York 
or  anywhere  else.  I  do  not  think  we  will  ever  have  any  more  severe  try- 
out  of  any  of  these  systems  than  has  already  been  had  in  two  or  more 
instances  in  New  York. 

PREsroENT  Barbour.  Of  course  that  must  have  a  very  direct  influence 
on  the  cost  of  installation. 

Mr.  Booth.  Not  so  much  so  as  you  might  thmk.  Has  it,  Mr. 
McInnes? 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


514  MC  INNES  AND    BOOTH. 

Mr.  McInnes.  It  is  almost  entirely  in  the  thickness  of  the  pipe.  I 
agree  with  Mr.  Booth  entirely.  So  far  as  our  city  is  concerned,  150  lb. 
is  sufficient.  But  the  increase  in  cost  would  not  be  so  great  as  would  appear 
at  fii-st  thought.  On  the  pumping  station  it  would  be  very  slight.  There 
would  be  an  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  walls  of  the  pipe. 

President  Barbour.  The  increase  in  cost  may  not  be  so  affected, 
but  the  risk  is  materially  reduced  by  lighter  pressure.  Take  the  Boston 
situation.  The  regulators  maintain  a  certain  pressure  beyOnd  the  pumps, 
but  300  lb.  is  always  on  the  pumps  in  time  of  fire. 

Mr.  McInnes.     That  is  right. 

Mr.  Booth.  Of  course  you  have  to  figure  on  some  lines  a  good  deal 
longer  than  others.  In  the  case  of  a  big  fire,  where  you  are  using  a  good 
many  hydrants,  some  lines  will  be  800  ft.  or  1  000  ft.  long.  You  have  to 
figure  on  90  lb.  or  100  lb.  at  least  at  the  nozzle.  That  means,  with  a  line 
800  ft.  or  1  000  ft.  long,  with  3-in.  hose,  that  you  would  have  to  have  some- 
thing more  than  150  lb.  at  the  hydrant.  I  think  perhaps  200  lb.  or  225 
lb.  is  a  fair  maximum  to  expect  that  you  might  need. 

Mr.  Diven.  Can  you  give  us  some  data  between  the  pump  pressure 
and  the  pressure  at  the  end?  I  think  Mr.  Brush  may  be  able  to  give  us 
something  on  that,  because  they  have  probably  longer  lines  of  fire  pressure 
mains  than  any  other  city. 

Mr.  Booth.  If  I  remember  rightly,  the  New  York  system  was 
designed  to  deliver  20  000  gal.  per  min.  about  any  one  block,  with  a  loss 
in  pressure  not  to  exceed  40  lb.  It  will  do  better  than  that,  I  believe. 
What  figures  did  you  assume,  Mr.  Mclmies? 

Mr.  McInnes.  We  assumed  a  loss  of  50  lb.,  12  000  gal.  per  min.  in 
any  block,  pump  pressure  of  300  lb. 

Mr.  Davis.  The  pipe  diameters  which  you  gave  —  are  they  nominal 
or  actual,  inside  or  outside? 

Mr.  McInnes.     They  are  actual  pipe  diameters. 

Mr.  Davis.     You  do  not  have  the  uniform  outside  diameter? 

Mr.  McInnes.  No.  Personally  I  question  the  wisdom  of  excessive 
thickness  of  pipe  walls,  as  they  have  been  made  in  many  cases. 

Mr.  William  R.  Conard.*  Regarding  excessive  thickness  of  pipe 
walls,  in  cast-iron  pipe,  which  is  the  principal  material  used  in  high  pres- 
sure fire  systems;  the  strength  of  the  metal  is  dependent  on  the  inner  and 
outer  skin  of  the  pipe,  and  the  thicker  the  section  of  the  pipe  the  more 
open  and  weaker  the  inner  section;  if  you  can  grasp  what  I  am  trying  to 
explain.  To  put  it  from  the  standpoint  of  metallurgy,  as  you  increase 
your  thickness  the  percentage  of  carbon  in  uncombined  iform  in  the  inner 
section  of  the  pipe  wall,  increases.  That  can  be  partially  overcome  by  a 
change  in  your  mixture,  but  there  are  in  mixture  changes,  points  beyond 
which  you  cannot  go  and  expect  to  maintain  your  strength. 

*  Inspection  Kngineer,  Burlington,  N.  J. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC" 


DISCUSSION.  515 

On  the  question  of  the  pressures  for  the  high  pressure  fire  system  it 
would  appear  to  me  that  probably  the  300  lb.  was  arrived  at  as  a  factor 
of  safety,  and  the  jump  in  thickness  of  walls  from  the  class  of  pipe  which 
would  be  used  for  maintaining  a  working  pressure  of,  say,  125  lb.  to  300  lb., 
is  about  33  per  cent.,  and  that  is  reflected  in  the  cost  of  the  pipe  in  the  sys- 
tem alone.  The  increase  in  proportions  would  not  be  so  great  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  structure  in  a  high  pressure  system,  as  I  view  it. 

President  Barbour.  I  note  that  Mr.  Conard  says  that  300  lb. 
pressure  is  adopted  as  a  factor  of  safety  and,  undoubtedly,  a  reasonable 
factor  of  safety  is  always  necessary.  But  what  about  connecting  sprinkler 
systems  to  these  high  pressure  services?  Surely  this  reduces  the  factor 
of  safety  in  another  direction,  and  if  such  connection  is  debatable,  then  the 
question  of  the  necessary  pressure  is  certainly  relevant.  It  is  a  surprise 
to  me  to  have  Mr.  Booth  apparently  favor  this  connection  of  sprinkler 
S3'^stems.  My  thought  has  been  that  an  independent  high  pressure  fire 
service  is  justifiable  only  as  a  means  of  external  fire  fighting,  and  because 
.such  a  system  provides  a  weapon  free  from  all  such  disturbances  as  may 
result  from  any  connection  other  than  those  under  the  control  of  the  firemen. 

Mr.  McInnes.  I  think  you  are  entirely  right  there.  We  consider 
it  an  extra  insurance.  When  I  look  back  at  our  calculations  that  is  very 
clear  to  me.  The  pipe  sizes  used  in  Boston  and  New  York  are  practically 
Class  '*  H  "  H.P.  Service  A.W.W.  While  our  figures  call  for  lighter  pipe, 
and  it  would  be  wise  before  large  future  installations  are  made  to  at  least 
make  an  actual  test  to  the  breaking  point  of  the  lighter  pipes  before  adopt- 
ing the  heavier  type;  apart  from  economy  by  reason  of  weight  the  lighter 
section  makes  more  certain  a  uniform  texture  in  the  metal. 

Mr.  DrvEN.  To  come  back  to  the  sprinkler  system  again.  Sprinklers 
are  supposed  to  put  out  fires  with  very  small  quantities  of  water,  and  cer- 
tainly the  domestic  system  will  supply  that  much  if  they  are  connected 
with  it.  As  I  understand  it,  the  high  pressure  systems  between  fires  have 
only  the  ordinary  domestic  pressure,  by  a  connection  with  the  mains.  Is 
that  right?  Between  alarms  you  carry  the  same  pressure  on  your  high 
.service  that  you  do  on  the  other? 

Mr.  Davis.    Yes. 

Mr.  Diven.  So  that  the  sprinklers  would  be  no  more  effective  before 
the  alarm  was  sounded  and  the  pressure  increased  than  they  would  be  if 
connected  with  the  domestic  system,  and  as  for  the  excessive  use  of  your 
domestic  system  running  the  pressure  down,  it  runs  it  down  on  the  fire 
alarm  just  the  same.  I  can  see  from  that  absolutely  no  advantage  to  the 
sprinkler  system  to  be  connected  with  the  fire  system,  and  a  distinct  dis- 
advantage to  the  fire  system  by  being  connected  and  taking  the  risk  of 
having  a  large  waste  of  water  by  breaking  the  system  by  undue  pressure 
in  the  sprinkler  heads. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


516  MC  INNES  AND   BOOTH. 

Mr,  Frank  E.  Winsor.*  Mr.  Diven's  last  remark  brought  to  my 
mind  the  fact  that  in  Providence  the  condition  that  he  has  explained  to 
you  is  not  so.  We  have  two  systems  of  water  supply  there,  two  systems 
of  pressure  —  a  low  pressure  and  a  high  pressure.  The  low  pressure 
suppUes  water  up  to  an  elevation  of  about  ninety  ft.  and  the  high  pressure 
supplies  that  part  of  the  city  higher  than  90  ft.  In  addition  to  that,  the 
high  pressure  is  connected  into  a  high  pressure  fire  district,  generally  in 
the  low  level  part  of  the  city,  and  those  pipes,  which  it  is  true  are  connected 
into  the  same  mains  that  supply  domestic  consumption  in  the  high  level 
district,  have  no  connections  in  the  low  districts.  In  other  words,  buildings 
in  the  low  service  district  which  are  too  high  to  be  supplied  directly  on  the 
upper  floors  from  the  the  low  service,  are  not  permitted  to  make  any  con- 
nection on  the  high  service  fire  system  for  domestic  use.  Neither  are  there 
any  sprinklers  on  the  high  pressure  fire  system. 

Mr.  Conard.  That,  as  I  understand  the  condition  which  Mr.  Winsor 
has  just  described,  is  also  true  of  the  city  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  except 
that  Newark  has  a  gravity  supply,  and  the  high  pressure  system  in  the  down 
town  section  gets  its  pressure  from  the  high  level  system. 

Perhaps  Mr.  Booth  can  tell  us  whether  the  sprinkler  systems  in  the 
down  town  districts  of  Newark  are  connected  with  the  high  pressure  system 
or  the  low  pressure  system. 

Mr.  Booth.    They  are  aU  connected  with  the  high  pressure  system. 

Mr.  Winsor.  Perhaps  I  did  not  bring  out  that  the  low  pressure  sys- 
tem in  Providence  is  also  a  gravity  system,  supplied  by  a  reservoir.  There 
is  no  pumping,  other  than  to  the  distributing  reservoir. 


*  Chief  Engineer.  Providence  Water  Supply  Board. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SANDERS.  517 


ELECTRIC  PUMPING  AT  CONCORD,  N.  H. 

BY  P.   R.   SANDERS.* 
{September  15,  1922.) 

The  water  supply  of  Concord,  N.  H.  is  obtained  from  Penacook  Lake, 
which  is  two  and  one-half  miles  long  and  one-half  mile  wide,  located  about 
three  miles  from  the  center  of  the  city. 

The  overflow  is  at  an  elevation  of  125  ft.  above  the  business  section  of 
the  city.  From  1872  when  the  system  was  installed  until  1892,  the  total 
supply  was  furnished  by  gravity  alone. 

As  the  growth  of  the  residential  section  extended  westward  into  the  higher 
parts  of  the  city,  it  became  apparent  that  steps  must  be  taken  to  provide  an 
increased  pressure.  In  order  to  secure  this  increased  pressure,  in  1892  a 
high  service  system  was  installed  consisting  of  a  2  000  000-gal.  reservoir  at 
an  elevation  of  200  ft.  and  a  2  000  000-gal.  Worthington  triple  expansion 
pump. 

In  addition  to  using  this  high  service  supply  for  the  higher  section  of 
the  city,  a  20-in.  main  was  laid  through  Main  Street  for  fire  protection 
only,  directly  connected  to  this  system,  and  this  has  later  been  extended  to 
other  business  sections. 

The  pumping  station  is  located  between  the  city  and  the  lake,  on  the 
main  pipe  line,  about  one  mile  from  the  center  of  the  city  and  two  miles 
from  the  lake  and  is  suppUed  by  gravity  at  static  pressiu-e  of  50  lbs.,  from 
an  18-in.  cement-lined  main  and  a  20-in.  cast-iron  main  which  also  furnish 
the  gravity  supply  for  the  city. 

In  1904  when  the  village  of  Penacook,  a  part  of  the  city  six  miles 
north,  was  added  to  the  high  service,  a  second  Worthington  triple  ex- 
pansion pump  was  installed.  Up  to  this  time  the  daily  average  amount  of 
water  pumped  was  400  000  gal.;  after  the  addition  of  Penacook,  it  in- 
creased to  800  000  gal.  The  total  daily  consumption  for  all  purposes  is 
nearly  2  400  000  gal.,  800  000  gal.  from  the  high  service  and  1  600  000  gal. 
from  the  gravity  service. 

In  1917  when  the  United  States  entered  the  war  and  coal  was  needed 
for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and  other  war  supplies,  it  seemed  best 
after  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  matter,  to  release  the  quantity  of  coal 
used  to  run  our  plant  and  pump  by  electricity. 

In  this  respect  Concord  is  very  favorably  located,  for  power  is  manu- 
factured by  the  Concord  Electric  Co.,  at  their  plant  at  Sewall's  Falls,  and 
the  line  is  also  tied  in  with  the  Manchester  Traction  Co.  at  Garvin's  Falls, 
both  of  these  plants  being  located  on  the  Merrimack  River. 

♦  Superiateodent  of  Water  Works,  Conoord,  N.  H. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


518  ELECTRIC    PUMPING  AT  CONCORD,   N.   H. 

A  rate  was  made  by  the  Concord  Electric  Co.  to  the  Water  Works,  by 
which  they  were  to  furnish  us  power  at  I5C.  per  K.W.H.  After  we  had  paid 
$1  800  there  was  to  be  no  further  charge  until  we  had  pumped  300  000  000 
gal.  and  then  the  rate  was  to  be  $6  per  million  gallons  pumped,  figured  on  a 
yearly  basis.  All  pumping  was  to  be  done  at  night  between  the  hours  of 
8  P.M.  and  6  a.m.  except  in  times  of  fire  or  other  emergency  when  we  could 
pump  as  required. 

A  contract  was  made  with  the  Worthington  Pump  and  Machinery- 
Corporation  for  an  8-in.  single  stage,  horizontal,  split  case,  double  suction, 
volute  pump,  to  have  an  efficiency  of  72  per  cent,  when  pumping  2  100  gal. 
per  minute  or  3  000  000  gal.  per  24  hours,  against  a  net  operating  head  of 
120  ft. 

To  drive  this  pump,  we  furnished  an  A.C.  100  H.P.  General  Electric 
motor  of  the  squirrel  cage  type,  to  operate  at  a  speed  of  1,800  R.P.M., 
which  was  guaranteed  by  the  makers  to  have  an  efficiency  of  91.5  per  cent, 
when  operated  at  either  full  or  three-quarters  load.  A  20  x  8  Venturi 
meter  was  placed  on  the  discharge  main.  This  pump  was  placed  in  service 
in  August  1919. 

As  the  water  is  taken  directly  from  the  mains  that  supply  the  city, 
provision  had  to  be  made  to  take  care  of  the  water  hammer  caused  by  the 
shutting  down  of  the  pump  and  a  4-in.  relief  valve  was  placed  on  the  suc- 
tion to  discharge  into  the  sewer  set  at  an  overload  of  20  per  cent.  The 
pump  operates  against  a  check  valve  on  the  discharge  side  as  it  is  not 
necessary  to  start  against  a  closed  gate. 

No  addition  or  new  building  was  necessary  as  there  was  ample  room  in 
the  existing  engine  room. 

The  steam  pumps  are  kept  for  emergency  and  the  fireman  is  released 
for  other  duties.  A  small  heating  apparatus  was  installed  to  heat  the  engine 
room,  as  it  was  considered  too  expensive  to  use  the  large  steam  boilers  for 
that  purpose. 

A  test  of  the  pump  was  made  for  the  month  of  September  1919,  with  a 
daily  average  of  654  333  gallons  pumped,  340  K.W.H.  used  and  a  net  head 
pumped  against  of  126.4,  and  the  pump  showed  an  efficiency  of  85.18 
per  cent. 

During  the  year  1920,  the  record  of  the  electric  pump  by  Venturi  meter 
measurement  was: 

Water  piimped,[308  879  000  gal. 

Daily  average  pumped,  843  931  gal. 

Gallons  pumped  per  minute,  2  640  or  3  800  000  per  24  hours. 

Total  K.W.H.  used,  156  610. 

K.W.H.  per  1  000  000  gal.,  506. 

Static  hejid,  suction,  50]lbs. 

Static  head,  discharge,  88  lbs. 

Dynamic  head,  suction, ',37  lbs. 

Dynamic  head,  discharge,  90  lbs. 

Net  head  pumped  against,  122  ft. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION. 


519 


With  switch  board  loss  of  2  per  cent,  and  motor  efficiency  of  91.5  per 

cent,  this  gives  an  efficiency  of  84.25  per  cent.  The  record  for  1921  was 
equally  good. 

The  cost  of  installation  was  as  follows: 

Centrifugal  piunp,  foundations  and  fittings,  $2  415.22 

Motor  and  switchboard,  1  291.50 

Venturi  meter,  1  406.16 

Heating  apparatus,  344.78 


Total  cost, 


$5  457.66 


The  supplies  used  for  the  past  year  were  14  gal.  of  oil,  47  lb.  of  packing, 
74  lb.  of  waste  and  approximately  12  tons  of  coal  to  heat  the  building. 

The  cost  of  pumping  by  steam  figured  on  total  pumping  station  ex- 
penses with  no  allowance  for  interest  or  depreciation  charges  was: 


Year                  Per  MilKon  Gal. 
1911 $11.65 


1912 

♦1913 

1914 

1915 

^Excessive  repairs. 

Cost  by  electricity, 


12.34 
19.49 
13.12 
14.03 


Year.                    Per  Million  Gal. 
1916 S15.40 

1917.... 16.22 

1918 17.06 

tl919 15.14 

ti'teani  and  electririty. 


1920 $13.16  per  million  gal. 

1921 12.90  per  million  gal. 

As  wages  and  supplies  were  at  least  33  per  cent,  higher  in  1920-21  than 
in  1918,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  cost  per  1  000  000  gal.  pumped  in  those 
two  years  would  have  been  $22.70,  pumping  by  st^am. 

The  total  purapage  for  1920  and  1921  was  578  737  000  gal.  which,  if 
figured  on  the  above  basis,  would  present  a  saving  of  $5  590  by  the  change 
to  electric  power;  and  in  addition  there  is  the  advantage  of  the  increased 
speed  with  which  the  pump  can  be  started  in  case  of  fire. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.*    How  much  of  those  costs  were  labor? 

Mr.  Sanders.     I  should  say  one  third. 

Mr.  Diven.     Of  course  you  save  in  labor  on  the  electric  pump  ver\' 
largely. 

Mr.  Sanders.     Yes.    We  save  the  cost  of  the  fireman  and  handling 
of  the  fuel. 

I  5     PREsroENT  Barbour.     Did  you  consider  automatic  operation  or  did 
you  keep  the  same  number  of  engineers  on  the  electric  pumps? 

Mr.  Sanders.   We  kept  the  same  engineer.    No,  we  did  not  consider 
automatic  operation  at  all.    We  did  not  feel  it  was  safe  to  do  it. 

*  Superintendent,  American  Water  Worka  Association. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


520  ELECTRIC   PUMPING  AT  CONCOR0,    N.H. 

Mr.   Diven.    You  were  wise. 

Mr.  Sanders.  And  in  addition  to  that,  we  pump  at  night,  and  the  en- 
gineer has  to  ring  up  the  police  station  hourly  so  as  to  make  sure  that  noth- 
ing has  happened  and  that  the  pump  is  not  running  without  attendance. 

Mr.  Diven.  It  would  seem  to  me  that  the  peak  of  the  load  on  the 
electric  light  plant  would  come  in  the  night  time,  and  that  they  would 
want  you  to  take  the  day  load. 

Mr.  Sanders.  It  does  not  in  our  town,  because  there  are  a  great 
many  granite  manufacturers  there,  and  their  light  load  comes  at  night. 
Of  course  all  that  is  required  is  to  turn  the  Merrimac  River  through  an- 
other generator. 

President  Barbour.  Have  you  had  any  outages?  Have  you  lost 
current?    Did  you  have  the  ice  storm  that  we  had  last  November? 

Mr.  Sanders.  No;  the  shut  down  has  been  practically  nothing  by 
electric  troubles.     We  had  a  little  motor  trouble  that  caused  a  shut  down. 

Mr.  Diven.    Have  you  had  any  experience  with  automatic  control? 

Mr.  Sanders.    Never  in  water  pumping. 

Mr.  Diven.  I  had  experience  in  a  small  plant  where  they  changed 
from  steam  to  electricity  intending  to  have  it  entirely  automatic.  A 
message  came  that  this  little  suburban  town  was  out  of  water.  The  power 
had  been  switched  on  about  two  miles  from  the  pumping  station.  We 
found  a  pile  of  wreckage  in  the  pumping  station.  The  pump  was  absolutely 
to  pieces. 

Mr.  Herbert  C.  Crowell.*  Do  you  depend  upon  the  electric  pump 
entirely  for  pumping,  or  do  you  have  some  other  power? 

Mr.  Sanders.  We  keep  the  original  steam  pimips  there,  in  good 
operating  condition,  so  that  they  are  ready  to  start  on  short  notice. 

Mr.  Crowell.    What  is  the  length  of  the  transmission  line? 

Mr.  Sanders.    Three  or  four  miles. 

President  Barbour.    Have  you  a  double  transmission  line? 

Mr.  Sanders.  No;  but  the  SewaU  Falls,  owned  by  the  Concord 
Electric  Company,  is  north  of  the  city,  and  the  Garvins  Falls  is  south  of 
the  city,  so  that  we  can  have  it  coming  both  ways.  They  are  also  tied  in 
at  Manchester  with  the  plant  there. 

Mr.  Crowell.  Do  you  have  to  pay  a  fixed  charge  for  the  current? 
Do  you  have  to  guarantee  to  pump  so  much  water? 

Mr.  Sanders.  No,  we  do  not.  We  pay  IJ  cents  a  kilowatt  hour 
for  all  the  power  we  use.  That  rate  is  figured  on  a  basis  of  pumping 
300  000  000  gal.  of  water  a  year.  The  maximum  charge  is  $1  800.  After 
paying  $1  800  we  do  not  pay  any  more  until  we  pimip  300  000  000  gal. 
of  water,  and  after  pumping  300  000  000  gal.  the  rate  is  $6  a  million  gal. 
It  figures  out  approximately  $6.40,  but  varies,  of  course,  with  the  amount 
pumped. 

Mr.  Edmund  Dunn.  I  am  from  Garfield,  N.  J.  The  first  of  January, 
we  took  over  a  steam-driven  plant,  with  triple  expansion  Worthington 

*  Superintendent,  Water  Works,  Haverhill.  Mass.  -^^^  .     CjOOQIc 


DISCUSSION.  521 

pumps,  similar  to  what  they  have  in  New  Bedford,  only  horizontal  instead 
of  vertical.  It  was  costing  them  $1.46  per  thousand  cu.  ft.  for  pumping 
water  out  of  deep  wells.  We  installed  an  electric  outfit  and  it  is  costing 
to-day  92  cents  a  thousand  cu.  ft. 

Mr.  Diven.    How  large  a  plant? 

Mr.  Dunn.    About  2  000  gal. 

Mr.  Diven.    How  much  are  you  saving  on  labor? 

Mr.  Dunn.  Approximately  $8  000  per  year.  We  had  three  engineers 
and  three  firemen,  paying  70  cents  an  hour  to  the  engineers  and  65  cents 
an  hour  to  the  firemen.  We  took  them  oflf.  There  are  two  men  in  the 
plant  at  the  present  time  who  are  paid  $100  a  month.  We  have  our  Chief 
Engineer  in  case  we  have  to  start  up  an  auxiliary  steam  plant. 

Mr.  Diven.    How  much  are  you  pumping  per  day? 

Mr.  Dunn.  We  are  pumping  now  1  000  gal.  a  minute,  running  twenty 
four  hours  every  day.  We  are  getting  the  current  at  1.17  cents  per  kw.  hr. 
A  guarantee  is  required  to  take  3  000  kw.  hr.  a  month  to  get  that  rate  but 
the  use  is  unlimited. 

Mr.  Sanders.    How  is  your  power  manufactured? 

Mr.  Dunn.  It  comes  from  the  public  service  generated  by  steam 
power.  The  water  is  lifted  out  of  the  wells  to  a  reservoir  by  an  air  lift 
sj^stem  of  about  a  half  million  gal.  capacity.  Pmnps  are  the  twin  Valute 
type,  made  in  Newark.  I  was  quite  surprised  to  hear  Mr.  Taylor  say 
that  the  pump  in  New  Bedford  was  only  about  60  per  cent,  efficient. 
We  get  70  per  cent,  efficiency.  That  is  not  a  Valute  pimip  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word,  but  a  centrifugal.  A  Valute  pump  is  made  on  different 
lines  and  gives  greater  efficiency.  We  have  one  plant  electrified,  and  later 
will  electrify  the  other. 

Mr.  Diven.  In  the  small  plants  the  labor  cost  per  million  gal.  is 
very  high.  I  should  like  to  hear  from  somebody  who  has  a  pump  of  ten, 
fifteen  or  twenty  million  gal.  a  day. 

Mr.  Dunn.  I  can  tell  you  about  paper  manufacturers  I  am  working 
with  who  have  gas  and  steam  power.  They  have  the  Corliss  type  of  en- 
gine of  about  3  000  h.p.  But  steam  power  to-day  is  no  use  without  fuel  oil 
or  coal.  We  are  installing  public  service  through  the  whole  mill.  There 
is  nothing  to  depend  on  whatsoever  in  that  plant  with  the  exception  of 
one  unit  to  keep  our  fire  system  in  order,  which  we  are  compelled  to  main- 
tain to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  fire  insurance  companies.  We  figure 
out  a  saving  of  about  $30  000  a  year  by  using  the  public  service  in  labor 
alone.  And  then  you  haven't  any  coal  to  bother  with.  The  coal  question 
is  not  worrying  you  much  over  here,  but  we  are  sweating  for  coal  at  the 
present  time.  We  expect  to  close  some  plants,  and  there  are  a  number  now 
closed  for  the  want  of  coal.  The  Public  Service  Companies  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  us  because  they  get  their  coal  direct  from  tide  water,  and  don't 
have  to  bring  it  in  by  automobile  truck  or  rail,  as  their  plants  are  situated 
at  tide  water  and  they  send  the  current  over  the  Empire  State  with  high 
pressure  Unes.  Digitized  by  Google 


522  APPLICATION    OF    COPPER    SULPHATE. 


APPLICATION    OF    COPPER    SULPHATE    TO    HARTFORD 
RESERVOIRS  AND  SOME  EFFECTS  UPON  LENGTH 
OF  FILTER  RUNS. 

BY    J.    E.    GARRATT.* 

For  several  yeai-s  copper  sulphate  has  been  applied  to  the  various 
reservoirs  of  the  Hartford  water  system  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  when 
the  numbers  of  micro-organism  have  become  large.  Previous  to  the  filtra- 
tion of  the  supply,  which  began  late  in  the  fall  of  1921,  the  application  of 
copper  sulphate  to  the  reservoirs  was  principally  for  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing the  taste  and  odor  of  the  water.  Since  the  introduction  of  filtration, 
the  application  of  copper  sulphate  has  continued  for  the  purpose  of  lessening 
the  amount  of  material  which  the  filters  have  to  remove  from  the  water,  and 
thereby  lengthening  filter  runs  and  reducing  costs  of  operation. 

Copper  sulphate  is  applied  to  the  several  relatively  small  old  reservoirs 
of  Hartford's  supply  by  traveling  over  the  reservoir  surface  in  a  small 
boat  equipped  with  an  out-board  motor,  with  a  bag  of  copper  sulphate 
crystals  suspended  over  the  side  of  the  boat  and  in  the  water.  A  course 
around  the  reservoir  starting  close  to  the  shore  and  gradually  working  out 
to  the  center  is  pursued.  The  course  is  determined  wholly  by  experience 
and  judgment.  If  the  desired  amount  of  copper  sulphate  has  not  been 
dissolved  by  the  time  the  center  of  the  reservoir  is  reached,  such  a  random 
course  is  continued  as  will  spread  the  remaining  copper  sulphate  through 
the  whole  reservoir. 

With  the  new  large  Nepaug  Reservoir  recently  added  to  Hartford's 
supply  the  application  of  copper  sulphate  is  a  much  bigger  proposition,  as 
it  is  a  question  of  dissolving  two  tons  or  so  each  time.  Here  an  eighteen 
foot  motor  boat  is  available.  By  experiment  it  was  found  that,  with  two 
l)ags  of  copper  sulphate  held  in  the  water,  one  from  either  side  of  the  boat 
near  the  stern,  the  boat  would  travel  at  the  rate  of  about  6  miles  per  hour 
and  50  lb.  of  coarse  granular  copper  sulphate  per  bag,  or  100  lb.  from  the 
two  bags,  would  dissolve  in  5  minutes,  using  coarse  mesh  grain  bags. 

With  this  information  as  a  basis  it  is  possible  to  lay  out  courses  over 
any  portion  of  the  resei-\'oir  which  it  is  desired  to  treat  so  that  the  required 
amount  of  chemical  can  be  dissolved  in  a  more  or  less  uniform  manner. 
This  ordinarily  gives  courses  about  100  ft.  apart.  The  dissolved  sulphate 
is  considerably  dispersed  by  the  churning  of  the  propeller  of  the  boat,  which 
is  one  of  the  decided  advantages  of  a  motorboat. 

*  Office  Engineer,  Board  of  Water  Comraissionere,  City  of  Hartford. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GARRATT.  523 

The  Nepaug  Reservoir  is  formed  by  damming  two  streams.  There 
are,  therefore,  two  more  or  less  distinct  basins  to  the  reservoir.  The  outlet 
from  the  reservoir  to  the  pipe  line  to  the  filter  plant  is  located  in  one  of  these 
basins,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  keep  this  portion  of  the  reservoir  low  in 
micro-organisms. 

Thus  basin  has  a  capacity  of  about  1  800  000  000  gal.,  is  about  3  800 
ft.  long,  and  has  an  average  width  of  about  1  800  ft.  It  was  first  treated 
on  June  17,1921,  when  total  micro-organisms  at  the  surface  numbered  1  300 
(principally  Asterionella  750  and  Cyclotella  500)  and  at  a  depth  of  30  ft. 
numbered  350  {Asterionella  200  and  Cyclotella  100) .  It  was  decided  to 
treat  at  the  rate  of  1.5  lb.  per  million  gal.,  which  required  2  700  lbs.  of  copper 
sulphate  for  the  1  800  000  000  gal.  in  the  basin.  To  dissolve  these  2  700 
lb.,  using  two  bags  from  the  motor  boat,  required  27x5  minutes,  or  2  hours 
and  15  minutes.  During  this  time  at  a  speed  of  6  miles  per  hour  the  boat 
would  travel  about  13J  miles  or  about  72  000  ft.  The  average  width 
of  the  basin  being  1  800  ft.  it  is  seen  that  40  trips  across  would  be  required; 
and  since  the  length  of  the  basin  is  about  4  000  ft.  the  courses  would  be 
100  ft.  apart.  These  courses  were  laid  out  on  a  plan,  and  land  marks 
only  were  used  as  guides  when  the  courses  were  traversed.  The  motor- 
boat  carried  twelve  50  lbs.  bags  of  sulphate  besides  a  crew  of  three  men, 
one  to  guide  the  boat  and  two  to  dissolve  the  copper  sulphate.  Since  the 
rate  at  which  the  sulphate  dissolved  was  much  more  rapid  when  the  50  lb. 
bag  was  first  immersed,  a  more  uniform  rate  of  dissolution  was  obtained 
by  putting  a  new  full  bag  overboard  on  one  side  of  the  boat  at  the  time 
that  the  bag  already  overboard  on  the  other  side  was  about  one-half  dis- 
solved. No  attempt  was  made  by  the  men  handling  the  copper  sulphate 
to  dissolve  the  last  handful  or  two.  When  this  stage  was  reached  he  passed 
the  bag  forward  to  the  man  steering  the  boat,  who  dissolved  the  small 
remaining  amount  while  the  main  operation  continued.  It  took  a  little 
over  three  hours  to  apply  the  2  700  lb.,  two  hours  and  fifteen  minutes  of 
which  was  actual  time  on  the  course  and  the  remainder  was  time  used  in 
returning  for  other  boat  loads  of  sulphate. 

Water  samples  taken  at  two  widely  separated  points  on  June  21, 
four  days  after  treatment,  showed  that  the  total  number  of  micro-organisms 
at  the  surface  had  been  reduced  to  about  300  {Asterionella  150  and  Cyclo- 
tella 130).  Some  few  small  fish  were  killed  by  the  treatment.  About  six 
pailfuls  were  picked  up  along  the  shore. 

At  this  same  time  several  smaller  coves  and  portions  of  the  reservoir, 
so  located  as  to  be  conspicuous  from  the  highway,  were  treated  with  equally 
successful  results.  The  previous  year  a  green  algae  scum  formed  in  certain 
of  these  coves.  None  occurred  during  1921  after  the  copper  sulphate  was 
applied.  The  micro-organisms  remained  low  in  number  throughout  the 
remainder  of  the  year. 

The  new  filtration  plant  was  started  in  a  small  way  during  November, 
1921.     Only  part  of  the  total  supply  was  filtered.     Permanent  rate  of  flow 


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524  APPLICATION    OF    COPPER    SULPHATE. 

and  loss  of  head  gages  were  not  yet  installed  and  only  a  temporary  sand 
washing  outfit  was  available.  Piping  is  so  arranged  that  water  can  be 
taken  either  from  the  Nepaug  Reservoir,  from  the  old  West  Hartford 
reservoirs,  or  from  both  sources  at  the  same  time.  The  water  to  the  filters 
was  taken  first  from  the  big  Nepaug  Reservoir.  The  number  of  filter  units 
in  use  was  gradually  increased  until  early  in  February,  1922,  the  whole 
supply  to  the  city  was  being  filtered.  Nepaug  water  was  used  until  the 
middle  of  March.  During  all  of  this  time  the  micro-organisms,  which 
were  very  low  in  number,  totaled  about  50  (maximum  80  and  minimum 
25).  The  average  amount  of  water  passed  between  scrapings  or  rakings 
was  about  125  000000  gal.  per  J-acre  bed. 

From  March  17  to  April  3,  while  high  colored  bottom  water  was  wasted 
from  the  Nepaug  Reservoir  previous  to  the  spring  turn-over,  water  to  the 
filters  was  taken  from  the  West  Hartford  reservoirs.  This  raw  water  had 
a  color  of  about  25.  The  numbers  of  micro-organisms  were  not  as  low  as  in 
the  Nepaug  water  but  they  were  relatively  low;  80  on  March  17  and  in- 
creasing to  185  by  April  3.  A  filtered  water  with  color  of  about  15  was 
obtained,  and  the  rate  of  clogging  during  this  short  period  indicated  that  the 
quantity  of  water  filtered  between  cleanings  or  rakings  would  have  averaged 
about  100  000  000  gal.  per  J-acre  bed,  had  water  of  this  character  con- 
tinued through  the  filters. 

Nepaug  water  was  again  put  onto  the  filter  beginning  April  3.  By 
the  end  of  the  month  micro-organisms  had  increased  to  150  or  so,  more  than 
one-half  being  Asterionella,  In  anticipation  of  the  probable  need  of  treat- 
ing the  Nepaug  Reservoir  with  copper  sulphate  as  was  done  the  previous 
year,  the  principal  West  Hartford  reservoirs  in  which  the  total  micro- 
organisms had  gradually  increased  to  from  240  to  300  (in  two  Asterionella 
was  the  principal' micro-organism  and  in  another  Nitzschia)  were  treated 
with  copper  sulphate  at  the  rate  of  2.3  lb.  per  million  gallons  early  in  the 
month  of  May  in  order  to  have  them  available  with  water  low  in  micro- 
organisms for  use  while  the  big  reservoir  was  being  treated. 

Early  in  May,  with  Nepaug  water,  filters  clogged  very  rapidly.  Runs 
of  as  little  as  40  -  45  million  gallons  per  J-acre  bed  were  the  rule.  It  began 
to  look  as  if  night  shifts  would  be  needed  on  the  washing  outfit.  On  May  22 
Nepaug  water  was  shut  oflf  so  that  the  reservoir  could  be  copper  sulphated. 
While  the  total  number  of  micro-organisms  did  not  seem  large,  yet  there 
were  several  times  as  many  as  in  the  water  which  had  been  used  previously. 
At  the  surface  they  totaled  300  and  at  the  depth  of  30  ft.,  200.  It  was 
decided  to  treat  the  portion  of  the  Nepaug  Reservoir  near  the  intake,  that 
is,  the  same  portion  as  was  treated  the  previous  year.  Twenty-four  hun- 
dred (2  400)  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  were  applied  on  May  23  in  the  same 
manner  as  during  the  previous  year  except  that  fine  mesh  burlap  bags  were 
used  so  that  no  fine  grains  of  sulphate  could  escape.  This  was  at  the  rate  of 
about  1 .3  lb.  per  miUion  gallons  of  water  treated,  as  compared  with  1.5  lb. 
per  million  gallons  the  previous  year.    The  predominating  micro-organisms 


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GARRATT.  525 

were  Uroglena  50  per  cent,  and  Asterionella  30  per  cent.  The  treatment, 
however,  was  without  material  results.  Total  organisms  at  the  surface 
were  not  reduced  in  number  while  at  the  depth  of  30  ft.  they  increased  very 
materially  to  about  600  total. 

In  the  meantime,  the  treated  West  Hartford  reservoir  water  with  total 
micro-organisms  of  50  to  100  was  put  onto  the  filters,  filter  runs  lengthened 
appreciably  to  65  or  75  000  000  gal.  between  washings,  and  the  washing 
emergency  was  passed. 

But  it  was  desired  to  use  Nepaug  water  as  soon  as  possible  so  it  was 
decided  to  treat  the  same  portion  of  this  reservoir  again  and  at  a  rate  of 
about  2.5  lb.  per  million  gallons.  On  June  3,  1922,  four  thousand  (4  000) 
pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  all  of  which  was  on  hand  at  that  time,  were 
applied.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  2.3  lb.  per  million  gallons.  Total  micro- 
organisms were  250  at  the  surface  and  600  at  a  depth  of  30  ft.,  half  Asterio- 
neUa  and  half  Uroglena.  Quite  a  few  small  fish  were  killed.  Samples 
taken  three  days  after  treatment  showed  slight  reduction  in  Asterionella 
and  practically  no  reduction  in  the  number  of  Uroglena,  Samples  taken 
the  following  day,  June  8,  showed  still  further  reduction  in  the  micro- 
organisms at  the  surface  (average  total  140),  but  large  increase  in 
number  at  a  depth  of  30  ft.  (average  total  1  030). 

On  June  9  the  change  back  to  the  Nepaug  water  was  made,  taking 
water  from  the  intake  nearest  the  surface  where  the  micro-organisms  were 
the  lowest  in  number.  On  June  14  conditions  were  the  same  as  on  June  8, 
but  by  June  21  surface  counts  had  decreased  to  an  average  of  65  and  at  the 
30  ft.  depth  to  an  average  of  100. 

As  a  result  of  more  or  less  oflf  hand  consideration  of  all  this,  it  appeared 
that  all  that  was  necessary  to  do  in  order  to  keep  filter  runs  long  w^as  to 
keep  micro-organisms  low  in  number.  Careful  watch,  therefore,  was  kept 
of  micro-organisms.  No  considerable  increase  was  noticed  in  the  Nepaug 
water,  but  all  of  a  sudden,  early  in  July,  filter  runs  of  18,  20,  21,  23,  25 
million  gallons  were  gotten.  Experience  had  shown  that  filters  could  be 
lightly  raked  over  once  or  even  twice  without  materially  increasing  the 
amount  of  sand  to  be  scraped  ofiF  and  washed  ultimately,  so  that  no  wash- 
ing crisis  seemed  at  hand,  but  on  several  beds  there  were  periods  of  only 
ten  (10)  days  between  rakings  or  scrapings  and  in  one  case  only  seven  (7) 
days. 

While  water  in  the  Nepaug  reservoir  was  low  in  micro-organisms  it 
was  found  that  water  in  the  West  Hartford  reservoirs,  into  which  the  pipe 
line  from  Nepaug  emptied,  had  developed  a  considerable  growth  of  micro- 
organisms {NUzschia),  80  on  June  8  this  reservoir  (Reservoir  No.  5  so-called) 
was  shut  off  and  the  Nepaug  water  allowed  to  pass  directly  to  the  filters. 
Reservoir  No.  5  normally  is  used  like  a  surge  tank  to  take  care  of  the  excess 
or  to  supply  the  deficit  of  Nepaug  water,  over  or  under  the  amount  passing 
through  the  filter  at  any  time. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


526  APPLICATION    OF    COPPER    SULPHATE. 

About  July  11  Reservoir  No.  5  was  treated  with  2.3  lb.  of  copper 
sulphate,  per  million  gallons  the  micro-organisms  reduced  from  270  to 
about  100  by  July  18  and  on  that  day  the  gate  on  the  line  to  and  from  the 
treated  Reservoir  No.  5  was  opened  again.  At  the  time  this  treated 
water  was  again  free  to  pass  onto  the  filters,  one  ^-acre  bed  had  only  passed 
30  000  000  gal.  of  water  and  had  lost  three  (3)  of  its  five  (5)  ft.  of  head. 
Other  beds  had  either  just  started  on  new  runs  or  were  practically  at  the 
end  of  runs  of  20  to  25  million  gallons  as  stated  above. 

A  few  days  later  it  was  noticed  that  loss  of  head  on  the  bed  which  was 
in  the  midst  of  a  run,  Bed  3  so-called,  began  to  decrease.  It  continued  to 
decrease.  At  the  same  time  a  slimy  deposit  on  the  walls  and  bottom  of  the 
walls  and  bottom  of  the  aerator  disappeared.  Bed  3  gained  a  new  lease  of 
hfe  and  continued  in  service  until  August  24,  passing  90  000  000  gal.  of 
water.  Runs  on  other  filters  since  the  last  of  July  have  varied  from  45 
to  80.  Micro-organisms  in  Nepaug  reservoir  have  continued  low,  30  to  50. 
But  at  the  present  time,  August  25,  micro-organisms  in  Reservoir  No.  5 
have  again  increased  to  over  300  without  as  yet  causing  any  noticeable 
increase  in  the  rate  of  clogging  of  the  filters. 

Presumedly  we  have  not  as  yet  gotten  the  whole  story  in  regard  to  the 
amount  of  copper  sulphate  needed  for  effective  treatment  or  in  regard  to  the 
relation  between  number  of  micro-organisms  and  lengths  of  filter  runs; 
but  it  is  thought  from  the  information  so  far  collected  that  the  application 
of  copper  sulphate  has  possibiHties  as  an  aid  to  economical  filter  operation 
with  H&rtford's  water. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  Garrett.  In  the  matter  of  the  application  of  copper  sulphate 
to  the  reservoir,  we  have  always  been  very  careful  not  to  put  so  much  in 
as  to  kill  the  fish. 

Mr.  J.  M.  DivEN.*  On  the  matter  of  killing  fish  my  observation  has 
been  that  the  game  fish  are  seldom  killed,  —  but  it  is  such  fish  as  carp,  for 
instance.  At  the  Troy  Reservoir  we  took  out  six  tons  of  carp.  They  are 
a  mud  fish,  and  work  around  in  the  bottom.  The  water  being  a  little  tur- 
bid, the  copper  sulphate  was  carried  to  the  bottom  and  the  fish  got  it. 
In  all  that  six  tons  I  think  there  was  only  one  black  bass  that  was  killed. 


*  Seoretar>'  American  Water  Works  As«)oiation. 

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GOODNOUGH.  527 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  SOUTHEASTERN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

BY  X.  H.  GOODNOUGH.* 

[September-19£2.] 

Southeastern  Massachusetts  is  a  term  ordinarily  used  to  designate 
that  part  of  the  Commonwealth  included  in  the  old  Plymouth  Colony 
which  at  present  comprises  the  counties  of  Pl3rmouth,  Bristol  and  Barn- 
stable on  the  mainland  and  the  island  counties  of  Dukes  and  Nantucket. 
In  the  counties  of  Barnstable,  Dukes  and  Nantucket  there  are  no  large 
centers  of  population  and  local  water  supplies  are  readily  available  which 
from  present  prospects  are  ample  for  all  probable  needs.  Plymouth 
Count}'  contains  but  one  large  city,  Brockton,  amply  supplied  with  water 
from  sources  situated  in  a  region  in  which  supplementary  water  supplies 
are  readily  available  to  meet  future  requirements.  Plymouth,  the  next 
largest  municipality  in  this  county,  has  also  an  excellent  water  supply  in 
a  region  of  abundant  further  resources. 

The  greatest  concentration  of  population  in  southeastern  Massa- 
chusetts is  found  in  the  county  of  Bristol  and  is  centered  chiefly  in  the 
three  principal  cities  —  Fall  River,  New  Bedford  and  Taunton.  These 
cities  contain  many  of  the  most  important  textile  industrial  plants  in 
New  England  if  not  in  the  whole  United  States. 

It  will  be  shown  later  that  Fall  River  and  New  Bedford,  which  together 
contain  nearly  87  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  three  principal  cities 
of  southeastern  Massachusetts  under  consideration,  exclusive  of  the 
adjacent  towns,  are  already  using  nearly  all  the  water  that  their  present 
sources  of  supply  can  safely  be  relied  upon  to  furnish.  If  these  cities 
continue  to  grow  and  to  use  more  and  more  water,  as  has  been  the  case  in 
the  past,  additional  water  supplies  must  be  secured,  immediately  in  the 
case  of  Fall  River,  and  within  a  very  few  years  in  the  case  of  New  Bedford, 
or  a  shortage  of  water  supply  will  be  experienced  in  the  next  dry  period. 
Estimates  of  the  population  and  of  the  quantity  of  water  likely  to  be 
required  for  the  supply  of  these  cities  which  will  be  presented  indicate  that 
their  population  may  be  expected  to  double  within  the  next  fifty  to  sixty 
years  if  their  growth  continues  approximately  as  shown  by  past  experience. 
(See  Diagram  No.  1.)  These  estimates  may  seem  large,  but  even  if  these 
cities  should  grow  more  slowly  the  quantities  of  water  required  for  their 
use  will  equal  the  estimates  within  a  comparatively  few  years  beyond  the 
time  indicated.  Fifty  years  is  a  short  period  in  the  life  of  a  city,  and  many 
of  the  present  inhabitants  of  these  cities  in  the  natural  course  of  events  will 
still  be  dwelling  there  at  the  end  of  that  period. 

♦Director  and  Chief  EnRinoer,  Mass.  Dept.  of  Public  Health. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


529 


The  industries  of  these  cities  have  long  been  established  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  their  growth  should  cease  or  even  be  materially  restricted, 
in  the  immediate  future  at  least,  on  account  of  the  establishment  of  similar 


1870     1860    1890    1900    1910     1920     1930    1940    1950    1960    1970 
Diagram  No.  1. 


industries  elsewhere  or  from  any  other  cause  that  is  apparent  at  the  present 
time.  The  great  manufacturing  cities  of  England  have  not  declined 
because  of  the  growth  of  similar  industries  in  England  or  in  any  of  the 
other  countries.     On  the  contrary,  those  cities  have  grown  steadily,  and 


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530 


WATER   SUPPLY   OF   SOUTHEASTERN   MASSACHUSETTS. 


for  more  than  half  a  century  their  growth  has  been  as  rapid  or  even  more 
rapid  than  is  here  estimated  for  the  cities  of  southeastern  Massachasetts, 
though  the  English  cities  have  attained  a  much  larger  size.     (See  Diagram 

No.  2.) 


liXXIOOO. 


SOQOOO 


POPULATION 
NEW  BEDFORD /iMD  F>ALL  RIVER 

AHti 

EN6LISH    CITIES 


200000 


loqooo 


200000 


lOQOOO 


IQOOO 


20000 


IQOOO 


50    40    30     20     10      0       10     20     30    AO    50 

rEAR5  BEFORE  REACHING  120.000       x  YEARS  AFTER  REACHING  120,000 
Diagram  No.  2. 


I.00Q0OO 


500000 


5Q00O 


Except  for  the  natural  ponds,  the  region  of  southeastern  Massachu- 
setts is  a  singularly  unfavorable  one  in  which  to  obtain  large  quantities 
of  unpolluted  water  for  domestic  uses  within  reasonable  limits  of  cost. 
The  valleys  in  general  are  wide  and  flat  and  are  occupied  commonly  by 
extensive  swamps.  In  consequence,  the  waters  of  the  streams  are  usually 
highly  colored  and  contain  large  quantities  of  organic  matter.  The  rivers 
and  water  courses  in  many  cases  are  exposed  to  pollution  from  towns  and 


Digitized  by 


Google 


GOODNOUGH.  531 

villages  on  their  watersheds  and  from  manufactories  producing  large 
quantities  of  objectionable  wastes  which  find  their  way  into  the  streams. 
The  contours  of  the  valleys,  as  a  rule,  are  poorly  adapted  for  the  con- 
struction of  reservoirs  of  large  size  unless  by  the  flooding  of  swamps  which 
would  produce  waters  of  highly  objectionable  quality.  Two  remarkable 
groups  of  natural  ponds,  however,  characterize  the  topography  of  this 
region,  and  thej'^  include  the  largest  natural  reservoirs  in  the  State.  One 
group,  known  as  the  Watuppa  Ponds,  lies  adjacent  to  and  partly  within  the 
city  of  Fall  River  and  from  the  northerly  pond  of  this  group,  known  as 
North  Watuppa  Pond,  the  city  of  Fall  River  has  obtained  its  water  supply 
since  water  works  were  first  introduced  into  the  city  in  1874.  The  other 
group,  known  as  the  Lakeville  or  Middleborough  Ponds,  is  situated  partly 
in  Lakeville  and  partly  in  Middleborough  with  small  portions  in  Freetown 
and  Rochester,  and  has  been  used  as  the  source  of  water  supply  for  the 
cities  of  New  Bedford  and  Taunton  for  many  years,  the  former  taking  its 
supply  from  Little  Quittacas  Pond  supplemented  by  Great  Quittacas  Pond, 
while  Taunton  supplies  itself  from  Elder's  Pond  supplemented  with  water 
pumped  into  Elder's  from  Assawompsett  Pond. 

The  Water  Supply  of  Fall  River. 

The  Watuppa  Ponds  have  thus  far  furnished  all  of  the  water  used  in 
Fall  River  for  water  power  and  for  domestic  and  manufacturing  uses,  — 
the  domestic  water  supply,  including  all  water  supplied  from  the  municipal 
works,  coming  from  the  North  Pond. 

These  ponds  have  been  carefully  surveyed  and  mapped  and  accurate 
information  is  thus  available  as  to  their  storage  capacity  and  the  areas 
of  their  watersheds. 

From  this  information  the  following  table  is  presented  showing  the 
original  drainage  area  of  each  pond  and  the  area  and  capacity  of  the  North 
and  South  Watuppa  Ponds  respectively,  together  with  the  changes  due 
to  diversions  from  the  watershed  of  North  Watuppa  Pond  designed  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  pollution  of  the  water  to  which  reference  will  later 
be  made. 

Drainage  Areas  and  Area  and  Capacity  of  Watuppa  Ponds. 


Pond. 
North  Watuppa  Pond   

Original 

Drainage 

Area 

(Sq.   Mi.). 

11.44 

Drainage  Areas 

after  Completion 

of  Diversion 

WorkJ*. 

(Sc|.  Mi.). 

8.54 

19.00 

Area 

(Sq.  Mi.). 

2.82 
2.42 

Approximate 
Capacity 

(Mil.  Gal8.). 

7  200 

South  Watuppa  Pond 

16.10 

8000 

With  the  available  records  of  rainfall  for  this  region,  which  cover  in 
some  cases  very  long  periods  of  years,  and  with  the  measurements  of  the 
flow  of  North  Watuppa  Pond  which  were  maintained  for  a  number  of 
years  by  the  city  of  Fall  River,  sufficient  data  are  available  for  computing 
within  narrow  limits  the  probable  safe  yield  of  these  ponds. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


532  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  SOUTHEASTERN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

With  this  infonnation  estimates  of  the  safe  yield  of  North  Watuppa 
Pond  indicate  that  about  7  million  gal.  per  day  can  be  drawn  from  the 
pond  without  lowering  the  water  level  more  than  about  five  feet.  It  is 
possible  by  drawing  the  pond  to  a  lower  level,  and  thus  utilizing  a  greater 
portion  of  the  storage,  to  enlarge  somewhat  the  yield  of  this  source,  but  a 
draft  of  more  than  about  8  million  gal.  per  day  would  be  likely  to 
exhaust  the  storage  in  the  pond  in  a  dry  period.  It  is  desirable  to  retain 
as  large  an  amount  of  water  in  the  pond  as  practicable  for  several  reasons, 
especially  for  the  purification  of  the  water  and  the  protection  from  the 
effect  of  possible  pollution  which  storage  affords,  and  the  limit  of  5  ft.  in  the 
draft  from  this  pond  is  a  reasonable  one  under  the  existing  circumstances. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  in  the  city  of  Fall  River  since  1890,  the 
population  of  the  city,  the  consimiption  of  water  per  capita,  number  of 
services  and  per  cent,  of  services  metered,  are  shown  in  the  following 
table: 

Year.  Population.^ 

1890 74  398 

1891 77  359 

1892 80320 

1893 83  281 

1894 86  242 

1895 89  203 

1896 92335 

1897 95  467 

1898 98599 

1899 101731 

1900 104  863 

1901 105  043 

1902 105  223 

1903 105  402 

1904 105  582 

1905 105  762 

1906 108  469 

1907 111175 

1908 113  882 

1909 116  588 

1910 119  295 

1911 120  394 

1912 121493 

1913 122  593 

1914 123  692 

1915 124  791 

1916 123  930 

1917 123  069 

1918 122  207 

1919 121346 

1920 120  485 

1921 120  485 

*  Populations  for  other  than  cenaua  yeaxB  are  estimated. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Averace  Daily 

Consumption 

(Gallons). 

Per  Cwita 

Daily 

Consumption 

(Gallons). 

No.  of 
Servioee. 

Percent. 

of  Servioea 

Metemi. 

2136000 

29 

4980 

75 

2  356  000 

30 

5  247 

76 

2286000 

29 

5  526 

77 

2  334000 

28 

5  793 

78 

2  438  000 

28 

6138 

80 

3  167  000 

35 

6  372 

82 

3  547  000 

38 

6  704 

84 

3  670  000 

39 

6  422 

93 

3136  000 

32 

6  576 

93 

3  581000 

35 

6  783 

94 

3  805  000 

36 

6943 

94 

3  619  000 

34 

7  075 

96 

4365  000 

41 

7282 

-96 

4  278000 

41 

7502 

96 

4092  000 

39 

7  667 

96 

4  407  000 

42 

7  744 

97 

4  478  000 

41 

7  845 

9a 

4  941000 

44 

7  956 

9a 

4968  000 

44 

8108 

9a 

5340  000 

46 

8  316 

9^ 

5200  000 

44 

8  501 

99- 

5177  000 

43 

8  790 

99- 

5  335  000 

44 

8  988 

100. 

5  636000 

46 

9  289 

loa 

5  967  000 

48 

9  497 

100 

6086  000 

49 

9  793 

lOO 

6068  000 

49 

10  069 

lOO. 

6346  000 

52 

10  210 

lOO" 

6344  000 

52 

10  290 

lOO 

5907  000 

49 

10382 

lOO 

6  376  000 

53 

10  500 

100 

6  971000 

58 

10  671 

100 

GOODNOUGH.  533 

From  the  above  table  it  appears  that  the  quantity  of  water  used  in 
1921  is  practically  equal  to  the  safe  yield  of  this  source  of  supply.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  per  capita  daily  water  consumption  in  the  city  of  Fall 
River  has  in  the  past  been  less  than  in  almost  any  other  large  manufactur- 
ing city  in  the  State.  This  condition  has  been  due  to  several  causes, 
prominent  among  which  is  the  fact  that  the  South  Pond  and  the 
Quequechan  River  furnish  an  ample  supply  of  excellent  water  for  manu- 
facturing uses,  and  as  the  principal  industries  of  the  city  are  situated  for 
the  most  part  along  this  pond  and  river  a  large  part  of  the  water  used  for 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  purposes  is  taken  from  those  sources,  thus 
relieving  the  draft  from  the  municipal  works.  Furthermore,  as  the  table 
indicates,  meters  have  long  been  used  very  generally  in  Fall  River  and  for 
many  years  practically  all  of  the  water  -used  in  the  city  has  been  supplied 
through  meters.  While  the  consumption  per  capita  was  much  smaller 
than  in  any  other  city  for  many  years  after  water  wofks  were  introduced, 
it  has  been  constantly  increasing  notwithstanding  the  use  of  meters,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  with  improving  standards  of  living  and 
with  the  introduction  of  new  industries  there  is  likely  to  be  a  still  further 
increase  in  the  consumption  per  capita  which  must  be  taken  into  account 
in  planning  for  future  extensions  of  the  water  supply  system. 

The  selection  of  a  source  of  additional  supply  involves  the  problem 
of  the  allowance  to  be  made  for  the  growth  of  population  and  increase  in 
the  use  of  water  in  order  to  furnish  a  reasonable  basis  for  comparison  of  the 
relative  advantages  of  available  sources.  The  growth  of  Fall  River,  like 
that  of  the  other  textile  cities  in  the  State,  has  been  uneven,  having  been 
very  rapid  in  some  periods  and  slower  in  others  according  to  the  varying 
prosperity  of  such  manufacturing  centers,  most  of  which,  though  on  the 
whole  growing  steadily  larger,  have  shown  a  decline  in  population  at 
times.  The  city  of  Lowell,  for  example,  decreased  slightly  in  population 
between  1855  and  1860  due  to  poor  business  conditions,  and  a  marked 
decrease  amounting  to  5  837  in  number  occurred  during  the  period  between 
1860  and  1865  due  to  conditions  brought  about  by  the  Civil  War.  The 
city  of  Lawrence  declined  in  population  slightly  between  1880  and  1885 
though  it  has  since  increased  rapidly  with  the  establishment  of  the  woolen 
industry  in  that  city.  The  city  of  New  Bedford,  in  common  with  many 
other  places,  declined  in  population  during  the  period  of  the  Civil  War, 
from  1860  to  1865,  but  with  the  establishment  of  the  textile  industry  that 
city  has  grown  rapidly  in  recent  years. 

The  city  of  Fall  River  grew  very  slowly  in  the  period  1900  to  1910 
due  to  unfavorable  industrial  conditions,  and  during  the  period  of  the 
great  war,  from  1915  to  1920,  the  population  actually  declined  nearly 
4  per  cent.  But  it  is  unreasonable  to  conclude  from  the  decline  in  the 
population  of  Fall  River  during  the  war  that  that  city  will  continue  to 
decline  in  population  or  even  that  it  has  reached  the  limit  of  its  growth. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


534 


WATER   SUPPLY   OF   SOUTHEASTERN   MASSACHUSETTS. 


In  view  of  the  experience  of  other  industrial  cities,  the  only  safe  course 
in  selecting  an  additional  water  supply  is  to  assume  that  the  population 
will  continue  to  grow,  more  or  less  irregularly  probably,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  the  past,  but  on  the  whole  continuously  for  a  considerable  time  in 


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leOO      1810     1820    1830    1810    1850    I860    tfflO     1680    1690     1900    1910     |9£0 
Diagram  No.  3. 


the  future.  In  view  of  the  giowth  of  English  manufacturing  cities  situated 
in  a  far  more  densely  populated  country  than  the  United  States  or  even 
New  England  to-day,  it  is  unreasonable  to  assrnne  that  large  manufacturing 
cities  have  reached  the  limit  of  their  growth. 

In  diagram  No.  2,  the  growth  in  population  of  several  of  the  large 
industrial  cities  in  England  *  was  shown  as  compared  with  Fall  River  and 

*8omfi  of  these  cities  have  recently  grown  more  slowly  than  formerly.     Whether  those  oonditious 
are  due  to  a  restricted  area  or  to  consequent  overflow  into  adjacent  districts  has  not  been  ascertained. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Per  Capita  Daily 

Consumption 

(Gallons). 

Average  Daily 

Consumption 

(Gallons). 

52.9 

6  374  000 

56.9 

7  556  000 

60.6 

8  757  000 

64.1 

9  987  000 

67.4 

11  242  000 

70.5 

12  493  000 

73.4 

13  76:3  000 

76.1 

15  007  000 

78.6 

16  254  000 

80.9 

17  458  000 

83.0 

18  658  000 

GOODNOUGH.  535 

New  Bedford  both  before  and  after  the  English  cities  had  attained  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  120  000,  which  was  the  population  of  both  Fall  River 
and  New  Bedford  in  1920.  Diagram  No.  3  shows  the  rate  of  growth  of 
England  and  Wales  and  of  the  New  England  States. 

Assuming  that  the  city  of  Fall  River  will  continue  to  grow  about  as 
it  has  in  the  past  and  allowing  for  a  gradual  increase  in  the  consumption 
of  water  per  capita,  the  quantity  of  water  required  for  the  supply  of  the 
city  has  been  estimated  as  follows:  (See  also  Diagram  No.  4). 

Year.  Population. 

1920* 120  485 

1925 132  800 

1930 144  500 

1935 155  800 

1940 166  800 

1945 177  200 

1950 187  500 

1955 197  200 

1960 206  800 

1965 215  800 

1970 224  800 

While  these  estimates  may  seem  unreasonably  large  it  does  not  appear  to 
be  safe  to  take  smaller  figures  in  view  of  the  circumstances  which  are 
likely  to  favor  the  further  growth  of  this  city,  and  in  view  also  of  the 
possible  extension  of  its  water  supply  system  into  adjacent  territory. 

The  QiLality  of  the  Water  of  the  Watuppa  Ponds. 

The  water  of  the  North  Watuppa  Pond  is  naturally  soft,  low  in  color 
and  of  excellent  quality  for  domestic  use.  Many  years  ago,  owing  to  the 
increase  of  population  within  the  watershed  of  the  pond,  the  city  began 
the  purchase  of  lands  within  the  watershed  and  now  owns  nearly  60  per 
cent,  of  the  area  at  present  tributary  to  North  Pond.  In  parts  of  this 
watershed  on  the  westerly  side  of  the  pond  in  the  drainage  areas  of  Cress, 
Highland  and  Teny  Brooks  the  population  had  increased  to  such  an 
extent  when  the  threat  to  the  water  supply  was  realized  that  it  was  found 
impracticable  to  purchase  the  lands  except  at  a  cost  which  was  prohibitive, 
and  in  certain  other  small  areas  at  the  easterly  side  of  the  pond  in  the 
watershed  of  Nat  and  Ralph  Brooks  the  increase  in  population  had  become 
such  as  to  make  the  cost  of  protection  by  acquiring  these  areas  excessive. 
The  plan  was  then  adopted  of  diverting  the  flow  of  water  from  objectionably 
populated  drainage  areas  by  means  of  intercepting  drains,  and  a  large 
intercepting  drain  was  completed  on  the  westerly  shore  of  the  pond  in 
1916  by  which  all  of  the  flow  from  the  populated  areas  in  that  part  of  the 
watershed  is  diverted  into  the  South  Pond.     Plans  were  prepared  at  that 


♦Figurea  for  1920  actual,  all  others  estimated. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


536 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  SOUTHEASTERN  MASSACHUSETTS. 


time  for  diverting  into  the  South  Pond  the  flow  of  a  large  part  of  the 
drainage  areas  of  Xat  and  Ralph  Brooks  on  the  easterly  side  of  the  pond, 
but  the  construction  of  the  necessary  works  was  interrupted  by  the  war. 


MOOO 


200000 


z. 
o 

^100000 

-J 

O 

^50000 


10000 


lex)  leeo   mo  i9oo  isio    isao  1990  {n>  m>  \%o  m> 

DiAGRA&f   No.    4. 


For  nearly  30  years  preceding  the  construction  of  the  intercepting  drain 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  pond  in  1916,  the  quantity  of  organic  and 
mineral  matter  in  the  water  of  North  Pond  had  gradually  increased,  but 
since  1916  conditions  have  improved  and  the  mineral  and  organic  contents 
of  the  water  have  materially  diminished. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  637 

Sources  of  Additional  Supply. 

In  any  consideration  of  an  additional  water  supply  for  Fall  River, 
the  first  source  to  which  attention  is  naturally  directed  is  the  South 
Watuppa  Pond  apparently  so  readily  available  for  the  use  of  the  city. 
The  first  considerable  number  of  analyses  of  the  water  from  the  South  Pond 
was  made  in  1898,  and  the  results  of  those  analyses  show  that  while  at 
that  time  the  water  contained  larger  quantities  both  of  mineral  and  organic 
matter  than  that  of  the  North  Pond,  the  diflference  was  not  as  marked  as 
it  has  since  become,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  quality  of  the  water 
of  the  South  Pond  was  originally  the  same  as  that  of  the  North  Pond. 
With  the  growth  of  population  and  industries  along  the  shores  of  the 
South  Pond  and  the  diversion  into  it  of  water  from  populated  areas  within 
the  watershed  of  North  Pond,  the  water  of  South  Pond  has  become  more 
and  more  polluted  until  the  quantity  of  mineral  matter  in  the  water  is 
more  than  double  that  of  North  Pond,  while  the  proportion  of  organic 
matter  present  is  even  greater.  If  this  water  were  now  to  be  used  as  a 
source  of  water  supply  for  the  city  of  Fall  River,  filtration  would  of  course 
be  necessary,  since  the  cost  of  preventing  its  pollution  would  now  be  im- 
practicable. But  as  the  city  grows  filtration  itself  would  become  inade- 
quate unless  the  inhabitants  were  satisfied  to  use  a  highly  mineralized 
water,  as  compared  with  the  water  supplies  of  other  cities  in  the  State, 
and  one  which  would  still  further  deteriorate  in  quality.  While  the  poor 
quality  of  the  water  and  the  probabiUty  of  further  deterioration  are  not 
the  only  and  probably  not  the  most  serious  objections  to  the  use  of  this 
source  for  the  water  supply  of  Fall  River,  the  use  of  so  polluted  a  water 
with  the  likelihood  of  further  deterioration  is  not  to  be  justified  if  waters 
of  better  quality  are  available. 

South  Watuppa  Pond  being  obviously  unfavorable  as  an  additional 
source  of  water  supply,  the  city  of  Fall  River  has  considered  other  sources 
in  this  region  including  several  small  local  sources  and  Long  Pond  of  the 
Lakeville  group.  These  investigations  show  that  it  is  impracticable  to 
secure  additional  water  supply  from  local  sources  except  in  small  quantities 
and  at  excessive  cost,  considering  the  amount  obtainable.  They  show 
further  that  in  the  end  recourse  would  inevitably  be  had  to  a  much  larger 
supply  which  could  be  obtained  most  favorably  from  the  Lakeville  Ponds, 
provided  they  were  then  in  a  condition  in  which  they  could  be  used  for 
water  supply  purposes  or  could  be  made  available  for  such  use  at  a  reason- 
able cost. 

Since  recoiu'se  must  eventually  be  had  to  the  Lakeville  Ponds,  it 
would  be  far  more  economical  for  the  city  to  secure  its  water  supply  from 
those  ponds  in  the  beginning  than  to  expend  the  large  sums  of  money 
needed  for  the  development  of  small  additional  suppUes  from  local  sources, 
and  in  the  not  distant  future  a  further  large  sum  for  obtaining  a  satisfactory 
water  supply  from  the  Lakeville  sources,  the  cost  of  which  would  un- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


538  WATER  SUPPLY   OF   SOUTHEASTERN   MASSACHUSETTS. 

doubtedly  be  greater  than  if  these  sources  were  taken  and  their  purity 
secured  at  the  present  time  and  might  be  prohibitive. 

It  should  be  noted  here  that,  while  North  Watuppa  Pond  is  the  only 
source  of  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Fall  River,  the  city  does  not  as  yet 
control  the  flowage  rights  in  the  pond  but  that  under  an  existing  agreement 
the  owners  of  this  flowage  can  draw  freely  from  North  Watuppa  Pond 
vso  long  as  the  level  of  the  water  remains  above  40  in.  below  full  pond. 
Furthermore,  these  owners  can  continue  to  draw  5  million  gallons  per  day 
when  the  surface  of  the  pond  falls  below  40  in.  below  full  pond  and  2 
million  gallons  per  day  when  the  water  is  at  or  below  55  in.  below  full 
pond,  no  matter  to  what  level  the  water  may  be  lowered.  Obviously, 
unless  this  draft  can  be  discontinued,  the  safe  yield  of  North  Watuppa 
Pond,  which  now  amounts  to  about  7  milhon  gallons  per  day  when  5  ft. 
of  the  storage  is  utilized,  might  be  very  materially  reduced  in  a  dry  period 
by  draft  by  the  mills,  while  if  any  new  source  of  water  supply  should  be 
introduced  much  of  the  water  could  be  diverted  from  the  pond  for  the  use 
of  the  mills  on  the  Quequechan  River.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  the  city 
has  appointed  a  commission  to  secure  the  flowage  rights  in  North  Watuppa 
Pond,  and  it  is  understood  that  negotiations  are  now  nearly  completed 
whereby  the  city  will  secure  these  rights  of  flowage  and  exclude  further 
draft  from  the  pond  for  the  use  of  the  mills. 

Water  Supply  of  New  Bedford. 

The  city  of  New  Bedford  has  had  a  variable  growth,  having  even 
declined  in  population  during  the  Civil  War  as  already  mentioned.  In 
recent  years  its  growth  has  been  rapid  and  has  extended  to  the  adjacent 
towns  of  Dartmouth,  Acushnet  and  Fairhaven,  two  of  which,  Acushnet 
and  Dartmouth,  are  supplied  with  water  from  the  New  Bedford  water 
works. 

The  c'rcumstances  affecting  the  use  of  water  in  this  city  are  quite 
different  from  those  at  Fall  River,  since  there  is  no  large  supply  of  fresh 
water  like  South  Watuppa  Pond  available  for  industrial  use,  and  prac- 
tically all  of  the  water  for  manufacturing  and  mechanical  as  well  as 
domestic  purposes  must  be  taken  from  the  municipal  works. 

The  water  works  system  of  the  city  of  New  Bedford  was  introduced 
in  1869  and  for  many  years  the  use  of  water  per  capita  was  large,  but  un- 
necessary use  and  waste  has  Ix^en  checked  in  recent  years  by  the  metering 
of  all  services. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  in  the  city  of  New  Bedford  in  each  of 
the  years  since  1895,  together  with  the  population,  the  consumption  of 
water  per  capita,  the  number  of  services  and  the  per  cent,  of  services 
metered,  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  539 

Per  Capita 

Average  Daily              Daily  Per  Cent. 

Year.                                 Population.*          Consumption         Consumption            No.  of  of  Services 

(Gallons).                (Gallons).             Services.  Metered. 

1895 55  251            4  712  000              85                  8  027  3 

1896 56  689           5  259  000              93                  8  447  4 

1897 58  127           5  676  000              98                  8  860  7 

1898 59  566           5  908  000              99                  9  014  8 

1899 61  004           6  195  000            102                  9  151  12 

1900 62  442           6  318  000             101                  9  280  15 

1901 64  826           5  891  000              91                  9  447  17 

1902 67  210           6  372  000              95                  9  612  18 

1903 69  594           6  946  000             100                  9  927  20 

1904 71  978           7  022  000              98                10  166  21 

1905 74  362           7  087  000              95                10  477  23 

1906 78  820           6  917  000              88                10  764  26 

1907 83  278           7  436  000              89                11107  29 

1908 87  736           7  488  000              85                11516  31 

1909 92  194           7  472  000              81                 12  043  38 

1910 96  652           7  864  000              81                 12  769  48 

1911 99  235           7  974  000              80                13  311  62 

1912 101  818           8  281  000              81                 13  643  73 

1913 104  402           7  761  000              74                14  055  88 

1914 106  985           7  432  000              69                14  407  96 

1915 109  568           7  647  000              70                14  770  96 

1916 111898           8  516  000              76                15  126  96 

1917 114  228           9  249  000              81                 15  293  96 

1918 116  557           9  716  000              83                 15  376  99 

1919 118  887           9  580  000              81                 15  665  .        99 

1920 121  217         10  085  000              83                15  962  99 

1921 123  546           9  368  000              76                16  354  99 

The  consumption  per  capita  was  much  smaller  in  the  years  of  business 
depression,  in  1914  and  1915,  than  before  or  since  that  time.  A  con- 
siderable reduction  in  the  use  of  water  again  appears  in  1921,  a  condition 
no  doubt  due  to  the  mild  winter  and  the  excessive  rainfall  of  the  summer 
season  by  which  that  year  was  characterized  and  no  doubt  also  by  the 
prevailing  business  depression. 

The  future  needs  of  the  city  in  the  matter  of  water  supply  have  been 
estimated  as  follows:  (See  also  Diagram  No.  5). 

Per  Capita 

Daily  Total 

Year.                                                              Population.                      Consumption  Consumption 

(Gallons).  (Gallons). 

1920t 121217           83.2  10  085  000 

1925 136  300           87.0  11858  000 

1930 151700           90.6  13  744  000 

1935 166  900           94.1  15  705  000 

1940 181900           97.5  17  735  000 

1945 196  400          100.8  19  797  000 

1950 210  800          104.0  21  923  000 

1955 225  000          107.1  24  097  000 

1960 239  100          110. 1  26  325  000 

1965 253  200          113.0  28  612  000 

1970 267  100 115.8 30  930  OOP 

♦Populations  for  other  than  census  years  are  estimated. 
tFigures  for  1920  actual,  all  others  estimated.  i      r^r\r\\r> 

Digitized  by  VJvJiJV  LV^ 


540 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  SOUTHEASTERN  MASSACHUSETTS. 


As  in  the  case  of  Fall  River,  the  estimates  may  seem  large  but  the  favorable 
location  of  the  city  and  the  probable  extension  of  its  boundaries  should 
be  allowed  for  in  any  estimate  of  future  growth. 


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Diagram  No.  5. 


Sources  of  Supply, 

The  city  of  New  Bedford  was  formerly  supplied  from  a  storage  reservoir 
on  the  Acushnet  River  which  furnished  water  which  would  now  be  re- 
garded as  of  verj^  poor  quality  for  domestic  use,  being  highly  colored  and 
heavily  charged  with  organic  matter,  especially  in  the  earlier  years.  In 
many  respects  the  condition  of  the  water  of  this  reservoir  is  much  the  same 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOTJGH.  541 

to-day.  In  1886  the  supply  from  the  Acushnet  Reservoir  was  supple- 
mented by  diversion  into  it  through  a  canal,  of  water  from  Little  Quittacas 
Pond,  one  of  the  Lakeville  sources,  and  later  on,  in  the  year  1899,  works 
were  completed  for  supplying  the  city  wholly  from  Little  Qmttacas  Pond, 
supplemented  with  water  flowing  into  it  from  Great  Quittacas  Pond. 
Under  the  authority  of  the  Legislature  these  two  ponds  were  separated 
from  the  remaining  ponds  of  the  Lakeville  group  and  granted  to  the  city 
of  New  Bedford  as  sources  of  water  supply. 

The  area  of  the  watersheds  of  these  ponds,  their  area,  average  depths, 
and  storage  capacity  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Area  of  Watershed  Area  of  Storage 

Including  Water  Water  Capacity 

Pond  Surface  Surface  (Mil. 

(Sq.  Mi.).  (Sq.  Mi.).  Gab.). 

Great  Quittacas  Pond    11 .42  1 .81  4  990 

Little  Quittacas  Pond 1 .39  0.50  1  030 


Quality  of  the  Water  of  Great  and  Little  Quittaca^s  Ponds. 

The  water  supplied  by  Great  and  Little  Quittacas  Ponds  is  soft  and 
of  good  quality  for  domestic  use.  Soon  after  obtaining  the  right  to  the 
use  of  these  ponds  as  sources  of  water  supply,  the  city  began  securing  the 
control  of  the  lands  within  their  watersheds  and  at  the  present  time  con- 
trols a  large  part  of  the  watersheds  of  both  Great  and  Little  Quittacas 
Ponds  and  their  tributaries.  These  lands  were  secured  before  the  time 
when  the  use  of  the  shores  of  ponds  and  banks  of  rivers  as  sunmier  resorts 
had  become  as  general  as  it  is  to-day  and  the  lands  were  acquired  at  a  small 
expense  compared  with  the  probable  outlay  that  would  now  be  necessary 
in  case  this  opportunity  had  not  been  availed  of  at  the  right  time.  In 
consequence,  there  are  very  few  dwelling  houses  within  the  watersheds 
of  these  ponds  and  the  small  population  now  living  there  is  likely  to  diminish 
gradually  as  the  remainder  of  these  lands  come  under  the  control  of  the 
city.  While  these  ponds  furnish  water  which  is  soft  and  naturally  of 
excellent  quality  for  water  supply  uses,  there  are  considerable  areas  of 
swamps  on  their  watersheds,  especially  in  the  drainage  area  of  Black 
Brook,  the  principal  tributary  of  Great  Quittacas  Pond,  and  when  it 
becomes  necessary  to  use  a  greater  portion  of  the  storage  than  has  been 
necessary  in  the  past,  the  length  of  storage  and  its  benefits  in  improving 
the  quality  of  the  water  of  tributary  streams  will  be  less  effective  than  has 
hitherto  been  the  case. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


542  WATER  SUPPLY   OF  SOUTHEASTERN   MASSACHUSETTS. 

Safe  Yield  of  Great  and  Little  Ouittacas  Ponds, 

In  estimating  the  yield  of  these  sources,  it  is  necessary  to  allow  for  the 
retention  of  enough  water  in  the  ponds  to  secure  sufficient  benefit  from 
storage  to  prevent  serious  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  water;  but 
assuming  that  these  ponds  will  be  drawn  down  to  a  level  of  about  12  ft. 
below  high  water,  using  80  per  cent,  of  the  storage  capacity,  their  safe 
yield  would  be  about  12  million  gallons  per  day.  This  quantity  is  only 
about  28  per  cent,  in  excess  of  the  consumption  of  water  in  the  city  in  1921. 
The  drawing  down  of  the  storage  to  such  an  extent  would  probably  affect 
unfavorably  the  color  and  other  qualities  of  the  water. 

Additional  Water  Supply, 

The  city  of  New  Bedford  at  the  present  time  supplies  water  to  the 
adjacent  towns  of  Dartmouth  and  Acushnet  and  to  a  small  area  in  Free- 
town, the  quantity  used  in  Dartmouth  in  1921  having  been  56  000  gal.  per 
day  and  in  Acushnet  40  000  gal.  per  day.  The  city  is  also  authorized  to 
sell  water  to  Lakeville. 

The  old  storage  reservoir  is  still  available  for  use  in  emergencies. 
This  reservoir  has  an  area  of  about  300  acres  and  a  storage  capacity  of 
about  400  million  gallons,  and  receives  the  flow  from  a  watershed  of  about 
5.3  sq.  mi.  Its  safe  yield  is  probably  about  3  600  000  gal.  per  day. 
The  water  of  this  reservoir  has  always  been  high  in  color  and  it  contains  a 
larger  amount  of  organic  matter  than  is  found  in  the  waters  of  most  of 
the  natural  ponds  in  this  region.  This  water  could  probably  be  used  in 
an  emergency  if  proper  sanitary  inspection  were  maintained  within  the 
watershed,  but  its  quality  at  the  present  time  would  no  doubt  be  objec- 
tionable unless  filtered,  and  the  expense  of  making  it  satisfactory  for  the 
use  of  the  city  would  be  large  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water 
obtainable. 

An  additional  supply  can  be  obtained  more  readily  from  Assawompsett 
Pond  if  approved  by  the  Legislature  than  from  any  other  source,  since  it  is 
easily  practicable  to  divert  water  from  Assawompsett  Pond  into  Great 
Quittacas  Pond,  these  sources  being  separated  only  by  a  narrow  causeway. 

Water  Supply  of  Taunton. 

The  city  of  Taunton  had  a  population  in  1920  of  37  137.  This  city 
has  grown  more  slowly  than  New  Bedford  or  Fall  River  and  in  one  census 
period,  between  1900  and  1905,  the  population  slightly  declined. 

A  water  supply  was  introduced  in  the  year  1876.  The  quantity  of 
water  used  in  the  city  of  Taunton  since  1895,  together  with  the  population, 
the  consumption  of  water  per  capita,  the  number  of  services  and  the  per 
cent,  of  services  metered,  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 

54i 

Year. 

Population.* 

Average  Daily 

Consumption 

(Gallons). 

Per  Capita 

Daily 

Consumption 

(Gallons). 

No.  of 
Services. 

Per  Cent. 

of  Services 

Metered. 

1895 

27  115 

1  153  000 

43 

3  843 

36 

1896 

27  899 

1  179  000 

42 

3  955 

36 

1897 

28  683 

1  250  000 

44 

4  090 

38 

1898 

29  468 

1  302  000 

44 

4  233 

38 

1899 

30  252 

1  458  000 

48 

4  372 

40 

1900 

31  036 

1  645  000 

53 

4  502 

41 

1901 

31  022 

1  738  000 

56 

4  618 

42 

1902 

31  008 

1  512  000 

49 

4  698 

44 

1903 

30  995 

1  531  000 

49 

4  753 

45 

1904 

30  981 

1  771  000 

57 

4  837 

45 

1905 

30  967 

1  910  000 

62 

4  911 

46 

1906 

31  625 

1  915  000 

61 

4  983 

46 

1907 

32  284 

2  144  000 

66 

5  043 

47 

1908 

32  942 

2  247  000 

68 

5  194 

48 

1909 

33  601 

2  168  000 

65 

5  237 

50 

1910 

34  259 

2  150  000 

63 

5  344 

50 

1911 

34  639 

2  233  000 

64 

5  301 

53 

1912 

35  020 

2  366  000 

68 

5  420 

54 

1913 

35  400 

2  338  000 

66 

5  526 

56 

1914 

35  781 

2  373  000 

66 

5  635 

58 

1915 

36  161 

2  222  000 

61 

5  755 

59 

1916 

36  356 

2  480  000 

68 

5  846 

61 

1917 

36  551 

2  792  000 

76 

5  930 

62 

1918 

36  747 

3  154  000 

86 

5  979 

63 

1919 

36  942 

3  090  000 

84 

6  013 

65 

1920 

37  137 

3  395  000 

91 

6  091 

71 

1921 

37  333 

3  237  000 

87 

6  170 

77 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  consumption  of  water  per  capita  has  increased 
gradually  notwithstanding  the  steadily  increasing  percentage  of  metered 


services. 


The  probable  future  needs  of  the  city  of  Taunton  in  the  matter  of 

water  supply  have  been  estimated  as  follows:   (See  also  Diagram  No.  6). 

Per  Capita 

Daily  Total 

Year.                                                                Population.                      Consumption  Consumption 

(G  allons) .  (G  allona) . 

1920t 37  137           91.4  3  394  000 

1925 40  000           93.9  3  756  000 

1930 42  900           96.4  4  136  000 

1935 45  800           98.9  4  530  000 

1940 48  700           101 .4  4  938  000 

1945 51600           103.9  5  361000 

1950 54  400           106.4  5  788  000 

1955 57  200           108.9  6  229  000 

1960 60  000           111.4  6  684  000 

1965 62  800           113.9  7  153  000 

1970 65  600           116.4  7  636  000 

*  Populations  for  other  than  census  years  are  estimated, 
t  Figure  for  1920  actual,  all  others  estimated. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


544 


WATER  SUPPLY   OF  SOUTHEASTERN  MASSACHUSETTS. 


Sources  of  Water  Supply. 

The  city  of  Taunton  formerly  obtained  its  water  supply  from  a  filter 
gallery  near  the  banks  of  the  Taunton  River  supplemented  with  wat-er 
taken  directly  from  the  river.    Subsequently,  in  1894,  works  were  com- 


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Diagram  No.  6. 


pleted  for  taking  water  from  Elder's  and  Assawompsett  Ponds  of  the 
Lakeville  group.  At  the  present  time  water  is  pumped  from  Assawompsett 
Pond  at  a  pumping  station  located  on  its  westerly  shore  about  half  a  mile 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH. 


545 


north  of  the  outlet  of  Long  Pond  into  Elder's  Pond,  whence  it  flows  by 
gravity  to  a  pumping  station  in  Taunton  from  which  it  is  supplied  to  the 
city.  The  water  supplied  in  this  way  is  soft,  very  low  in  color  and  of 
excellent  quality  for  domestic  use.  The  quantity  of  water  used  from  these 
jwnds  by  the  city  of  Taunton  is  only  a  small  portion  of  their  safe  yield 
in  a  dry  period. 

The  city  of  Taunton  has  acquired  all  the  lands  about  Elder's  Pond 
and  considerable  areas  along  the  shore  of  Assawompsett  Pond  for  the 
protection  of  its  water  supply,  but  the  amount  so  controlled  is  small  in 
proportion  to  the  entire  shore  line  of  Assawompsett  Pond  and  its  tribu- 
taries, Long  and  Pocksha  Ponds. 


The  Lakeville  Ponds  as  Sources  of  Water  Supply  for  The  Joint 
Use  of  The  Cities  of  Fall  River,  New  Bedford  and  Taunton 
AND  Other  Municipalities  in  Their  Vicinity. 

In  connection  with  the  investigation  of  the  water  supply  needs  and 
resources  of  the  Commonwealth,  under  the  provisions  of  Chaper  49  of 
the  Resolves  of  1919,  the  available  information  relative  to  the  area  and 
capacity  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds  was  collected  in  cooperation  with  the 
authorities  of  New  Bedford  and  Taunton  and  was  supplemented  with  such 
further  survejrs  and  soundings  as  were  necessary  to  determine  the  area, 
depth  and  capacity  of  all  the  larger  lakes,  the  areas  of  their  watersheds, 
the  extent  of  the  swamps  thereon,  and  the  number  of  dwelling  houses, 
cottages  and  other  structures  within  their  watersheds.  From  that  report 
the  following  table  is  taken  showing  the  area,  capacity,  elevation  of  water 
surface  and  area  of  watershed  of  each  of  these  ponds: 


Long  Pond 

Assawompsett  and  Pocksha  Ponds    . 

Great  Quittacas  Pond    

Little  Quittacas  Pond 

Elder^s  Pond   

Totals 47.73 


Area  of 

Watershed 

Including 

Water  Surface. 

(Sq.  ML). 

Area  of 

Water 

Surface. 

(Sq.  Mi.). 

Storage 
Capacity. 
(MU.Ga1s.). 

Elevation 
at  Which 
Data  Are 
Taken.* 
Boston 
City  Base. 

21.22 

2.80 

5  730 

61.45 

13.17 

4.20 

8  900 

60.79 

11.42 

1.81 

4  990 

60.07 

1.39 

.50 

1  030 

59.57 

.53 

.22 

692 

93.54 

9.53 


21  342 


The  ponds  are  divided  naturally  into  two  groups  each  of  which  is 
tributary  to  Assawompsett  Pond,  the  largest  and  under  original  conditions 
the  lowest  of  all.  The  waters  of  Elder's  Pond  flow  naturally  into  Long 
Pond  and  thence  into  Assawompsett  Pond  near  its  southerly  end,  while 
on  the  easterly  side  of  the  watershed  the  waters  of  Little  Quittacas  Pond 
flow  naturally  to  Great  Quittacas  Pond  and  thence  in  times  of  high  flow 

*The8e  elevations.  obfler>'ed  on  March  IS,  1020,  are  the  highest  recorded  during  the  progress  of  the 
iurvej-s. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


546  WATER   SUPPLY   OF   SOUTHEASTERN   MASSACHUSETTS. 

into  Pocksha  Pond  which  is  practically  an  arm  of  Assawompsett  Pond  on 
its  easterly  side.  The  Nemasket  River,  which  forms  the  outlet  of  the 
entire  group,  flows  northerly  from  the  northerly  end  of  Assawompsett 
Pond.  The  conditions  affecting  these  ponds  have  been  materially  changed 
since  the  cities  of  New  Bedford  and  Taunton  began  drawing  water  from 
them,  and  in  dry  seasons  under  present  conditions  little  or  no  water  over- 
flows from  Great  Quittacas  Pond  into  Pocksha  Pond  and  no  water  runs 
from  Elder's  Pond  to  Long  Pond.  A  dam  has  been  constructed  by  the 
city  of  New  Bedford,  as  authorized  by  the  Legislature,  between  Great 
Quittacas  and  Pocksha  Ponds  to  prevent  water  from  the  latter  flowing 
into  Great  Quittacas  Pond  except  in  times  of  high  flow,  but  the  surplus 
water  of  Great  Quittacas  Pond  discharges  into  Pocksha  Pond. 

Quality  of  the  Water. 

The  water  of  all  the  Lakeville  Ponds  is  very  soft  and  naturally  of 
excellent  quality  for  water  supply  uses.  The  water  of  Long  Pond,  which 
receives  the  flow  of  nearly  half  the  aggregate  drainage  area  of  the  ponds, 
is  usually  considerably  colored,  but  in  the  remaining  ponds  the  color  is 
not  at  any  time  excessive  and  the  waters  supplied  from  Little  Quittac^ 
Pond  and  Elder's  Pond  to  New  Bedford  and  Taunton,  respectively,  are 
among  the  most  desirable  waters  of  the  State.  The  comparatively  low 
color  of  the  water  of  most  of  the  ponds  is  in  marked  contrast  to  that  of 
their  chief  tributaries,  some  of  which  are  very  highly  colored.  This  high 
color  is  due  to  the  passage  of  the  water  through  swamps  of  which  the 
watersheds  of  these  ponds,  like  most  watersheds  in  this  part  of  the  State, 
contain  extensive  areas,  and  it  will  be  necessarj'^  in  order  to  maintain  and 
improve  the  quahty  of  the  water  of  the  ponds  to  drain  or  otherwise  better 
the  conditions  in  the  swamps.  These  swamps  have  an  aggregate  area 
of  about  5.34  sq.  mi.,  or  a  little  over  3  400  acres,  and  fall  naturally  into  two 
groups.  One  includes  those  which  are  adjacent  to  the  streams  tributar\^  to 
the  ponds  and  includes  the  swamps  adjoining  Black  Brook,  Fall  Brook 
and  a  brook  flowing  from  Elder's  Pond  which  contain  in  the  aggregate 
some  2  400  acres.  The  brooks  which  drain  these  extensive  swamps  have 
sufficient  fall  for  the  most  part  to  allow  of  their  adequate  drainage,  and  a 
great  improvement  in  the  color  of  these  waters  could  no  doubt  be  effected 
thereby.  The  second  group  of  swamps  includes  those  which  are  ad- 
jacent to  the  shores  of  the  ponds  themselves  with  an  aggregate  area  of  a 
little  over  1  000  acres  and  a  total  frontage  along  the  ponds  of  about  41  800 
ft.  These  swamps  are  about  48  in  number  and  occupy  about  23  percent,  of 
the  shore  line  of  the  ponds  from  which  they  extend  back  varying  distances  of 
from  100  to  4  600  ft.  Their  surfaces  lie,  for  the  most  part,  little  above  the 
normal  level  of  the  high-water  surfaces  of  the  ponds,  but  by  drainage, 
diking  or  other  means  they  can  either  be  drained  or  so  treated  as  to  prevent 
them  from  affecting  seriously  the  quality  of  the  waters  of  the  ponds. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


GOODNOUGH.  547 

The  high  color  of  the  waters  of  the  tributaries  is  rapidly  reduced  when 
exposed  to  sunlight  and  other  influences  in  their  passage  through  the 
ponds,  in  which  the  color  is  largely  removed  by  bleaching,  by  dilution  with 
the  rainfall  and  with  water  not  affected  by  swamps,  and  by  other  actions 
which  take  place  in  large  storage  reservoirs.  When  the  water  finally 
reaches  the  outlet  of  the  last  pond  of  the  series  the  color  is  reduced  to  a 
comparatively  small  amount. 

The  extent  of  this  improvement  depends  largely,  no  doubt,  upon  the 
time  which  elapses  in  the  passage  of  the  water  through  the  ponds,  and  if 
the  water  in  storage  should  be  drawn  to  too  low  a  level  the  colored  water 
of  the  tributaries  could  pass  through  more  rapidly  and  there  would  be  less 
improvement  than  at  the  present  time.  For  this  reason,  while  it  is  probable 
that  for  many  years  the  draft  on  the  ponds  by  the  cities  in  question  would 
affect  but  little  the  color  of  the  water,  it  is  important  that  as  the  draft 
increases  the  color  of  the  waters  of  the  tributaries  shall,  be  reduced  by 
drainage  so  far  as  is  necessary  and  practicable  to  prevent  them  from  raising 
the  color  of  the  water  in  the  ponds  to  an  objectionable  degree. 

Protection  of  the  Purity  of  the  Water  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds, 

The  watersheds  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds  contain  no  villages  of  consider- 
able size  and  no  important  manufacturing  establishments  producing  foul 
wastes  are  found  within  their  limits.  The  permanent  population  is,  in 
fact,  very  small  and  widely  scattered  and  danger  of  pollution  from  it  nearly 
negligible;  but  while  the  population  living  permanently  within  the 
watersheds  of  these  ponds  is  very  small  compared  with  their  area  at  the 
present  time,  there  is  a  considerable  and  growing  population  in  the  cottages 
and  camps  about  the  shores  of  Long,  Pocksha  and  Assawompsett  Ponds, 
and,  while  a  small  area  is  under  public  control  along  the  shores  of  Assa- 
wompsett Pond,  the  remaining  lands  are  still  in  private  ownership  and 
are  open  to  settlement.  The  total  number  of  dwelling  houses,  camps,  and 
other  buildings  located  within  the  watersheds  of  these  ponds  amounted 
at  the  time  of  the  recent  surveys  to  about  342.  A  classification  of  the 
lands  within  approximately  1  400  ft.  of  these  ponds  is  given  in  the  following 
table : 

Land.  Acres. 

Cottage  and  camp  lots 228 

Private  estates  and  parks    171 

Farm  land    92 

Heavily  wooded  land 609 

Scrub  land   1  060 

Swamp  land 836 

Land  owned  by  municipalities   108 

Total 3  104 


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548  WATER  SUPPLY   OF  SOUTHEASTERN   MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  assessed  valuation  of  the  buildings  and  land  privately  owned  and 
included  in  the  foregoing  table  is  estimated  as  follows: 

Buildings    $385  000 

Land 304  000 

Total S689  000 

These  large  natural  reservoirs,  lying  at  the  doors  of  the  principal 
municipaUties  in  southeastern  Massachusetts,  are  a  great  advantage  to  these 
cities  and  towns  when  the  cost  of  artificial  storage  in  this  region  is  taken 
into  consideration.  The  cost  of  construction  of  suitable  artificial  reser- 
voirs for  these  cities  would  be  great  and  the  further  cost  of  improving  the 
quality  of  their  waters  sufficiently  to  equal  that  obtainable  at  present  from 
the  Lakeville  Ponds  would  require  a  very  large  outlay  either  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  reservoir  site  or  for  purification  works,  together  with  the  cost 
of  operation  and  maintenance.  Moreover,  in  order  to  secure  a  quantity 
of  watw  equal  to  the  yield  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds  and  their  tributaries  it 
would  be  necesary,  in  all  probability,  especially  if  each  city  should  under- 
take the  development  of  independent  supplies,  to  develop  and  use  two  or 
more  watersheds  for  the  purpose. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Lakeville  Ponds,  the  largest  natural  ponds  in 
the  State,  are  reservoirs  of  very  large  capacity,  already  in  existence,  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  and  requiring  no  costly  dams  or  other  works  to 
make  them  available  for  water  supply  uses  beyond  a  regulating  weir  at 
the  outlet  of  Assawompsett  Pond.  An  idea  of  what  it  might  cost  these 
cities  to  construct  reservoirs  of  similar  size  may  be  gathered  from  a  con- 
sideration of  the  cost  of  some  of  the  artificial  reservoirs  in  the  State 
which  furm'sh  water  of  similar  quality.  The  Sudbury  Reservoir,  which 
holds  about  half  the  aggregate  amount  of  water  contained  in  Assawompsett, 
Long  and  Pocksha  Ponds,  cost,  exclusive  of  water  damages  and  of  the  cost 
of  works  for  protecting  the  quality  of  the  water,  $2  923  152.96  or  about 
$403  per  million  gallons.  If  reservoirs  of  equal  size  had  to  be  constructed 
artificially  for  the  water  supplies  of  Taunton,  Fall  River  and  New  Bedford, 
the  cost  at  the  same  rate  would  be  from  5  to  6  million  dollars.  If  the  cost 
were  no  greater  proportionately  than  that  of  the  Borden  Brook  Reservoir 
of  the  city  of  Springfield,  constructed  under  more  favorable  conditions 
than  are  found  in  southeastern  Massachusetts,  the  construction  of  reser- 
voirs of  the  size  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds  would  cost  $1  250  000  even  at 
pre-war  prices;  but  the  water  of  Borden  Brook  Reservoir  is  subsequently 
filtered. 

In  the  presence  of  these  great  natural  ponds,  available  for  water  supply 
uses  in  their  immediate  neighborhood,  the  cities  of  southeastern  Massa- 
chusetts are  favored  above  other  cities  of  the  State.  If  these  cities  can 
secure  united  action  thej'  can  obtain  the  right  to  use  the  Lakeville  Ponds 


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BARROWS.  549 

as  their  future  sources  of  water  supply.  By  uniting  in  securing  and  pro- 
tecting these  lakes  they  will  obtain  storage  reservoirs  of  great  size,  requiring 
no  outlay  for  construction,  which  lie  close  to  their  doors  and  which  with 
comparatively  little  outlay  will  furnish  unpolluted  water  of  excellent 
quality  for  the  use  of  their  inhabitants  for  a  very  long  time  in  the  future 
without  treatment  of  any  kind.  That  so  remarkable  an  opportunity  will 
be  neglected  through  mutual  distrust  or  differences  as  to  minor  matters  of 
detail  such  as  methods  of  procedure,  or  of  control  or  operation  of  the 
works  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  thought  of;  but  failure  to  grasp  this  great 
opportunity  in  season  and  to  make  this  water  supply  available  to  the  cities 
in  the  most  reasonable  and  practicable  way  may  result  in  a  serious  increase 
in  the  cost  of  the  project  and  perhaps  in  preventing  their  development  in 
such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  most  satisfactory  water  supply  obtainable 
from  these  sources. 


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550  THE   WATER  SUPPLY   OF   FALL   RIVER 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  FALL  RIVER. 

BY  H.    K.    BARROWS.* 

[SepUmbfT  14.  1922.] 

Seven  years  ago,  in  September,  1915,  the  writer  presented  a  paper  at 
the  Annual  Convention  of  this  Association  entitled  "Improvements  to 
the  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Fall  River."  At  that  time  most  of  the 
improvements  described  were  still  in  process  of  construction.  The  purpose 
of  this  paper  is  to  complete  the  description  of  these  works  and  describe 
some  of  the  further  projects,  particularly  for  additional  water  supply, 
which  have  been  studied  since  that  time  and  are  now  nearly  at  the  con- 
struction stage.  Many  of  the  mills  in  Fall  River  utilize  the  waters  of 
Quequechan  River,  supplied  from  the  South  Watuppa  Pond,  and  as  the 
problems  involved  in  assuring  an  ample  water  supply  for  these  mills  are 
closely  connected  with  those  of  the  municipal  water  supply,  this  paper  will 
include  a  description  of  the  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  Quequechan 
River. 

As  described  in  the  previous  paper,  the  history  of  the  municipal  water 
supply  of  Fall  River  has  been  most  interesting  and  has  involved  some 
perplexing  questions  considered  at  much  length  and  over  many  years  in 
the  courts.  Following  is  a  brief  sunmiary  of  legislation,  decisions,  etc., 
as  described  in  the  previous  paper,  bringing  matters  up  to  about  1913. 

North  Watuppa  Pond  —  Summary  of  Legislation,  etc.,  to  1913. 

1874.   Water  Act  authorizing  use  of  1  500  000  gal.  per  day  by  city. 

1880.  Suit  by  Watuppa  Reserv^oir  Co.  for  damages  under  Act  of  1874.  Company 
awarded  S70  000. 

1886.   Act  authorizing  1  500  000  gal.  per  day  additional  use  of  water  by  city. 

1888.  Suit  of  Watuppa  Reservoir  Co.  for  additional  damages  not  sustained.  Chief 
Justice  Morton  held  that  "State  had  right  to  use  the  waters  of  the  great  ponds, 
etc.,  without  compensation." 

1891.  Supreme  Court  reversed  decision  of  1888  because  Watuppa  Reservoir  Co.  were 

successors  in  title  to  grantees  of  Plymouth  Colony. 

1892.  Agreement  made  by  city  and  Watuppa  Reservoir  Co.  whereby  Company  can 

use  unlimited  \\ater  to  40  in.  below  full  pond.     City  can  use  water  for  water 
supply,  but  does  not  control  storage. 

1895.  Watuppa  Reservoir  Commission  established  by  city,  to  control  and  protect  its 
water  supply. 


<  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARROWS.  551 

1897.   City  took  by  condemnation  entire  North  Pond  to  "preserve  and  protect  water 
supply"  —  but  in  accordance  with  agreement  of  1892. 

1907.   Regulations  protecting  North  Pond  made  by  State  Board  of  Health. 

1909.   Act  authorizing  city  to  borrow  money  for  construction  of  works  and  protection 
of  water  supply.     Intercepting  drain  built  under  this  act,  (in  1915). 

The  most  important  work  under  construction  for  the  improvement  of 
the  water  supply  in  1915  was  that  of  the  intercepting  drain  on  the  west 
shore  of  North  Watuppa  Pond,  built  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  drainage 
from  various  populated  districts  entering  the  North  Pond.  Details  of  the 
different  sections  of  this  drain  are  presented  in  the  previous  paper,  the 
entire  length  being  about  14  000  ft.,  mostly  of  reinforced  concrete,  open 
section,  varying  in  width  from  6  to  10  ft. 

The  contract  for  this  work  was  let  early  in  1915  and  the  work  completed 
by  about  September  1,  1915,  the  total  construction  cost  approximating 
about  $190  000.  Some  of  the  more  interesting  details  of  cost  are  appended 
to  this  paper. 

This  intercepting  drain  was  put  in  commission  in  January,  1916  and 
has  been  in  use  since  that  time.  It  was  an  excellent  piece  of  construction 
work  and  the  lapse  of  some  seven  years  shows  the  concrete  in  practically 
as  good  condition  as  when  built.     (See  Figs.  1-4  inclusive.) 

As  a  considerable  part  of  this  drain  is  open  section,  whereby  a  very 
substantial  saving  in  first  cost  resulted,  it  has  required  some  annual  cost  of 
maintenance  to  clear  out  stones  and  debris,  and  occasionally  some  ice, 
always  likely  to  accumulate  in  a  structure  of  this  kind.  This  has  cost  about 
$100  annually,  as  an  average  cost  for  the  first  five  years. 

Another  feature  which  has  been  of  interest  in  the  operation  of  this 
drain  is  that  of  ice  effect.  The  winters  of  1918  and  1920  were  unusuallj'- 
severe,  resulting  in  solid  ice  of  considerable  thickness  forming  in  the  open 
section  of  the  drain.  Careful  watch  was  kept  of  this  situation,  particularly 
in  1918,  to  prevent  any  possible  ice  jams  and  overflow  of  the  drain,  but 
in  both  1918  and  1920  the  thick  ice  which  formed  gradually  softened  and 
went  out  in  the  early  spring  without  bad  effect. 

The  sanitary  results  obtained  by  the  operation  of  this  intercepting 
drain  have  been  excellent,  as  shown  by  the  following  table,  giving  the 
results  of  bacteriological  examinations  before  and  after  its  construction. 
The  marked  pollution  of  the  waters  of  Highland,  Terry  and  Cress  Brooks, 
all  diverted  by  the  drain,  is  apparent,  as  is  also  the  efiFect  of  this  pollution 
upon  the  quality  of  water  at  the  water-works  intake,  before  the  drain 
was  built. 

King  Philip  and  Blossom  Brooks  lie  on  the  easterly  side  of  the  pond 
and  still  contain  considerable  areas  not  j^et  acquired  by  the  City  and  which 
eventually  must  be  taken. 

Nat  and  Ralph  Brooks  are  badly  polluted  and  must  be  diverted  to 
the  South  Pond  as  further  noted. 


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552  THE   WATER  SUPPLY   OF   FALL   RIVER. 


Fig.  1  —  Junction  of  10  Ft.  Open  and  Closed  Sections.    Fall  River 
Intercepting  Drain  —  October,  1915. 


Fig.  2  —  Highland  Brook  Intake.     Fall  River  Intercepting  Drain — 

August,  1915. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARROWS.  553 


Fig.  3.  —  Auxiliary  Pumping  Station  and  Intake,  also  10  Ft.  Open  Section 
OF  Intercepting  Drain  —  November,  1921. 


Fig.  4.  —  8  Ft.  Open  Section  of  Intercepting  Drain  —  November,  1921. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


554 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY   OF  FALL   RIVER. 


'  North  Watuppa  Pond  —  Bacteriological  Exaiiiinations  of  Water  by  City 
Department  of  Health  —  Dr.  J.  H.  Walsh,  Bacteriologist. 

Before  1915,  (construction  of  Intercepting  Drain). 

Reasonably  Extremely 

Excellent.  Good.  Doubtful.        Doubtful. 

Intake  at  Pumping  Station 379c  47%  11%  5% 

Highland  Brook 0  7  50  43 

Terrj'  Brook 0  8  42  50 

Cress  Brook 0  0  41  59 

King  Philip  Brook    27  56  13  4 

Blossom  Brook    20  62  18  0 

Ralph  Brook    0  19  63  18 

Xat  Brook   0  0  40  60 

During  1920 

Reasonably  Extremely 

Excellent.  Good.  Doubtful.     Doubtful. 

Intake  at  Pumping  Station 76%  24%  0%  0%, 

Highland  Brook  ) 

Terry  Brook        > Water  diverted  to  South  Pond 

Cress  Brook         ) 

King  Philip  Brook    40%  43%  9%  8% 

Blossom  Brook    13  51  23  13 

Ralph  Brook   11  35  31  23 

Nat  Brook   0  23  40  37 

Sole:  —  Percentage  U  of  number  of  samples  examined. 
Classification  as  follows:  — 

Excellent  -^  No  Colon  in  10  c.  c. 

Reasonably  good      —  Colon  in  10  c.  c.  and  not  in  1  c.  c. 
Doubtful  —  Colon  in  1  c.  c. 

Extremely  doubtful  —  Colon  in  ^  lo  c.  c.  and  less. 


The  construction  of  this  intercepting  drain  was  following  the  policy 
of  the  Fall  River  Reservoir  Commission  (consisting  of  the  Watuppa  Water 
Board,  acting  with  the  Mayor  and  City  Engineer),  which  has  been  to 
either  acquire  all  land  within  the  drainage  area  of  North  Watuppa  Pond  or, 
where  the  conditions  of  growth  and  population  made  this  too  expensive, 
to  divert  these  waters  to  South  Watuppa  Pond,  where  they  would  still  be 
useful  for  mill  water-supply  purposes.  (See  Fig.  5.)  In  carrying  out 
this  policy  some  3  300  acres  of  land  around  the  South  Pond  has  been 
purchased  by  the  city  at  a  cost  in  excess  of  $300  000  as  well  as  the  construc- 
tion of  the  intercepting  drain  just  described. 

There  still  remains  an  area  of  a  little  over  half  a  square  mile  consti- 
tuting a  portion  of  the  village  of  North  Westport  on  the  southeasterly 
shore  of  the  pond,  and  included  in  portions  of  the  drainage  areas  of  Nat 
and  Ralph  Brooks,  which  must  be  diverted  to  the  South  Watuppa  Pond. 
Surveys  and  plans  for  this  work  were  made  during  1915-17  and  this  project 
is  now  ready  for  construction.  It  involves  the  construction  of  an  earth 
fill  dam  about  1  600  ft.  long  and  12  ft.  high,  with  a  cut  ofif  of  sheet  piling, 
across  the  inlet  of  the  pond  in  this  vicinity,  with  a  48-in.  outlet  conduit 
to  South  Watuppa  Pond  about  225  ft.  long.    The  waters  of  a  consid- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARROWS.  555 

erable  portion  of  Ralph  Brook  will  be  brought  by  means  of  a  45-in 
concrete  conduit,  about  2  700  ft.  long,  to  the  pond  back  of  this  diversion 
dam  and  also  discharged   into   the  South  Watuppa  Pond.    The    total 


o 
£ 


estimated  construction  cost  of  this  work  based  on  approximate  normal 
costs,  is  about  $75  000.  At  present  this  cost  would  probably  exceed 
$100  000.  The  sanitary  conditions  on  portions  of  Nat  and  Ralph  Brooks 
are  bad,  as  will  be  noted  by  the  data  in  the  previous  table,  although 
the  entrance  of  these  brooks  is  at  a  very  considerable  distance  from  the 


Digitized  by 


Google 


556 


THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   FALL   RIVER. 


water-works  intake.    The  construction  of  this  project  will  therefore  proceed 
as  soon  as  costs  become  somewhat  further  stabilized. 

The  other  several  improvements  under  way  in  1915,  which  Included 

(1)  a  7  million  gal.  Piatt  high  duty  pump  at  the  main  pumping  station, 

(2)  an  auxiliary  pumping  station  with  an  8  million  gal.  motor  operated  cen- 
trifugal pump,  ( See  Fig.  3. )  (3)  a  36-in.  force  main  from  the  pumping 


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Fig.  6.  —  Yield  of  North'  Watuppa  Pond. 

station  at  Eastern  Ave.  (a  distance  of  about  3  400  ft.)  have  all  been  carried 
out,  at  a  total  cost  in  the  vicinity  of  $100  000.  In  1918  the  main  pumping 
station  was  fireproofed  by  constructing  a  new  steel  and  concrete  floor 
finished  with  tile  and  building  brick  walls  faced  with  white  enamel  brick 
for  a  height  of  10  or  12  ft.  The  plastering  above  this  level,  as  well  as  the 
interior  of  the  station  generally,  was  also  renovated  and  painted,  the  total 
cost  of  the  work  aggregating  about  $10  000.  The  roof  was  also  re-slated, 
at  a  cost  of  about  $3  200,  so  that  the  main  building,  built  in  1873,  is  now  in 
excellent  condition. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARROWS.  557 

During  the  period  of  the  war  of  course  only  necessary  construction 
was  carried  on,  practically  that  just  described,  with  some  necessary  pipe 
extensions,  but  since  1916  a  careful  and  thorough  investigation  has  been 
made  of  the  question  of  additional  water  supply. 

The  drainage  area  of  North  Watuppa  Pond  when  the  Nat  and  Ralph 
Brook  diversions  are  completed  will  total  8.54  sq.  mi.  of  which  2.82  sq. 
mi.  or  about  33  per  cent.,  (an  unusually  large  proportion,  resulting  in  large 
evaporation  losses)  consists  of  the  area  of  the  pond  at  high  water  level. 
Careful  studies  of  the  safe  yield  of  the  pond  have  been  made,  the  results 
of  some  of  these  studies  being  shown  on  the  accompanying  diagram.  (See 
Fig.  6.)  Approximate  records  of  the  yield  of  the  pond  have  been  kept, 
more  or  less  completely,  from  1899  to  the  present  time.  For  the  years 
1899  to  1901,  inclusive,  accurate  measurements  by  means  of  a  weir  were 
made  of  water  passing  the  Narrows,  that  is,  from  the  North  to  the  South 
Pond,  and  accurate  pumping  records  of  water  used  by  the  city  have  been 
kept  over  the  entire  period.  Since  1911  the  discharge  at  the  Narrows 
has  been  measured  fairly  accurately  by  means  of  frequent  current  meter 
measiu'ements  made  under  the  direction  of  the  City  Engineer.  For  the 
period  1902-1910,  inclusive,  records  of  the  height  of  the  pond  and  of  the 
gate  conditions  at  the  Narrows  have  been  kept,  which  serve  as  a  basis  for 
a  rough  estimate  of  discharge.  Unfortunately  the  dry  period  of  1908-1912 
is  thus  covered  chiefly  by  the  poorer  records,  making  the  determination 
of  safe  yield  from  these  records  somewhat  questionable.  On  the  diagram 
(Fig.  6)  the  safe  yield  of  the  pond  based  upon  these  records  is  shown  for 
diflFerent  amounts  of  storage  utilized.  Similar  curves  are  shown  based 
on  the  yield  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir  and  that  for  the  Sudbury  River 
from  1908  to  1912.  In  this  connection  note  that  the  average  rainfall  at 
Fall  River  is  in  the  vicinity  of  44  in.,  while  that  for  the  Wachusett  Basin  is 
about  45.3  in.  and  that  for  the  Sudbury  44.6  in.  The  available  storage 
capacity  of  the  North  Pond  in  the  first  5  ft.  of  draft,  as  will  be  noted,  is 
about  2  800  million  gallons  or  some  330  million  gallons  per  sq.  mi.  of  drainage 
area,  and  keeping  in  mind  the  form  of  these  curves,  the  increase  in  safe  yield 
obtained  by  further  puUing  down  the  pond  is  small.  Taking  into  account 
the  present  limitations  in  draft  due  to  the  elevation  of  intakes  at  the  pump- 
ing stations,  as  well  as  the  undesirablility  of  exposing  large  areas  of  muddy 
shores  in  certain  parts  of  the  pond  it  does  not  appear  desirable  to  count  on 
more  than  5  ft.  or  6  ft.  at  the  most,  of  depth,  for  which  amount  of  storage 
the  safe  yield  of  the  pond  is  between  6.5  and  7  million  gallons  per  day. 

The  consmnption  of  water  by  the  city  is  shown  on  Fig.  7  and,  as  will 
be  noted,  for  the  year  1921  this  consumption  reached  an  amount  of  7  million 
gallons  per  day,  or  just  about  the  safe  yield  of  the  pond,  so  that  the  necessity 
of  providing  an  additional  supply  is  apparent.  In  1916,  a  Water  Act  was 
obtained  by  the  city  which  gave  it  authority  to  make  investigations  and 
to  use  as  a  water  supply  any  water  source  within  the  limits  of  Fall  River 
and  also  that  of  Mill  Brook  in  the  town  of  Freetown,  this  being  along 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


558 


THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   FALL   RIVER. 


lines  suggested  by  the  State  Department  of  Health  in  reports  prior  to 
that  time.  Under  this  Act,  surveys  and  investigations  were  made  during 
1916,  covering  possible  sources  and  including,  in  addition  to  Mill  Brook, 
which  lies  northerly  from  North  Watuppa  Pond,  the  possible  use  of  Bread 


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and  Cheese  Brook,  a  small  stream  lying  easterly  from  the  pond,  and  Copecut 
River  lying  northeasterly  —  all  of  which  could  be  adapted  to  provide  a 
further  supply  which  would  flow  by  gravity  into  North  Watuppa  Pond. 
The  preliminary  results  of  these  investigations  are  given  in  the  accom- 
panying table : 


Comparison  of  Projects  for  Additional  Water  Supply.  * 

Project  and  Drainage  Area. 

Item. 

Mill.  Bread  and  Cheese        Upper  Copecut 

(3  35  Sq.  Mi.).         (2.65  Sq.  Mi.).  (3.13  Sq.  Mi.). 

Ccst  (not  including  water  rights) $438  100  $491  000  $751  900 

Safe  yield  (mil.  gal.  per  day)    2.90  2.40  2.30 

Cost  per  mil.  gal.  (per  day  safe  yield)  $151  000  $204  000  $327  000 
In  conjimction  with  full  use  of  North 

Pond  would  give  city  a  safe  supply 

until  about 1938  1935  1934 

*  Report  of  November  17.  1916  —  H.K.B. 

__  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARROWS.  559 

The  results  shown  therefore  led  to  the  making  of  test  borings  at  the  Mill 
Brook  dam  site  and  a  more  accurate  determination  of  the  cost  of  this 
project  during  the  first  half  of  1917.  The  results  of  these  further  investi- 
gations indicated  that  the  preliminary  figures  of  cost  were  ample  and  that 
the  construction  cost  of  the  Mill  Brook  project  should  not  exceed  about 
$375  000  on  the  basis  of  approximate  normal  costs,  not  including  the  cost 
of  any  water  rights,  the  latter  chiefly  comprising  use  of  water  at  the  Crystal 
Spring  Bleachery  in  the  town  of  Assonet. 

Before  the  completion  of  these  investigations  the  State  Department 
of  Health  advised  the  consideration  of  a  supply  of  water  from  Long  Pond 
lying  some  ten  miles  east  of  the  city  and  a  careful  investigation  was  also 
made  of  the  use  of  this  pond,  including  a  pumping  station  and  pipe  line  to 
North  Watuppa  Pond.  This  project  proved  to  be  much  greater  in  first 
cost  than  the  Mill  Brook,  owing  largely  to  the  necessary  takings  of  land 
and  buildings  around  Long  Pond.  Furthermore,  the  proportionate  cost 
was  greater  than  for  the  Mill  Brook  supply,  viz.  per  million  gallons  and 
daily  capacity,  as  indicated  by  the  following  cost  estimates: 

Estimated  Cost  of  3  Million  Gallons  Per  Day  Water  Supply  from  Long  Pond. 
(Based  upon  normal  cost  conditions.) 

Pipe  Line   $250  000 

Intake,  Pumping  Station,  Equipment,  etc 40  000 

Cost  of  Pumping 240  000 

Total  Cost $530  000 

(exclusive  of  land  and  water  rights  or  control  works) 

The  State  Department  of  Health,  however,  took  the  attitude  that  it  was 
time  to  begin  the  development  of  the  larger  supply  in  the  Lakeville  Ponds 
and  did  not  approve  the  further  consideration  of  the  Mill  Brook  supply. 
They  further  recommended  that  full  control  of  the  North  Watuppa 
Pond  be  obtained  by  the  city  before  any  further  action  was  taken  toward 
obtaining  an  additional  supply. 

As  explained  in  the  paper  of  1915,  the  North  Watuppa  Pond  is  not  a 
"Great  Pond"  legally,  as  the  suit  of  1891  established  that  the  Watuppa 
Reservoir  Company,  an .  association  of  various  mills  along  Quequechan 
River,  were  successors  in  title  to  grantees  of  Plymouth  Colony,  to  whom 
the  land  under  and  on  both  sides  of  the  outlet  of  the  pond  was  conveyed  on 
March  5, 1680,  to  Church,  Gray  and  others  for  £1  100.  This  grant,  known 
as  the  Pocasset  Grant,  included  all  of  the  South  Pond  and  about  half  of 
the  North  Pond.  Since  1892  the  city  has  been  working  under  an  agree- 
ment with  the  mills  whereby  it  can  use  an  unlimited  amount  of  water 
from  the  North  Pond  for  purposes  of  municipal  water  supply,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  mills  can  also  make  use  of  this  water  without  restric- 
tion down  to  a  level  of  about  40  in.  below  full  pond.     One  of  the  other 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


560  THE  WATER  SUPPLY  OF   FALL   RIVER. 

terms  of  this  agreement  is  the  so-called  "  Tax  Rebate,"  whereby  taxes  on 
the  water  power  of  these  mills  are  rebated  by  the  city — this  amounting 
to  some  $6  000  or  $7  000  per  year,  depending  on  the  tax  rate.  Under  this 
agreement  of  1892  it  is  obvious  that  the  city  had  only  partial  control 
of  the  storage  of  water  in  the  North  Pond.  CoDsequently  for  the  last 
few  years  it  has  escaped  a  shortage  of  water  only  by  good  luck. 

The  Water  Act  of  1916  provided  for  the  taking  of  the  North  Pond 
rights  by  condemnation,  if  necessary.  It  was  felt,  however,  that  a  settle- 
ment might  be  effected  by  agreement,  and  negotiations  were  accordingly 
carried  on  during  the  years  1919  and  1920,  finally  resulting  in  an  agreement 
between  the  mills  and  the  city  which  was  accepted  by  the  City  Council  in 
March,  1920.  This  agreement  provided,  in  brief,  that  the  agreement  of 
1892  with  the  mills  be  terminated  and  that  the  city  should  have  full  control 
and  rights  in  the  North  Watuppa  Pond  upon  payment  to  the  Watuppa 
Reservoir  Company  of  the  sum  of  $75  000,  and  further  provided  that  the 
operation  of  the  Quequechan  River  improvement  whereby  the  water  supply 
of  the  South  Pond  would  be  better  conserved  for  the  use  of  the  mills,  should 
also  be  carried  out. 

The  improvement  of  the  Quequechan  River  is  a  project  which  has  been 
before  the  city  for  many  years.  While  the  mills  have  had  the  control 
of  the  South  Watuppa  Pond,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  adequately 
utilize  its  storage  capacity,  with  the  result  that  at  various  times  within 
the  last  dozen  years  the  waters  of  the  Quequechan  River  have  become  so 
low  that  not  only  has  the  river  itself  been  most  unsightly,  but  the  mills 
have  in  many  cases  had  to  shut  down  for  lack  of  water  to  operate  them. 

These  constantly  recurring  conditions  becoming  well-nigh  intolerable 
finally  resulted  in  legislation  and  general  investigation  of  the  matter  of 
improving  Quequechan  River,  for  which  plans  were  submitted  in  1915  to 
the  City  Council,  providing,  in  brief,  for  the  filling  in  of  the  river  channel 
and  flats  and  the  handling  of  the  river  water  in  a  three  level  reinforced 
concrete  conduit  in  addition  to  a  general  system  of  sewers  and  drains  for 
the  district.  This  scheme  of  improvement  involved  so  great  a  cost,  however, 
(about  $3  000  000  in  first  cost)  that  the  plans  were  not  accepted  by  the 
City  Council  and  in  1916  a  new  Quequechan  River  Commission  was 
created  and  plans  prepared  on  a  more  economical  basis.  In  brief,  these 
provided  for  retaining  the  greater  portion  of  the  present  river  basin  and 
dredging  it  to  greater  depth,  as  well  as  a  district  sewer  system,  while  the 
storage  capacity  of  the  South  Watuppa  Pond  is  to  be  utilized  by  a  dam  and 
pimiping  station  at  the  Sand  Bar  at  the  outlet  of  the  pond.  The  first  cost 
of  this  scheme  as  first  proposed  approximated  $800  000  (on  the  basis  of 
normal  costs),  which  was  increased  to  a  little  under  $1  000  000  to  meet 
certain  requirements  of  the  State  Department  of  Health. 

Plans  for  this  work  were  accepted  by  the  City  Council  as  a  part  of  the 
agreement  of  1920  between  the  city  and  the  mills,  this  agreement  providing 
that  the  Sand  Bar  Dam  and  pumping  station  for  the  control  of  the  waters 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARKOWS.  561 

of  the  South  Pond  should  be  built  and  put  in  operation  as  one  of  the 
stipulations  relative  to  the  taking  of  the  North  Pond.  The  City  Council 
authorized  a  bond  issue  of  $200  000  in  1920  to  begin  this  work,  as  well  as 
S7o  000  to  pay  for  the  North  Pond  water  rights,  with  the  idea  of  promptly 
carrying  out  the  terms  of  this  agreement  with  the  mills.  Contract  plans 
for  the  Sand  Bar  Dam  and  pumping  station  were  completed  in  1920  and 
bids  received  for  this  work  in  December  of  that  year.  Opposition  from 
certain  mill  interests  on  South  Watuppa  Pond  toward  the  carrying  out  of 
this  project  developed  early  in  1921,  with  the  result  that  no  progress  was 
made  during  that  year. 

During  the  winter  of  1921-22  additional  legislation  transferred  the 
duties  of  the  Quequechan  River  Conmiission  to  the  Watuppa  Reservoir 
Conmiission  in  order  that  this  work  may  be  promptly  carried  out  and  the 
full  control  of  the  North  Watuppa  Pond  obtained  by  the  city,  as  well  as 
an  adequate  water  supply  provided  for  the  mills,  and  the  Reservoir 
Commission  now  has  these  matters  in  hand. 

During  1920-21  the  State  Department  of  Health  made  a  general 
investigation  to  determine  the  best  method  for  the  joint  use  of  theLakeville 
Ponds  (a  group  of  large  ponds  lying  some  10  miles  northeast  of  Fall  River 
and  including  Long  Pond,  already  mentioned)  by  the  towns  and  cities  in 
that  vicinity,  reporting  on  this  matter  to  the  Legislature  in  January,  1922. 
In  brief,  this  report  stated,  ''That  the  improvement  and  protection  of  these 
great  natural  reservoirs  can  best  be  secured  by  united  action  of  the  munici- 
paUties  interested,  the  cost  to  be  divided  proportionately  among  those 
interested.  This  purpose  could  be  effectively  carried  out,  no'  doubt,  by 
the  creation  of  a  water-supply  district  in  this  part  of  the  State  to  include 
the  cities  of  Fall  River,  New  Bedford  and  Taunton,  and  such  of  the  towns 
in  the  vicinity  of  these*  cities  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds  as 
may  desire  to  join.  This  would  involve  the  creation  of  a  commission 
composed  of  members  clothed  with  sufficient  authority  for  the  purpose 
under  a  legislative  act  following  the  general  method  adopted  at  the  time 
of  the  creation  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  Each  municipaUty 
would  still  maintain  under  such  a  plan  its  own  individual  water  system, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.  To  the  commission 
would  be  left  all  questions  relating  to  securing,  protecting  and  developing 
to  their  full  extent  the  water  supplies  in  these  ponds.  The  commission 
should  be  authorized  to  acquire  lands  within  the  watersheds  and  construct 
and  maintain  necessary  dams  and  other  appurtenances,  together  with  all 
drainage  works  needed  for  the  improvement  and  maintenance  of  the  water 
in  the  ponds,  in  the  best  condition.  They  should  also  have  control  of  the 
enforcement  of  rules  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  the  water  and  the 
policing  of  the  watersheds  and  ponds  and  the  location  of  al.  intakes  or 
connections  with  the  ponds." 

As  part  of  this  report,  legislation  was  recommended  and  given  long 
and  serious  consideration  by  the  legislative  Water  Supply  Committee  and 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


562 


THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   FALL   RIVER. 


the  various  cities  and  towns  interested  in  the  matter.  Fall  River  joined 
in  urging  this  measure  as  first  presented,  which  contemplated  the  utilization 
of  the  entire  group  of  ponds  under  the  control  of  such  a  Water  District. 

At  the  present  time  New  Bedford  utilizes  two  of  the  ponds,  viz. 
Great  and  Little  Quittacas  Ponds,  for  its  water  supply,  including  a  drainage 
area  of  about  13  sq.  mi.  out  of  a  total  of  some  48  sq.  mi.  for  the  entire 
group  of  ponds.  Taunton,  with  a  pumping  station  on  Assawompsett 
Pond,  uses  a  relatively  small  amount  of  the  yield  of  that  pond. 

In  the  course  of  the  hearings  before  the  Water  Supply  Committee  it 
developed  that  New  Bedford  did  not  wish  to  have  the  portion  of  these 
ponds,  viz.  Great  and  Little  Quittacas,  now  controlled  by  it  included  in  the 
Wat^r  District,  and  as  this  involved  a  much  less  satisfactory  use  of  the  pond 
system  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  materially  greater  cost  to  the  city  of  Fall 
River,  the  latter  has  opposed  any  such  sub-division  of  this  pond  system. 

Essentials  regarding  area,  capacity  and  the  probable  safe  yield  of  the 
Lakeville  Pond  system  appear  in  the  following  table  taken  from  the  report 
by  the  writer  on  Additional  Water  Supply  for  Fall  River,  dated  July 
14,1917:  — 


Probable  Safe  Yield  of  Lakeville  Ponds 


Pond 

Drainage 
Area 
Sq.  Mi. 

Per  Cent. 

Water 
and  Swamp 

Storage  Capacity 
Assumed. 

Safe  Yield. 

or 
Drainage 

Mil.  Gals. 

Mil.    Gals.       Total 

Area. 

Area. 

Total. 

Per  Sq.  Mi. 

Per  Day     Mil.    Gals. 
PerSq.  Mi.  |  Per  Da.v. 

Long  Pond  raised  2  ft. 

El.  49-54 
Assawompsett  Pond  . . 

Quittacas  Ponds 

Snipatuit  Pond 

22.3 

12.8 

12.8 

6.8 

13.5 

33.5 
17.5 
17.5 

3  100 

4  300 
3  200 
1  250 

140 

335 
250 
184 

0.63 

0.68 
0.74 
0.68 

14.0 

8.7 
9.5 
4.6 

Total,     nol     including 
Snipatuit 

47.9 

23 

10  600 

223 

0.68 

32.2 

Total,  including  Snip- 
atuit   

54.7 

23 

11  850 

250 

0.68 

36.8 

In  the  foregoing  table  draft  to  a  depth  of  5  ft.  was  assumed  for  all  but 
the  Quittacas  Ponds,  which  were  assumed  at  7  ft.  An  additional  2  ft.  on 
top  of  Long  Pond  (or  a  draft  from  El.  49  to  El.  56)  would  add  about  1  500 
million  gallons  of  storage  capacity,  making  a  total  safe  yield  of  about  35 
million  gallons  per  day,  based  upon  the  yield  of  the  Sudbury  River  1879-84, 
which  stream  shows  about  the  same  yield  as  the  Lakeville  Ponds,  according 
to  measurements  of  flow  from  the  latter  made  by  the  late  Freeman  C. 
Coffin,  from  December,  1894  to  November,  1897. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BARROWS.  563 

The  report  by  the  State  Department  of  Health  of  January,  1922 
(p.  228)  gives  the  total  storage  capacity  at  about  21.3  billion  gallons,  which 
evidently  corresponds  to  a  much  greater  draft  upon  all  the  ponds.  The 
conclusion  in  regard  to  safe  yield  of  42  million  gallons  in  this  report  appears 
reasonable,  however,  in  view  of  storage  possibilities. 

Reference  to  the  foregoing  table  indicates  that  nearly  half  of  the 
jrield  of  this  pond  system  comes  from  Long  Pond  and  its  drainage  area. 
The  waters  of  Long  Pond  and  its  tributary  streams  are,  however,  relatively 
high  in  color  and  must  be  stored  for  a  very  considerable  period  of  time  in 
the  lake  system  to  be  desirable  for  use.  The  manner  in  which  New  Bedford 
has  developed  its  supply  is  indicative  of  the  best  use  of  this  pond  system, 
and  the  fuller  development  of  the  system  by  cities  lying  southerly,  like 
New  Bedford  and  Fall  River,  would  naturally  be  by  taking  water  from 
Little  Quittacas  Pond,  just  as  New  Bedford  has  done,  thus  providing  that 
the  highly  colored  waters  of  Long  Pond  before  use  must  travel  many 
miles  around  and  through  Assawompsett  Pond,  thus  lowering  the  color 
content  to  a  small  amount. 

The  manner  is  which  Fall  River  has  planned  to  utilize  the  Lakeville 
Ponds  as  an  additional  supply  is  shown  on  the  accompanying  map,  (Fig.  8), 
and  includes  a  pumping  station  on  Little  Quittacas  Pond,  with  pipe  line 
leading  to  a  large  distribution  reservoir  on  Copecut  Hill,  a  couple  of  miles 
easterly  from  North  Watuppa  Pond.  Further  details  of  this  proposed 
reservoir  will  be  given  later.  As  a  part  of  the  additional  water  supply 
system,  it  will  provide  a  means  for  the  use  of  the  Lakeville  Ponds  water 
by  one  pumping,  as  the  new  reservoir  will  be  somewhat  higher  in  level 
than  the  present  tanks  or  standpipes  in  the  city.  Any  method  of  using 
the  waters  of  Long  Pond  directly  by  pumping  them  into  North  Watuppa 
Pond  and  storing  them  there  to  lower  the  color  content  would  involve 
pumping  water  over  the  divide  in  the  general  vicinity  of  Mill  Brook,  a 
total  of  about  150  ft.  and  then  a  repumping  later  at  the  main  pumping 
station  on  North  Watuppa  Pond. 

It  would  be  possible  for  Fall  River  to  locate  its  pumping  station  on 
Assawompsett  Pond  and  obtain  there  water  of  suitable  color  content. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  this  would  involve  some  three  miles  additional 
length  of  pipe  line,  at  greater  first  cost,  as  well  as  increased  cost  of  main- 
tenance and  pumping,  without  any  corresponding  benefit  to  any  one. 
Furthermore,  to  get  the  best  results  from  storage  operation,  of  increasing 
importance  as  the  water  demands  of  this  district  grow,  these  ponds  should 
be  dealt  with  as  a  unit. 

New  Bedford  has  shown  great  foresight  in  planning  its  water  supply 
from  the  Quittacas  Ponds  and  should  be  fully  compensated  for  what  she 
has  already  done  in  dedicating  a  considerable  part  of  this  pond  system  to 
municipal  water  supply  use.  The  consumption  of  water  in  New  Bedford 
is  rapidly  increasing,  however,  being  now  in  the  vicinity  of  10  million 
gallons  per  day,  or  not  far  from  the  safe  yield  of  the  two  Quittacas  Ponds. 

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564 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  FALL   RIVER. 


The  city  must  therefore  soon  take  additional  water  from  the  pond  system 
and  is  therefore  vitally  interested  in  the  adequate  control  of  all  these  ponds 
under  a  water  district. 

Legislation  is  still  pending  upon  this  important  matter  and  it  is  the 


Fig.  8. 


hope  of  Fall  River  that,  if  possible,  the  full  and  comprehensive  use  of  this 
pond  system  may  be  reached. 

Legislation  was  obtained  during  the  winter  of  1921-22  covering  the 
matter  of  Copecut  Hill  Reservoir,  as  well  as  necessary  pipe  line  connection 
with  the  city  from  this  reservoir,  and  plans  are  now  being  prepared  for  this 
work.  At  the  present  time  test  pits  are  being  dug  at  different  sites  on  the 
hill  and  information  obtsrined  to  use  as  a  guide  in  determining  the  best 

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BARROWS.  565 

method  of  construction  of  a  reservoir  and  its  probable  cost.  A  large 
reservoir  holding  from  a  week  to  ten  day's  supply  of  water  is  contemplated 
at  an  elevation  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  level  of  the  present  tanks  or 
standpipes,  viz.  El.  305.  As  far  as  the  investigations  have  proceeded 
it  appears  that  a  reservoir  can  be  obtained  at  a  level  as  high  as  El.  340, 
if  desired,  and  that  this  will  probably  be  of  earth  embankment  type, 
constructed  partly  in  excavation,  partly  in  fill,  with  concrete  lining. 

The  construction  of  an  adequate  distribution  reservoir  has  been  under 
consideration  for  many  years,  as  the  combined  capacity  of  the  four  present 
tanks  is  only  about  five  million  gallons  or  less  than  a  day's  average  use  of 
water.  There  is  no  available  site  for  such  a  reservoir  within  city  limits 
—  the  highest  points  reaching  only  about  to  El.  260.  Copecut  Hill  is 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  city  and  will  hence  require  a  large 
expense  for  connecting  pipe  mains.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  districts 
of  the  city,  at  about  El.  200  or  above,  where  pressures  at  present  are  low 
and  unsatisfactory,  will  be  materially  and  directly  benefited  by  these  pipe 
lines.  Furthermore,  a  reservoir  on  Copecut  Hill  fits  admirably  into  the 
proposed  Lakeville  Ponds  additional  supply,  by  saving  an  extra  pumping 
of  water  as  already  noted. 

The  cost  of  the  Lakeville  additional  supply  and  the  Copecut  Hill 
Reservoir  and  its  connections  will  probably  be  in  the  vicinity  of  $2  000  000, 
of  which  approximately  $1  500  000  represents  the  cost  of  the  reservoir  and 
its  connections,  etc.,  and  the  remaining  $500  000  the  cost  of  pumping 
station,  pipe  line,  etc.,  from  Little  Quittacas  Pond.  (If  the  latter  pond  is 
not  available,  the  cost  will  be  mater  ally  increased.)  Added  to  this  cost 
will  be  the  proportion  which  Fall  River  must  pay  for  the  joint  use  of  the 
Lakeville  Ponds  with  other  municipaUties,  which  will  add  a  considerable 
further  amount  to  the  cost  of  this  project. 

It  is  likely  that  the  complete  program  of  additional  water  supply  for 
Fall  River  may  involve  an  expenditure  of  as  much  as  $2  500  000.  While 
this  at  first  glance  appears  to  be  a  large  amount,  when  compared  with  the 
cost  of  such  projects  in  other  cities  it  is  seen  to  be  reasonable.  It  is,  in 
fact,  just  about  what  the  New  Bedford  supply  from  Quittacas  Ponds  has 
cost,  including  the  High  Hill  Reservoir  and  its  connections  with  the  city. 
The  city  of  Providence  (approximately  double  the  size  of  Fall  River)  is 
spending  in  excess  of  $10  000  000  for  its  new  water  supply,  the  contract 
for  the  main  dam  alone  at  the  new  Scituate  Reservoir  totalling  about 
$3  500  000. 

The  cities  of  Fall  River,  New  Bedford  and  Taunton  and  neighboring 
towns  are  indeed  fortunate  in  being  located  near  such  a  large  supply  of 
good  water  as  is  afforded  by  the  Lakeville  Ponds  system,  which  will  provide 
for  their  water  supply  needs  for  many  years,  if  properly  conserved  and 
controlled.  Contrast  with  this  the  situation  with  the  cities  of  Lawrence, 
Haverhill,  etc.,  in  the  Merrimac  Valley,  now  being  studied  by  the  State 
Department  of  Health,  where  additional  water  supply  needs  are  already 

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566  THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    PALL    RIVER. 

urgent  and  the  difficulties  of  meeting  these  adequately  are  very  con- 
siderable. 

In  carrying  out  the  work  described  at  Fall  River  up  to  1917  Mr.  Arthur 
L.  Shaw  was  Resident  Engineer,  to  whom  much  credit  is  due  for  the  results 
achieved  —  particularly  in  the  construction  of  the  intercepting  drain. 
The  success  of  this  latter  piece  of  work  was  also  largely  due  to  excellent 
construction  on  the  part  of  the  contractor,  the  Hanscom  Construction  Co. 
of  Boston,  who,  at  some  loss,  executed  this  work  in  a  first-class  manner. 
Since  1917  Mr.  John  Brown  has  been  Resident  Engineer  in  direct  charge 
of  both  the  water  supply  and  river  improvement  work.  The  wTiter  has 
acted  as  Consulting  Engineer  for  the  Watuppa  Reservoir  Commission  since 
1914  and  for  the  Quequechan  River  Improvement  since  1916. 

Fall  River  Intercepting  Drain  —  Cost  Data  1915-16. 
Cost  per  Linear  Feet  for  Different  Sections  of  Diameter. 

6  jL  open  section  (1470  lin.  ft.) 

Concrete 0.427  cii.  yd.  ®  $9.50  =  $4.06 

Reinforced  steel 40.64     lb.  %       0.023  =  0.95 

Excavation 2.7      cu.  yd.  @       0.85  =  2.30 

Total  $7.31 

8JL  open  section  (2600  lin.  ft.) 

Concrete 0.458  cu.  yd.  ^  $9.50  =  $4.35 

Reinforced  steel 55.31     lb.  ^:  0.023  =  1 .29 

Excavation 4.1       cu.  yd.  @  0.85  «  3.49 

Total $9. 13 

10  ft.  open  section  (5608  lin.  ft.) 

Concrete 0.505  cu.  yd.  @,  $9.50  =  $4.80 

Reinforced  steel 59.50    lb.  @  0.023  =  1 .39 

Excavation 5.4       cu.  yd.  @  0.85  «  4.60 

Total $10.79 

6  ft,  covered  section  (154  lin.  ft.) 

Concrete 0.536  cu.  yd.  @  $9.50  =  $5. 10 

Reinforced  steel 72.46    lb.  (g       0.023  =  1 .70 

Excavation 1.5       cu.  yd.  ^.       0.85  =  1 .27 

Total  $8.07 

10  ft.  covered  section  (2312  lin.  ft.) 

Concrete 1.00  cu.  yd.  @  $9.50  =  $9.50 

Reinforced  steel 145.41  lb.  @       0.023  =  3.41 

Excavation 3.7  cu.  yd.  ®       0.85  =  3.14 

Total  $16.05 

In  the  foregoing  tabulation  costs  as  given  are  approximate  actual  costs, 
not  contract  prices.  Unit  costs  are,  however,  for  the  work  as  a  whole  and 
are  not  available  in  segregated  form  for  the  various  individual  sections  of 
drain.     Rock  excavation  is  not  included. 


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BARROWS.  567 

The  unit  cost  of  concrete  (7  618  cu.  yd.)  was  made  up  as  follows: 

Labor,  teaming,  insurance,  etc $4.27 

Machinery,  power  and  general 0 .  93 

Lumber  for  forms,  etc 0. 25 

Sand,  10.66  and  Stone,  $1.39    2.05 

Cement 2.00 

Total $9.50    per  cu.  yd. 

The  cost  of  forms  (in  place  and  removed)  —  made  of  wood,  for  a  total 
area  of  about  280,000  sq.  ft.  was  about  eight  cents  per  sq.  foot. 

The  unit  cost  of  earth  excavation  (58,500  cu.  yd.),  including  refill,  was 
as  follows:  — 

Clearing  and  burning $0. 02 

Stripping  and  storing  loam 0.17 

Excavating  other  earth   0 .  47 

BackfiU,  etc 0.16 

Machinery,  pumps  and  miscellaneous 0.03 

Total $0. 85    per  cu.  yd. 

Rock  excavation^  not  included  in  the  costs  previously  given  for  different 
sections  of  the  drain,  totalled  about  6700  cu.  yd.  for  the  total  length  of 
concrete  section  of  about  12,144  ft.,  or  just  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  total 
excavation.  Of  this  rock  practically  one-third  was  boulders  of  one-half 
cu.  yd.  or  more,  the  remainder  ledge. 

The  cost  of  rock  excavation  was  about  $19  500,  which  averages  $1.60 
per  linear  foot  of  drain  and  about  $2.90  per  cu.  yd. 

Base  costs  for  labor  and  material  were: 

Ordinary  labor $1 .  80    per  day  of  9  hours 

Single  teams  and  driver .' 3.75      "      "    "9     *' 

Double  teams  and  driver 5.50      "      "    "9     " 

Cement $1 .20    per  bbl. 

Sand    1.50      "   cu.  yd. 

Crushed  stone   1 .  58      "   cu.  yd. 

Dynamite 0.20       "   lb. 

Reinforced  steel 0.023     "  lb. 


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568  GOODNOUGH    AND   BARROWS. 


Discussion. 


Mr.  Francis  T.  Kemble.*  I  would  like  to  inquire  what  they  are 
doing  at  the  present  time  in  connection  with  taking  care  of  drainage 
from  those  cottages  which  are  shown  along  the  banks  in  two  instances,  I 
think. 

Mr.  Goodnough.  All  of  these  watersheds  are  under  the  control  of 
the  local  authorities.  They  are  protected  by  rules  and  regulations  which 
are  enforced  by  the  Water  Boards  in  each  case.  They  are  cared  for  very 
carefully  as  far  as  my  knowledge  goes,  in  both  watersheds.  There  is  nothing 
around  the  New  Bedford  supply  to  do  harm  in  any  case,  and  in  Taunton 
I  think  the  rules  are  carried  out  very  strictly. 

Mr.  Kemble.    Are  there  any  cesspools? 

Mr.  Goodnough.  The  regulations  call  for  no  cesspools  within  50  ft. 
of  the  water,  or  within  50  ft.  of  any  water  course. 

Mr.  Robert  S.  Weston. f  Do  those  regulations  apply  to  Long  Pond 
as  well  as  to  Assawompsett? 

Mr.  Goodnough.  No,  they  do  not.  We  can't  even  stop  bathing 
in  Long  Pond.  I  think  that  it  depends  on  the  judge  before  whom  bathers 
are  taken. 

Mr.  Weston.  What  are  the  relative  elevations  of  High  Hill  Reser- 
voir and  the  proposed  Copecut  Reservoir? 

Mr.  Goodnough.  Copecut  Reservoir  is  a  great  deal  higher  than 
High  Hill. 

Mr.  Caleb  M.  Saville.J  I  have  been  very  much  interested  in  both 
of  these  descriptions  of  water  supplies,  particularly  in  the  data  which 
Mr.  Goodnough  has  so  well  brought  forward  with  regard  to  the  growth  of 
the  population.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance  because  of  its  bearing  in  making  up  estimates  for  additional 
water  supphes  and  for  financing  them,  the  gelation  between  the  growth  of 
European  cities  and  those  in  America;  whether  they  are  strictly  compar- 
able. What  Mr.  Goodnough  has  said  of  the  English  cities  is  most  inter- 
esting and  instructive.  Of  course  we  must  base  our  estimates  of  the 
future  growth  of  population  on  information  of  that  kind.  In  America 
there  are  comparatively  few  cities  which  can  be  compared  after  they  have 
reached  populations  of  150  000  to  200  000  or  more  because  of  local  environ- 
ment which  inequally  affects  the  growth.  Also  conditions  seem  to  me 
vastly  different  in  American  cities  from  those  in  English  cities.  England, 
on  account  of  racial  characteristics,  perhaps,  and  again  on  account  of 
geographical  conditions,  is  in  a  somewhat  different  position  as  to  its  city 
growth.  You  can't  get  out  of  England.  England  is  a  comparatively 
small  place.  The  coal  mines,  which  are  the  basis  of  the  English  industry, 
are  located  not  far  from  the  big  centers.     The  Englishman  always  moves 

*  isecretary  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  Water  Co. 

t  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass. 

X  Chief  Engineer,  Board  of  Water  Commissioners,  Hartford,  Conn. 


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DISCUSSION.  569 

slowly.  In  America  we  move  more  rapidly  and  so  it  seems  we  can  not 
make  direct  comparison. 

This  was  particularly  brought  to  my  attention  in  considering  what 
the  effect  will  be  on  some  of  our  Connecticut  cities  that  have  now  reached 
a  population  of  perhaps  150  000  or  175  000.  Consider  the  effect  of  the 
big  movements  that  are  on  foot,  perhaps  this  super-power  proposition  that 
is  now  rather  agitating  us,  of  bringing  the  larger  industry  to  the  coal  mines; 
or  developing  power  at  the  coal  mines,  if  you  please. 

It  is  desirable,  perhaps,  to  get  our  industries  nearer  the  source,  to  get 
cheaper  labor  and  less  transportation  difficulties,  but  large  movements  of 
this  kind  seem  bound  to  affect  local  growth.  That  is  particularly  pertinent, 
at  this  time  I  think,  on  account  of  the  sale  or  the  transfer  of  the  stock 
recently,  of  the  American  Brass  Company,  which  has  large  industries  in 
Torrington,  Waterbury  and  Ansonia,  to  the  Anaconda  Copper  Company. 
Those  industries  are  practically  the  life  of  those  Connecticut  cities  I  have 
mentioned.  There  is  a  thought,  and  it  is  rather  a  serious  one,  that  in 
time  the  bulk  of  the  product  now  made  by  the  American  Brass  Company 
in  those  towns  will  be  transferred  to  the  nearer  copper  fields  in  Butte  for 
sheet  copper  and  plain  bulky  materials.  What  bearing  such  a  movementwill 
have  on  the  growth  of  those  particular  Connecticut  cities  is  problematical. 

Mr.  Theodore  L.  Bristol.*  I  do  not  think  anyone  knows  what  the 
result  will  be  in  the  Naugatuck  Valley.  When  the  Anaconda  Company 
bought  the  American  Brass  Company  they  were  very  careful  to  state  that 
it  would  make  no  difference  with  the  organization,  that  they  intended  to 
keep  the  mills  running  and  the  same  people.  I  think  it  is  some  question 
how  this  will  work  out.     Probably  there  will  be  changes. 

I  was  in  the  operating  manager's  office  in  Ansonia  the  other  day 
and  there  was  a  call  for  wire  drawing  dies.  It  seems  the  Anaconda  Com- 
pany had  placed  an  order  for  wire  drawing  dies  to  be  shipped  to  Butte  and 
were  not  getting  them  fast  enough,  and  they  wanted  to  know  if  they  could 
borrow  some  from  Ansonia.  The  dies  were  immediately  sent  them  from 
surplus  stock.  That  shows  that  they  are  probably  transferring  a  lot  of 
wire  drawing  to  Butte,  and  I  presume  they  will  take  care  of  their  western 
territory  at  Butte  and  will  eventually  establish  sheet  mills  there.  The 
copper  business  is  pretty  good  now;  they  are  trying  to  work  twenty-four 
hours  a  day  in  Ansonia.  It  started  with  the  wire  mill  which  has  been 
working  twenty-four  hours  for  several  months.  They  have  built  a  new 
mill  in  Ansoiiia,  quite  a  large  wire  drawing  mill.  Probably  that  wUl  not 
be  abandoned.     But  it  all  depends  upon  where  the  demand  comes  from. 

Of  course  in  all  these  localities  there  have  been  other  businesses  that 
are  called  cutting  up  shops.  They  are  the  people  who  manufacture  the 
copper  into  other  articles.  That  will  tend  to  keep  the  business  in  this 
locality  which  is  in  the  locaKty  of  the  present  brass  and  copper  cutting  up 
shops. 

*  President  Ansonia  Conn.,  Water  Co. 

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570  GOODNOUGH   AND   BARROWS. 

Perhaps  to  show  how  things  may  move,  I  will  say  that  there  is  another 
large  industry  in  Ansonia,  the  Farral  Foundry  and  Machine  Company, 
which  has  bought  quite  a  large  plant  in  Buffalo  because  it  saved  consider- 
able in  freight  on  coal  and  iron.  I  think  they  did  that  principally  for 
manufacturing  rubber  mill  and  wheat  rolls  to  be  shipped  to  Ohio  and  the 
West.     But  it  has  made  no  noticeable  difference  with  Ansonia. 

PREsroENT  Barbour.  I  was  nterested  in  what  Mayor  Remington 
told  me  regarding  some  statement  in  a  paper  which  he  had  recently  un- 
earthed about  the  removal  of  the  textile  industr>^  to  the  South  some  fifty 
years  ago. 

Mayor  W.  H.  B.  Remington.  I  would  be  very  glad,  Mr.  President, 
to  say  what  I  said  to  you  about  that  particular  matter. 

In  1855  my  father  was  an  operative  in  the  Wamsutta  Mills  here.  At 
that  time  he  purchased  a  Httle  book  which  was  called  "  American  Cotton," 
containing  more  or  less  details  about  the  cotton  business.  During  the 
last  year  I  came  across  that  book,  and  in  it  found  an  almost  exact  repro- 
duction of  the  argument  which  has  been  made  within  a  short  time  about 
the  removal  of  the  cotton  business  to  the  South.  That  was  over  fifty  years 
ago,  and  the  cotton  mills  are  still  in  this  section  of  New  England.  Of 
course  they  have  many  mills  in  the  South.  That  led  me  to  think  that 
possibly  there  might  be  more  or  less  bugaboo  about  that  suggestion. 


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CHURCH.  571 


TARS,  NEW  AND  OLD. 

BY  S.  R.  CHURCH. 
'  [December,  1922,] 

Introductory. 

Coal  tar  is  so  valuable  as  the  source  of  many  useful  materials  in  chemis- 
try and  in  engineering,  it  is  of  such  scientific  and  commercial  importance, 
that  one  is  compelled  to  express  surprise  as  well  as  regret  that  there  is  no 
comprehensive  reference  book  on  the  subject.  I  say  this  with  due  regard 
to  Lunge's  extensive  work  on  coal  tar  and  ammonia,  long  considered 
authoritative.  In  recent  editions  of  this  once  valuable  work  no  real  effort 
has  been  made  to  bring  the  facts  down  to  date  and  it  is  especially  deficient 
as  regards  American  practice.  The  book  contains  much  wheat  and  a  great 
deal  of  chaff  and  the  reader  is  compelled  to  sift  for  himself. 

Wames  hand  book  on  coal  tar  distillation  is  concise  and  describes 
English  tar  distilling  practice  quite  well,  but  the  author  has  made  no 
attempt  to  cover  the  entire  subject  and  his  book  is  of  value  to  the  tar 
distiller  but  not  to  the  users  of  tar  products.  The  same  can  be  said  of 
Kjeamer  and  Spilker's  chapter  on  coal  tar  in  Muspratt's  Chemistry  (Ger- 
man), and  a  fairly  exhaustive  treatise  in  French  by  Berthelot,  printed  in 
Revue  de  MetcUlurgie. 

In  fact  the  engineer  or  chemist  who  desires  to  use  tar  products  finds 
the  literature  pretty  barren  and  indeed  many  of  the  scanty  references 
available  are  inaccurate.  For  instance  in  the  very  useful  Lefax  tables, 
the  specific  gravity  of  **  tar  "  is  given  at  1.015.  Of  course  all  tar  is  not 
coal  tar  and  there  may  be  some  variety  of  wood  tar  having  that  specific 
gravity,  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  some  will  apply  this  value  to  coal  tar. 

Even  such  a  dignified  authority  as  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  is 
guilty  of  this,  "  The  heavier  tars  contain  less  benzol  than  the  lighter  tars 
and  more  fixed  carbon,  which  remains  behind  when  the  tars  are  exhausted 
of  benzol  and  is  a  decidedly  objectionable  constituent."  It  is  no  wonder 
that  engineers  who  have  had  little  actual  contact  with  coal  tar  find  it  very 
difficult  to  define  their  requirements  when  in  need  of  tar  products,  or  that 
some  of  the  specifications  met  with  are  drawn  without  a  real  understanding 
of  materials  and  purposes. 

The  whole  matter  of  writing  specifications  for  the  cruder  forms  of 
tar  products  (meaning  creosote  oil,  road  binders,  pipe  coatings  as  distin- 
guished from  refined  products  such  as  phenol  or  naphthalene)  has  been 
surrounded  by  more  than  ordinary  difficulty.     Tars  are  by-products  and 

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572  TARS,   NEW   AND   OLD. 

their  physical  character  and  composition  are  determined  by  conditions 
existing  in  the  gas  retort  or  coke  oven,  conditions  over  which  the  tar  dis- 
tiller has  no  control. 

The  tar  distiller  has  had  to  take  tars  as  produced,  and  determine  as 
best  he  could,  by  field  experience  and  laboratory  research,  how  to  convert 
them  into  uniform  products  suitable  for  the  purpose  intended.  Looking 
at  the  subject  from  a  modern  chemical  engineering  standpoint,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  rule  of  thumb  methods  prevailed  in  the  tar  refinery  until 
about  ten  years  ago.  During  the  past  ten  years  much  progress  has  been 
made  and  not  only  have  good  workable  specifications  been  developed  for 
the  principal  tar  products;  but  many  improvements  and  economics  have 
been  worked  out  in  the  distilling  and  other  refining  processes,  based  on  a 
growing  knowledge  of  the  physical  constants  and  composition  of  the  mater- 
ials dealt  with.  Time  does  not  permit  going  into  this  phase  of  the  subject 
but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  our  researches  have  included  determining 
the  specific  heat  of  tar  distillates  and  residues,  the  vapor  density  and  molec- 
ular weights,  latent  heat  of  vaporization,  etc.  Obviously  all  of  these 
facts  are  needed  in  correctly  designing  distilling  equipment  but  they  are 
absolutely  unavailable  in  the  literature. 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  endeavor  to  show  by  some  typical  and 
comparative  analyses  the  general  range  of  American  tars  including  coal 
tars  from  gas  works  and  coke  ovens  and  water  gas  tars  from  petroleum 
gas  oil.  These  are  properly  considered  together  as  they  comprise  the  tars 
dealt  with  by  American  tar  distillers.  We  hear  of  wood  tars,  blast  furnace 
tars,  lignite  tars,  producer  tars,  etc.,  but  these  are  either  foreign  to  this 
country  or  to  American  tar  distilling  practice. 

The  best  available  statistics  (Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S.  1920  and 
1915)  give  the  tar  production  as  — 

1920  1915 

Tar  Gallons.  Production.  Sales.  Production. 

Coke  Oven 360000000        174000000        140000000 

CoalGas 51000000  146000000  45000000 

WaterGas 114000000  58000000  80000000 

The  later  figures  are  no  doubt  more  nearly  accurate  but  the  growth 
in  production  is  apparent,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  the  increase  is  largely  in 
tar  produced  on  by-product  coke  ovens.  However,  the  tar  available  to 
the  distillers  has  not  changed  so  largely  as  to  its  source,  as  the  total  figures 
indicate,  due  to  the  rather  wide  adoption  of  tar  burning  on  the  part  of  many 
of  the  by-product  oven  owners. 

Methods  of  Testing  Tars. 

Before  considering  the  characteristics  of  different  types  of  American 
tars  it  will  be  useful  to  illustrate  and  briefly  describe  some  of.  the  labora- 
tory tests  ordinarily  made  on  crude  and  refined  tars  and  by  means  of  which 
we  identify  and  classify  the  crudes  and  control  the  consistency  of  the 
refined  tars  and  soft  pitches. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHURCH. 


573 


DISTILLATION  TEST. 


The  apparatus  illustrated  in  Fig.  1  is  used  for  testing  crude  tar  for 
water  and  also  for  distilling  tar  to  pitch  and  determining  the  per  cent,  oil 
^deld.    The  oil  and  pitch  obtained  can  be  further  examined  if  desired. 


II 


NaT 


NS% 


Noi  /hm  Bvmtur     - 

No^  ComeCTvf  Ttme 

Nb.4  CofiofMsrm   wtrn  7b»m 

No.7  /fy»0OMtre0 


ART.    Z04/2 
AHT    204Z0 
AMI    204Z0     _^,^ 
AHT    2043Z*9O436> 

AHT    Z044O 
0  1150*  C. 


Fig.  I  —  Apparatus  for  Distillation. 


When  water  only  is  to  be  determined 

Crude  Tar  Tests  —  Water. 

Apparatus.  Copper  still,  6  in.  by  3i  in.  Ring  burner  to  fit  still. 
Connecting  tube.  Condenser  trough.  Condenser  tube.  Separatory  fun- 
nel.   Thermometer,  0°-250^  C.    See  Fig.  I. 

Method.  Fifty  cc.  of  coal  tar  naphtha  or  light  oil  shall  be  measured  in 
a  250  cc.  graduated  cylinder,  200  cc.  of  the  tar  to  be  tested  shall  be  added. 
The  contents  shall  be  transferred  to  the  copper  still,  the  cylinder  shall  be 
washed  with  100-150  cc.  more  of  naphtha,  and  the  washings  added  to  the 
contents  of  the  still.  The  lid  and  clamp  shall  be  attached,  using  a  paper 
gasket,  and  the  apparatus  set  up  as  shown  in  Fig.  II.  The  condenser 
trough  shall  be  filled  with  water.  Heat  shall  be  applied  by  means  of  the 
ring  burner,  and  distillation  continued  until  the  vapor  temperature  has 
reached  205°  C.  (401°  F.).  The  distillate  shall  be  collected  in  the  separa- 
tory funnel,  in  which  15  to  20  cc.  of  benzol  have  been  previously  placed. 
This  effects  a  clean  separation  of  the  water  and  oil.  The  reading  shall  be 
made  after  twirling  the  funnel  and  allowing  to  settle  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  percentage  shall  be  figured  by  volume. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


574 


TARS,   NEW  AND   OLD. 


Precautions,  When  fresh  supplies  of  naphtha  or  light  oil  are  obtained, 
they  shall  be  tested  to  determine  freedom  from  water. 

Accuracy,     One-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 

Note,  For  works  control  an  iron  still  of  the  same  size  and  shape  as 
the  copper  still  specified  above  may  be  used.     Some  laboratories  omit 

Madc    h*    Ofimatom 

A.H.T.  20.4.86 


Nttl. 

M«.f  Cai«CMSim*  4 

H»*  Wifft  9vpmmmr 

H^S  tmearte  ^lumrr   ^t^tM 

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A.H.T.  2044A 


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sptcmc 

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rYBOTTLC 

FuA»K  No.  I. 


EXTRACTOR  FOR 
FREE  CARBON. 


Fig.  II. 


the  use  of  the  thermometer  and  judge  when  the  water  is  off  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  distillate.  These  variations  must  never  be  appHed  where 
check  test  is  required  or  in  case  of  dispute. 

Dehydration  {Preparation  of  Dry  Tar)  —  Apparatus, 

Method,    About  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  cc.  of  tar  shall  be 
placed  in  the  copper  still  without  the  addition  of  naphtha.     The  apparatus 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHURCH.  575 

shall  be  set  up  as  in  Fig.  I,  except  that  an  ungraduated  separatory  funnel 
may  replace  the  special  graduated  one.  The  distillation  shall  be  carried 
on  cautiously  at  first  to  prevent  foaming  and  continued  until  the  vapor 
temperature  reaches  170°  C.  (338°  F.).  Any  oil  which  has  distilled  over 
shall  be  separated  from  the  water  (warming  sufficiently,  if  crystals  are 
present,  to  insure  their  solution).  This  separated  oil  shall  be  thoroughly 
mixed  back  into  the  residual  tar  in  the  still,  after  the  latter  has  cooled  to  a 
moderate  temperature.  The  dehydrated  tar  shaU  be  then  transferred  to 
a  suitable  container. 

Note.  A  temperature  of  170°  is  used  because  this  is  sufficiently  high 
to  expel  all  water  from  the  still.  In  test  I  a  higher  temperature  is  used  to 
insure  flushing  out  the  condenser  tube. 

When  oil  jaeld  to  a  given  temperature,  or  to  a  certain  melting  point 
of  pitch,  is  desired,  the  addition  of  naphtha  is  of  course  omitted. 

The  stills  can  be  had  in  a  larger  size  fitted  with  a  convenient  draw-off 
cock  for  sampUng  the  pitch  and  emptying  the  contents  of  the  still. 

EXTRACTION  WITH  BENZOL. 

Crude  tar,  if  it  contains  not  more  than  about  5  per  cent,  of  water 
may  be  tested  but  for  accurate  results  the  tar  should  first  be  dehydrated 
in  the  distillation  apparatus  heretofore  described. 

The  test  as  described  is  also  applicable  to  refined  tars  and  pitches. 

Insoluble  in  Benzol  {Free  Carbon), 

Apparatus/  Extraction  flask.  Condenser  and  cover,  wire  support. 
See  Fig.  II.  Extraction  thimble  (prepared  by  operator).*  Cap  of  filter 
paper  or  alundum.  The  latter  are  30  mm.  inside  diameter  by  14  mm. 
high.  Balance:  an  ordinary  analytical  balance  accurate  to  0.0005  g. 
Steam  bath,  water  bath,  or  electric  hot  plate.  Beakers,  100  cc.  Carbon 
filter  tubes,  37  mm.  size.  Weighing  bottle,  32  mm.  by  70  mm.  Camel's 
hair  brush,  14  mm. 

Method.  Tar  dried  as  described  under  Test  I  shall  be  used.  After 
drying,  it  shall  be  passed  hot  through  a  30-mesh  sieve  to  remove  foreign 
substances.  The  amount  of  tar  to  be  taken  for  test  depends  on  the  content 
of  insoluble  material  and  shall  be: 


Less  than  5  per  cent.,  lOg. 
5  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent.,  5  g. 
Above  20  per  cent.,  3g. 


per  cent.,  3g. 

If  the  content  of  insoluble  material  cannot  be  approximated,  the  larger 
amount  shall  be  taken.     The  amount  shall  be  weighed  into  a  100  cc.  beaker 

^These  shall  be  made  of  Whatman  No.  50  filter  paper.  To  make  a  cup,  two  15  cm.  circles  shall  be 
faken  and  one  cut  down  to  a  diameter  of  14  cm.  A  round  stick  about  1  in.  in  diameter  shall  be  used  as  a 
form.  The  stick  shall  be  placed  in  the  center  of  the  circles  of  filter  paper,  the  smaller  inside,  and  the  papers 
folded  symmetrically  around  the  stick  to  form  a  cup  about  2^  in.  long.  A  little  practice  enables  the  opera- 
tor to  make  these  evenly  and  quickly.  After  being  made  they  shall  be  soaked  m  benzol  to  remove  grease 
due  to  handling,  drained,  dried  in  a  steam  oven  at  97  °  to  100  °  C,  cooled  in  a  desiccator  and  kept  there 
until  used. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


576  TARS,   NEW  AND   OLD. 

and  digested  with  pure  toluol  at  90°  to  100°  C.  for  a  period  of  not  over  thirty 
minutes.  The  solution  shall  be  stirred  to  insure  complete  digestion.  A  filter 
cup  prepared  as  described  shall  be  weighed  in  a  weighing  bottle  and  placed 
in  a  filter  tube  supported  over  a  beaker  or  flask.  The  thimble  shall  be  wet 
with  toluol  and  the  toluol-tar  mixture  decanted  through  the  filter.  The 
beaker  shall  be  washed  with  toluol  until  clean,  using  the  earners  hair  brush 
as  a  policeman  to  detach  solid  particles  adhering  to  the  beaker.  All  wash- 
ings shall  be  passed  through  the  filter  cup.  The  filter  cup  shall  then  be 
given  a  washing  with  pm^  benzol  and  allowed  to  drain.  The  cap  shall 
then  be  placed  on  the  cup  and  the  whole  placed  in  the  extraction  apparatus 
and  extracted  with  pure  benzol  until  the  descending  benzol  is  completely 
colorless.  The  cup  shall  then  be  removed,  the  cap  taken  off,  and  the  cup 
dried  at  97°  to  100^  C.  After  drying,  it  shall  be  allowed  to  cool  in  a  desic- 
cator and  weighed  in  the  weighing  bottle.  The  increase  in  weight  repre- 
sents matter  insoluble  in  benzol. 

Precaution.  If  the  first  filtrate  shows  evidence  of  insoluble  matter, 
it  should  be  refiltered.  The  30-min.  period  allowed  for  digestion  must 
not  be  exceeded. 

Accuracy.  Five  per  cent,  of  insoluble  matter  present.  In  other 
words,  with  20  per  cent,  of  "  free  carbon  "  present,  a  1  per  cent,  accuracy 
may  be  expected. 

MELTING  POINT  OP  PITCH. 

This  method  is  universally  used  by  producers  and  consumers  of  tar 
pitches  to  determine  its  consistency  and  is  applicable  to  the  range  of  pitches 
from  those  which  will  hardly  retain  form  at  normal  temperature  (about 
one  hundred  degrees  F.  melting  point)  to  those  which  can  hardly  be 
"  chewed,''  or  indented  with  the  finger  nail  (about  one  hundred  seventy 
degrees  F.  melting  point.) 

Test  D6  —  Water  Melting  Point. 

Apparatus.    See  Fig.  III. 

Pitch  mould.  Hook  made  of  No.  12  B.  and  S.  gage  copper  wire 
(diam.  0.0808  in.).    Beaker,  600  cc,  Griffin's  low  form. 

Thermometer:    The   thermometer  shall   conform  to  the  following 

specifications: 

Total  length 370  to  400  mm. 

Diameter 6.5  to  7.5  mm. 

Bulb  length Not  over  14  mm. 

Bulb  diameter 4.5  to  5.5  mm. 

The  scale  shall  start  not  less  than  75  mm.  above  the  bottom  of  the  bulb 
and  extend  over  a  distance  of  240  to  270  mm.  The  graduations  shall  be 
from  0°  to  80°  C.  inVs^  C.  and  shall  be  clear  cut  and  distinct. 

The  thermometer  shall  be  correct  to  0.25®  C.  as  determined  by  com- 
parison at  full  inmxersion  with  a  similar  thermometer  calibrated  at  fuU 
immersion  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CHURCH. 


577 


The  thermometer  shall  be  furnished  with  an  expansion  chamber  at 
the  top  and  have  a  ring  for  attaching  tags.  It  shall  be  made  of  a  suitable 
quality  of  glass  and  so  annealed  as  not  to  change  its  readings  under  con- 
ditions of  use. 

Methods,  (a)  Pitches  having  melting  points  between  j^S^C.  and  77^C,, 
(110"^  to  170°,).    A  clean  shaped  half-inch  cube  of  pitch  shall  be  formed 


>\iTMoe  ov-Placino    Ct/»c 
ON   xViR.e  ■  HooK 


-.-♦ 


ASSEM5LY 

OF    resT   foK 

WATER. -MtLTiNG    fOlliT 


.tlLM% 


Section 

THM-w.  BKAXS   MOtfkO 


Fig.  III. 


in  the  mould  and  placed  on  the  hook  or  wire  (see  Fig.  Ill  for  detail  of 
method  of  placing  the  cube  on  the  wire).  The  apparatus  shall  be  assem- 
bled as  shown  in  Fig.  Ill,  placing  400  cc.  of  freshly-boiled  distilled  water 
at  15.5°  C.  in  the  beaker. 

The  thermometer  shall  be  placed  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  is 
level  with  the  bottom  of  the  cube  of  pitch  and  shall  be  immediately  con- 
tiguous to,  but  not  touching,  the  cube. 

The  pitch  cube  shall  be  suspended  so  that  its  bottom  is  1  in.  above 
the  bottom  of  the  beaker  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the  water  at  15.5°  C. 
for  5  min.  before  starting  the  test.  Heat  shall  then  be  applied  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  raised  5°C.  (9°  F.)  each 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


578  TARS,    NEW  AND   OLD. 

minute.  The  temperature  recorded  by  the  thermometer  at  the  instant 
the  pitch  touches  the  bottom  of  the  beaker  shall  be  reported  as  the  melting 
point. 

(6)  Pitches  having  melting  points  below  4S°  C.  {l(Xf  F.).  These  shall 
be  tested  exactly  as  under  a,  except  that  the  water  at  the  start  shall  be 
4°  C.  (40°  F.)  and  the  cube  shall  be  allowed  to  remain  5  min.  at  this 
temperature  before  starting  to  apply  the  heat. 

Precautions,  The  use  of  boiled  distilled  water  is  esvsential,  as  other- 
wise air  bubbles  may  form  on  the  cube  and  retard  its  sinking.  The  rate 
of  rise  must  be  uniform  and  not  averaged  over  the  period  of  the  test.  All 
tests  where  the  rise  is  not  uniform  shall  be  rejected.  A  variation  of  not 
more  than  =fc  0.5°  C.  for  any  minute  period  after  the  first  three  is  the 
maximum  allowable. 

Accuracy,     =fc  1°  F. 

Notes.  Pitches  of  the  a  range  of  consistency  can  ordinarily  be  molded 
at  room  temperature,  but,  if  necessary,  cold  or  hot  water  can  be  used  to 
harden  or  soften  them.  Pitches  of  the  b  range  can  be  conveniently  formed 
in  wat<?r  of  about  4°  C.  (40°  F.). 

A  sheet  of  paper  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  600  cc.  beaker  and  con- 
veniently weighted  will  prevent  the  pitch  from  sticking  to  the  beaker  when 
it  drops  off,  thereby  saving  considerable  time  and  trouble  in  cleaning. 

This  method  shall  not  be  used  on  pitches  above  77°  C.  (170°  F.), 
water-melting  point. 

CONSISTENCY. 

(Schutte  penetrometer). 

This  is  adaptive  to  refined  tars  that  are  too  heavy  for  the  ordinary 
orifice  viscosimet^r  test  except  at  high  temperatures,  and  too  soft  to  be 
classed  as  pitch. 

Consistency  (Schutte). 

Apparatus.    Schutte  penetrometer  (see  Fig.  IV).     Stop  watch. 

Method.  The  collar  shall  be  filled  by  placing  it  upon  a  flat  tin  roofing 
disk  which  has  been  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  vaseline  and  pouring  an 
excess  of  material  into  the  collar.  After  cooling  and  contraction  the  excess 
material  shall  be  cut  off  level  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  plug  by  means 
of  a  heated  knife  blade.  The  collar  shall  be  then  immersed  in  water  of 
the  required  temperature  and  left  at  that  temperature  for  15  min.  The 
collar  with  roofing  disk  attached  shall  be  screwed  into  the  tube  while  the 
tube  is  in  position.  The  water  bath  shall  just  cover  the  shoulder  of  the 
tube.  The  tube  shall  be  filled  with  water  of  the  required  temperature  and 
the  roofing  disk  removed  by  slipping  it  sideways.  The  time  (measured 
by  a  stop  watch)  from  the  slipping  off  of  the  disk  to  the  sudden  drop  of  the 
disk  to  the  sudden  drop  of  the  water  in  the  tube,  shall  be  noted  and  reported 
in  seconds. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHURCH. 


579 


Precautions.    Take  extreme  care  to  keep  the  water  bath  withm  0.5°  F. 
of  the  required  temperature. 
(Float  Test). 

This  applies  to  the  same  class  of  material  as  mentioned  under  (4). 
Recently,  Committee  D4,  A.S.T.M.  have  issued  new  detailed  specifica- 


'm 

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0 

1 

tj    TU»« 


SECTION 

«HOWIN«    »«UVM  TH»R 


t 


'-.« 


SCCTIOM 


•Assembly- 

OF    SCHUTTE    PENETR.OMETER.' 


Fig.  IV. 


•  Details- 

OF     SCMOTTE     PCHETR-OIAtTER. 


Na50QA«t 


TmPiAC 


tions  for  the  float  instrument  and  these  differ  somewhat  from  the  dimen- 
sions illustrated.  The  A.S.T.M.  specifications  should  be  adhered  to  in 
order  to  obtain  consistent  results. 


CONSISTENCY  (Float)* 

Apparatus,  Float  tester  (see  Fig.  V).  Brass  plate,  5x8  cm.  Stop 
watch. 

Method,  The  brass  collar  shall  be  placed  with  the  small  end  down 
on  the  brass  plate  which  should  be  previously  amalgamated  with  mercury 
by  rubbing  it  first  with  a  dilute  solution  of  a  mercury  salt  and  then  with 


*  Adapted  from  Bulletin  314,  Office  of  Public  Roads, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


580  TARS,   NEW  AND   OLD. 

metallic  mercury.  Sufficient  of  the  material  to  be  tested  shall  then  be 
melted  in  a  suitable  container,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  loss  by  vola- 
tilization or  formation  of  air  bubbles.  The  material  shall  then  be  poured 
into  the  collar  in  a  thin  stream  until  slightly  more  than  level  with  the  top. 
The  surplus  shall  be  removed,  after  cooling  to  room  temperature,  by  means 


PL  AH 

»P.     FLOAT    TeSTtR. 
(AkUMiMUIfi) 


Assembly 

OP       FLOAT      T  E  S  T  C  ». 


SCCTIOM 

SlMWIH^    »«.ASS  COU.AK. 

•  Details- 

or    ■  FLOAT.   TC  STEH. 


Fig.  V. 


of  a  steel  spatula,  the  blade  of  which  has  been  slightly  heated.  The  collar 
with  plate  attached  shall  then  be  placed  in  water  at  5*^  C.  and  allowed  to 
remain  at  that  temperature  for  at  least  15  minutes.  A  suitable  water 
bath  shall  be  filled  f  full  of  water,  placed  over  a  burner  and  brought  to 
the  temperature  at  which  it  is  desired  to  make  the  test.  This  temperature 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  vary  during  the  test  more  than  0.5*^  C.  from  the 
required  point.  The  brass  plate  shall  be  removed  from  the  collar  and  the 
latter  with  contents  shall  be  screwed  into  the  aluminum  float,  which  shall 
then  be  immediately  floated  on  the  carefully  regulated  warm  bath.     As  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHURCH. 


581 


plug  of  bituminous  material  becomes  warm  and  fluid,  it  is  gradually  forced 
upward  and  out  of  the  collar  until  the  entrance  of  water  causes  the  collar 
to  sink.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  the  time  in  seconds  (noted  by  a  stop 
watch)  from  placing  the  float  in  water  to  the  time  the  water  breaks  through 
the  material  shall  be  reported  as  the  consistency  of  the  material. 

Precautions,  No  test  should  be  recorded  if  water  finds  its  way  into 
the  fioat  through  the  thread  of  the  plug.  This  can  be  avoided  by  thorougly 
coating  the  thread  with  grease  or  vaseline. 

Notes,  In  certain  specifications  it  is  required  to  take  the  time  from 
placing  the  fioat  in  water  until  the  fioat  sinks.  This  may  make  a  difference 
of  5  to  10  seconds  in  the  result.  Tests  are  ordinarily  made  at  50°  C.  At 
100°  C.  the  test  is  not  at  all  sensitive  for  distilled  tars. 

Characteristic  Properties  of  Typical  Tars. 

Table  I  gives  analyses  of  three  gas  works  tars,  three  by-product  coke 
oven  tars  and  two  water  gas  tars.  Horizontal  retort  tars  as  shown  to  be 
highest  in  specific  gravity,  insoluble  matter  and  viscosity  —  while  vertical 
retort  tar  is  lower  in  those  values  than  coke  oven  tars.  Water  gas  tars 
fall  in  a  still  lower  range. 

TABLE  I. 
Analysis  op  Typical  Tars. 


Origin. 


Gab  Rbtobt. 


Hori- 
lontai. 


Hori- 
>ontal. 


Verti- 
cal. 


COKB  OVSM. 


Watbb  Gas. 


Specific  gravity  crude 
Water,  per  cent 


Dry  Tar. 
Specific  gravity  15.5°  C. 

Insoluble  in  benzol 

Ash,  per  cent 

Viacoeity  50°-C  aec.  . . . . 
Viacodty  115**-C  see.  . . , 
Oil  to  soft  pitch 


1.266 
28.9 


1.198 
5.3 


1.222 
21.1 
0.2 


1.180 
1.2 


1.166 
6.0 


300  + 
13.2 


67 
21.0 


128 
30 
26.5 


1.179 
1.6 


1.181 
6.8 
0.03 
217 

34 

24.3 


1.172 
4.6 


1.188 
9.2 
0.01 
407 

42 

29.6 


1.176 
2.8 


1.193 

4.7 

0.2 

38 
30.7 


1.083 

01 

01 
80 
26 
43 


1.110 
4.9 


1.121 

2.6 

0.1 


42 


Table  II  shows  the  general  range  of  each  class  of  tars,  i.e.  minimum  and 
maximum  limits  of  the  different  properties.  These  will  be  later  referred 
to  in  discussing  their  relation  to  the  application  of  the  various  tars  in 
pipe  coating. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


582 


TABS,   NEW   AND   OLD. 


TABLE  II. 
Pboperty  op  Coal  Tabs. 


• 

GA8-W0RK8  Coal  Tar. 

1 
1 

Properties. 

Horiiontal 
Retorts. 

Inclined 
RetortB. 

Vertical 
Retorts. 

Coke  Oven  Tars. 

1 

Specific  gravity  at  60^  F 

Viscosity 

1.20  to  1.25 
High 

18  to  30 

20  to  30 

70  to  80 
1.6  to  3 

1.10  to  1.20 
Medium 

10  to  20 

25  to  35 

65  to  75 
3to5 

1.10  to  1.15 
Low 

0.4  to  5 

30  to  40 

60  to  70 
7to8 

1.17  to  1.22 
Low 

Free     carbon     (insoluble     in 
benzol)  per  cent    

2  to  12 

Distillate,  pr  cent,  by  volume, 
on  distilling  to  a  medium 
grade  of  pitch    

25  to  35 

Per  cent,  of  pitch  by  volume 

(medium  pitch)  plus  losses  . 

Tar  acids,  per  cent 

!      65  to  75 
0.4  to  2.0 

The  graph  (Fig.  VI)  illustrates  the  general  range  of  the  distillates 
from  each  class  of  tars,  in  specific  gravity. 

Specific  gravity  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  valuable  indentifi- 
cation  methods  on  all  hydro-carbon  materials,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  fractional  distillation.  On  the  other  hand  the  strict  application  of 
test  to  crudely  taken  fractions  often  leads  to  mis  judgment  and  difficulty. 
When  more  fully  developed  the  test  has  great  possibilities  both  in  control 
and  research  work. 


TABLE  III. 
Series  of  Samples  of  Refined  Tar  Made  from  Same  Raw  Tar. 


No. 

Free 

carbon 

Percentages. 

Distillation 
Total  to 
316°  C. 

Melting 
Point 

oy 

Schutte 

Penetrometer 

Sec.  at  «*  F. 

Viscosity  ■ 

Engler 

100  cc.  at 

100<>  C.  Sec. 

Float 

Test 

atSO^C. 

Sec. 

5 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

12.1 
12.0 
14.0 
14.4 
17.2 
18.2 

21.8 
19.2 
16.4 
14.9 
12.7 
10.4 

'  86.9 

99.7 

108.7 

29     40 
108     40 
114     50 
85     60 
90    70 
88    80 

94 
127 
159 
208 
335 
431 

34 
38 

58 

75 

110 

170 

Table  III  shows  an  interesting  comparison  of  the  values  of  different 
methods  of  testing  the  consistency  of  refined  tars  and  soft  pitches.  There 
is  no  one  method  that  can  be  applied  throughout  the  range  from  a  crude 
or  dehydrated  thin  tar  to  a  pitch  suitable  for  say  road  binder  or  roofing. 
As  we  go  from  liquid  to  semi-solid  and  solid  mobile  materials,  the  limits 
of  the  orifice  viscosimeter  are  soon  passed  and  hybrid  methods  such  as  the 
'*  float  test  "  which  determines  neither  viscosity  or  melting  point  but  a 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHURCH. 


583 


mixture  of  both  qualities,  seems  to  be  the  only  feasible  method  for  use 
through  a  certain  range  of  consistency.  These  methods  all  involve  time  and 
temperature;  there  is,  however,  an  important  distinction  between  melting 
point,  in  which  the  temperature  is  raised  at  a  fixed  rate  to  the  point  at  which 


LiO 


230* 


26Cr  2719' 

Fig.  VI. 


3oer 


the  material  becomes  so  soft  that  its  cohesion  no  longer  supports  it,  and 
the  float,  penetrometer  and  viscosity  tests  wherein  the  temperature  is  fixed 
and  the  time  required  for  the  material  to  lose  cohesion  is  the  determinable 
point.  Therefore  in  choosing  a  method  for  testing  the  consistency  of  semi- 
solid bitumens,  regard  must  be  had  not  only  to  the  range  of  limitations  of 
the  method's  adaptability,  but  to  the  question  whether  it  is  desired  to 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


584 


TABS,   NEW  AND   OLD. 


determine  the  behavior  of  the  material  at  a  certain  temperature,  or  the 
temperature  at  which  the  material  will  behave  in  a  certain  way. 

A  critical  study  of  Table  IV  would  take  us  far  into  theoretical  specu- 
lation, but  it  is  clearly  shown  that  materials  of  widely  varying  free  carbon 
content  having  the  same  melting  point,  exhibit  varying  consistency  char- 
acteristics when  measured  by  the  float  or  viscosity  test. 


TABLE  IV. 
Refined  Tars  —  Relation  of  ViscosrrY  to  Carbon  Content. 


Sample 
No 

Free  carbon 
Percentages. 

Melting 
point  *  F. 

Schutte 

penetrometer 

at  80»  F. 

Sec. 

Engler 

100  CO.  at 

212«  F. 

Sec. 

Fbat  test 
212**  F. 

Sec. 

1 
2 
3 

1.4 
14.5 
39.6 

110 

109 
112 

42.2 

80.1 

.      144.9 

302 
298 
739 

158 
192 
337 

Application  of  Analytical  Data. 

Can  we  apply  any  of  the  foregoing  data  to  the  technical  use  of  tars 
and  tar  products  for  pipe  coating? 

Ten  years  ago  I  first  gave  some  attention  to  the  question  whether  or 
not  there  ought  to  be  a  specification  for  a  refined  tar  product  for  coating 
cast-iron  pipe  and  fittings;  I  found  that  at  practically  all  the  foundries 
crude  coal  tar  was  being  used.  The  method  of  coating  varied  somewhat, 
it  was  usually  developed  by  experience  and  not  marked  by  close  control. 
I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  coating  could  probably  be  improved  by  — 

(a)  Closer  temperature  control  of  both  castings  and  bath. 

(b)  Adoption  of  some  method  for  testing  the  consistency  of  the  coat- 

ing from  time  to  time  and  keeping  it  uniform. 

(c)  Specifications  for  the  coating  that  would  insure  reasonably  uni- 

form consistency  and  freedom  from  excess  water. 

It  did  not  seem  to  me  at  that  time  that  the  last  named  requirement 
was  of  greater  importance  than  the  other  two. 

No  doubt  coating  technique  has  been  improved  during  the  last  ten 
years;  most  industries  are  making  progress.  I  know  that  your  Association 
has  been  giving  attention  to  the  problem  and  that  tentative  specifications 
for  pitch  for  pipe  coating  are  under  consideration. 

You  may  ask  —  Is  pitch  a  better  material  for  coating  pipe  than  crude 
coal  tar?  If  so  what  should  be  the  melting  point  of  the  pitch?  What 
is  the  meaning  or  significance  of  "  free  carbon  "  in  tars  and  pitches?  Should 
the  origin  of  the  tar  be  specified,  that  is  —  gas  works,  coke  oven,  etc? 

The  tars  first  used  for  coating  pipe  were  necessarily  horizontal  gas 
works  coal  tars,  as  the  by-product  oven,  the  vertical  gas  retort  and  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHURCH.  585 

carbureted  water  gas  process  had  not  been  introduced.  In  the  early  day^ 
of  gas-making  fire  clay  retorts  were  used  and  the  first  important  change  in 
the  character  of  coal  tar  occured  when  fire  clay  was  replaced  by  silica 
retorts.  With  the  latter  higher  heats  were  employed  and  tar  was  produced 
of  very  high  viscosity  and  high  free  carbon  content. 

We  have  already  shown  that  the  newer  types  of  tar,  i.e.,  coke  oven, 
vertical  retort  and  water  gas  tar  are  thinner  and  of  lower  free  carbon  con- 
tent than  the  horizontal  gas  works  tars. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  coating  is  not  obtained  when  very  thin  tar  is 
used  —  crude  water  gas  tar  or  crude  vertical  retort  tar  makes  a  very  poor 
coating,  lacking  body.  In  order  to  obtain  a  coating  having  the  consis- 
tency and  covering  power  of  a  medium  gas  works  coal  tar,  most  of  the  tars 
now  available  must  be  modified  by  distillation,  or  reduced  to  the  proper 
consistency.  Either  coal  tar  or  water  gas  tar  may  be  reduced  to  any 
desired  consistency  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  water  gas  tar  should  be  used 
for  pipe  coating  as  its  resistance  to  chemical  attack  and  its  life  under 
conditions  of  service  have  not  been  well  established. 

What  happens  when  a  hot  casting  is  dipped  in  tar?  The  object  of 
the  process  is  to  obtain  a  thin  but  complete  coating  that  will  dry  in  a  short 
time,  adhere  strongly  to  the  pipe,  be  resistant  to  abrasion  and  finally  pro- 
tect the  metal  from  corrosion.  If  crude  tar  is  used  the  heat  is  sufficient 
to  drive  off  enough  of  the  more  volatile  oils  so  that  the  remaining  film  or 
coating  is  pitch.  If  pitch  is  used  to  start  with,  either  higher  temperatures 
must  be  employed  or  a  thicker  coating  will  result.  I  do  not  believe  there  is 
any  merit  in  a  thicker  coating  per  se  —  on  the  other  hand  a  very  thin  tar 
may  produce  a  coating  so  thin  as  to  be  non-protective  and  unduly  brittle. 
I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  what  is  needed  is  a  refined,  i.e.  distilled 
tar  with  reasonable  limits  as  to  viscosity  and  free  carbon. 

The  viscosity  limits  should  be  specified  at  an  elevated  temperature, 
say  100®  C.  approaching  that  of  the  bath.  What  does  free  carbon  signify? 
The  term  is  a  misnomer.  Free  carbon  means  matter  insoluble  on  hot 
extraction  with  benzol.  It  is  not  "free  carbon,"  but  a  mixture  of  difficultly 
soluble  and  insoluble  compounds  of  high  carbon  content,  but  containing 
some  hydrogen.  Tar  is  a  product  of  destructive  distillation  which  means 
that  the  vapors  distilled  out  of  the  coal  are  partially  decomposed  and  the 
result  is  a  mixture  of  hydro-carbons  with  some  oxygen  and  nitrogen  com- 
pounds which  were  not  present  as  such  in  the  coal,  but  are  formed  in  the 
retort;  "  Free  Carbon  "  so  called  is  an  index  to  the  amount  of  decomposition 
that  occurs.  Tar  obtained  from  coal  under  conditions  unsuitable  for 
decomposition,  for  example,  under  high  vacuum  with  rapid  removal  from 
the  retort  would  be  entirely  different  from  our  commercial  tar.  It  would 
contain  a  lot  of  paraffin  compounds  and  phenols  and  would  be  thin,  and 
oily  with  a  very  low  pitch  content. 

Free  carbon  in  the  specification  is  simply  a  means  of  providing  for 
tars  that  have  been  produced  at  neither  too  low  nor  too  high  heats.     Lack 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


586  TARS,   NEW  AND   OLD. 

of  it  indicates  a  thin  tar  of  inferior  covering  capacity,  too  much,  a  thick 
material  difficult  to  handle  and  settling  out  in  the  treating  vessel  or  bath. 

I  do  not  believe  apart  from  specifying  that  the  tar  should  be  obtained 
from  the  carbonization  of  bituminous  coal^  that  its  origin  need  be  specified 
if  the  prop)er  limits  for  consistency  and  free  carbon  are  arrived  at.  Uni- 
formity is  what  is  wanted  and  it  is  the  tar  distiller's  job  to  produce  that 
uniformity  by  selecting  and  combining  his  tars,  and  processing  the  mix- 
ture to  obtain  the  desired  product. 

The  tar  producer  cannot  insure  this,  and  while  tar  from  one  source 
may  run  very  uniform  for  a  long  time  it  may  and  in  fact  often  does  change 
profoundly  without  any  warning  as  the  requirements  of  coke  and  gas  vary. 

It  has  been  the  history  of  material  specifications  that  as  we  approach 
perfection  the  requirements  for  the  finished  product  become  more  important 
than  the  question  of  where  the  raw  material  originated. 


Discussion. 

Mr.  H.  T.  Miller.*  We  know  that  the  wide  range  between  the 
melting  point  and  the  brittle  point  of  asphalt  is  very  large,  but  in  my 
experience  the  range  between  the  melting  point  and  the  brittle  point  of 
coal  tar  has  been  very  narrow.  Has  Mr.  Church  found  any  wider  range 
on  coal  tar  between  those  two  points? 

Mr.  Church.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  we  are  seeking  for  a  mater- 
ial which  combines  the  good  quaUties  of  coal  tar  and  those  of  asphalt.  The 
acknowledged  resistance  of  coal  tar  to  chemical  reaction,  its  long  service, 
its  absolute  waterproofing  capacity,  with  the  physical  properties,  the 
gentleman  speaks  of,  that  asphalt  possesses — that  is,  lack  of  susceptibility 
to  temperature  changes  —  unfortunately,  that  animal  has  not  been  dis- 
covered yet.  It  seems  there  is  something  inherently  different  in  the  com- 
position of  materials  which  have  a  low  susceptibility  factor.  The  reason 
that  they  have  the  low  susceptibiUty  factor  —  that  is,  that  they  resist 
temperature  changes  —  may  be  allied  with  the  reason  why  they  do  not 
resist  chemical  reactions  as  well  as  coal  tars.  In  other  words,  they  may  be 
more  readily  oxidizable.  There  are  some  indications  that  way.  But  I 
can't  say  that  we  have  really  produced  coal  tars  having  a  very  markedly 
improved  range  of  resistance  to  temperature  changes,  although  by  selec- 
tion and  by  proper  refining  we  can,  of  course,  accomplish  something  in 
that  direction.  In  other  words,  some  tars  are  better  in  that  respect  than 
others. 

I  am  afraid  that  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  reply  to  the  question,  but 
it  is  the  only  one  I  can  make  at  the  present  time. 

President  Barbour.  Is  there  any  possibility  of  combining  some  per 
cent,  of  asphalt  with  the  tars  in  order  to  widen  the  temperature  differential? 


*  Of  National  Tube  Co. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISCUSSION .  587 

Mr.  Church.  That  has  been  tried,  and  it  has  been  done  to  some  ex- 
tent. We  have  had  specifications  in  one  or  two  cities  for  years  for  a  mix- 
ture of  coal  tar,  pitch  and  asphalt  for  paving-block  filler.  We  have  tried 
it  ourselves  and  endeavored  to  improve  some  of  our  roofing  products. 
I  can't  say  that  the  results  have  been  extremely  encouraging.  There 
is  a  limit  to  the  percentage  of  asphalt  that  can  be  mixed  with  coal  tar  — 
that  is,  from  the  standpoint  of  getting  a  homogeneous  compound.  Some 
asphalts  can  be  mixed  in  greater  proportion  than  others.  Those  having 
important  aromatic  compounds  can  be  used  to  a  larger  extent  than  those 
which  are  high  in  paraffin  compounds.  It  is  worse  than  useless  to  mix 
an  asphalt  obtained  from  the  reduction  of  a  paraffin  base  oil,  with  coal 
tar,  because  you  only  get  a  mess,  but  a  certain  proportion  of  a  properly 
selected  asphalt  can  be  mixed,  and  the  results  are  somewhat  encouraging 
in  some  cases.  But  I  have  not  seen  enough  evidence  of  great  improvement 
to  warrant  recommending  that  additional  expense  in  pipe  coating. 

Mr.  S.  B.  Brown.*  Supposing  we  have  selected  a  proper  tar.  Is 
there  anything  to  be  gained  by  its  being  applied  to  the  metal  so  that  it 
will  be  hard  when  the  metal  is  cold?  In  other  words,  have  we  lost  anything 
by  the  hardening  of  the  coating,  or  is  the  coating  which  is  semi-plastic,  a 
little  sticky  perhaps,  better  than  one  which  is  hard?  Of  course  I  understand 
that  you  can  take  the  same  tar,  and  by  a  different  temperature  treatment 
get  either  a  plastic  or  sticky  or  an  enamel-like.finish.  Is  there  any  differ- 
ence in  the  desirability  as  between  the  two?  Is  it  more  desirable  to  have 
it  plastic  or  not  from  a  coating  standpoint? 

Mr.  Church.  It  is  very  undesirable  to  have  pipe  hot  enough  to  dry 
the  coating  too  rapidly  and  leave  an  extremely  brittle  coating.  I  think 
that  overheating  the  pipe  is  probably  more  dangerous,  so  far  as  the  life 
of  the  coating  is  concerned,  than  underheating  it.  I  do  not  think  there  is 
anything  to  be  gained  by  having  the  pipe  higher  than  300®.  Of  course 
if  you  dipped  an  absolutely  cold  pipe  in  hot  tar  it  would  not  dry  for 
a  very  long  time;  you  would  have  a  pipe  which  you  could  not  handle, 
as  it  would  be  too  messy.  I  think  the  happy  medium  is  to  have  the  pipe 
just  hot  enough  so  that  it  will  dry  the  coating  slightly  tackey.  It  will 
eventually  set  up  firm  and  hard,  but  it  will  be  slightly  tackey  for  a  little 
while.  It  can't  remain  too  tackey  or  there  is  danger  of  its  being  more  or 
less  washed.  In  other  words,  it  has  to  set  up  firm  enough  so  that  the 
water  will  run  over  it  without  disturbing  the  surface  coating. 

Mr.  Brown.  My  thought  in  this  connection  was  this:  of  course 
the  undesirability  of  a  sticky  coating  is  purely  connected  with  the  outside 
of  the  pipe.  The  outside  of  the  pipe  is  not  really  the  point  that  water  works 
people  are  interested  in.  The  outside  of  the  pipe  won't  give  any  trouble; 
it  is  the  tuberculation  from  the  inside.  If  you  get  a  more  desirable  coating 
by  leaving  it  a  little  sticky  on  the  inside,  we  need  not  woiTy  about  the  out- 


*  Of  Warren  Foundry  &  Pipe  Co. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


688  TARS,   NEW  AND   OLD. 

side.  I  notice  that  they  put  the  wood  pipe  filler  in  when  it  is  so  sticky  on 
the  outside  that  they  have  to  roll  it  with  sawdust.  Does  that  coating  have 
any  better  life  for  that? 

Mr.  Church.  I  do  not  think  we  can  directly  compare  the  wood  pipe 
coating  with  cast-iron  pipe  coatings.  They  use,  or  did  use  when  I  knew 
about  it,  a  pitch  of  fairly  high  melting  point,  and  while  it  is  true  that  they 
rolled  the  pipe  in  sawdust,  that  pitch  would  be  very  hard  without  rolling 
it  in  sawdust,  and  it  was  thought  a  considerable  protection  to  the  coating 
until  the  pip)e  got  in  place  imderground.  The  pitch  used  was  of  such  high 
melting  point  that  an  abrasion  received  by  the  pipe  on  its  way  to  the  job 
would  have  damaged  the  coating  considerably  if  not  protected. 

I  think,  however,  your  coating  should  not  dry  too  hard.  That  is  a 
very  good  point. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


SHERMAN.  589 


THE   PROPER   TERM    FOR   WHICH    WATER  WORKS  BONDS 

SHOULD  RUN. 

BY   CHARLES  W.   SHERMAN.* 

The  reasonable  or  proper  term  for  which  water  works  bonds  may  be 
issued  has  no  relation  to  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  or  of  any  other  state; 
and,  as  I  shall  show,  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  relating  to  the  issuance  of 
bonds  for  water  works  construction  show  very  little,  if  any,  consideration 
for  the  reasonable  term  of  life  of  the  property  covered  by  the  bonds. 

Term  and  Amount  of  Bonds  Inter-related. 

The  reasonable  period  or  term  of  a  bond  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  life  of  the  property  covered  by  the  bond.  It  is  also  related  to  the 
depreciation  or  loss  in  value  of  the  property.  Indeed,  the  two  matters  of 
term  and  amount  of  bonds  cannot  be  separated  in  a  discussion  of  the  proper 
or  reasonable  length  of  term  of  bonds. 

Property  Covered  by  Bonds  Must  Provide  Ample  Security. 

It  is  self  evident  that  bonds  on  a  water  works  property,  like  a  mort- 
gage on  residence  property,  should  be  amply  secured;  that  is,  the  bond- 
holder should  know  that  the  value  of  the  property  is  sufficient  at  all  times 
to  cover  the  loan  and  to  repay  it  at  maturity. 

Perhaps  a  further  analysis  of  the  conditions  of  a  real  estate  mortgage 
will  assist  in  developing  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  matter.  Massachu- 
setts savings  banks  are  required  by  law  to  Umit  a  loan  on  such  a  mortgage 
to  60  per  cent,  of  the  appraised  value  of  the  property;  and  the  term  is 
commonly  five  years.  Under  any  ordinary  circiimstances  the  deprecia- 
tion during  this  term  would  not  be  so  great  as  to  leave  any  question  as  to 
the  property  being  sufiicient  to  meet  the  loan  at  maturity;  and  extra- 
ordinary depreciation  resulting  from  fire  is  guarded  against  by  insurance 
carried  in  favor  of  the  mortgagee. 

Now  suppose  the  borrower  should  want  to  give  a  mortgage  for  40 
years  —  which  might  perhaps  be  taken  as  representing  the  Ufe  of  the 
ordinary  house.  On  this  basis  the  house  itself  would  have  little  or  no  value 
at  the  end  of  the  term  of  the  mortgage;  and  the  lender,  if  he  used  ordinary 
foresight,  would  not  loan  more  than  the  value  of  the  land  alone,  unless 
some  arrangement  were  made  for  periodic  repayment  of  sufficient  principal 
to  fully  cover  loss  of  value  by  depreciation. 

This  latter  method  bears  a  certain  similarity  to  serial  bonds,  which 
will  be  referred  to  later. 

*  Of  Metcalf  and  Eddy,  14  Beacon  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

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590  term  for  which  water  works  bonds  should  run. 

Life  of  a  Water  Works  Plant. 

If  a  water  works  plant  were  like  the  "  One  Hoss  Shay,"  which,  at  the 
end  of  its  life,  went  to  pieces  — 

"  All  at  once  and  nothing  first  — 
Just  as  bubbles  do  when  they  burst." 

and  could  be  depended  iipon  to  render  service  until  that  time,  then  bonds 
might  be  issued  against  it  for  the  term  of  its  life,  but  with  provision  for  a 
sinking  fund  to  repay  the  loan  at  maturity,  since  the  property  would  then 
have  only  a  junk  value;  or,  what  is  similar  in  many  ways,  with  serial 
maturity  of  bonds  for  repayment  of  principal. 

But  a  water  works  is  a  complex  plant,  made  up  of  many  items  having 
widely  different  expectancies  of  life;  and  in  growing  towns  it  is  continually 
being  added  to,  so  that  the  distribution  sj'Tstem,  for  instance,  consists  of 
many  parts  varying  in  age  from  less  than  one  year  to  the  age  of  the  oldest 
parts  of  the  plant.  In  this  country  we  have  instances  of  cast-iron  pipe 
75  years  old  and  still  in  service;  but  the  average  age  of  the  distribution 
system  containing  these  pipes  is  likely  to  be  less  than  20  years,  because  so 
large  a  proportion  of  the  system  has  been  added  in  recent  years. 

It  is  possible  to  make  a  fair  estimate  of  the  average  useful  life  of  an 
average  or  typical  water  works  system,  and  such  a  figure  will  be  of  signi- 
ficance as  a  basis  of  comparison,  although  it  should  be  used  with  caution  in 
appUcation  to  any  particular  case. 

In  a  paper*  by  Metcalf,  Kuichling  and  Hawley,  presented  to  the 
American  Water  Works  Association  in  1911,  they  gave  the  percentages  of 
the  total  values  of  a  large  number  of  water  works  plants,  represented  by 
the  principal  parts  of  such  works.  Averaging  the  figures  presented  I  find 
that  the  value  of  the  *'  typical  "  water  works,  based  upon  these  particular 
statistics,  is  divided  as  follows: 

Land  and  water  rights 6  per  cent. 

Water  supply  works 9  per  cent. 

Pumping  works 17  per  cent. 

Distributing  reservoirs 6  per  cent. 

Purification  works 11  per  cent. 

Distribution  pipe  system 51  per  cent. 

100  per  cent. 

The  useful  life  of  these  several  parts  from  the  point  of  view  here  under 
discussion  may  be  taken  approximately  as  — 

150  years  for  land  and  water  rights. 
75  years  for  water  supply  works. 
30  years  for  pumping  works. 

40  years  for  distributing  reservoirs  (including  standpipes). 
25  years  for  purification  works. 
50  years  for  distribution  system  (including  services  and  meters). 

♦  Some  FundHtncntal  Considerations  in  the  Determination  of  a  Reasonable  Return  for  Public  Firo 
Hydrant  Service,  by  Leuoard  Metcalf,  Lmil  Kuichling  and  William  C.  Hawley.  —  Proc.  Am.  W.  W.  Asao. 
1911,  p.  55. 


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SHERMAN.  591 

Then  the  average  hfe  of  the  entire  system  will  be  51J  years  —  or  in 
round  numbers,  50  years. 

Note:  The  U.  S.  Census  Bureau  **  Uniform  Accounts  for  Systems  of 
Water  Supply  "  (1911)  states: 

"  Until  further  study  and  experience  or  a  series  of  inspections  and 
appraisals  at  fixed  intervals  furnish  more  accurate  data,  the  average  life 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  fixed  properties  of  a  water-supply  enterprise 
may  be  assumed  to  be  approximately  as  follows:  For  horses,  carriages, 
automobiles,  and  laboratory  apparatus  and  appliances,  ten  years;  water 
meters,  service  pipes,  office  furniture  and  general  operating  equipment, 
fifteen  years;  boilers,  steam  pipes,  and  filtration  equipment,  twenty  years; 
engines,  pumping  machinery,  and  wood  pipes,  twenty-five  years;  masonry 
of  filtration  plant,  cribs,  iron  water  pipes,  intakes  and  connections,  fire 
hydrants,  standpipes,  and  buildings,  fifty  years;  reservoirs,  tunnels,  and 
aqueducts,  one  hundred  years;  and  for  the  water-supply  system  as  a  whole, 
fifty  years.  All  these  approximations  are  subject  to  modification  by  reason 
of  any  unusual  conditions  which  may  shorten  or  prolong  the  life  estimated 
above." 


The  Committee  on  Depreciation,  of  the  American  Water  Works 
Association,  in  its  final  report,*  suggests; 

Yean 

For  storage  reservoirs,  dams,  and  large  aqueducts 75  to  150 

For  cast-iron  pipe  of  large  diameter 75  to  125 

For  cast-iron  distribution  pipe 30  to  90 

For  wrought-iron  distribution  pipe 25  to  40 

For  services 15  to  80 

For  distributing  reservoirs 50  to  75 

For  standpipes 30  to  60 

For  meters 20  to  30 

For  pumping  machinery 15  to  60 

For  boilers 15  to  30 

For  filter  plants 16  to  50 

For  buildings 20  to  60 

The  Committee  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  on  Valua- 
tion of  PubUc  Utilities  t  gives  on  page  1559  some  data  upon  Ufe  of  water 
works  structures  which  had  been  abandoned.  As  would  be  expected,  these 
related  to  works  which  had  been  outgrown  or  otherwise  superseded,  and 
therefore  had  much  shorter  Uves  than  would  normally  be  the  case.  The 
figures  are  therefore  of  no  significance  in  this  connection. 

The  average  figure  of  50  years'  life  for  a  "  typical  "  water  works  plant 
is  of  no  direct  use,  since  it  presupposes  that  all  items  of  the  plant  are  new  at 
the  same  time,  and  that  no  renewals  are  necessary.  Starting  with  an  en- 
tirely new  plant,  of  the  "  typical  "  character  assumed,  it  does  represent  the 
average  expectancy  of  life;  if  no  extensions  are  required  after  5  years  the 
remaining  Hfe  will  be  45  years,  but  if  extensions  have  been  required  the 


*  Journal  Amer.  W.  W.  Asso.,  1919,  p.  85. 
t  Trans.  Amer.  Soc.  C.  E.  1917,  p.  1311 


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692  TERM   FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS   BONDS  SHOULD   RUN. 

average  remaining  life  may  be  46  years  or  more.  The  remaining  life  of  the 
plant  does  not  decrease  uniformly  from  50  years  to  0,  since  the  effect  of 
extensions  and  replacements  which  add  new  elements  to  the  plant  at  fre- 
quent intervals  is  to  reduce  progressively  the  rate  at  which  the  remaining 
life  decreases.  Indeed,  after  a  time  the  remaining  expectancy  of  life  no 
longer  decreases  but  remains  substantially  constant. 

That  such  would  be  the  case  becomes  obvious  from  a  consideration  of 
the  conditions;  and  that  it  does  as  a  matter  of  fact,  has  been  amply  proved 
by  the  figures  of  the  large  number  of  valuations  of  water  works  which  have 
now  been  made  of  plants  of  all  sizes  and  a  wide  range  of  ages. 

Average  Remaining  Life  is  Proper  Term  for  Bonds. 

The  average  expectancy  of  life  remaining  after  it  no  longer  decreases 
is  then  a  suitable  term  for  which  bonds  may  be  issued  in  the  case  of  the 
assumed  typical  plant.  This  remaining  life  of  the  plant  will  be  the  same 
now,  next  year,  and  five  years  from  now. 

The  above  statement  is  not  precise  in  its  application  to  any  particular 
works,  but  is  nearly  so  with  any  growing  plant,  or  even  in  one  whose  growth 
has  ceased,  provided  that  replacements  and  renewals  are  made  as  they  be- 
come necessary.  That  is  to  say,  the  effect  of  the  long  life  ahead  of  new 
plant  added  for  renewals  and  extensions  will,  on  the  average,  offset  the  lesser 
remaining  life  of  the  old  plant  due  to  increasing  age.  In  practice  the 
expectancy  of  future  life  generally  decreases  gradually  during  a  term  of 
years,  while  only  minor  extensions  and  renewals  are  made,  and  then  in- 
creases abruptly  when  important  additions  to  plant  are  made;  the  average 
result  corresponding  to  a  relatively  uniform  expectancy  of  life. 

Determination  of  Remaining  Life. 

The  average  remaining  life  expected  is  rarely  estimated  or  stated 
in  reports  of  valuations.  The  amount  of  the  accrued  depreciation  upon 
existing  plant  is,  however,  practically  always  stated,  and  its  ratio  to  the 
reproduction  cost  (or  original  cost)  of  existing  plant  is  easily  obtained. 
The  relation  between  accrued  depreciation  and  elapsed  proportion  of  the 
total  life  is  a  direct  one;  and  if  the  average  total  life  can  be  taken  as  a  con- 
stant —  say  50  years  —  the  remaining  life  follows  directly. 

For  this  estimation  the  total  accrued  depreciation,  including  that  on 
abandoned  structures,  should  be  used,  and  compared  with  the  total  cost, 
including  that  of  the  same  abandoned  structures.  The  figures  should  be 
based  upon  complete  records  for  works  of  a  considerable  age,  not  less  than 
20  years;  figures  for  works  of  which  the  record  of  abandoned  structures  is 
lacking  or  incomplete  are  less  satisfactory,  and  require  some  adjustment 
before  being  used. 

A  sufficient  number  of  complete  records,  covering  both  large  and  small 
works,  automatically  includes  the  normal  percentage  of  complete  deprecia- 


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SHERMAN.  593 

tion,  due  to  accident,  obsolescence,  or  other  causes  resulting  in  less  that  the 
usual  life  for  some  structures,  and  the  figures  obtained  from  these  records 
furnish  a  basis  for  approximate  adjustment  of  data  covering  only  the  depre- 
ciation of  existing  plant. 

In  a  paper  entitled  *'  Practical  Checks  upon  Water  Works  Deprecia- 
tion Estimates"*  Mr.  Leonard  Metcalf  has  submitted  a  table  of  "  Deprecia- 
tion Records  of  Some  Old  Water  Works"  which  contains  eleven  such 
complete  records;  and  other  data  not  included  in  the  pubUshed  paper 
bring  the  number  to  thirteen.  The  total  accrued  depreciation  in  these 
thirteen  cases  averages  19.7  per  cent.,  the  range  being  from  7.2  to  27  per 
cent.  Omitting  the  lowest  record  as  abnormal,  in  view  of  its  divergence 
from  the  others,  as  well  as  the  known  circumstances  making  for  a  low  de- 
preciation, the  range  is  from  13.3  to  27.0  per  cent,  and  the  average  20.7 
per  cent. 

Assuming  that  depreciation  accrues  on  the  basis  of  a  geometrical  pro- 
gression, corresponding  to  the  growth  of  a  sinking  fund  earning  4  per  cent, 
interest,  a  total  accrued  depreciation  of  20.7  per  cent,  on  a  plant  of  50 
years'  total  life,  corresponds  to  an  age  of  20  years,  and  a  remaining  life  of 
30  years.t  The  range  of  depreciation  from  13.3  to  27.0  per  cent,  corre- 
sponds to  remiaining  life  of  36  to  26  years. 

On  the  basis  of  these  figures  the  conclusion  is  obvious  that  under  nor- 
mal circumstances  the  fair  term  for  water  works  bonds  is  30  years,  and  that 
in  individual  cases  it  should  seldom  be  less  than  25  or  more  than  35  years. 

Residual  Value. 

These  same  figures  of  accrued  depreciation  indicate  that  there  is  still 
remaining  in  normal  works  a  value  of  approximately  80  per  cent,  of  their 
cost,  the  range  being  from  73  per  cent,  to  87  per  cent.  (The  figures  given 
have  been  based  upon  reproduction  rather  than  original  or  actual  cost, 
but  the  proportions  would  differ  but  slightly  if  at  all  if  figures  of  actual  cost 
had  been  used.) 

In  references  to  cost  or  value  in  this  paper  the  physical  plant,  only, 
is  meant.  Items  of  value  not  represented  by  the  plant  are  omitted  from 
consideration  as  having  no  bearing  upon  life  of  the  property,  or  upon  the 
part  of  the  value  which  may  properly  be  covered  by  bonds. 

An  examination  of  the.  records  of  accrued  depreciation  for  a  large 
number  of  other  water  works,  mainly  those  for  which  there  is  no  record  of 
abandoned  property,  indicates  that  the  above  figures  are  conservative. 
After  adding  reasonable  allowance  for  the  effect  of  abandoned  property, 
there  seems  to  be  a  decided  majority  of  plants  in  which  the  accrued  deprecia- 
tion is  less  than  20  per  cent.,  and  but  few  in  which  this  figure  is  materially 
exceeded. 

♦  Journal  Amer,  W.  W.  Asao..  1919,  p.  371 

t  If  the  average  total  life  were  60  years,  the  remaining  life  corresponding  to  20  per  cent,  depreciation 
would  be  33  years:  and  for  a  70-year  total  life,  the  remaining  life  would  be  35  years. 


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594  term  for  which  water  works  bonds  should  run. 

Reasonable  Term  for  and  Amount  of  Water  Works  Bonds. 

It  therefore  appears  that  the  fair  or  reasonable  term  for  water  works 
bonds  is  30  years,  and  that  80  per  cent,  of  the  cost  may  be  covered  by  bonds, 
which  will  be  suitably  secured  by  the  property  covered.*  Under  excep- 
tional circumstances  the  term  may  be  reduced  to  25  years  and  the  percent- 
age of  cost  to  be  covered  by  bonds  to  75. 

Municipal  Water  Works  Bonds. 

In  the  case  of  bonds  of  municipal  works,  the  property  is  not  the  sole 
security  for  the  bonds,  as  the  credit  of  the  municipality  is  pledged.  The 
bondholder  is,  therefore,  suitably  safeguarded  even  if  the  entire  cost  of 
works  be  raised  by  bonds.  Indeed,  such  procedure  is  usually  the  only  one 
possible  in  the  case  of  new  works,  and  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  anti- 
cipated life  of  the  works  at  that  time  is  50  years  or  more;  but  in  the  case 
of  enlargements  or  extensions  it  is  certainly  the  case  that  conservative 
financing  would  require  that  such  works  be  self-supporting  and  that 
neither  the  amount  nor  term  of  bonds  be  greater  than  would  be  proper  in 
case  of  private  corporation  ownership. 

Massachusetts  Laws  Affecting  Municipal  Water  Works  Bonds. 

In  Massachusetts,  the  laws  regulating  the  issuance  of  bonds  for  muni- 
cipal water  works  have  been  framed  from  the  point  of  view  of  limiting  and 
regulating  municipal  indebtedness,  without  sufficient  consideration  of 
water  works  as  a  utility  which  should  be  self-supporting,  and  the  financing: 
of  which  should  therefore  be  subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  would  be 
proper  under  private  ownership.  This  condition  resulted  from  the  fact 
that  a  number  of  cities  and  towns  had  issued  bonds  far  beyond  reason,  and 
in  some  of  them  water  revenues  had  been  diverted  to  other  municipal  de- 
partments while  construction  of  any  kind,  including  replacements  and 
renewals,  was  financed  by  bonds.  In  an  attempt  to  cure  this  condition 
laws  were  enacted  which  have  caused  considerable  hardship  to  those 
responsible  for  water  works  financing  in  this  state. 

I  had  occasion  to  comment  upon  these  laws  before  this  Association  in 
1916,  when  Wm.  S.  Johnson,  Henry  A.  Symonds  and  myself  submitted  a 
paper  t  discussing  these  provisions  and  their  effect  in  detail,  and  offering 
suggestions  for  amendments  which  we  were  then  attempting  to  have 
enacted.  We  succeeded  in  getting  only  a  small  portion  of  the  relief  for 
which  we  asked,  and  the  present  law  is  substantially  the  same  as  it  was  at 
that  time.  It  is  codified  in  Chapter  44  of  the  General  Laws,  Sections  8, 
9,  17,  19,  20  and  22.     The  most  significant  portions  are  as  follows: 

*  This  statement  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  it  would  be  gpod  corporate  financing  to  issue  bonds 
to  the  extent  of  80  per  cent,  of  the  physical  property ;  nor  that  items  of  intangible  property  should  be  omitted 
from  capitaliEation. 

t  Municipal  Water  Works  Financing  in  Massachusetts,  as  AiTected  by  Recent  Legislation,  Journal 
N.E.W.WJ^.,  Vol.  30,  p.  770.  -«*-«- 


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SHERMAN.  595 

"  Section  8.  Cities  and  towns  may  incur  debt,  outside  the  limit  of 
indebtedness  prescribed  in  section  ten,  for  the  following  purposes  and  pay- 
able within  the  periods  hereinafter  specified  ": 

"  (3)  For  establishing  or  purchasing  a  system  for  suppljdng  the  in- 
habitants of  a  city  or  town  with  water,  for  the  purchase  of  land  for  the 
protection  of  a  water  system,  or  for  acquiring  water  rights,  thirty  years. 

"  (4)  For  the  extension  of  water  mains  and  for  water  departmental 
equipment,  five  years.*' 


**  Debts  mentioned  in  clause  (1)  of  this  section  shall  be  payable  as 
provided  for  in  sections  foiir,  five,  six  and  seventeen.  Debts  for  all  other 
purposes  mentioned  in  this  section  shall  be  payable  within  the  periods  above 
specified  from  the  date  of  the  first  issue  of  bonds  or  notes  on  account  thereof, 
and  may  be  incurred  in  accordance  with  the  laws  relating  to  such  purposes, 
so  far  as  they  are  consistent  with  this  chapter.  Debts,  except  for  temporary 
loans,  may  be  authorized  under  this  section  only  by  a  two  thirds  vote.** 

"  Debts  mentioned  in  clauses  (3)  and  (4)  of  this  section  shall  not  be 
authorized  to  an  amount  exceeding  ten  per  cent,  of  the  last  preceding 
assessed  valuation  of  the  city  or  town." 

(General  Laws  of  Massachusetts,  Chap.  44,  pp.  361-362) 

Under  this  law  it  is  impossible  to  borrow  money  for  water  works  exten- 
sions for  a  longer  term  than  5  years,  so  that  whenever  conditions  arise 
making  it  impracticable  to  finance  necessary  construction  by  5-year  serial 
bonds,  special  legislation  must  be  obtained. 

I  grant  the  desirability  of  some  central  authority  maintaining  close 
control  over  municipal  financing,  and  that  some  method  must  be  provided 
to  prevent  a  misuse  of  power  in  this  matter,  such  as  formerly  existed  in 
some  cases.  Perhaps  this  could  be  accomplished  in  part  by  a  general  law 
providing  that  all  revenue  from  water  works  operations  should  be  devoted 
to  water  works  purposes  and  not  diverted  to  other  uses  —  it  being  under, 
stood,  of  course,  that  payment  of  interest  and  principal  upon  debts  con- 
tracted for  water  works  construction,  is  a  proper  use  of  water  works  revenue. 

Special  Legislation  Undesirable. 

With  regard  to  the  propriety  of  bond  issues  and  the  amount  and  period 
of  the  bond  issue,  it  seems  to  me  that  this  is  a  subject  which  ought  not  to  be 
referred  to  the  Legislature.  Its  proper  decision  demands  a  detailed  know- 
ledge of  conditions  affecting  pubUc  utility  operation,  financing  and  manage- 
ment, which  the  Legislature  and  its  committees  cannot  have.  Moreover, 
it  is  extremely  undesirable  that  the  time  of  the  Legislature  be  wasted  in 
considering  appeals  for  special  legislation,  attempting  to  analyze  the  pro- 
priety and  desirability  of  the  law^s  desired,  and  cumbering  the  statutes  with 
special  legislation  applicable  only  to  particular  cases. 


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596  TEBM   FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS   BONDS  SHOULD   RUN. 

The  sensible  maimer  of  handling  subjects  of  this  kind  would  seem  to 
be  a  general  law  referring  all  such  cases  to  the  Department  of  Public  Utili- 
ties, which  now  has  jurisdiction  over  the  issuance  of  bonds  and  stock  by- 
private  corporations  operating  public  utilities,  and  which  is  best  fitted  of 
any  State  authority  to  deal  with  this  subject. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  credit  of  a  municipality  is  pledged,  and 
not  merely  the  particular  works  for  which  bonds  are  to  be  issued,  it  is 
probable  that  some  general  requirements  limiting  the  power  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Utilities  to  approve  bond  issues  in  accordance  with  the 
financial  standing  of  the  particular  municipality,  would  be  advantageous;* 
but  the  general  principle  of  referring  the  whole  matter  of  water  works  financ- 
ing— municipal  as  well  as  private — to  the  Department  of  Public  Utilities, 
seems  to  be  sound  and  to  the  advantage  of  the  community  as  a  whole. 

Present  Situation  of  Belmont. 

An  instance  of  the  hardship  imposed  in  attempting  to  comply  with 
the  present  law,  and  the  resulting  necessity  of  applying  to  the  Legislature 
for  special  legislation,  is  afforded  by  the  present  conditions  in  the  town  of 
Belmont.  The  water  works  of  this  town  have  been  self-supporting  for 
many  years,  and  under  conditions  existing  before  the  war  ordinary  exten- 
sions were  easily  taken  care  of  out  of  surplus  revenue,  in  addition  to  paying 
interest  and  bond  requirements  upon  the  water  debt.f  During  the  war 
construction  work  was  kept  at  a  minimum  and  a  material  balance  was 
accumulated.  As  such  a  balance  is  always  looked  upon  with  envious 
eyes  by  town  officers  anxious  to  keep  the  tax  rate  at  a  minimum,  authority 
of  the  town  was  asked  and  obtained,  to  transfer  $5  000  to  the  water  sinking 
fund,  thus  building  up  the  fund  to  such  a  point  that  it,  with  its  accumu- 
lations will  take  care  of  all  the  sinking  fund  bonds  outstanding,  without 
further  contribution.  Five  thousand  dollars  were  also  appropriated  to 
the  general  funds  of  the  town,  since  at  that  time  there  was  no  indication 
of  the  abnormal  demands  of  water  works  extensions  which  were  soon  to 
develop. 

The  growth  of  Belmont  since  the  termination  of  the  war  has  been  at 
a  phenomenal  rate.  This  is  indicated  distinctly  by  the  number  of  services 
installed  in  recent  years,  as  follows: 

Year.  New  Services. 

1918  19 

1919  59 

1920  100 

1921  136 

1922  210  (approximately) 

The  population,  which  was  10  749  according  to  the  census  of  1920,  now 
approximates  14  000. 

♦  Perhaps  the  provisions  of  the  General  Laws  quoted  above,  by  which  the  total  water  works  debt  ie 
limited  to  10  i>er  cent,  of  the  fti^sessed  valuation,  is  sufficient,  ulthouKh  the  p?rcentaffe  is  too  high. 

tBut  the  total  amount  of  lx)nds  outatanding  was  only  about  ioo  0()(),  against  works  which  had  cost 
upwards  of  *20(MKKJ. 


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SHERMAN.  597 

This  growth  has  been  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  real  estate 
development  which  has  demanded  material  extensions  of  the  water  works 
distribution  system.  The  amoimt  expended  for  construction  during  each 
of  the  last  four  years  has  been  approximately  as  follows: 

1919  S5  785  1921      $30  739 

1920  23  318  1922       31000 

Prior  to  the  war,  and  under  normal  circumstances  since  the  war,  there 
would  be  available  from  water  revenue,  approximately  $13  000  each  year  for 
extensions,  after  meeting  operating  and  fixed  charges.  Since  1919,  however, 
the  actual  cost  of  the  extensions  required  has  ranged  from  $23  000  to  $31  000, 
and  there  is  no  indication  that  this  expense  will  be  materially  reduced  in  the 
near  future. 

In  1920  nearly  $11  000,  in  addition  to  the  surplus  for  the  year,  was 
required  for  construction.  This  was  taken  from  the  balance  brought  for- 
ward from  the  previous  year,  thus  reducing  the  balance  with  which  the 
department  began  the  year  1921,  to  approximately  $9  000,  and  as  no 
fiulher  collections  were  made  until  after  June  1,  this  sum  was  obviously 
inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  department. 

In  1921  approximately  $13  000  surplus  revenue  was  devoted  to  con- 
struction, and  in  addition  $15  000  were  borrowed  on  5-year  serial  bonds, 
in  accordance  with  the  general  law.  The  total  cost  of  construction  was, 
however,  nearly  $31  000,  with  the  result  that  the  department's  balance 
was  still  further  depleted  to  approximately  $6  500. 

During  1922  it  became  necessary  to  repay  $3  000  on  the  serial  loan  of 
1921,  in  addition  to  the  increased  interest  requirements,  so  that  in  spite  of 
larger  earnings  the  surplus  available  for  construction  was  reduced  to  about 
$11  000.  Twenty  thousand  dollars  additional  was  borrowed,  again  on 
5-year  serial  bonds,  providing  a  total  of  about  $31  000  for  construction, 
which  is  approximately  the  amount  actually  expended.  The  balance  at 
the  end  of  1922  is  therefore  substantially  the  same  as  that  with  which  the 
year  was  started. 

With  $3  000  of  the  loan  of  1921  and  $4  000  of  the  loan  of  1922  maturing 
in  1923,  the  surplus  available  for  construction  will  be  reduced  to  approxi- 
mately $6  500.  The  construction  requirements  are  not  likely  to  be  less 
than  those  of  1922  and  may  be  considerably  increased.  The  Commissioners 
estimate  $35  000  as  the  probable  construction  cost.  In  view  of  the  depleted 
condition  of  the  balance  it  seems  desirable  to  borrow  $30  000  of  the  estimated 
requirement  of  $35  000,  thus  allowing  a  small  addition  from  surplus  revenue, 
to  the  working  balance. 

This  money,  like  that  borrowed  in  1921  and  1922,  might  be  obtained  on 
5-year  serial  bonds,  and  the  needs  of  1923  would  thus  be  met  without  parti- 
cular diflSculty.  It  would,  however,  add  a  further  sum  of  $6  000  per  year 
to  the  amount  annually  required  for  repayment  of  bonds,  beginning  in 
1924,  and  there  would  therefore  be  only  about  $1  500  of  surplus  earnings 
available  for  the  construction  of  that  year,  and  it  would  become  still  more 
necessary  to  borrow  substantially  the  full  amount  required  for  construction. 


598  TERM   FOR  WHICH   WATER  WORKS   BONDS  SHOULD  RUN. 

The  point  has  obviously  been  reached  where  it  is  a  distinct  hardship  to 
borrow  further  on  5-year  bonds,  and  where  it  is  necessary  to  apply  to  the 
Legislature  for  special  legislation,  allowing  the  issuance  of  bonds  for  a 
longer  term.  In  view  of  the  comparatively  insignificant  amount  of  bonds 
outstanding  against  these  works,  ($78  500  as  compared  with  a  total  cost  of 
about  $300  000),  it  is  hoped  that  this  legislation  can  be  obtained. 

Conclusion. 
Summarizing  the  statements  in  this  paper,  its  conclusions  are: 

1.  The  average  life  for  a  "  typical  "  water  works  plant  in  this  country 
is  about  50  years.  It  will  rarely  be  less  than  this  in  individual  cases,  and 
may  be  as  much  as  60  years  or  more  for  some  works. 

2.  Complete  records  of  depreciation,  including  abandoned  structures, 
of  a  number  of  water  works  plants  of  considerable  age  show  that  the  total 
accrued  depreciation  of  the  physical  plant  of  such  works  is  about  20  per  cent, 
of  the  cost.  Departures  from  this  mean  are  not  great.  Records  of  depre- 
ciation suffered  by  the  plant  still  in  service,  modified  by  a  suitable  allowance 
for  plant  abandoned,  confirm  this  as  a  reasonable  normal  figure. 

3.  The  corresponding  average  age  for  works  of  50  years'  life  is  20  years, 
leaving  30  years  average  remaining  life.  If  the  average  useful  life  were 
60  years  instead  of  50,  the  average  age  would  be  27  years  and  the  remaining 
life  33  years.  Thirty  years  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  average  remaining  life 
of  any  water  works  plant  in  normal  condition,  and  therefore  a  proper  term 
for  which  water  works  bonds  should  run. 

4.  If  the  works  have  suffered  a  depreciation  of  20  per  cent,  including 
abandoned  property,  there  is  a  residual  value  of  80  per  cent,  of  cost  of  the 
physical  plant.  Waterworks  bonds  may  therefore  safely  be  issued  up  to 
80  per  cent,  of  the  normal  cost  of  the  works. 

5.  Municipally  owned  water  works  should  be  self-supporting,  and  their 
financing  should  be  on  the  same  general  basis  as  that  of  private  corporations. 

6.  The  clause  of  the  present  Massachusetts  law  which  limits  bonds  for 
the  extension  of  municipally  owned  water  works  to  a  term  of  5  years  is 
illogical  and  burdensome,  and  should  be  repealed. 

7.  Special  legislation  for  particular  cases,  made  necessary  by  the  exis- 
tence of  the  5-year  limit,  is  undesirable  from  every  point  of  view. 

8.  Suitable  control  over  municipal  bonds  for  water  works  purposes  can 
be  exercised  by  requiring  the  approval  of  the  Public  Utilities  Commissioners 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  for  bonds  of  a  private  water  company. 

9.  Misuse  of  water  revenues  can  be  avoided  by  legislation  limiting 
their  uses  to  water  works  purposes. 

Note:  Since  the  presentation  of  this  paper  my  attention  has  been  called  to  an 
eflitorial  article  entitled  "  Municipal  Loan  Purposes  and  Periods  in  England  and  the 
United  States"  in  Enoineering  News  of  Noveml:>er  2,  1905,  p.  463.  Besides  a  statement 
of  the  conditions  under  which  loans  could  be  made  in  England,  it  includes  a  very  inter- 
esting and  suggestive  discussion  of  the  principles  which  should  govern  in  such  cases,  and 
mi^ht  well  have  provided  the  text  for  such  a  paper  as  this:  but  most  of  the  data  upon 
which  my  conclusions  have  been  based  were  not  available  at  that  time>  t 

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DISCUSSION.  599 


Discussion. 


The  President.  As  stated  in  the  notice  of  the  meeting,  we  had  hoped 
to  have  with  us  today  the  members  of  the  Special  Commission  on  Municipal 
Taxation.  They  have,  however,  both  this  morning  and  this  afternoon, 
hearings  in  connection  with  the  cities  of  Fall  River  and  New  Bedford,  and 
are  unable  to  be  present.  They  have  just  now  telephoned  me,  saying  that 
they  would  very  much  like  to  meet  the  representatives  of  this  Association 
at  some  special  meeting  to  be  called  for  the  purpose,  and  that  they  are 
distinctly  interested  in  our  viewpoint  on  this  problem.  I  presume  we 
shall  be  very  glad  to  appear  before  them. 

While  we  have  not  been  able  to  bring  here  the  Commission,  we  have 
with  us  the  principal  hurdle  over  which  we  must  climb  in  this  financial 
problem,  Mr.  Waddell  —  Director  of  Accounts  of  the  Department  of 
Corporations  and  Taxation.      I  know  we  all  want  to  hear  from  Mr.  Waddell. 

Mr.  Theodore  N.  Waddell.  Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen:  I 
am  in  a  very  fortunate  position  —  fortunate,  I  think,  for  me,  in  that  I 
have  more  or  less  of  a  rhinoceros  hide.  I  am  always  on  the  wrong  side  of 
the  question.  However,  I  would  like  to  say  that  I  believe  my  heart  is  in 
the  right  spot. 

Now  there  are  certain  conditions  which  I  meet  with  that  are  not  fully 
appreciated  by  those  who  work  from  a  scientific  standpoint.  I  am  not  in 
a  position,  nor  am  I  disposed  to  beheve  that  the  points  which  have  been 
mentioned  are  open  to  criticism.  We  have,  however,  a  situation  surround- 
ing us,  political  and  otherwise,  that  must  be  met. 

I  want  to  explain  briefly  the  5-year  clause  of  the  law  relating  to  the 
extension  of  water  mains  and  for  water  departmental  equipment,  and  give 
some  experiences  I  have  met  with  concerning  its  operation.  When  a  report 
of  the  examination  relative  to  municipal  finances  was  made  by  our  depart- 
ment in  1912,  I  thought  it  would  be  a  good  idea  to  have  our  suggestions 
passed  upon  by  an  organization  that  was  then  holding  its  meeting,  and  I 
therefore  suggested  that  we  submit  certain  of  these  reconmiendations  to 
the  treasurers  of  the  various  cities  and  towns  at  their  meeting.  We  had  a 
very  pleasant  reply  from  them,  (?)  giving  unanimous  disapproval  of  the 
recommendations.  Later,  another  conference  was  arranged  and  then  a 
unanimous  vote  of  approval  was  given. 

Now,  on  the  5-year  proposition.  The  conmiittee,  at  the  time  the 
matter  was  considered,  hesitated  to  make  provision  for  extensions  into 
new  territory,  believing  that  cities  and  towns  should  come  to  the  Legisla- 
ture each  and  every  time  an  extension  was  desired.  Now,  I  am  always 
satisfied  with  a  bite  out  of  an  apple  if  I  can't  get  the  whole  apple,  and  I  am 
convinced  that  in  fully  50  per  cent,  of  the  cases  where  they  have  used  the 
5-year  provision,  it  has  been  ample.  I  am  thoroughly  convinced,  how- 
ever, that  the  present  general  law  is  inadequate  to  meet  all  of  the  needs  of 
our  municipalities.     You  are  familiar,  I  presume,  with  the  fact  that  there 


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600      TERM  FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS  BONDS  SHOULD  RUN. 

is  a  statute  which  requires  me  to  report  to  the  Committee  on  Municipal 
Finance  on  every  bill  calling  for  the  borrowing  of  money.  It  is  rather 
embarrassing  to  make  a  report  against  one's  own  judgment,  but  these 
reports  are  necessarily  statements  of  facts  as  I  learn  them  and  it  is  left 
for  the  conmiittee,  after  hearing  all  the  evidence  relating  to  the  subject 
in  question,  to  act  as  it  deems  proper.  But  it  seems  absolutely  unfair 
to  me  for  one  city  or  town  to  be  authorized  to  borrow  for  30  years;  another 
for  15  years;  another  for  20  years;  and  perhaps  another  for  25  years. 
It  is  absolutely  unfair  and  unreasonable.  I  personally  believe  that  annu- 
ally recurring  costs,  whether  they  be  for  water  main  extensions,  building 
schoolhouses,  or  building  streets  should  be  paid  direct  from  revenue.  We 
are  told  to  let  posterity  pay  the  costs,  but  posterity  has  several  troubles 
being  passed  down  to  it.  The  policy  of  paying  as  you  go,  for  at  least  the 
annually  recurring  costs,  is,  in  my  opinion,  sound. 

Now,  as  to  the  cost  of  interest  —  I  was  on  the  unfortunate  side  on 
that  in  1916.  I  stated  to  the  committee,  or  to  the  Special  Committee 
of  the  Association  which  appeared  before  the  committee,  that  I  believed 
they  were  getting  what  they  did  not  want  and  were  not  getting  what  they 
really  wanted.  Now,  that  law  has  been  on  the  statute  books  some  6  years 
and  has  been  availed  of  probably  three  times  in  the  6  years.  In  that  6 
years,  I  think  it  is  a  safe  assertion  to  make  that  there  have  been  at  least 
50  to  75  special  bills  passed. 

The  reason  I  speak  of  that  5-year  exemption  is  a  matter  of  psy- 
chology. When  you  are  getting  something  now,  something  that  is  of 
great  benefit,  you  pay  for  it  willingly;  but  we  find  that  we  have  outgrown 
many  of  our  systems  —  the  street  mains  need  to  be  relaid  and  it  is  not 
practical  to  relay  them  from  water  revenue,  neither  is  it  possible,  under 
the  general  law,  to  relay  them  by  a  loan.  I  firmly  believe  that  there  should 
be  some  provision  for  meeting  this  difficulty,  and  I  had  the  audacity  to 
recommend,  when  the  consolidation  of  the  laws  was  being  made,  that  an 
amendment  to  what  is  now  Chapter  44  of  the  General  Laws  be  considered 
by  providing  that  cities  and  towns  might  borrow  for  from  15  to  20  years 
for  laying  or  relaying  street  mains  of  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter.  Now,  I 
haven't  any  idea  whether  that  is  scientifically  correct  or  not,  but  I  have  an 
idea  that  such  an  amendment  would  relieve  the  Legislature  of  a  great 
many  special  bills.  I  also  recommended  that  provision  be  made  for  the 
construction  of  reservoirs  and  standpipes,  with  a  like  term  for  loans.  Under 
the  General  Law,  as  I  understand  it,  you  cannot  borrow  for  that  purpose 
at  all  —  not  even  under  the  5-year  provision. 

Now,  to  show  how  things  work  out  —  and  no  doubt  there  are  gentle- 
men here  who  have  been  in  the  Legislature,  and  know  the  legislative 
machinery,  so  that  it  does  not  seem  quite  right  or  proper  for  me  to  criticise 
them  —  but  in  the  present  year,  1922,  I  had  this  experience.  A  certain 
person  came  in  who  had  been  both  in  the  House  and  the  Senate  —  a  very 
pleasant  gentleman  to  meet  and  a  very  able  man  —  and  he  said:     '*  We 


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DISCUSSION.  601 

are  up  against  it  in  our  water  works;  we  must  have  a  special  bill  through/' 
I  therefore  drafted  a  bill  for  him  in  the  usual  broad  form,  and  this  was 
reported  and  enacted  in  a  very  short  time.  It  was  impossible  for  me  to 
tell  the  standing  of  the  past  loans  of  the  town  in  question,  but  in  follow- 
ing them  through  I  discovered,  after  the  Legislature  had  adjourned,  that 
there  was  a  special  act  on  the  statute  books  allowing  borrowing  for  the 
purpose  in  question  that  had  been  there  for,  I  guess,  some  10  years,  and 
it  had  not  even  been  touched  —  not  a  single  dollar  had  been  charged 
against  it. 

In  1913,  within  a  few  weeks  from  the  passage  of  the  General  Municipal 
Indebtedness  Act,  one  of  our  cities  secured  a  special  act  which  permitted 
it  to  lay  a  large  main  from  a  reservoir  down  into  the  city.  It  was  recog- 
nized by  the  committee  in  1912  that  water  legislation  could  be  sought  con- 
stantly by  the  cities  and  towns.  I  know,  in  fact,  of  only  one  city  that  I 
can  recall  that  was  absolutely  refused  legislation.  This  was  refused,  I 
think,  for  the  reason  that  one  of  the  petitioners  made  the  statement: 
"You  see  we  have  the  lowest  water  rates  in  the  State,"  giving  their  minimum 
charge  at  $6.00,  and  I  am  not  sure  that  this  rate  was  not  the  maximum. 
I  think  the  charge  was  a  flat  $6.00  Well,  they  did  have  a  low  rate,  and 
naturally  the  water  works  went  to  pieces,  and  so  far  as  I  know  it  is  about 
in  that  condition  today.  It  is  impossible  for  them  to  give  an  adequate 
supply  of  water.  I  can  recall  only  that  one  city  that  was  absolutely 
refused  legislation. 

Now,  there  is  no  question  but  what  special  legislation  will  be  granted 
under  proper  conditions.  I  agree  with  you  that  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary 
to  seek  such  legistation.  Unfortunately,  I  am  in  a  position  where  the 
majority  of  the  members  —  in  fact,  the  committee  —  are  in  disagreement 
with  me.  I  was  in  hopes,  and  I  expressed  to  the  President  of  your  Asso- 
ciation, that  he  would  go  before  the  commission  now  sitting  to  urge,  and 
that  the  commission  would  recommend,  legislation  that  would  relieve  the 
Legislature  of  a  number  of  these  special  acts.  I  know  they  regret  very 
much  that  they  could  not  be  present  at  this  meeting  and  get  first  hand  from 
you  your  feelings  in  this  matter,  but  it  was  stated  just  before  adjournment 
of  the  commission  today  that  they  hoped  that  a  committee  of  your  Asso- 
ciation would  appear  at  a  meeting  and  discuss  this  question  from  your 
standpoint.  Personally  I  would  like  to  see  the  legislation  broadened  so 
as  to  permit  borrowing  for  a  reasonable  period  of  time  for  street  mains,  for 
reservoirs,  and  for  standpipes.  I  do  not  say  that  that  would  cure  all  of 
the  evils,  but  it  would  be  very  helpful  and  would  reduce  the  present  special 
legislation  to  a  minimum. 

So  far  as  ordinary  extensions  and  their  connections  are  concerned,  it 
seems  to  me  that  it  is  perfectly  right  and  proper  that  these  annually  recurr- 
ing charges  should  be  put  into  the  tax  rate.  Now,  when  you  consider  that 
the  interest  cost  on  a  5-year  loan  is  practically  12  per  cent,  or  upwards,  on 
a  10-year  loan  is  22  per  cent.,  on  a  20-year  loan  is  42  per  cent,  plus,  and  on 


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602  TERM   FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS   BONDS   SHOULD   RUN. 

a  30-year  loan  is  62  per  cent.  —  or  under  the  plan  with  the  3-year  exemp- 
tion is  70  per  cent.  —  of  the  original  cost,  the  interest  is  quite  an  item.  And 
I  think,  furthermore,  when  you  realize  that  the  bonds  of  Massachusetts 
municipalities  are  selling  on  the  market  at  a  lower  rate  than  those  of  any 
other  State  in  this  ^Union  some  credit  is  being  given  in  return  for  the 
splendid  Municipal  Indebtedness  Act  of  1913.  It  is  not  perfect  by  a  long 
ways.  It  is  not  easy  to  amend;  but  I  sincerely  hope  that  certain  amend- 
ments can  be  obtained  that  will  relieve  special  legislation. 

I  do  not  question  for  a  moment  the  intent  of  the  members  of  the 
Legislature,  because  they  are  trying  to  carry  out  in  principle  some  of  the 
laws  which  were  enacted  as  the  result  of  special  study  and  I  hope  the}'-  will 
continue  to  do  so.  However,  we  must  recognise  that  there  are  certain 
weaknesses  in  the  law,  and  I  would  like  to  see  them  bolstered  up.  It  is 
not  at  all  pleasing  to  me  to  have  all  the  dirty  linen  of  all  the  cities  and 
towns  in  the  Conmionwealth  washed  out  at  a  public  hearing,  and  we  always 
have  more  or  less  of  it  at  such  hearings. 

In  comparing  municipal  plants  with  private  plants,  there  is  one  thing 
I  think  you  ought  to  bear  in  mind.  No  private  plant  will  extend  mains 
where  no  appreciable  return  will  be  received  for  many,  many  years.  Mun- 
icipal plants  are  very  likely  to  extend  mains  where  nothing  like  adequate 
returns  will  be  received,  and  for  that  reason  I  question  whether  or  not  it 
is  fair  to  assume  that  a  municipality  ought  to  be  allowed  to  incur  debt  for 
construction,  for  capital  purposes,  to  the  degree  that  you  naturally  will 
expect  in  private  plants.  I  think  it  has  a  bearing,  knowing  the  town 
governments  as  I  meet  with  them.  In  my  own  town,  to  my  knowledge, 
we  have  not  borrowed  for  water  works  for  12  years.  I  think  they  have  a 
very  comfortable  working  balance.  We  have  a  very  reasonable  rat«,  but  I 
feel  sure  that  100  of  the  fire  hydrants  could  be  eliminated  in  our  town  if 
the  existing  street  mains  were  replaced  by  larger  mains.  How  long  present 
conditions  will  continue,  I  am  not  sure,  but  I  do  know  this  —  there  is 
not  a  great  deal  of  advantage  in  having  an  extra  pump  come  in  to  fight 
a  fire  when  one  pump  has  just  about  milked  the  pipe  dry.  We  do  outgrow 
water  mains,  and  very  few,  if  any,  municipalities  are  willing  to  take  the 
criticism  which  would  follow  the  installation  of  new  mains  that  would  be 
adequate  for  50  or  75  years.  I  think  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  get 
them  to  do  it.  So  that  you  have  to  recognize  that  you  have  not  only 
depreciation  on  accoimt  of  the  life  of  the  mains,  but  you  have  a  further 
depreciation  on  account  of  necessary  renewals. 

I  did  not  intend  to  say  very  much  except  to  call  your  attention  to  the 
Act  of  1913.  The  5-year  clause  particularly  was  not  put  in  with  any  idea 
that  it  corresponded  to  the  life  of  the  mains,  but  it  was  the  only  relief  that 
it  seemed  possible  to  get  at  that  time.  It  is  a  good  deal  like  the  25  cent 
claxise  on  departmental  equipment.  I  have  been  laughed  out  of  court 
several  times  on  the  matter,  and  the  only  way  you  could  convince  the 
committee  at  that  time  was  to  say  to  them:     "  Here  is  a  town  of  a  half 


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DISCUSSION.  603 

million  valuation;  they  want  a  road  roller,  and  towns  do  need  road  rollers. 
Is  that  town  going  to  put  $7.00  or  $8.00  on  the  tax  rate  to  buy  a  road  roller?" 
Now,  a  dollar  is  a  dollar,  and  it  is  just  as  much  a  dollar  in  the  small  town 
as  it  is  in  the  city.  You  take  the  25  cent  clause  in  Boston  with  its  one  and 
three-quarter  billion  —  they  have  to  get  three  or  four  hundred  thousand 
dollars  in  equipment  before  they  can  borrow  a  nickel,  but  when  you  get 
into  the  small  towns,  they  have  only  a  very  small  amount  in  the  tax  rate, 
so  that  relatively  it  was  all  right.  I  think  it  has  worked  out  very  comfort- 
ably for  all  our  municipalities. 

But  whatever  the  right  period  is  for  a  loan  for  relaying  mains,  stand- 
pipes  and  reservoirs,  it  seems  to  me  that  you  ought  to  arrive  at  some  solu- 
tion of  that  problem  and  thus  eliminate,  I  should  say,  at  least  90  to  95  per 
cent,  of  the  special  acts. 

Mr.  Sherman.  I  have  been  greatly  pleased  by  what  Mr.  WaddeU 
has  said,  and  to  learn  that  he  and  I  are  so  very  closely  in  accord.  In  the 
last  analysis,  what  he  has  said  and  what  I  have  said  come  pretty  nearly 
to  the  same  thing. 

One  of  my  inferences,  is  that  the  5-year  limitation  on  bonds  for  water 
works  extensions,  resulted  from  a  *' trade"  in  the  committee.  I  have  no 
question  that  some  kind  of  legislation  was  necessary,  but  when  you  compare 
the  particular  clause  of  the  law  which  limits  our  bonds  to  5  years,  with  the 
following  one  which  allows  20  years  for  gas  and  electric  lighting  bonds, 
you  see  that  there  is  absolutely  no  consistency  between  them.  Either 
water  works  men  did  not  know  what  was  being  done,  or  were  not  properly 
represented  at  the  time  this  legislation  was  put  through. 

I  think  that  the  term  and  proper  amount  of  any  municipal  water 
works  bond  issue  ought  to  be  fixed  with  reference  to  circumstances  of  the 
particular  case,  by  some  authority  which  may  be  considered  more  or  less 
expert  in  that  line,  and  which  is  constantly  dealing  with  such  matters. 
It  seems  to  me  the  Pubhc  Utilities  Department  is  the  natural  one  to  have 
such  jurisdiction.  Municipal  water  bonds,  although  issued  to  provide 
funds  for  some  specific  improvement,  are  not  secured  by  any  particular 
part  of  the  works,  but  by  the  plant  as  a  whole,  and  with  the  credit  of  the 
municipality  behind  them.  There  is  no  particular  reason,  therefore,  to 
limiting  the  term  of  some  bonds  to  say  10  years,  and  allowing  perhaps 
30  years  for  others,  especially  if  no  bonds  for  50  to  75  years  are  issued  when 
bond  purchases  are  made,  or  very  long  lived  structures  are  built.  In 
general,  for  water  works  as  a  whole,  30  years  is  a  fair  term  for  bonds  which 
will  be  properly  secured  during  their  life,  if  not  issued  for  more  than  80  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  works. 

One  other  point  which  Mr.  WaddeU  has  stressed  —  and  it  is  a  very 
important  one  —  relates  to  the  constant  diversion  by  some  of  our  cities 
and  towns  of  water  works  revenue  to  other  mimicipal  uses.  It  is  an  evil 
which  we  as  water  works  men  must  undertake  to  cure.  It  can^t  go  on 
indefinitely  if  the  water  works  are  to  be  on  a  proper  basis.    Just  what 


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604      TERM  FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS  BONDS  SHOULD  RUN. 

kind  of  legislation  would  assist  in  doing  that  I  am  not  sure,  but  I  think 
some  kind  of  a  general  law  could  be  framed,  and  I  hope  it  could  be  passed, 
which  would  absolutely  prohibit  the  diversion  of  such  funds. 

The  water  works  utility,  if  owned  by  a  municipality,  should  be  run 
entirely  separate  from  other  municipal  affairs.  Its  earnings  should  be 
devoted  to  the  Water  Works  Department.*  The  Water  Commissioners 
should  be  required  to  establish  rates  sufficient  under  ordinary  circumstances 
to  cover  the  interest  on  debt  and  the  debt  retirement  requirements,  operat- 
ing expenses,  and  such  ordinary  extensions  as  are,  as  Mr.  Waddell  puts 
them,  annually  recurring  expenses  —  things  that  can  be  foreseen  and 
expected.  On  the  other  hand,  once  in  a  while  the  need  arises  in  any  grow- 
ing city  or  town,  for  a  radical  reinforcement  of  the  plant,  and  borrowing 
is  the  only  way  to  properly  meet  such  a  contingency.  If  the  sum  required 
is  a  large  one,  you  do  not  get  great  help  from  your  borrowing  if  you  have 
to  repay  in  5  years;  you  do  not  get  as  much  as  you  ought  if  you  have  to 
repay  in  10  years.  Whether  it  should  be  20,  25  or  30  years  is  perhaps 
something  for  argument. 

The  Legislature  can  very  well  establish  general  principles  and  limits 
which  must  be  conformed  to,  but  the  Public  Utihties  Department,  or  some 
other  competent  body,  should  do  the  regulating. 

Mr.  George  F.  MERRiLL.f  I  was  very  much  interested  in  Mr. 
Sherman's  paper,  and  I  was  glad  to  hear  Mr-.  Waddell  bring  out  the  things 
which  he  did. 

Every  water  works  man  throughout  the  State  knows  that  almost  any 
system  that  was  designed  as  early  as  1872  is  wholly  inadequate  to  furnish 
service  to  anywhere  near  the  insurance  requirements  today,  and  I  believe 
that  bond  issues  should  be  provided  for  renewals. 

I  also  think  that  we  need  a  clearer  interpretation  of  what  constitutes 
a  renewal.  For  instance,  in  one  case  I  know  of  it  was  desirable  to  lay  a 
16-in.  pipe  in  a  street  that  only  had  a  4-in.  We  were  informed  that  an 
interpretation  was  received  from  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  that  that  would 
be  a  renewal  and  we  could  not  issue  bonds  on  it.  However,  if  we  had  laid 
this  16-in.  pipe  on  the  other  side  of  the  street  and  left  the  4-in.  pipe  in  ser- 
vice where  it  was,  it  woiJd  have  been  new  construction.  That  is  a  point 
that  should  be  cleared  up.  I  think  it  would  not  be  desirable  to  specify 
in  the  law  the  size  of  pipe  which  would  constitute  renewal.  In  some  cases 
it  may  be  a  size  of  3  or  4  in.  increased  to  12  or  16.  It  is  a  matter  of  local 
conditions. 

I  also  think  Mr.  Sherman  made  a  very  good  point  in  the  comparison 
of  the  20-years  time  of  bond  issues  for  municipal  electric  light  and  gas 
plants,  with  water  works  issues,  and  it  might  be  to  the  point  to  state  that 

*  In  some  cases  it  may  be  practicable  to  aasem  aewor  users  in  thii  form  of  additional  water  rates,  and 
thus  provide  the  money  necessary  for  maintaining  and  operatin|(  a  sewerage  system  without  recourse  to 
the  general  tajc  levy.  Such  a  practice  is  not  really  in  contravention  of  the  above  principle,  but  a  C7>ecijil 
form  of  assessment  for  sewer  maintenance,  and  the  accounts  ought  to  be  kept  in  proper  form  to  show  it 
as  such. 

t  Superintendent  Water  Works,  Greenfield.  Mass. 

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DISCUSSION.  605 

their  depreciation  is  about  10  per  cent,  while  the  water  works  depreciation 
is  far  less.    It  is  a  rather  illogical  part  of  the  law. 

I  think  we  are  getting  a  good  deal  of  good  out  of  this  discussion. 

President  Barbour.  It  is  a  fortunate  thing  for  Mr.  Waddell  that 
there  are  no  insurance  men  here,  apparently.  This  is  the  first  instance  I 
have  ever  heard  of  where  there  were  too  many  hydrants. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  different  methods  of  handling  bond 
issues  for  privately  owned  plants,  which  come  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Public  Utilities  Commission.  We  have  with  us  a  member  of  that 
Commission,  and  we  would  like,  I  know,  to  hear  from  Mr.  Wells. 

Mr.  Henry  G.  Wells.  Mr.  President,  and  Members  of  the  Asso- 
ciation: There  is  not  very  much  that  I  can  say  to  you  gentlemen  except 
what  appears  upon  the  statute  books  of  the  Commonwealth,  with  which 
you  are  all  doubtless  familiar. 

I  am  reminded  a  little  bit  of  the  famous  colloquy  between  Chauncey 
Depew  and  Ruf us  Choate  at  a  dinner.  They  were  both  seated  at  the  head 
table,  and  Depew  said  to  Choate:  "  Well,  this  is  another  case  of  a  nickel- 
in-the-slot  machine.  You  put  down  a  lunch  and  a  speech  comes  up." 
Choate  replied:  "  Yes,  and  sometimes  you  put  down  a  speech  and  a  lunch 
comes  up."  Depew  thereupon  replied:  "Well,  it  is  better  to  have 
lunched  and  lost  than  never  to  have  lunched  at  all." 

After  hearing  all  the  tales  of  woe  from  members  of  the  Association, 
and  also  from  Mr.  Waddell,  I  trust  that  all  of  your  companies  are  not  in 
the  same  situation  that  some  of  the  other  Public  Utility  companies  are  in. 
They  tell  the  story  about  a  railroad  out  in  the  middle  west,  which  two  men 
were  discussing,  and  one  man  said,  "  Don't  you  know  that  railroad  is  of 
Divine  origin?"  "  Divine  origin?"  said  the  other;  "  how  do  you  make 
that  out?"  "  Why,"  the  first  man  said,  "  you  know  in  the  first  book  of 
the  Bible  it  tells  about  how  God  created  all  creeping  things." 

I  trust  our  companies  haven't  got  in  that  state  yet,  although  there 
is  some  talk  about  pressure  over  here  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Waddell. 

Some  little  suggestion  was  made  here  that  perhaps  the  municipal 
plants  might  like  to  come  under  the  control  of  our  Department.  Now, 
I  assure  you,  gentlemen,  that  we  are  not  looking  for  any  more  work;  we 
have  troubles  enough  of  our  own  now.  About  a  year  ago  the  Legislature 
wished  on  us  —  by  what  legislative  reasoning  I  do  not  know  —  the  en- 
forcement of  the  so-called  "  Blue  Sky"  law.  What  the  sale  of  securities 
has  to  do  with  public  utilities  I  do  not  know  —  the  sale  of  private  securities, 
at  any  rate;  but,  nevertheless,  we  are  trying  to  administer  that  law,  and 
along  with  our  other  duties  it  gives  us  trouble  enough. 

However,  to  come  specifically  to  the  suggestion  made  by  your  presid- 
ing oflBcer,  private  water  supply  companies  come  under  our  jurisdiction  to 
the  same  extent,  practically  speaking,  that  gas  and  electric  light  com- 
panies do. 


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606  TERM   FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS   BONDS   SHOULD   RUN. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  provision  relative  to  municipal  gat? 
and  electric  plants  where  bonds  are  issued  for  20  years.  As  to  private  gas 
and  electric  plants  and  private  water  companies  there  is  no  provision  as  to 
the  length  or  period  of  time.  We  were  told  until  a  short  time  ago  that 
bonds  could  be  issued  up  to  the  same  amount  as  the  capital  stock:  That  is, 
they  should  be  relatively  50-50;  that  they  should  bear  interest  at  the  rate 
of  not  exceeding  6  per  cent.,  and  could  be  secured  by  mortgage,  but  should 
be  issued  under  such  terms  and  conditions  and  restrictions  as  the  Depart- 
ment might  lay  down.  In  view  of  the  financial  stress  of  the  past  few  years 
that  law  was  changed,  eliminating  the  provision  that  the  bonds  should  not 
exceed  6  per  cent.,  and  providing  also  —  I  neglected  to  state  that  these 
bonds  must  be  issued  at  par  —  providing  also  that  bonds  which  were  issued 
under  a  pre-existing  mortgage  could  be  issued  below  par  if  the  Department 
so  approved.  In  other  words,  where  there  was  an  existing  mortgage  and 
corporation  bonds  had  been  issued  at  6  per  cent.,  future  bond  issues  must 
also  be  issued  at  6  per  cent.,  and  under  those  circumstances  the  bonds 
could  be  issued  at  less  than  par.  That,  I  believe,  is  the  general  provision 
affecting  gas  and  electric  companies  privately  owned,  and  also  relates  to 
water  companies  privately  owned.  So  that  any  private  water  supply 
company  petitioning  the  Department  for  an  issue  of  bonds  comes  to  us  and 
we  turn  the  figures  submitted  over  to  our  Accounting  and  Engineering 
Departments,  and  they  are  gone  into  thoroughly  and  under  the  law  we 
prescribe  that  those  bonds,  whatever  we  allow,  shall  be  issued  at  a  certain 
rate  of  interest,  and  that  the  proceeds  on  those  bonds  shall  be  devoted  to 
certain  specific  purposes,  usually  set  forth  in  the  petition. 

I  think  one  of  the  speakers  referred  to  the  fact  that  bonds  ought  to  be 
allowed  to  be  issued  up  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  plant.  I  assume, 
of  course,  that  he  is  referring  in  that  instance  to  the  municipally  owned 
plants,  because  as  to  privately  owned  plants  with  an  issue  of  stock  outstand- 
ing, I  do  not  believe  he  would  agree  that  they  ought  to  be  allowed  to  issue 
bonds  up  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  plant.  Certainly  those  gas 
and  electric  companies  which  during  the  war  had  an  outstanding  bond  issue 
of  an  amount,  say,  equal  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  stock,  found  their  credit  in 
a  very  precarious  situation.  In  other  words,  the  gas  and  electric  companies 
which  had  small  outstanding  debts,  as  represented  either  by  notes  or  bonds, 
during  the  financial  stress  found  themselves  in  much  better  condition  and 
could  render  much  better  service  to  the  conmiunity  than  those  companies 
which  had  large  outstanding  debts  represented  by  notes  and  bonds. 

Now,  of  course  if  the  Legislature  in  its  wisdom,  and  with  its  power  of 
determining  principles,  should  give  to  the  Department  of  Public  Utilities 
the  jurisdiction  over  municipally  owned  water  companies,  we  would  assume 
the  burden  with  as  good  grace  as  we  could. 

But  I  want  to  suggest  one  thing:  Having  been  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  I  know  you  wiU  encounter 
this  proposition:    There  is  always  running  through  that  membership  an 


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DISCUSSION.  607 

intense  interest  in  the  so-called  principle  of  home  rule,  and  I  am  afraid  you 
will  find  that  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  put  municipally  owned  water  com- 
panies under  the  Department  of  Public  Utilities,  you  will  immediately  stir 
up  a  cry  of  centralization  and  taking  away  the  principle  of  home  rule  from 
those  municipalities.  I  simply  want  to  throw  that  out  as  a  suggestion, 
because  I  have  seen  that  done  so  many,  many  times. 

I  thank  you,  Mr.  President. 

Mr.  Reeves  J.  Newsom.*  Mr.  President,  while  Mr.  Waddell  is  here 
to  comment  on  the  matter  I  would  like  to  point  out  an  illustration  of  the 
requirements  of  the  water  department  and  its  relations  to  the  5-year 
t^rm  in  the  Municipal  Finance  Act. 

The  City  of  Lynn  Water  Department,  until  1921,  had  for  its  use  all 
of  its  receipts.  As  a  result  of  that  no  money  was  ever  borrowed  for  any- 
thing except  permanent  extensions  to  the  supply  of  the  system.  That  is, 
all  the  bond  issues  were  30-year  bond  issues.  Beginning  last  year  the 
system  was  changed  and  a  specific  appropriation  was  made  for  the  water 
works  and  the  receipts  were  turned  into  the  general  revenue.  The  result 
was  that  the  size  of  that  specific  appropriation  was  such  that  nothing  but 
ordinary  operative  maintenance  could  be  carried  on,  and  it  became  necess- 
ary to  borrow  money  for  all  extensions  to  do  work.  It  was  impossible  to 
put  any  services  to  new  houses  or  install  a  meter  or  lay  a  new  main  without 
borrowing  money  for  that  purpose.  And  the  result  is,  of  course,  that  we 
have  had  to  issue  a  lot  of  those  5-year  bonds. 

Now,  Mr.  Waddell  pointed  out  the  evil  of  issuing  bonds  for  annually 
recurring  expenditures,  and  this  is  an  instance  of  how  the  city  has  been 
forced  to  do  that  very  thing,  because  it  is  not  allowed  the  use  of  the  revenue 
which  it  gets  from  the  water. 

Mr.  Frank  E.  WiNSOR.f  In  applying  the  conclusions  of  Mr.  Sher- 
man's paper  to  specific  cases,  I  would  call  attention  to  a  danger  in  using 
general  statistics  of  this  kind,  which  may  be  overlooked  and  which  should 
alwa3rs  be  borne  in  mind  in  fixing  the  date  of  maturity  of  bond  issues, 
namely,  obsolescence.  The  considerable  number  of  water  works  struc- 
tures which  become  obsolete  in  a  relatively  short  time  is  perhaps  not 
appreciated  by  many  of  us.  For  example,  I  have  in  mind  a  filter  plant  of 
10  acres  which  after  an  average  life  of  less  than  20  years  will  become  obsolete, 
also  pumping  plants,  buildings,  etc.  which  will  become  obsolete  after 
lives  varying  from  10  to  50  years.  Similarly,  parts  of  a  distribution  system 
frequently  become  obsolete  from  the  necessity  of  replacing  small  pipe  by 
larger  pipe. 

Mr.  Waddell.  I  do  not  think  I  made  clear  the  situation  under  the 
5-year  statute,  and  I  would  like  also  to  make  clear  the  position  that  I 
occupy. 


♦  CommiHsioner  of  Water  Supply,  Lynn,  Mans. 

t  Chief  Engineer  Water  Supply  Board.  Providence.  R.  I. 


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608  TERM  FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS   BONDS   SHOULD   RUN. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  at  any  time  to  attempt  to  influence  legislation, 
except  to  maintain  standards,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  your  Association 
must  appreciate  the  proposition  that  you  are  facing,  and  while  you  may 
not  get  your  ideal  at  the  outset,  if  you  work  in  that  direction  you  will  arrive 
at  it  much  quicker  than  by  trying  to  take  everything  knowing  that  you 
won't  get  anything. 

The  pay-€is-you-go  basis,  I  would  like  to  say,  should  be  followed,  not 
only  in  connection  with  the  water  works.  In  my  own  town,  we  started 
off  by  eliminating  borrowing  for  sidewalks  that  we  could  put  in  the  tax 
rate  every  year;  then  we  eliminated  borrowing  for  annually  recurring 
costs  on  the  streets,  and  for  annually  recurring  costs  on  sewers. 

Do  not  understand  me  to  say  that  if  you  have  a  large  project,  you 
should  not  borrow,  because  I  believe  you  should;  but  I  am  cutting  out  the 
annually  recurring  costs.  If  you  are  building  schoolhouses  every  5  years, 
you  should  not  have  a  20-year  loan  to  pay  for  them. 

I  have  incessantly  advocated  an  appropriation  by  the  municipality 
for  fire  service  as  well  as  for  department  charges.  We  have  always  ad- 
vocated that,  and  fortunately  we  get  it  in  most  municipalities  now.  I  am 
not  bothered  so  much  as  to  the  separation  of  the  actual  cash  as  you  are, 
naturally,  but  I  am  very  much  interested  in  showing  what  is  actually  being 
earned  and  what  is  actually  being  expended. 

In  whatever  legislation  you  seek,  I  would  only  say  that,  if  I  have  any 
influence,  I  shall  be  glad  to  use  it,  for  I  always  like  to  pass  along  any  infor- 
mation I  have,  believing  that  by  and  by  we  shall,  at  least,  accomplish  a 
part  of  our  ideal  if  not  the  whole  of  it. 

Mr.  Shermak.  In  response  to  the  point  raised  by  Mr.  Winsor,  I 
want  to  say  that  the  statistics  of  which  I  made  use  in  arriving  at  the  general 
conclusion  include  many  large  works  in  which  there  have  been  unquestion* 
ably  and  unavoidably  a  very  considerable  number  of  cases  of  just  the  kind 
of  obsolescence  he  referred  to.  The  fact  that  the  statistics  include  detailed 
history  of  abandoned  plants  of  the  Portland,  Maine  Water  District,  the 
Denver  Union  Water  Company,  the  Pennsylvania  Water  Company,  the 
Spring  Valley  Water  Company  of  San  Francisco,  and  the  Indianapolis 
Water  Company,  besides  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  of  itself  shows  the  im- 
possibility of  such  obsolescence  having  been  avoided  in  making  up  the  de- 
preciation estimates.  The  statistics  for  these  cases  are  very  complete  and 
very  trustworthy,  and  they  are  the  sole  ones  on  which  I  have  depended  in 
making  up  this  general  estimate. 

Mr.  Hathaway.*  Mention  has  been  made  regarding  the  appropria- 
tion by  municipalities  of  budget  moneys  for  this  and  that  purpose  and  in- 
cluding water  works  funds  and  its  purposes. 

I  am  aware  that  most  of  the  so-called  "  budget  experts  "  and  municipal 
research  theorists  do  not  agree  with  me  in  the  opinion  that  a  municipally- 

*  Water  Registrar,  Springfield,  Mass. 

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DISCUSSION.  609 

owned  water  works  should  not  properly  be  included  in  the  city's  annual 
budget. 

The  listing  of  any  self-supporting  "  public  service  enterprise  "  in  a  budget 
of  governmental  departments  entirely  supported  by  tax  levy  only  results 
in  mystifying  and  misinforming  the  tax  payers  and  the  general  public,  in 
whose  minds  the  "  budget  means  but  one  thing,  viz.:  the  apportionment 
of  their  taxes  to  the  various  governmental  requirements  of  the  year. 

I  am  sure  that  every  thinking  person  will  admit  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment upon  serious  consideration. 

One  of  my  good  friends  at  home  (a  prominent  lecturer  and  a  man  of 
more  than  ordinary  intellectual  attainments)  some  years  ago  said  to  me, 
"  I  see  that  in  my  copy  of  the  city's  proposed  budget  for  this  year  appear 
appropriations  for  payment  of  water  bonds,  for  water  bond  interest,  and 
for  water  works  sinking  fund,  and  you  told  me  a  while  ago  that  our  water 
works  is  a  self-supporting  enterprise  and  that  none  of  my  taxes  are  used  or 
needed  for  such  pajrments!    What  does  it  mean?" 

I  replied  that  "  Of  course  you,  as  well  as  other  interested  taxpayers, 
would  not  be  apt  to  notice  that  on  one  of  the  first  pages  are  listed  certain 
items  of  estimated  revenue  from  fees,  licenses,  and  other  sources,  together 
with  only  enough  of  water  works  revenues  to  offset  the  so-called  appropria- 
tions for  water  works  purposes;  so  that  such  "  appropriations  "  are  merely 
a  matter  of  formality  to  please  the  ideas  of  the  budget  maker,  and  actually 
do  not  affect  the  tax  levy  at  all. 

Some  years  ago  I  suggested  to  representative  of  a  research  bureau  in 
Springfield  that  any  reference  to  the  water  works  as  a  department  be  left  out 
of  the  budget;  but  that,  if  desired,  special  pages  might  be  appended  in  the 
back  portion  of  the  budget,  on  which  might  be  listed  all  self-supporting 
'*  public  service  enterprises  "  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality  — 
such  as,  (a)  water  works,  (6)  gas  plant,  (c)  electric  plant,  etc.  —  and  under 
each  could  be  shown  the  estimated  and  classified  revenues  and  expenditures 
of  same,  as  tentatively  forecasted  by  the  commissioners,  trustees,  or  other 
bodies,  in  charge  of  such  respective  enterprises. 

I  am  sure  that  this  method  would  be  far  less  confusing  and  more  in- 
forming to  the  taxpayers  and  the  general  public,  and  is  one  of  the  things 
I  had  in  mind  when  I  suggested  in  my  paper  that  a  non-political  body  out- 
side of  the  local  city  councils  should  be  appointed  to  see  that  a  complete 
separation  should  be  maintained  of  such  public  service  enterprises  from  the 
local  political  governing  bodies,  in  order  that  a  business  administration 
instead  of  a  poUtical  one  might  clearly  show  the  proper  relations  of  the  two 
to  all  citizens  at  all  times. 

Mr.  Leonard  Metcalf.*  (  by  letter).  Mr.  Sherman's  paper  is  a 
sound,  concise  and  altogether  admirable  statement.  It  reflects  the  point 
of  view  of  the  banker  or  critical  investor  as  well  as  of  the  engineer  and  the 

*Of  Metcalf  and  Eddy,  Consulting  Engineers,  Boston. 

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610  TERM   FOR  WHICH  WATER  WORKS   BONDS   SHOULD   RUN. 

water  works  operator.  It  is  based  upon  a  careful  analysis  of  sound  theory 
and  of  reliable  records  of  water  works  operated  intelligently  and  for  long 
periods  of  years. 

What  the  writer  has  to  say  is  dictated  rather  by  the  desire  to  call 
attention  to  and  emphasize  certain  facts,  well  known  to  the  author,  than  to 
contribute  essentially  new  ideas  to  the  discussion;  and  thus  to  prevent  the 
drawing  of  erroneous  conclusions  from  some  of  the  statements  contained 
in  the  author's  paper. 

A  water  works  plant  is  essentially  a  continuing  property.  Under 
normal  conditions,  it  never  dies  unless  the  community  which  it  serves  itself 
dies.  The  structures  constituting  the  physical  part  of  the  property,  on  the 
other  hand,  have  limited  lives.  They  wear  out,  are  outgrown,  or  become 
obsolete  from  one  cause  or  another  within  varying  periods  of  time.  They 
are  replaced  or  superseded  by  new  units  or  groups  of  structures.  But  there 
is  an  average  period  of  existence  of  the  structures,  making  up  the  physical 
plant,  and  this  period  is  the  one  to  which  we  refer  as  the  average  life  of  the 
plant. 

Practically,  individual  groups  of  structures  go  out  of  service,  for  one 
reason  or  another,  from  time  to  time,  and  the  investment  involved  by  them 
must,  on  the  one  hand,  be  retired,  repaid  or  amortized,  and  the  new  or 
superseding  structures  be  covered  by  new  investment;  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  maturing  investment  must  be  reinvested  in  the  replacement  of 
the  existing  or  of  the  new  and  better  adapted  structure  to  do  the  work  of 
the  old  structure.     The  property  continues  to  hve  and  to  serve. 

What  generally  happens  is  that  from  year  to  year,  after  the  initial 
construction  of  the  plant,  the  plant  is  extended  to  meet  the  growing  needs 
of  the  community.  But  with  the  normal  growth  of  cities  in  this  country 
of  25  per  cent,  to  30  per  cent,  per  decade,  radical  changes,  involving  major 
betterments  and  extensions,  substantial  replacements  and  some  abandon- 
ments have  to  be  made,  at  intervals  of  from  10  to  15  years,  more  or  less, 
which  in  turn  involve  extraordinary  expenditures.  These  expenditures  are 
usually  financed  by  bonds,  in  large  measure  if  not  wholly,  because  they 
are  involved  chiefly  by  the  extensions  and  betterments  and  because  they 
cover  structures  designed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  future  15  or 
20  or  even  40  and  50  years  hence  rather  than  of  the  present  moment. 

To  the  extent  that  the  work  involves  replacements  or  abandonments, 
the  old  investment  must  be  retired.  When  retired,  these  old  abandoned 
structures  and  the  investment  upon  them  are  no  longer  of  interest  in 
subsequent  valuations  of  the  property. 

The  author  deals,  quite  properly  for  simplicity  and  clearness  of  con- 
ception, with  the  entire  property  from  its  inception,  rather  than  with  the 
existing  property  only  —  that  is  with  the  original  property  less  abandon- 
ments ■ —  because  he  is  discussing  the  life  of  the  investment  or  bonds 
issued  against  it,  but  the  difference  should  be  noted,  since  the  usual  problem 
faced  in  the  valuation  of  water  works,  in  dealing  with  the  depreciation  of 


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DISCUSSION.  611 

any  property,  is  the  determination  of  the  depreciation  upon  the  existing 
property,  rather  than  the  depreciation  and  abandonment  up)on  the  entire 
property  from  its  inception. 

The  life  histories  of  water  works  in  this  comitry  as  continiung  proper- 
ties, indicate  that  the  structural  property  gradually  decreases  in  value  de- 
spite the  increment  in  value  involved  by  the  minor  annual  betterments, 
until  the  average  Ufe  cycle  of  the  structures  is  reached,  or  until  the  minor 
betterments  approximate  the  annual  rate  of  depreciation,  after  which  the 
so-called  percentage  condition,  or  full  value  less  fair  depreciation  allowance 
of  the  structural  property,  remains  constant  on  the  average,  fluctuating 
materially  only  at  the  more  or  less  periodic  times  of  reconstruction  and 
betterment  already  referred  to. 

Thus  it  has  been  found  that  in  the  smaller,  slower  growing  plants,  their 
condition  varies  from  90  to  92  per  cent.,  and  the  accrued  depreciation  upon 
existing  structures  only,  often  or  perhaps  generally  ranges  from  8  to  10  per 
cent,  of  the  full  value  of  these  structures  and  that  the  amount  of  the  aban- 
doned property  is  relatively  small,  say  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  in 
amount  of  the  accrued  depreciation  upon  the  existing  structures.  But  in 
the  older  plants  serving  the  larger  cities,  their  condition  generally  varies 
from  84  per  cent,  to  88  per  cent,  and  the  accrued  depreciation  from  12  per 
cent,  to  16  per  cent.,  and  the  amount  of  the  abandonments  ranges  from 
one-half  to  the  full  amoimt  of  the  accrued  depreciation  upon  the  existing 
structures. 

Upon  the  thirteen  typical  plants  cited  by  Mr.  Sherman  with  respect 
to  which  full  records  were  available,  the  accrued  depreciation  upon  exist- 
ing structures  averaged  12.9  per  cent;  the  abandoned  structures  averaged 
7.7  per  cent,  of  the  existing  structures  only;  the  combined  accrued-depre- 
ciation-upon-existing-structures  and  abandoned  structures  averaged  19.7 
per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  combined  existing  and  abandoned  structures; 
and  22  per  cent,  of  the  existing  structures  only. 

The  conclusions  reached  by  Mr.  Sherman  appear  to  be  sound  and  to 
indicate  the  principles  upon  which  this  Association  should  stand,  and  which 
should  be  reflected  in  the  laws  of  this  state  governing  the  financing  of 
publicly  owned  water  works. 


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612  DISCUSSION. 


DISCUSSION. 

BY   FREDERIC  I.  WINSLOW. 

(By  letter.) 

[September,  19eg.] 

Should    Water  Departments  be  Merged    with    other    Municipal 

Departments? 

The  heart  of  the  question  raised  by  Mr.  King's  thoughtful  paper  lies 
in  the  vexed  and  unsettled  problem  of  good  city  government.  As  Mr- 
Sherman  states,  the  trouble  bears  hardest  on  the  small  towns  where  depart- 
ments are  merged,  as  the  larger  cities  are  compelled  to  have  at  least  one 
competent  head,  or  speedily  suflFer.  It  was  said  of  the  late  Richard  M. 
Croker,  when  he  was  "  Boss  "  of  New  York  City,  that  he  was  always 
careful  to  select  competent  engineers  in  order  to  actually  prevent  other 
appointees  from  disgracing  his  administration  of  affairs. 

But  whether  the  departments  are  consolidated  or  kept  apart,  the 
allocation  of  a  water  department  surplus  to  any  other  department  short  of 
appropriations,  will  still  be  a  custom. 

To  make  the  relation  between  the  water  and  the  other  departments 
equitable,  every  gallon  of  water  should  be  paid  for  to  the  water  department. 
And  the  water  department  should  be  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  any 
private  utility  in  the  same  town,  so  far  as  compensation  for  the  use  of 
the  streets  is  concerned. 

Along  this  Une  for  many  years  after  the  Boston  water  works  were 
installed,  the  revenue  fell  far  short  of  meeting  the  expenses,  and  the  city 
made  annual  appropriations  to  meet  the  deficits.  Later  when  the  wat-er 
works  did  pay,  an  attempt  was  made  to  reimburse  the  city  for  this,  but 
probably  the  water  works  is  today  in  debt  to  the  city  for  the  last  genera- 
tion's deficits.  So  it  is  not  wholly  a  one-sided  question.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  water-works  man,  the  departments  should  be  maintained 
separately,  but  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  municipal  expert,  all  must 
be  consolidated,  and  this  apparent  clashing  can  only  be  met  by  placing 
at  the  head  of  the  water  department  a  competent  head.  The  subordin- 
ates cannot  be  expected  to  be  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  public  em- 
ployee in  general. 

Just  now  the  City  Manager  idea  seems  to  offer  a  solution  of  this  ques- 
tion, but  this  departure  app)ears  to  be  falling  into  less  favor  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  country,  although  fairly  holding  its  own  in  the  west  and 
south. 


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discussion.  613 

Why  We  Should  Inspect  Water  Works  Equipment. 

[Seplembv,  1922.] 

While  it  is  a  fact  that  the  most  disastrous  and  costly  breaks  in  the 
water  works  system  are  usually  due  to  a  cause  other  than  any  remediable 
by  any  inspection  at  the  foundry,  this  in  no  way  minimizes  the  value  of 
insistent  inspection.  "  Eternal  inspection  is  the  price  of  satisfactory 
castings." 

The  "rigid  bearing  "  has  been  responsible  for  more  expensive  accidents 
than  any  other  one  cause  in  the  history  of  the  water  works  of  Boston  as 
well  as  of  other  large  cities. 

The  moral  effect  of  the  mere  presence  of  an  inert,  even  if  honest,  in- 
spector may  well  be  doubted,  especially  where  the  brains  of  the  foimdry 
exceed  those  of  the  inspector. 

But  Mr.  Lally's  paper  is  valuable  in  emphasizing  the  importance  of 
inspection  in  all  details  and  no  municipality  can  afford  to  neglect  this 
feature  of  water  works  maintenance. 


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614  OBITUARY. 


ROBERT  CARTER  PITMAN  COGGESHALL. 

Robert  Carter  Pitman  Coggeshall  was  bom  in  New  Bedford, 
April  20,  1849.  He  was  the  son  of  Thomas  and  Caroline  (Spooner)  Cogge- 
shall, being  a  direct  lineal  descendant  in  the  eighth  generation  of  John 
Coggeshall,  who  emigrated  to  this  country  from  the  toTVTi  of  Coggeshall, 
Essex,  England,  in  September  1632,  and  settled  in  Roxbury  and  Boston, 
and  later  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  city  of  Newport,  R.I.,  and  at 
the  union  of  the  four  towns,  Newport,  Portsmouth,  Providence  and  Warwick 
was  made  the  first  president  of  that  colony. 

Mr.  Coggeshall  was  named  for  the  late  Judge  Robert  Carter  Pitman, 
an  intimate  friend  of  his  father  and  mother. 

He  received  a  primary  education  at  a  private  school,  entered  the 
Friends  Academy  at  New  Bedford  and  later  became  a  student  at  the  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  at  Troy,  N.Y. 

He  gave  up  the  life  of  a  student  in  the  latter  part  of  1868  to  become  a 
clerk  in  the  New  Bedford  post  office,  where  his  father  was  postmaster. 
Five  months  later  he  accepted  a  clerkship  at  the  Bay  State  Glass  Works  at 
East  Cambridge.  The  engineering  instinct  was  in  him,  however.  As  a 
boy  it  had  sought  expression,  and  he  had  in  vacation  periods  found  employ- 
ment in  the  surveying  department  of  the  Water  Works,  then  first  organiz- 
ing and  building  the  water  system.  In  May,  1872,  he  returned  to  New 
Bedford  to  become  draftsman,  surveyor  and  general  assistant  to  George 
B.  Wheeler  then  superintendent  of  the  Water  Department.  In  1877  he 
was  elected  city  land  surveyor.  At  that  time,  as  the  city  was  small  (26  000) 
this  position  did  not  require  full  time  service.  Mr.  Coggeshall  therefore 
worked  into  a  private  engineering  practice. 

Mr.  Coggeshall  entered  upon  the  office  of  superintendent  of  the  New 
Bedford  Water  Works  and  clerk  of  the  Water  Board  on  June  9,  1881,  suc- 
ceeding William  B.  Sherman.  He  continued  in  that  position  until  April  28, 
1922,  when  he  was  retired  on  account  of  ill  health.  His  business  life  lit- 
erally covered  the  entire  range  of  Water  W^orks  activities  in  New  Bedford 
from  their  very  beginning  until  the  date  of  his  retirement,  covering  the 
growth  of  the  city  from  20  000  to  131  000  population.  During  all  this  period 
he  kept  the  water  system  well  in  advance  of  the  growth  of  the  city,  showing 
great  foresight  in  all  his  operations. 

The  following  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Water  Board  at  the  time  of 
his  retirement  express  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  that  Board. 

"Whereas,  the  retirement  of  Robert  C.  P.  Coggeshall  from  the  offices 
of  superintendent  of  the  New  Bedford  Water  Works  and  clerk  of  the  Water 
Board,  positions  which  he  has  filled  with  unusual  ability  for  a  period  extend- 
ing from  1881  to  1922,  gives  us  an  opportunity  to  express  the  esteem  in 
which  we  hold  him,  and  also  our  appreciation  of  his  long  and  valued  ser- 
vices; therefore  be  it 


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OBITUABY.  615 

"Resolved,  That  we,  the  members  of  the  Water  Board  of  the  city  of 
New  Bedford,  take  pleasure  in  placing  upon  the  records  of  the  Board  our 
high  estimation  of  his  fidelity  and  ability  in  the  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  the 
department. 

"  The  period  of  his  service  has  been  one  of  constant  growth  and  ex- 
pansion, including,  as  it  does  the  time  from  1894-1899,  when  the  construc- 
tion of  the  enlarged  system  of  water  supply  was  planned  and  completed. 

"In  his  retirement  he  leaves  behind  a  record  of  efficiency  and  far- 
sightedness, which  has  few,  if  any,  equals  in  the  municipal  service  of  any 
commimity  in  this  commonw^ealth." 

Mr.  Coggeshairs  life  was  also  very  intimately  connected  with  that  of 
this  association.  He  and  Mr.  Frank  E.  Hall,  then  of  Worcester,  and  Horace 
G.  Holden,  then  of  Lowell,  met  by  chance  at  Lowell  in  February  1882. 
During  that  meeting  the  idea  of  forming  an  association  of  Water  Works 
men,  which  had  previously  been  suggested  in  1877  by  Mr.  James  W.  Lyon 
but  had  made  no  further  progress,  was  revived. 

As  a  result  of  a  great  deal  of  correspondence  twenty-one  men  assem- 
bled at  Young's  Hotel  at  Boston,  April  19,  1882,  when  the  matter  was 
thoroughly  discussed  and  a  committee  appointed  to  draft  a  constitution  of 
by-laws.  This  constitution  was  adopted  and  the  association  organized 
June  21, 1882,  at  Young's  Hotel  with  a  membership  of  twenty-seven.  Mr. 
Coggeshall  was  elected  the  first  secretary  at  that  meeting  and  served  until 
1884.  He  was  president  of  the  association  in  1885-86  and  again  secretary 
from  1887-1895,  when  his  city  work  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
required  his  whole  time,  and  he  reluctantly  relinquished  this  position. 

He  was  the  first  editor  of  the  Journal  when  its  publication  was  begun 
in  1886,  and  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  energetic  promoters  of  the 
association.  He  has  always  contributed  liberally  to  the  papers  and  dis- 
cussions at  the  various  meetings  until  within  the  last  few  years,  when  Ul 
health  has  prevented  his  attendance.  Even  the  failure  of  his  health  could 
not  lessen  his  interest  in  the  association,  as  some  of  the  members,  who  had 
the  pleasure  of  calling  upon  him  during  the  recent  convention  in  New 
Bedford,  can  testify. 

On  February  10,  1915,  he  was  made  an  honorary  member  of  this 
association. 

He  was  also  a  member  of  the  American  Water  Works  Association, 
the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  and  the  Connecticut  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers. 

He  was  very  much  interested  in  the  Masonic  fraternity,  being  a  member 
of  Star  in  the  East  Lodge  A.F.&  A.M.,  Adoniram  R.A.  Chapter,  New  Bed- 
ford Council  R.  &  S.M.,  and  Sutton  Commandery  K.T.  He  w^as  also  a 
member  of  Achushnet  Lodge  I.O.O.F.  and  the  New  Bedford  Encampment. 
He  was  an  earnest  and  active  member  of  the  First  Congregational  (Uni- 
tarian )  Society  where  for  years  he  rendered  valuable  service  as  a  member 
of  various  committees.  He  A\'as  a  member  of  the  Wamsutta  and  Brook's 
Clubs  as  well  as  a  trustee  of  the  New  Bedford  Five  Cent  Savings  Bank. 


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616  OBITUART. 

Mr.  Coggeshall  married  Ledora  Jenny  on  December  21,  1875.  She 
died  December  15,  1885.  The  two  children  of  this  marriage,  Robert  F., 
an  electrical  engineer  in  the  employ  of  the  General  Electric  Co.,  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  and  Miss  Helen  R.  of  New  Bedford  are  both  living. 

On  April  29,  1890,  he  married  Sarah  Wall  Almy  of  New  Bedford,  who 
also  survives  him. 

He  was  an  honor  to  this  Association,  and  as  a  public  official  he 
always  stood  out  as  an  example  to  the  organization  for  his  faithful,  con- 
scientious performance  of  duty. 

His  able  counsel  and  genial  smile  will  be  greatly  missed  not  only  at  the 
meetings  of  this  association,  but  in  many  of  the  activites  of  his  native  city. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

S.  H.  Taylor, 
C.  E.  Davis, 
Robert  J.  Thomas. 


CHARLES  E.  PEIRCE. 

Charles  E.  Pbirce,  son  of  Chauncy  and  Ellen  M.  Peirce,  was  bom 
in  Lincoln,  R.  I.,  June  8,  1848.  In  1858  his  parents  moved  to  East 
Providence,  R.  L,  where  he  continued  to  reside  until  his  death  on  January 
18,  1922. 

On  April  4,  1865,  when  scarcely  eighteen  years  old,  Mr.  Peirce  enlisted 
in  Company  H,  Third  Battalion,  15th  U.  S.  Infantry,  seeing  service  at 
Fort  Adams,  Mobile  and  Lookout  Mountain  before  being  discharged 
April  4,  1868.  After  his  discharge  from  the  Army  his  interest  in  military 
affairs  was  transferred  to  the  State  Mihtia  and  in  1884  he  served  as  Sergeant 
Major,  First  Battalion  of  Cavalry.  In  later  years  he  was  very  active  in 
affairs  of  the  G.  A.  R.  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  Senior  Vice-Com- 
mander, Department  of  Rhode  Island,  G.  A.  R. 

In  1874,  Mr.  Peirce  entered  business  as  a  contractor,  mason  and 
builder.  In  1893,  he  constructed  the  pumping  station  of  the  East  Provi- 
dence Water  Company  and  upon  the  completion  of  the  water  works  in 
1895,  was  elected  superintendent,  which  position  he  continued  to  fill  until 
he  passed  away. 

On  July  30,  1873,  Mr.  Peirce  was  married  to  Mary  Wagner  of  Sharon 
Springs,  N.  Y.  One  son,  Chauncy  Peirce,  who  died  in  1885  at  the  age  of 
eleven,  was  the  result  of  this  union.  Saddened  by  the  death  of  his  wife 
in  1912  and  with  no  immediate  family  Mr.  Peirce  sought  consolation  and 
companionship  in  various  fraternal  organizations  with  which  he  was 
affiliated.  He  was  a  member  of  Redwood  Lodge  No.  35,  A.  F.  &  A.  M., 
Solomon's  Lodge  of  Perfection,  R.  I.  Council  Princes  of  Jerusalem,  R.  I. 


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OBITUARY.  617 

Chapter  of  Rose  Croix  and  R.  I.  Consistory,  Reliance  Lodge  No.  34, 
I.  0.  O.  F.,  and  Howard  Lodge  No.  12,  Knights  of  Pythias,  of  which  latter 
body  he  was  Past  Grand  Chancellor. 

In  civic  affairs  Mr.  Peirce  also  took  an  active  interest,  serving  at 
various  times  as  chief  of  police,  as  a  member  of  the  Town  Committee  and 
as  a  member  of  the  Town  Coimcil  of  his  home  town.  Always  active  in 
matters  pertaining  to  the  conservation  of  bird  and  game  life,  in  1911  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  State  Bird  Commission  on  which  he  served 
mitil  1920. 

Elected  to  membership  in  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association 
September  14,  1887,  and  a  regular  attendant  at  its  meetings  for  nearly 
thirty-five  years,  his  wise  counsel,  his  never  failing  courtesy  and  helpful 
service  brought  to  him  a  wide  circle  of  friends  among  water  works  men. 
In  his  death  the  Association,  the  conmiunity  and  the  State  lose  a  worker 
for  all  that  was  best  in  many  important  human  interests. 

Stephen  De  M.  Gage, 
Albert  E.  Dickerman, 

Committee. 


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618  NOVEMBER  MEETING. 


PROCEEDINGS. 


November  Meeting. 

Boston  City  Club, 
Tuesday,  November  14,  1922. 

The  President,  Frank  A.  Barbour,  in  the  chair. 

The  following  were  duly  elected  members  of  the  Association: — 

Active:  John  L.  Morton,  Water  Commissioner,  Plymouth,  Mass.; 
Richard  Sigfred  Holmgren,  Lynn,  Mass.  —  2. 

Associate:  Chase  Metal  Works,  Waterbury,  Conn.,  Brass  Manu- 
facturers; Fields  Point  Manufacturing  Company,  Providence,  R,  I., 
Manufacturers  of  Liquid  Lime  Bleach,  Liquid  Caustic  Soda  and  Liquid 
Chlorine.  —  2. 

Dr.  Richard  Moldenke,  of  Watchung,  N.  J.,  gave  a  talk  on  "  Some 
Engineering  Aspects  of  Cast-iron." 

A  paper  on  "  Tars,  New  and  Old,"  illustrated  with  the  steropticon, 
was  read  by  Mr.  S.  R.  Church,  Chemist  and  Manager  of  Oil  and  Tar 
Division,  The  Barrett  Company,  New  York  City. 

Moving  pictures  were  then  exhibited  showing  the  making  of  pipe  by 
the  sand  method,  and  also  showing  the  centrifugal  process  of  casting  pipe 
at  the  new  plant  of  the  United  States  Cast-iron  Pipe  and  Foundry  Com- 
pany, Birmingham,  Ala. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Sherman.  Mr.  President,  we  have  experienced 
a  most  remarkable  meeting  of  this  Association,  and  as  a  very  slight  expres- 
sion of  our  appreciation  of  what  has  been  given  to  us  here  I  move  a  rising 
vote  of  thanks  to  Dr.  Moldenke,  to  Mr.  Church,  and  to  the  United  States 
Cast-iron  Pipe  and  Foundry  Company. 

(The  motion  was  duly  seconded  and  unanimously  carried  by  a  rising 
vote.) 

(Adjourned.) 


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ADVBBTISISHBNTS. 


INDEX  OF  ADVERTISERS. 


Paob 

Ambunen  Construction  Co iii 

Barbour.  F.  A ii 

Barrows,  H.  K ii 

Braman,  Dow  A  Go xx 

Buffalo  Meter  Co x 

Builders  Iron  Foundry ix 

Caldwell.  Geo.  A..  Co xxi 

Central  Foundry  Co zxzvi 

Chadwick-Boston  Lead  Co zxxiii 

Chapman  Valve  M'f  g  Co xxvi 

Clark.  H.  W.,  Co xxi 

Coffin  Valve  Co xxiv 

Conard  &  Busby ii 

Dixon,  Jos.,  Crucible  Co xxi 

Donaldson  Iron  Co xxviii  • 

Eddy  Valve  Co.    , xxvii 

Edson  Manufacturing  Co xxxi 

Electro  Bleaching  Gas  Co xix 

Fox,  John  &  Co xxx 

Fuller  &  McClintock ii 

Gamon  Meter  Co xiii 

Gilchrist  Co.,  Geo.  E xxi 

Hayes  Pump  and  Machinery  Co xvii 

Hays  M'f'g  Co xxxv 

Hazen  &  Whipple ii 

Herscy  M'f'g  Co iv 

Hill,  Nicholas  8.,  Jr ii 

Houdlette,  Fred  A,,  A  Son xxi,  xxxiv 

Johnson,  Geo.  A.,  Co ii 

Kennedy  Valve  Co xxiv 

Lead  Lined  Iron  Pipe  Co xxx 

Leadite  Co xxxii 

Lead-Hydro-Tite xxxiv 

Lock  Joint  Pipe  Co xxxvii 

Ludlow  Valve  M'f 'g  Co xxv 

Main,  Charles  T ii 

Ma»ur.  F.  A.,  A  Co xv 

MetcalfAEddy ii 

Michigan  Pipe  Co Back  cover 

Mueller,  H.,  M'f'g  Co xxii 

National  Meter  Co xiv 

National  Water  Main  Cleaning  Co xix 

Neptune  Meter  Co vi 

Pitometer  Company xxviii 

Pittsburgh  Meter  Co vii 

Power  Equipment  Co xvii 

Rensselaer  Valve  Co xxv 

Ross  Valve  M'f'g  Co ^ xxiv 

Simplex  Valve  A  Meter  Co xii 

Smith,  The  A.  P.,  M'f'g  Co xx7 

Starkweather  &  Broadhurst xvi 

Symonds,  Henry  A iii 

Thomson  Meter  Co , v 

Thorpe,  Lewis  D iii 

Union  Water  Meter  Co xi 

U.  S.  Cast  Iron  Pipe  and  Foundry  Co xxix 

Wallace  &  Tiernan xviii 

Warren  Foundry  and  Pipe  Co xxm 

Weston  A  Sampson      ^^n 

Wood.  R.  D..ACO W 

Worthtngton  Pump  and  Machinery  Corp ^ffii 

(Classified  index  on  page  xxxviii) 


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ADYEBTISiaiENTB. 


ENGINEER'S  SECTION 


rUI^I^KR  A  McCI^INTOCK 


BbMrQ.UaMkM 
B«T«y  P.  JoMt 


HcGllsiocfc  hm 


mK 

DouUmm 


Coatvltmf  Hjdrmnlic  EfiMcri  tmi  SiaUry  Ezparti 

Water  Sopply,  Severage,  Rtfati  Dlsposil,  ImsttlsttltR 

•f  Epitfanlci,  ValiatioRt,  SapanlsfaR  if 

Conttrattloi  iRtf  Opeiitloi 


170  BrtMdway.  N«w  York  City 

319  Sainmit-Ch«nT  BM«..  t< 

Prodttc*  ExclMas*  BId«. 


olede.  Ohio 

City.  Mo. 


CONARD  &  BUZBY 


Aawc.  Men.  Amcr.  Soc.  C.  E. 


Amoc.  Amcr.  Soc.  M.  B. 


322  High  St.,  Burlington,  N.  J. 

Inspections  and  Tests  of  Stbterlats 


Reports 
Designs 


Specifications 
Inspections 
Tests 


NICHOLAS  S.  HILL,  Jr. 

Consulting  Englnoor 

Water  Sappiv  —  Sewatfe  Disposal 

Hydraailc  DeyelopmcDte 

Reports,  Investigations,  Valuations,  Rates* 
Desisn,Construction,Operation,Monassmsnt 

Chemical  and  Biological  Laboratories 

112  EAST  19th  ST.  NEW  YORK  CITY 


METCALF  &  EDDY 

14  BoaooB  Street,  Botton,  Mass. 
WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SEWERAQB 


Design 

Supervision 

Reports 


Constractlon 
JVUnagement 
Valuations 


CHARLES  T.  MAIN 
ENGINEER 

200  DEVONSHIRE  STREET 
BOSTON.  MASS. 

Plans  and  Specifications  for  Textile  and  other  In- 
dustrial Plants,  Water  Power  and  Steam  Power 
Developments.  Examinations  and  Reports  on 
Plants  with  reference  to  their  Value,  Reorganization 
or  Develepment. 


H.  K.  BARROWS 

M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 
CoiMttlif  I'ng  HydroMtiic  Enginemr 

WaUr  Pow^r,  Water  Supply,  Sewerage, 
Drainage.  InTeatigatioB  Reports,  Valua- 
tions, De»igna,Supenriaion  of  Conatruction 


BOSTON,  MASS. 


6  BEACON  ST. 


WESTON  &  SAMPSON 

Consulting  Engineers 

Robert  Spin*  Weston  Goorgo  A.  SmMupman 

Water  Supply  and  Sewerage 
Chemical  and  Bacteriological 

Laboratory 
14  BEACON  ST.    -     BOSTON,  MAS& 


HAZEN  &  WHIPPLE 

civil  Engineers 

▲LUN  HAZBR      Q.  G.  WHIPPLE      G.  H.  BTBRBTT 
HALGOUI  PIBWB       L  H.  gABUTT 

WATER  WORKS 

Design      Ck>n8truction      Operation 

Valuations      Rates 


30  East  42nd  Street  -  New  York  City 

F.  A.  BARBOUR 

M.  Am.  Soc.,  C.  E.      C.  E.  M.  Can.  Soc.  G.  E. 

Consulting  Bnglnoor 

Water  Supply,  Water  Purification 
Sewerage  and  Sewage  Disposal. 

Tremont  Building,  Boston,  MasSi 


GEORGE  A.  JOHNSON  CO.,  Inc. 

Ceataltinf  Ciril,  Electrical,  Medttucal  Engiaecrt 

G.  A.  Jolmsoa  N.  B.  Wolfe 

H.  C.  Sterons  C.  R.  Wjckoff 

Water  Sapplj,  Sewerafe,  ReKise  Ditpeial,  Fewer 

DcTelopmcat  aad  DistribatieB,  haastrial  Pkata 

aad  Pablic  UtiBtiet 

Reports,  Doaicns.  Supervision  of 

Construction.    Managoas— t 

150  Nauau  Street     •     New  Yoik  Oty 


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ADVERTISEMENTS. 


m 


ENGINEER'S  SECTION 

HENRY  A.  SYMONDS 

LEWIS  D.  THORPE 

Consulting  Engineer 

Civil  and   Sanitary   Engineer 

68  Devonshire  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 
WATER  SUPPLY 

Water  Works,  Sewerage  and  Sewage 
Disposal 

Surveys  —  Estimates  —  Desigrns 
Supervision 

MANAOEMENT  AND  ORQANIZATION 
EFFICIENCY  REPORTS 

Supervision  of  Construction  and  Operation 

200  Devonshire  Street 
BOSTON,  MASS. 

AMBURSEN    DAMS    ' 

Hydroelectric  Derelopments 

Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Dams 

DAMS   ON    DIFFICULT   FOUNDATIONS 

• 

AMBURSEN  CONSTRUCTION  CO. 

Incorporated 

Room  2520,  Grand  Central  Terminal  Bldft. , 
New  York 

Kansas  City,  Mo.                       Atlanta,  Ga. 

FRANK  J.  GIFFORD,  Sec'y,, 

715  Trcmont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass. 

$75 
Dear  Sir:  Enclosed  please  find  1.50  in  payment  of  charge  for  Certificate 

2.25 

of  Membership  in  the  N.  E.  W.  W.  Association  ($1.50),  and  Mem- 
bership Button  ($  .75),  which  please  mail  me  and  oblige 
Yours  truly, 


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IV  ADVEBTISSMBNTS. 


HERSEY  DISC  METER.  MODEL  HF,  which  is  the  highest  lype  of  Frost  protected 
M'^ter  and  HERSEY  DISC  METER.  MODEL  HD.  which  is  the  I^est  type  of  divided 
or  ftplit-case  Meter,  are  the  product  of  thirty-five  years*  experience  and  refinement  in  the 
manufacture  of  Water  Meters.  These  Models  excel  all  Meters  of  all  makes  in  all  those 
essentials  which  go  toward  making  exceptionally  desirable  Meters. 

HERSEY  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

Main  Office  and  Works:   E  and  2a  Sts..  SOUTH  BOSTON.  MASS. 

BRANCHES 

NewYork.  N.  Y 290  Broadway      Columbus,  Ohio.    .    .    .  211  Schultz  Building 

Philai>eli»hia.  Pa.,  132  Commercial  Trust  Bldg.       Chicago,  III 10  So.  La  Salle  St rcrt 

San  Francisco.  Calif.  .    .    .  742  Market  Street       Atlanta,  Ga.   .    .  610  C.  &  S.  Bank  Building 
Los  An(.eles.  Calif..  218  E.  Third  Street. 


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AD  VlRRTldfi]y[£NT6 . 


FROZEN!— but 

not  damaged 


Here  is  an  actual  photograph  of 
a  LAMBERT  Frost- proof  Meter  which 
has  been  frozen  to  an  extent  that 
would  put  the  ordinary  meter  com- 
pletely out  of  commission. 


This  is  made  possible  by  a  pat- 
ented, non-corrosive  yielding  bolt 
device  which  allows  the  upper  and 
lower  casing,  disc  chamber  and  gear 
train  to  part  without  damaging  the 
meter  in  any  way.  Five  minutes' 
labor  the  only  repair  cost. 


The  expense  and  annoyance  from 
frozen  water  meters  can  be  elimin- 
ated for  all  time  through  the  installa- 
tion of  the   LAMBERT  Frost-proof. 

It  has  been  proved  that  the 
LAMBERT  is  the  easiest  water 
meter  to  take  apart  and  put  to- 
gether again  as  well  as  the  simplest, 
most  reliable  and  accurate. 

■  If  you  are  interested  in  other  types 
of  meters,  we  make  one  for  every 
requirement. 


THOMSON  METER  COMPANY 

100-110    BRIDGE    STREET         BROOKLYN,    N.    Y. 


LAMBERT 


FROST-PROOF 
METERS 


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Tl  ADVERTISEICENTB. 


.  A  Trident  for  Every  Service  I 

WHY  are  there  more  than  two 
million  TRIDENTS  in  service? 

There  is  only  one  reason, — TRIDENTS  are  more  continuously  accu- 
rate, more  durable,  more  economically  maintained.  They  are  die  best 
meters.     Don't  stint  quality  —  you  need  the  best  for  jH>«r  services! 

Have  you  seen  our  latest  development, — the  Trident  (enclosed)  Gear 
Train? 

NEPTUNE  METER  COMPANY 

50  EAST  42d  ST.,  NEW  YORK  CITY 

Atlanta  Boston  Chicago 

Cincinnati  Denver  Portland 

San  Francisco  Los  Angeles  Seattle 


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ADVERTISEMENTS. 


WATER  METERS 


ARCTIC  —  a  frost- bottom  meter        KEYSTONE— an  all  bronze  meter 
for  cold  climates.  for  warm  climates. 


EUREKA  —  a  current  meter  for  KEYSTONE  -  COMPOUND  —  for 
large  and  rapidly  flowing  volumes  services  requiring  accurate  meas- 
of  water.  urement  of  small  as  well  as  large 

volumes  of  water. 


PITTSBURGH  METER  COMPANY 

General  Office  and  Works    -    East  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

SALES   OFFICES: 

New  York  -    -    -    -    50  Church  St.      Columbia,  S.  C.  -    -    1433  Main  St. 

Chicago        -     -     -   5  S.  Wabash  Ave.      Seattle   -    -     -  -    802  Madison  St. 

Kansas  City    -    -    -    Mutual  Bldg.      Los  Angeles    -  -  Union  Bank  Bldg. 


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Vlll  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


What  Freezing 
Did  Not  Do 


These  two  pictures  show  the  intermediate 
gears  of  a  Worthington  Model  "C  Meter.  In 
one  the  train  is  encased  in  a  solid  block  of  ice, 
just  as  the  parts  were  taken  out  of  a  com- 
pletely frozen  meter.  After  the  ice  melted  the 
other  photograph  was  made  to  show  that  no 
damage  was  done.  Gears,  train  plate  and 
casing,  all  came  through  the  freezing  totally 
unharmed.  The  only  parts  which  suffered  were 
four  little  bronze  frost  clamps,  replaceable  for  a 
few  cents.  This  shows  some  of  the  things  that 
do  not  and  cannot  happen  when  a  Worthington 
meter  freezes.  Those  little  frost  clamps  are 
certainly  cheap  insurance  against  the  ravages 
of  zero  weather. 

WORTHINGTON 


Showing  the  gean*  pinions  and  I 
train  plate  after  tliawing.    Not  a 

single  part  has  been  warped  or  din-  The  intermediate   train 

torted  in  the  lea«t.    The  straight  just  after  it  was  taken  out 

edge  across  the  face  of   the  ,train  of  a  standard    Worthington 

plate  shows  clearly  that  the  original  meter.    Note  how  completely, 

shape  has  not  changed.  the  gearing  is  encased  in  ice. 


WORTHINGTON  PUMP  AND  MACHINERY  CORPORATION 

Executive  Offices:  1 1 5  Broadway,  New  York  City 

Branch  Offices  in  24  Large  Cities 


>i"*"* I'lxioixiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiKiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiin 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  IX 


HiHu»iiiiiMimtim»MimmiH»mni«tiiiiinniMimriiinn«infiiiniiniiiniifiii»iiiniinn^ 


CONSERVE 

YOUR  GREAT  ASSET  OF 

PURE  WATER 


The  town  or  city  with  an  abundant  supply  of  pure, 
sparkling  water  is  possessed  of  a  most  valuable  asset 
which  should  be  conserved  and  administered  with 
greatest  care.  No  matter  whether  the  supply  comes 
from  an  uncontamininated  catchment  area  or  has  to 
be  carefully  filtered  and  treated  before  distribution, 
the  supply  should  not  be  allowed  to  waste. 

VENTURI  METERS 

have  proved  to  be  able  and  unceasing  allies  to  thou- 
sands of  towns  and  cities  in  the  constant  fight  against 
waste  and  unauthorized  use  of  water.  When  placed 
in  well-planned  locations  in  the  supply  and  distribu- 
tion mains,  a  constant  and  accurate  knowledge  of  flow 
is  available.  The  Venturi  Register- Indicator- Re- 
corder not  only  gives  total  flow  but  makes  a  permanent 
record  on  a  12"  circular  chart  of  every  change  of  rate 
throughout  every  hour,  day  and  night.  Venturi 
Meters  last  as  long  as  the  pipe  lines  of  which  they 
form  a  part. 

Interesting  Engineering  Bnlletina  sent  on  Request 

Builders  Iron  Foundry" 

PROVIDENCE,  R.  L 


■■'""" ""'■■■'MiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMutiiiiimiuiiiuiinnitiiiiiiiimuiiniiira 


ADVERTlSElfENTS. 


I ■ 

AMERICAN  AND  NIAGARA 

WATER  METERS 


Niagara  and  American  Meters  are  of  the  disc  type. 
The  Niagara  Meter  has  a  galvanized  cast-iron  outside 
casing;  the  American  Meter  has  a  bronze  main  casing 
with  either  a  bronze  base  or  a  galvanized  cast-iron  base. 
The  works  in  the  three  different  casings  are  the  same 
and  interchangeable.  Upon  opening  the  meter  at  the 
bolted  flange,  each  intermediate  gear  may  be  imme- 
diately removed  from  its  bearing,  the  measuring  cham- 
ber lifted  from  its  seat,  the  strainer  slipped  out,  or  the 
register  tried  by  turning  the  stuffing  box  gear.  All  sub- 
merged working  bearings  are  protected  against  sand 
and  sediment.  The  hard  rubber  measuring  disc  is 
reinforced  with  a  metal  plate.  Purchaser  has  option 
of  round  reading  or  straight  reading  register  indicating 
cubic  feet,  U.  S.  gals.,  imp.  gals,  or  litres. 


Round  Straight 

Reading  Reading 

Register  Register 

BUFFALO  METER  CO. 

ESTABLISHED   1892 

2896  Main  Street  BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 


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ADVERTISEMENTS. 


UNION    WATER    METERS 


King  Model  "B"  Disc  Meter 

WATER  METERS 

cannot  be  any  better  than  their  gear  trains,  and  the  life 
of  the  gear  train  is  determined  by  its  ability  to  with- 
stand corrosive  conditions. 

Hard  rubber  bushed  spindles,  intermediate  spur  gears 
of  hard  rubber  and  phosphor  bronze  have  been  a  feature 
of  Union  Water  Meters  for  forty  years.  In  recent 
years  this  has  been  further  perfected  by  the  adoption 
of  Monel  Metal  for  spindles  and  screws. 

The  buoyancy  of  rubber  spur  gears  renders  the  meter 
more  sensitive  and  minimizes  wear. 

Makers    of    Approved    Water 
Works  Specialties  since  1868 

Union  Water  Meter  Co. 

WORCESTER,    MASS. 

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XU  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


Is  Your  Pressure  Low  7 

Are  You  Short  on  Pumping  Capacity  ? 

Do  You  Know  Where  Your  Water 

Goes  7 

UR   Engineering   Department  will 

tell  you    how  to  determine  your 

water  distribution,  how  to  find  out 

ler  or  not  new  mains  are  required, 

We  can  supply  you  with  the  means 

1.  Checking  up  pump  p>erforniance  and  deter- 
mining slippage  due  to  leaky  plungers, 
defective  valve?,  short  stroking  or  other 
causes, 

2.  Measuring  delivery  of  centrifugal  pumps 
k  and  figuring  whether  or  not  the  station  is  up 
I              to  eflficiency, 

3.  Distributing  proportionately  the  cost  of 
water  supplied  to  several  districts, 

4.  Checking  up  the  performance  of  filter  beds, 

I       5.     Detecting  waste  or  pipe  leakage. 

6.  Recording  daily  amounts  of  sewage  handled 
and  planning  future  extensions,  etc.,  etc. 

THE  SIMPLEX  METER 

VENTURE  PILOT  TUBE  OR  ORIFICE  TYPES 

THE  importance  of  exact  measurements  by  means  of  a  Simplex  Meter  can- 
not be  over  emphasized.  Mr.  Jeffries,  Chairman  of  the  West  Chester,  Pa. 
Water  Works  Committee,  was  able,  by  checking  the  performance  of  his  pump- 
ing engine  with  a  Simplex  Meter,  to  discover  that  due  to  the  imperfection  and 
wear  in  the  valves  the  slippage  amounted  to  300,000  gallons  of  water  j^et*  day. 
This  represented  a  daily  loss  of  $30.00,  or  in  other  words  a  daily  saving  of 
$30.00,  or  $900.00  per  month,  when  the  valves  were  put  in  order.  The  Simplex 
Meter  thus  paid  for  itself  in  a  month's  time. 

Frequent  repeat  orders  from  satisfied  customers  who  formerly  used  other  me- 
ters are  the  best  evidence  of  merit  of  the  Simplex  Meter. 

We  have  had  many  years*  experience  in  solving  water  flow  problems  involving 
all  sorts  of  conditions,  and  we  are  at  all  times  prepared  to  submit  general  lay- 
outs involving  cost  and  capacity,  and  to  make  explicit  and  complete  recom- 
mendations.    Write  for  Bulletin  N26. 

SIMPLEX  VALVE  AND  METER  COMPANY 

Manufacturers  of  Meters  for  Water,  Sewage,  and  Other 
Liquids,  Rate  Controllers,  Automatic  Air  valves.  Regu- 
lating X'alves,  and  Hydraulic  Apparatus  of  Special  Design. 

5729  RACE  STREET  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

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ADVERTISEMENTS.  XUl 


AVATCH  DOG  WATER  METERS 


ACCUR.  DURABLE 


DISC,    CURRENT   AND    COMPOUND   TYPES 
Inc|uiries   Solicited 


GAMON  METER  COMPANY^ 


NEWARK  NEW  JERSEY 

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XIV  APVERTISEMENTS. 


NASH 

(TYPE  K) 

WATER 
METERS 


A  FIRST-CLASS,  up-to-date  disc  model,  possess- 
•^^^  ing  every  worth-while  feature  to  be  found  in  any 
meter  of  this  type.  Among  the  important  specifications 
are: 

All  composition  construction 
Split  cylinder  without  screws 
Straight  reading  register 
Large,  slow-moving  disc 
Enclosed  intermediate 
Frost  protection 
Ready  drainage 

V/e  also  make  the  famous  EMPIRE  oscillating  piston  meter ; 
the  DROWN  rotary  piston  meter ;  the  GEM  velocity  type ;  the 
EMPIRE -COMPOUND,  a  combination  of  the  EMPIRE  and 
GEM,  with  all  the  merits  of  both ;  and  a  Venturi  type,  known 
as  the  PREMIER. 

Send  Postal  for  Complete  Catalogue 

NATIONAL     METER    COMPANY 

299  Broadway,  New  York 

CHICAGO,  ILL.:  2626  S.  Park  Ave.  BOSTON,  MASS.:  287  AtUntic  At*. 

CINCINNATI.  O.:  415  Sycamore  St.  ATLANTA.  GA.:  251  Ivy  St. 

SAN  FRANCISCO.  CAL. :  141  N.  Montg'mry  St.     WINNIPEG.  MAN. :   181  Ethelbert  St. 


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ADVERTISEMENTS.  XV 


ATTENTION 
WATER  WORKS 

OF  NEW  ENGLAND 

A  few  reasons  why  we  solicit  your  inquiries  on  Water- Works 
Pumping  Equipment: 

First.  —  We  make  a  specialty  of  furnishing  Complete  Water- Works 

Pumping  Units  of  all  types. 
Second.  —  Total  responsibility  of  installation  is  assumed  by  us. 
Third.  —  We  relieve  the  purchaser  of  every  detail  and  turn  the 

complete  unit  over  to  him  under  actual  operation  and  with 

guarantee. 
Fourth.  —  Every  unit  installed  to  date  has  exceeded  its  guarantee 

and  has  been  completely  accepted. 


Turbine-driven  Pump  at  the  Arlington  Station  of  the  Metropolitan 
Water  Works,  Boston,  Mass. 


F.  A.  Mazzur  &  Co. 

141   MILK  STREET,  BOSTON 


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XVI  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


Test  of  Centrtfu^  Pumping  Set 

at  City  of  Wobum  Water  Works 

CONTRACT  CONDITIONS  AND  GUARANTEE 

PLANT  —  Morris  Machine  Works  Single  Stage  Centrifugal  Pump  Direct 
Connected  Through  Reduction  oear  to  a  Multistage  Condensing 
Kerr  Steam  Turbine. 

CAPACITY  —  5,000,000  gallons  per  24  hours. 

HEAD  —  239  feet  dynamic. 

DUTY  — 94,000,000  foot  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  of  dry  steam  at  115 
pounds  gage  pressure. 

TEST  RESULTS 

WATER  PUMPED  —  3,334  gallons  per  minute. 

DYNAMIC  PUMPING  HEAD  -—  240  feet,  including  18  foot  suction  lift. 

STEAM  USED  —  4,040  pounds  per  hour. 

PRESSURE  AND  QUALITY—  111.5  pounds  gage,  moisture  1.4  per  cent. 

BACK  PRESSURE  —  1  inch  Hg.  Absolute. 

DEVELOPED  DUTY  — 99,078,751  foot  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  of  dry 

'    ■    saturated  steam  at   115  pounds  pressure  supplied  at  the  throttle. 

Excess  duty,  over  5  per  cent.    On  this  basis  —  with  steam  costing 

50  cents  per  1,000  pounds  —  the  cost  of  pumping  the  water  is  about 

$10  per  million  gallons. 

The  first  cost  of  this  turbine  driven  centrifugal  water  works 
pump  with  surface  condenser  and  steam  driven  air  pump,  was 
approximately  one  third  the  cost  of  a  crank  and  flywheel 
reciprocating  unit,  of  the  same  capacity. 

Note  the  low  steam  pressure  and  absence  of  superheat, 
a  condition  typical  of  many  existing  water  works  plants. 
A  duty  of  nearly  100,000,000  foot  pounds  is  regularly  ob- 
tained. 

Equipment  installed  according  to  plans  and  specifica- 
tions of 

H.  M.  HAVEN  &  W.  W.  CROSBY,  Inc.,  Engineers 
40  Court  Street  Boston,  Mass. 

CONTRACTORS 

STARKWEATHER  &   BROADHURST,  Inc. 

79  Milk  Street,  Bmton,  Mast. 


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ADVERTISEMENTS.  XVU 


PLANT  EFFICIENCY— 77%  ON  1-YEAR  RUN 
WIRE  TO   WATER 

HAYES  PUMP  AND  MACHINERY  CO. 

94  PEARL  ST.,  BOSTON,  MASS. 

Pumping   Plant    Contractors 
CENTRIFUGAL,  POWER,  STEAM  PUMPS 

STEAM  TURBIP^S  ELECTRIC  MOTORS 

WATER  WHEELS  OIL  ENGINES 


Power  Equipment  Company 

131  State  Street 
Boston 

DE  LAVAL  Water  Works  Pumping 
Ekiuipment 

Steam  -  Electric  -  Gasoline 

Complete  Installations  -  or  Pumping 
Units  only 


^ot 


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ADVERTISEBirENTS. 


Type  of  W&T  equipment  inttaUed  at  Baltimore^  Md, 


i'^^j6^  Cases 
of  Typhoid  Fever 

have  been  prevented  in  the  State  of  Maryland  since  1914 
by  the  adoption  of  efficient  sanitary  measures.  This  rep- 
resents, according  to  the  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics of  the  State  Department  of  health,  a  saving  of  1 150 
lives  and  $6,781,900  in  vital  capital. 


In  Maryland,  as  elsewhere,  the  chlorination  of  drinking 
water  has  played  a  vital  role  in  this  wonderful  reduction 
of  Typhoid  Fever, 

In  Maryland  there  are  thirty-five  W^T  Chlorinators 
in  operation  and  there,  as  elsewhere,  this  public  health 
insurance  costs  less  than  one  cent  per  capita  per  year. 

How  about  Your  Community? 


WALLACE  ^  TIERNAN 

COMPANY, INC0RPORATED 

Manufacturers  •/  Chlorine  Control  jl^faratut 


NEWARK 


NEW  JERSEY 


ADYEBTISEBIENTS. 


XIX 


£iquia 


CONFIDENCE 


The  keynote  of  successful  effort  is  confidence.  It  is  vital  to  the 
economic  and  financial  structure  of  the  country.  The  whole  fabric  of 
our  industrial  and  political  life  rests  upon  it. 

So  it  is  with  our  business,  old  customers  stick  and  new  ones  come 
to  us,  because  by  actual  experience  or  our  reputation  for  faithful  service 
they  have  implicit  confidence  in  our  ability  and  our  desire  to  take 
care  of  their  Liquid  Chlorine  requirements — whether  it  is  for  a  cylinder 
or  a  tank  car. 

Get  intz  the  EB.G,  fold  and  put  an  end  to 
}fi.ur  Liquid  Chlorine  worries  for  all  time  / 

Beciro  Bleaching  Gas  Co. 

PIONEER  MANUFACrURERS^UQUID  CHLORINE 

PhnI:  MAOABA  FAUS.NY. 
/(■iiiaAiceBEast  4te  Street  New  York  Oilcaf)  office  It  SaUSalle  St 


Health  and  Protection  First 

Water  delivered  through  dirty  pipes 
may  be  a  MENACE. 

Incrusted  water  pipes  mean  inefficiency 
and  loss  of  Fire  Protection. 

We  Guarantee  the  Results  of  Our 
Method  of  Cleaning. 

WRITE    US. 

National  Water  Main  Cleaning  Co. 

50  Church  Street         New  York  City 


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XX  .  AJDVEBTISBMENTS. 


BRAMAN,  DOW  &  CO. 

NATIONAL  STEEL  PIPE 
READING  IRON  PIPE 

CAST  AND  MALLEABLE  FITTINGS 
HIGH  GRADE  BRASS  FITTINGS 

VALVES  AND  COCKS 

SERVICE  AND  VALVE  BOXES 

PIPING  TOOLS 

239-245  CAUSEWAY  ST.,  BOSTON,  MASS. 


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ADYEBTISEMSNTS. 


XXI 


H.   W,   CLARK  CO. 
1740  Broadway  Mattoon,  III.,  U.S.A. 

Branch  Offices : 
New  York  Memphis      San  Francisco 

Salt  Lake  City    Buffalo  Chicago 

Manufocturera  of  the  well- 
known  CLARK  METER  BOX, 
maintaining  uniformity  for  both 
large  and  small  meters.  Stand- 
ardisation in  meter  installations 
saves  you  money.  Eveiy  thing 
for  the  Water  Works. 

Write  for  new  eaUdoffue  No.  tO. 


GEO.  E.  GILCHRIST  CO. 

Manufacturmra  and  Jobbmrm  of 

Steam,  Gas  and  Plmnbmg  Materials 

WROUGHT  IRON  PIPE 
Railway,  Water  Works  and  Sanitary  Supplies  • 

106  High^  corner  Congress  St.,  Boston 


W«  Carry  in  BOSTON  STOCK  for  Ia»»<iiato 
Shipment 

CAST  IRON  BELL  AND  SPIGOT 
WATER  PIPE  AND  FITTINGS 
FLANGED  PIPE  in  f  uU  and  short  tongtha 
WROUGHT  PIPE 

FRED  A.  HOUDLETTE  &  SON 

(Incorporated) 

93  Broad  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

Quotations  furnished  promptly  for  shipment 
from  Foundry 


WANTED 

Back  Numbers  of  Journal 

One  Copy  Each       Price  $1.25  per  copy 

Vol.    1,  No.  4  —  June,  1887 
Vol.    2,  No.  2  —  December,  1887 

No.  3  —  March,  1888 
Vol.     3,  No.  1  —  September,  1888 

New  England  Water  Works  Association 
715  Tremont  Temple  Boston,  Mass. 


GEO.  A.  CALDWELL  CO. 

Water  Works  Brass  Goods 

BUFFALO  AND   ERIE 

Curb  and  Valve  Boxes 

REDUCING,  REQULATINO  &  RELIEF  VALVES 

Mattapan  Sq.,    Boston  26,  Mass. 


Staadpipe* 

mS^^  ^ 

Water  Taaka 

Hw 

Gaa  Holdan/ 

and  all  other  meul  tur&cet 

need  the  protection  of 

<S&nKM| 

DIXON'S 

Siliea-Graphita 
PAINT 

■OOKLCT  NO.  87-a 

^^mB 

JOSEPH  OiXON  CRUCIBLE 

^^^^  CO.     Jersey  City.  IL  J.  | 

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xxu 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


iiiiiimiiiiiii 


lllll 


iiiimiii 


The  People  Demand  Increased  Efficiency 

You  can  make  sure  your  Department  gets  full  revenue 
for  every  gallon  of  water  used— by  seeing  that  all  meters 
are  regularly  tested  for  accuracy— vvrith  the 

Mueller  Water  Meter  Tester 

The  Mueller  vrill  prove  exactly  vrhat  each  meter  does 
— vrill  enable  you  to  ad]ust  each  meter  to  absolute  accu- 
racy—vrlU  save  more  than  its  cost  year  after  year.  Used 
and  endorsed  by  leading  municipalities.  The  name 
Mueller  guarantees  both  Quality  and  Service. 

Detailed  description  and  prices  on  request. 

H.  MUELLER  MANUFACTURING  CO..  Decatur.  Illinois 

Phone  BeU  153- Auto  2131 

Water,  Plumbing  and  Gas  Brass  Goods 

New  York  aty,  145  VJ.  30th  St.     —     Phone,  Madison  Square  8397 
San  Francisco,  589  Mission  St.      —      Phone  Sutter  3577 


lllllllllllllll 

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ADVERTISEMENTS* 


XXUl 


R.  D.  WOOD  (a  CO. 

400   CHESTNXJT   STREET,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA 


Ei>^iiieer«,   Iron   Fotinders   and   Machinist* 

CENTRIFUGAL  PUMPS     /^      4.   T  D*     ^ 

PUMPING  ENGINES        V^iaSt   iTOti  T  Ip6 


CUTTING-IN 


I^.B-^-y^-w        4t    ruin    II '■c'** 

Otd  Wap 

Connections  economically  and  eas- 
ily made  with  one  fitting*  Saves 
ileeve»  cuts^  lead  and  tsnnecemry 
work  and  matefiaL 

''Reduced  Specials'' 

Cost  of  fittinpv  reduced  from  25% 
to  50%*  FuU  strength*  Deep  belli. 
Convenient  to  handle*  Sold  by 
the  piece* 


Mathews 
Fire  Hydrants 

A  half  century  of  use  has  established  t!::ir  reputatloo  as 
bdnf  the  most  economical^  durable  and  simple  hydrant* 

Number  In  use  exceeds  total  of  oil  othof 
moKes  combined* 


Gate  Valves 


It  a  WOOD  &  CO*  STANDARD 
DOUBLE  DISK 

ANTI-FRICnON 

EXTRA  WEIGHT,  FINISH 
AND  MATERIAL 


Our  Wa^ 


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XXJV 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


Kenned  jr  ^V^»ter  lilnte  Vnlvea  are  built  on  souad  enj^oeerfaifir  prin- 
ciples—strai);htway  t^assaKe  of  full  \Ape  diamrter,  parallel  brass  seats  and  disc 
faces,  double  discs  and  wednlnij  mechnnism,  inside  stationary  stem,  independent 
stem  nut.  stuffint;  box  that  can  he  packed  under  pressure,  and  perfect  operation  in 
any  position.  And  Kennedy  Vnlven  have  been  proving  their  excellence  of 
construction  for  almost  ha.lf  a  century.    Send  for  Cataloir. 

The  Kennedy  Valve  Mfg.,  Co.   elmiira,  n.  y. 

Branches:  New  York,  95  John  St. ;  Boston,  47  India  St. ;  Ghicafto, 
204-8  N.  Jefferson  St;     San  Francisco,  23-25  Minna  St. 
Sales  Offices:  Philadelphia.  Salt  Lalce  City.  Seattle,  El  Paso. 


We  make  Pretture  Re^ulatin^  Valvet 

for  all  purposes,  steam  or  water. 

Our  Feed-Water   Filter  will  keep  oil 
out  of  your  boiler. 
We  can  Interest  you  if  you  use  a  condenser. 


Water  Engiiiss  for  Panping  Orgus 

The  Ross  Valve  Mfg.  Co. 


TROY.  N.Y. 


Stsnd&rd  for  puaipbkg  '^"ir^h 


Ask  your  ori^n  builder  Cor 
it  or  write  us. 


djjrf  tt  Wvt  d^jy. 


NEPONSET.  MASS. 


Sluice  Gates,  Gate  Valves  and  Fire  Hydrants 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  XXV 


LUDLOW  VALVE  MFG.  GO. 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 

VuvES  and  Fire  HYDRms 

This  hydrant  Is  anti  -  freezing,  because 
when  the  drainage  is  good  no  water  is  left 
in  it  to  freeze. 

The  drip  is  directly  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hydrant  and  drains  perfectly.  It  is  protected 
by  its  valve,  which  never  leaves  its  socket 
and  cannot  be  clogged. 

DOUBLE  AMD  FIRE 

VALVEr  HYDRANTS. 

ALSO  CHECK 

VALVES,  YARD,  WASH, 

FOOT  AND  FLUSH 

VALVES.  HYDRANTS. 

O^  SEND    FOR    CIRCULARS -et 

OFFICE  AND  WORKS:      FOOT    OF  ADAMS   STREET,   TROY,   N.   Y. 

BRANCH  offices: 

NEW  YOflK  PHILAOCLFHIA  BOSTON  PITTSBURGH  CHICAGO  KANSAS  CITY 

•2    OOLO   ST.  HARRISON  BLDO.  112    WATER   ST.        1ST  NAT.  BANK  BLDO.      THB  ROOKKRY       R.  A.  LONO  BLOO. 


Efficient  Superintendents 

who  want  the 

"Best  in  Valves" 

buy 

RENSSELAER 
VALVES 


Catalotfta«  'T"  for  tb«  asking 

Send  your  Inquiries  to 

chari.e:s  l.  brown 

I^ook  Box  3  Nortbborot  Mass. 

NEW    KNGI^AND    R.KPRKSKNTATIVK    Or   THK 

Rensselaer  Valve  Co.  Tror,  N.  Y. 


XXVI  ADYBBTISBMBNTS. 


THE  CHAPMAN 

VALVE  MANDFAGTURING 

COMPANY 

==^^^^=  Manufacturers  of-=^^-^=— 

Gate  Valves  Drip  Valves 

Gate  Fire  Hydrants 

Corporation  Cocks  Curb  Cocks 

Anderson  Couplings 
Lead  Pipe  Connections 

Trmde 


v^fiP^ 


Mmrk 


WRITE  FOR  OUR  WATER^WORKS  CATALOG 

Main  OflBice  and  Works 
Indian  Orchard,  Mass* 


BRANCH    HOUSES 


BOflrrON,  MASS.       NBW  YORK  Cm       PmLADBLPHIA       CHICAGO 

141  High  St.  180  Lafayette  St.  1011  Filbert  St.  116  N.lefFerton  St. 


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XXVm  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


EMAUS  PIPE  FOUNDRY, 

DONALDSON  IRON  CO., 

MANUFACTURERS 
«.OF... 


...AND 


Special  Castings  for  Water  and  Gas. 
Also  Flange  Pipe,  Street  Castings, 
Manhole  Heads  and  Covers,  etc. 

EMAUS, 
K^eb^^eS^  LEHIGH  COUNTY,  PA. 

SecxeUry  and  Treasurer. 


WATER  WORKS 
SUPERINTENDENTS ! 

I3  your  per  capita  consumption  too  high  ? 

Do  you  account  for  less  than  85%  of  your  pumpage  ? 

Are  you  receiving  full  revenue  from  your  manufactur- 
ing consumers  ? 

If  any  of  these  problems  confront  you,  write  us  at 
once,  without  obligation,  and  let  us  tell  you  about 
our  PITOMETER  SURVEYS. 

THE  PITOMETER  COMPANY 

50  CHURCH  STREET 

NEW  YORK  CITY,  N.  Y. 


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ADYEBTISEMENTS. 


XXIX 


The 

Triumph 

of  the 

BeU-and-Spigot 

Joint 


Thirty  thousand  feet  —  2,500  bell 
and  spigot  joints  —  of  U.  S.  Cast-Iron 
Pipe  —  laid  over  rough  '  country  — 
granite  bowlders  —  sharp  dips  of  from 
12  to  20  feet  under  water  —  and  all 
without  a  special  casting  or  a  bend  of 
any  kind. 

Such  is  the  latest  story  of  Cast-iron 
Pipe  efficiency  —  and  the  efficiency  of 
the  good,  old-fashioned  bell-and-spigot 
joint. 

There  were  2,500  joints,  and  out  of  all 
that  multitude  only  three  showed  slight 
signs  of  leakage  when  the  line  was 
tested. 

At  one  point  the  line  dipped  through 
a  lake,  dropped  20  feet  tmder  water, 
then  rose  to  the  shore  on  the  other  side. 
The  lake  was  narrow,  —  we'll  show  you 
a  picture  of  that  later,  —  so  you  can 
imagine  the  tremendous  strain  to 
which  those  joints  were  subjected. 
With  that  in  mind  just  recall  that  only 
three  joints  out  of  2,500  showed  even  a 
slight  leak.  Some  2,497  joints  perfect, 
in  spite  of  the  rocl^r-road-to-Dublin 
conditions  almost  everywhere. 

Where  was  it?  Medicine  Canyon, 
Okla.  What  pipe  was  it?  The  pipe 
with  250  years'  service  record  back  of 
it.- 


24'  Line  looking  South  from  Dam  through  Medicine 
Canyon. 

UNITED  STATES 


CAST    'PJ'P'P     AND 


IRON 


FOUNDRY 


COMPANY 

762  E.  Pearl  St.,  Burlington,  N.  J. 

SALES  OFFICES 
Philadelphia  —  1421  Chestnut  Street. 
Pittsburgh  —  Henry  W.  Oliver  Building. 
New  York  —  71  Broadway. 
Chicago  —  122  South  Michigan  Boulevard. 
Cleveland,  Ohio  —  1150  East  26th  Street  N.B. 
St  Louis  —  Security  Building. 
Birmingham,  Ala.  —  American  Trust  Building. 
San  Francisco  —  Monadnock  Building. 
BuflFalo  —  957  East  Ferry  Street. 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  —  Plymouth  Building. 


XJ.  S.  CAST  IRON  PIPE 

"  THE  PIPE  THAT  OUTLASTS  THE  AGES  " 

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XXX  ADVEBTISEMSNTS. 

THE  A.  P.  SMITH  MANUFACTURING  CO. 

EAST  ORANQE,  N.  J. 

rianaf  actorvrs  of 

Tappinir  flachines.  Fire  Hydrants,  Water  Qates« 

Economic  Lead  Furnaces* 

Corporation  and  Curb  Coclcs*        Brass  and  Aluminum  Castings. 

Also  Qeneral  Supplies  for  Water  aod  Qas  Works. 

Write  for  Catalogue. 


WCHOLAS  EW ML 

JOHN  FOX  (a  CO. 

Cast  Iron 

Water  <sl  Gas  Pipes 

flange  pipe 

Special  Castings.  Fire  Hrctrants,  Valves 

Creneral  Foundry  and  MacKine  VTorR 

WOOI^vrORTH  BUILDING  S3S  BR.OA.DVrA.Y 

NEMT  YORK  CITY 


HIGHEST  AWARD,  GOLD  MEDAL, 
ST.    LOUIS  EXPOSITION,    J904 


Over  100  Water  Departments 
use 

LEAI>-LINED  IRON  and  TIN-LINED  PIPES 

for  their  service  connections 


MANUFACTURED  BY 

Lead  Lined  Iron  Pipe  Company 

Wakefield  =z=^__^_s=s=s»  Mass. 


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ADVERTISEMENTS.  XXXI 


£dson  Manufacturing  Corp# 

375  BROADWAY,  BOSTON,  MASS. 

This  Engine  is  built 
for  Diaphragm  Pumps 
by  the  makers  and  in- 
ventors of  the  Pump. 

Fifty  years'  experience 
is  behind  it  —  reliable 
as  the  original  pump 
you  have  known  for 
years. 

Now  in  use  by  many 
of  the  Water  Depart- 
ments. 

Mounted   on   Skid   or   4- 

OAtbeTop  Wheel  Hand  Truck,  also 

NO.  1  AIR-COOLED  GASOLINE  ENGINE     either  Battery  or  Magneto 

Can  be  attached  to  any  Diaphragm  Pump       IgnltiOU. 


Warren  Foundry  and  Pipe  Co. 

(Formerly  Warren  Foundry  and  Machine  Co.) 
SALES   OFFICES 

11  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK 
201  DEVONSHIRE  ST.,  BOSTON,  MASS. 

Telephone,  Fort  Hill  5051 


CAST    IRON    PIPE 

Bell  and  Spitfot  Flanf{ed  Pipe 

Special  Castinf{s 
Flexible  Joint  Pipe  Cylinders 


Water  Gas  Sewers  Culverts 


Works,  Phillipshurd*  N.  J. 

LARGE    STOCK    ENABLES    US   TO    MAKE    QUICK    SHIPMENTS 


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XXXll  ADYERTIBEICENTS. 


Twelve  Reasons  Why 

YOU  SHOULD  USE 

--"LEADITE"-- 

■•0st«r«4  O.  S.  PatvBt  OSe* 

FOR 

Jointing^  Water  Mains 


1.  DURABILITY.     Leadite  joints  increase  in  strength  with  age. 

2.  NO  CAULKING.     Leadite  joints  require  no  caulking,  because 

the  Leadite  adheres  to  the  pipe,  making  a  water-tight  bond. 

3.  COMPARATIVE    QUANTITIES.      One  ton   of  Leadite   is 

equi^valent  to  four  tons  of  lead. 

4.  LABOR   SAVING.     Saves  caulking  charges  and  digging  of 

large  bell-holes,  and  reduces  the  cost  of  trench  pumping  to 
the  minimum. 

5.  COST.     Its  use  saves  50  to  65  per  cent,  over  lead,  owing  to  the 

saving  effected  in  material  and  labor. 

6.  TOOLS.     As  no  caulking  is  required,  fewer  tools  are  needed. 

7.  TRANSPORTATION.     Considerable  freight  charges  are  saved 

because  Leadite  is  lighter  than  lead. 

8.  HAULING.     Saves  hauling  expense  on  the  work  because  you 

move  only  one  fourth  the  weight  of  jointing  material. 

9.  FUEL.     Saves  fuel  because  you  melt  only  one  ton  of  material 

instead  of  four,  and  not  as  much  heat  is  required  either. 

10.  DELIVERY.     We  can  make  prompt  shipments. 

1 1 .  DAMAGE  SUITS.     Claims  for  damages  caused  by  joints  blow- 

ing out  are  prevented  because  Leadite  joints  will  not  blow 
out  under  any  pressure. 

12.  USERS.     Progressive  water  works  all  over  the  country  use 

Leadite. 

'WRITE:    FOR    BOOKLET 

THE  LEADITE  COMPANY,  Inc 

LAND  TITLE  BUILDING  PHILADELPHU 


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ADVBBTIBEMXNTB.  XXXUl 


Chadwick-Boston  Lead  Co. 

162  Congress  St,  Boston 

Agrents  for 

The  Celebrated  "ULCO" 

LEAD  WOOL 

(Every  Atom  Pure  Lead) 

For  calking  pipe  joints  under  the  most 
difficult  conditions. 

For  overhead  joints,  or  in  wet  places 
where  the  use  of  molten  lead  is  not  only 
impracticable  but  dangerous  —  LEAD 
WOOL  may  be  used  to  advantage* 

It  makes  an  absolutely  tight  joint  which 
will  withstand  the  highest  pressure,  yet  be 
sufficiently  elastic  to  allow  considerable 
sagging  or  settling  of  the  pipe  without 
danger  of  a  leak. 

As  compared  with  the  poured  joint,  in 
this  respect,  the  superiority  of  LEAD  WOOL 
is  apparent* 

-  Man\ifact\irer8  of  : 


Lead  Pipe,  Tin  Lined  Lead  Pipe,  Pore  BlocK-Tin 
Pipe,  Solder,  White  Lead  and  Red  Lead. 


HIGHEST   QUALITY  SOFT   BRANDS 

PIG  LEAD 

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XXXIV  ADYERTIBBIIENTS. 


TBN   CBNTS    PER    PODKD    PRICB   TEN    CENTS    PER    POUND    PRICE  TEN  CENTS  PER  POUND   TEN   CENTS      S 

i 


Join  Your  Water  Mains 

WITH 

LEAD-    YDRO-TITE 

TRADEMARK 

And  Cut  Your  Expenses 

50%  First  Cost 

50%  Smaller  Bell  Holes 
75%  Handling 

100%  Calking 

OUR  PROPOSAL 

That  the  prospective  users  purchase  a  trial 
lot  of  I  to  5  bags,  and  that  this  be  used 
under  the  direction  and  according  to  the  in- 
structions of  our  representative. 

If,  after  a  trial,  the  purchaser  is  not  satisfied 
-with  the  material,  any  surplus  not  in  use  to  be 
returned  to  the  Lead-Hydro-Tite  Company,  and 
no  charge  to  be  made  for  any  of  the  Lead- 
Hydro-Tite  furnished. 

Owned,  Manufactured  and 

Sold  by  New  Englanders 

Write  for  Particulars 

Fred  A.  Houdlette  &  Son^  inc. 

Sole  New  England  Sale*  Agents 
93  BROAD  STREET  BOSTON,  MASS. 


fc      TEN    CENTS    PER    POUND    PRICE    TEN    CENTS    PER    POUND    PRICE  TEN  CENTS  PER  POUND    TEN   CENTS      » 


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ADVERTISSMBNTS. 


XXXV 


"Tde  Goods  TtiatPlease" 


KtvroR 

TAKING  OfT 
COVfR. 


I' 


Corporation 

and 

Curb    Cocks 

We  have  them  to  meet 
every  requirement 


EC 


DB 


ORIGINAL 

"Hays-Erie" 

Extension   Service    Boxes 
of  proven  advantages 


UL. 


113 


Let  us  send  at  our  risk,  on 
30  days'  trial,  a 

Payne's  Patent 

Tapping 

Machine 

which  is  recognized  to  be 
the  most  easily  operated 
owing  Jto  the  few  working 
parts. 


O&yS      Pllg«      X^O«f      PENNSYLVANIA 

EMtabiished    1869 


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XXXVl  A.DVERTISEBIENT8. 


Dependable  water  supply 

16.000  FEET  OF  "UNIVERSAL" 

giving  perfect  service 

Biltmore,  N.  C 

UKKERSSHrPIFE 

no  packing        no  calking        no  bell  holes 


^^^  THE  CENTRAL  FOUNDBY  COMPAKY 

41  EAST  42nd  STREET         (Eighteenth  floor  of  Liggett  Building)         NEW  YORK,N.Y. 

Sales  Offices  : "  New  York,     Chicago,     Atlanta,     Dallas,     San  Francisco 

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ADVERTISEMENTS  XXXVU 


A  Test  that  is  a  Test 

Size  of  pipe :  66  inches.  Length  of  pipe  line : 
10  miles.  Temperature  at  time  of  test :  20 
degrees  below  zero.  And  the  facts  and  re- 
sults of  the  test  were  as  follows :  Leakage  for 
entire  ten  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  40  000 
Imperial  gallons.  Repairs  necessary,  none. 
Maintenance  during  three  years,  none. 
Capacity  of  pipe  line,  50  000  000  Imperial 
gallons  a  day.  Location,  Winnipeg.  We'd 
gladly  give  further  facts.    Write  us. 


LrOcR  Joint  Pipe  Company 
Ampere*  N.  J. 

Pressure,  Sewer,  Culvert  and  Subaqueous  Pipe 

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XXXVUl 


ADYEBTIBlfiMENTB. 


CLASSIFIED  DIRECTORY  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


BOILER  VfJLVTS,  FBBD  WATBR  HEATBRS  AND  CONDENSERS. 

MaMur,  F.  A.  A  Co 

Starkweather  A  Broadhurst 


BRASS  GOODS. 

Braman,  Dow  A  Co.     .    . 
Caldwell,  Geo.  A.  Co.      .    . 
Oilchriat  Co.,  Geo.  E.  .   .    , 

HayB  M'fg  Co 

Mueller.  H..  MTg  Co.  .  . 
The  A.  P.  Smith  M*f' «  Co. 
Union  Water  Meter  C^. 


XV 

xvi 


XXXV 

xxii 

XXX 


CAST-IRON  PIPE  AND  SPECIALS. 

Builders  Iron  Foundry 

Central  Foundry  Co 

Donaldflon  Iron  Co xxviii 

Fox,  John  A  Co xxx 

Houdelette.  Fred  A.  A  Son xxi 

U.  S.  Cast  Iron  Pipe  and  Foundry  Co xxix 

Warren  Foundry  and  Pipe  Co xxxi 

Wood,  R.  D.  A  Co xxiii 

CHLORINE  GAS  AND  APPUANCES. 

Electro  Bleaching  Gas  Co xix 

Wallace  A  Tieman xviii 


CLEANING  WATBR  MAINS. 

National  Water  Main  Cleaning  Co. 

ENGINEERS. 

Ambursen  Construction  Co. 
Barbour,  F.  A.  .    .    . 
Barrows.  H.  K.     .    . 
Conard  A  Busby  .   . 
Fuller  A  McClintock 
Hasen  A  Whips la    . 
Hill.  Nicholas  S.,  Jr. 
Johnson,  Geo.  A..  Co. 
Main.  Charles  T.      . 
Metcalf  AEddy   .    . 
Symonds,  Henry  A. 
Thorpe.  Lewis  D.  .    . 
Weston  A  Sampson 


ii 


ERECTORS,  WATER  WORKS  AND  POWER  MACHINERY. 

Hayes  Pump  and  Machinery  Co xvii 

Massur.  F.  A.  Co xv 

Power  Eauipment  Co xvii 

Starkweather  A  Broadhurst xvi 

FILTERS  AND  WATER-SOFTENING  PLANTS. 

Ross  Valve  M'f  g  Co xxiv 

FURNACES,  ETC. 

Mueller,  H..  M'f'g  Co xxii 

The  A.  P.  Smith  M'f'g  Co xxx 

The  Leadite  Co xxxii 

GATES,  VALVES,  AND  HYDRANTS. 

Chapman  Valve  Mfg.  Co xxvi 

Coffin  Valve  Co xxiv 

Eddy  Valve  Co xxvii 

Fox,  John  A  Co xxx 

Kennedy  Valve  Co xxiv 

Ludlow  Valve  M'f'g  Co xxv 

Rensselaer  Valve  Co xxv 

Ross  Valve  M'f'g  Co xxiv 

Simplex  Valve  A  Meter  Co xii 

The  A.  P.  Smith  M'f'g  Co xxx 

Wood.  R.  D.  A  Co xxiii 

INSPECTION  OF  MATERIALS. 

Conard  A  Busby ii 


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ADVERTISEMENTS.  XZXIX 


CLASSIFIED  DIRECTORY  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS  (Continued), 


LEAD  AND  PIPE. 

Chadwick-Boaton  Lead  Co zzxiii 

Lead-lined  Iron  Pipe  Co zzx 

LEADITE. 

The  Leadite  Co xxxii 

METERS. 

Bu£falo  Meter  Co x 

Buildera  Iron  Foundry ix 

Gamon  Meter  Co xiii 

Hersey  M*f 'g  Co iv 

National  Meter  Co xiv 

Neptune  Meter  Co vi 

Pitometer  Co xxviii 

Pittsburgh  Meter  Co vii 

Simplex  Valve  ft  Meter  Co xii 

Thomson  Meter  Co". v 

Union  Water  Meter  Co xi 

Worthington  Pump  and  Machinery  Corp .viii 

METER  BOXES. 

Clark,  H.  W.  Co xxi 

Hersey  M'f 'g  Co. ' iv 

OIL,  GREASE,  ETC. 

Dixon,  Jos..  Crucible  Co xxi 

PIPE  JOINTS. 

Lead-Hydro-Tite,  F.  A.  Houdiette  ft  Son xxxiv 

The  Leadite  Co xxxii 

PRESSURE  REGULATORS. 

Mueller.  H..  M'f'g  Co xxii 

Roes  Valve  M'f'g  Co xxiv 

Union  Water  Meter  Co xi 

PUMPS  AND  PUMPING  ENGINES. 

Builders  Iron  Foundry ix 

Edson  Manufacturing  Co zxxi 

Hasres  Pump  and  Machinery  Co xvii 

Massur.  F.  A.  Co xv 

National  Meter  Co xiv 

Bower  Equipment  Co xvii 

Starkweather  ft  Broadhurst xvi 

Wood.  R.  D.  ft  Co • xxiii 

Worthington  Pump  and  Machinery  Corp viii 

REINFORCED  CONCRETE  PIPE. 

Lock  Joint  Pipe  Co xzxvii 

SUPERHEATERS,  STOKERS,  STACKS,  FILTERS. 

Starkweather  ft  Broadhurst 4   .  xvi 

TAPPING  MACHINES. 

Hays  M'ftt  Co xxxv 

Mueller.  H.,  M'f'g  Co xxii 

The  A.  P.  Smith  M'f'g  Co ' xxx 

TOOLS  AND  SUPPLIES. 

Hays  M'^B  Co xxxv 

Mueller.  H..  M'f'g  Co xxii 

The  A.  P.  Smith  Mf 'g  Co.      .    .    r xxx 

The  Leadite  Co xxxii 

UNIVERSAL  PIPE. 

Central  Foundry  Co xxxvi 

WOOD  PIPE. 

Michigan  Pipe  Co Back  cover 

WROUGHT  IRON,  STEEL  AND  BRASS  PIPE. 

Braman.  Dow  ft  Co xx 

»             Gilchrist  Co..  Geo.  E xxi 


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New  England 
Wato  Works 

Association, 

ORGANIZED   JUNE    127  r88'2.'      " 


APPLICATION  FOR  MEMBERSHIP. 


/,  the  undersigned,  residing  at. 


.  being  desirous  of  admission 


into  the  New  England  Water  Works  Assodation,  hereby  make 

application  for 

membership.  "'^^■ 


I  am ^ „ years  of  age,  and  I 

have  been  engaged  in  the  following  named  work: 


/  wiU  conform  to  the  requirements  of  membershv^tf  elected. 


Signed,...^ 
Address,.. 


Dated, 19 

Resident  member*  are  those  residiiiff  in  New  fiaffland;  ell  others  are  non-resideat. 
Elntrence  fee  is  $5.00  for  resident  and  $3.00  for  non-resident  members. 
Annual  dues  are  $6.00  for  both  resident  and  non-resident  members. 


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The  Journal  of  the 
New  England  Water  Works  Association 

is  a  quarterly  publication,  containing  the  papera  read  at  the  meetings,  together  with 
yert>atiin  repor  9  of  the  discussions.  Many  of  tUe  contributions  are  from  writers  of 
the  high''«<^  >  .ding  in  their  profession.  It  affords  a  convenient  medium  for  the  inter- 
change of  information  and  experience  between  the  members,  who  are  so  widely  separated 
as  to  find  frequent  meetings  an  impossibility.  Its  success  has  more  than  met  the  ex- 
pectation of  its  proiectors;  there  is  a  large  and  increasing  demand  for  its  issues,  and 
every  addiUon  to- its  subscription  list  is  a  material  aid  in  extending  its  field  of  usefulness. 

AliL  MEMBEBS  07  THB  ASSOCIATION  RECEIVS  THE  JOXTRNAL  IN  PART  RBTUBN  FOB  THBIB 

ANNUAL  dues;  to  all  others  the  subscription  is  four  dollars  per  annum. 


TO  ADVERTISERS 

'T^HE  attention  of  parties  dealing  in  goods  used  by  Water  Departments  is  called  to  the 
^  ~  Journal  or  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association  as  an  advertising 
medium* 

Its  subscribers  include  the  principal  Water  Works  Engineers  and  Contractors 
in  the  United  States.    The  paid  circulation  is  950  copies. 

Being  filled  with  original  matter  of  the  greatest  interest  to  Water  Works  officials, 
it  is  PK£S£RVED  and  constantly  REFERRED  TO  BY  THEM,  and  advertisers  are 
thus  more  certain  to  REACH  BUYERS  than  by  any  other  means. 

The  Journal  is  not  published  as  a  means  of  revenue,  advertisements  being  inserted 
solely  to  help  meet  the  large  expense  of  publication. 

ADVERTISING  RATES. 

One  fwgo,  one  srear,  four  imertiona Eighty  DoUara. 

One-half  page,  one  year,  four  ineertiona Fifty-az  DoUara. 

One-foartb  page,  one  year,  four  insertions  Thirty-ml  Dollars. 

One>tweifth  page  (card),  one  year,  four  infiertions Twelve  Dollars. 

One  page,  single  Insertion Forty  Dollars. 

One-half  page,  single  insertion Thirty  Dollars. 

One-fourth  page,  single  insertion Twenty  DoUara. 

Bise  of  page.  4|  z  7}  net. 

A  sample  copy  will  be  sent  on  application. 

For  further  informatioD;  address, 

HENRY  A.   SYMONDS, 

Editor  and  Advertising  Agent, 

70  KILBY  STREET, 

BOSTON,  MASS, 


■AMvn.  iMMim 

OM.  taA««ACMU*KTT^ 


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UNIV.  OF  MICHi. 

MARl9t924 

BOUND 


■9 


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